University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The constellations of Holocaust representation: performative monuments, museums, and survivors’ artworks

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The constellations of Holocaust representation: performative monuments, museums, and survivors’ artworks

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Content [ T H E C O N S T E L L AT I O N S O F H O L O C AU ST REPRE SEN T AT I O N : ]
[ P E RFO RM A T I VE M O N U M EN T S, M U SEU M S , AN D SU RVI VO R S’ ART W O R K S]
by
A l l i s on M i c h e l l e H e r n a n de z
The s i s P r e s e nt e d t o t he
F A C U L T Y O F TH E R O S K I S C H O O L O F A R T A N D D ES I G N
U N I V ER S I T Y O F S O U TH ER N C A L I F O R N I A
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of t h e R e qu i r e m e nt s f o r t h e D e gr e e
M A S TER O F A R TS
C U R A T O R I A L P R A C TI C ES A N D TH E P U B L I C S P H ER E
A ugu s t 202 1
C opy r i g ht 2 021 A l l i s on M i c h e l l e H e r na nd e z
i i
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
L i s t of F i gur e s i i i
A bs t r a c t : i v
P r e f a c e : vi
Tr a um a a nd M e m or y : A B r i e f O ve r v i e w o f H ol oc a u s t R e pr e s e nt a t i on: 1
I n t r o duc t i on t o t he D i a l e c t i c s o f H ol oc a us t R e p r e s e nt a t i o n: 5
The V a ni s hi ng A c t of M e m or y: P e r f o r m a t i ve a n d P a r t i c i p a t o r y M e m or i a l s a n d M o num e n t s : 1 0
I n di vi du a l , S oc i a l , a nd P u bl i c M e m o r y : R up t ur e s i n t he H ol oc a u s t M us e u m M e t a na r r a t i ve : 17
Tr a um a a nd Te s t i m on y i n P os t w a r A r t w or k s by S u r vi vor s : 29
Tr a um a t i c R e a l i s m : The A ur a of S ur vi v or s ’ S hoa h A r t w or ks : 35
C onc l us i on: 46
B i bl i ogr a phy 49
i i i
L i s t o f F i g u r e s
F i gu r e 1 : J oc he n G e r z , M onu m e nt Agai ns t Fas c i s m , 198 6 5 2
F i gu r e 2 : J oc he n G e r z , M onu m e nt Agai ns t Fas c i s m , 198 6 5 2
F i gu r e 3 : J oc he n G e r z , M onu m e nt Agai ns t Fas c i s m , 198 6 5 3
F i gu r e 4 : H o r s t H o he i s e l , Pr opo s al f or t he M e m or i al t o t he M ur de r e d J e w s o f Eu r o pe ,
19 93/ 94 54
F i gu r e 5 : G u nt e r D e m ni g, S t ol pe r s t e i n ( St e ppi ng St o ne s ) , 1996 - pr e s e nt 5 5
F i gu r e 6 : Tr ud i e S t r o be l , N um be r e d L i k e C at t l e ( l e f t ) a nd I m pr i s on e d ( r i ght ) , 2010 - 2011 56
F i gu r e 7 : Tr ud i e S t r o be l , T i m e Run ni n g O ut , 2 010 57
F i gu r e 8 : Tr ud i e S t r o be l , F i na l D e s t i na t i o n, 2 000 5 8
F i gu r e 9 : Tr ud i e S t r o be l , R u s s i a , 19 42, 19 91 59
F i gu r e 1 0 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , T he J e w i s h C al e nd ar , 1 996 60
F i gu r e 1 1 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , G ol de n Age of S pai n , 1 995 61
F i gu r e 1 2 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , Fl oa t i ng T or ah s O v e r J e r us al e m , 201 1 6 2
F i gu r e 1 3 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , Pane l O ne : Ex o d us f r o m Egy pt f r om t he 12 P a n e l S e r i e s ,
M om e nt s i n J e w i s h T i m e , n .d. 6 3
F i gu r e 1 4 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , Pane l T hr e e : D i as por a f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s , M om e nt s
i n J e w i s h T i m e , n.d . 64
F i gu r e 1 5 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , Pane l T e n : M ar r i a ge ( K i dd us hi n) f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s ,
M om e nt s i n J e w i s h T i m e , n .d. 6 5
F i gu r e 1 6 : Tr u di e S t r obe l , Pane l Fi v e : H o l oc aus t — T he H o r r i f y i ng Y e a r s f r o m t h e 1 2
P a ne l S e r i e s , M o m e nt s i n J e w i s h T i m e , n.d. 66
F i gu r e 1 7 : G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, 12 W i nd ow s i nt o t he U nf or ge t t ab l e Pa s t , n.d. 67
F i gu r e 1 8 : G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, O ur F a m i l i e s Pe r i s h e d But T he i r Spi r i t L i v e s O n , n . d . 68
F i gu r e 1 9 : G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, G r andm ot h e r , n.d. 69
F i gu r e 2 0 : G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, H i d de n i n t he Sh ado w o f D e a t h , n.d. 7 0
i v
A b s t r ac t :
S i nc e t he e m e r g e nc e o f pa r t i c i pa t o r y a r t m ove m e n t s i n t he 196 0’ s a n d 7 0’ s , a r t i s t s
c onf r ont i ng H ol oc a us t c om m e m o r a t i on be ga n i n c or p or a t i ng pe r f or m a t i ve pr a c t i c e s i n t he i r w or k ,
i nt e n t on i ns t i l l i ng c r i t i c a l s e l f - a w a r e ne s s i n a ud i e nc e m e m be r s . Th e s e pe r f or m a t i ve pr a c t i c e s i n
H ol o c a u s t c om m e m o r a t i on c o m bi ne p e r f o r m a n c e - l i ke m e m o r i a l a c t i vi t i e s w i t h vi s i t o r
pe r f or m a n c e : t hi s r e l a t i ons h i p i s i nt e nde d t o s hi f t i ndi v i d ua l s f r om pa s s i ve w i t n e s s e s i nt o s oc i a l l y
a nd m o r a l l y c om pe l l e d a g e nt s of c h a nge . Th i s r e s e a r c h unp a c ks t he w a ys i n w hi c h H ol oc a us t
m us e u m s , m us e um a r c h i t e c t ur e , c ur a t or s , e x hi b i t s , a nd a r t i s t s i nc or p or a t e v a r i ous p e r f or m a t i v e
pr a c t i c e s t o t r a ns f e r e m b od i e d a c t s o f r e m e m b r a n c e , i nc r e a s i ng pub l i c kn ow l e dge of t he
H ol o c a u s t . Thi s t he s i s w i l l a l s o a r g ue t h e va l i d i t y of t h e i de a t ha t p e r f or m a t i v e m e m or i a l s a l s o
t r a ns m i t e m b odi e d r e m e m b r a nc e t hr oug h t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m , d e f i ne d by M i c ha e l R ot h be r g a s :
ut i l i z i ng i n d i c e s o f a bs e nc e t ha t i nc o r por a t e i nd i r e c t e v oc a t i ons o f v i c t i m s t hr o ugh m e t o ny m i c
s y m b ol s of t he po s s e s s i o ns t h a t s ur v i ve d t h e m .
1
T hr ou gh a c r i t i c a l c o ns i de r a t i on of t hr e e publ i c
m e m o r i a l s a nd m us e u m s a s c a s e s t udi e s —J e w i s h M us e um B e r l i n, U ni t e d S t a t e s H ol oc a u s t
M e m or i a l M us e um , a nd M us e um of t he H ol o c a us t L A —I w i l l a l s o u npa c k t he i m pa c t o f a f f e c t
t he o r y i n t e r m s of H ol oc a us t c o m m e m or a t i on —s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e r m s of t h e e pi s t e m i c , ont o l ogi c a l ,
a nd t a x ono m i c f a c t or s i n t h e d i s pl a y of o bj e c t s . U n de r s t a nd i ng t he s e qua l i t i e s of H ol oc a u s t
r e pr e s e nt a t i on , i t i s i m pe r a t i ve t o a s k : w h a t , t he n, e x a c t l y i s t h e i n t e n t i o n of t he s e f or m s of
c om m e m or a t i o n ? Thi s r e s e a r c h a r gu e s t ha t t he o v e r a r c hi ng i nt e nt i on i s t o s h i f t e m b odi e d
pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd m e m or y f r o m t he publ i c t o t he p r i va t e : f r om t he c ol l e c t i v e t o t he i ndi v i d ua l .
W h a t a r e p ub l i c c om m e m o r a t i ons o f t he H ol oc a us t , i f not t o c om m e m or a t e t h e s i x
m i l l i on J e w s a nd e l e v e n m i l l i o n m ur d e r e d i nd i vi du a l s ? A s i d e f r om t h e i m a g i na t i ve a nd i nde x i c a l
1
R o t hb e r g, M i c ha e l . 2 000 . T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m a n ds o f H o l oc a u s t Re pr e s e n t a t i o n . M i nn e a po l i s :
U n i ve r s i t y O f M i nn e s o t a P r e s s .
v
c onj u r i ng o f t h e v i c t i m s t hr o ug h pe r f or m a t i v e m e m o r i a l r e m e m b r a nc e , i t i s c r uc i a l t o
a c kn ow l e dg e t he hi s t o r i c i t y a n d i nd i v i dua l i t y of a r t w or k s c r e a t e d by a c t ua l H o l o c a us t s ur vi vor s .
A r t w or k s c r e a t e d by H o l o c a u s t s u r v i vor s ho l d a uni qu e p l a c e i n t he f a br i c of H ol oc a us t
c om m e m or a t i o n : t h e y a r e c r e a t e d b y t he w i t n e s s — e i t h e r w i t h or w i t hout a n i nt e nt i on of
c om m e m or a t i o n i n m i n d, ha r b or i ng b ot h a e s t h e t i c a nd hi s t or i c t e nde nc i e s . Th r oug h t he c a s e
s t udi e s of H ol o c a us t M u s e um s i n t h e U S a nd Eu r ope a nd t he i r r e l a t i ons hi p t o c a s e s t udi e s of
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s w h o i de nt i f y a s a r t i s t s , t h i s r e s e a r c h a i m s a t e m p ha s i z i ng how t he publ i c
di s pl a y of pr i va t e a r t w or ks b y H ol oc a us t s u r vi vo r s i s i m pe r a t i ve t o H ol oc a us t c o m m e m or a t i on.
The H ol o c a us t m us e um s e x p l o r e d i n t hi s r e s e a r c h ha v e s por a di c a l l y f e a t ur e d t e m p or a r y
e x hi b i t i o ns s how c a s i ng a r t w o r ks m a d e by s ur v i v or s , bu t t he r e a r e ve r y f e w p e r m a ne n t
e x hi b i t i o ns w hi c h f e a t u r e t h e s e a r t w or ks . W i t h t he a f or e m e nt i one d un de r s t a ndi n g o f t h e r o l e of
m onu m e n t s , m us e u m s , a nd e x hi bi t i o ns a s pe r f or m a t i v e pr a c t i c e s e n c our a g i ng i ndi vi d ua l a g e n t s
of c ha n ge , t hi s r e s e a r c h a r g ue s f or t h e i m po r t a n c e o f d i s pl a y i ng w or k s b y i ndi vi d ua l H o l oc a us t
s u r vi v or s , f oc us i ng o n t he i nd i v i d ua l w i t hi n t he e n or m i t y of t he c ol l e c t i ve . Es pe c i a l l y a s w e
m ove i nt o a pos t - w i t n e s s e r a , t he r ol e of H ol o c a us t s ur v i vor - c r e a t e d a r t w or k m us t r e s e r ve a
s p a c e i n t he w i de r a nge of e m b odi e d a c t s of r e m e m br a n c e .
vi
Pr e f a c e :
I a m of a g e ne r a t i o n bo r n l o ng a f t e r t he S hoa h ; I ha v e be e n t a ugh t t he ho r r or s of t he
H ol o c a u s t f r om m y f a m i l y , t e x t bo ok s , m us e u m s , p hot og r a ph s a nd f i l m s . M y kn ow l e dge of t he
S hoa h ha s b e e n s o l e l y m e di a t e d by ot he r i nd i vi d ua l ' s m e m o r i e s . W hi l e I w i l l a l w a y s be i n a w e of
t he e n or m i t y o f t he l o s s , p e r ha p s w ha t i s m o s t ha r r ow i ng i s t he e no r m i t y o f t h e l i ve s , m e m or i e s ,
a nd s t o r i e s t ha t w e c o l l e c t i v e l y w i l l n e ve r kno w .
W h i l e a l w a y s c u r i o us t o l e a r n m or e , i t w a s n ot unt i l m y f i r s t y e a r o f m y M a s t e r ’ s D e gr e e
c our s e s t ha t I e nc o unt e r e d a de e pe r i ns i g ht i nt o t he H ol oc a us t . I w a s a s s i g ne d b y m y pr of e s s or
J e nny L i n t o p r e s e nt a s hor t s um m a r y of t he N a z i e x hi bi t i on , D e ge ne r a t e A r t ( 193 7) . Th i s
r e s e a r c h r e v e a l e d t he w a ys i n w hi c h H i t l e r i ns i di ous l y pol i t i c i z e d a r t t o a c hi e ve hi s d y s t opi a n
ut opi a of t he N a z i g e n oc i d e . I w a s c om pe l l e d t o ke e p r e s e a r c hi ng, a nd l e a r n m or e a b out t h e
pos t w a r a r t i s t i c r e s p ons e s t o t h e t ot a l i t a r i a n c e ns or s hi p of G e r m a n Ex pr e s s i oni s m . Thi s r e s e a r c h
e ve nt ua l l y l e d m e t o a n a r c hi va l i n t e r ns h i p w i t h t h e M us e um o f t h e H ol o c a us t L os A n ge l e s t he
s u m m e r be f or e m y f i na l y e a r e a r ni n g m y M a s t e r ’ s . I j oi ne d a l a r ge r c ohor t of s t ude n t s w i t h
w ho m I pa r t i c i pa t e d i n l e c t u r e s o n t h e s pe c i f i c i t i e s of t he H ol oc a us t hi s t o r y , a nd e nga g e d i n
di s c u s s i on s r e ga r d i n g c o nt e m po r a r y H o l oc a us t r e pr e s e n t a t i o ns : a r e m us e u m s t r ul y c ont a i ne r s of
m e m o r y , a nd how do m u s e u m s c ons t r uc t m e m or y i n di f f e r e nt p ol i t i c a l c on t e x t s ? A r e i c on i c
f i l m s l i ke Sc hi n dl e r ’ s L i s t de s t r uc t i ve o r c on s t r uc t i ve t o p ubl i c m e m o r y of t he S h oa h? W ho i s
r e s po ns i b l e f or r e pr e s e n t i ng a nd c o nt i nui n g H o l oc a u s t m e m or y , s o w e c a n a voi d m a r c hi ng
t ow a r d a no t he r g e no c i de ?
M y c ohor t a nd I a l s o h a d t he h onor o f l i s t e n i n g t o H ol oc a u s t s ur vi vor s s h a r e t h e i r
t e s t i m oni e s w i t h us . Ea c h s u r vi vor s ’ s t o r y i s dy n a m i c a l l y di s t i n c t ––t he i r vo i c e s t r a n s f e r i m a g e s
of t he i r m e m or i e s t o u s , s o t ha t w e m a y u nde r s t a nd t he i r s uf f e r i n g a n d be c om e t r a ns f or m e d b y i t .
A m o ng t h e di f f e r e n t t e s t i m oni e s , a t he m e e m e r g e d: a f e w s u r vi vo r s m e n t i o ne d how e x pr e s s i n g
vi i
t he i r m e m or i e s b y c r e a t i ng a r t h e l pe d t he m h e a l f r o m t h e i r h a unt i ng t r a u m a . I n a dd i t i o n t o m y
a r c hi v a l w or k, I b e ga n r e s e a r c hi n g t he r o l e of a r t t h r oug ho ut t h e H ol o c a us t . Th e m u s e u m ’ s
A s s i s t a nt D i r e c t or o f Edu c a t i on ki n dl y c onn e c t e d m e w i t h a f e w of t h e m u s e u m ’ s d oc e nt s , w ho
ha ppe ne d t o be s u r vi vo r s w ho a l s o i de nt i f y a s a r t i s t s . The j o ur ne y t o t h i s t he s i s t he n be g a n.
I ha d t he i m m e n s e p r i vi l e ge o f i nt e r vi e w i n g s ur vi vor s Tr ud i e S t r o b e l a n d G a br i e l l a K a r i n,
a l ong w i t h Tr udi e ’ s bi o g r a p he r , a ut h or J o di e S a vi n . S p e a ki ng w i t h t he m a nd l i s t e ni n g t o t he i r l i f e
s t or i e s ––e ng a gi n g w i t h t he i r a r t a nd t he a n e c dot e s be hi nd e a c h w or k––i t be c a m e obv i o us t ha t
c r e a t i ng a r t w a s a t e s t a m e nt t o t he i r u ni q ue s t or i e s of s ur v i v a l ; t he i r a r t w or k s w e r e i m b ue d w i t h
i ndi v i du a l t r a um a a n d m e m o r y . I t s e e m e d a g r a ve l os s t o t he c ol l e c t i ve m e m or y o f t he S hoa h i f
t he i r a r t w o r ks —a n d t h e a r t w or k s of ot he r s u r vi vor s —w e r e not c r i t i c a l l y r e s e a r c h e d a n d
i nt r o duc e d t o t he p ub l i c s ph e r e . H ol oc a us t s ur vi v or a nd a ut ho r P r i m o L e vi o nc e a d de d t o R a bb i
H i l l e l ’ s c e l e b r a t e d qu ot e de c l a r i ng : “ I f no t now , w h e n? ” A s w e m ove pr o gr e s s i ve l y c l o s e r i nt o
t he po s t - w i t ne s s e r a , now i s t he t i m e t o b e gi n t h i s di s c us s i on .
T h i s t he s i s e x a m i ne s t he c r i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i on s of t he H ol oc a us t i n
publ i c a r t a n d m us e u m s , v e r s us m o r e pr i va t e , i n di v i dua l r e m e m br a nc e s by s ur vi v or a r t i s t s .
U s i n g a c a s e s t ud y m e t ho dol og y , t he f i r s t s e c t i on a na l y z e s t hr e e a r t i s t s ’ pub l i c m on um e nt s :
J o c he n G e r z ’ s M onu m e nt ag ai ns t Fa s c i s m , H o r s t H ohe i s e l ’ s pr opos a l f or G e r m a ny’ s na t i ona l
m e m o r i a l t o t he m u r de r e d J e w s of Eur o pe c om p e t i t i on , a nd G us t a v D e m ni g’ s St o l pe r s t e i n
( St e p pi ng S t o ne s ) . I a r g ue t h a t t h e s e a r e “ c oun t e r - m on um e nt s ” ––pe r f or m a t i ve m e m o r i a l s t ha t
e nc ou r a ge i nd i vi du a l s t o e n ga ge w i t h H ol oc a us t m e m or y s o t ha t v i s i t or s t he m s e l ve s b e c om e t he
e m bo di e d a c t s of r e m e m br a nc e , a nd a ge n t s f or m o r a l a nd s oc i a l c h a nge .
T h i s i s f o l l ow e d by a r e vi e w o f s pe c i f i c m us e um s a nd ho w t he y c on s t r u c t c ol l e c t i ve
na r r a t i ve s o f t he H ol oc a us t t hr o ug h a r c h i t e c t ur e a nd e x hi bi t i o ns . I c om pa r e t he i ns t i t u t i ona l i z e d
vi i i
r e pr e s e nt a t i on s o f S ho a h m e m o r y i n D a ni e l L i b e s ki nd ’ s J e w i s h M u s e um B e r l i n w i t h t h e
A m e r i c a ni z a t i o n of t h e H ol o c a u s t a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t he U ni t e d S t a t e s H o l o c a us t M e m or i a l
M us e u m ( U S H M M ) . W h i l e L i be s k i n d’ s de s i g n i n c or po r a t e s i ndi c e s o f a b s e n c e – –l e a vi ng s pa c e
f or a ud i e n c e e nga g e m e nt a n d i nt e r pr e t a t i on —a n d e nc our a gi ng i n di vi du a l e m b odi m e n t of
m e m o r y , t he U S H M M u t i l i z e s a r e l a t i ve l y s a n i t i z e d m e t a na r r a t i ve of H ol oc a u s t h i s t or y i n w ha t
m a ny s c hol a r s ha ve r e f e r r e d t o a s t he “ A m e r i c a ni z a t i on” of H ol oc a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i on. R e l y i ng o n
s p e c t a c l e a nd a d e l i b e r a t e l y di da c t i c s t a g i ng of h i s t or y t ha t e nc ou r a ge s pa s s i ve s p e c t a t or s h i p, I
a r gue t ha t t he U S H M M l a c ks t he p e r f or m a t i ve e l e m e nt s c r i t i c a l t o e nc o ur a gi ng i n di vi du a l
e m bo di m e n t of m e m o r y .
A s a c ount e r p oi n t t o t he c o l l e c t i ve i n s t i t ut i o na l i z a t i o n of H ol oc a us t m e m or y , I t h e n f oc u s
on t w o i n di vi dua l s t or i e s a n d a r t w o r ks by s u r vi v or s T r udi e S t r o be l a nd G a br i e l l a K a r i n a s a
di s t i n c t f or m of pe r f or m a t i ve H ol oc a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on . The i r t r a um a a nd e x pe r i e n c e s a r e i m bue d
i n e a c h w or k , c om bi n i n g bo t h r e a l a nd t r a um a t i c e l e m e n t s , a s e m b odi m e n t s of m e m or y . T he i r
r e s pe c t i ve w or ks a r e l i v i n g d oc um e nt s o f t he i r e xpe r i e nc e s of s ur vi va l , e x i s t i ng o ut s i d e of t he
c ons t r uc t e d m e t a n a r r a t i v e s s o o f t e n e m pl o y e d t o r e pr e s e nt H o l oc a us t m e m o r y . B e c a us e
s u r vi v or s ’ a r t w or k s a r e e m bo di e d e x pe r i e nc e , op e n t o i n t e r pr e t a t i on , a nd do no t r e l y on d i da c t i c
na r r a t i ve s , t he r e i s a pe r f or m a t i v e e l e m e n t t o t h e i r w o r ks t h a t e ng a ge s w i t h vi e w e r s .
M y r e s e a r c h s up po r t s m y a r g um e nt s i n t hi s t he s i s , i nc l ud i ng t he or i s t s a nd w r i t e r s w ho
ha ve w r i t t e n on H ol o c a u s t hi s t or y , r e pr e s e nt a t i o n a nd t r a um a . Thi s i nc l u de s W a l t e r B e nj a m i n ’ s
T he s e s on t h e Phi l o s o phy o f H i s t o r y a nd T he W o r k o f Ar t i n t he A ge o f M e c ha ni c a l R e pr od uc t i on ;
The o dor A d or no’ s D i al e c t i c o f Enl i gh t e nm e nt ; M i c h a e l R ot hbe r g ’ s t he o r y of t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m ;
J a m e s E . Y oun g’ s di s c u s s i on s o f t he i de a of “ c o unt e r - m onum e nt s ,” a nd D i a n a P op e s c u ’ s
t he o r i e s of p e r f or m a t i v e H o l o c a u s t c o m m e m or a t i on. R a t he r t ha n j us t a n a l y z i ng t he m or e
i x
publ i c , na r r a t i ve s of c on t e m po r a r y pu b l i c m on um e nt s a n d m us e um s , I ha v e i nt e nt i o na l l y c hos e n
t o i nc or p or a t e t he m or e pr i va t e a r t w o r ks of i ndi vi dua l s ur vi v or s i n t o t hi s t he s i s s o t h e y w i l l
f i na l l y be i n c l ud e d i n t he c r i t i c a l d i s c ou r s e —a nd m o r e i m p or t a nt l y , s o t he vi e w e r s of t he i r w or k
m a y be c om e c a r r i e r s o f c ol l e c t i ve H ol oc a u s t m e m or y , a nd ho pe f u l l y , t r a ns f o r m i nt o a ge nt s f o r
m or a l a nd s oc i a l c ha n ge .
1
T r au m a a n d M e m or y: A B r i e f O ve r vi e w of H ol oc au s t R e p r e s e n t at i o n :
H i s e ye s a r e s t a r i ng, h i s m o ut h ha ngs o pe n hi s w i ng s a r e s p r e a d. Th i s i s ho w t he a nge l of
hi s t o r y m us t l o ok . H i s f a c e i s t ur ne d t ow a r d t he pa s t . W he r e w e p e r c e i ve a c ha i n of
e v e nt s , h e s e e s one c a t a s t r op he , w hi c h k e e ps pi l i ng w r e c k a ge up on w r e c ka ge hu r l i ng i t
be f o r e hi s f e e t . The a n ge l w ou l d l i k e t o s t a y , a w a ke n t he de a d, a n d m a ke w h ol e w h a t ha s
be e n s m a s h e d . B u t a s t or m i s bl ow i n g f r om P a r a di s e ; i t h a s g o t c a ugh t i n hi s w i n g s w i t h
s u c h v i ol e nc e t he a nge l c a n no l o ng e r c l o s e t he m . Thi s s t or m i r r e s i s t i b l y pr o pe l s hi m i nt o
t h e f ut ur e t o w hi c h h i s ba c k i s t ur n e d , w hi l e t h e pi l e of de br i s be f o r e hi m g r ow s s ky w a r d.
T h i s s t or m i s w ha t w e c a l l pr ogr e s s .
2
––W a l t e r B e nj a m i n
W a l t e r B e nj a m i n , on e o f t he pr i nc i pa l c r i t i c a l t he or i s t s of t he F r a nkf ur t S c h ool , h a s
c ont r i but e d e nor m ou s l y t o t h e i r r e f ut a bl e i m por t a n c e of u nde r s t a nd i n g t he d i a l e c t i c s of
r e pr e s e nt a t i on i n i n t e r p r e t i ng h i s t o r y . S t r o ng l y r oo t e d i n h i s J e w i s h i d e nt i t y a nd l i vi ng i n F r a nc e
dur i n g t he N a z i ’ s r i s e t o p ow e r , B e nj a m i n w r o t e h i s f a m ou s T he s e s on t he Phi l o s op hy of H i s t or y
a s h e pl a nne d —a n d f a i l e d —t o e s c a pe t he br ut a l i t y o f N a t i on a l S oc i a l i s m a n d t he N a z i g e noc i de .
2
W a l t e r B e n j a m i n , “ T h e s e s o n t h e P h i l os op hy of H i s t o r y , ” C r i t i c a l T h e o r y an d So c i e t y A R e a d e r , 2 0 2 0 , 2 5 5 - 63 ,
c om m e nt a r y o n P a u l K l e e , An g e l u s N o v u s , 1 920.
2
I n t hi s T he s e s ,
3
he c r a c ks op e n t he ve ne e r o f m o de r ni s m a n d e x p os e s i t s i nt e r na l f a ul t s , a l ong
w i t h t he w a y s i n w h i c h t he e nc o m p a s s i ng i de ol o g y of pr og r e s s i r o ni c a l l y a dva nc e s t ow a r d
c ul t u r a l a t a v i s m . C r uc i a l t o t h i s a r gu m e n t i s t h e r e ve l a t i on t ha t t he Enl i g h t e n m e nt ’ s p r opo s i t i on
of l i ne a r p r o gr e s s i o n ha d a c t ua l l y on l y p r og r e s s e d t o w a r d f a s c i s t ho m og e ne i t y , c e ns or s hi p,
xe nop hob i a , a n d u l t i m a t e l y—g e no c i de .
4
I n s t e a d , B e nj a m i n p r opo s e s a r e v ol ut i ona r y c onc e pt of
t i m e a s c o ns t e l l a t i on , w hi c h i s t he ha r ne s s i n g t o g e t he r of di f f e r e nt m om e nt s of t i m e “ w h os e s i t e
i s . ..t i m e f i l l e d by t he pr e s e nc e of t he now . ”
5
O nl y t hr oug h unde r s t a nd i ng t i m e h ow t i m e “ bl a s t s
ope n t h e c on t i nuu m o f hi s t or y ” c a n t h e h i s t or i a n a p pr e he nd t ha t i t c o ns t r uc t s a “ c o ns t e l l a t i on
w hi c h hi s ow n e r a h a s f or m e d w i t h a de f i ni t e e a r l i e r one . ”
6
C o unt l e s s boo ks a nd a r t i c l e s ha ve b e e n w r i t t e n on t he hi s t or y o f t h e H ol o c a us t , d i s s e c t i n g
t he va r i ou s e l e m e nt s , i nd i v i du a l a nd c ol l e c t i v e , t ha t g u i de d W or l d W a r I I i nt o i t s un f a t hom a b l e
a nd i r r e voc a bl e a t r oc i t i e s . O ne a s p e c t t ha t r e m a i ns r e l a t i ve l y un di s c u s s e d i s t h e c e n t r a l r ol e of a r t
i n Eu r ope ’ s uns t o pp a b l e , s w i f t r ou t e t o g e noc i d e . F r o m H i t l e r ’ s pe r s ona l o bs e s s i on w i t h
na t i on a l i s t G e r m a n a r t —a nd l i f e l on g dr e a m t o b e c om e a n a r t i s t hi m s e l f —t o N a z i pr o pa ga nda
a nd e x h i bi t i ons s u c h a s t he i nf a m o us D e g e n e r at e Ar t Ex h i bi t i on ( 1939 ) , t he a r t w or l d o f t h e
i nt e r w a r p e r i od w a s r i f e w i t h t e n s i on a nd d i vi s i o n. G e r m a n pow e r s i n f a vo r o f H i t l e r ’ s r a pi dl y -
e x pa n di n g r e gi m e f o r c e f u l l y ha l t e d a r t i s t i c pr og r e s s i on i n f a v or o f c ons e r va t i s m , w hi l e
s i m ul t a ne o us l y s t e a l i ng a n y a r t w o r ks de e m e d “ d e ge n e r a t e ” f r om J e w s a nd non - J e w s a l i k e . The s e
a r t w o r ks , r e f e r r e d t o a s H i t l e r ’ s “ L a s t H os t a ge s ” by a u t hor M a r y M . L a n e , a r e t h e r e m a i n i ng
3
I bi d .
4
M i c h a e l R o t h b e r g , T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m an d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t at i o n , 2000 .
5
W a l t e r B e nj a m i n , " T h e s e s o n t h e P h i l os o phy of H i s t or y," C r i t i c a l T h e o r y an d So c i e t y A R e a d e r , 20 2 0 , 3.
6
I bi d .
3
e vi de nc e o f H i t l e r ’ s ob s e s s i on w i t h a r t a nd hi s i n na t e k now l e dg e t ha t c on t r ol l i ng a nd l i m i t i ng
a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on w a s c r uc i a l t o c o nt r ol b ot h pr i va t e a nd p ubl i c l i f e .
7
H ow t he n, c a n a r t a n d a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on—onc e a ppr opr i a t e d by H i t l e r a n d h i s f a s c i s t
r e gi m e a s pr opa ga n da —a c t i v e l y r e s pond t o t he H ol oc a us t , i n bo t h m e m or y a nd r e pr e s e n t a t i on?
C onv e r s a t i ons on H o l o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n ha ve h i s t or i c a l l y va c i l l a t e d be t w e e n t h e t he or e t i c a l
c ha s m o f r e a l i s m a nd a n t i r e a l i s m — o r , i n t he a r t hi s t or i a n l e x i c on, r e pr e s e nt a t i o na l a nd
nonr e pr e s e n t a t i ona l . Thi s c ha s m , ou t l i ne d i n d e p t h by c r i t i c a l t he o r i s t M i c ha e l R ot hbe r g , i s
pe r ha p s b e s t na vi g a t e d by b r i d gi n g t he ba t t l e s o f H ol o c a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i on un de r w ha t h e de f i n e s
a s t he c on c e pt of t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m .
8
Tr a um a t i c r e a l i s m c a n onl y b e un de r s t ood t hr ough t he
l og i c a l pr o gr e s s i on o f u npa c k i ng t he m ul t i pl i c i t y of t h e or y t ha t h a s c on t e x t u a l i z e d, br ough t f or t h,
c ha l l e nge d, a nd a t t e m p t e d t o un de r s t a nd t he N a z i g e n oc i de b e f or e , dur i ng , a nd a f t e r t he
H ol o c a u s t . F i r s t , i t i s i m po r t a n t t o de f i ne t he t r a um a t i c e l e m e nt of t he H ol oc a us t , o f t e n r e f e r r e d
t o a s t he b a na l i t y of e v i l : t he “ p e c ul i a r c om bi n a t i on o f or di na r y a n d e x t r e m e e l e m e n t s t h a t s e e m s
t o c ha r a c t e r i z e t he N a z i g e noc i de . ”
9
Thi s t r a um a t i c c om b i n a t i o n of t he e x t r e m e a n d t he e v e r y d a y
e x pa n ds t h e c a t e go r i z a t i o n of H o l o c a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on f r o m i t s pr i or c on f i ne s a s e i t he r
r e pr e s e nt a t i on a l or no n- r e p r e s e n t a t i on a l ; i ns t e a d, t h e d e f i ni ng t r a um a t i c e l e m e nt o f t h e H ol oc a us t
r e l i e s o n b ot h r e a l i s t a nd a nt i r e a l i s t t e nde nc i e s , c o nne c t i ng s oc i o- a e s t he t i c a s pe c t s o f r e a l i s m ,
m ode r ni s m , a nd p os t m o de r n i s m .
1 0
I n s h or t , t he r e e x i s t s a t r i pa r t i t e of c om pe t i ng s c ho ol s of
t hou g ht : t he r e a l i s t c o m p on e nt s of h i s t or i c a l r e pr e s e nt a t i on a r e i t s r e f e r e n c e a nd do c um e n t a t i on
of e ve n t s ; i t s m od e r ni s t c o m pon e nt i s i t s s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y i n i t s c a pa bi l i t y t o t r a n s pa r e nt l y
7
M a r y M . L a n e , H i t l e r s L as t H o s t a g e s : L o o t e d Ar t a n d t h e So ul of t he T h i r d Re i c h ( N e w Y o r k: P u b l i c A f f a i r s , 2 0 19.
8
R o t hb e r g, T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m a n d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t at i on , 17 7 .
9
I bi d .
10
I bi d .
4
doc u m e n t hi s t or y ; a n d l a s t l y , i t s po s t m ode r n t r a i t i s h ow i t s e m e r ge nc e a nd c i r c ul a t i on
a c kn ow l e dg e s c o n t e m po r a r y e c on om i c s a nd pol i t i c s .
1 1
C o m pound i ng t h e i m por t a nc e of a ppl y i ng B e nj a m i n’ s t i m e - a s - c o ns t e l l a t i on c o nc e pt t o
t he di a l e c t i c s of H ol o c a us t r e p r e s e nt a t i o n i s t he s hi f t f r om c o nc e i vi ng a n e ve nt a s oc c ur r i n g onl y
i n t he p a s t , i nt o a n on go i ng e ve n t t ha t i s s t i l l pr e s e n t d ue t o i t s c o nt i nue d e f f e c t a nd a f t e r m a t h . I n
t hi s w a y, t he ve r y t r a um a o f H ol o c a us t s ur vi vor s c a n a l s o be u nde r s t oo d a s a n a s p e c t of
t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m , a s t he e ve nt w a s no t f u l l y e x p e r i e n c e d e v e n a s t he vi c t i m e x pe r i e nc e d t h e
H ol o c a u s t —i ns t e a d, i t i s t h e r e p e a t e d e x pe r i e nc e o f m e m or y t h a t c on t i n uou s l y a c c om p a ni e s t he
s u r vi v or a s t he y c om e t o u nd e r s t a nd t he pa s t t hr ou gh t he i r pr e s e nt e x pe r i e nc e .
1 2
A ga i n, i t i s t h i s
c ol l a p s i ng of t i m e - s p a c e t h a t u nd e r s c or e s t he i m po r t a nc e of und e r s t a n di ng t he di a l e c t i c s of
H ol o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, a s w e l l a s t he r ol e o f H ol oc a u s t s ur vi vor ’ s a r t w or ks a nd t he i r pe r s ona l
t r a um a s a s a de f i n i n g a s pe c t o f H ol oc a us t hi s t or y . A f u l l y e q ui ppe d a n a l y s i s of t h i s c on s t e l l a t i on
of t i m e r e qu i r e s un de r s t a n di ng t he t e r na t e c a t e go r i e s of t r a u m a : “ t he s ur vi v or , w h o a t t e m p t s t o
doc u m e n t a n un- d oc um e nt a bl e e x p e r i e nc e ; t he by s t a nd e r , w ho f e e l s i m p e l l e d t o be a r a n
i m po s s i b l e w i t ne s s t o t he e x t r e m e f r om a p l a c e of r e l a t i ve s a f e t y ; a nd t he l a t e c om e r or
r e pr e s e nt a t i ve of t h e ‘ pos t m e m o r y’ g e ne r a t i on . ”
1 3
Th i s r e s e a r c h a ppl i e s t h e B e nj a m i ni a n
c ons t e l l a t i on of t i m e t o s y n t he s i z e t he t hr e e a f or e m e nt i on e d a c t o r s of m e m or y i n t h e s oc i o-
a e s t h e t i c e nd e a vor s of H ol o c a u s t c o m m e m or a t i o n. Th r oug h m e m or i a l s , m o num e n t s , c ount e r -
m onu m e n t s , m us e u m s , e x hi b i t i o ns , a nd t e s t i m o ni e s , va r i o us r e a l i s t , m o de r n, a n d pos t m od e r n
t he o r i e s ha ve s h a p e d a nd r e s ha p e d t h e ba s i s of H ol o c a us t m e m o r y a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i on . A s w e
f i na l l y r e a c h a t i m e w h e r e H o l oc a us t s ur v i vo r s a r e hon or e d a nd t he i r t e s t i m o ni e s d oc um e n t e d,
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s ha v e e x pe r i e n c e d t h e i r o w n t i m e - c on s t e l l a t i on, e x pe r i e nc i ng t he pa s t
11
I bi d .
12
R o t h b e r g, T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m an d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t a t i on , 13 .
13
I bi d .
5
t hr ou gh t h e i r p r e s e n c e a s l i v i ng t e s t i m on i e s t o hi s t or y . A s w e i n c h c l os e r t o a pos t - w i t ne s s e r a , i t
i s c r i t i c a l t o e x pl o r e H o l oc a us t s u r v i vor s ’ pe r s o na l a r t w or k s w i t hi n l a r ge r c om m e m o r a t i ve
c onf i gur a t i o ns of H ol oc a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i on a nd t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m .
I n t r od u c t i on t o t h e D i al e c t i c s o f H o l o c a u s t R e p r e s e n t a t i on :
D i s c us s i on s r e g a r di n g H ol oc a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t e n be gi n w i t h The od or W . A do r no ,
a nd hi s di c t u m : “ To w r i t e po e t r y a f t e r A us c h w i t z i s ba r ba r i c . ”
1 4
W hi l e s om e h a ve i n t e r pr e t e d t h i s
pr oc l a m a t i on a s a da m na t i o n on a ny a r t i s t i c o r l i t e r a r y p r odu c t i on f ol l ow i ng t he H ol oc a u s t , t he
a c t ua l m e a ni ng of A dor no ’ s s t a t e m e nt s i nk s m u c h de e pe r i nt o t he s o c i opol i t i c a l c ont e x t of t he
H ol o c a u s t a nd t he r e s ul t i ng i m p l i c a t i o ns f o r hi s t or y a f t e r t he N a z i g e noc i de . I n t h i s br i e f di c t um ,
A do r no r e v e a l e d t h e m ul t i f a c e t e d s p e c t r um o f t h e i s s ue s s u r r ou ndi ng H ol o c a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on ,
r e qui r i ng a c r i t i c a l s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y o f m o de r ni t y , t he Enl i g ht e nm e n t , a nd t he i ns e p a r a bi l i t y f r om
a nd i r r e voc a bi l i t y of t h e H ol o c a us t on c o l l e c t i ve c ul t ur e . H e r e , A dor n o i s e x pos i ng t h e b a r ba r i s m
of t he En l i g ht e nm e n t a n d no t i o n of l i n e a r , s o c i e t a l p r ogr e s s : m o de r ni t y w a s s up pos e dl y a
“ t ot a l i t y o pe ni ng t o w a r d a p r o g r e s s i ve f ut u r e . ”
1 5
Y e t , i n t hi s s upp os e d l i n e a r p r ogr e s s i on,
hum a ni t y a l s o p r ogr e s s e d t ow a r d a n unf a t h om a bl e g e n oc i de . The de t e r m i n a t i on of t i m e a n d
pr ogr e s s w a s pr e c i s e l y t he s t r uc t u r e t h a t de t e r m i ne d t he c ons t r uc t i on of t he c onc e nt r a t i o n c a m p.
I n t hi s w a y, A dor no ’ s m a r ki ng of t i m e “ a f t e r A u s c hw i t z ” i s a l s o a t i m e - c o ns t e l l a t i on,
c ol l a p s i ng c o nt e m po r a ne i t y i nt o t he pa s t , a nd br i ng i n g t h e p a s t i nt o our pr e s e nt c on t e x t .
D i s a s s e m bl i ng t he di c t um i n t o i t s i ndi vi dua l c om pone n t s – “ To w r i t e po e t r y , ” “ a f t e r , ”
“ A us c hw i t z , ” “ i s ba r ba r i c ” – r e c o nf i gur e s a s y n t he s i s of a e s t he t i c , t i m e , pl a c e , a n d m or a l l y
14
A n t ony R o w l a nd , " R e - r e a d i ng I m po s s i b i l i t y a nd B a r ba r i s m : A do r n o a n d P os t - H ol o c a u s t P o e t i c s ," C r i t i c a l Su r v e y
9 , n o. 1 , 1997 .
15
I bi d .
6
e va l u a t i ve e l e m e n t s .
1 6
F or A d or n o, A us c h w i t z i s t he s u m m a t i on o f c u l t u r e a n d ba r b a r i s m :
A us c hw i t z w a s or i gi na l l y d e s i gn e d a s U t op i a n a r c hi t e c t ur e f or t he N a t i o na l S oc i a l i s t r e g i m e .
1 7
I t
w ou l d s e r v e a s a s i g n o f t h e c ol o ni a l pow e r a nd ut op i a n v i s i on o f H i t l e r ’ s G e r m a n a r m y ’ s
e nc r oa c hm e nt on P o l i s h t e r r i t o r y—a u t o pi a t ha t hi s t o r y now i na r g ua bl y r e c ogn i z e s a s dy s t o pi a .
1 8
Y e t , i n t he c ont e x t of A d or n o’ s di c t um , A us c hw i t z s i m u l t a n e ous l y i s u nde r s t ood a s a t i m e - pl a c e ,
c l e a r i n t h e c onc e pt u a l i z a t i o n o f a ny t h i ng c om i n g be f or e or a f t e r i t .
S i m i l a r t o t h i s no t i on of A u s c h w i t z a s m e t a p hor a nd a s t i m e - pl a c e s y m bo l of t he
H ol o c a u s t i s J a m e s E. Y o un g ’ s c o nc e p t o f t he c ount e r - m e m or i a l
1 9
i n w h i c h m e m or y i s not a
l i t e r a l p l a c e , b ut i s f or m e d t h r ou gh t he c ont i nu ous p r oc e s s of hu m a n i nt e r a c t i on a nd e nga g e m e nt .
I n s t e a d of c o nc e i vi n g of m ode r n s oc i e t y a s f ol l ow i ng a l i ne a r p r og r e s s i on w i t h a be f o r e a nd a f t e r ,
A do r no e x po s e s t h a t t he r e w a s n e ve r r e a l l y a be f or e a n d t he r e w i l l ne ve r r e a l l y be a n “ a f t e r ” –a s
t he s o c i e t a l ba r ba r i s m t h a t c o ns t r uc t e d A u s c hw i t z a l s o br ou ght a bou t i t s de m i s e —a nd on l y
t hr ou gh a n o ng oi ng e n ga g e m e nt w i t h m e m or y a nd de m o c r a c y c a n s oc i e t y e ve r ho pe t o pr e ve nt
a not h e r g e noc i de . B a r b a r i s m i n t h i s s e ns e i s no t a r e s ul t o f i ndi vi du a l w r o ngdo i ngs —i t i s i ns t e a d
t he r e s ul t of t he ho m o g e ne i t y o f c ol l e c t i ve s oc i a l p r ogr e s s i on t ow a r ds f a s c i s m a nd t he e r a s ur e o f
t he i n di vi dua l . P o e t r y , w ha t A dor no r e g a r ds a s “ unr e s t r a i ne d i nd i v i dua t i on ” i s t h e n i m bue d w i t h
ba r ba r i s m i n a f a s c i s t c u l t u r e e nf or c e d t hr oug h hom o g e ni z e d t ot a l i t y . A c l os e r e a di ng of t hi s
s t a t e m e nt a l s o r e l i e s o n A d or n o’ s be l i e f t ha t a r t c a n “ g i ve voi c e t o w h a t i de o l og y h i d e s . ”
2 0
“ Y e t
t hi s s u f f e r i ng, w h a t H e g e l c a l l e d c o ns c i ou s ne s s of a d ve r s i t y , a l s o d e m a nds t he c ont i nu e d
16
R o t h b e r g, M i c h a e l . T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T h e D e m an d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t a t i on , 2 0 0 6 .
17
I bi d .
18
M i c h e l F o u c a ul t , “ U t o p í a / H e t e r ot o pí a ( U t o pi e / H é t é r o t opi e ) , ” 2 019 , 8 0 - 84 .
19
J a m e s E . Y o ung, " The C ou n t e r - M onum e nt : M e m o r y a g a i ns t I t s e l f i n G e r m a n y To d a y . " C r i t i c a l I n q u i r y 1 8 , n o . 2 ,
1 99 2, 2 67- 9 6 .
20
R o w l a n d , " R e - r e a d i n g I m p os s i b i l i t y a nd B a r b a r i s m : A d or n o a n d P os t - H o l oc a us t P o e t i c s ,” 1 9 9 7 .
7
e x i s t e nc e o f a r t w hi l e i t pr o hi bi t s i t ; i t i s n ow v i r t ua l l y i n a r t a l o ne t ha t s uf f e r i ng c a n s t i l l f i nd i t s
ow n vo i c e , c ons ol a t i on, w i t ho ut i m m e di a t e l y be i ng be t r a y e d by i t . ”
2 1
A do r no ’ s c o nv i c t i on i n t h e a bi l i t y of l y r i c p oe t r y a nd a r t t o e m pha s i z e i nd i vi dua l i t y —t he
a bi l i t y t o po r t r a y i n f u l l n e s s t he ho r r or s a nd ug l i ne s s of i t s t i m e — i s pr e c i s e l y w h a t H i t l e r
r e c og ni z e d i n a r t a s h e d e f i l e d Ex pr e s s i oni s m i nt o d e ge ne r a c y , e n f or c i ng a s i ng u l a r f o r m o f
c ol l e c t i ve e x p r e s s i on f o un d i n t he r i g i di t y a n d c ons e r va t i s m o f S oc i a l R e a l i s m . A do r no’ s di c t u m
t he r e by s t a nd s a s a pa s t t r ut h a n d c o nt e m por a r y r e a l i t y t ha t ba r b a r i s m w a s t he f oun da t i on of
A us c hw i t z , a nd a ny p oe t r y or a r t w r i t t e n a f t e r t he H ol oc a u s t i s s t i l l s ha pe d by t h e f o r c e s t ha t
c a us e d i t , a s w e l l a s t he f o r c e s t h a t e nde d i t ; a ny i n di vi du a l a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on w i l l f o r e ve r be
m a r k e d b y t h e unde r l y i ng i n s i d i o us ne s s o f t h e c ol l e c t i v e i de ol o gy l e a di n g t o a nd f r o m A us c h w i t z .
I n t e r m s of de f i ni ng a nd d i f f e r e nt i a t i ng c ol l e c t i ve a n d i n di vi du a l m e m o r y , t h e d i a l e c t i c s
of r e pr e s e nt a t i on a r e on c e a ga i n c r i t i c a l t o t he di s c us s i on . C ol l e c t i ve m e m or y i s c ons t r uc t e d
t hr ou gh po l i t i c s a nd c u l t ur e , m e d i a t e d — a nd i n t he c a s e of i n t e r w a r Eu r ope , c ont r o l l e d —t hr oug h
m a t e r i a l m e di a . A l t e r na t e l y , s oc i a l m e m or y i s t i e d t o t he i n di vi d ua l , m e di a t e d i ns t e a d t h r ou gh
ong o i ng c om m uni c a t i o n a n d e nga ge m e nt .
2 2
C o l l e c t i ve m e m or y i s of t e n e m be d de d i n
c ont e m p or a r y m e di a , a nd c a n s h i f t i ndi vi d ua l e x pe r i e n c e i nt o c ol l e c t i ve m e m o r y .
A m ong m a ny i ns t a n c e s o f t hi s p he n om e na i s H o l oc a us t s ur v i v or J or g e S e m pr u n’ s
e x pe r i e nc e w a t c hi n g s c e n e s o f B uc h e nw a l d p r oj e c t e d on t o a f e a t ur e f i l m s c r e e n, r e f e r r e d t o b y
A l e i d a A s s m a nn i n he r t he o r i e s of m e m o r y i n a g l o ba l a g e .
2 3
H a vi ng e x pe r i e n c e d l i f e i n t he
B uc h e nw a l d p r i s on e r c a m p hi m s e l f , he r e c a l l e d v i e w i n g t h e i m a g e s on t h e s c r e e n a s a r upt ur e i n
21
I bi d .
22
A l e i d a A s s m a n , " The H o l oc a us t — a G l o b a l M e m o r y ? E x t e ns i o n s a n d L i m i t s o f a N e w M e m o r y C o m m u ni t y, "
M e m o r y i n a G l o b a l Ag e , 20 1 0 , 97 - 1 1 7.
23
I bi d .
8
hi s m e m or y c a us e d by t h e “ d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e e n a nd t he e x pe r i e nc e d.”
2 4
H i s ow n
i ndi v i du a l m e m or i e s a nd e x p e r i e n c e o f B uc h e nw a l d h a d b e c om e c ol l e c t i ve t he m o m e nt he a n d
t he a u di e n c e w e r e w a t c h i ng t he s c e n e s of B uc he nw a l d u nf o l d t og e t he r .
T h i s phe nom e na t ha t S e m pr un i s e x pe r i e nc i ng c a n a l s o b e t r a c e d ba c k t o B e nj a m i n ’ s
t he o r i e s of Ar t i n t he M e c ha ni c a l Ag e of Re pr oduc t i on , i n w hi c h t he a ur a —t h e s i ng ul a r , un i qu e ,
a nd i r r e pr odu c i bl e qua l i t i e s of a w o r k of a r t o r e ve n t —ha s b e e n bot h s t r e ngt he n e d a n d l os t
t hr ou gh i t s r e pl i c a t i on .
2 5
W hi l e t he or i gi na l a ur a s t i l l e x i s t s , i t s r e pl i c a t i o ns n o l o ng e r c o nt a i n t h e
a ur a of i t s o r i g i na l t i m e a nd pl a c e c o nt e x t —t h e i ndi v i dua l t h us be c om e s e x t e r n a l i z e d a s a
c ol l e c t i ve . A c c or d i ng t o A s s m a n n, t h e s e t w o t y p e s of m e m or y a r e c r i t i c a l t o und e r s t a n di ng
c ol l e c t i ve m e m o r y a n d r e pr e s e nt a t i o n a s “ c ol l e c t i ve a nd c ul t ur a l m e m or y r e l i e s on a p ool of
e x pe r i e nc e s a n d k no w l e d ge t ha t ha s be e n r e l e a s e d f r om i t s l i v i n g c a r r i e r s a nd pa s s e s ov e r i nt o
m a t e r i a l m e di a .
2 6
I t i s t he w a y t ha t m e m o r i e s c a n be s t a b i l i z e d ov e r g e ne r a t i ona l t hr e s ho l ds .
W hi l e s oc i a l m e m o r y r e pe a t e dl y va ni s he s w i t h t he pe op l e t ha t ke e p i t g oi ng , c ul t ur a l s y m b o l s
a nd s i g ns a r e m or e d ur a b l e .
2 7
Thi s i nqui r y i nt o c o l l e c t i ve m e m o r y e r upt s i n a ne c e s s a r y
di s c u s s i on on H ol oc a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i on, i nt o how s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y o f i ns t i t ut i on s , m on um e nt s ,
m e m o r i a l s , a nd a r t w o r k s a r e pr od uc e d f or c ol l e c t i ve c om m e m or a t i on .
O ve r a l l , t h e c on c e p t of t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m —i n w h i c h r e a l i s m i s ne c e s s a r y a s a c o unt e r pa r t
t o t he b a na l i t y o f e vi l pr e s e nt i n t he H ol oc a us t — pr ov i de s a m ul t i f a c e t e d t e m p l a t e f r om w hi c h t o
unde r s t a nd t he c om p l e x i t i e s a nd n e c e s s i t i e s of H o l o c a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i on a n d m e m or y . W a l t e r
B e nj a m i n a n d A dor no a l s o p r ov i d e s ha r p a na l ys e s o f t he w a y s i n w hi c h t he s oc i a l p r ogr e s s pr i or
t o t he H ol o c a us t w a s pr e c i s e l y w h a t l e a d t o t he N a z i g e noc i de . I t w a s H i t l e r h i m s e l f w ho kne w
24
A s s m a nn , " The H o l o c a us t — a G l o ba l M e m o r y? Ext e ns i o n s a nd L i m i t s of a N e w M e m o r y C om m u ni t y , " M e m o r y
i n a G l ob a l A g e , 2010 , 97 - 1 1 7 .
25
W a l t e r B e nj a m i n a n d J . A . U n d e r w o o d , T h e W o r k o f A r t i n t h e A ge o f M e c h a n i c a l R e p r od u c t i o n , 2 0 0 8 .
26
A s s m a nn, " The H ol o c a us t — a G l ob a l M e m o r y ? Ext e n s i o ns a n d L i m i t s of a N e w M e m or y C om m un i t y , " M e m o r y
i n a G l ob a l A g e , 2010 , 97 - 1 1 7 .
27
I bi d .
9
t he po w e r of t he i nd i v i du a l i n s o c i e t y , e x pr e s s e d uni qu e l y t h r oug h a r t —a nd w ho de m oni z e d a ny
i ndi v i du a l e x pr e s s i o n a s d e ge ne r a t e w hi l e upho l di ng f a s c i s t ho m og e ne i t y i n a r t . B e n j a m i n a nd
A do r no, ha i l i n g f r om t h e ph i l o s op hy a nd t h e or y of t he F r a nk f ur t S c h ool w hi c h w a s d i r e c t l y
unde r H i t l e r ’ s a t t a c k du r i n g t h e H ol o c a us t , w e r e ke e nl y a w a r e o f t h e d e c e p t i o n of pr o gr e s s
hi dde n w i t hi n t he i d e o l o g y o f E n l i g ht e nm e n t . B o t h v e he m e nt l y f o ught a ga i ns t t he ba r b a r i s m
i nhe r e nt i n m ode r ni t y b y s ha t t e r i n g t h e c on c e pt o f l i n e a r pr og r e s s i o n t hr o ugh t i m e , a r gui ng
i ns t e a d f or a t i m e c on s t e l l a t i on w h e r e i n our pr e s e nt i s de f i ne d by ou r c o l l e c t i ve pa s t , w hi c h i s
a l s o f or m e d by o ur un de r s t a ndi ng of t he pa s t . I n t h i s w a y, t he H ol oc a u s t c a nnot be a f o r got t e n
e ve nt o f t h e pa s t — i t e x i s t s a t t h e f o un da t i on of o ur c ont e m p or a ne i t y , a nd our c ur r e nt
e nga ge m e nt w i t h H ol oc a us t hi s t or y di r e c t l y s ha pe s ho w w e unde r s t a n d i t . P e r f or m a t i ve
H ol o c a u s t c om m e m o r a t i on —i n w hi c h on e e n ga g e s w i t h c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y t hr ou gh m on um e nt s ,
c oun t e r - m on um e n t s , m e m or i a l s , m us e um s , a n d a r t w or ks —t r a ns f or m s pa s s i ve s pe c t a t or s i nt o
m or a l l y a nd s oc i a l l y r e s p on s i bl e a ge nt s of c ha ng e ; a nd i s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e d i s c us s i on of
c ont e m p or a r y H o l oc a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i on.
2 8
W hi l e not l a r ge l y i nc l ud e d i n t h e c a no n of H o l oc a us t
r e pr e s e nt a t i on , I a r gu e f o r t he i n c l us i on o f a r t w or k s by H ol oc a us t s ur v i vor s i n t h i s a c t of
pe r f or m a t i ve H o l o c a u s t c o m m e m or a t i on. A r t b y H ol o c a us t s u r vi vo r s i s a t onc e r e a l a nd
t r a um a t i c , d e pi c t i ng t h e i nt e r s e c t i o n of l i ve d t r a um a t h r ou gh doc u m e nt a t i on. Th e w o r k of t h e s e
s u r vi v or s s t a nd a s a n a ur a , o nl y e x i s t i ng i n uni qu e t i m e a nd pl a c e a s a n e x pr e s s i o n o f a n
i ndi v i du a l e x pe r i e nc e ; a f or m o f po e t r y a f t e r A us c hw i t z , r e v e a l i ng t ha t t he r e i s n o a c t u a l “ a f t e r
A us c hw i t z ” i n t he on g o i n g f i g ht a g a i ns t t he m a c h i ne of f a s c i s m t hr ou gho ut h i s t or y . Th e i r
a r t w o r ks s t a nd a s a n i nd i v i du a l f or c e a g a i n s t t he c ol l e c t i ve t h a t o nc e s ou g ht t o d e s t r o y f r e e do m
28
D i a n a I . P o pe s c u a n d T a nj a S c h u l t , " P e r f o r m a t i v e H o l oc a us t C o m m e m o r a t i on i n t h e 2 1 s t C e n t u r y , " H o l oc a u s t
S t u d i e s 26 , no . 2 , 201, 13 5- 5 1.
10
of i ndi vi du a l a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on i n t he N a z i ’ s br i ga de of s t o l e n a r t w o r ks a nd ho m og e ni z e d
i de o l og y o f de ge n e r a t e a r t .
R e a l i s m i s e s s e n t i a l t o H ol oc a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on i n t h e s e ns e t h a t i t r e l i e s on t e s t i m o ny
a nd do c um e nt a r y . I t r e l i e s on t ha t ve r y a ur a de f i ne d b y W a l t e r B e nj a m i n a s t h e un i q ue pow e r of
a n o r i g i na l w or k o f a r t , un r e pr odu c i bl e a nd u nr e p e a t a bl e .
2 9
A l t h oug h r e a l i s m h a s l os t s om e of i t s
f oot i ng s i n c e R ol a n d B a r t he s ’ t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c us s i ons ,
3 0
p os t m ode r n i s m h a s s i m u l t a ne ous l y
br oug ht a r e s ur g e nc e o f r e a l i s m a s t h e or y w i t h g r ow i ng i nt e r e s t i n t r a um a , t e s t i m o ni a l f or m s ,
doc u m e n t a r y a r t s , a n d ot he r e x t r e m e hi s t o r i c a l e v e nt s .
3 1
Tr a um a t i c r e a l i s m i s pr e c i s e l y t he
i nt e r s e c t i on of t he or d i n a r y a nd e x t r a o r di na r y —bot h c r i t i c a l t o c om pr e he n di ng t he a c t of
g e noc i de . W hi l e R o t hb e r g dr a w s hi s c onc e pt of t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m f r o m w r i t t e n t e s t i m o ni a l s f r o m
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s , I h ope t o e x p a nd t h i s c o nc e p t t hr ough u nde r s t a nd i n g t h e i r p e r s ona l w or ks
of vi s u a l a r t .
T h e V an i s h i n g A c t o f M e m o r y: Pe r f or m a t i ve an d Par t i c i p at or y M e m o r i al s an d
M on u m e n t s :
D e f i ne d b y J a m e s E. Y oun g, c ount e r - m on um e n t s s t a n d “ a g a i n s t t he a ut ho r i t a r i a n
pr ope ns i t y i n a l l a r t t h a t r e du c e s vi e w e r s t o p a s s i v e s pe c t a t or s . ”
3 2
I n T e x t u r e of M e m or y , Y ou ng
e m ph a s i z e s t h e a m bi v a l e nt na t u r e of m e m or i a l s . A c c or d i ng t o Y oun g, m e m o r i a l s a r e not
i nhe r e nt l y ne ut r a l nor i nh e r e nt l y s t a t i c . L i ke m e m o r y , m e m or i a l s a r e s ubj e c t t o c ha nge ba s e d o n
c ont e x t , a nd a l t e r b a s e d o n w ho i s doi ng t h e r e m e m b e r i n g.
3 3
R e p r e s e nt i n g t h e u nr e pr e s e nt a bl e
29
B e nj a m i n a n d U nde r w o od , T h e W o r k o f A r t i n t he A g e o f M e c ha n i c a l R e p r od u c t i on , 2008 .
3 0
R o n B ur ne t t , " C a m e r a Lu c i d a : R o l a n d B a r t h e s , J e a n ‐ P a u l S a r t r e a n d t he P h o t o g r a p h i c I m a ge ," C o n t i n u u m 6 , n o . 2 ,
1 99 3, 5 - 2 4.
31
R o t h b e r g, T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m an d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t a t i on , 20 0 6 .
32
Y o u ng , T h e T e x t ur e of M e m o r y : H o l o c aus t M e m or i al s a nd M e a n i n g , 20 0 0 .
33
I bi d .
11
hor r o r s o f t he H ol oc a u s t , a n d r e vi s i o ni n g t he f a s c i s t t r e nd o f a ut hor i t a r i a n m o num e n t s i n
G e r m a ny l e a di ng up t o t h e H o l o c a u s t , c ount e r - m o num e n t s do no t r e l y on di d a c t i c a nd
pe da g ogi c a l m e t ho ds of t e a c h i ng a s i ng u l a r hi s t or y t o t h e p ubl i c : i n s t e a d, c oun t e r - m onu m e nt s
e m po w e r t he p ub l i c t o und e r s t a n d a nd m e m o r i a l i z e hi s t or y i n a pl ur a l i s t i c k a l e i dos c ope of
e x pe r i e nc e s w i t h t he w or k. T h e t e m p or a l i t y of t h e c o unt e r - m o num e n t i s a k i n t o t h e t e m p or a l i t y
a nd f r a i l t y o f m e m or y ; j u s t a s a n e v e n t oc c u r s a nd pa s s e s — o nl y t o e x i s t a nd c on t i n ue i n t h e
be a r e r o f m e m o r y — s o d oe s t h e c ou nt e r - m onu m e nt a ppe a r a nd va ni s h, onl y t o e x i s t t hr o ugh t he
m e m o r y of ha v i ng o nc e e x pe r i e nc e d t he m onu m e nt . Th e c on c e pt ua l u nde r p i nni ng s of c ou nt e r -
m onu m e n t s a l s o a r gu a b l y h a i l ba c k t o B e nj a m i n ’ s t i m e a s c ons t e l l a t i o n t he or y , i n w hi c h hi s t o r y
e x i s t s i n our c ur r e n t m e m o r y , a nd our m e m or y c ons t r uc t s hi s t or y .
3 4
T h e hi s t o r y of p e r f or m a t i ve a n d pa r t i c i p a t or y H o l o c a us t m e m or i a l pr a c t i c e s h a i l s ba c k t o
m onu m e n t s s uc h a s J oc he n G e r z e ’ s M onum e nt a ga i ns t Fas c i s m ( 198 6) , a s w e l l a s G us t a v
D e nm i g’ s St um b l i ng S t on e ( 19 92 ) m e m o r i a l . B o t h of t he s e c o m m e m o r a t i ons o f t h e H ol o c a us t
f e a t ur e pa r t i c i pa t or y e l e m e nt s , i n w h i c h s p e c t a t or s a r e no t m e r e l y v i e w i n g t h e w or ks , but
a c t i ve l y e ng a gi n g w i t h t he m . I m pa r t i ng t he i r e x pe r i e nc e w i t h t he m o num e n t s i n t o t he i r ow n l i v e s ,
vi s i t o r s be c o m e pe r s o na l l y a w a r e of t he H o l oc a us t a n d b e c om e a ge nt s f or s oc i a l a nd m o r a l
t r a ns f or m a t i on.
3 5
R e ga r di ng hi s M o nu m e nt ag ai n s t Fa s c i s m , G e r z c om m e nt e d: “ P e opl e , not m on um e nt s ,
a r e t he p l a c e s of m e m o r y . ”
3 6
Em b l e m a t i c of hi s s t a t e m e nt i s t he p a r t i c i pa t or y f u nc t i on of t he
m onu m e n t , s upr e m e l y e na c t e d a s a s o c i a l e x pe r i m e nt w i t h a n un pr e d i c t a bl e e f f e c t .
3 7
A m i d s t t he
r a pi d r i s e o f N e o- F a s c i s m i n H a m b ur g i n 19 79, G e r z de ve l op e d t h e c o nc e pt f or t he m onum e n t
34
B e nj a m i n , " T h e s e s o n t he P h i l os op h y o f H i s t o r y , " 2 020, 2 55- 6 3 .
35
P o p e s c u a n d S c h u l t , " P e r f or m a t i v e H o l oc a u s t C o m m e m o r a t i on i n t h e 2 1 s t C e n t u r y . ”
36
T h o m a s S t u b b l e f i e l d, " D o D i s a pp e a r i n g M o nu m e n t s S i m pl y D i s a pp e a r ? The C o u n t e r - M o n u m e n t i n R e v i s i o n , "
Fu t u r e An t e r i o r 8 , no . 2 , 2 0 1 1 , X i i - 1 1 .
37
J a m e s E . Y o u n g, " The C ount e r - M onum e n t : M e m o r y a g a i ns t I t s e l f i n G e r m a n y To d a y , ” 20 0 2 .
12
w i t h E s t h e r S h a l e v G e r z a s t h e i r s ub m i s s i on f o r a n i nt e r n a t i o na l c om pe t i t i on he l d by t h e
H a m bur g - H a r bur g m un i c i p a l i t y . T i t l e d M on um e n t aga i ns t Fa s c i s m , t he G e r z ’ s m on um e n t w a s
s e l e c t e d a s t he c om pe t i t i on ’ s w i n ne r , a nd w a s s o on e r e c t e d i n a p ubl i c s q ua r e i n H a m bur g i n
1986 . T he i r 1 2 m e t e r - h i g h 1 m e t e r w i de c o l um n c ove r e d i n l e a d
3 8
f e a t u r e d a t e x t i n s e ve n
di f f e r e nt l a ngu a ge s , c a l l i n g on vi s i t o r s t o e ngr a ve t he i r na m e s di r e c t l y o nt o t he m onu m e nt :
W e i nvi t e t he c i t i z e n s o f H a r b ur g, a nd vi s i t or s t o t he t o w n, t o a dd t he i r na m e s he r e t o
ou r s . I n doi n g s o w e c o m m i t our s e l v e s t o r e m a i n vi g i l a nt . A s m or e a n d m or e na m e s
c o ve r t hi s 12 m e t r e - hi gh l e a d c ol u m n , i t w i l l g r a dua l l y be l ow e r e d i nt o t he g r ound . O ne
da y i t w i l l ha ve d i s a pp e a r e d c om pl e t e l y a n d t h e s i t e o f t h e H a r b ur g m on um e nt a ga i ns t
f a s c i s m w i l l b e e m p t y . I n t he l ong r u n, i t i s onl y w e our s e l ve s w ho c a n s t a nd up a ga i n s t
i n j us t i c e .
3 9
O ve r t he c our s e of ne a r l y s i x y e a r s , v i s i t or s a c t i ve l y pa r t i c i pa t e d a nd i nt e r a c t e d w i t h t h e
m onu m e n t , us i ng t he pe nc i l s p r ov i d e d t o m a r k t h e i r na m e s , pe r s ona l m e s s a ge s , a nd o t he r
i m a g e r y on t o t he m o num e n t ’ s s ur f a c e . Thr oug hou t i t s d ur a t i on , t h e r e w e r e va r i o us i ns t a nc e s o f
vi ol e nt , r a c i s t a nd a nt i s e m i t i c m a r k i ngs , i n c l udi ng s w a s t i k a s , s t a t e m e nt s s uc h a s “ F or e i g ne r s
O ut ! ” a nd e v e n e vi d e nc e of g u ns hot s i n t he l e a d v a r ni s h.
4 0
Ec ho i ng t he c onc e pt t h a t p e opl e —not
m onu m e n t s —a r e t h e pl a c e s of m e m o r y , G e r z r e a c t e d t o t h e c h i l l i ng r e s pons e s l e f t on t he
m onu m e n t , s t a t i ng : “ A s a r e f l e c t i on o f s oc i e t y , t hi s m onu m e nt i s do ubl y c ha l l e ng i n g, i n t ha t i t
not on l y r e m i nds s oc i e t y o f t hi ng s p a s t , b ut a l s o— a n d t h i s i s t he m o s t uns e t t l i ng —of i t s o w n
r e a c t i on t o t hi s pa s t .”
4 1
U nl i ke pr e c e d i n g m ode l s f or H ol oc a us t m onum e nt s , m a r ke d l y f i gur a t i ve a nd
pur po s e f u l l y pr e s e nt a t i on a l a nd p e d a gog i c a l , M on um e nt agai n s t Fas c i s m w a s t h e f i r s t c oun t e r -
m onu m e n t o f i t s g e nr e , d i r e c t l y e n ga gi ng w i t h a udi e n c e pa r t i c i pa t i on a s pa r t of i t s c r e a t i on a nd
e ve nt ua l di s a ppe a r a n c e . I n 19 93 , t h e m o num e n t f i na l l y l ow e r e d i nt o t he g r oun d, w i t h j us t t h e c a p
38
I bi d .
39
J o c h a n G e r z , " M on u m e n t A ga i n s t F a s c i s m , " A c c e s s e d O c t o be r 2 5 , 2 0 2 0.
40
Y o u ng , " T h e C o unt e r - M o n u m e nt : M e m or y a g a i n s t I t s e l f i n G e r m a ny T o d a y ,” 2 0 0 2 .
41
J o c h a n G e r z , " M on u m e n t A ga i n s t F a s c i s m , " A c c e s s e d O c t o be r 2 5 , 2 0 2 0.
13
of t he c ol um n—a on e - s qu a r e - m e t e r l e a d pl a t e —r e m a i ni n g v i s i bl e t o t he pub l i c . I t w a s pr e c i s e l y
t he i n t e r a c t i on w i t h vi s i t or s —t h e r e p e t i t i ve a c t i o n a n d f or c e f r om vi s i t o r s ’ e n ga ge m e nt —w i t h t h e
m onu m e n t t ha t c a us e d t he g r a d ua l s i nki n g o f t he c ol um n , do c um e nt e d i n a s e r i e s o f c o ns e c ut i ve
phot o g r a p hs .
4 2
J us t a s G e r z s t a t e d, t hi s m o num e nt “ not onl y r e m i nds s oc i e t y of t hi n g s p a s t , ” b ut
a l s o “ o f i t s o w n r e a c t i on t o t h i s pa s t .”
4 3
Th e m on um e nt i t s e l f i s a n a c t i on a g a i n s t f a s c i s m : a
publ i c s t a t e m e nt a g a i ns t t he pol i t i c s t ha t o nc e l e a d t o t he hor r or s of t he H ol oc a u s t —i n t he s a m e
publ i c l oc a t i on w he r e t he y on c e be g a n, a nd w e r e r a p i dl y s p r e a di ng a ga i n m e r e l y a f e w y e a r s
f ol l o w i n g t h e H ol o c a us t . I n or d e r t o f i gh t t he r e t u r n of f a s c i s m , t hi s m o num e nt r e l i e d on
pa r t i c i pa t o r y a nd p e r f o r m a t i ve e l e m e nt s . I t c oul d no t s t a nd on i t s ow n a s a m e r e l y s t a t i c r e m i nde r
t o t he p ubl i c t h a t t h e H ol o c a u s t ha d onc e oc c ur r e d . I t w a s t h e p a r t i c i pa t i on w i t h i n di vi dua l
vi s i t o r s , w ho s i g ne d t h e i r na m e s a s t he i r vow t o r e m a i n v i g i l a nt a g a i ns t f a s c i s m , t ha t m a de t h e
m onu m e n t e f f e c t i v e i n f i g ht i ng a g a i ns t t h e r e t ur n o f f a s c i s m i n H a m bur g , a s w e l l a s w h e r e ve r t h e
vi s i t o r s f ou n d t h e m s e l ve s a f t e r i nt e r a c t i ng w i t h t he m on um e nt . The m e m or y o f t h e H ol oc a us t i n
G e r m a ny , a n d t he m e m o r y of t h e d a nge r s of f a s c i s m , w e r e on c e a ga i n m a de r e a l i n t he m i nds o f
t hos e w ho w e r e a f f e c t e d b y t h e i r e x pe r i e nc e e nga gi n g w i t h t he m on um e nt . E ve n w i t h t h ous a nds
of s i g n a t ur e s ove r s e v e r a l y e a r s , w r i t i ng t h e i r na m e s a s a r e m i nde r t o r e m a i n vi g i l a n t a g a i n s t t he
r i s e of f a s c i s m , t he m o nu m e n t e ve nt ua l l y s a n k i nt o t he g r o und —a r e m i nde r t ha t m e m or y i s
t e m p or a r y , a n d t ha t i t i s p e opl e , not m onu m e nt s , w ho m u s t c on t i n ua l l y a c t t o e ns u r e t ha t t h e
s t e ps l e a di n g up t o t he H o l o c a us t a n d t he a bs ol u t e h or r o r s of t he H o l oc a us t m a y n e ve r r e pe a t
a ga i n — e s pe c i a l l y not i n t h e p l a c e t h e y on c e be ga n no t l o ng a go. M onu m e n t a gai ns t Fas c i s m
m a r ke d t he h i s t or i c a l b e gi nni ng o f t he c ount e r - m o num e nt f o r H ol o c a us t r e m e m b r a nc e ,
42
I bi d .
43
I bi d .
14
s i g ni f y i ng t he i m p or t a nc e of a ud i e nc e p a r t i c i pa t i on w i t h a m o num e n t i n or de r t o e f f e c t i v e l y
s h a pe c o l l e c t i ve m e m or y b y t r a n s f or m i ng s pe c t a t or s i n t o a ge nt s o f s oc i a l a nd m or a l c ha n ge .
F ol l o w i ng t hi s hi s t or i c a l s hi f t of H o l oc a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i on t he 19 95 c om p e t i t i on f or a
G e r m a n na t i o na l m e m o r i a l t o t h e m ur de r e d J e w s o f Eur op e , r e s ul t e d i n t h e c o m m i s s i on o f P e t e r
Ei s e n m a nn’ s w e l l - kn ow n M e m or i al t o t he M ur de r e d J e w s o f Eur op e ( 20 05) . A m ong s t t he
c om p e t i t i on ’ s m a ny s ub m i s s i on s w a s one pr opo s a l by H o r s t H ohe i s e l , un us ua l l y out s t a ndi ng i n
i t s c on c e pt u a l f or m ul a s y m b ol i c of t he ve r y c or e of c oun t e r - m onu m e nt a l pr a c t i c e s . H o he i s e l
pr opo s e d bl ow i ng u p t h e B r a nde n bu r g G a t e —a l a n dm a r k of N e oc l a s s i c a l de s i g n a nd P r us s i a n
pow e r — t a ki ng t he a s h e s o f t he f or m e r s i t e , a nd s pr i nkl i n g t h e m o ve r t he g r a ni t e pa ne s i n pl a c e
of w he r e t he g a t e o nc e s t oo d.
4 4
I n s t e a d of c o ns t r uc t i ng a ne w m o num e n t t o c o m m e m or a t e t he
de s t r u c t i o n of a p e o pl e , w h a t be t t e r w a y t o c om m uni c a t e t h e e x t r e m e l os s t o hu m a ni t y—t he
obl i t e r a t i on of e l e v e n m i l l i on l i v e s — t ha n by de s t r oy i ng a na t i on a l l a nd m a r k a nd s pr i nk l i n g i t s
r e m a i ns ove r t he c i t y ? F or H oh e i s e l , a po s i t i ve - f o r m m onum e nt c oul d not r e p l a c e t he m e m or y o f
t hos e m ur de r e d i n t h e H o l o c a us t . O n l y by s ha t t e r i ng t h e l a nd s c a p e of Eu r ope , b y bl a s t i n g o pe n
t he ve r y e a r t h t h a t s a w t he de s t r uc t i on of Eur ope a n c ul t ur e a nd t he m ur de r of m i l l i ons , c ou l d a
voi d a ppr opr i a t e l y be f i l l e d w i t h m e m or y . H oh e i s e l w a s a l s o ke e nl y a w a r e t h a t t he G e r m a n
g ove r nm e nt w oul d c e r t a i n l y ne ve r s a nc t i o n n or f u nd t hi s p r opo s a l —w hi c h a c c or di n g t o Y oun g ,
w a s pr e c i s e l y pa r t of t he a r t i s t ’ s l a r g e r p oi n t .
4 5
I t w a s pr e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t he m onu m e nt c oul d
ne ve r a c t ua l l y be c om p l e t e d — i t s r a di c a l pr opo s i t i on h a d n o c ha nc e of be i ng s e l e c t e d a s t h e
w i nn i ng de s i gn f o r a na t i on a l m onu m e nt —t ha t g a ve H o he i s e l a l l t he m or e r e a s on t o de s i gn i t . I f
t he m onu m e nt w e r e t o e ve r be f i n i s h e d , s o w ou l d t he w o r k of m e m o r y be c om pl e t e d. L i ke G e r z
w i t h hi s M on um e nt ag ai ns t Fa s c i s m , H ohe i s e l kne w t h a t t he m o r e w e e m pow e r po s i t i ve f or m t o
44
J a m e s E . Y o ung, “ M e m o r y a nd C o u n t e r - M e m or y, ” H a r v a r d D e s i gn M a g a z i n e , A c c e s s e d O c t o b e r 1 2 , 2 0 20.
45
I bi d .
15
hol d o nt o m e m o r y , t he m or e on g o i n g m e m or y e va de s u s —a s m e m o r y doe s not e x i s t i n f o r m , bu t
i n pe o pl e . A s A d or n o a s s e r t e d i n hi s s oc i o- a e s t h e t i c t he o r i e s , t h e m a c hi ne of f a s c i s m ha s not
va ni s h e d a nd c e r t a i n l y ha s not f i n i s h e d c r e e pi ng a l ong, a nd w e w ou l d be r e m i s s t o t h i nk t he r e
e ve r i s a t i m e w he r e w e a r e no t e x i s t i ng i n a t i m e a f t e r A us c hw i t z .
4 6
I n Y oung ’ s w or ds , “ be t t e r a
t hou s a nd y e a r s of H o l oc a u s t m e m or i a l c om pe t i t i o ns i n G e r m a ny t h a n a ny s i ng l e ‘ f i na l s ol u t i on ’
t o G e r m a n y ’ s m e m or i a l pr o bl e m .”
4 7
Y o ung w r i t e s :
I n s t e a d of s e a r i n g m e m or y i n t o p ubl i c c ons c i ous ne s s , c on ve nt i on a l m e m o r i a l s , t h e y f e a r ,
s e a l m e m or y of f f r o m a w a r e n e s s a l t og e t he r ; i ns t e a d o f e m body i ng m e m or y , s uc h
m e m or i a l s m a y onl y di s pl a c e m e m or y . T he s e a r t i s t s f e a r r i g ht l y t ha t t o t h e e x t e nt t ha t w e
e n c our a ge m o nu m e n t s t o do o ur m e m or y w or k f o r us , w e be c om e t ha t m uc h m or e
f o r ge t f ul . Th e y be l i e ve , i n e f f e c t , t h a t t he i ni t i a l i m p ul s e t o m e m or i a l i z e e ve n t s l i ke t h e
H ol oc a us t m a y a c t ua l l y s p r i n g f r o m a n o ppos i t e a n d e qua l de s i r e t o f or ge t t he m .
4 8
Thi s n e w f o r m of m e m or i a l i z i ng t h e H ol oc a us t s hi f t s a w a y f r om t he m od e r ni s t , pe da g ogi c a l
m e m o r i a l s of t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f a s c i s m a nd g ov e r nm e nt a l c e n s o r s hi p. I n s t e a d , i t m a r k s t he t ur n
t ow a r d po s t m ode r n s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y of pe r f or m a t i v e r e m e m br a nc e , de f i ne d a s pe r f or m a nc e - l i ke
m e m o r i a l a c t i ons a i m e d a t t r a ns f or m i ng i ndi vi d ua l s f r o m pa s s i ve s pe c t a t or s i n t o s oc i a l l y a nd
m or a l l y r e s po ns i b l e a g e nt s of c ha n ge .
4 9
O ne r e c e nt c ou nt e r - m on um e nt e m b ody i ng t hi s f or m o f pe r f or m a t i ve r e m e m br a nc e i s
G un t e r D e nm i g ’ s S t o l p e r s t e i ne p r oj e c t ( 1 996 – pr e s e n t ) w hi c h c om m e m or a t e s H ol oc a u s t vi c t i m s
by i ns t a l l i n g b r a s s pl a t e s i n t he pa v e m e nt i n f r on t of t he i r l a s t c hos e n pl a c e s of r e s i de nc e . The
St ol p e r s t e i n , o r “ s t um bl i n g s t one s ,” a r e 10 x 10 c e n t i m e t e r c on c r e t e b l o c ks w i t h t he na m e s a nd
f a t e of e a c h v i c t i m e n gr a v e d i nt o e a c h s t one . Th e v i c t i m s i nc l ude a l l v i c t i m s of N a z i
e x t e r m i na t i o n or p e r s e c ut i on f r om 1933 t o 1 945, i nc l udi n g not on l y J e w s , but a l s o L G B T Q + ,
46
A d o r no a nd H o r kh e i m e r , D i a l e c t i c o f En l i gh t e n m e n t , 2 016.
47
I bi d .
48
I bi d .
49
D i a n a I . P o pe s c u, a n d T a nj a S c h u l t . " P e r f o r m a t i v e H o l oc a u s t C o m m e m o r a t i o n i n t h e 21s t C e n t u r y, ” 2 019.
16
C a t h ol i c , a nd B l a c k i nd i vi du a l s , a s w e l l a s C om m u ni s t P a r t y m e m be r s .
5 0
Th e S t ol pe r s t e i ne be ga n
a ppe a r i ng on B e r l i n s t r e e t s i n 19 96 , a nd a r e s t i l l i ns t a l l e d t hr ou gho ut E ur op e t od a y .
I n c ont r a s t t o E i s e nm a n ’ s w i n ni ng M e m o r i al t o t he M u r d e r e d J e w s of Eur ope , D e m ni g ’ s
s m a l l - s c a l e f o c us on t he i n di v i d ua l t r a ge di e s of t he H ol oc a us t i s di r e c t l y e n gr a i ne d i nt o e v e r y d a y
l i f e —a n una voi da bl e i n t e r v e n t i on i n t he pu bl i c s phe r e of t he s i m ul t a ne ou s l y m u nda n e a nd
t r a um a t i c . The s e b r a s s m e m o r i a l p l a q ue s , m e t hod i c a l l y p l a c e d t hr ough out ot he r w i s e
unr e m a r ka b l y hi s t o r i c a l s i t e s i n Eur o pe , a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e m bl e m s o f t r a u m a t i c r e a l i s m , i n w hi c h
t he r e a l i s t a s pe c t o f t h e v i c t i m ’ s h i s t o r i c a l r e s i d e nc i e s a nd i nd i v i dua l e x i s t e nc e s i nt e r s e c t w i t h t h e
t r a um a t i c e l e m e n t of t he i r p e r s e c u t i o n a nd m ur de r by t he N a z i s . Th i s pr oj e c t i s no w r e g a r d e d a s
t he w or l d ’ s l a r ge s t de c e nt r a l i z e d m e m or i a l , pl a c i n g t h e m e m or y of t he m ur de r e d di r e c t l y i nt o
Eur o pe ’ s g e o gr a ph y — b a c k i nt o t h e p l a c e s t he v i c t i m s onc e r e s i de d—s o t ha t t he i r e x i s t e n c e i s
now vi s i bl e t o a p ubl i c w h o, i n t h e p a s t , br ut a l l y c hos e t o l ook a w a y. Th e St ol p e r s t e i ne i m bue t he
m und a ne w i t h t he t r a gi c , e f f e c t i ve l y c onve y i ng t h e b a n a l i t y o f e vi l — c on ve yi ng t he r e a l i t y t ha t
t he un f a t h om a bl e oc c u r r e d i n t he e ve r yda y. H i t l e r ’ s v i c t i m s w e r e no t t a ke n f r om t h e i r h om e s ,
f r om t h e i r oc c up a t i on s , f r om t he i r l i v e l i h oods i n a not h e r , dy s t op i a n w o r l d f a r o ut s i d e t h e r e a l m
of our s . The y w e r e t a k e n t o t h e i r m u r de r , n e ve r t o be s e e n a ga i n, i n t h e v e r y pl a c e s t ha t s t i l l
oc c up y B e r l i n ’ s s t r e e t s , a n d ho us e Eu r ope ’ s i nha b i t a n t s .
A s A dor no w a r n e d , s oc i e t y ha s not p r og r e s s e d b e y o nd t h e ba r ba r i s m o f A u s c hw i t z . W e
ha ve no t w a nde r e d f a r f r o m t he s t r e e t s of f a s c i s m — t he ve r y s t r e e t s t ha t w e r e o nc e h om e t o
H i t l e r ’ s vi c t i m s no t ve r y l ong a g o. B y e n ga gi n g w i t h i nd i v i dua l s i n t h e pu bl i c s p he r e t h r oug h t hi s
a r t i s t i c c onf r o nt a t i o n, D e m ni g ’ s St ol pe r s t e i n i s e s s e n t i a l l y a pe r f or m a t i ve m e m o r i a l . St ol p e r s t e i n
e nc ou r a ge s i nd i vi d ua l s t o e n ga ge w i t h m e m or y s o t ha t t h e y , t h e m s e l v e s be c om e t he e m bod i e d
50
S t o l p e r s t e i n e i n B e r l i n . A c c e s s e d O c t o b e r 5 , 20 2 0 .
17
a c t s of r e m e m br a nc e —c a r r y i ng o n t h e m e m or i e s of t he vi c t i m s i n t he i r ow n l i ve s . I n t h i s w a y,
c ol l e c t i ve m e m o r y m a y h a ve a c h a nc e a t c ont i nu i n g onw a r d s .
I n a c c or da nc e w i t h t he po s t m ode r n c r i t i c i s m of r e a l i s m a s not m e r e l y a s i m p l e g l i m p s e of
r e a l i t y , bu t a c t ua l l y a m e d i a t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i on of h i s t or y , t he ne e d f or s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y i n
H ol o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n g r ow s i nc r e a s i ng l y pr o nou nc e d. A ga i n r e c a l l i ng R o t hbe r g ’ s t he o r y o f
t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m , t h e c h a l l e nge e x i s t s pr e c i s e l y w i t hi n t he s e e m i ngl y i m pos s i bl e di c hot o m y of
de m a n di n g t h a t r e pr e s e n t a t i on of t he H o l oc a u s t be r e a l i s t i c a nd undi s t or t e d , w hi l e r e l u c t a nt l y
l ook i ng b a c kw a r d i n t o a n e pi s t e m ol og i c a l l y g ui de d na r r a t i v e of hi s t or y .
5 1
I n s t e a d, t he uni que ne s s
of t he t r a u m a t i c e l e m e n t of t he H o l o c a us t r e qu i r e s u nde r s t a nd i n g t h e i ne x t r i c a bl e r e l a t i on s h i p
be t w e e n r e p r e s e nt a t i o na l a nd h i s t o r i c a l t he or i e s : i t c onn e c t s t h e e p i s t e m ol o g i c a l w i t h t he s oc i a l ,
c onf e s s i ng t he m u t ua l r e l i a n c e o f do c um e n t a t i on a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o e f f e c t i v e l y e m bod y
H ol o c a u s t m e m o r y . F r e qu e n t l y e m bl e m a t i c of t he un i o n be t w e e n r e a l i s m a nd r e p r e s e n t a t i on a r e
m us e o l og i c a l a nd e x hi bi t i on s t r a t e g i e s a dop t e d f o r H o l o c a us t r e m e m br a nc e i n t he p ubl i c s p h e r e .
I n d i v i d u al , S oc i al , a n d Pu b l i c M e m o r y : R u p t u r e s i n t h e H ol o c au s t M u s e u m M e t an a r r a t i ve :
F or ge d o n t h e v e r y l a nds c a pe m a r r e d by t he e x i l e a nd e x t e r m i na t i on o f G e r m a n J e w s i s
D a ni e l L i b e s k i nd’ s J e w i s h M us e um —t h e f i r s t m us e um de d i c a t e d t o G e r m a n J e w i s h c ul t ur e a n d
hi s t or y i n B e r l i n. B o r n o ut o f t h e 19 89 I n t e r n a t i o na l B ui l di ng A s s oc i a t i o n j ur i e d c om pe t i t i o n t o
bui l d a n e w J e w i s h M us e um a s a n e x t e ns i on t o t he B e r l i n C i t y M u s e um , L i be s ki nd ’ s p r op os a l
t ook f i r s t pl a c e a nd — j us t a f e w m o nt hs a f t e r t he f a l l of t he B e r l i n W a l l —r e pur pos e d b ot h t he
C i t y M us e um a nd h i s de s i g n a s t he c i t y’ s ve r y f i r s t J e w i s h M us e um .
5 2
Th e ve r y a r c h i t e c t u r e of
t he f a ç a de —t he s ha t t e r e d S t a r of D a v i d t h a t i s g a s he d ope n , f or e ve r s c a r r e d by a g a pi n g w o un d
51
R o t h b e r g, T r a um at i c Re a l i s m : T he D e m an d s o f H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t a t i on , 20 0 6 .
5 2
A r l e e n I o n e s c u, T h e M e m o r i a l Et h i c s o f L i b e s k i n d s Be r l i n J e w i s h M u s e u m , 2017 .
18
t ha t ne ve r he a l s —e pi t o m i z e s t he br o ke n na r r a t i v e c on ne c t i ng pa s t a n d p r e s e nt , a nd t he e t e r na l l y
de va s t a t e d G e r m a n J e w i s h p e op l e a n d c ul t ur e . I n t hi s s e ns e , L i b e s ki n d’ s d e s i gn b l a s t s o pe n t h e
c ont i nuu m of t i m e , a c kn ow l e d gi ng t ha t v i s i t or s w h o e n t e r t he m u s e u m i n t he pr e s e nt w i l l s ur ve y
t he pa s t by e x pe r i e nc i n g t he pl a c e s o f hi s t or y d e p i c t e d t hr o ugh out t he m us e um , w h i l e
s i m ul t a ne o us l y c on f e s s i ng t ha t a r e e n t r a nc e i nt o hi s t o r y t hr ou gh a na r r a t i ve i s ne ve r po s s i bl e : t he
r upt u r e of t i m e i n G e r m a n J e w i s h hi s t or y w i l l a l w a ys e ndu r e . The r e e x i s t s a s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y i n
L i be s ki n d’ s de s i gn, c onc e di ng t h a t t h e e x hi bi t s a r e no t j u s t i l l u s t r a t i ng t he H o l oc a us t na r r a t i ve —
but l a r g e l y a r e t h e na r r a t i v e —a nd d e t e r m i n e ho w vi s i t o r s u nde r s t a nd bo t h pa s t a n d p r e s e n t . T he
m us e u m e m p l oy s a n ov e r a r c h i ng a e s t he t i c of a bs e nc e t h r oug h br ok e n l i n e s a nd m e m o r i a l s pa c e s ,
e vok i ng t h e pr e s e nc e o f t h e s i x m i l l i on a nd t he i m m e a s ur a bl e vo i d l e f t be h i n d by t he i r
e x t e r m i na t i o n.
A s vi s i t or s e n t e r t he m us e um f r o m t h e o ut s i d e , t he y a r r i v e i n a l ong ha l l w a y, w h e r e t h e y
m us t c h oos e be t w e e n t w o pa t h w a ys : G a r d e n o f Ex i l e , a n d t h e H ol o c a us t To w e r . The s e pa t hw a y s
a r e s y m bol i c of t he f a t e o f t he G e r m a n J e w s , f r o m w h i c h t h e r e a r e t w o l i n e s , one a s a c ont i nui ng
l i ne b r oke n i n t o f r a gm e n t s ; t he ot h e r , a “ t or t uous l i ne , bu t c o nt i nui n g i n de f i ni t e l y . ”
5 3
Th e s e a x e s
a r e m a r r e d b y s i x v oi d s , on l y a f e w o f w hi c h a r e a c c e s s i bl e t o vi s i t or s , a nd t h e r e i s o ne a r e a i n
e a c h e x h i bi t a l w a y s e x pl i c i t l y l e f t e m pt y . Th e un f ur n i s he d , un f i ni s he d e f f e c t l e a ve s m uc h t o
vi e w e r s ’ c u r i os i t y — e nc ou r a g i n g v i s i t or s t o no t pa s s i ve l y w a l k t hr ough t h e e x hi b i t i o ns , b ut t o
a c t i v e l y e nga ge w i t h t he s pa c e —e s pe c i a l l y s o t h a t t he y m a y e x pe r i e nc e t he i r r e pa r a bl e ,
s u f f oc a t i ng a b s e nc e o f t ho s e m u r d e r e d.
O ne s e c t i on , t i t l e d t h e “ M e m o r y V o i d,” f e a t ur e s I s r a e l i a r t i s t M e na s h e K a d i s hm a n’ s
Fal l e n L e a v e s ( 200 1) 10,0 00 m a s k- l i k e f a c e s w i t h ope n m ou t hs , e a c h c ut f r om s t e e l , j o s t l e d a t o p
53
I bi d .
19
one a n ot he r on t h e f l oo r . V i s i t or s a r e e n c our a g e d t o i nt e r a c t w i t h t he m e m o r i a l a nd w a l k upon
t he m a s ks , l i s t e ni n g t o t h e c l a n gi ng s oun ds pr o d uc e d by t he j o s t l i ng m e t a l of t he t hou s a n d
uni de nt i f i a bl e f a c e s . Thi s e e r i e , c l oi s t e r e d a t m o s phe r e r e ve r b e r a t e s que s t i ons of H ol oc a us t
hi s t or y a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i o n: a r e v i s i t or s s upp os e d t o be w a l k i n g ove r r e pr e s e nt a t i on s of t ho s e
m ur d e r e d? I f s o, a r e n ’ t w e a l l r e s po ns i bl e —s t om pi ng ove r t he i r f a c e s , pl a c i ng t he i r now
unkn ow a bl e , i ndi v i d ua l i de nt i t i e s und e r ne a t h ou r s e l ve s — i n t r y i ng t o und e r s t a n d h ow hi s t o r y ha s
e x t e r m i na t e d t he i r l i v e s a nd o ur m e m or y o f t he m ? Th e f a c e s o f t he “ s oun dl e s s s c r e a m s ”
5 4
e c h o
ha unt i ng l y w i t hi n t he vo i d , c a l l i ng out t o vi s i t or s t o no t pa s s i ve l y obs e r v e hi s t or y a s s om e t hi ng
t ha t be l ong s t o s om e e x t e r n a l f o r c e , e x i s t i ng ou t s i de o f t h e m s e l v e s .
I n A ugus t 20 20 , t he m u s e um ope n e d a ne w e x hi bi t i o n, J e w i s h L i f e i n G e r m any : Pa s t an d
Pr e s e n t , a s i g n i f i c a nt l y ne w a dd i t i on t o t h e i ns t i t ut i on a m i ds t t he r e c e n t r i s e of pop ul i s m a n d
a nt i s e m i t i s m i n G e r m a n y a n d a br o a d. The e x h i bi t i on c o m pr i s e s f i ve c ha pt e r s o f G e r m a n J e w i s h
hi s t or y , f r om t he M i d dl e A ge s t o t h e pr e s e nt . Th e i n s t a l l a t i on e c hoe s L i be s ki nd’ s e voc a t i ve
bui l d i ng ’ s i n t e nt i on a l l y di s o r i e n t i ng de s i gn t o s y m bo l i z e t he pe r s e c u t e d a nd t or t uo us p a t h o f
J e w i s h hi s t or y .
5 5
The r e i s a “ vo i d- br i dge ” w hi c h , m uc h l i ke s l a s h e d S t a r of D a vi d e x t e nde d upo n
t he m us e u m ’ s e x t e r i o r , i nt e r r up t s a ny ki n d o f s y n c h r ono us , ha r m o ni ous f l ow f r om one s pa c e t o
t he ne x t ; t hi s i n t e r r u pt i on i n t h e e x hi bi t ’ s ove r a l l na r r a t i ve a vo i ds t he a l l - t oo- c o m m on
m e t a n a r r a t i ve f e a t ur e d i n m a ny H ol oc a us t e x hi bi t i on de s i gns , w h i c h e n c our a ge pa s s i v e
s p e c t a t or s hi p t hr o ugh und e m a n di ng t r a n s i t i on s a s vi s i t or s w a l k f r om one ha l l t o t h e n e x t . N e w l y
i m pl e m e n t e d s e m i - r e f l e c t i ve s t e e l p l a t e s no w s us pe nd f r om t h e c e i l i ng a r e l a c e r a t e d w i t h t a p e r e d
5 4
M i c h è l e V a l e r i e C l oo n a n , T h e M o n u m e n t al C h a l l e n ge o f Pr e s e r v a t i o n : T he p a s t i n a Vo l at i l e W or l d, 2 0 18.
5 5
K r i s t i a n V i s t r up M a d s e n , " F o r Y e a r s , D a n i e l L i b e s k i n d 's D r a m a t i c J e w i s h M us e u m B u i l di n g U p s t a g e d t h e
C o l l e c t i o ns I t H ou s e d . A N e w O v e r ha u l W i l l C h a n ge T h a t ," A r t n e t N e w s , J un e 2 4 , 2 020. A c c e s s e d N o ve m b e r 02 ,
2 02 0.
20
g l a s s vi t r i ne s , c on j u r i n g t h e o ppr e s s i ve c o nf i ne m e nt of t he H ol oc a us t , a nd t he s c a r s f r o m t he
a f t e r m a t h t h a t w i l l n e v e r f a d e f r o m G e r m a n hi s t or y . A n e w w oo de n s c u l p t ur e m ode l e d a f t e r a
t r e e f e a t ur e s l a y e r upo n l a y e r of p a pe r , e a c h i ns c r i be d w i t h t he l a w s i s s ue d by H i t l e r a nd
G e r m a ny—m a s ki ng b a r ba r i s m a s b ur e a u c r a c y — a s t he pr o ve r b i a l s e e d s t ha t bor e de a d l y f r u i t ,
ut t e r l y d e s t r oy i ng J e w i s h l i f e .
5 6
L a s t l y , a s t he e x hi b i t i o n’ s t i m e l i n e r e a c he s i t s e nd, t he p a pe r
w a l l s t r a ns f or m i nt o s t e e l , a nd vi s i t o r s e n c o unt e r t h e i r o w n obs c ur e d r e f l e c t i on—a m i r r or of
a c c ou nt a b i l i t y a n d i n di vi dua l r e s po ns i bi l i t y .
T h e s e c t i on f i ni s he s w i t h a n i nc l us i on of c ont e m por a r y a n t i - S e m i t i s m , w h i c h o ne
de s i gn e r r e f e r s t o a s “ on e o f t he m o s t i m p or t a nt pa r t s of t he e x hi bi t i on. ”
5 7
I n c or p or a t e d i n t o t he
m us e u m j us t on e y e a r a f t e r a m a j or a t t a c k on a s y n a g ogu e i n H a l l e on Y o m K i pp ur , a n d a m i ds t a
t e r r i f y i ngl y s i g ni f i c a nt i nc r e a s e i n a c t s o f vi o l e n c e a g a i n s t J e w s a n d J e w i s h i ns t i t ut i ons i n
G e r m a ny , t he r e i s a n i nc r e a s e d n e c e s s i t y f o r m u s e u m s s uc h a s t he B e r l i n J e w i s h M u s e um t o
e nc ou r a ge a c t i ve pa r t i c i p a t i o n i n vi s i t or s . Thr ou gh i nt e r a c t i ve e x hi bi t i on d e s i gns , w h i c h a v o i d
pe da g ogi c a l a nd di da c t i ve i ns t r uc t i on a l t e c hni qu e s , vi s i t o r s m a y b e t r a n s f or m e d f r o m pa s s i ve
s p e c t a t or s hi p s o t h a t t h e y und e r s t a n d a nd s e e t he m s e l ve s a s i ndi vi d ua l s a ga i n s t t h e c o l l e c t i ve ,
unr e l e nt i ng f or c e t ha t w i l l a l w a y s be t he b a na l i t y of e vi l — t h e b ur e a uc r a t i c di s g ui s e o f r a c i s m
a nd w h i t e s upr e m a c y t ha t be c a m e t h e g e n oc i de w e no w k now a s t he H ol oc a us t .
W h i l e Eu r op e ha r b or s t he a c t ua l s i t e s of t r a um a — t he c onc e nt r a t i o n c a m ps , t he
i m pr i s on m e nt c a m p s , t he r a i l w a y s , a n d t h e ve r y r e m a i ns of t he vi c t i m s — t he U ni t e d S t a t e s a dds
t o t he m ul t i - pe r s pe c t i va l n a r r a t i v e o f H ol o c a us t m e m o r y f r om a n e nt i r e l y di f f e r e nt c o nt e x t ,
s t e m m i ng f r om o ut s i de t he g e og r a p hi c a l s i t e s of g e no c i d e .
56
I bi d .
57
I bi d .
21
T h e U S H ol oc a us t M e m or i a l M u s e um ( U S H M M ) –– a “ l i vi ng m e m or i a l t o t h e H o l o c a us t ”
t o “ i ns pi r e c i t i z e n s a n d l e a de r s w or l dw i de t o c o nf r o nt ha t r e d , pr o m ot e h um a n di g ni t y , a nd
pr e ve n t g e n oc i de
5 8
– –a pp e a r s t o be a n e m bl e m a t i c r e s po ns e t o t he pos t m od e r n r e pr e s e nt a t i on a l
que s t i on. A s a l i vi ng m e m o r i a l a i m e d a t t r a n s f or m i ng i t s v i s i t or s i nt o a c t i ve a ge nt s o f s oc i a l a nd
m or a l c ha n ge , t he m e m o r i a l m us e um w o ul d a l s o s e e m i ngl y q ua l i f y a s a pe r f o r m a t i ve m e m o r i a l ,
i m bu e d w i t h i de a l s s i m i l a r t o t hos e of t he c oun t e r - m on um e nt . The ve r y r a t i ona l e be hi nd
de di c a t i ng t hi s n a t i on a l m us e um a s a l i v i ng m e m or i a l i n s t e a d o f a c om m e m or a t i ve s i t e i s
pr e c i s e l y w h a t di f f e r e n t i a t e s i t f r o m t he p l e t hor a o f o t he r t r a di t i ona l H ol oc a us t m us e um s a c r os s
t he U ni t e d S t a t e s . I t s m i s s i on s t a t e m e nt e f f e c t i ve l y c ol l a ps e s t he pa s t i nt o t h e U S ’ s pr e s e nt a nd
f ut ur e , a nd c e l e br a t e s t he i de a t ha t H o l oc a u s t m e m or y i s a l i ve a nd o ng o i ng — a n d t ha t i t s l e s s o ns
on bi g ot r y , hum a ni t y , a n d g e noc i de a r e uni ve r s a l l y e s s e n t i a l . H ow t he n , doe s t he m us e um hon or
t hi s r o bus t m i s s i o n?
T h e m us e um ’ s pe r m a n e nt e x h i bi t i on be g i ns w i t h de p i c t i on s of t he A m e r i c a n l i be r a t i on of
t he O hr dr uf c o nc e n t r a t i on c a m p, i g n or i n g c hr on ol og y t o c e l e br a t e a n A m e r i c a n t r i um ph o ve r t he
r i s e of H i t l e r ’ s N a t i o na l S oc i a l i s m . Y e t , a f t e r t he a s y n c h r ono us i nt r od uc t i on of A m e r i c a n pr i de ,
t he e x h i bi t i on t h e n f o l l ow s a h i s t or i c a l l y l i n e a r , c hr o nol og i c a l pa t h t hr o ug h t he e ve n t s of W or l d
W a r I I , c on c l udi n g w i t h t h e t e s t i m on i e s of s ur v i v or s w h o i m m i g r a t e d t o t he U S f ol l o w i n g t he
w a r . Thi s p r o gr e s s i o n e f f e c t i ve l y “ pl a c e s vi s i t o r s i n a s pe c i f i c a l l y A m e r i c a n na r r a t i ve t ha t be gi ns
w i t h a u ni que l y A m e r i c a n pe r s p e c t i ve . ”
5 9
Th e U S H M M pr ovi de s vi s i t o r s w i t h a n a r r a t i ve o f
w ho l e ne s s : be gi nn i ng a n d e nd i ng w i t h A m e r i c a n i de a l s a s t he s a n c t i f y i ng f or c e a ga i n s t N a z i s m
a nd a l l i t s h or r or s , t h e m us e um a t t e m p t s a m a nuf a c t u r e d n a r r a t i ve o f t h e H o l o c a us t t ha t a s s ur e s
58
U n i t e d S t a t e s H ol o c a u s t M e m o r i a l M u s e u m . A c c e s s e d N o v e m b e r 1 2, 2 0 2 0 . ht t p s : / / w w w .u s h m m . o r g / s u p po r t / w h y -
s up p or t / o u r - w o r k - a nd - m i s s i on.
59
I bi d .
22
vi s i t o r s t ha t A m e r i c a ha s s e e n t he “ f i n a l j u s t i c e ” of hi s t or y .
I n t e r m s of e x hi bi t i on d e s i g n, vi s i t o r s a l s o e x pe r i e n c e a n ou t l i n e d pa t h f r om s t a r t i ng f r o m
t he g r oun d f l o or , l e a d i ng up t o t he f o ur t h f l o or t hr oug h a n e l e va t o r , a nd t he n ba c k do w n a g a i n t o
t he g r oun d f l o or a s t h e y e nt e r t h e f i na l e x hi bi t a nd e x i t t he m u s e u m . I t i s t h i s c i r c ul a r na r r a t i ve ,
pr e s e n t i n t he a r c hi t e c t ur e a n d s e l e c t e d c ont e n t , t ha t p or t r a y s t he H o l oc a us t a s a hi s t or i c a l
t r a ge d y t ha t e nds i n t r i um ph a nd vi c t or y . S e nt i m e n t s of “ ne v e r a g a i n ” a r e s i t ua t e d o n t h e c o m f or t
t ha t de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s h a v e ov e r c o m e t he b a r b a r i s m of t he N a z i s a nd w i l l c on t i nuo us l y do s o;
t he r e s ol ut i o n of H ol o c a us t s ur v i v or s i m m i g r a t i n g t o t h e U S a f t e r t he H ol oc a u s t b e c om e s a
uni ve r s a l c e l e br a t i on f or a l l i m m i g r a n t s w ho h a ve f l e d pe r s e c ut i on a nd s t a r t e d ne w l i v e s i n
A m e r i c a .
I n a ddi t i on, t h e U S H M M ha s a r gua bl y t he m os t c o m pr e h e n s i v e pu bl i c p r og r a m m i ng of
a ny m e m or i a l m us e u m a c r os s t h e n a t i on, w hi c h i s d e s i gn e d f or l oc a l , na t i on a l , a nd g l o ba l
i m pl e m e n t a t i on i n o r d e r t o e n c o ur a ge a l l i n di vi dua l s — e s pe c i a l l y t hos e i n l e a de r s hi p, e duc a t i on,
a nd po l i c y - m a ki ng —t o p r e ve n t r a c i s m , i nt o l e r a n c e , a nd g e n oc i de .
6 0
The pur pos e o f t h e m u s e um
a l s o de e pl y r e f l e c t s t he A m e r i c a n c ont e x t f r o m w h i c h i t w a s c on s t r uc t e d : i t w a s und e r s t ood b y i t s
f oun de r s —i n c l udi ng s ur v i v or s w ho w e r e w or r i e d t ha t t he i r e x pe r i e nc e s c o ul d not e ve r be f u l l y
r e pr e s e nt e d by t ho s e w h o w e r e n ot t he m s e l ve s s ur vi v or s — t h a t i t s pu r po s e w a s t o br i ng t he
H ol o c a u s t hi s t or y t o A m e r i c a n vi s i t or s w ho ha d no t a nd w ou l d ne ve r e x pe r i e nc e t he hor r or s of
t he N a z i g e noc i de .
T h e m us e um ha d t o und e r t a k e t h e di f f i c u l t t a s k of m a ki ng t he un f a t hom a bl e
unde r s t a nd a b l e . I n 1 98 9, M i c ha e l B e r e n ba um w a s t a s ke d w i t h f o r m i ng t he m us e um ’ s ve r y f i r s t
pe r m a ne nt e x hi bi t i on, w h i c h i m pl e m e nt e d a c h r o nol og i c a l , na r r a t i ve s t o r y l i n e s t y l e of de s i gn.
60
A m y S o da r o, E x h i b i t i n g At r o c i t y : M e m o r i a l M u s e u m s a n d t h e P o l i t i c s o f p as t Vi o l e n c e , 20 1 8 .
23
S om e de c i s i ons t he m us e u m c ur a t or s f a c e d i nc l u de d c ha l l e nge s r e ga r di ng j u s t how g r a p hi c a nd
r e a l i s t i c t he r e p r e s e n t a t i ons of t h e h or r i f i c e ve nt s s ho ul d be , a nd how t o r e pr e s e nt t he hi s t or i c a l
w i t h out r e s or t i ng t o b l a nd p e da go gi c a l m e t ho ds of d i da c t i c di s pl a y . The m us e um ’ s m a i n
c ha l l e nge s pi vot e d upo n i t s du a l m i s s i on a s bot h a “ m us e um ” a n d a “ m e m o r i a l ” : w hi l e m us e um s
a r e of t e n on t ol og i c a l a n d e p i s t e m o l og i c a l , m e m o r i a l s of t e n a i m t o e m bo dy m e m o r y . A s
a ddr e s s e d pr e vi ou s l y , t h e c on t e m po r a r y m e m or i a l e n c oun t e r s c ha l l e nge s of i t s ow n, a s i t a d a pt s
t o po s t m o de r n c r i t e r i on of p l a c i n g t h e b ur d e n o f m e m or y n ot i n f o r m , b ut i n p e opl e . S oda r o
s u m m a r i z e s , “ h i s t o r y i s a c or r e c t i v e t o m e m or y ’ s f a l l i b i l i t y , a nd m e m or y i s o f t e n be l i e ve d t o be a
t he r a pe ut i c a l t e r na t i v e t o hi s t or y’ s ob j e c t i vi t y a nd s c i e n t i f i c c l a i m s , a nd t he m us e um a t t e m pt s t o
e m bo dy t h e be s t o f e a c h. ”
6 1
I t i s c r uc i a l , t he n , t h a t a t t hi s i nt e r s e c t i on of be i ng a m e m or i a l a n d a
m us e u m , t ha t t he i n s t i t u t i on m u s t s t r i ke a b a l a nc e be t w e e n m a ki n g c o m pr e h e ns i b l e e x hi b i t i ons
of t he ho r r i f i c e ve nt s of t he pa s t w h i l e a l s o not c l a i m i ng u l t i m a t e a ut ho r i t y on hi s t or i c i t y . Th e
dy n a m i c i n t e r s e c t i on of e d uc a t i on a nd c om m e m or a t i on i s a i m e d a t a n obj e c t i ve und e r s t a n di ng of
t he H ol oc a us t a s i t oc c ur r e d i n h i s t or y , w i t h out a dde d e m ot i on , dr a m a , a nd e m be l l i s hm e n t .
6 2
H ow , e x a c t l y , c a n t he m u s e um ’ s c u r a t or s a n d de s i g ne r s a c hi e ve t hi s h a r m on i ous u ni on of
r e a l i s t a nd non- r e a l i s t , e pi s t e m ol og i c a l a nd s e l f - r e f l e x i v e t e n de nc i e s i n t he r e a l m of e xhi bi t i ons ?
B e r e nba u m , qu ot e d i n 1 995 , c om m e nt e d, “ I f v i s i t or s c oul d t a ke t he s a m e j our ne y , t h e y w o ul d
unde r s t a nd t he s t or y b e c a u s e t h e y w i l l ha ve e x p e r i e nc e d t he s t or y . ”
6 3
Th e m u s e u m a t t e m p t s t o
i nvo l ve vi s i t or s i n s i m ul a t e d H o l o c a u s t e x p e r i e n c e , i n w h i c h t h e ob j e c t i v e i s t o m a x i m i z e t he i r
e m ot i ona l r e s pons e t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e . Th i s i s a l s o t he m us e um ’ s a t t e m pt t o b r i ng f or t h t h e pa s t
i nt o t he p r e s e n t —a n d t he r e b y i nt e g r a t e t h e H ol oc a us t hi s t o r y i nt o a c ol l e c t i v e A m e r i c a n m e m o r y ;
61
I bi d .
62
I bi d .
63
U n i t e d S t a t e s H ol o c a u s t M e m o r i a l M u s e u m . A c c e s s e d N o v e m b e r 1 2, 2 0 2 0 .
24
t hi s , i n e f f e c t , a c t ua l i z e s B e nj a m i n ’ s t he or y t ha t w e a r e c ons t r uc t i ng hi s t or y j us t a s m uc h a s
hi s t or y i s s h a pi n g us i n t he he r e a n d now .
T h e t r a ns f e r o f m e m o r y f r o m t hos e w h o h a ve e x p e r i e nc e d t he H o l oc a us t i n Eur ope t o
t hos e i n r e c e nt g e n e r a t i o ns w ho h a ve ne v e r e x p e r i e nc e d—a nd, i nc r e a s i n gl y ha ve ne ve r he a r d
of
6 4
—t he H o l oc a u s t i n A m e r i c a r e qu i r e s w ha t a u t h or A l i s on L a nds be r g r e f e r s t o a s “ pr os t he t i c
m e m o r y . ”
6 5
W h i l e c r i t i c s ha ve a r g ue d f or t he i m pl e m e n t a t i o n o f pr os t he t i c m e m or y i n m e m o r i a l
m us e u m s a s i t r e m o ve s a u t ho r i t a r i a n ow ne r s h i p of m e m or y b y t r a ns f e r r i ng i t i n t o a di v e r s e
publ i c s phe r e , i t s t r a ns f e r e nc e of h i s t o r y h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f or be i ng h i g hl y m e d i a t e d a nd
r e l y i n g on s p e c t a c l e , r unn i n g t he r i s k of f a l s i f i e d hi s t or i c i t y a nd a ut h or i t a r i a ni s m i n t h e s e ns e of
f or gi ng a c ons t r uc t e d r e a l i s m . A f t e r a l l , i t w a s t h e m e di a t e d de s i g n o nc e i m pl e m e nt e d i n H i t l e r ’ s
D e ge ne r at e A r t E x h i bi t i on a nd G e r m a ny’ s G r e a t A r t Ex hi bi t i on i n 1 939 r e l y i ng on s t a g e d
l i g h t i ng , f r a m i ng, d i da c t i c s , a n d e x hi bi t i on de s i gn—t o pr op a ga t e d i s g us t f o r J e w i s h - G e r m a n a n d
non- J e w i s h Ex pr e s s i oni s t a r t i s t s , a nd e nc our a ge r e s ol ut e a d m i r a t i on of S oc i a l R e a l i s t s w ho
por t r a y e d A r y a n i de a l s .
I n o r de r t o e s c a pe hi s t o r y’ s d a n ge r ou s t e nde nc i e s t o w a r d t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m di s s e m i n a t e d
t hr ou gh c u l t ur a l p r op a ga n da , s e l f - r e f l e x i vi t y i s c r uc i a l l y i m pe r a t i v e t o t he e x hi bi t i on de s i gn of
t he U S H M M — e s pe c i a l l y w i t hi n t h e A m e r i c a n c on t e x t o f w h a t A dor n o r e f e r s t o a s t he “ c ul t ur e
i ndu s t r y , ” i n w hi c h c a pi t a l i s m i nc he s t o w a r d s f a s c i s m w i t h t he c ul t o f “ s a m e n e s s , ” a nd i nc ur s t he
l os s o f t h e i n di v i d ua l a g a i ns t t h e r a m p a nt f or c e of t he c ons um e r i s t c o l l e c t i ve .
6 6
I t i s i n t he
f r a m i ng of t he a r t i f a c t s , i n t he di s pl a y of ph ot og r a phs , a n d t he s t a gi ng of t he e x hi bi t i o n t h a t d oe s
64
T h e f i r s t 5 0- s t a t e s ur v e y o f H o l o c a u s t k n o w l e d ge a m o n g m i l l e n n i a l s a n d G e ne r a t i o n Z , c onduc t e d i n 2 0 2 0 ,
r e v e a l e d t ha t 1 i n 1 0 r e s p o n d e nt s h a d n e v e r e v e n h e a r d t he w or d “ H o l o c a us t ” b e f o r e .
h t t p s : / / w w w . pe w f o r u m . o r g/ 2 0 20 / 0 1 / 22 / w h a t - a m e r i c a n s - k n o w - a b o u t - t h e - h o l o c a us t /
65
A l i s o n L a nd s b e r g , P r o s t h e t i c M e m o r y : T h e T r a ns f or m a t i o n o f Am e r i c a n Re m e m b r an c e i n t he A g e o f M a s s
C u l t u r e , 2 0 0 6 .
66
T h e od o r W . A do r n o , C u l t u r e I ndus t r y : S e l e c t e d E s s a y s on M a s s C u l t u r e . 2 015 .
25
not m e r e l y t e l l a s t o r y t o vi s i t o r s , b ut i s i t s e l f t h e s t or y — a s t he y s e ve r e l y de t e r m i ne h ow t h e p a s t
i s r e m e m be r e d, a nd h ow m e m or y i s t he r e by t r a n s f e r r e d.
6 7
E u r o pe ’ s “ c i v i l r e l i gi on ” ––t he di f f e r e n t c ont e x t s o f c om m e m o r a t i ng e x t r e m e t r a um a i n
w a y s t h a t r e s ona t e w i t h t he c on t e x t c ul t u r e
6 8
–– i s m uc h di f f e r e n t t ha n t ha t of A m e r i c a ’ s , a nd a s a
r e s ul t , t he U S H o l o c a u s t M e m or i a l M us e um ha s a d i s t i n c t l y di f f e r e nt m e t hod t hr oug h w h i c h
e pi s t e m o l og y a nd r i t ua l e x pe r i e nc e s i nt e r p l a y w i t h a udi e nc e pa r t i c i pa t i on. Thi s c o nt e x t i s c l e a r l y
out l i n e d i n c hi e f c u r a t or M i c ha e l B e r e nba um ’ s s t a t e m e nt t ha t t h e H ol oc a u s t s t o r y a s na r r a t e d i n
t he U S H M M m us t , “ r e s on a t e no t on l y w i t h a s u r vi v or i n N e w Y o r k a nd hi s c hi l dr e n i n H ous t on
or S a n F r a nc i s c o , b ut w i t h a b l a c k l e a de r f r o m A t l a n t a , a M i dw e s t e r n f a r m e r , or a n or t he a s t e r n
i ndu s t r i a l i s t . M i l l i ons of A m e r i c a ns m a k e pi l g r i m a g e s t o W a s hi n gt on; t he H ol oc a u s t M us e um
m us t t a ke t he m ba c k i n t i m e , t r a ns p or t t he m t o a n ot he r c ont i ne n t , a nd i nf o r m t he i r c ur r e nt r e a l i t y .
The A m e r i c a ni z a t i on o f t he H o l oc a us t i s a n h ono r a bl e t a s k pr o vi de d t ha t t he s t or y i s f a i t hf u l t o
t he hi s t or i c a l e ve nt . ”
6 9
Thi s t a s k e f f e c t i ve l y A m e r i c a ni z e s t he H ol oc a u s t , e n s u r i ng t ha t t he
H ol o c a u s t i s c om pr e h e n s i bl e a n d e n g r a i n e d i n a di ve r s e , c ol l e c t i ve A m e r i c a n c ons c i ous ne s s . I t s
ve r y l oc a t i on on t h e N a t i on a l M a l l l a nds c a pe —t he c e nt e r of A m e r i c a n, d e m oc r a t i c i n s t i t ut i on a l
i de a l s — r e qu i r e s t hi s a d a pt a t i on of H ol oc a us t e duc a t i on f r o m t h e U S H M M , s o t h a t A m e r i c a n
i de a l s c a n be pr opa g a t e d . A r gua b l y , i t p os e s H o l oc a u s t m e m or y a s pr op a ga nd a t hr ou g h t he s t or y
of t he ve r y unde m oc r a t i c ho r r o r s o f f a s c i s m , N a t i ona l S o c i a l i s m , a nd t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m : a un i v e r s a l
l e s s on t ha t c a n b e ne f i t a l l of h um a nk i nd.
7 0
67
J e n n i f e r H a n s e n- G l uc k l i c h, H o l oc a u s t M e m o r y R e f r am e d : M u s e u m s a n d t h e C ha l l e n ge s o f R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , 2 014 .
68
L a n ds b e r g , P r o s t h e t i c M e m o r y : T h e T r an s f or m a t i on o f Am e r i c an R e m e m br a nc e i n t he A ge o f M a s s C u l t u r e , 20 0 6 .
69
O r e n B a r uc h S t i e r , " H o l o c a u s t , A m e r i c a n S t y l e ," P r o of t e x t s 22 , no . 3 , 2 002, 3 54- 9 1.
70
S o d a r o, E x h i bi t i n g A t r oc i t y : M e m o r i a l M u s e um s a n d t h e Po l i t i c s o f p a s t V i o l e n c e , 201 8 .
26
H e r e i n l i e s t he ve r y p r ob l e m a t i c i s s ue s o f t he c ul t ur e i n dus t r y ou t l i n e d b y A dor n o a nd
H or k he i m e r , e s pe c i a l l y r e ga r di ng t he c om pa r i s o n b e t w e e n t he A m e r i c a n f i l m i n dus t r y a nd
G e r m a ny’ s f a s c i s t c on t r ol of c u l t u r e . W he n i ns t i t ut i o ns pr opa g a t e f or m s of m a s s - pr od uc e d
c ul t u r e , i t o f t e n ha s t he e f f e c t o f be i n g c o ns u m e d by a pa s s i ve , c om m o n c o l l e c t i v e w ho m e r e l y
s p e c t a t e bu t do n ot c r i t i que . I n D i al e c t i c of Enl i ght e nm e nt , H or k he i m e r a nd A dor n o e m pha s i z e
t ha t e n l i g ht e nm e n t v a l ue s pr opa g a t i ng r a t i ona l i s m a c t ua l l y c r e a t e a hom og e n ous c ol l e c t i v e ,
s u bdu i ng i nd i vi dua l i s m a nd u ni que e x pr e s s i on
7 1
–va l ue s t h a t s t i l l e x i s t i n p os t - e nl i g ht e n m e nt
s o c i e t i e s , e s pe c i a l l y i n c a p i t a l i s t i c s o c i e t i e s s uc h a s t he U S . A c c or di ng t o S t i e r , “ t he H ol oc a us t i n
t he m us e u m i s pa c k a g e d l i ke a H o l l y w oo d m o vi e —s c r i pt e d, w e l l - d e s i gn e d, a nd w i de l y
a c c e s s i bl e —i nt e nd i ng i t s vi s i t o r s / a u di e nc e t o h a ve a s pe c i f i c r e a c t i o n a n d t hus c a r r y a w a y w i t h
t he m a s p e c i f i c H o l o c a u s t m e m o r y . ”
7 2
A d or n o s p e c i f i c a l l y w a s i nf l ue n c e d b y hi s e m i g r a t i on t o
A m e r i c a a f t e r e s c a pi n g G e r m a n N a z i s m i n t he l a t e 1 930s , i n w h i c h h e c o m m e nt e d on t he
m ono pol i z a t i o n of H ol l y w o od a nd t he f i l m i ndu s t r y a s ha l l m a r ks o f t he o ng oi ng pr e s e nc e of
t ot a l i t a r i a n c ul t u r e c o nt r ol i n p os t - e nl i g ht e n m e n t c a pi t a l i s m .
7 3
I n t h i s c on t e x t , m e di a t i on o f t he
pr os t h e t i c m e m or y t r a ns f e r r e d f r o m t h e U S H M M t o vi s i t o r s r e q ui r e s a s i g ni f i c a nt a m oun t o f
s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y s o t h a t t he na r r a t i ve doe s no t be c om e a c ol l e c t i ve s e da t i ve w h i c h r e pl a c e s t he
ne e d t o a c t i ve l y r e m e m b e r a s i ndi vi dua l s .
A ki n t o t he i s s ue s f a c e d by H ol oc a us t m on um e nt a nd c ou nt e r - m o num e n t de s i g ne r s , i t i s
da nge r ous l y unde m a ndi ng t o pl a c e t he r e s po ns i bi l i t y o f m e m o r y i n a n obj e c t or i ns t i t u t i on r a t he r
t ha n i n t h e a c t i ve pa r t i c i p a t i o n of p e o pl e . W hi l e t he U S H M M a i m s t o pr o l i f e r a t e pr o s t h e t i c
m e m o r y s o t ha t t he H ol oc a u s t m i g ht pos e a uni v e r s a l m or a l l e s s on , t he s e t r a ns f o r m a t i ve not i ons
71
T h e od o r W . A do r n o , a n d M a x H o r k he i m e r , D i a l e c t i c o f En l i gh t e n m e n t , V e r s o B o o ks , 2 0 1 6 .
72
S t i e r , " H ol oc a us t , A m e r i c a n S t y l e , ” 2 0 0 2 .
73
A d o r no, C u l t u r e I n d u s t r y : Se l e c t e d E s s a y s o n M a s s C u l t u r e , R o u t l e dge , 2 015 .
27
i n t he r e s ul t i ng “ pr o s t h e t i c c on s c i e n c e ”
7 4
m a y c o l l a p s e und e r t h e w e i ght of c on t e x t u a l p ol i t i c s
t ha t e v a de a n und e r s t a nd i n g o f t he H o l oc a us t a s i t w a s e x p e r i e nc e d by s ur vi v or s a nd w i t ne s s e s .
O nc e t he w or k of m e m o r y i s a s s i g ne d t o e x t e r na l a c t o r s , w h e t he r i t i s a m on um e nt or na r r a t i v e
e x hi b i t i o ns , t h e n t h e a udi e nc e no l on g e r ha s a c ha n c e of e ng a gi ng a nd be c om i ng a ge n t s o f
c ha ng e — i ns t e a d t he y a r e d e m o t e d t o p a s s i ve s pe c t a t o r s .
W e r e not t h e s p e c t a t or s a t t h e 193 9 G r e a t G e r m a n A r t Ex h i bi t i on a nd D e ge ne r a t e A r t
Ex hi bi t i o n p a s s i ve vi s i t o r s , b l a n kl y g a z i ng a t w h a t t he y w i t n e s s e d—no t da r i n g t o e n ga ge w i t h
que s t i ons s u r r ound i n g t he m e d i a t i on i nv ol v e d w i t h w hy a nd ho w t he y w e r e v i e w i n g t h e a r t w or ks
di s pl a y e d ? Th e pr obl e m t he n, w i t h a bs o l vi ng i nd i vi dua l r e s pon s i b i l i t y i nt o u ni ve r s a l m i s s i on
s t a t e m e nt s , r e l i nqu i s h i ng t he c on s e qu e nc e s of d i c t a t or s hi ps , p e r s e c u t i o n, a n d r a c i s m a s a n i s s ue
of t he pa s t —c a r r i e d o ut b y a d i f f e r e nt r e gi m e o n di s t a n t s oi l —i s t ha t i t be c o m e s m uc h e a s i e r
l ook a w a y f r om t he a c t ua l m e m o r y w or k r e qui r e d t o e ns ur e t ha t w e do n’ t c ol l e c t i ve l y i n c ur
a not h e r hor r i f i c g e no c i d e . The i ns t a n t t ha t m e m or y i s n o l ong e r r e l e g a t e d t o t he i ndi vi d ua l but
r a t he r , pl a c e d o n t h e c o l l e c t i ve — e s p e c i a l l y w i t hi n a n i ns t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w o r k — m e m or y
be c om e s po l i t i c i z e d, a nd m us t t h e n b e u nde r s t oo d f r o m w i t hi n i t s pol i t i c a l c on t e x t .
7 5
A l l
H ol o c a u s t m us e um s , r e g a r d l e s s of t he i r s pe c i f i c i m pl e m e n t a t i o n of di f f e r e n t m e d i a t i o ns , de s i gns ,
g r a phi c s , a n d t e c h nol og i e s , a r e t i e d t og e t he r i n t h a t t he y a r e c ont a i n e r s of m e m or y , i m p l e m e nt e d
t o e du c a t e a bo ut p a s t g e no c i de a n d a t r oc i ou s vi o l e nc e — w hi c h e a c h e x i s t w i t hi n t he f r a m e w or ks
of t he i r o w n pol i t i c a l c o nt e x t s .
A t t he c or e of t h e di s c us s i on o f H ol o c a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i on i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of c o l l e c t i ve ,
s o c i a l , a n d i n di vi du a l m e m o r y . A c c or di ng t o s c ho l a r Ed w a r d C a s e y, s oc i a l m e m or y i nv ol ve s t he
74
S o d a r o, E x h i bi t i n g A t r oc i t y : M e m o r i a l M u s e um s a n d t h e Po l i t i c s o f p a s t V i o l e n c e , 201 8 .
75
I bi d .
28
s h a r e d m e m o r i e s o f c o m m uni t i e s t ha t t i e i nd i vi d ua l s t og e t he r , w hi l e i ndi vi d ua l m e m or y i s t he
pe r s on a l a c t o f r e m e m br a n c e .
7 6
P u bl i c , or c ol l e c t i ve m e m or y , i s c o nc e i ve d a s t he po s s i bi l i t y t h a t
di f f e r e nt i nd i v i dua l s — p a r t of c on ne c t e d or c om p l e t e l y un r e l a t e d c o m m un i t i e s — c a n r e c a l l t he
s a m e e ve nt i n a uni f i e d n a r r a t i v e , o f c ou r s e i m b ue d w i t h pe r s ona l und e r s t a n di ng a nd m e a n i ng. I n
a ppl i c a t i on, s oc i a l m e m o r y i s t h e w a y s i n w hi c h e a c h g r ou p r e c a l l s a nd s h a r e s i t s o w n hi s t o r y :
s u r vi v or s w ho e x pe r i e nc e d t he H ol o c a us t a t A u s c hw i t z m a y h a ve a di ve r ge nt m e m or y t h a n t ho s e
w ho f l e d t he N a z i s a n d e n de d up i n G r e a t B r i t a i n f r om t he K i nd e r t r a ns por t . P u bl i c m e m or y i s
t he n a r gua bl y s ha p e d a r o un d pr e s e nt c i r c um s t a nc e s , i n w hi c h c om m u ni t i e s c on s t r u c t a na r r a t i ve
of t he i r o w n hi s t o r y i n or de r t o un de r s t a nd, j us t i f y , g l or i f y , e xc us e , or s ubve r t t he po l i t i c a l
c ond i t i on s a nd va l u e s y s t e m s of c on t e m por a r y s oc i e t y.
7 7
M e m o r y i t s e l f i s t he l i v e d e x pe r i e nc e of
w hi c h hi s t or y i s a f a ul t y r e pr e s e nt a t i o n; a n d y e t , hi s t o r y a nd m e m o r y a r e i ne x t r i c a bl y e nm e s h e d.
I n s t i t ut i o ns a nd t he i r e x h i bi t i on s c a n not be v i e w e d a s s a c r e d a nd a bo ve c r i t i q ue — i ns t e a d,
unde r s t a nd i n g pub l i c m e m o r y ne c e s s i t a t e s un de r s t a ndi ng t h a t m e m o r y i s j us t a s m uc h f or m e d
now a s i t w a s f or m e d i n t h e p a s t . I t i s i m pe r a t i ve t o que s t i on w hi c h m e m o r y i s be i ng s e l e c t e d
f r om t h e pa s t i n or d e r t o a f f e c t t h e p r e s e nt : w ha t m e m o r i e s e ve n t ua l l y pa s s a l ong f r o m t h e
i ndi v i du a l , t o t h e s oc i a l , t o t h e c ol l e c t i ve ? Th i s q ue s t i o n i s pr e c i s e l y w ha t ha s l e d t o w o nde r i ng
w hy c e r t a i n m e m or i e s a n d r e m n a nt s o f t he pa s t ha v e no t e n t e r e d t h e i ns t i t ut i ona l r e a l m . A m o ng s t
t he t h ous a nds of a r t i f a c t s i n c l ud e d i n H ol oc a us t m u s e u m s a r o und t he g l o be , ve r y f e w ha ve
i nc l u de d a r t w or ks b y H ol oc a us t s ur vi vor s i n t h e i r c ol l e c t i ons ; a t m o s t , t he i r a r t w o r ks ha v e be e n
f e a t ur e d i n t e m por a r y , r o t a t i ng e x h i bi t i on s . W hy ha ve H o l oc a us t m u s e u m s a nd i n s t i t ut i on s
c ha m pi on e d s ur v i vo r s ’ s pok e n t e s t i m oni e s —l i v e a n d r e c or de d —a nd l a r ge l y i g nor e d t he
a r t w o r ks m a d e f r om t he i r h a n ds , bo r n out of f i r s t - h a nd e x pe r i e nc e a nd s ur vi v a l ?
76
I bi d .
77
S t i e r , " H ol oc a us t , A m e r i c a n S t y l e , ” 2 0 0 2 .
29
T r au m a a n d T e s t i m on y i n P os t w ar A r t w or k s b y S u r vi vo r s :
C r i t i c a l t o t he d i s c us s i o n of r e a l i s m a nd t r a um a —i nt e r s e c t i n g a t t he ve r y c or e of bo t h
c onc e pt s —a r e a r t w or k s m a de by H ol oc a us t s u r v i vor s . To r e i t e r a t e , R ot hbe r g’ s s t ud y of
t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m i de nt i f i e s t hr e e a r e a s of H ol oc a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i on: doc u m e nt a t i on, s e l f -
r e f l e x i vi t y o n t he l i m i t s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i on, a nd e nga g e m e nt i n t h e pu bl i c s ph e r e .
7 8
W i t h i n t h e s e
a r t w o r ks e xi s t s bot h t h e r e a l a nd t h e t r a u m a t i c — t h e l i ve d e x pe r i e n c e a nd t he i nd e s c r i b a bl e .
W hi l e pos t w a r a r t w or k s , c r e a t e d a n d publ i s h e d “ a f t e r A u s c h w i t z , ” va r y i n m e di um , f or m , i nt e nt ,
c ont e nt —m a ny a c a de m i c d i s c us s i o ns a nd m us e um e x h i bi t i ons ha ve f oc us e d on w or k s c r e a t e d i n
r e s po ns e t o t he H o l o c a u s t , i ns t e a d of f oc us i ng m or e r e s e a r c h on a r t w or k s m a de by H ol oc a u s t
s u r vi v or s .
I f t he c e nt e r o f H ol oc a us t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n do e s r e l y on t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m , a s R ot hbe r g ha s
t he o r i z e d —a t a c om bi na t i on o f e p i s t e m ol og y a s w e l l a s t h e a w a r e ne s s t ha t t r a um a t i c hi s t o r y c a n
onl y b e d oc u m e nt e d a s one a t t e m p t s t o u nde r s t a nd t h e h i s t or y a t a l a t e r t i m e —t he n a l a r ge
por t i o n of H ol oc a us t h i s t or y c a n be unde r s t ood a nd r e pr e s e nt e d by a r t w or ks f r om H ol o c a us t
s u r vi v or s . T h e s e a r t w or ks , a s di s c u s s e d f ur t he r i n t he f ol l ow i ng s e c t i ons , a r e t he t r a um a t i c
ne got i a t i o ns pr od uc e d b y H o l oc a us t s u r vi v or s —doc um e nt i ng t he i r i n di vi du a l e x p e r i e nc e s ,
i m bu i ng t he m w i t h a n u nd e r s t a nd i n g t ha t s h a p e d t he i r w or k a f t e r s ur v i v i ng t he unf a t h om a bl e . I n
t hi s t h e s i s , t he t o pi c of t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m w i l l be a ddr e s s e d t hr oug h t he w o r ks o f a r t by t w o
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s Tr ud i e S t r ob e l a nd G a b r i e l l a K a r i n .
7 9
A r t t h e r a py a s a t o ol f or ove r c om i ng t he ba r r i e r s of t a l k t he r a p y o nl y be ga n b e i ng
i m pl e m e n t e d f or t r a um a t r e a t m e nt s i n H ol oc a us t s u r vi vo r s de c a d e s f ol l ow i ng l i be r a t i o n. B e c a u s e
78
N a o m i M a n d e l , “ R e v i e w o f T r a u m a t i c R e a l i s m : T h e D e m a n ds o f H o l o c a us t R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , ” C u l t u r al C r i t i qu e
5 1, 2 4 1- 2 4 5.
79
T h i s s e c t i o n i s b a s e d on a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h I d i d a t t h e M u s e um o f t he H o l o c a us t L os A n g e l e s , ( M H L A ) B o t h
a r t i s t s K a r i n a nd S t r ob e l w or k e d c l os e l y w i t h t h e m us e um dur i ng t h e t i m e I d i d m y i nt e r n s h i p t he r e i n 20 19- 20 .
30
t r a um a of t e n i m pa c t s t he no nve r ba l a r e a s of t he br a i n , a r t t h e r a py a l l ow s pa t i e nt s t o a c c e s s t h e
pr i m a r y pr oc e s s i n g of t r a um a , s o t h a t s e c onda r y p r oc e s s i ng t h r oug h t a l k t h e r a py be c om e s
pr ogr e s s i v e l y a va i l a bl e . Thi s bi l a t e r a l i n t e g r a t i o n of t r a u m a t i c m e m o r i e s t hr o ugh t he ve r b a l a n d
nonv e r ba l a r e a s of t he br a i n h a s b e e n c l i ni c a l l y pr o ve n t o he l p r e du c e t r a u m a s y m p t om s .
8 0
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s ha v e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s h ow n m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t s y m pt om s of P TS D , a nxi e t y , a nd
de pr e s s i on c om pa r e d t o ol de r a du l t s w ho w e r e n ot s ur vi vor s . S t ud i e s on t he i m pa c t of a r t t he r a p y
a nd g e n e r a l a r t m a ki ng on H ol oc a u s t s u r vi vor s t r a um a t h e r a py de m o ns t r a t e a s t r ong l i nk b e t w e e n
c r e a t i vi t y a n d a r t i s t i c i nc l i n a t i o n w i t h ove r a l l r e s i l i e nc y ; i n f a c t , i t i s s ug ge s t e d t ha t e nga g e m e nt
w i t h a r t a l l ow s f or m or e “ po s i t i ve c opi ng w i t h t h e l o ng - t e r m e f f e c t of t he H ol oc a us t . ”
8 1
S u c h w a s t he c a s e f o r s ur v i vo r Tr u di e S t r obe l , w h os e a r t w o r ks a nd s t or y of s ur v i va l a r e
e x pl o r e d i n he r b i og r a ph y w r i t t e n by s c r e e n w r i t e r J o di e S a vi n . B or n i n U kr a i ne i n 1938 ,
G e r t r ude L a b uhn ( Tr u di e ) be ga n l i f e a l r e a d y ups e t b y e m ot i ona l t r a um a : j us t m ont hs be f o r e s he
w a s bo r n, he r f a t he r w a s a r r e s t e d by S ovi e t a ut h or i t i e s , ne ve r t o be s e e n or h e a r d f r om a ga i n.
8 2
B e f o r e hi s c a pt ur e , a l r e a dy s e n s i ng t he r i s i ng a n t i s e m i t i s m a r oun d h i m , Tr udi e ’ s f a t he r m a de
s u r e he l e f t hi s u n bo r n c hi l d a be a ut i f ul dol l t h a t s h e w ou l d a l w a y s c he r i s h; Tr ud i e n a m e d i t
“ P a p a D ol l , ” a l a s t i n g , c om f or t i ng pr e s e n c e i n hi s a bs e nc e . W i t h t he l os s of he r f a t h e r , Tr udi e ’ s
m ot h e r ha d t o s up por t t h e i r f a m i l y o f t w o o n he r o w n , a nd w or k e d f or t h e o t he r vi l l a g e r s i n t he
c r a f t s he k ne w be s t : s e w i ng, s t i t c hi ng , a nd r e pa i r i ng. Y e t w he n t h e N a z i s i n va de d t he S o vi e t
U ni o n s oo n a f t e r t he i n i t i a l po g r om s , G e r m a n s o l di e r s f or c e d Tr ud i e a nd he r m o t h e r f r om t he i r
hom e a nd i n t o a c a t t l e c a r h e a de d 600 m i l e s t o t he L od z G he t t o. U pon a r r i va l , a n S S g u a r d
f or c i bl y s n a t c he d Tr ud i e ’ s b e l ov e d P a pa D o l l f r om he r a r m s ; a t t he a ge of f ou r , Tr ud i e a l r e a dy
80
M a r i ya K e s e l m a n, " H o nor i n g A gi ng H ol o c a u s t S u r v i v o r s ,” J a n ua r y 3 0, 20 2 0 . A c c e s s e d O c t ob e r 2 0 , 2 020.
81
I bi d .
82
J o d y S a v i n , S t i t c he d & S e w n : T h e L i f e - s a v i n g A r t o f H o l oc a u s t S u r v i v or T r u d i e S t r o b e l , 20 2 0 .
31
ha d t o und e r s t a nd t h a t t hi s s a c r i f i c e w ou l d s a v e h e r l i f e , a nd he r e ve r y a c t i on f r o m t h e n o n w o ul d
i m pa c t he r a nd he r m o t h e r ’ s c h a nc e s of s ur vi v a l .
8 3
T r ud i e a nd h e r m o t h e r w e r e e ve n t ua l l y s e nt t o a l a bor c a m p, w he r e M a s ha ’ s t a l e nt f o r
s e w i n g w a s v a l u e d b y t h e N a z i s . I n t u r n f or M a s ha ’ s s e a m s t r e s s s e r vi c e s , t h e S S g ua r d s s p a r e d
bot h o f t he m f r om de a t h . M a s h a ke pt s e w i ng t o s a ve t he i r l i ve s un de r unf a t h om a bl y g r ue l i ng
s u r r ou ndi ng s , m e a nw h i l e Tr ud i e ha d t o “ l e a r n ho w t o be qu i e t , how t o b e i n vi s i b l e . Thi s w a s a
ha r d l e s s o n f or a c h i l d t o l e a r n a nd one t ha t w ou l d ha ve r e pe r c us s i o ns t h r oug hou t Tr u di e ’ s
l i f e .”
8 4
B e c a us e of t he N a z i s ’ r e g a r d f or M a s ha ’ s ou t s t a nd i ng s t i t c hi n g s ki l l s , b ot h s he a nd Tr ud i e
di d s e e l i be r a t i on, t ho ug h l i be r a t i on —a s i s t r ue f or m a ny s ur v i v or s — d i d not m i r a c ul ou s l y c ur e
t he i r t r a um a i n c ur r e d f r om s ur v i vi ng t he H ol oc a u s t . F r om one D i s pl a c e m e n t C a m p t o t he ne x t ,
M a s ha ke p t s e w i n g t o s up po r t he r s e l f a n d Tr ud i e , a n d t h e y e v e nt ua l l y f ou nd t he i r w a y i n
A m e r i c a ; T r udi e w e n t o n t o m a r r y a n ot he r s ur v i vo r , ha d t w o c hi l dr e n of t he i r ow n , a nd de c i d e d
t o ne v e r s pe a k of t he H o l oc a us t e v e r a ga i n.
A s l i f e w e n t o n a nd h e r t r a u m a t i c e x pe r i e n c e s w e r e ne ve r a ga i n s pok e n of , Tr u di e ’ s
m e m o r y of he r c hi l dh ood c a m e f l oo di ng b a c k t hr oug h h e r b ody a n d m i n d, a nd s e n t he r i nt o a
c om p l e t e b r e a kd ow n . S he c om pl e t e l y s t o ppe d s p e a ki ng. H e r t he r a pi s t , s e ns i ng t ha t Tr u di e m i g ht
be ne f i t f r om o t he r f or m s o f t he r a py t h a t w o ul d a c t i va t e h e r a b i l i t y t o e x p r e s s he r s e l f n onv e r ba l l y ,
s u g g e s t e d s he s ho ul d s t a r t d r a w i n g o ut he r m e m or i e s o n pa pe r . N o t o nl y di d s h e b e g i n dr a w i n g,
but s he b e ga n s t i t c h i n g—r e c a l l i n g t h e p r e c i s e Y e m e ni t e s t i t c he s of he r a nc e s t o r s , t ha t h e r m o t h e r
t a ugh t he r a s a c hi l d.
8 5
Tr u di e be g a n s pe a ki ng a g a i n a s s h e a c c e s s e d t hi s nonv e r ba l c ha m b e r of
83
“ R u s s i a , 19 42, ” T r u d i e S t r ob e l ( f i g u r e x)
84
I bi d .
85
I bi d .
32
e x pr e s s i on t ha t ha d l ong be e n s i l e n c e d —a s i l e n c e l e a r ne d a s a s ur vi va l m e c ha ni s m f r om
c hi l d hoo d. Tr udi e ’ s r e di s c o ve r e d t a l e nt f o r ne e dl e w or k g a ve t e s t i m on y t o he r e x pe r i e nc e , i n
i nc r e di b l y i nt r i c a t e t a pe s t r i e s di s pl a y i ng he r t r a um a t i c a n d p e r s ona l m e m or i e s o f t h e S hoa h .
I n c l ude d i n he r e x t e n s i v e c ol l e c t i on o f t a pe s t r i e s i s t he S ho a h s e r i e s , c ons t i t ut i ng s e ve n
pi e c e s i n on l y t hr e e c ol o r s i n s y m bo l i c a nd i c on og r a phi c a bs t r a c t i o n. D e s t r oy e d , 20 11 f e a t ur e s a
r e c og ni z a b l y br oke n a nd d i s f i g ur e d J e w i s h s t a r , w hi l e o t h e r s s u c h a s I m pr i s o ne d , 20 11 ( F i g. 6 )
N um be r e d L i k e C at t l e , 2 010 ( F i g. 6) a nd T i m e Runn i ng O ut , 20 10 ( F i g. 7 ) e m p l oy c om pl e t e
a bs t r a c t i o n t hr ough bl ue a nd s i l ve r n e e dl e w or k a n d c r i m s on r e d be a di n g— a l l ow i n g
i nt e r pr e t a t i o n a nd e nga g e m e nt w i t h p ot e nt i a l m e a ni ng s . T r udi e ’ s a r t w or ks not onl y e x pr e s s t he
de va s t a t i ng l os s s he w i t ne s s e d i n t he H ol oc a us t , s e e n i n w or k s s uc h a s Fi na l D e s t i n at i on, 200 0
( F i g . 8) a nd Ru s s i a 19 42 , 199 1 ( F i g. 9) but t h e y a l s o of t e n a c t a s c o m m e m o r a t i ons o f l i f e be f or e
t he H ol oc a us t . T a p e s t r i e s l i k e T h e J e w i s h C al e n da r , 199 6 ( F i g. 10 ) , G ol de n Age of Spa i n , 19 95
( F i g . 11) , a n d Fl o at i ng T or ah s O v e r J e r u s al e m , 201 1 ( F i g. 12 ) e m ba r k on r e m e m be r i ng t he
m os a i c of l i f e t h a t e x i s t e d be f o r e t h e l os s of s i x m i l l i on . The t w e l ve - pa ne l s e r i e s , M o m e nt s i n
J e w i s h T i m e , c hr o ni c l e s s c e n e s f r om J e w i s h hi s t or y , i n c l udi ng Ex od us f r om Egy pt ( F i g. 1 3) ,
D i as por a ( F i g . 1 4) , a nd K i dd us h i n ( M a r r i a ge ) ( F i g. 1 5) . Ea c h pa n e l i s c o m pos e d of e x t r e m e l y
i nt r i c a t e a nd s i nuous ne e dl e w o r k, i m b ue d w i t h r i c h c ol or s a nd vi g or ou s m ove m e nt , c r e a t i ng a n
i r r e pr o duc i b l e a ur a of Tr ud i e ’ s pe r s o na l m e m or i e s a nd e x pe r i e n c e of t i m e . The f i f t h o f t h e
t w e l v e pa n e l s e r i e s , H ol oc au s t — T he H or r i f y i n g Y e ar s ( F i g. 16 ) , i s e x e c ut e d w i t h de e p r e ds a n d
s t a r k bl a c k a n d uns e t t l e d b y t h e do m i na n t pos i t i on of a br i g ht y e l l o w J e w i s h S t a r o f D a vi d .
A m i ds t t h e i c o nog r a phy o f r a i l r o a d t r a c ks a nd b a r be d w i r e i s Tr udi e ’ s s t i t c hi ng t ha t i n t e r c e pt s
t hi s p a ne l w i t h a u ni q ue l y e e r i e s e ns e of uni f or m i t y . D e pa r t i ng f r o m t h e o t he r p a ne l s i n t hi s
s e r i e s , e a c h s t i t c h i n t h i s w or k i s i d e nt i c a l —n ot a s i ng l e s t i t c h s t a nds out ; t he h e ge m on y e c hoe s
33
t he m a s s vi c t i m s of t h e N a z i g e n oc i d e w ho w e r e num b e r e d a n d c a t a l o gue d, “ de pr i ve d o f a l l t h e
pa r t i c ul a r s t ha t i d e n t i f y a n i n di v i d ua l . ”
8 6
D r a m a t i c a l l y de pi c t i n g t h e h or r or s of t h e H ol o c a us t i n he r s c u l pt ur e s , s ur vi v or G a br i e l l a
K a r i n d e pi c t s a s e p a r a t e a c c ou nt of t he N a z i g e n oc i de . B or n i n B r a t i s l a va i n 193 0, G a br i e l l a a n d
he r f a m i l y w e r e f or c e d i n t o h i d i ng du r i ng H i t l e r ’ s oc c up a t i o n of C z e c hos l ova ki a . A s a c hi l d,
G a br i e l l a w a s s e pa r a t e d f r o m h e r pa r e nt s a n d pl a c e d i n a S l ova k i a n c onve n t f or t hr e e y e a r s t o
e s c a pe t he e nc r oa c h i n g S S a r m y . W he n t he c o nve n t c ou l d no l ong e r p r ovi d e d pr ot e c t i on , s he a n d
he r f a m i l y s p e nt ni ne e x c r u c i a t i ng m ont hs hi di n g t og e t he r i n a t i ny a p a r t m e nt , c o ve r t l y be s t ow e d
t o t he m by a C hr i s t i a n f r i e n d: t hi s a p a r t m e nt ha p p e ne d t o be di r e c t l y a c r o s s t he s t r e e t f r om t he
N a z i G e s t a p o s t a t i o n. G a br i e l l a l i v e d i n oppr e s s i v e c a pt i vi t y , r e a di ng a nd s t udy i ng boo ks t h e be s t
s h e c ou l d w hi l e l i vi ng i n c ons t a n t f e a r a n d a n x i e t y ; on oc c a s i o n, s he w oul d g l a nc e t hr oug h t he
w i nd ow a nd e nc o unt e r t e r r i f y i ng s c e n e s of ot he r J e w i s h g i r l s b e i n g s e i z e d by G e s t a p o pol i c e .
8 7
F i na l l y , t h e R us s i a n s be g a n b om bi ng t he c i t y i n 19 45. S he a nd he r f a m i l y ha d t o h i d e i n t he
ba s e m e nt bo m b s he l t e r w i t h 100 ot h e r pe opl e , w he n a n un e x pl ode d b om b l a nd e d o nl y t w o f e e t
f r om h e r f a t he r , j u s t m i s s i ng hi m a nd he r f a m i l y i n i t s t r a j e c t o r y .
8 8
A f t e r a l l t he c ha os , t r a um a ,
a nd f e a r , G a br i e l l a a nd h e r f a m i l y w e r e s o on a b l e t o r e t u r n t o t h e a p a r t m e nt t he y i nh a bi t e d be f o r e
t he w a r , on l y t o di s c ove r a l l o f t he i r be l ong i ng s e i t h e r b r ok e n o r s t ol e n.
G a br i e l l a r e l i e d on he r s e l f - e duc a t i on a nd ke e n a bi l i t y t o r e a d, w r i t e , a nd dr a w t o b r i ng
he r out of h e r t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e nc e a nd i nt o a l i f e de d i c a t e d t o s ha r i n g h e r t e s t i m on y t h r ou g h he r
ow n w or ds a nd a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on . A l t ho ug h s h e a nd he r f a m i l y w e r e p hy s i c a l l y s a f e f r o m t he
N a z i s dur i ng t h e S ho a h, s h e c e r t a i n l y di d not e m e r g e un s c a t he d f r om t r a um a . O n c e K a r i n be ga n
86
S a v i n , S t i t c h e d & S e w n : T h e L i f e - s a v i n g A r t o f H o l oc a u s t Su r v i v or T r u d i e S t r o b e l , 2 0 2 0.
87
G a b r i e l l a K a r i n , T r a um a , M e m o r y , and t h e A r t o f S ur v i v al : A H o l oc a u s t M e m o i r b y G a b r i e l l a Y . K ar i n ,
I n g r a m S p a r k , 2 0 2 0 .
88
I bi d .
34
c r e a t i ng s c u l p t ur e s r e l a t e d t o t he H ol oc a u s t l a t e r i n he r l i f e , s upp r e s s e d m e m o r i e s of h e r pa s t
c a m e s u r gi ng ba c k. H e r w or ks pr o vi de f ur t he r c r i t i c a l i ns i g ht i nt o how c r e a t i vi t y c a n he l p
pr oc e s s r e pr e s s e d, t r a um a t i c m e m o r i e s of l o s s , p e r s e c u t i o n, a n d oppr e s s i on.
I n 1 2 W i ndo w s i nt o t he U nf or ge t t a bl e Pa s t ( F i g .17 ) , K a r i n di vi de s t w e l v e s qua r e s , o r
w i nd ow s , of br onz e s c u l pt ur e s —e a c h por t r a y i n g a di f f e r e n t H ol oc a u s t e ve nt , w hi l e e nc a s e d
c ol l e c t i ve l y i n a n e nc a p s ul a t i n g, l a r g e r br o nz e f r a m e . The w or k i s w r ough t w i t h i r r e gu l a r a nd
c oa r s e m ove m e nt , m a r ke d w i t h bl a c k a n d br o nz e f i gu r e s , one i nc l udi n g a s w a s t i ka ov e r a s i l e nt
w or l d, t i t l e d W h e r e w as t he W o r l d w he n t he N a z i s i nv ade d Eu r o pe ? ( F i g. 1 7) The r e i s a not he r
w i nd ow t i t l e d Si l e nt S c r e am ( F i g . 1 8) f e a t ur i ng a f i gur e c ov e r i n g i t s e ye s a nd a g a pi ng ho l e f o r a
m out h –– r e m i ni s c e n t o f Edva r d M u nc h ’ s S c r e am –– w hi c h w a s i t s e l f c e ns or e d by H i t l e r ’ s a r m y a s
de ge n e r a t e a r t . The e l e ve n t h w i n do w i s t i t l e d W e dd i n g Ri ngs f e a t ur i ng a t i l t e d box f u l l of a n
e ndl e s s pi l e of w e d d i n g r i ng s —i ndi c e s of t h e a bs e nc e of t he i ndi vi du a l s l o s t t o t h e N a z i ge no c i de .
M a ny o f he r w or ks f e a t ur e t h e s e i nd i c e s o f a bs e n c e , s u c h a s O ur Fa m i l i e s Pe r i s he d, But T he i r
Spi r i t L i v e s O n ( F i g. 1 9) a nd G r and m ot he r ( F i g . 20) w hi c h ho nor t he l i ve s o f h e r f a m i l y
m e m b e r s w ho w e r e m u r d e r e d i n t he c on c e nt r a t i on c a m ps by e v oki ng s y m bol s o f t he i r m e m or i e s :
a n o pe n bo ok r e pr e s e n t i ng t he t h oug h t s G a br i e l l a h a s i n t r y i ng t o r e m e m be r w ha t he r
g r a ndm ot he r t a ugh t he r be f o r e s he w a s m u r de r e d a t Tr e bl i n ka ; t he f a c e l e s s f i gur e s r e pr e s e n t i n g
e a c h pe r s on i n he r f a m i l y — a l t og e t he r 75 pe opl e — w ho di e d i n t he c a m ps . G a br i e l l a r e m a r ks ,
“ s om e t i m e s w he n t hi nk i n g a bou t t h e H o l oc a u s t w e do no t r e m e m be r t h a t e a c h pe r s on w ho di e d
dur i n g t he H ol oc a us t w a s p a r t of s om e b ody ’ s f a m i l y . ”
8 9
I n e vok i n g he r pe r s on a l m e m o r y of he r
e x pe r i e nc e hi di ng f r o m t h e N a z i s , s he c r e a t e d H i dde n i n t he Sha dow s of D e at h ( F i g. 2 0)
de pi c t i ng he r f a m i l y w ho h i d w i t h he r , t he m a n w ho he l pe d br i n g t he m f oo d, a nd “ s c r e a m i ng
89
I bi d .
35
s h oe s ” w hi c h r e p r e s e nt h e r “ t h ou g ht s a b out a l l t he pe o pl e i n t h e c on c e n t r a t i on c a m ps w ho ha d t o
t a ke of f t h e i r s ho e s b e f or e t h e y w e r e ki l l e d.”
9 0
G a br i e l l a K a r i n a nd Tr u di e S t r obe l a r e t w o do c um e n t e d s ur v i v or s w h o s i g ni f y t he de pt h
of pe r s o na l hi s t or y i m bue d i nt o t he i r pos t w a r , S hoa h a r t w or ks . The r e a r e c e r t a i nl y m a ny m or e
s u r vi v or s w hos e w o r ks r e m a i n u nd i s c ov e r e d —a nd a s w e m ov e i nt o a pos t - w i t ne s s e r a , t h e
c ha nc e s of l e a r n i ng t he i r s t or i e s be c o m e s i nc r e a s i ng l y l i m i t e d. I n e x pl o r i ng t he i r i ndi vi d ua l
s t or i e s a nd unde r s t a n di n g t he di f f e r e nt w a y s i n w hi c h bot h s ur v i v or s ha ve r e l i e d on a r t i s t i c
c r e a t i vi t y t o w or k t hr o ug h t he i r t r a u m a t i c e x pe r i e nc e s , t h e l a c k of e x i s t i n g c r i t i c a l i nqu i r y i n t o
t he po s t w a r a r t w or ks by s u r vi vo r s b e c om e s a l a r m i n gl y c l e a r . H o w i s i t t ha t “ t r a um a dr a m a ” a nd
ot he r f or m s of m a s s m e t a n a r r a t i v e s o f t he H ol oc a us t ha v e be c o m e b e t t e r kn ow n t ha n t he s e
i nt i m a t e l y pe r s ona l w or k s c r e a t e d by a c t u a l s ur vi vor s ? H ow i s t h a t i ns t i t ut i on s de di c a t e d t o
m e m o r i a l i z i ng t he H ol oc a us t ha v e ul t i m a t e l y e n c ou r a g e d p a s s i ve s pe c t a t o r s hi p t hr o ugh na t i o na l ,
hom o g e n ou s f or m s o f pe d a g og y?
T r au m at i c R e a l i s m : T h e A u r a of S u r vi v or s ’ S h oah A r t w o r k s :
T h e que s t i o n of o w ne r s h i p —or “ g ua r di a ns hi p” of H ol oc a us t m e m or y , a s de s c r i be d by
M a r i a nne H i r s c h — p r e c i s e l y a d dr e s s e s t h e di l e m m a a t t h e c or e of p os t w a r , H o l oc a us t a r t w or k s .
9 1
The r e i s a de e pl y t r a um a t i c , p e r s on a l , a nd i ndi vi d ua l r e l a t i o ns hi p be t w e e n t h e e v e n t s of t he
H ol o c a u s t a nd t he a r t w or k s of s u r vi vo r s . W hi l e t h e r e a r e n um e r ou s di s c us s i on s a bo ut di f f e r e nt
f or m s o f pos t w a r a r t , s uc h a s w or k m a de b y a r t i s t s i n r e s pons e t o t he H ol oc a us t a nd i t s m a n y
i t e r a t i ons , t h e s e r e s p ons e s ha ve b e e n w e l l - doc um e nt e d a nd of t e n f e a t u r e d i n H ol o c a us t
m us e u m s ’ pe r m a ne n t c ol l e c t i o ns . W h y i s i t , e x a c t l y , t h a t f our c ont e m por a r y a r t i s t s —J oe l
90
I bi d .
91
M a r i a n ne H i r s c h, T h e G e n e r a t i o n of P os t m e m o r y W r i t i n g a nd V i s u al C ul t u r e a f t e r t h e H o l oc a u s t , 2 0 1 2 .
36
S ha pi r o, S ol L e W i t t , E l l s w or t h K e l l y , a n d R i c h a r d S e r r a — h a ng on t he w a l l s of t he U n i t e d S t a t e s
H ol o c a u s t M e m or i a l M u s e u m , w hi l e t he r e a r e n o f e a t ur e d a r t w or k s b y H ol oc a us t s ur v i v or s ? A s
w r i t e r L a ur a C ot t i n g ha m c r i t i q ue d, “ a r e w e e x pe c t e d t o t hi n k, a s H e nr y M o or e di d, t h a t M ode r n
A r t c a n s a ve u s ? ”
9 2
H i s t or i a n S a u l F r i e dl a n de r , c om m e nt i ng on t he a e s t he t i c a nd i de ol og i c a l i s s u e s
s u r r ou ndi ng pr e s e nt a nd f ut ur e r e p r e s e nt a t i ons o f t he H ol oc a u s t , s t a t e d: “ our c e nt r a l di l e m m a c a n
be d e f i ne d a s c onf r on t i n g t he i s s u e s r a i s e d by hi s t or i c a l r e l a t i vi s m a nd a e s t he t i c e x pe r i m e nt a t i on
i n t he f a c e of t w o po s s i bl y c o nt r a r y c ons t r a i n t s : a ne e d f or ‘ t r ut h , ’ a nd t he pr o bl e m s r a i s e d by t he
opa q ue n e s s o f bot h t he e v e n t s a nd t he l a ng ua ge a s s uc h. ”
9 3
A t t h e c or e of F r i e dl a nd e r ’ s s t a t e m e nt
i s h i s w a r i ne s s of c ons t r uc t e d n a r r a t i v e s of t h e pa s t — p r odu c t s of w ha t A d or no r e f e r e nc e d i n hi s
c r i t i q ue s of t he c ul t u r e i nd us t r y—i n w h i c h t he r e i s a “ ne ut r a l i z a t i on of t he e x t r e m e by t ur ni ng
[ t he n a r r a t i v e ] i n t o s e n t i m e n t a l p or t r a y a l s ” a nd H o l o c a us t hi s t or y doc um e nt e d t h r oug h
m a nu f a c t u r e d ki t s c h , “ a da pt e d t o t h e t a s t e s of t h e m a j o r i t y . ”
9 4
Th i s c a t e gor y o f k i t s c h i m a g e r y ,
f ur t h e r de s c r i be d i n hi s Re f l e c t i o ns of N az i s m : An Es s ay on K i t s c h an d D e a t h , F r i e dl a nde r
de s c r i be s t he c ons t a n t r e p e t i t i on a n d “ m a s s i ve u s e of s y n o ny m s ” t ha t c on s t a nt l y a nd c o ns i s t e n t l y
e l i c i t s p e c i f i c e m o t i ona l r e s po ns e s f r om t he v i e w e r s .
9 5
I n s t e a d of e ng a gi n g di r e c t l y w i t h t he w or k — s uc h a s v i s i t or s di d w i t h M o num e nt agai ns t
Fas c i s m , r e s pondi n g w i t h a r a ng e of e m ot i ons f r om t he c om m e m or a t i ve t o t h e s l a nde r ous —t he
i s s ue i nhe r e nt i n ki t s c h i s t h e m a nu f a c t ur e d r e pr e s e n t a t i o n t h a t pr oduc e s a m a nu f a c t ur e d
r e s po ns e . R e l a t i ng ba c k t o t h e p r ob l e m s of t h e H o l l y w ood - e s q ue n a r r a t i ve s t a gi n g of t he U S
H ol o c a u s t M us e um e x hi b i t i o ns , t h e da nge r s of r e pr e s e nt i ng t he H ol oc a u s t t h r oug h t o ol s d e s i gne d
92
L a u r a C ot t i n g ha m , " The A r t o f M e m or y: H o l oc a us t M e m or i a l s i n H i s t o r y , " F r i e z e . A c c e s s e d O c t ob e r 2 9 , 2 020 .
93
S a u l F r i e d l ä n d e r , Pr o bi n g t h e L i m i t s o f Re p r e s e n t a t i on : N a z i s m an d t h e " Fi n a l So l ut i on ,” 20 1 6 .
94
I bi d .
95
S a u l F r i e d l ä n d e r , Re f l e c t i o n s of N az i s m : A n E s s ay on K i t s c h a n d D e a t h , 1 9 9 3 .
37
t o e vo ke a c e r t a i n r e s po ns e e c h o t he d a nge r s pr e s e nt i n t o t a l i t a r i a n c o nt r ol of c ul t ur a l pr o duc t i on ;
t he r e i s no l ong e r a n i n di v i d ua l a bi l i t y t o a r r i ve a t a u ni que r e s po ns e or e x pr e s s i on—a nd t hi s i s
pr e c i s e l y j ux t a pos e d t o t h e n e c e s s i t a t e d m ove m e nt a w a y f r om m ode r ni s m i nt o pos t m od e r ni s m ,
f r om m onu m e nt s t o c ou nt e r - m on um e nt s , a nd a r gua b l y— f r om ki t s c h s t a g i n g o f a r t w o r ks m a d e i n
s e c ond a r y r e s pons e t o t h e H o l o c a u s t t o de di c a t e d r e s e a r c h of a nd e n ga ge m e nt w i t h w o r ks by
H ol o c a u s t s u r vi v or s .
P o s t w a r H o l o c a u s t a r t , a s a g e nr e , of t e n f e a t ur e s c om m on t h e m e s a nd i c on ogr a phy ,
w hi c h a r e a n i m por t a n t pr e f a c e t o un de r s t a nd i ng m or e s pe c i f i c , i ndi v i dua l a r t w or ks . F i r s t , i t i s
i m po r t a n t t o pl a c e p os t w a r a r t w or ks i n t he c on t e x t o f a r t hi s t or y : a f t e r t he e nf or c e d S oc i a l
R e a l i s m o f H i t l e r ’ s r e g i m e , r e pr e s e n t a t i o na l i m a g e r y — e s pe c i a l l y f ol l ow i ng t he hor r or s o f
A us c hw i t z a nd t he c on c e n t r a t i on c a m ps —b e c a m e p r og r e s s i ve l y r e pl a c e d w i t h f or m s of s e m i -
a bs t r a c t i o n. C o m m on s e m i - a bs t r a c t
9 6
m ot i f s i n c l ud e r e f e r e nc e s t o ba r be d w i r e , c r e m a t o r i um
c hi m ne y s , y e l l ow S t a r s o f D a vi d, a nd bi b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e s . B y s h a r i ng t hi s c ol l e c t i v e
unde r s t a nd i n g of H o l o c a u s t s y m b ol i c i m a g e r y , a r t i s t s c a n e m pl oy t h e s e m ot i f s i n t h e i r o w n w a y s
t o e vo ke a s h a r e d, c ol l e c t i ve u nd e r s t a ndi n g of t h e t r a u m a t i c e ve n t s t he y a r e d e pi c t i n g w i t h out
ha vi n g t o po r t r a y t r a u m a t i c a n d ve r y r e a l ho r r or s .
T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y m or a l qu e s t i o ns a s s o c i a t e d w i t hi n H ol oc a u s t a r t , s uc h a s t he
de pi c t i on of N a z i s , t h e v i c t i m s , a nd t he r e s i s t a nc e t o H i t l e r ’ s a r m y—a ga i n of t e n s y m bo l i z e d w i t h
bi bl i c a l r e f e r e nc e s s uc h a s D a v i d d e f e a t i ng G ol i a t h , I s a a c ’ s s a c r i f i c e , a nd J ob’ s que s t i oni ng o f
G od ’ s i nf l i c t e d s u f f e r i n g.
9 7
O n e pa r t i c ul a r d i f f i c ul t y s ur r oun di ng t he a e s t he t i c a s p e c t s of
H ol o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n i n a r t i s t he por t r a y a l of N a z i s : i f t h e y a r e s ur r e a l i s t i c a l l y de pi c t e d a s
m e r e m ons t e r s o r de m ons , i t e r a s e s t he i r hum a ni t y ; a t t he s a m e t i m e , how e ve r , t he i r c u l pa bi l i t y
96
B l a t t e r , J a n e t , a n d S y b i l M i l t o n , Ar t o f t he H ol o c a u s t , 19 8 2 .
97
I bi d .
38
a s m ur d e r e r s i n he i n ou s a n d e v i l a c t s of g e noc i d e i s obs c ur e d i f de p i c t e d a s h um a n be i n gs i n
N a z i un i f or m .
9 8
I n e s s e n c e , t h e ve r y q ue s t i on of ho w t o r e p r e s e nt N a z i s br i n gs t he qu e s t i on of
H ol o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n t o i t s c or e : how t o p or t r a y t he ba na l i t y of e vi l —how t o c om m u ni c a t e
t ha t t h e H ol oc a us t w a s no t , a s A d or no a r gu e d , ba r ba r i c b e yond h um a n c ul pa b i l i t y ? Thi s
por t r a y a l of N a z i s i n H ol oc a us t a r t w or ks g e t s t o t he ve r y e s s e nc e of t he g r a v i t y of t he S ho a h: i t
l i e s i n t h e f a c t t ha t i t w a s c om m i t t e d by or di na r y i ndi vi d ua l s , e m p ow e r e d b y t h e c o l l e c t i ve .
O ne s ur v i vo r a n s w e r s : “ W hy ? W hy di d w e w a l k l i k e m e e k s he e p t o t he s l a ug ht e r - h o us e ?
W h y di d w e no t f i gh t ba c k? ... I k now w hy . B e c a us e w e h a d f a i t h i n h um a ni t y . B e c a us e w e
di d not r e a l l y t h i n k t ha t hu m a n be i ngs w e r e c a pa bl e of s uc h c r i m e s . ” B y c h a r a c t e r i z i ng
t h e s e pe opl e a s m o ns t e r s i s m i ni m i z i ng t h e i m p or t a nc e of t he i s s ue . The s i g ni f i c a nc e o f
t h e H ol oc a us t l i e s n ot i n i t s un i q ue ne s s b u t i n i t s “ or di na r i n e s s . ”
9 9
T h e i nt r odu c t i o n of p ho t og r a p hy , di g i t i z a t i on, a nd ot h e r f o r m s of t e c hn ol og i c a l
i nno va t i o n a l s o pr op a ga t e c o nt e m p or a r y de b a t e s s ur r oun di ng S hoa h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n. A r e not
doc u m e n t a r y pho t og r a ph s t a k e n a t t he s c e ne of t he c r i m e s uf f i c i e n t e nou gh t o pr o vi de vi s ua l
t e s t i m ony , w hi c h s u pp os e d l y de pi c t t he t r a um a a s i t r e a l l y w a s ? A r e t h e bl a c k a nd w hi t e i m a g e s
of t he bo di e s , c or p s e s , a n d c r e m a t or i a di s c o ve r e d a t t he w a r ’ s e n d n ot e noug h? The c om pl e x
a ns w e r t o t h e c om pa r i s on of d oc um e n t a r y ph ot o g r a phs ve r s us a r t a s d oc um e n t a t i on c a n pe r ha ps
be m or e c l e a r l y u nd e r s t oo d t h r ou gh B e nj a m i n’ s a na l y s i s of ph ot og r a phy a nd v i s u a l t he o r y .
I n h i s 1936 e s s a y , T he W o r k of Ar t i n t he Age of M e c h ani c al R e pr o duc t i on , B e nj a m i n
a ddr e s s e s t he w a y s i n w h i c h f i l m h a s s hi f t e d how a r t pr od uc e s m e a ni ng — a s w e l l a s how f i l m
pr odu c t i o n e nga ge s w i t h a ud i e nc e s a n d va l ue s y s t e m s , a nd t he ove r a l l , r e s ul t i ng p ol i t i c a l
i m pl i c a t i ons of s uc h e ng a ge m e nt . The a dve nt of p hot og r a phy a l l ow e d t he a r t i s t t o c r e a t e w i t h hi s
e y e i ns t e a d of hi s h a n ds —a nd m e c h a ni c a l r e pr o duc t i on t hus be c a m e a n a r t i s t i c e x pr e s s i on
98
I bi d .
99
P r e s , T e r r e nc e D e s . T h e S ur v i v o r : A n An a t o m y o f L i f e i n t h e D e at h C a m p s . O x f o r d: O x f or d U n i ve r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 98 0.
39
i t s e l f .
1 0 0
Y e t , B e nj a m i n a r gu e s , t h e c a m e r a ’ s a bi l i t y t o o c c upy a m ul t i pl i c i t y of t i m e a n d s p a c e —
i ns t e a d of e x i s t i ng i n a s i ng l e t i m e or s pa c e l i k e a p a i nt i ng — a l s o r e s u l t s i n a l os s o f a ur a . The
a ur a of a pa i n t i n g , t h e a ut he nt i c i t y of i t s s i ng ul a r i t y a nd o r i gi na l i t y , i s e r a s e d w i t h t he c a m e r a ’ s
a bi l i t y t o m e c ha ni c a l l y - r e pr o duc e i m a g e s ; ph ot o g r a phs e x i s t i n di f f e r e nt pl a c e s w i t hi n di f f e r e n t
c ont e x t s a t t he s a m e t i m e , s o p ho t og r a ph s do no t ha ve t he s a m e s i ng ul a r i d e nt i t y o r pr ov e na nc e
a s a p a i nt i ng . B e n j a m i n a l s o a d dr e s s e s t he “ a d j u s t m e nt o f r e a l i t y t o t h e m a s s e s a nd of t he m a s s e s
t o r e a l i t y , ” i n w hi c h t he r e i s a di f f e r e nc e be t w e e n a na t ur a l a nd hi s t or i c a l p r oc e s s i ng o f
i nf or m a t i on.
1 0 1
W h e r e a s n a t ur a l t e n de nc i e s of h u m a n s e n s i n g i s i nhe r e n t l y b i ol og i c a l , t h e
hi s t or i c a l t e nde nc i e s of s e n s i ng i s s ha pe d e x t e r n a l l y b y c ul t ur a l a n d p ol i t i c a l c on t e x t s .
1 0 2
The
t e ns i o n be t w e e n bo t h m od e s o f pe r c e p t i on i s a ki n t o t he t e ns i on be t w e e n e x pe r i e nc i ng s om e t h i n g
ve r s us v i e w i n g i t a s a m e c h a ni c a l r e pr e s e nt a t i o n . W he r e a s t h e r e i s a n a ur a t o a n e x pe r i e n c e —
s u c h a s e x p e r i e nc i n g s u nl i g ht o n a w i nd ow pa n e —t he pho t o g r a p hi c r e pr e s e n t a t i o ns o f s uc h a
w i nd ow p a n e e nve l ope d i n s u nl i g ht p r oduc e t he de s i r a bi l i t y o f e x p e r i e nc i ng t ha t a ur a , a n d t he
r e pr e s e nt a t i on be c om e s m or e s t a bl e t ha n t h e w i nd ow p a ne i t s e l f ; h ow e ve r , t h e p hot og r a ph w i l l
ne ve r ha ve t h e a u r a of t he a u t h e nt i c e x pe r i e n c e .
T h e phe nom e no n de s c r i b e d b y B e n j a m i n, i n w hi c h a n e x pe r i e nc e ’ s r e pr e s e nt a t i on
be c om e s m or e s t a bl e t ha n t h e e x p e r i e nc e of w h a t i s a c t ua l l y be i ng r e pr e s e nt e d, c a n be m o r e
c l e a r l y und e r s t ood i n t he c on t e x t o f H ol o c a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on t hr o ug h t he pr obl e m a t i c e l e m e n t s
of m a s s c u l t ur e ’ s e f f e c t on c o l l e c t i ve unde r s t a nd i ng . F o r i n s t a nc e , t he or i s t a nd a ut hor J a c ob P a u l
a r gue s t ha t “ Sc hi n dl e r ' s L i s t a l l ow s t h e a ud i e n c e t o f e e l r e pul s e d a t t he a c t i ons of o t he r s . I t
a l l ow s t he m t o f e e l t h a t w ha t e v e r ha ppe ne d i s be y o n d t he i r i m a g i ni ng , be y o nd t he i r i m a g i n i n g
10 0
" T h e W o r k o f A r t i n t h e A g e o f M e c h a n i c a l R e p r o d u c t i o n . " M o d e r n i s m La b . A c c e s s e d O c t ob e r 0 4 , 2 02 0 .
h t t p s : / / c a m p us p r e s s . y a l e .e d u/ m o d e r n i s m l a b/ t h e - w o r k - o f - a r t - i n - t he - a g e - o f - m e c h a n i c a l - r e p r od u c t i o n / .
10 1
B e n j a m i n , W a l t e r . " The s e s on t h e P h i l o s o phy o f H i s t o r y." C r i t i c a l T h e o r y an d So c i e t y A R e a d e r , 2 0 2 0 , 255- 63 .
10 2
" T h e W o r k o f A r t i n t h e A g e o f M e c h a n i c a l R e p r o d u c t i o n . " M o d e r n i s m La b . A c c e s s e d O c t ob e r 0 4 , 2 02 0 .
h t t p s : / / c a m p us p r e s s . y a l e .e d u/ m o d e r n i s m l a b/ t h e - w o r k - o f - a r t - i n - t he - a g e - o f - m e c h a n i c a l - r e p r od u c t i o n / .
40
be c a u s e t he y ha ve n ’ t be e n f or c e d t o i m a g i ne i t . Th i s a l l ow s t ha t a udi e nc e a n una s s a i l e d p os i t i on
f r om w hi c h t o s a f e l y j u dg e w h a t ot he r s , n e v e r t he y , d o.”
1 0 3
B e c a u s e t he a ud i e nc e i s a b l e t o
pa s s i v e l y c on s um e t hi s f i c t i on a l —a nd a r gu a b l y s e n t i m e nt a l i z e d ki t s c h — r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t he
H ol o c a u s t , t he i n di v i d ua l , a c t i v e e nga ge m e nt w i t h t h e e xp e r i e nc e of t r a u m a t i c a nd e v e r y d a y
e l e m e n t s i s l os t . Thi s p a s s i ve c o ns u m pt i on t hr oug h m e c h a n i c a l r e p r odu c t i o n i s , w ha t P a ul a r gu e s ,
“ m a k e s o f t he a ud i e nc e m e m be r s H ol oc a us t c on s um e r s a l l o w e d t h e p l e a s ur e of ‘ kn ow i ng , ’ a n d
pa s s i n g j udg e m e n t .. .a nd f e e l i ng m o r a l l y s upe r i or , w i t ho ut c o s t .”
1 0 4
T h i s a r gum e nt a ga i n s t pa s s i v e c on s um pt i on t h r oug h m e c ha n i c a l r e pr o duc t i on i s f ur t he r e d
by B e nj a m i n’ s a s s e r t i on t ha t , “ t he c ul t of r e m e m b r a nc e o f l o ve d on e s , a b s e nt or de a d , of f e r s a
l a s t r e f ug e f o r t he c ul t va l u e o f t he pi c t ur e .”
1 0 5
W hi l e pho t o g r a p hs o nc e f unc t i one d a s p or t r a i t s o f
l ove d o ne s , t h e y e ve nt ua l l y be c a m e w ha t B e nj a m i n de s c r i be d a s c ul t o bj e c t s a f t e r t he de a t h of
t hos e pho t og r a p h e d. W i t h t h e p a s s a ge o f t i m e , pho t og r a phs h a ve b e c om e vi s ua l e v i de nc e of
c e r t a i n pl a c e s a n d t i m e s , a nd vi e w e r s e ve n t ua l l y r e qu i r e c a pt i on s or a c c om p a ny i ng de s c r i pt i o ns
t o un de r s t a nd t he c ont e x t of w h a t t h e y a r e w i t ne s s i n g . P ho t og r a phs o f t h e s ke l e t on s of t he
vi c t i m s of A us c hw i t z ha v e be c o m e vi s ua l e vi de nc e , f or e x a m pl e , of t he m i l l i on s of N a z i m ur de r
vi c t i m s . Y e t , t he a c c om pa ny i n g d e s c r i pt i ons of s u c h i m a g e s a r e s ubj e c t t o c h a nge , a n d s u bj e c t t o
f or m n e w m e a n i ng s ; t h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e p ot e nt i a l f or po l i t i c i z a t i on—w hi c h B e nj a m i n, A do r no,
a nd ot h e r s i n t he F r a n kf u r t S c h oo l w e r e w a r y of , c on s i de r i ng t he t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m a nd c u l t u r a l
pr opa ga nd a f r om H i t l e r ’ s ow n f a s c i s t r e gi m e . The pot e nt i a l f or po l i t i c i z a t i on i n m e c ha ni c a l l y
r e pr o duc e d a r t t h u s r e qui r e s p ubl i c a t t e nt i on t o ho w na r r a t i ve i s c on s t r u c t e d: t he c hi e f da ng e r o f
f i l m , a c c or di ng t o B e nj a m i n, i s i t s a bi l i t y t o m e s m e r i z e a udi e n c e s t hr ou gh hy p e r r e a l i s m .
1 0 3
P a ul , J a c o b . " S l o u c h i n g P a s t T o t a l i t y; O r , W h a t a P o s t - P o s t m o de r n H o l o c a us t N o v e l M i g h t B e . " F i c t i o n W r i t e r s
R e v i e w . A c c e s s e d F e b r u a r y 0 2 , 2 021 . ht t p s : / / f i c t i o n w r i t e r s r e v i e w . c om / e s s a y/ s l o u c h i n g - p a s t - t o t a l i t y - or - w h a t - a - p o s t -
p os t m od e r n - h o l oc a u s t - n o v e l - m i g h t - b e / .
10 4
I bi d .
10 5
I bi d .
41
T h i s a ur a , t h e a u t he n t i c e x pe r i e nc e of t i m e a nd pl a c e of a n or i g i n a l a r t w or k a s i t di r e c t l y
r e f l e c t s t he pe r s o na l r e c o l l e c t i on s a n d r e p r e s e nt a t i o ns o f t he s ur v i v or ’ s i n di vi dua l t r a u m a i s
pr e c i s e l y w h a t di f f e r e n t i a t e s p os t w a r H ol o c a us t a r t w o r ks f r o m pos t w a r phot o g r a p hs a nd f i l m
doc u m e n t a t i on . T hi s e x p e r i e n c e a t t he c or e o f a n a r t w o r k ’ s i r r e p r odu c i bi l i t y a l s o c oi nc i d e s w i t h
unde r s t a nd i n g H ol o c a u s t r e pr e s e nt a t i on t hr oug h t r a um a t i c r e a l i s m . The n e e d f or doc u m e nt a t i o n
a nd s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y o n r e pr e s e nt i ng t he t r a um a t i c e l e m e nt s of t he e ve r yd a y a n d t he e x t r a o r di n a r y
a s pe c t s of g e no c i d e c o l l i d e i n H o l o c a us t s ur vi vo r s ’ a r t w or ks , i n w a y s t ha t de f y i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d
i ns t r u m e n t a l i z a t i o n. A b ov e a l l c r i t i c a l t he or i e s a n d u nde r s t a nd i n gs i s t h e p s y c h ol og i c a l
phe n om e non oc c ur r i ng i n i n s t a nc e s o f e x t r e m e t r a u m a s uc h a s t h a t o f t he S hoa h—de s pi t e t he
i m m i ne n t da nge r of d e a t h, c on s t a n t f e a r , s t a r va t i on , e x ha us t i on, a nd t ur m oi l , t he r e w e r e t h os e
w ho s t i l l f e l t t he i nn a t e u r g e a n d ne c e s s i t y t o c r e a t e : t o c r e a t e do c um e n t a t i on , i g nor i ng a n y
a e s t h e t i c l i m i t a t i on s a nd e ve n t h e a b s e nc e o f m a t e r i a l s , s o t h a t t he y c ou l d pr ov i de p r oo f o f t he
i nhu m a n i t y of w ha t t he y w i t n e s s e d a nd e x pe r i e n c e d. M a n y a r t i s t s w ho s t r ov e t o c r e a t e a r t w o r k s
dur i n g t he H ol oc a us t —m a ny of w h om w e r e s t a t i on e d i n t he The r e s i e ns t a dt G h e t t o —ho pe d t h a t
t he i r a r t w o r ks w ou l d b e a bl e t o s h ow t he r e a l i t i e s of t he c o nc e nt r a t i on c a m p s , s o t h a t f u t u r e
g e ne r a t i ons c oul d “ kn ow h ow i t w a s ” a nd “ no t a l l o w s uc h c on di t i ons t o e v e r be r e p e a t e d . ”
1 0 6
I n a s i m i l a r w a y , t he s ur vi v or s o f t h e S hoa h h a ve a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o doc u m e nt t h e
a t r oc i t i e s of w ha t t he y w i t n e s s e d a n d e x pe r i e nc e d i n t h e c o nc e nt r a t i on c a m ps , t h oug h t h e i r
m ot i v a t i o n di f f e r s f r om t he a r t i s t s w ho d e p i c t e d t he i r e x p e r i e nc e s w h i l e i m pr i s one d . I n m a ny
c a s e s —t e s t i f i e d i n s u r vi vo r s ’ ow n na r r a t i ve s a s w e l l a s by a r t t he r a py s t u di e s de d i c a t e d t o
10 6
O c h a y o n , S h e r y l S i l ve r . " C om m e m o r a t i o n i n t he A r t o f H ol o c a us t S u r vi v o r s . " Y a d v a s h e m . o r g . A c c e s s e d
N o v e m b e r 3, 2 020 . h t t ps : / / w w w .y a d v a s he m . o r g / a r t i c l e s / g e ne r a l / c o m m e m o r a t i o n- i n - t he - a r t - o f - h o l oc a us t -
s ur v i v o r s .ht m l .
42
unde r s t a nd i n g t he r ol e of c r e a t i n g a r t i n r e c ov e r i ng f r om t h e s e ve r e t r a um a s o f t h e H ol o c a u s t —
s u r vi v or s t e nd t o r e - c r e a t e t he i r t r a um a t i c e x pe r i e nc e s a s a f o r m of he a l i ng a nd c a t ha r s i s . A f t e r
l i be r a t i o n, t h e t r a u m a s of t he S h oa h d i d n ot di s a pp e a r f o r t h e s e s ur vi vo r s . I n s t e a d, m a ny
s u r vi v or s w e r e t a s k e d w i t h r e l oc a t i ng a nd s t a r t i ng t he i r l i ve s ov e r a ga i n, w hi l e s t i l l g r i e vi ng t he
l os s o f t h e i r l i ve s t he y k ne w b e f or e t h e c on c e nt r a t i on c a m p: t h e l os s of t h e i r r e l a t i v e s a n d l ove d
one s m ur de r e d by t he N a z i s , t he l os s of t he i r p os s e s s i on s a n d a l l t he y onc e he l d va l ua b l e
( i nc l udi n g s t ol e n a r t w or k s , l u g ga ge , a nd i t e m s f r om t he i r e s t a t e ) a nd f o r c e d t o s ur r e nde r i nt i m a t e
be l on gi ng s ( s hoe s , j e w e l r y, g o l d t e e t h , a nd h a i r ) a n d — e s pe c i a l l y f or t he c hi l dr e n w ho s ur v i ve d
t he c a m ps —t he t r a u m a t i c l o s s o f i nn oc e nc e i n w i t ne s s i n g a t r oc i ou s c r i m e s a n d m u r de r s a t t he
ha nds o f f e l l ow h um a n be i ngs a ga i ns t o ne a no t h e r . C om po und i n g t he s e un f a t hom a bl e t r a u m a s
t he y e x pe r i e nc e d, s ur vi v or s w e r e a l s o s e nt t o r e l o c a t e t o c om p l e t e l y ne w w a y s of l i f e i n ne w
c oun t r i e s a f t e r l i be r a t i on . M a ny t i m e s , t h e s e c oun t r i e s s t i l l h a r bo r e d a n t i s e m i t i c s e nt i m e nt s , a nd
m a ny s u r vi vo r s s t i l l f e l t m o r e c om f or t a b l e h i di n g t he i r J e w i s h i de nt i t i e s r a t he r t ha n a dm i t t i ng
t he i r s t or i e s of s ur v i va l .
F or s ur vi v or s w h o w e r e a l s o a r t i s t s , m a ny s o ug ht t he ps y c h ol ogi c a l n e e d f or s e l f -
e x pr e s s i on i n t he i r w o r ks de pi c t i n g t h e H ol o c a u s t a s t he y w i t n e s s e d a nd e x pe r i e n c e d i t , a s a
m e a n s o f t r a ns f e r r i n g t h e s i g h t s a nd hor r or s t ha t s t i l l ha u nt e d t he m c ons t a nt l y f r o m t he
c ons t r a i nt s of t h e i r m i n ds i nt o a m o de o f e x pe r i e nc e . B y r e l i vi n g t h e i r e x p e r i e nc e s of s ur v i va l i n
t he c r e a t i o n of t h e s e a r t w or ks , t he t r a um a t i c a nd t he r e a l c o e x i s t —t he s e a r t w o r ks e x i s t bo t h a s
doc u m e n t s o f t he pa s t , w hi l e a l s o c ol l a ps i ng t h e pr e s e nt i n t o t he pa s t by r e - u nde r s t a ndi ng p r i or
e x pe r i e nc e s t h r oug h t he pr e s e n t a c t o f r e m e m be r i ng . Th e y a r e no t m e r e l y r e pr e s e n t a t i o ns o f t h e
H ol o c a u s t —t he y a r e i ndi vi du a l r e nd e r i ngs o f e x pe r i e nc e a s r e m e m be r e d t hr o ugh a c t i ve l y
w or k i ng t h r ough t he e x pe r i e nc e . I t i s no t a que s t i on, s uc h a s e x i s t s i n o t he r f or m s of H ol oc a us t
43
r e pr e s e nt a t i on , of h ow t o r e pr e s e n t t h e s e a t r oc i t i e s , t ha t a r e a l r e a d y i nf or m e d b y w i t n e s s i ng t he
a t r oc i t i e s a l r e a dy t hr oug h a l t e r e d m e d i um s ? The s e a r t w or k s b y s u r vi vo r s c on t a i n t he ve r y a ur a o f
e x pe r i e nc e : i m bue d w i t h e x pe r i e nc e a s w e l l a s e x i s t i ng on l y i n t h e s pa c e a nd t i m e t h e y w e r e
c r e a t e d, t h e y a r e i n e f f e c t i r r e p r od uc i b l e , a nd c e r t a i nl y unr e l e n t i n g t o r e pr od uc t i on a s i t s ui t s t he
pot e n t i a l i t y f or c ol l e c t i ve m e s m e r i z a t i on a nd p o l i t i c i z a t i on. I n t hi s w a y , t he a ur a p r e s e nt i n
s u r vi v or s ’ a r t w or k s i s d i r e c t l y e m bod i e d w i t hi n t he a r t w or k, r a t he r t h a n d i s t a n t l y m e di a t e d o r
m a ni p ul a t e d . W hi l e B e nj a m i n a r g ue d f or t he a n t i - f a s c i s t , d e m oc r a t i z i ng pot e n t i a l of m e c h a ni c a l
r e pr o duc t i on t ha t w ou l d d i s i nt e g r a t e t he a ur a i n t o a r e pr o duc i bl e e x p e r i e nc e , I a m a r gu i ng t ha t
t he da nge r pe r ha ps l i e s i n t he v e r y r e pr o duc i b i l i t y of m a n uf a c t ur e d e x pe r i e n c e ; e xe m p l i f i e d, f o r
i ns t a n c e , i n t he p r e vi ou s l y m e n t i one d U S H o l oc a us t M e m or i a l M u s e um ’ s s t a g e d m e t a na r r a t i ve
e x hi b i t i o ns . I n t he s a m e m a n ne r t ha t p e r f or m a t i ve m onu m e nt s e n c our a ge i ndi vi d ua l a c t i o n
be t w e e n t he m onu m e n t a nd t he v i s i t o r i n a n i r r e p r odu c i bl e m o m e nt , s o d o s ur vi vor s ’ a r t w or ks
r e pr e s e nt a n i r r e pr o du c i bl e e ng a g e m e nt be t w e e n t he s u r vi vo r , a nd t he i r i ndi v i dua l t r a um a ,
m e m o r y , a nd l i ve d e x p e r i e n c e . J u s t a s pe r f o r m a t i v e m on um e nt s e nc ou r a g e i nd i vi dua l s t o
t r a ns f or m f r om p a s s i ve s pe c t a t or s i nt o a ge nt s o f m or a l c ha n ge b a s e d o n t h a t i r r e p r odu c i bl e
e x pe r i e nc e , s o c a n s ur v i v or s ’ a r t w or k s e nc our a g e s pe c t a t or s t o a c t i ve l y be a r w i t ne s s a nd be
t r a ns f or m e d b y i t .
T h e t r a um a of H ol oc a us t s ur v i vor s di d no t e n d i n l i be r a t i o n; t h e i r t e s t i m oni e s r e m a i ne d i n
s i l e nc e f or de c a d e s a m i d s t t h e c a c op hony of pol i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s t o c o l l e c t i ve l y s e e k H ol oc a us t
m e m o r y a s c u l t u r a l p r op e r t y . A f t e r l i be r a t i o n, t h e A l l i e s do c um e nt e d w ha t t he y s a w , a n d br ough t
G e r m a n c i t i z e ns t o w a l k t h r ou g h t he c a m ps t o w i t n e s s w h a t h a d o c c ur r e d t hr ou g h out t he i r
c ol l e c t i ve i ndi f f e r e nc e . A l t h ou g h t he s e e a r l y c om m e m or a t i ve a c t i ons l e d t o c o ur t t r i a l s s e e ki ng
j us t i c e f or N a z i c r i m e s , s uc h a s t he N ur e m b e r g W a r - C r i m e s t r i a l s , pub l i c a t t e nt i on w a s f o c us e d
44
on t he c r i m e s a ga i ns t t he vi c t i m s , b ut w a s n ot y e t pr e pa r e d t o he a r t he p e r s ona l t e s t i m oni e s a nd
w i t n e s s t he i nd i vi dua l a c c ou nt s o f t h e s ur v i vo r s . I n t he e a r l y pos t w a r p e r i od, s u r vi vo r m e m oi r s
s t r ug gl e d t o f i nd a ud i e nc e s ; e ve n t he no w pr om i ne n t H ol o c a us t s ur vi v or s a nd g l oba l l y -
r e c og ni z e d w r i t e r s , P r i m o L e v i a n d El i e W i e s e l , s t r ug gl e d f or ne a r l y a d e c a d e — u nt i l 1 959—t o
ha ve t he i r m e m o i r s p ubl i s h e d a n d be s e e n b y r e a d e r s w ho w oul d a c t ua l l y e ng a ge w i t h t he i r
w r i t i ng s .
1 0 7
A s a u t hor C hr i s t i ne B e r b e r i c h s um m a r i z e d, “ t h e w or l d di d n ot w a n t pe r s on a l s t o r i e s , i t
w a nt e d t he l a r ge r p i c t u r e . ”
1 0 8
Y e t a f t e r t he Ei c hm a nn t r i a l i n 196 1, i n w h i c h s ur v i v or s t o ok t he
s t a nd a s w i t n e s s e s f o r t he pr o s e c u t i on, e a c h h a r r o w i ng , pe r s on a l a c c ou nt s e r ve d a s m o r e
da m n i ng e vi de nc e a g a i ns t t he N a z i m ur de r e r . T he i n t e r na t i ona l s p ot l i g h t on t hi s t r i a l s udd e n l y
s p a r k e d i nt e r e s t i n l i s t e ni n g t o s ur vi v or t e s t i m o ni e s — t he i r m e m o i r s be c a m e w i de l y r e a d, a nd
m a ny w r i t e r s l i k e W i e s e l a nd L e vi h a ve s i n c e a t t a i ne d a c a no ni c a l s t a t us i n l i t e r a t ur e . I n t he m i d -
s i x t i e s t he r e w a s a l s o a n i n c r e a s e d r e l i a nc e on t he t e r m “ H o l o c a us t ” t o r e f e r t o t h e N a z i g e noc i d e .
Thi s u ni v e r s a l t e r m ha d t h e e f f e c t of uni v e r s a l i z i ng c om m e m or a t i o ns of t he e ve nt , t r a ns f or m i ng
t he g e noc i de i nt o c o l l e c t i v e c ul t ur a l p r op e r t y .
1 0 9
S i n c e t h e 1 98 0s , w i t h t he pr ol i f e r a t i o n o f t e l e vi s i on s how s , f i l m s , m us e um s , m e m o r i a l s ,
a nd ot h e r na t i o n a l a nd i nt e r n a t i ona l H ol oc a u s t c om m e m or a t i ons , a phe n om e no n ha s o c c ur r e d i n
w hi c h m o s t pe opl e v a g ue l y u nde r s t a nd t he H ol oc a u s t a s a hi s t or i c a l t r a ge dy , but do n ot
unde r s t a nd a nd o f t e n do not de s i r e t o e ng a g e w i t h t he s p e c i f i c i t i e s a t t he c or e of t he S h oa h a s a
uni qu e e ve nt . The H o l o c a us t ha s b e c om e a s o c i a l c ons t r uc t o f c e r t a i n c ul t u r a l f a c t s , w hi c h i n t ur n
e f f e c t t h e s oc i a l a nd m o r a l c ont e nt s of m e m o r y . Es p e c i a l l y i nd i c a t i ve of t hi s c ons t r uc t i on of t he
10 7
L a n g, B e r e l . H o l oc a u s t Re p r e s e n t at i on : Ar t w i t h i n t h e L i m i t s of H i s t o r y a nd E t h i c s . B a l t i m o r e , M D : J o h n
H o p k i n s U P , 2 003 .
10 8
C h r i s t i ne B e r be r i c h, T r a um a & M e m or y : T h e H o l o c au s t i n C on t e m po r ar y C u l t u r e , 2 0 2 1 .
10 9
I bi d .
45
H ol o c a u s t a s c ol l e c t i v e m e m or y —a t t he e x pe ns e o f “ h i s t or i c a l c om p l e t e n e s s ” — i s t h e
dr a m a t i z a t i ons , or “ t r a u m a d r a m a , ” i n w hi c h a p r e dom i na n t m e t a n a r r a t i ve o f t h e H ol o c a us t i s
f or m e d: t hi s na r r a t i v e a l l o w s a u di e n c e s t o i de nt i f y w i t h t he v i c t i m s ’ s uf f e r i n g , w i t ho ut
unde r s t a nd i n g how t he c on c e n t r a t i on c a m ps w e r e a c t ua l l y t h e f i n a l c ul m i na t i o n of H i t l e r ’ s F i na l
S ol ut i on .
1 1 0
The i s s u e i nh e r e nt i n t h e t i g ht l y pa c ka ge d e x p e r i e nc e of t he H ol o c a us t i s t h a t t he s e
“ c on c r e t e b l oc ks of m e m or y w e c a l l m us e um s ” a s w e l l a s t he uni ve r s a l l y r e c o gni z e d vi s ua l
m a r ke r s o f t he g e n oc i d e of t e n a c t “ a s a s c r e e n be t w e e n t h e c u l t u r a l i m a g i na t i on a nd t he
da m a g i ng e f f e c t s o f t he H ol oc a us t . ”
1 1 1
I t i s i n t h e r i t u a l i z i ng o f t h e c on t i nuou s m e t a na r r a t i v e o f
t r a um a t ha t pr ogr e s s i v e l y de va l u e s i t , a s i t o ve r - s i m pl i f i e s “ g o od ” v e r s us “ e vi l ,” i g nor i ng t h e
a m bi g uo us a nd c om pl e x l a y e r s of i nn oc e nc e a nd g ui l t .
1 1 2
A s a r e s ul t , c r i t i c a l e n g a ge m e n t w i t h
t he i n di vi dua l r ol e s of N a z i s a nd t he i r v i c t i m s i s l o s t a m on gs t a u di e nc e s , a nd t he t r a um a t i c
r e a l i s m of t he H o l oc a us t i s a v oi de d i n f a vo r of a pa c ka ge a b l e a nd e a s i l y d i s s e m i na t e d
m e t a n a r r a t e d h i s t or y .
T h e c r i t i c a l i n qu i r y i nt o t he f o r m a t i on of H ol oc a us t m e m or y —i ndi vi d ua l , s oc i a l , a nd
c ol l e c t i ve —t he r e by r e s t s i n t he d e vi a t i on f r om d om i na n t m e t a - n a r r a t i ve s o f H ol o c a us t s uf f e r i ng
a nd j oy o u s l i be r a t i on . W hi l e “ n e ve r a ga i n” s e nt i m e n t s a r e g e a r e d t o i nvok e c o l l e c t i ve a c t i on
t ow a r d e ns ur i ng a c t i v e s o c i a l a n d m or a l e nga ge m e nt , “ ne v e r a g a i n” s ho ul d a l s o a pp l y t o n ot
r e pe a t i ng pr e v i ou s c o l l e c t i ve g r i e v a n c e s o f bu r y i ng s ur v i v or s ’ t e s t i m o ni e s i n a n a t t e m pt t o “ g e t
on w i t h l i f e , a n d r e c on s t r uc t a be t t e r w or l d.”
1 1 3
A m i ds t t h e d i ve r s e na r r a t i v e s of c om m e m or a t i on,
pos t w a r a r t w or k s c r e a t e d b y H ol oc a us t s u r vi vor s c ont a i n t he s p e c i f i c a ur a of l i ve d, pe r s ona l a nd
i ndi v i du a l e x pe r i e nc e a n d t r a u m a . I n a dd i t i o n t o r e c or de d t e s t i m oni e s a n d r e pr od uc e d
11 0
I bi d .
11 1
I bi d .
11 2
I bi d .
11 3
I bi d .
46
phot o g r a p hs , i t i s t i m e w e b e gi n e n ga gi ng c r i t i c a l l y w i t h s ur vi v or s ’ a r t w or ks , e s p e c i a l l y a s w e
c ol l e c t i ve l y i nc h c l os e r i nt o t he po s t - w i t n e s s e r a .
C on c l u s i on :
W h i l e m a ny o f Eu r op e ’ s n e oc l a s s i c a l a n d f i g ur a t i ve na t i ona l m onu m e nt s ha ve be e n
e x pos e d a s pr opa g a t i o ns of t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m a nd h e ge m on y — t he po s t m o de r n r e s pon s e ha s l e d t o
t he f o r m a t i o n of c o un t e r - m o num e n t s a n d pe r f o r m a t i ve m e m o r i a l s t ha t e nc ou r a ge a ud i e nc e
e nga ge m e nt , s uc h a s G e r z ’ s a n d H oh e i s e l ’ s de s i gns , a n d D e m ni g ’ s Sht ol p e r s t e i ne . L i be s ki nd’ s
J e w i s h M us e um B e r l i n a l s o a c t i v a t e s a udi e nc e p a r t i c i pa t i on w i t h pos t m ode r n a e s t he t i c s —
e nc ou nt e r i n g one s e l f i n r e f l e c t i ons , e x p e r i e n c i ng ha unt i ng a b s e nc e s , a nd he a r i ng t he e c ho of
s i l e nt s c r e a m s — t h a t di r e c t l y i n vi t e v i s i t or e nga ge m e nt t hr o ugho ut t h e m us e um . Y e t , t he
pr e vi o us l y r e f e r e nc e d, “ A m e r i c a ni z a t i on” a nd m e t a n a r r a t i ve o f t h e H ol o c a us t l e a ve s m uc h t o be
de s i r e d i n t he r e a l m o f c r i t i c a l a u di e n c e e ng a g e m e nt . H o l oc a us t r e pr e s e nt a t i on t hu s r e q ui r e s a n
a m a l g a m of t r i pa r t i t e e l e m e nt s f r om c om pe t i ng s c ho ol s of t h oug ht . To r e i t e r a t e , t he s e i n c l ude :
t he r e a l i s t c om pon e nt s of hi s t o r i c a l r e pr e s e nt a t i o n i n r e f e r e nc i ng a nd do c um e nt i ng e v e nt s ;
m ode r ni s t c om po ne nt s o f i t s s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y i n t r a ns pa r e n t l y d oc um e n t i ng hi s t o r y ; a nd f i na l l y ,
pos t m ode r n i de a s o f ho w i t s e m e r ge n c e a n d c i r c ul a t i o n a c kno w l e dg e s c ont e m p or a r y e c on om i c s
a nd po l i t i c s .
1 1 4
J u s t a s A d or n o a nd B e nj a m i n ha ve a r gue d a ga i ns t t he da ng e r s of he g e m ony a nd p a s s i ve
s p e c t a t or s hi p i n t he un r e l e n t i n g f a s c i s t m a c hi n e s of hi s t o r y—t he ve r y c i r c um s t a nc e s t h a t
c ul m i na t e d i n t he c r e a t i on of t he g a s c ha m b e r —s o t oo m us t m us e um s a nd i ns t i t u t i o ns d e di c a t e d
t o pr e s e r vi ng a n d c o nt i nu i n g H ol oc a us t c ol l e c t i ve m e m o r y be w a r y o f u ni f i e d m e t a na r r a t i ve s i n
pl a c e o f i nd i vi dua l e nc o un t e r s . I f v i s i t or s a r e t o be c om e t r a ns f or m e d f r om pa s s i ve s pe c t a t o r s i n t o
11 4
I bi d .
47
s o c i a l a nd m or a l a ge n t s of c ha ng e , w h a t i s r e q ui r e d i s t he a bi l i t y t o e nga ge w i t h hi s t o r y . I t i s not
e nou gh t o k now t h a t t h e H o l o c a u s t h a pp e n e d .
1 1 5
B e nj a m i n ’ s t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y a s c o ns t e l l a t i on i s c r i t i c a l i n t he s t u dy o f H ol o c a u s t
r e pr e s e nt a t i on a s i t f or c e s c on t e m po r a r y hi s t or i a ns , a r t i s t s , c u r a t o r s , a nd c r i t i c s i nt o
a c c ou nt a b i l i t y f or t he pr e s e n t a n d t he pa s t . I t no t o nl y c ha l l e nge s our un de r s t a ndi ng of t he pa s t
t hr ou gh c o n t e m po r a r y r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns o f hi s t or y , b ut i t a l s o b r i ngs h i s t o r y t o our i m m e d i a t e
c ont e m p or a ne i t y— m a k i ng t he H o l oc a us t a n ur g e nt e ve nt i n ne e d of ou r c o l l e c t i ve a nd i nd i vi dua l
a w a r e ne s s .
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e nga ge w i t h s ur vi vor s ’ t e s t i m oni e s n ow , a nd be gi n t he c r i t i c a l t a s k of un de r s t a ndi ng t h e i r
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doc u m e n t a t i on ; b e h ol d i n g a u ni que a ur a , o nl y e x i s t i ng i n i t s uni qu e t i m e a nd pl a c e a s a n
e x pr e s s i on o f a n i nd i v i du a l e x pe r i e n c e ; a c t i ng a s t he s i ng ul a r f or c e a g a i n s t t he c ol l e c t i v e t ha t
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i ndi v i du a l m e m or y w or k i s n o l o ng e r s u f f i c i e nt t o w a r d of f t h e i nc e s s a n t t hr e a t of w a ni ng
H ol o c a u s t m e m o r y . A s w e be c om e a c c us t om e d t o a n i n c r e a s i n g l y c onn e c t e d a n d g l ob a l i z e d
1 1 5
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s ur v e ye d d i d n ’ t kn ow t h a t s i x m i l l i on J e w s w e r e m ur d e r e d i n t h e S h o a h ( ove r ha l f o f t h o s e t hou g h t t h e d e a t h t ol l
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c on c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s or gh e t t os . ht t p s : / / w w w .p e w f or um . o r g / 2 02 0 / 01/ 2 2/ w ha t - a m e r i c a n s - k now - a b out - t h e - ho l o c a u s t /
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ne e dl e w or k a nd t a pe s t r i e s i n h e r S ho a h s e r i e s do c u m e nt e d by J odi e S a v i n , l oc a t e d L o s A n ge l e s ,
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de m o ns t r a t e s a c r i t i c a l m o m e n t i n Tr udi e ’ s l i f e : t h e d e pi c t e d N a z i g ua r d s t ol e he r be l ove d d ol l
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J e w i s h c ul t ur e a nd r e l i gi on a s i t p r e da t e s t he ho r r or s of t he H ol oc a us t . L o c a t e d i n L os A ng e l e s ,
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61
F i gu r e 11: Tr udi e S t r o be l , G ol de n Ag e of Sp ai n, 1 995
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , G ol de n Age of S pai n, 199 5, P h ot og r a ph of Tr u di e ’ s ne e d l e w o r k a s f e a t ur e d i n
J o di e S a vi n ’ s St i t c he d & Se w n . Th i s e m br o i de r y c e l e br a t e s J e w i s h l i f e i n S pa i n, be f o r e t he
S pa ni s h I n qui s i t i on’ s d e a d l y c r us a de s a ga i ns t t he J e w s o f S pa i n — a nd h onor s t hos e w h o pe r i s he d
i n t he I nqu i s i t i o n . L o c a t e d i n L o s A ng e l e s , P hot o g r a p h c o ur t e s y of A n n El l i ot C ut t i ng .
62
F i gu r e 12: Tr udi e S t r o be l , Fl oa t i ng T or ah s O v e r J e r us al e m , 20 11
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , Fl oa t i ng T o r ahs O v e r J e r u s a l e m , 20 11, P ho t og r a p h of Tr ud i e ’ s ne e d l e w or k ,
f e a t ur e d i n J o di e S a vi n’ s St i t c h e d & S e w n. L o c a t e d i n L o s A n ge l e s , P ho t og r a ph c our t e s y of A nn
El l i o t C ut t i n g .
63
F i gu r e 13: Tr udi e S t r o be l , Pane l O ne : Ex o dus f r om Eg y pt f r om t he 12 P a n e l S e r i e s , M om e nt s i n
J e w i s h T i m e , n.d.
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , Pane l O ne : Ex o dus f r om Egy pt f r om t he 1 2 P a n e l S e r i e s , M o m e nt s i n J e w i s h
T i m e . I t de p i c t s t he I s r a e l i t e s ’ e x odu s f r om Egy p t , dur i n g 1290 B C E, a nd M os e s ’ r e c e i va l of t he
Te n C o m m a n dm e nt s on M ou nt S i na i . P hot o g r a p h of Tr ud i e ’ s ne e d l e w or k , f e a t ur e d i n J odi e
S a vi n ’ s St i t c he d & S e w n . L oc a t e d i n L o s A nge l e s , P ho t o g r a p h c our t e s y of A nn El l i o t C ut t i ng .
64
F i gu r e 14: Tr udi e S t r o be l , Pane l T h r e e : D i as po r a f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s , M om e nt s i n J e w i s h
T i m e , n.d.
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , Pane l T h r e e : D i as p or a f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s , M o m e n t s i n J e w i s h T i m e . Th i s
pa ne l ’ s i n t r i c a t e n e e dl e w or k po r t r a y s t he b e gi nni n g o f t h e D i a s por a a f t e r t h e B a by l oni a ns ’
c onq ue r i n g o f t he ki ng do m of J u da h ( 586 B C E) , a nd t he de s t r uc t i on o f t h e s e c ond t e m pl e i n 7 0
C E by R o m a n G e n e r a l Ti t us . L o c a t e d i n L o s A n g e l e s , P h ot ogr a p h c o ur t e s y of A nn El l i ot C u t t i n g .
65
F i gu r e 15: Tr udi e S t r o be l , Pane l T e n : M ar r i ag e ( K i ddu s h i n) f r o m t h e 1 2 P a ne l S e r i e s , M om e nt s
i n J e w i s h T i m e , n .d .
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , Pane l T e n : M ar r i ag e ( K i dd us h i n ) f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s , M om e n t s i n J e w i s h
T i m e . Thi s e m br oi de r y f e a t ur e s e m b l e m s o f a t r a d i t i o na l J e w i s h m a r r i a ge c e r e m ony — p a s s e d on
f r om g e ne r a t i on t o g e ne r a t i o n. The s e t r a di t i ons i nc l ud e dr i n ki ng f r o m a c up o f w i ne ( s t i t c h e d
he r e i n g l i t t e r i ng g ol d a n d s i l ve r t h r e a d) , a n or n a m e n t e d c hu ppa h , a nd a m a r r i a ge b e l t . Thi s pa n e l
a l s o f e a t ur e s t he Y e m e n i t e s t i t c h i n g t e c h ni q ue s Tr ud i e l e a r ne d f r om he r m ot he r . L o c a t e d i n L o s
A ng e l e s , P hot og r a p h c o ur t e s y of A nn E l l i o t C ut t i ng .
66
F i gu r e 16: Tr udi e S t r o be l , Pane l Fi v e : H o l oc aus t — T he H o r r i f y i ng Y e a r s f r om t he 1 2 P a n e l
S e r i e s , M om e nt s i n J e w i s h T i m e , n.d.
Tr ud i e S t r o b e l , Pane l Fi v e : H ol oc au s t — T h e H or r i f y i ng Y e a r s f r om t he 12 P a ne l S e r i e s ,
M om e nt s i n J e w i s h T i m e . T h i s e m br o i de r y f e a t u r e s a b s t r a c t f i gu r e s t o r e pr e s e nt Tr u di e ’ s
m e m o r y of t he H o l o c a u s t . L o c a t e d i n L os A ng e l e s , P ho t og r a ph c our t e s y of A nn El l i ot C ut t i n g .
67
F i gu r e 17: G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, 1 2 W i nd ow s i nt o t h e U nf or ge t t ab l e Pa s t , n . d .
G a br i e l l a K a r i n, 12 W i nd ow s i nt o t he U nf or g e t t a bl e P as t , n . d . , 12 pa ne l s e r i e s s c ul pt e d i n br o nz e
a ga i n s t c l ot h ba c k gr o un d, m a de i n L os A ng e l e s .
68
F i gu r e 18: G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, O ur Fa m i l i e s Pe r i s h e d B ut T he i r Spi r i t L i v e s O n , n.d.
G a br i e l l a K a r i n, O ur Fam i l i e s Pe r i s he d But T he i r Sp i r i t L i v e s O n , n.d., B r on z e s c ul pt ur e
de pi c t i ng a nd hon or i ng t he m e m or y of K a r i n ’ s f a m i l y m e m be r s w h o pe r i s he d a t t he Te r e z i n a nd
Tr e bl i nka c onc e nt r a t i o n c a m p s —a s w e l l a s t he 6 m i l l i on w ho d i e d i n t he H ol oc a u s t , m a d e i n L o s
A ng e l e s .
69
F i gu r e 19: G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, G r and m o t he r , n.d.
G a br i e l l a K a r i n, G r an dm o t h e r , n . d ., B r o nz e s c u l pt ur e a s p e r m a ne nt m e m or i a l t o K a r i n ’ s
g r a ndm ot he r f e a t ur i ng he r g r a nd m ot h e r ’ s f a v or i t e f uc hs i a f l ow e r , m a de i n L o s A nge l e s .
70
F i gu r e 20: G a b r i e l l a K a r i n, H i dd e n i n t he Sha do w of D e a t h , n.d.
G a br i e l l a K a r i n, H i d de n i n t h e Sh ad ow o f D e at h , n.d., B r onz e s c ul pt u r e d e pi c t i ng f a m i l y a nd
f r i e nd s w ho pe r i s he d i n t h e H ol o c a u s t ; a g e nt i l e m a n w ho br o ught he r f a m i l y f oo d i n c a p t i vi t y ;
s c r e a m i ng s ho e s i ns i de t he f e nc e r e pr e s e n t i ng t hos e w ho w e r e f or c e d t o r e m ov e t he i r s hoe s
be f or e t h e i r m ur d e r ; a n d N a z i boo t s out s i de t he f e nc e r e pr e s e nt i ng t he N a z i s w ho m a r c h e d
out s i d e of he r hi di n g p l a c e , m a d e i n L o s A ng e l e s .

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hernandez, Allison Michelle (author)

Core Title The constellations of Holocaust representation: performative monuments, museums, and survivors’ artworks

School Roski School of Art and Design

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Curatorial Practices and the Public Sphere

Degree Conferral Date 2021-08

Publication Date 08/06/2021

Defense Date 08/06/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Angelus Novus,embodied acts of remembrance,holocaust,Holocaust artworks,Holocaust commemoration,Holocaust memorials,Holocaust memory,Holocaust museums,Holocaust representation,Holocaust survivor artworks,Holocaust survivors' artworks,Jewish American identity,Jewish identity,Jewish memory,Jewish Museum Berlin,Museum of the Holocaust Los Angeles,museums,OAI-PMH Harvest,performative memorials,performative monuments,postwar art,post-witness era,Theodor Adorno,United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,Walter Benjamin,World War II,World War II monuments and memorials

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Moss, Karen (committee chair), Lin, Jenny (committee member), Strimple, Nick (committee member)

Creator Email allisonerhu@gmail.com,chaklos@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC15719944

Unique identifier UC15719944

Legacy Identifier etd-HernandezA-10013

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Rights Hernandez, Allison Michelle

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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