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Assessing correctional educator capacity in adult correctional education programs: a gap analysis
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Assessing correctional educator capacity in adult correctional education programs: a gap analysis
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Content
Assessing Correctional Educator Capacity in Adult Correctional Education Programs: A
Gap Analysis
by
Joseph Ruben Guerrero Jr.
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2021
© Copyright by Joseph Ruben Guerrero Jr. 2021
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Joseph Ruben Guerrero Jr. certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Rudy Castruita
Brant Choate
Darline Robles, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021
iv
Abstract
The current correctional education model provides educational access for students enrolled in
educational programming. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that correctional education
programming and teacher pedagogical practices do not align with the specific academic and
emotional needs of the correctional education adult student population. In fact, many learners in
correctional education programs have significant levels of academic variability, high rates of
trauma exposure, significant mental health needs, and have been disproportionately impacted by
discriminatory policies and practices in K-12 institutions. Thus, the question remains whether
correctional educational teachers have the capacity to meet the specific learning and emotional
needs of students in correctional education programs. Therefore, the problem of practice
addressed in this gap analysis evaluation study aimed to understand California Department of
Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) teachers' knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences and their ability to meet the needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult
student population. To this end, the study utilized a non-experimental, quantitative online
research survey protocol and used Qualtrics online software to collect and analyze participant
data. The recruitment strategy for this study consisted of a purposive sampling of CDCR
correctional education teachers who taught in 35 adult correctional institutions throughout the
state of California. In this study, no personally identifiable information was collected. Finally,
the assumed KMO influences identified in this study were based on the academic literature and
were validated as either organizational assets or KMO performance gaps. Upon the validation of
the assumed causes of KMO performance gaps, research-based recommendations and solutions
were provided.
v
Dedication
To my beloved family, thank you for your love, support, inspiration, and understanding as I
embarked on this amazing journey. My deepest love and eternal gratitude to you all.
.
vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
(CDCR), the CDCR Research Oversight Committee (ROC), the CDCR Data Concierge Services
(DCS), Dr. Carr, Dr. Choate, and the entire CDCR team. To all of you, I offer my sincerest
thanks. Without your collaboration, hard work, and incessant dialogue, this study would not have
been possible. Thank you Dr. Castruita for encouraging me to embrace a larger sample
population for my research and for reminding me that the best dissertation is a high-quality
dissertation. Shout out to the amazing USC OCL professors, Dr. Rosenthal, Dr. Phillips, and Dr.
Chatham, for your mentorship and unwavering support in the OCL program-- your support made
all the difference in the world. And last, but certainly not least, my deepest gratitude goes out to
my much-esteemed dissertation chair, Dr. Darline Robles. Dr. Robles, your support throughout
this journey was invaluable. You taught me what it means to conduct serious scholarship, and
you helped me check my biases along the way. Most importantly, you helped me sculpt and
refine my dissertation, gently pushing me to produce my very best work, in the midst of a global
COVID-19 pandemic. My eternal thanks….
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
The Problem of Practice...................................................................................................... 1
Organizational Background ................................................................................................ 2
Related Literature................................................................................................................ 4
Importance of the Organizational Evaluation ..................................................................... 5
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 6
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ....................................................................................... 7
Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................ 8
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................. 8
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................ 9
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 13
Interrogating Educational Institutions with a Critical Race Theory Lens ........................ 14
The Globalization of Zero-Tolerance Policies: American Think Tanks .......................... 17
Zero-Tolerance Policies: Antecedent Influences .............................................................. 18
viii
Shifting Administrative Protocols in Educational Institutions ......................................... 20
Educational Institutions and the Prison-Industrial Complex ............................................ 23
Neoliberalism and Corporate Profiteering in American Prisons ...................................... 24
Financial Backers of the Prison-Industrial Complex ........................................................ 24
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ............................... 26
The Prevalence of Trauma and PTSD in Correctional Populations ................................. 37
The Future Implications of Trauma Exposure for Adults ................................................. 38
Organizational Influences ................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 57
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................... 57
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 57
Assessment of Performance Influences ............................................................................ 59
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ............................................................. 78
Recruitment ....................................................................................................................... 78
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 79
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 79
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 80
Trustworthiness of Data .................................................................................................... 80
Role of Investigator........................................................................................................... 81
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 81
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 83
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 83
Data Validation ................................................................................................................. 84
ix
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes.................................................................... 85
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes .................................................................. 104
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes ............................................................ 120
Summary of Validated Influences .................................................................................. 140
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation ....................................................................... 145
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................. 145
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences .. 145
Implementation of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations .... 180
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................. 183
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ................................................................... 183
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation ........................................................... 185
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 185
References ................................................................................................................................... 187
Appendix A: Informed Consent .................................................................................................. 209
Appendix B: Survey Protocol ..................................................................................................... 210
Appendix C: Recruitment Letter ................................................................................................. 219
x
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholders Goals 7
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholders’ 41
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholders’ 47
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholders’ 55
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 62
Table 6: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 69
Table 7: Summary of Organizational Influences and Method of Assessment 74
Table 8: Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of Teaching Practices 86
Table 9: Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of Instructional Design 88
Table 10: Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of the Basic Tenets of the
Information Processing Model and Cognitive Load Theory 90
Table 11: Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Disaggregating
Achievement Data 92
Table 12: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Trauma-Informed Practices 94
Table 13: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of De-escalating a Volatile Situation 95
Table 14: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Implementing Trauma-Informed
Practices 97
Table 15: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Conflict-Prevention Practices 99
Table 16: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of Their Own Teaching Practices 101
Table 17: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of the Prevalence of Student Trauma 103
Table 18: Survey Results for Value Motivation for Understanding How Student Learning
is Enhanced 105
Table 19: Survey Results for Value Motivation of for De-Escalating a Volatile Situation 107
Table 20: Survey Results for Value Motivation for Meeting the Emotional Needs of Students 108
xi
Table 21: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for De-escalating a Volatile
Situation in the Classroom 110
Table 22: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for Meeting the Emotional Needs
Of Students 112
Table 23: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for Meeting the Specific Learning
Needs of Students with Learning Challenges 113
Table 24: Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Teachers’ Ability to
Meet the Emotional Needs of Students to Their Effort 115
Table 25: Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Teachers’ Ability to
De-escalate a Volatile Situation to Their Effort 117
Table 26: Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Teachers’ Ability to
Meet the Needs of Students with Learning Challenges to Their Effort 119
Table 27: Survey Results for Organizational Resources that Support Positive Outcomes 121
Table 28: Survey Results for Policies, Processes, and Procedures that Align with
Organizational Goals 123
Table 29: Survey Results for Polices, Processes, and Procedures of that Align with and
Support Positive Educational Outcomes for Ethnic and Racial Minorities in
Correctional Education Programs 125
Table 30: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Settings that Provide Teachers
Opportunities to Experience Peer Review with Expert Teachers and Educators 127
Table 31: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Settings that Fosters Teacher
Collaboration 128
Table 32: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Enhance Teacher
Knowledge and Skill 130
Table 33: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Enhance Motivation 132
Table 34: Survey Results for Cultural Models that Provide the Training and Professional
Development Needed to Meet the Specific Learning Needs of an Ethnically &
Culturally Diverse Adult Student Population 133
Table 35: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Support Equity-Based
Pedagogical Practices Responsive to the Emotional Needs of the Adult
Student Population 135
xii
Table 36: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Understand the Impact
of Systemic Racism and Structural Oppression for Ethnic and Racial Minorities
in Correctional Education Program 137
Table 37: Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Provide Informational
Resources that Help Support Positive Educational Outcomes for Ethnic and
Racial Minority Students 139
Table 38: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes Demonstrated 141
Table 39: Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes Demonstrated 142
Table 40: Summary of Assumed Organization Causes Demonstrated 143
Table 41: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 146
Table 42: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 162
Table 43: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 171
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Gap Analysis Process 59
xiv
List of Abbreviations
ACE's Adverse Childhood Experiences
ACLU American Civil Liberties Union
CDCR California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation
CLT Cognitive-Load Theory
CRT Critical Race Theory
GMV Gray Matter Volume
GFSA Gun-Free Schools Act
HSBI Hierarchical Schema-Based Instruction
IEA Institute of Economic Affairs
KMO Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
MI Manhattan Institute
NCJJ National Center for Juvenile Justice
PIC Prison-Industrial Complex
PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
PBIS Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
SRO School Resource Officer
STPP School-to-Prison Pipeline
TIC Trauma-Informed Care
WMP Working Memory Processing
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
The Problem of Practice
The problem of practice addressed in this evaluation study aims to understand California
Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008) that affect their ability to meet the academic and
emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population in a correctional
setting. The current correctional education model provides educational access for students
enrolled in educational programming. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that educational
programming and teacher instruction do not align with the specific needs of the correctional
education adult student population (Ashcroft et al., 1998; Bronson et al., 2015; Casperite, 2011;
DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016; Weaver et al., 2020; Vacca, 2004).
In fact, scholars argue that many of the learners enrolled in correctional education
programs have significant levels of academic variability (Ashcroft et al., 1998; DelliCarpini,
2008; Koo, 2016; Weaver et al., 2020), high rates of trauma exposure (Dierkhising et al., 2012;
Ely, 2011; Gregory et al., 2016; Kerig & Becker, 2010; Mendelson et al., 2015; Miller &
Najavits, 2012; Rohde-Collins, 2012; Santiago et al., 2018), significant mental health needs
(Ashcroft et al., 1998; Casperite, 2011; Kerig & Becker, 2010; Kistler, 1995), and have been
disproportionately impacted by discriminatory policies and practices in K-12 educational
institutions that contribute to the problem of minoritized incarceration (Castillo, 2014; Gregory
et al., 2016; Mallett, 2017; Schept et al., 2015; Skiba et al., 2016; Welch & Turner, 2007). To
this end, the study addresses the larger societal problem of institutionalized racism, educational
inequity, and the curtailment of opportunities (Wacquant, 2011) for ethnic and racial minorities
that are linked to disproportionate rates of school suspension and incarceration (Castillo, 2014;
2
Cramer et al., 2014; Gass & Laughter, 2015; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Losen, 2012; Mallett, 2017;
Myers, 2017; Noguera, 2012; Seroczynski, 2016). The primary focus of this evaluation,
however, explores the prevailing question: Do correctional educational teachers have the
capacity to meet the academic and emotional needs of students in correctional education
programs?
Organizational Background
The CDCR currently oversees over thirty adult correctional institutions across the state of
California and is responsible for meeting the collective needs of the approximately 98,000
offenders currently in its custody (CDCR, 2021). As part of a comprehensive plan for the
California state prison system, and under the recommendation of state, federal, judicial, and
organizational stakeholders, the CDCR has established the explicit goals of reducing the rate of
offender recidivism and improving the rehabilitation outcomes for its offender population. To
this end, the CDCR has remained responsive to the various stakeholder recommendations
through the implementation of strategic initiatives in the areas of cognitive-based treatment and
rehabilitative programs and services for its offender population. More specifically, the CDCR
has spearheaded an initiative that provides increased access to academic and career technical
education services that will lead to increased levels of academic achievement, academic degrees,
and professional trade certifications. Lastly, the CDCR has demonstrated their commitment to
lower the rate of offender recidivism by targeting and investing in employment services for in-
custody offenders. The implementation of employment services, it is hoped, will facilitate the
successful reentry of CDCR offenders back into the labor market upon their release (CDCR,
2016).
3
From an organizational and programmatic perspective, the CDCR organizational goals
look to (a) ensure that the CDCR workforce receives the necessary training to produce a high
quality workforce, (b) develop an organizational information technology strategy that meets both
current organizational goals and the future growth needs of the organization, (c) has
organizational operations and systems that limit risk management and increase overall
organizational effectiveness, and (d) establish organizational practices that meet legal
compliance standards, limit class action suits, and mitigate identifiable violations (CDCR, 2016).
The CDCR programmatic goals identify three actionable objectives: Crime Prevention
and Safety; Outreach, Partnership, and Transparency; and Health Care Delivery (CDCR, 2016).
The focus of the Crime Prevention and Safety goal is to develop crime prevention programs
based on evidence-based research that reduces criminality and victimization within California
institutions and in the general community at large. The aim of the Outreach, Partnerships, and
Transparency goal is to develop meaningful partnerships, programs, and processes that increase
community safety through shared responsibility. Lastly, the Health Care Delivery goal seeks to
employ effective organizational design and systems to deliver high quality health care to the
individuals in CDCR custody (CDCR, 2016).
Organizational Context and Mission
In response to the number of exogenous and endogenous recommendations that
benchmark lower rates of recidivism and improved outcomes for CDCR offenders, the CDCR
has established a number of clear, specific, and measurable goals: (a) to modify inmate
classification systems that increase access to rehabilitative programs, (b) to increase educational
access for offender by aligning in-custody housing assignments with rehabilitative services and
programs, and (c) to establish performance benchmarks that align 70% of the offender
4
population with rehabilitative programs and services four years prior to their release (CDCR,
2016). In this organizational context and framework, CDCR teachers can be expected to receive
important organizational resources, training, and professional development that will increase
their capacity to meet the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse
adult student population in a correctional setting (CDCR, 2016).
Organizational Performance Status
To achieve the organizational performance goal of providing high quality educational
programming and instruction for students, it is essential that CDCR teachers have the requisite
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources. Nevertheless, much of the academic
literature finds that teachers in the field of correctional education lack the knowledge,
professional development, and training necessary to meet the needs of a correctional education
student population with significant academic variability, increased levels of traumatic exposure,
and considerable mental health needs (Ashcroft et al., 1998; Bronson et al., 2015; Casperite,
2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016; Miller & Najavits, 2012). To achieve the organizational
mission of providing students high quality educational programming and instruction, teacher
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences must be evaluated.
Related Literature
According to the extant School-to-Prison pipeline (STPP) literature, the implementation
of zero-tolerance policies and exclusionary disciplinary practices have contributed to the
overrepresentation of ethnic and racialized minorities in both the school discipline and the
juvenile and adult incarceration pipelines (Alexander, 2012; Castillo, 2014; Counts et al., 2018;
Cramer et al., 2014; Mallett, 2017; Schept et al., 2015; Skiba et al., 2016a; Wade & Ortiz, 2016;
Wood et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2019). According to Castillo (2014), exclusionary discipline
5
“refers to the practice of pushing students out of educational institutions, primarily via zero-
tolerance and harsh disciplinary policies, and into the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems''
(p. 44), whereas zero-tolerance policies refer to the practice of removing youth from educational
school settings for relatively minor infractions (Hollar & Hollar, 2016). The implementation of
both zero-tolerance policies and exclusionary disciplinary practices in American schools,
however, has not made schools safer (Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Reyes, 2012), has not proven
to be an effective behavioral intervention (Mallett, 2017), and most importantly, has
disproportionately impacts ethnic and racial minorities (Castillo, 2014; Counts et al., 2018;
Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Huang & Dewey, 2017; Mallett, 2017; Reyes, 2012; Skiba et al., 2016;
Wood et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2019). As the current disproportionality in exclusionary discipline
for ethnic and racialized minorities comes into sharp relief, scholars have called for the
implementation of equity-based practices in K-12 educational institutions to redress historical in
equity in educational institutions for ethnic and racial minorities (Cramer et al., 2014; Delgado &
Stefancic, 2017; Gass et al., 2015; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Huang & Dewey, 2017; Mallett, 2017;
Meiners, 2015; Reyes, 2012; Salole & Abdulle, 2015; Shippen et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2019).
Importance of the Organizational Evaluation
Evaluating the organization’s performance is important for a variety of reasons. First,
evaluation of organizational performance identifies teacher assets, motivation, knowledge, and
organizational influences. Second, this evaluation supports the implementation of an action plan
that can mitigate a gap in performance for members of the CDCR (Clark & Estes, 2008). Third,
evaluation facilitates the communication of critical stakeholder feedback that can help eliminate
policies, practices, and processes that function as organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Collectively, addressing stakeholder performance gaps can improve CDCR stakeholder
6
performance, support existing organizational performance goals, reduce the rate of recidivism for
its offender population by improving student outcomes.
Schwandt & Marquardt (1999) echo this finding, stating that organizational learning
takes place when organizations assess, examine, and analyze their capabilities in the area of
learning and performance systems. Last, Clark and Estes (2008) find that evaluation ensures that
organizational policies and procedures are in alignment with the mission of the organization. By
incorporating evaluative measures, extant policies, practices, and procedures that can potentially
inhibit stakeholder progress can be rendered visible and redressed (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Organizational Performance Goal
The organizational goal is for 100% of CDCR staff to deliver the education, treatment,
rehabilitation, and restorative justice programs needed to meet the learning and emotional needs
of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population on an annual basis. The
organizational mission of the CDCR is to facilitate the successful reintegration of the individuals
in their care, in a safe and humane environment, where they are equipped to become contributing
and employable members of society.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The organizational stakeholder groups for this study are correctional education teachers,
administrators, and students. Correctional education administrators are responsible for ensuring
that teachers are meeting the learning, emotional, and mental health needs of students enrolled in
correctional education programming. Correctional education teachers are responsible for meeting
the learning, emotional, and mental health needs of students enrolled in their classrooms and for
implementing evidence-based methods and techniques that create safe, equitable spaces for
student learning. Last, correctional education students contribute to the successful achievement
7
of the organizational mission by making the active choice to enroll in educational programing, to
persist in the completion of their respective courses, and by investing the necessary mental effort
to learn while enrolled in the program. Although the CDCR has not established the goals of this
study organization wide, the proposed goals do highlight what can be achieved based on the
findings of this study.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the CDCR is to facilitate the successful reintegration of the individuals in
their care, in a safe and humane environment, where they are equipped to become
contributing and employable members of society.
Organizational Performance Goal
The organizational performance goal is for the CDCR to increase educational access and
rehabilitative services for its offender population, and to align 70% of the offender
population with rehabilitative services and programs four years prior to their release.
Administration Goal
100% of
Administrative staff
will observe teachers
bi-weekly to ensure
that they provide high
quality instruction that
meets both the
academic and
emotional needs of
their students.
Student Goal
100% of students will
have their academic
and career technical
education needs met
by teachers as
demonstrated by their
enrollment and
progress in CDCR
rehabilitative
programs.
Teacher Goal
80% of teachers will
deliver direct
instruction, on a
weekly basis, which
demonstrates their
knowledge of
evidence-based
pedagogical practices
known to improve
student learning
outcomes.
Teacher Goal
80% of teachers will
implement conflict
prevention and trauma-
informed approaches
into their daily practice
in the correctional
education classroom.
8
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholder group for this gap analysis evaluation study are correctional education
teachers who work at the CDCR. CDCR teachers are in positions to effectuate transformational
change in their academic spaces by meeting the diverse learning and emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse student population. For this reason, CDCR teachers are the
stakeholder group for this study. Clearly, the challenge of meeting the unique learning,
emotional, and mental health needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse student population in
correctional education is complex (Ashcroft et al., 1998; Bronson, Maruschak, & Berzofsky,
2015; Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016). Nevertheless, one of the CDCR’s stated
organizational goals is to “ensure that the CDCR workforce receives the necessary training to
produce a high-quality workforce" (CDCR, 2020). As such, assessing the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences of CDCR correctional education teachers directly
aligns with the organizational mission. Equally as important, it meets the larger societal problem
of redressing institutionalized racism, educational inequity, and structural oppression in
American educational institutions.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the organization’s performance related to a
larger problem of practice. This analysis will focus on the areas of CDCR teacher knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. While a complete performance evaluation would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis
is CDCR teachers.
As such, the questions that guide this study are as follows:
9
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent teachers from
meeting the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse student
population in a correctional setting?
2. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for correctional
education programs?
Methodological Framework
This study employs a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to explore the
capacity of correctional education teachers to meet the academic and emotional needs of an
ethnically and racially diverse adult student population. To explore the capacity of correctional
education teachers to meet the needs of their diverse student population, this study will utilize a
quantitative approach to data collection utilizing a voluntary and anonymous electronic survey.
Definitions
Active oppression: Refers to the targeting and marginalization of ethnic and racialized minorities
(Hardiman & Jackson, 1997).
Cognitive load theory: Cognitive load theory refers to a problem in human working memory
processing whereby the processing demands inherent in performing a learning task exceed the
actual human working memory processing capacity (Mayer & Moreno, 2010).
Conflict prevention practices: Practices that reduce the likelihood of conflict in a classroom
setting. Conflict in this study is defined as the presence of an incompatible activity where one
person is interfering, obstructing, or in other ways making the behavior of another less effective
(Alper et al., 2000).
10
Correctional education: Refers to education and training that is offered to juvenile and adult
offenders inside of a correctional facility (Davis et al., 2014).
Critical race theory (CRT): Part of a progressive movement, rooted in legal studies, which looks
at the influence of race, racism, and power in American institutions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).
Differential racialization: The marginalization of ethnic and racial groups based on perceived
differences from the dominant group (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).
Exclusionary discipline: Exclusionary discipline refers to harsh K-12 disciplinary policies and
practices that remove students from the classroom and are linked to higher incidences of student
dropout, arrest, and incarceration (Castillo, 2014).
Extraneous load: Extraneous load refers to the nonessential information that is delivered as part
of an instructional process (Mayer & Moreno, 2010).
Germane load: Germane load refers to the selection, organization, and integration of words and
pictures into an informational context that helps learners make sense of instructional material
(Mayer & Moreno, 2010).
Hispanic/Latino: The terms Hispanic and Latino are commonly used nouns that are also used to
describe students who are English learners (Rueda, 2011).
Implicit bias: Unconscious, race-based associations that negatively stereotype racialized groups
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).
Institutional racism: Systematic racism that proliferates across a plethora of landscapes in U.S.
institutions (Solórzano, 2016).
Majoritarianism: The viewpoint that embraces the notion that the attitude, culture, and
perspectives of the majority culture hold a special degree of importance (Delgado & Stefancic,
2017).
11
Microaggressions: Harmful, racialized encounters that are unconscious to members of the
dominant group (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).
Neoliberal policies: Shaped by a neoliberal ideology, neoliberal policies look to address social
and economic concerns with policies that are heavily shaped by free-market influences (Reyes,
2012).
Racism: Systemic oppression of ethnic and racial minorities, as a result of policy, action, or
inaction, based primarily on one’s race, culture, and phenotype (Kendi, 2019; Solórzano, 2002).
School Resource Officers (SROs): SROs are police officers that work in K-12 school settings.
According to the academic literature, the presence of SROs in K-12 schools is linked to
increased incidences of juvenile dropout, suspension, expulsion, arrest, and incarceration
(Castillo, 2014; Cramer et al., 2014; Hjalmarsson, 2008; Mallett, 2017; Seroczynski & Jobst,
2016; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016).
School-to-prison pipeline (STPP): Refers to the practice of pushing youth out of schools and into
the criminal justice system (Skiba et al., 2016).
Self-efficacy: Although people are shaped by their environment, the agentic perspective says they
have a hand in the process. Self-efficacy, therefore, is key as it affects the following: goals,
aspirations, commitment, effort invested, outcome expectations, proclivities, perception of
barriers, coping mechanisms, and opportunities in the social environment (Bandura, 2000); Self-
efficacy is not a global trait. Rather, it is situational and domain oriented (Elliot et al, 2018).
Socioeconomic status: Refers to factors that contribute to individual well-being: occupation,
income, and educational attainment (Bettie, 2011).
Trauma-informed practices (TIP): An evidence-based approach that is responsive to people who
have experienced traumatic experiences, builds understanding around the lasting effects that
12
trauma can have on life trajectories and develops policies and practices that demonstrate an acute
awareness and understanding of the impact of trauma (Castillo, 2014; Gregory et al., 2016;
Randall & Haskell, 2013; Santiago et al., 2018).
Zero-tolerance policies (ZTP): Refers to the practice of removing youth from educational school
settings, for relatively minor infractions (Hollar & Hollar, 2016).
White supremacy: A belief system defined by systemic domination, exploitation, and power that
privileges Whites and actively oppresses ethnic and racial minorities (Solórzano, 2016).
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. Chapter One presents the problem of
practice, related literature, and provides the reader with key concepts and field-based
terminology. Next, the organization’s mission, goals, stakeholders, and initial concepts of critical
race theory and gap analysis are introduced. Chapter Two examines institutional policies and
practices that adversely impact ethnic and racial minorities in K-12 schools (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2017) and uses a gap analysis theoretical framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to assess
teacher capacity to meet the unique learning and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally
diverse adult student population in a correctional education setting. Chapter Three details the
assumed needs for this study and discusses methodology, study participants, and data collection
protocols. In chapter four, the data is assessed and analyzed, and the findings of this study are
provided. Last, Chapter Five offers evidence-based solutions for closing organizational
performance gaps and includes an implementation and evaluation plan.
13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The performance problem addressed in this literature review is improving teacher
capacity to meet the educational needs of an ethnically and racially diverse adult student
population in a correctional setting. According to scholars, ethnical and racial minorities have
been disproportionately impacted by zero-tolerance and exclusionary disciplinary policies in K-
12 schools (Castillo, 2014; Mallett, 2017; Meiners, 2015; Moody, 2016; Noguera, 2012; Reyes,
2012; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016). Moreover, they argue that exclusionary
disciplinary policies are predicated on systemic racism, structural oppression, and are
inextricably linked to negative life outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities (Castillo, 2014;
Kendi, 2016; Mallett, 2017; Meiners, 2015; Moody, 2016; Noguera, 2012; Reyes, 2012; Skiba et
al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016). Although the negative life outcomes associated with these
policies and practices are well-documented in the literature, the disproportionality in
exclusionary discipline for ethnic and racialized minorities also increases the potentiality of their
eventual induction into what literature has termed the School-to-Prison pipeline (STPP).
Therefore, as ethnic and racial minorities are disproportionately sentenced to American jails and
prisons (Sickmund et al., 2019; Wacquant, 2008; Welch & Turner, 2007), correctional education
organizations, teachers, and administrative staff will be tasked with providing educational
opportunities that (a) support learner growth and transformation, (b) re-engage learners in
educational programming, (c) address the needs of learners with high levels of academic
variability and serious mental health issues, and (d) significantly reduce the rate of recidivism for
incarcerated populations.
To better serve ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education programs, scholars
argue that educational program should he responsive to their specific academic and emotional
14
needs (Ashcroft, 1998; Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Fractor, 2016; Koo, 2016; Weaver et
al., 2020). One of the aims of this literature review, therefore, is to identify historical inequity,
structural oppression, and systemic racism in American institutions for ethnic and racial
minorities. This review will also examine the globalization of zero-tolerance policies and the
political influences that helped support the implementation of zero-tolerance policies in
American schools. Additionally, this review will analyze the academic research that explicitly
connects the disproportionality in exclusionary discipline for ethnic and racial minorities to the
extant STPP. Last, this literature review will assess the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impact CDCR teachers’ capacity to meet the academic and
emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. To
contextualize these influences, this paper draws from the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework.
Interrogating Educational Institutions with a Critical Race Theory Lens
According to Delgado and Stefancic (2017), Critical Race Theory (CRT) is often
characterized as a movement that looks to be transformative, empowering, and studies inequity
through the prism of race, racism, and constitutional law. CRT also serves as an effective
heuristic for exploring the centrality of race, institutionalized racism, systemic marginalization,
and active forms of oppression in educational institutions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Hereth et
al., 2012; Noguera, 2012; Reyes, 2012; Solórzano, 2016; Yang et al., 2019). One of the larger
goals of CRT is to interrogate systems of power, to examine oppressive structures, and to
challenge the myriad forms of racism that actively target and marginalize people of color
(Darder, 2002; Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Reyes, 2014; Solórzano, 2016).
15
Chavez et al. (2008) and Johnson (2006) find that structural oppression, inequality, and
repressive systems of power come to functionally restrict access to power and material
conditions. According to Chavez et al. (2008), limited material conditions include substandard
levels of education, housing, and economic opportunity for poor ethnic and racial minorities.
Although scholars continue to identify a plethora of negative life outcomes associated with the
implementation of these policies and practices, their widespread use continues to be captured in
the literature (Castillo, 2014; Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Mallett, 2017; Wood et al., 2018).
To mitigate this reality, Delgado and Stefancic (2017) argue that CRT conceptual tools
must examine western viewpoints, western philosophies, and their propensity to place an
overreliance on Whiteness within American institutions. Using CRT tools, scholars argue,
provides a critical lens to explore the adverse structural conditions that exist, their production,
and how inequity is perpetuated in educational institutions for ethnic and racialized minorities
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Solórzano, 2016; Yang et al., 2019).
Examining White Supremacy and Institutionalized Racism
The construction of race, Whiteness, and White privilege has come to denote historical
privilege in American society (Alexander, 2012; Battalora, 2014; DiAngelo, 2011; Solórzano,
2016; Valencia et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2019). Historically, the complexities of race matters set
the stage for racial injustices, genocides, oppression, and human atrocities (DeGruy, 2005;
Ladson-Billings, 1999; Saunders, 2019; Tuck & Yang, 2014). In fact, Solórzano (2016) contends
that race acts as a contemporary form of cultural and social demarcation that infers racial
superiority, power, and actively normalizes the dominant group as White (Cornell & Hartman,
2007; Park, 2005; Solórzano, 2016). In this worldview, all references outside of the normalized
construction of Whiteness are relegated to subordinate positions of power (Cornell & Hartman,
16
2007). Delgado and Stefancic (2017) refer to this normalization of Whiteness as the majority
culture as differential racialization or majoritarianism. Tellingly, White privilege, racial injustice,
and racialized forms of social demarcation have acted as veritable forms of oppression and social
inequity for ethnic and racial minorities in American institutions (Alexander, 2012; Battalora,
2014; DiAngelo, 2011; Solórzano, 2016; Valencia et al., 2002).
The legacy of structural inequity, racial oppression, and White supremacy has been
pervasive in American institutions and schools (Battalora, 2014; Bennett, 2019; Cornell &
Hartman, 2007; Kendi, 2016; Valencia et al., 2002). As Battalora (2014) avers, the colonial
construction of Whiteness is explicitly connected to inequitable power structures, notions of
racial superiority, colonial oppression, anti-miscegenation laws, the establishment of premier
economic ties with Whites, and racial segregation in American schools (Valencia et al., 2002).
As such, the integration of repressive ideologies into the American colonial fabric amounts to the
systematic devaluing of Black rights, Black freedoms, and the further promulgation of White
privilege across a multitude of landscapes (Cornell & Hartman, 2007; Kendi, 2016).
As the study of race is contextualized along the intersections of power, racial
discrimination, structural inequity, and systemic oppression, new traditions such as CRT seek to
further understanding, interrogate systems of power, identify structural forms of oppression, and
attempt to connect modern policies, practices, and outcomes with institutionalized racism
(Meiners, 2015; Reyes, 2012; Schept et al., 2015). As such, the overrepresentation of ethnic and
racial minorities in correctional institutions is inextricably linked to institutionalized racism,
White supremacy, and extant forms of structural oppression (Alexander, 2012; Davis, 2000;
Hermes, 1999; Kendi, 2016; Meiners, 2015; Reyes, 2012).
17
The Globalization of Zero-Tolerance Policies: American Think Tanks
The promulgation and advocacy for zero-tolerance policies, by the Manhattan Institute
(MI) and the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) in the United Kingdom, effectively normalized
various social, economic, and policing policies, globally (Newburn & Jones, 2007; Wacquant,
2009). The support for zero-tolerance policies, however, is not a new phenomenon (Wacquant,
2008). In fact, zero-tolerance policies gained prominence in both the Reagan and Bush
presidential administrations, punctuated by increased funding for drug enforcement policies and
the signaling of authority that uncompromisingly approached crime, drug use, and other social
problems (Davis, 2000; Newburn & Jones, 2007; Wacquant, 2008).
Based on Wilson and Kelling's (1982) broken windows policing theory, the eradication of
quality-of-life offences was promoted as an efficacious response to crime prevention, social
control (Devlin, 2018), and the efficient allocation of economic resources (Newburn & Jones,
2007). Thus, the eradication of quality of life offences encapsulated a wide range of social and
economic policies including (a) welfare retrenchment, (b) increased public oversight and
monitoring of social welfare programs, (c) removal of existing affirmative action programs, (d)
increased policing in poor, racialized communities, (d) data-driven crime management, and (f)
ultimately, the robust expansion of the prison state (Davis, 2000; Malanga, 2007; Manhattan
Institute, 2000; MacDonald, 2002; Newburn & Jones, 2007; Wacquant, 2009). As the leading
think tanks on zero-tolerance policy, the MI and IEA sponsored seminars and public lectures
featuring prominent public officials to a network of political and law enforcement elites that
effectively spread the fecundity of zero-tolerance policies both domestically and abroad (Devlin,
2018; Newburn & Jones, 2007). Most notably, New York Mayor, Rudy Giuliani, and New York
City Commissioner of Police, William Bratton, spoke at zero-tolerance seminars in the United
18
States, Europe, South America, and the United Kingdom, promoting zero-tolerance and the
eradication of quality-of-life offences (Devlin, 2018; Newburn & Jones, 2007).
Although scholars from around the world critiqued the broken windows theory over a
lack of empirical evidence (Newburn & Jones, 2007), the popularization and adoption of zero-
tolerance policies, globally, established a veritable nexus of influence between public
intellectuals, public officials, and policing policies in the United States and around the world
(Malanga, 2007; Newburn & Jones, 2007; Wacquant, 2008). Ultimately, with the global
promotion of zero-tolerance policies came the many high stakes premonitory realities: welfare
retrenchment, robust expansion of police power, exponential rates of incarceration, and the
overrepresentation of poor, ethnic, and racial minorities in penal institutions around the world
(Davis, 2000; Malanga, 2007; Newburn & Jones, 2007; Wacquant, 2008; Wacquant, 2009).
Zero-Tolerance Policies: Antecedent Influences
The enactment of the 1994 Gun-Free Schools Act (GFSA) served as the catalyst for the
expansion of zero-tolerance policies in American schools (Cramer et al., 2014; Cuellar &
Markowitz, 2015; Gass & Laughter, 2015; Triplett et al., 2014). The implementation of zero-
tolerance policies in American schools was intended to address the most serious crimes, e.g.,
weapons, school violence, and to increase student learning (Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015;
Freeman & Steidl, 2016; Haight et al., 2014; Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2012; Reyes, 2012; Wade
& Ortiz, 2016; Welch & Turner, 2007). Nevertheless, zero-tolerance policies are widely regarded
as the impetus for the increased application of exclusionary disciplinary policies in American
schools (Castillo, 2014; Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Gass & Laughter, 2015; Noguera, 2012;
Reyes, 2012; Yang et al., 2019).
19
Over time, the administration of exclusionary disciplinary practices began to impart
severe penalties for school infractions that had incrementally evolved to include tardiness, school
disruptions, and even failing to do homework (Cramer et al., 2014; Wald & Losen, 2009). With
the increasing expansion of zero-tolerance policies in American schools came increased police
presence, increased school surveillance capabilities, metal detectors, and the disproportionality in
exclusionary discipline for ethnic and racialized minorities (Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2012;
Reyes, 2012).
Implementation of Zero-Tolerance Policies in American Schools
The implementation of zero-tolerance policies in American schools over the past 30 years
bifurcated from an administrative response to school discipline to a more severe interpretation of
school infractions (Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Freeman & Steidl, 2016; Haight et al., 2014;
Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2012; Reyes, 2012; Wade & Ortiz, 2016 Welch & Turner, 2007). Many
researchers believe that the implementation of zero-tolerance policies lead to a nexus of
inequitable outcomes for poor, ethnic, and racial minorities and has involuntarily “pushed” the
most vulnerable groups out of schools and into the STPP. (Castillo, 2014; Cramer et al., 2014;
Gass & Laughter, 2015; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Losen, 2012; Mallett, 2017; Myers, 2017;
Noguera, 2012; Seroczynski & Jobst, 2016). This punitive response, scholars argue, serves as a
lever of symbolic power and authority in American schools that disproportionately impacts poor
youth of color (Castillo, 2014; Mallett, 2017; Meiners, 2015; Myers, 2017; Noguera, 2012).
Although proponents of zero-tolerance policies in American schools initially argued that
these policies made schools safer, the research does not support this claim (Castillo, 2014;
Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2012; Wald & Losen, 2009). In fact, zero-tolerance policies have (a)
failed to make schools safer, (b) adversely impacted student academic performance (Castillo,
20
2014; Wald & Losen, 2009), (c) increased incidences of student misbehavior (Hollar & Hollar,
2016; Wald & Losen, 2009), and (d) increased school suspensions and expulsions for poor,
youth of color (Castillo, 2014; Cramer et al., 2014; Mallett, 2017; Skiba et al., 2016; Skiba et al.,
2016a; Wald & Losen, 2009; Wood et al., 2018). Moreover, Mallett (2017) finds that the
application of zero-tolerance and exclusionary disciplinary policies is so common in American
schools that it is thought to affect millions of ethnic and racial minorities across the United
States.
Shifting Administrative Protocols in Educational Institutions
The integration of School Resource Officers (SROs) as a form of community policing in
American public schools first occurred in Flint, Michigan, in the 1950s (Counts et al., 2018).
According to Counts el al. (2018), the estimated number of SROs, assigned to nearly a third of
all public schools, is believed to be between 14,000 and 20,000. Many scholars argue that this
integration of School Resource Officers (SROs) into American schools represents an abdication
of responsibility that effectively shifts student discipline responsibilities from educators to law
enforcement (Castillo, 2014; Counts et al., 2018; Meiners, 2015; Noguera, 2012; Theriot, 2009;
Wade & Ortiz, 2016)
According to Hollar and Hollar (2016), exclusionary discipline refers to disciplinary
policies and practices in American schools that are unduly harsh and focus solely on punishment.
Many scholars note that with the increase in exclusionary disciplinary policies and practices
came increases in youth surveillance, youth arrest, and the criminalization of ethnic and racial
minorities in American schools (Castillo, 2014; Gass & Laughter, 2015; Myers, 2017; Noguera,
2012; Theriot, 2009; Wade & Ortiz, 2016; Yang et al., 2019). One important observation
regarding this procedural shift in school discipline is the finding that harsh disciplinary policies
21
and practices are more prevalent in poor, urban schools of color (Castillo, 2014; Counts et al.,
2018; Cramer et al., 2014; Mallett, 2017; Skiba et al., 2016; Skiba et al., 2016a; Wade & Ortiz,
2016; Wald & Losen, 2009; Wood et al., 2018). Tellingly, the implementation of exclusionary
disciplinary policies and practices, coupled with a shift in authority from educators to SROs in
American schools, created a plethora of negative life outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities.
The Relationship Between SROs and Adverse Outcomes for Minorities
Today, many scholars find that an increase in the number of SROs in American
schools is correlated with increased incidences of student dropout, suspension, expulsion, arrest,
and incarceration (Castillo, 2014; Cramer et al., 2014; Hjalmarsson, 2008; Mallett, 2017;
Seroczynski & Jobst, 2016; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016). For example, Theriot
(2009) finds that “the presence of an SRO gives a 197.7 % increase in the rate of arrests per one
hundred students” (p. 284). Similarly, Mallet (2017) reports that schools with SROs have
significantly higher student arrest rates than those schools without SROs. Tellingly, Counts et al.
(2018) and Mallett (2017) find that students most impacted by punitive disciplinary policies are
poor, youth of color. In this regard, many researchers contend that enforcement of exclusionary
disciplinary policies pushes ethnic and racialized youth out of schools and into the school-to
prison nexus (Castillo, 2014; Counts et al., 2018; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Mallett, 2017; Meiners,
2015; Reyes, 2012; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016; Yang et al., 2019).
Many scholars find that ethnic and racial minorities experience disproportionate rates of
arrest and incarceration in the United States (Alexander, 2012; Castillo, 2014; Counts et al.,
2018; Cramer et al., 2014; Hjalmarsson, 2018; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Huang & Cornell, 2017;
Mallett, 2017; Reyes, 2012; Rocque & Snellings, 2018; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade & Ortiz, 2016;
Wood et al., 2018). In fact, Castillo (2014) finds that ethnic and racial minority arrests in
22
American schools make up more than 70% of all school arrests. On a similar note, in one
comparative analysis study that examines juvenile incarceration rates by race, the proportion of
ethnic and racial minority incarceration rates to White incarceration rates captures a staggering
disparity: ethnic and racial minorities are incarcerated at a rate of 4:1 in 17 states across the
nation; 8:1 in four states across the nation; and at least 2:1 in every other state in the nation
(ACLU, 2013).
Furthermore, after analyzing data from the National Center for Juvenile Justice (NCJJ),
which tracks juvenile incarceration by state and race (1997-2017), Sickmund et al. (2019) found
a marked disproportionality in ethnic and racialized minority incarceration in two densely
populated Western states, California and Texas. An analysis of NCJJ data finds that of the 5,463
youths placed in detention facilities in California in 2017, over 82% were African American and
Hispanic. In fact, in 2017, Hispanic youth in California had the highest rate of incarceration in
juvenile detention facilities (3,078) and were incarcerated at a rate 302 % higher than their White
peers. Moreover, of the 3,963 youths incarcerated in juvenile detention facilities in Texas, over
57% were African American and Hispanic (Sickmund et al., 2019). Yet again, an analysis of
NCJJ data finds that Hispanics had the highest rate of juvenile incarceration in the state of Texas
(1,587) and were incarcerated at a rate 102% higher than their White peers (Sickmund et al.,
2019).
Although the implementation of exclusionary discipline policies was predicated on safe
classrooms and optimal learning environments for students, the implementation of exclusionary
disciplinary policies in American schools has not resulted in safer schools (Cuellar & Markowitz,
2015; Freeman & Steidl, 2016; Haight et al., 2014; Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2012; Reyes, 2012;
Wade & Ortiz, 2016; Welch & Turner, 2007), has not served as an effective deterrent (Mallett,
23
2017), and has systematically marginalized ethnic and racialized youth by pushing them out of
school and into the criminal justice system (Castillo, 2014; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Huang &
Cornell, 2017; Mallett, 2017; Reyes, 2012; Rocque & Snellings, 2018; Skiba et al., 2016; Wade
& Ortiz, 2016; Wood et al., 2018). Nevertheless, despite the adverse life outcomes associated
with exclusionary disciplinary policies, it is still commonplace for schools to work with SROs
when resolving student disciplinary matters (Counts et al., 2018; Theriot, 2009; Wade & Ortiz,
2016). In fact, Cramer et al. (2014) and Hjalmarsson (2018) argue that juvenile arrest
significantly impacts the prospect of high school graduation and increases the statistical
likelihood of future incarceration. Compellingly, a concomitant result of suspension and
expulsion for ethnic and racialized minorities, therefore, is increased incidences of arrest, drop
out, and induction into the STPP and the prison industrial complex (PIC) (Castillo, 2014; Cramer
et al., 2014; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Hjalmarsson, 2008; Mallett, 2017; Reyes, 2012; Theriot,
2009).
Educational Institutions and the Prison-Industrial Complex
Reyes (2012), Schept, et al., (2015) and Rocque and Snellings (2017) argue that the
linkages that exist between educational institutions and police power contribute to the
overrepresentation of ethnic and racial minorities in American prisons and jails. According to
Meiners (2015) and Wacquant (2009), however, the policies and practices implemented in
American institutions also represent a form of social policy that is inextricably tied to the penal
treatment of complex social problems that legitimates the robust expansion of the modern-day
prison system. This literature review, therefore, will examine the implementation of exclusionary
disciplinary policies in American schools, and will briefly explore the connections that exist
24
between American institutions (Reyes, 2012), harsh social policies (Noguera, 2003; Reyes,
2012), and American prisons (Schept et al., 2015; Welch & Turner, 2007).
Neoliberalism and Corporate Profiteering in American Prisons
For this literature review, neoliberalism will be defined as a neoliberal approach to
policy-making that addresses social and economic concerns with policies that are heavily shaped
by free-market influences (Reyes, 2012). The advent of corporate profiteering in the American
penal system can be traced back to the Reagan Administration of the 1980s (Schept et al., 2015;
Welch & Tuner, 2007). As Schept et al. (2015) state, the branch of science known as
criminology was borne as a response to the coming of the youth super predator. Although the
super predator never arrived, it did serve as the impetus for changes in social policy and
functioned as the underlying structure of the STPP (Castillo, 2014; Reyes, 2012; Schept, et al.,
2015). The adoption of a market-driven approach, to securitize American schools, led to the
criminalization of poor ethnic and racial minorities (Wacquant, 2012). This heightened sense of
punishment, harsh judicial penalties, and mandatory sentences facilitated the robust growth of
the American prison and jail system, increasing the rate of both incarceration and profit (Welch
& Taylor, 2007). The advent of a neoliberal penal model, they contend, represents a penal-
economic model that, historically, has benefited from the triangulation of profit, social policy,
and government leverage in the commodification of prisoners.
Financial Backers of the Prison-Industrial Complex
With the robust expansion of the American PIC came the procurement of supporters,
financial backers, and opportunities for corporate profit (Davis, 2000; Schept et al., 2015; Welch
& Turner, 2007). According to Welch and Turner (2007), robust prison expansion was aided
through the efforts of veritable global investment banks, such as Goldman Sachs and Salomon
25
Smith Barney, who were duly responsible for underwriting tax-exempt bonds that provided the
necessary capital for correctional construction projects- thereby creating a lucrative prison-for-
profit model. In fact, two of the largest public funds in the United States, the California State
Teachers’ Retirement System and the New York State Commission Fund, were financially vested
in two private correctional companies in 2018 (Diamond, 2018). Regrettably, this penal profit
enterprise offers financial backers a lucrative prison market built on the no-empty-cell-left-
behind prison model (Alexander, 2012; Davis, 2000).
With the establishment of a prison profit model came the concomitant effect of systemic
oppression and marginalization for people of color who lacked the financial wherewithal to
insulate themselves from the PIC (Davis, 2000; Wacquant, 2009; Welch & Taylor, 2007). In
fact, many scholars argue that the current privatized prison model is leveraged in the
commodification of prisoners (Davis, 2000; Kendi, 2016; Reyes, 2012; Welch & Taylor, 2007)
that is possible only by way of institutional racism and class oppression that disproportionately
impacts ethnic and racial minorities (Davis, 2000; Reyes, 2012; Schept et al., 2015; Wacquant,
2012). This paradigmatic shift in prison management is responsible for harsh mandatory
sentences (Wacquant, 2012; Welch & Turner, 2007), exorbitantly high rates of arrest for racial
minorities (Alexander, 2012; Davis, 2000; Office of Juvenile Delinquency and Prevention,
2019), and account for an 800% increase in the number of adults incarcerated in America over
the past 30 years (Alexander, 2012; Reyes, 2012). In fact, Gifford (2019) finds that between the
1980s and 2015, the U.S. prison population grew by over 1.6 million. Although the U.S.
comprises only five percent of the global population, it accounts for nearly 25 % of the world’s
incarcerated population, bringing the current number of incarcerated inmates to 2.2 million
(Bauer, 2018). With the exponential rate of growth in the American prison system came the
26
overrepresentation of ethnic and racial minorities in American prisons and the establishment of
the United States of America as the unequivocal world leader in global incarceration (Alexander,
2012; Bauer, 2018; Davis, 2000; Schept, et al., 2015; Wacquant, 2009; Welch & Taylor, 2007).
The analysis of institutionalized racism, structural oppression, and educational inequity
for ethnic and racial minorities informed this Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (KMO)
gap analysis study. Because a vast majority of the correctional population is comprised of ethnic
and racial minorities (Alexander, 2012; Bauer, 2018; Davis, 2000; Schept, et al., 2015;
Wacquant, 2009; Welch & Taylor, 2007), one aim of this literature review was to use a CRT lens
to explore issues of institutionalized racism, educational inequity, and structural oppression for
ethnic and racial minorities in American educational institutions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017;
Jones & Wijeyesinghe, 2018). In practice, the exploration of structural forms of racism,
inequality, and oppression exposes the factors involved in the marginalization of the most
vulnerable groups and has relevance to a specific community (Hermes, 1999). The next
component of this evaluation study aims to understand the assumed gaps in participants’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008) that affects their ability
to meet the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population in a correctional setting.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework provides a systematic approach to
solving organizational performance problems. The purpose of gap analysis is to assess whether
stakeholders have the necessary knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to achieve
their organizational performance goals. An important part of this process is identification and
27
assessment of existing performance gaps and desired performance. Once the assessment and
identification of organizational goals has been proposed, compatible goal structures can be
created for stakeholders that align with organizational performance goals. As a framework, gap
analysis facilitates fundamental organizational change by assessing human performance issues
that are related to knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), an integral part of the analysis process is to capture
the reason why goals are not being met and to validate the presumed causes. To this end, the
validation and prioritization of the assumed causes of existing performance gaps will come from
the following sources: (a) teacher experiential knowledge of the organization and stakeholder
surveys; (b) peer-reviewed literature in the subject-matter domain of correctional education, the
STPP, and equity-based pedagogical practices; and (c) learning and motivational theories. Upon
validation of the assumed causes of organizational performance gaps, research-based
recommendations and solutions will be provided for the validated causes (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011).
Declarative factual knowledge influences. Common declarative knowledge objectives
include recalling, understanding, paraphrasing, and summarizing facts, lists, and other forms of
information (Clark & Estes, 2008; Smith & Ragan, 2005). Because any one subject-matter
domain is made up of an inexhaustible number of basic elements and facts, it is nearly
impossible for even a subject matter expert to stay abreast of all elements of a subject (Anderson
& Krathwohl, 2001). One assumed cause of the stakeholder gap is their lack of declarative
factual knowledge of the information-processing model and cognitive load theory (CLT),
teaching practices that improve student outcomes, and elements of effective instructional design
that enhance student learning. Therefore, if stakeholders cannot recall or understand basic tenets
28
of the information-processing model and CLT, teaching practices that improve student outcomes,
and elements of effective instructional design that enhance learning, then a declarative factual
knowledge gap will be validated.
Teachers understand the basic elements of the information processing model and
cognitive load theory. Teachers know teaching practices that improve student learning
outcomes. Teachers know elements of effective instructional design that enhance student
learning.
According to Mayer and Moreno (2010), CLT refers to a problem in human working
memory processing whereby the processing demands inherent in performing a learning task
exceed the actual human WMP capacity. With this understanding, CLT provides an important
framework for understanding the human cognitive architecture, the importance of managing
dual-channel processing during instruction, knowing the elements of effective instructional
design that reduce cognitive load and increase meaningful learning, and identifying teaching
practices that improve student learning outcomes (Kalyuga et al., 2010; Koo, 2016; Mayer, 2011;
Mayer & Moreno, 2010; Paas et al., 2003).
To better understand CLT, important terms should be operationalized: active processing,
extraneous load, germane load, working memory processing, and the dual channel system.
Active processing refers to meaningful engagement in the appropriate cognitive processes during
instruction that is required for students to effectively grasp the inherent complexity of the
learning material (Mayer, 2011; Mayer & Moreno, 2010). During active processing, instructors
should incorporate teaching practices that communicate what is essential to the learning task,
make the learning relevant to the learner, and make the learning task explicitly clear (Mayer,
2011).
29
Extraneous load or incidental processing, as defined by Mayer and Moreno (2010), refers
to the nonessential information that is delivered as part of the instructional process. According to
Mayer (2011), extraneous load is a waste of cognitive capacity and is an indicator of poor
instructional design. Germane load or generative processing refers to the selection, organization,
and integration of words and pictures into an informational context that helps learners make
sense of instructional material (Mayer & Moreno, 2010). With generative processing, students
make sense of material in working memory, reorganize critically important information, and
connect it to their prior knowledge. Generative processing is also a reflection of the learner’s
motivation to learn (Mayer, 2011).
Other important features of the information processing model is the understanding of
human working memory processing (WMP) capacity and the dual channels that exist for
processing information. According to Mayer (2011) and Mayer and Moreno (2010), humans
have limited working memory processing capacity and have dual channels for processing. The
functional purpose of dual channels, they argue, is to process both verbal and visual information.
Because only small amounts of information can be processed in a channel at one time, both
channels should be activated during instruction to enhance learning (Mayer, 2011). Furthermore,
because WMP is limited in both capacity and duration, especially with novel information, the
instructional design should be structured in ways that limit extraneous load and support germane
load (Kalyuga et al., 2010; Mayer & Moreno, 2010). As both extraneous load and germane load
are influenced by the existing instructional design (Paas et al, 2003), when correctional education
teachers provide direct instruction that is extraneous and informationally dense, learners’ WMP
will be stretched beyond practical limits and the instructional design will negatively impact
student learning (Mayer, 2011; Mayer & Moreno, 2010; Paas et al., 2003).
30
However, when active processing and germane load is effectively managed as part of the
instructional design process and teachers implement evidence-based teaching practices, students
will experience greater skill development and student learning will be enhanced (Dembo &
Eaton, 2000). Moreover, eliminating extraneous load and supporting germane load will free up
WMP, increase information storage capacity, increase skill development for novice learners, and
will improve overall student performance (Ambrose et al., 2010; Kalyuga et al., 2010; Mayer,
2011; Mayer & Moreno, 2010).
Examples of effective instructional design and teaching practices include the following:
providing students with worked examples when paired with problem solving tasks to free up
working memory processing; pre-teaching vocabulary and important terminology before
teaching complex information; offering students continuous practice on a learning task to build
automaticity and mastery; eliminating extraneous material from the instructional design to
enhance learning transfer; making the information being taught personally relevant to learners;
providing novice learners with opportunities to study examples of problems when learning
complex information; maximizing dual channel processing by pairing word descriptions with
visual information and images to avoid the split-attention effect; and providing cues to the
learner that teachers them how to select essential information (Mayer & Moreno, 2011). By
incorporating elements of effective instructional design and implementing teaching practices that
are known to improve student outcomes, teachers can support life-long student learning and
greater student skill development that can function as an adaptive mechanism for students who
find themselves in educational settings that are not responsive to their specific learning needs
(Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
31
Conceptual knowledge influences. All forms of knowledge that require thought consist
of facts, concepts, processes, and principles are conceptual (Clark & Estes, 2008). One assumed
cause that acts as an organizational barrier for teachers achieving their stakeholder goal is their
lack of declarative conceptual knowledge of using disaggregated data to improve student
learning outcomes.
In Harris and Bensimon (2007), studying disaggregated data in higher education
institutions served as an opportunity to learn about, and better serve, historically marginalized
ethnic and racial minority students. Adapting an equity audit in a correctional educational
context would provide an opportunity to learn from the disaggregated data of correctional
education students, e.g., reading and math numeracy levels, school suspensions, special learning
needs, and school dropout rates. In this capacity, performing an equity audit in a correctional
educational context can help identify major gaps in educational outcomes for students enrolled in
correctional education programs. According to Harris and Bensimon (2007), identifying
performance gaps provides critically important data for faculty, administrators, and organizations
and can serve as a catalyst for change and improved outcomes for historically marginalized
groups. If stakeholders’ lack the necessary conceptual knowledge to conduct an equity audit
using disaggregated data for the correctional education student population, educational and
structural forms of inequity can be rendered invisible (Bensimon et al., 2007; Gregory et al.,
2016; Hollar & Hollar, 2016; Rueda, 2011), leading to the possibility of continued perpetuation
of structural inequities and poor student learning outcomes for the students (Devine et al., 2012).
To validate this cause, teachers will be asked to identify their conceptual understanding of using
disaggregated data to improve student learning outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students
in correctional education programs. If survey participants do not know the connection between
32
using disaggregated data to improve student learning outcomes, then a declarative conceptual
knowledge gap will be validated.
Teachers know the importance of disaggregating student achievement data to
improve test scores.
While a national consensus has emerged that calls for the supplanting of current
exclusionary disciplinary policies and practices with more equitable approaches in educational
spaces (Skiba et al., 2016), most K-12 and higher education programs lack the knowledge and
skills necessary to attain meaningful organizational learning (Harris & Bensimon, 2007). In fact,
in many correctional educational programs, equity and the specific learning needs of correctional
education students are not prioritized outcomes (Koo, 2016). According to Gregory et al. (2016),
Harris and Bensimon (2007), and Hollar and Hollar (2016), because racial disparities are not
well-known to all people, structural inequities and racial disparities must be highlighted with
data to change organizational practices (Aspen Institute, 2013). Once teachers study
disaggregated data (Devine et al., 2012), they have a greater capacity to examine their own
individual biases and are better able to understand systemic racism and structural forms of
oppression that have functionally marginalized ethnic and racial minorities in educational
institutions (Harris & Bensimon, 2007; Gregory et al., 2016; Hollar & Hollar, 2016). To this end,
the purpose of disaggregating student data is to create a climate in correctional education
programs that prioritizes the service of traditionally marginalized groups, promotes equity as an
institutional responsibility, establishes evidence-based awareness of racial inequities among
practitioners, and brings equity to the foreground through measurable educational outcomes for
historically marginalized students (Harris & Bensimon, 2007). With this in mind, the
overarching goal of learning from disaggregated data is to bring equity and social justice to the
33
foreground (Jones & Wijeyesinghe, 2018) so that teachers can better serve their students in
correctional education classrooms. By increasing practitioner awareness in the areas of
structural inequity, racial disparities, and poor educational outcomes for historically marginalized
students, teachers might be better prepared to ameliorate negative learning outcomes for minority
students in correctional education programs.
Procedural knowledge influences. Procedural knowledge refers to the ability to
complete a task that consists of a multitude of factors, e.g., knowledge of techniques, methods,
domain specific skills, and understanding when certain steps are appropriate (Krathwohl, 2002).
Additionally, procedural knowledge has a wide range of potential applications, e.g., from driving
a car to, to providing training, to understanding how to study effectively. Ultimately, procedural
knowledge addresses how someone learns (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Clark & Estes, 2008). One
assumed cause of the stakeholder gap is that correctional education teachers do not have
knowledge of how to use trauma-informed practices, how to de-escalate a volatile situation, how
to implement trauma-informed practices, and how to implement conflict prevention practices in
the correctional education classroom. Therefore, if stakeholders cannot demonstrate knowledge
of the assumed procedural knowledge influences, then a procedural knowledge gap will be
validated.
Teachers need to know how to use trauma-informed practices in the correctional
education classroom. Teachers need to know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom. Teachers know how to implement trauma-informed
practices in the correctional education classroom. Teachers know how to implement
conflict prevention practices that will de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional
education classroom.
34
In their seminal work on adverse childhood experiences (ACE's), Felitti et al. (1998)
established the prevalence of trauma in the general population and uncovered the plethora of
adverse personal, socio-economic, and mental health outcomes that are associated with trauma
exposure. Many scholars who studied ACE's, PTSD, and the STPP would later establish the link
between trauma, PTSD, and increased incidences of incarceration (Benitez et al., 2013; Butcher
et al., 2014; Castillo, 2014; Fox et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2016; Randall & Haskell, 2013; Ross
& Brown, 2016; Santiago et al., 2018). Moreover, Randall & Haskell (2013) argue that
paradigmatic shifts in medicine have led to important findings that support the integration of
trauma-informed approaches in a variety of contexts and settings and recognize trauma-informed
approaches as an integral part of effective policy and organizational practice. Trauma-informed
practices represent an evidence-based approach that is responsive to people who have
experienced traumatic experiences, builds understanding around the lasting effects that trauma
can have on life trajectories and develops policies and practices that demonstrate an acute
awareness and understanding of the impact of trauma (Castillo, 2014; Gregory et al., 2016;
Randall & Haskell, 2013; Santiago et al., 2018).
In the correctional education context, Casperite (2011), DelliCarpini (2008), Ely (2011),
and Kistler (1995) corroborate these findings, observing the correctional education population to
have significant mental health, learning, and emotional needs. In line with these findings, many
scholars argue that a significant number of correctional education students suffer from antisocial
personality disorders, significant mental illness disorders (Ashcroft et al., 1998; Casperite, 2011;
Miller & Najavits, 2012), and 55% of the male correctional education population have been
diagnosed with mental health issues (Casperite, 2011). Nevertheless, despite the significant
mental health and emotional needs of the correctional education population, many scholars argue
35
that teachers do not have the knowledge of trauma-informed practices and interventions to meet
the needs of the student population they serve (Bronson et al., 2015; Casperite, 2011;
DelliCarpini, 2008; Ely, 2011; Kistler, 1995; Leitch, 2017). The prevalence of student trauma in
correctional education spaces has profound implications for the correctional education
community and highlights the need for the implementation of trauma-informed approaches in
correctional education programs. Moreover, according to Randell & Haskell (2013), the most
effective way to increase teacher capacity around the domain of trauma and trauma informed
practices is to provide clear and comprehensive information about human psychology, drivers of
behavior, and the underlying mechanisms of trauma responses. With trauma-informed
professional development and training, teachers will have the ability to acknowledge the
prevalence of trauma as part of the human condition (especially in vulnerable populations),
understand the collective impact of trauma in students' daily experiences, recognize the need for
trauma-informed interventions, and have the capacity to implement trauma-informed practices in
the classroom (Randall & Haskell, 2013).
The effective management of student discipline matters in correctional education
programs is vitally important for both teachers and students (Casperite, 2011). In K-12 settings,
many scholars support supplanting inequitable disciplinary policies and practices with evidence-
based, equitable approaches that avoid conflict, build effective relationships, and refrain from
criminalizing untoward behaviors in the classroom (Castillo, 2014; Gregory et al., 2016; Hollar
& Hollar, 2016; Mallett, 2017; Noguera, 2003; Shippen et al., 2012; Theriot, 2009). Perhaps one
of the most challenging aspects of being a teacher in a correctional environment is learning to
manage one’s emotional resources. According to Alper et al. (2000), conflict is the presence of
an incompatible activity where one person is interfering, obstructing, or in other ways making
36
the behavior of another less effective. Nevertheless, scholars note that few studies in classroom
and behavior management have investigated new teachers’ knowledge and practices (O’Neil &
Stephenson, 2012; Voss et al., 2017). In fact, O’Neil and Stephenson (2012) and Voss et al.
(2017) find that an examination of behavior management practices of pre-service teachers in
Australia and Canada demonstrate that teacher self-efficacy in classroom behavior management
and strategies is limited. Tellingly, Casperite (2011) reports a paucity of professional
development and training in conflict prevention techniques, practices, and methods for
correctional educators.
To mitigate conflict in the classroom settings, Castillo (2014) and Swain-Bradway et al.
(2013) argue for a three-tiered prevention model known as School-Wide, Positive Behavioral
Interventions and Supports (SW-PBIS). The focus of SW-PBIS, as a best practice, is conflict
prevention, but it also represents an equity-based approach to student discipline. With the
implementation of a conflict prevention approach, educators can (a) establish supportive
relationships in the classroom; (b) instill an academic rigor in teacher instruction; and (c)
maintain high performance and learning expectations for all students.
According to Alper et al. (2000), effective conflict management approaches can lead to
goal attainment, mutually beneficial outcomes, and can lead to greater conflict efficacy.
Conversely, a failure to manage conflict effectively can lead to divergent interests, poor
outcomes, bias, inflexibility, and promotes skepticism. Because of the high-stakes academic
environment in which they work, correctional education teachers may benefit from conflict
prevention training that can help de-escalate a potentially volatile situation in the correctional
education classroom (Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Kistler, 1995).
37
Metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is a form of cognition that
effectively regulates self-regulatory behaviors and has been found to promote self-awareness and
lifelong learning (Medina et al., 2017). Elliot et al. (2018), Krathwohl (2002), and Rueda (2011)
state that metacognitive knowledge refers to the awareness of personalized thinking that informs
practitioner knowledge of “when and why” things are done, supports problem solving, and
provides important contextual cues for a given problem. Additionally, Elliot et al. (2018) and
Krathwohl (2002) find that performance monitoring and self-recording are critically important
processes that support the development of self-knowledge. In the correctional education context,
one assumed cause of the stakeholder gap in this study is that correctional education teachers do
not have knowledge of trauma-informed care (TIC) for the ethnic and racial minority
correctional education student population that has unique learning (Koo, 2016; Weaver et al.,
2020) and emotional needs (Bronson et al., 2015; Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Ely, 2011;
Kistler, 1995; Leitch, 2017). Therefore, if stakeholders cannot demonstrate knowledge of TIC
practices that are appropriate for an ethnically and culturally diverse student population in a
correctional education setting, then a metacognitive knowledge gap will be validated.
Teachers need to know how to reflect on how their own teaching practices impact
students with trauma exposure. Teachers need to know how to reflect on the prevalence of
student trauma for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education programs.
The Prevalence of Trauma and PTSD in Correctional Populations
A seminal work in the study of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and trauma was
conducted by Felitti et al. (1998). The ACE study had a sample population of 17,000 subjects,
was predominantly upper and middle class and college educated, medically insured, and
predominately White (Alcomendras, 2019). Using adapted survey questions from the Conflicts
38
Tactics Scale, the National Health Interview Survey, the Behavioral Risk Factor Survey, the
Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and the Diagnostic Interview
Schedule, their work identified the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and a
broad spectrum of health, behavioral, and future disease conditions in adulthood (Alcomendras,
2019; Felitti et al.,1998; Leitch, 2017). More specifically, the ACEs study revealed the
prevalence of trauma in the general population and established a link between adverse childhood
experiences, ill health, socio-economic issues, and the adult onset of chronic disease, mental
illness, and violence (Alcomendras, 2019). Ultimately, the Felitti et al (1998) study revealed the
strong relationship between trauma experiences and a plethora of adverse personal, socio-
economic, and mental health outcomes throughout the human lifespan.
The Future Implications of Trauma Exposure for Adults
An integral part of the STPP literature focuses on the subject matter of trauma to explore
the relationship between trauma exposure, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and future
incarceration (Benitez et al., 2013; Butcher et al., 2014; Castillo, 2014; Fox et al., 2015; Gregory
et al., 2016; Randall & Haskell, 2013; Ross & Brown, 2016; Santiago et al., 2018). According to
scholars, persistent levels of trauma exposure pose significant mental health concerns that can
affect mental, physical, and biological wellness (Busuttil, 2009; Jensen et al., 2014; Marusk, et
al., 2015; Marusk, et al., 2016; Randall & Haskell, 2013), relational difficulties (Leitch, 2017),
executive functioning (Kerig & Becker, 2010), and high risk-taking behaviors (Kerig & Becker,
2010). Although the study of PTSD of justice-involved youth is relatively new, scholars believe
that traumatic experiences do increase the likelihood of juvenile delinquency and incarceration
(Kerig & Becker, 2010).
39
In their research on PTSD and youth trauma, Rohde-Collins (2012) and Benitez et al.
(2013) report that over 50% of the school-aged children living in urban cities report having
witnessed assaultive violence. Similarly, Dierkhising et al. (2012) note that roughly 90% of
youth in the juvenile justice system report some level of trauma exposure and over 25% meet the
clinical definition of PTSD. More specifically, McCauley (2017) finds the most common
disability among African Americans, Hispanic, and White youth is emotional disability, with
48% of African Americans and 49% of Hispanic youth reporting the highest levels of emotional
disability.
Compellingly, Leitch (2017), McCauley (2017), and Wade and Ortiz (2016) indicate that
ethnic and racial minorities, with elevated levels of trauma exposure and PTSD, are at increased
risk for future justice system interaction, arrest, and incarceration. As such, it is anticipated that
ethnic and racial minorities with high rates of trauma exposure during early childhood and
adolescence, especially those living in low socioeconomic status (SES) communities, will have
long lasting mental health implications (Antunes & Ahlin, 2016; Benitez at al., 2013; Butcher et
al., 2014; Dierkhising et al., 2012; Felitti, et al., 1988; Kearney et al., 2009; Marusk, et al., 2015;
Marusk, et al., 2016; Randall & Haskell, 2013; Rodriguez, 2014). Furthermore, because adult
inmates report higher rates of PTSD (Bronson et al,, 2015; Leitch, 2017; Miller & Najavits,
2012) and a wide range of learning, intellectual, emotional, and cognitive disabilities (Casperite,
2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016; McCauley, 2017), Leitch (2017) argues correctional
education programs will have to consider “trauma-targeted interventions in jails and prisons as
well as in diversion programs” (p.2) that are responsive to the needs of offender and incarcerated
populations.
40
Biological Implications of Trauma Exposure
Recently, the academic literature on trauma exposure in adolescent youth has pointed its
critical lens at the intersection of trauma exposure, neuroscience, and the potential effects of
trauma on brain plasticity (Kearney et al., 2009; Leitch, 2017; Marusk, et al., 2015). As brain
plasticity is known to occur throughout the lifespan (Santrock, 2017), it is believed that trauma
exposure during early life experiences have the potential to shape brain organization, brain
development, and can produce structural changes in the brain well into the later stages of
development (Kearney et al., 2009; Marusk, et al., 2015; Marusk, et al., 2016). In fact,
researchers have recently discovered that early exposure to childhood trauma and stress
potentially alters the limbic structure of the human brain and reduces gray matter volume (GMV)
(Marusk, et al., 2016). Reduced GMV is consistent with mood disorder, increased risk for brain
structure alterations, and an increased susceptibility for future mental health pathologies
(Marusk, et al., 2016).
To date, the research literature on urban youth of color, who are exposed to inordinate
levels of violence in their communities, notes the conspicuous lack of mental health services for
this vulnerable group (Barnes, 2002; Dierkhising et al., 2012; Duncan-Andrade, 2014; Dye,
2018; Fox et al., 2015; Rodriguez, 2014;). Nevertheless, despite the advent of academic literature
in PTSD, youth trauma exposure, and the emerging findings in the neuroscience literature, ethnic
and racial minorities continue to experience a disproportionality in exclusionary discipline and
are overrepresented in the STPP (Cramer et al., 2014; Hilberth & Slate, 2014). Table 2 includes
an overview of the methods used and survey items.
41
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Declarative Factual
Teachers need to know…
teaching practices that improve student
learning outcomes.
elements of effective instructional design that
enhance student learning.
basic elements of the information processing
model and cognitive load theory.
Mayer, 2011; Paas et al., 2003
Kalyuga et al., 2010; Koo, 2016; Mayer,
2011; Mayer & Moreno, 2010; Paas et al.,
2003
Kalyuga et al., 2010; Mayer, 2011; Mayer &
Moreno, 2010; Paas et al., 2003
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers need to know...
the importance of disaggregating student
achievement data to improve test scores.
Bensimon et al., 2007; Devine et al., 2012;
Gregory et al., 2016; Hollar & Hollar, 2016;
Rueda, 2011; Skiba et al., 2016
Procedural
Teachers need to know how to…
use trauma-informed practices in the
correctional education classroom.
Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Ely,
2011
de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom.
Alper et al., 2000; Casperite, 2011; Ely,
2011; DelliCarpini, 2008
implement trauma-informed practices in the
correctional education classroom.
Alper et al., 2000; Casperite, 2011; Ely,
2011; DelliCarpini, 2008
implement conflict prevention practices that
will de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom.
Alper et al., 2000; Casperite, 2011; Ely,
2011; DelliCarpini, 2008
42
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know how to reflect on...
how their own teaching practices impact
students with trauma exposure.
Antunes & Ahlin, 2016; Barnes, 2002;
Benitez at al., 2013; Butcher et al., 2014;
Dierkhising et al., 2012; Duncan-Andrade,
2014; Dye, 2018; Fox et al., 2015;
Rodriguez, 2014; Ross & Brown, 2016
the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic
and racial minorities in correctional education
programs.
Castillo, 2014; Gregory et al., 2016;
Mendelson et al., 2015; Rohde-Collins,
2012; Santiago et al., 2018
Motivation
General theory. Clark and Estes (2008) provide three motivational constructs that can
contribute to opportunities or can act as problems: active choice, persistence, and mental effort.
Active choice is defined as actively pursuing a goal. A person who fails to make the active
choice to begin a task experiences the problem of failing to begin. Persistence is characterized by
a stakeholder putting forth the necessary effort to complete a goal or task. A problem in the area
of persistence is indicative of someone who allows distractions of other goals to inhibit the
completion of the task. Last, mental effort is typified by the energy investment that is required in
the completion of a task. A person who does not contribute the mental effort required to
complete a task might be observed to be using old solutions to solve novel problems or might be
suffering from issues of over-confidence or under-confidence (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Stakeholder/topic specific influences. The three indices of motivational behavior are
active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice is evinced when a teacher
communicates the desire to learn facts and other important information about cognitive load
theory and attends a training session. A teacher demonstrates persistence in a task by
43
demonstrating active engagement in the task until the course is completed. A teacher who has
persistence issues, however, makes the active choice to register for the class, but fails to
complete the task because of distractions in their personal or professional life. Last, a teacher
demonstrating mental effort will make the active choice to begin, will demonstrate persistence by
managing life distractions, and will sustain the level of effort required to successfully complete
the course. Thus, the level of effort required to successfully complete the task was satisfactorily
observed across all three indices of motivational behavior.
Value. Utility value denotes a person’s choice to do something based on the existence of
a future benefit or achieving a future goal (Clark and Estes, 2008; Wigfield et al., 1998).
Although the task may be difficult and unenjoyable, knowledge of a future benefit increases the
ability to endure hardship and manage the inherent difficulty of a task. One assumed cause of the
stakeholder value motivation gap is that correctional education teachers do not have utility value
for understanding how student learning is enhanced, for de-escalating a volatile situation in the
classroom, or for meeting the emotional needs of students in the correctional education
classroom. If stakeholders cannot demonstrate utility value for the assumed motivational
influences, then a utility value motivation gap will be validated.
Teachers need to have utility value for understanding how student learning is
enhanced. Teachers need to have utility value for de-escalating a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom. Teachers need to have utility value for meeting the
emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom.
Wigfield et al. (1998) outline individual subjective task value by four motivational
components: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost. Utility value, while not
always pleasurable to the learner, is important in the sense that it helps achieve a future personal,
44
career, or professional goal. For students to have improved learning outcomes in correctional
education classrooms, teachers should demonstrate utility value for understanding how student
learning is enhanced, for de-escalating a volatile situation in the classroom, and for meeting the
emotional needs of students. If teachers demonstrate utility value for the assumed value
motivation influences, then student learning and motivation can be expected to increase (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011).
Self-efficacy. Clark and Estes (2008) find that the belief in oneself is a huge predictor of
later success. Bandura (2000) and Elliot et al. also (2018) contend that self-efficacy shapes
behavior and beliefs, thought processes and planning, levels of hope and commitment, and
determines the level of effort that is put forth. Importantly, Elliot et al. (2018) note that self-
efficacy is situational and domain-oriented rather than a global trait. Therefore, if correctional
education teachers are expected to successfully de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom,
meet the emotional needs of students, and meet the specific learning needs of students with
learning challenges, they must believe in their ability to accomplish these goals. If stakeholders
cannot demonstrate self-efficacy motivation for the assumed motivational influences, then a self-
efficacy motivation gap will be validated.
Teachers need to have confidence in their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in
the correctional education classroom. Teachers need to have confidence in their ability to
meet the emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom. Teachers
need to have the ability to meet the specific learning needs of student with learning
challenges.
According to Bandura’s (2000) social cognitive theory (SCT), although people are
shaped by their environment, the agentic perspective functions as an equally important
45
determinant of individual performance. The agentic perspective, Bandura (2019) suggests, is
based on human agency in the individual, proxy, and collective form, and can strongly influence
human functioning. As such, the self-efficacy beliefs that people have can influence human
performance across a broad spectrum of functioning, e.g., levels of effort put forth, perseverance,
goal projections, aspirations, outcome expectations, perceptions of barriers, coping mechanisms,
and opportunities in the social environment (Bandura, 2012; Bandura, 2018).
In their research exploring how the benefits of training could be maximized, Aguinis &
Kraiger (2009) found that employees who completed professional development and training
experienced improved job performance, performance consistency, were more self-efficacious,
had better outcome expectancies, and experienced personal well-being. Additionally, they found
that benefits of training and professional development can be enhanced through self-efficacy and
self-management skills. As Bandura (200) argues, individuals shape their own experiences, and
self-efficacy plays a primary function in their perceived ability to accomplish a task. With this
agentic perspective in mind, without the belief that one can accomplish a goal, the goal will not
be accomplished.
Bandura (2000) also dispels a common misrepresentation of self-efficacy by stating that
it does not represent selfishness or individualism. In fact, enhancing the self-efficacy of
individuals, for communal purposes, can bolster the collective efficacy of diverse social systems
such as educational systems, organizations, sports teams, combat teams, and urban
neighborhoods. By enhancing individual self-efficacy, the perceived collective efficacy of the
group is enhanced in return. Moreover, the increased perception of collective efficacy leads to
higher motivational investments, resilience, and performance (Bandura, 2000) Most importantly,
46
cultivating a strong sense of personal self-efficacy, in diverse social systems, can help effect
societal change, while contributing to the collective efficacy of the group.
Attribution. According to Weiner’s model, the attribution of competence and ability
comes from both exogenous (SES, environment, peer influences) and endogenous (IQ, heredity,
gender) factors (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Elliot et al., 2018). With attributional theory,
past experiences are an ever-present and powerful moderating factor of motivation that sustains
effort and shapes how we perceive our future (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Schunk et al.,
2008). Therefore, for teachers to successfully meet the emotional needs of students, to de-
escalate a volatile situation in the classroom, and to meet the specific learning challenges of
students, their subject-matter domain attributions should focus on effort rather than their natural
ability. If stakeholders cannot demonstrate attribution motivation for the assumed motivational
influences, then an attribution motivation gap will be validated.
Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet the emotional needs of students in a
correctional education setting to their effort rather than natural ability. Teachers need to
attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in a correctional education setting to
their effort rather than natural ability. Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet the
needs of students with learning challenges in a correctional education setting to their effort
rather than natural ability.
Human psychological processes that link success or failures to causal attributions are
important indicators of human motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Eccles, 2009).
Weiner’s model of attributions suggests that people who attribute higher levels of aptitude in a
specific domain report higher levels of mastery, ability, and future success (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009; Eccles, 2009; Elliot et al., 2018). Conversely, people who attribute failure in a
47
specific domain to lower levels of aptitude and ability report lower levels of persistence and
lower levels of future success. Nonetheless, if failure and difficulty is attributed to a lack of
effort or poor instruction, rather than lower levels of aptitude or ability, persistence will be
sustained and future probabilities of success are increased (Anderman & Anderman, 2009;
Eccles, 2009). Table 3 includes an overview of the methods used and survey items.
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
Value
Teachers need to have…
utility value for instructional practices that
help support positive student learning
outcomes.
Mayer, 2011
utility value for de-escalating a volatile
situation in the correctional education
classroom.
Castillo, 2014; Santiago, 2014
utility value for meeting the emotional
needs of students in the correctional
education classroom.
Alcomendras, 2018
Self-Efficacy
Teachers need to have confidence in their...
ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in
the correctional education classroom.
Bandura, 2000; Clark & Estes, 2008
48
Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
ability to meet the emotional needs of
students in the correctional education
classroom.
Bandura, 2000; Clark & Estes, 2008
ability to meet the specific learning needs
of students with learning challenges.
Attribution
Teachers need to…
Koo, 2016; Mayer, 2011; Paas et al., 2003
attribute their ability to meet the emotional
needs of students in a correctional
education setting to their effort rather than
their natural ability.
Elliot et al., 2018; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece,
2008
attribute their ability to de-escalate a
volatile situation in a correctional education
setting to their effort rather than natural
ability.
Elliot et al., 2018; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece,
2008
attribute their ability to meet the needs of
students with learning challenges in a
correctional education setting to their effort
rather than their natural ability.
Elliot et al., 2018; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece,
2008
Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) identify three critical indices that impact organizational success:
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Knowledge is believed to be a critical
component that impacts organizational success and achievement. Poor communication,
withholding information, and stakeholders not knowing how to confidently achieve their goals
49
represents a knowledge problem. Motivation consists of active choice, persistence, and mental
effort, and it is operationally defined as an internal mechanism that helps us complete important
tasks.
Clark and Estes (2008) contend that although motivation has been referenced extensively
in the literature, it has not been communicated effectively in the workplace as stakeholder
motivation problems are common. Organizational influences refer to organizational resources,
policies, procedures, cultural settings, and cultural models. Whenever stakeholders report
organizational processes that inhibit goals, achievement, and organizational success, these are
known as organizational barriers.
Resources. Having appropriate resources is critical to organizational success (Clark &
Estes, 2008). According to Bakker and Demerouti (2006), job demands in the workplace have
significant physical and psychological challenges that require cognitive and mental effort from
employees. In the organizational context, job demands are unfavorable physical environments,
intensive work pressure, and demanding social interactions with clients. According to Bakker
and Demerouti (2006), unmet employee needs are known to exacerbate the impact of job-related
stress. In the educational context, they find that job resources in the form of higher levels of
support and organizational innovation can act as a buffer for environmental stressors (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2006; Constanza et al., 2016).
Teachers need resources, essential tools, workspace, and materials to support
positive student outcomes in the correctional education classroom.
In the correctional educational setting, teachers work with students that have considerable
learning, emotional, and mental health needs. Organizational resources, therefore, provide
important levels of support and resources for all employees (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006). As
50
such, for teachers to achieve their professional and organizational goals, critical resource needs
must be met (Moran & Brightman, 2000).
Policies, processes, and procedures. Organizational policies, processes, and procedures
that are not aligned with organizational goals will inhibit stakeholders from achieving
organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Correctional education programs currently have
policies in place that provide educational programming for learners with high levels of academic
variability, trauma exposure, and significant mental health, but fail to meet the specific learning,
emotional, and mental health needs of students (Koo, 2016). A common practice in most
correctional education programs is to provide reading and math numeracy tests to students to
gauge their skill level. Despite the fact that student achievement data is readily available in
correctional education programs, many teachers do not have the knowledge, training, or
resources needed to meet the needs of students with high levels of academic variability
(Casperite, 2011; Koo, 2016). Effective organizations, however, have policies and procedures in
place that enable stakeholders to achieve desired goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Organizations need to have policies that align with organizational goals to be
successful. Organizations need to have policies that align with and support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racialized minorities in correctional educational
programs.
Clark and Estes (2008) find that effective organizations have policies, processes, and
procedures in place that enable stakeholders to achieve their desired goals. To achieve this end,
the policies and procedures in place must be aligned with organizational goals, inadequate
policies and practices need to be eliminated, and a concerted effort should be made to engage
stakeholder feedback (Clark & Estes, 2008).
51
According to Hemmens and Marquart (2000), correctional education students have lower
levels of academic achievement than the general population at large. In fact, in their study of 775
ex-inmates released from the Texas Department of Corrections, over 55% of those surveyed
were found to have not completed high school. Lower academic achievement, however, is not
endemic to correctional education programs or students. Bensimon et al. (2007) cite similar
educational disparities in academic achievement for ethnic and racial minorities in higher
education and argue that educational outcomes have not been prioritized metrics for minorities in
educational institutions. In fact, in nearly every quantifiable metric in higher education
(academic achievement, degree attainment, graduate-level education), Whites and Asians are
overrepresented while ethnic and racial minorities are underrepresented (Bensimon et al., 2007).
In an effort to close this racialized achievement gap in correctional education, policies,
processes, and procedures must align with the goal of supporting improved educational outcomes
for the ethnic and racial minority students participating in correctional education programs. To
achieve this organizational benchmark, scholars argue that educational organizations should
prioritize educational outcomes for all ethnic and racialized minorities by providing students
increased access to teachers who are well-trained, who target their specific needs, and are both
competent and caring professionals (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2014; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo,
2016; Weaver et al., 2020). When the policies, processes, and procedures within the organization
provide the training and support correctional educators need, teachers will develop the capacity
to meet the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse student
population (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014; Ladson-Billings, 1999).
Cultural settings. Clark and Estes (2008) define culture as the values and belief systems
that people learn from personal experience. Cultural settings, ostensibly, represent what is visible
52
within an organization, what is valued, and if cultivated, can function as a form of organizational
innovation through collaboration (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011).
The organization’s cultural settings provide opportunities for teachers to experience
peer review with expert teachers and educators. The organization’s cultural settings fosters
teacher collaboration.
Correctional education teachers need to have opportunities to collaborate within
organizational spaces, examine data, and learn from peers (Fractor, 2019). Organizational
collaboration also appears to be an integral part of successful interventions, learning
development (Marsh, 2012; Marsh & Farrell, 2015; Schneider et al., 1996; Schwandt &
Marquardt, 1999), improved performance, and contributes to the adoption of collective
organizational practices (Marsh & Farrell, 2015). According to Darling-Hammond et al. (2014),
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), Marsh (2012), and Stone and Heen (2014), fostering teaching
collaboration can help (a) reach vulnerable groups, (b) explore successful models, (c) improve
teacher buy-in (d) evaluate teacher readiness, (e) increase sharing, interaction, and discussion (f)
create teacher collaboration partners, (g) increase teacher satisfaction, and (h) hone instructional
strategies. Furthermore, peer review and collaboration in correctional education, with expert
teachers and educators, can help low performing schools, offers opportunities for deeper
learning, and helps other educators sharpen their research skill (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014).
In fact, Jacobs et al. (2014) find that teacher leadership is nurtured most when teachers are part
of professional learning communities. As organizations look beyond summative assessment and
evaluation and encourage collaboration with colleagues, performing data analysis on qualitative
and quantitative data, and cultivating educational expertise through peer review (Marsh &
53
Farrell, 2015), the training and culture will support greater organizational learning (Casperite,
2011; Darling-Hammond et al., 2014; Fractor, 2019; Jacobs et al., 2014).
Cultural models. There are many organizational influences that are related to cultural
models. Clark and Estes (2008) contend that some organizations go beyond organizational
performance goals and seek to better both their communities and society at large. More
specifically, they find that a powerful mediator for individual performance entails modifying
both the organizational culture and the knowledge, skills, and motivation of stakeholders (Clark
& Estes, 2008). In essence, the organizational culture defines who they are, what they do, and
how they go about effecting change.
Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that enhances the knowledge and skill
of teachers. Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that enhances the motivation of
teachers. Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that invests in teacher training and
professional development that targets the learning needs of an ethnically and culturally
diverse adult student population. Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that
supports equity-based pedagogical practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of
an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that understands the impact of systemic racism and structural oppression
for ethnic and racial minorities participating in correctional education programs. Teachers
need to be part of a cultural model that provides informational resources (e.g., qualitative
data, academic research, academic journals) that help support positive educational
outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in correctional education
programs.
54
Correctional organizations must recognize the value of teacher training, professional
development, and equity-based pedagogical practices if they intend to meet the needs of their
student population. Agocs (1997), Constanza et al. (2016), and Morrison and Milliken (2000)
argue that culture is a form of social control and compliance that influences shared meaning,
shared understanding, and can drive behavior and performance. At the same time, however,
organizations are not monolithic, and one size-fits-all strategies are highly unlikely to be
successful (Garvin et al., 2008; Moran & Brightman, 2000).
Adaptive organizational cultures demonstrate the ability to be reflexive, to accept
divergent thinking, and exhibit a confidence in their ability to change, grow, and execute future
change. With adaptive organizations, Garvin et al. (2008) find that it is not enough to have clear
vision, incentives, and copious levels of organizational training. They argue that organizations
must learn to create the necessary conditions so that employees are skilled at creating, acquiring,
and transferring knowledge.
To achieve this end, organizations must establish a value for stakeholder learning,
support learning environments, develop concrete learning processes and practices, must facilitate
the integration and sharing of information and knowledge, and must establish leadership that
provides reinforcement (Garvin et al., 2008; Moran & Brightman, 2000; Schwandt & Marquardt,
2000). Correctional educational programs understand the importance of increasing teacher
knowledge and motivation to support the organizational mission. In this collective endeavor, the
organization will understand that as they develop concrete learning processes that support the
integration and sharing of information and knowledge, they will increase the organizational
capacity to meet the dynamic needs of their student population in correctional education
programming. Table 4 includes an overview of the methods used and survey items.
55
Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Resources
Teachers need resources,
essential tools, workspace, and materials to support
positive student outcomes in the correctional
education classroom.
Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Clark &
Estes, 2008; Constanza et al., 2016
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Organizations need to have policies that align
with ...
organizational goals to be successful.
to support positive educational outcomes for ethnic
and racialized minorities in correctional
educational programs.
Clark & Estes, 2008
Bensimon, et al., 2007; Darling-
Hammond et al., 2014
Cultural Setting
The organization’s cultural settings....
provide opportunities for teachers to experience
peer review with expert teachers and educators.
Darling-Hammond, et al., 2014;
Marsh, 2012; Schneider et al., 1996;
Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999
fosters teacher collaboration. Casperite, 2011; Darling-Hammond
et al., 2014; Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2011
Cultural Models
Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that...
enhances the knowledge and skill of teachers. Clark & Estes, 2008
enhances the motivation of teachers Clark & Estes, 2008
56
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
provides training and professional development
needed to meet the specific learning needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.
Agocs, 1997; Constanza et al., 2016;
Morrison & Milliken, 2000
supports equity-based pedagogical practices that
are responsive to the emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.
Agocs, 1997; Constanza et al., 2016;
Morrison & Milliken, 2000
understands the impact of systemic racism and
structural oppression for ethnic and racial
minorities participating in correctional education
programs.
Bensimon, 2005; Reyes, 2012
provides informational resources (e.g., qualitative
data, academic research, academic journals) that
help support positive educational outcomes for
ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in
correctional education programs.
Darling-Hammond et al., 2014;
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011
Koo (2016) and Weaver et al. (2020) contend the dearth of academic literature addressing
the needs of both correctional education teachers and correctional education students represents a
gap in the literature. As such, this study uses a gap analysis theoretical framework (Clark &
Estes, 2008) to understand the gaps in CDCR teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational culture that affects their ability to meet the academic and emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. The assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences will be explored in Chapter Three.
57
Chapter Three: Methodology
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) operates 35
correctional institutions for adult male and female offenders across the State of California
(California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation, 2021). The aim of this evaluation study
is to understand CDCR teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark &
Estes, 2008) that affect their ability to meet the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically
and culturally diverse adult student population in a correctional setting. To this end, the
validation and prioritization of the assumed causes of existing performance gaps have been
examined (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Upon validation of the assumed causes of
organizational performance gaps, research-based recommendations have provided for the
validated causes (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). While a complete performance evaluation
would typically include all organizational stakeholders, the stakeholder group in this analysis
was correctional education teachers from the CDCR.
The questions that guided this gap analysis were the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent
teachers from meeting the academic and emotional learning needs of an ethnically
and culturally diverse student population in a correctional setting?
2. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for correctional education programs?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework provided a systematic approach to
solving organizational performance problems. The purpose of this gap analysis was to assess
58
whether stakeholders have the necessary knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to
achieve their organizational performance goals. An important part of this process, therefore, was
the identification and assessment of the gaps between current performance and the desired
performance. Once the assessment and identification of organizational goals were proposed,
compatible goal structures were created for stakeholders that aligned with organizational
performance goals. As a framework, gap analysis facilitates fundamental organizational change
by assessing human performance issues that are related to knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences.
For this study, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework was adapted as a needs-based
evaluation study. As Clark and Estes (2008) suggest, an analysis process must capture why goals
are not being met and the presumed causes of organizational performance gaps need to be
validated (Clark & Estes, 2008). As such, the validation and prioritization of the assumed causes
(Rueda, 2011) of existing performance gaps came from the following sources: (a) experiential
knowledge of the organization by CDCR stakeholders and stakeholder surveys (b) peer-reviewed
literature in the subject-matter domain of correctional education, the STPP, and equity-based
pedagogical practices; and (c) learning and motivation theories. Upon the validation of the
assumed causes of organizational performance gaps, research-based recommendations and
solutions were provided for the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
59
Figure 1. Gap Analysis Process
Assessment of Performance Influences
An integral part of this gap analysis was to identify performance gaps in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). For teachers to
meet the educational and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult
correctional education population, it is important that they have the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support (Clark & Estes, 2008). If the assumed needs were validated in this study,
research-based recommendations were provided.
Knowledge Assessment
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revised taxonomy incorporated new findings in
cognitive psychology and broke away from the original Bloom’s taxonomy of educational
objectives (1956) by establishing four categories of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural,
and a new category, metacognitive knowledge. These knowledge categories are used to help
educators create effective learning objectives for students. For this study, each knowledge type
was analyzed to determine the appropriate knowledge influences.
Declarative factual knowledge assessment. To perform the critical behaviors,
CDCR teachers needed to know the basic elements, terminology, symbols, and specific details of
60
the information-processing model and cognitive load theory (CLT), teaching practices that
improve student learning outcomes, and elements of effective instructional design that enhance
student learning.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest information-gathering processes that require
participants to demonstrate knowledge of the basic elements of a discipline, key terminology, as
well as specific details of a discipline. This study required CDCR teachers to demonstrate
declarative factual knowledge of the information-processing model and cognitive load theory,
teaching practices that improve student learning outcomes, and elements of effective
instructional design that enhance student learning. To validate the assumed declarative factual
knowledge gap, CDCR correctional education teachers were asked to complete an online survey
during a four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer multiple choice, declarative
factual knowledge questions to gauge their understanding of the assumed influences identified in
this study.
Declarative conceptual knowledge assessment. In order to perform the
critical behaviors, CDCR teachers needed to know how to use disaggregated data to improve
student outcomes in correctional education programs.
To effectively assess the declarative conceptual knowledge of participants, Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) suggest information-gathering processes that require participants to
demonstrate knowledge of the interrelationships that exist among elements, as well as knowledge
of classifications, principles, theories, models, and structures. To validate the declarative
conceptual knowledge gap, CDCR teachers were asked to complete an online survey during a
four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer a multiple-choice question to identify
their conceptual knowledge of using disaggregated data to improve student learning outcomes
61
for ethnic and racial minorities students enrolled in correctional education programs.
Procedural knowledge assessment. In order to perform the critical behaviors,
CDCR teachers needed to know how to use trauma-informed practices, know how to de-escalate
a volatile situation, know how to implement trauma-informed practices, and know how to
implement conflict prevention practices in the classroom.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest information-gathering processes that require
participants to demonstrate knowledge of how something is done and understanding criteria for
using skills, techniques, and methods. This requires knowledge of skills in specific subject-
matter domains, knowledge of specific techniques and methods, and understanding the criteria
for using specific procedures (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). To validate the assumed
procedural knowledge gap, CDCR teacher members were asked to complete an online survey
during a four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer multiple choice questions to
gauge if teachers know how to use trauma-informed practices, know how to de-escalate a
volatile situation, know how to implement trauma-informed practices, and know how to
implement conflict prevention practices in the classroom.
Metacognitive knowledge assessment. In order to perform the critical behaviors,
CDCR teachers needed to reflect on the prevalence of student trauma in correctional education
programs, especially for ethnic and racial minorities, and also needed to understand how their
own teaching practices impact students with trauma exposure.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest information-gathering processes that require
participants to demonstrate a general knowledge of cognition, as well as an awareness and
knowledge of one’s own cognition. This includes strategic knowledge, knowledge of outlining
and heuristics, knowledge of cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge of assumed strengths and
62
weaknesses (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). To validate the assumed metacognitive knowledge
gap, CDCR teacher members were asked to complete an online survey during a four-week
period. The survey asked participants to answer Likert-type questions to gauge whether teachers
know how to reflect on how their own teaching practices impacted students with trauma and to
assess if teachers know how to reflect on the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial
minorities in correctional education. Table 5 includes an overview of the methods used and
survey items.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Knowledge Influences Survey Items
Declarative Factual
Teachers need to know…
teaching practices that improve student
learning outcomes.
Multiple Choice.
Select all that apply
Identify teaching practices that can improve
learning outcomes for students:
● Design instruction to meet student
learning styles.
● Offer students frequent practice on a
learning task to build mastery.
● Make the information being taught
personally relevant to students.
● Allow students to collaborate on
problem-solving activities with minimal
oversight.
● Ask students to organize and outline
information.
● Have students re-study information in
preparation for tests.
● Encourage students to engage in rote
memorization of complex procedures.
63
Assumed Knowledge Influences Survey Items
● I don’t know.
teaching practices that improve student
learning outcomes.
Multiple Choice.
Select the best answer.
Do you have the knowledge and training needed
to meet the needs of adult students with learning
challenges?
• Yes
• No
elements of effective instructional design
that enhance student learning.
Multiple Choice.
Select all that apply.
Identify elements of effective instructional
design that enhance student learning.
● Adding interesting information to the
instructional design to enhance the
learning of new material.
● Pre-teaching vocabulary and
important terminology before
teaching complex information.
● Providing students with cues for
selecting important information.
● Having students practice complex
problems, from start to finish, to build
mastery.
● Providing students an opportunity to
practice learned concepts for long
periods of time.
● Having students re-study learned
information to increase memorization.
● When explaining a learning task to
students, separate words from images to
reduce instructional complexity.
● I don’t know.
basic elements of the information
processing model and cognitive load
theory.
Multiple Choice.
Select the best answer.
Working memory processing capacity for
humans is:
64
Assumed Knowledge Influences Survey Items
• Unlimited.
• Limited.
• Similar to long-term memory.
• I don’t know.
basic elements of the information
processing model and cognitive load
theory.
Multiple Choice.
Select the best answer.
How many channels exist in the human
information processing system?
• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• I don’t know.
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers need to know...
Survey Items
the importance of disaggregating student
achievement data to improve test scores.
Likert-Type Question.
Disaggregating student achievement data
improves student test scores.
● Strongly disagree
● Disagree
● Neutral
● Agree
● Strongly agree
Procedural
Teachers need to know how to…
Survey Items
use trauma-informed practices in the
correctional education classroom.
Dichotomous Question.
Multiple Choice.
Do you know how to support the students in
your classroom who have experienced trauma?
● Yes
● No
65
Assumed Knowledge Influences Survey Items
de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom.
Dichotomous Question.
Multiple Choice.
Do you know how to de-escalate volatile
situations in the correctional educational
classroom?
● Yes
● No
implement trauma-informed practices in
the correctional education classroom.
Multiple Choice.
Select all that apply.
Which of the following practices would best
support students who have experienced trauma
in the correctional education classroom?
• Teachers need to understand how
trauma impacts human development.
• Teachers should be responsive to the
needs of their students who have
experienced trauma.
• Treat all students the same.
• Implement rigid disciplinary structures
so all students are treated fairly.
• Trauma has no effect on student
outcomes in the classroom.
• I don’t know.
conflict prevention practices that will de-
escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom.
Multiple Choice.
Select all that apply.
Which of the following practices will reduce
conflict in the correctional education classroom?
• Forge a sense of community and
solidarity in the classroom.
• Teachers need to have an
understanding of how trauma impacts
student learning, motivation, and
behavior.
• Teachers should focus on maintaining
control of their classroom at all times.
• Explain the school suspension and
expulsion policies to all students.
66
Assumed Knowledge Influences Survey Items
• Lower the instructional complexity so all
students feel at ease in the classroom.
• Establish rigid disciplinary policies to
set the tone.
● I don’t know.
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know how to reflect on...
Survey Items
how their own teaching practices impact
students with trauma exposure.
Likert-Type Question.
I regularly reflect on how my teaching practices
in the classroom impact students with trauma
exposure.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic
and racial minorities in correctional
education programs.
Likert-Type Question.
I regularly reflect on how ethnic and racial
minorities in correctional education programs are
disproportionately impacted by trauma exposure
and PTSD.
• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree
Motivation Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) provide three motivational constructs that can contribute to the
achievement of organizational performance goals or they can act as organizational barriers. The
three indices of motivation are active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice
demonstrates a willingness to pursue a required task. A person who fails to make the active
67
choice often lacks the initiative to begin. Persistence is characterized by the active engagement in
pursuit of a goal or task. A problem in the area of persistence is captured by the inability to
complete a task. Mental effort is typified by the continuous engagement and effort in the
completion of a task. A person who does not contribute the mental effort required to complete a
task often uses old solutions to solve novel problems (Clark & Estes, 2008). To assess the
assumed motivational influences of this study, each motivation category was analyzed.
Value assessment. Utility value denotes a person’s choice to do something based on the
existence of a future benefit or achieving a future goal (Clark and Estes, 2008; Wigfield et al.,
1998). Wigfield et al. (1998) outline individual subjective task value by four motivational
components: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost. Utility value is important in
the sense that it helps achieve a future personal, career, or professional goals. To validate the
motivational construct, value, CDCR teacher members were asked to complete an online survey
during a four-week period. The survey questions were adapted from the Motivated Strategies for
Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et al., 1991) and asked participants to answer Likert-type
questions to measure their utility value for understanding how student learning is enhanced, for
de-escalating a volatile situation in the classroom, and for meeting the mental health and
emotional needs of students in correctional education programs.
Self-Efficacy assessment. Clark and Estes (2008) find that the belief in oneself is a huge
predictor of later success. Although many scholars argue that self-efficacy shapes behavior,
beliefs, planning, thinking, and levels of hope (Bandura, 2000; Elliot et al.), one of the most
important indicators of self-efficacy is perseverance and effort in the face of difficulty (Bandura,
2012). Importantly, Elliot et al. (2018) note that self-efficacy is situational and domain oriented
rather than a global trait. To validate CDCR teachers’ self-efficacy motivation, CDCR teachers
68
were asked to complete an online survey during a four-week period. The survey questions were
adapted from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et al., 1991) and
asked participants to answer Likert-type questions to gauge their self-efficacy motivation in de-
escalating a volatile situation in the classroom, their ability to meet the mental health and
emotional needs of students, and their ability to meet the specific learning needs of students with
learning challenges.
Attribution assessment. Human psychological processes that link success or failures to
causal attributions are important indicators of human motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009;
Eccles, 2009). Weiner’s model of attributions suggests that people who attribute higher levels of
aptitude in a specific domain report higher levels of mastery, ability, and future success
(Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Eccles, 2009; Elliot et al., 2018). Conversely, people who
attribute failure in a specific domain to lower levels of aptitude and ability report lower levels of
persistence and lower levels of future success. Nonetheless, if failure and difficulty is attributed
to a lack of effort or poor instruction, rather than lower levels of aptitude or ability, persistence
will be sustained and future probabilities of success are increased (Anderman & Anderman,
2009; Eccles, 2009). To validate CDCR teachers’ attribution motivation, CDCR teachers were
asked to complete an online survey during a four-week period. The survey questions were
adapted from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et al., 1991) and
asked participants to answer Likert-type questions to gauge whether correctional education
teachers attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation, meet the emotional needs of
students, and meet the specific learning challenges of students to effort or natural ability. Table 6
provides an overview of the methods used and survey item questions.
69
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influences Survey Items
Value
Teachers need to have…
utility value for understanding how student
learning is enhanced.
Likert-Type Question.
Understanding how students learn best
will help me become a more successful
teacher.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
utility value for de-escalating a volatile
situation in the correctional education
classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
Knowing how to de-escalate volatile
situations in the correctional education
classroom will help me achieve my
instructional goals.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
utility value for meeting the emotional needs of
students in the correctional education
classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
Meeting the emotional needs of my
students in the correctional education
classroom is useful for my job-related
duties.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
70
Assumed Motivation Influences Survey Items
Self-Efficacy
Teachers need to have confidence in their...
ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in
the correctional education classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
I am confident I can do an excellent job de-
escalating volatile situations in the
classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
ability to meet the emotional needs of
students in the correctional education
classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
I am confident that I can meet the
emotional needs of my students in the
correctional education classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
ability to meet the specific learning needs
of students with learning challenges.
Likert-Type Question.
I am confident that I can meet the specific
learning needs of students with learning
challenges in my classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
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Assumed Motivation Influences Survey Items
Attribution
Teachers need to…
attribute their ability to meet the emotional
needs of students to their effort rather than
their natural ability.
Likert-Type Question:
Meeting the emotional needs of students in
a correctional education setting is guided
more by my effort rather than my natural
ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
attribute the ability to de-escalate a volatile
situation in a correctional education setting
to their effort rather than ability.
Likert-Type Question.
De-escalating volatile situations in a
correctional education setting is guided
more by my effort rather than my natural
ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
attribute the ability to meet the needs of
students with learning challenges in a
correctional education setting to their effort
rather than natural ability.
Likert-Type Question.
Meeting the needs of students with learning
challenges in a correctional education
setting is guided more by my effort rather
than my natural ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
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Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) identify three critical indices that impact organizational success:
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Organizational influences refer to
organizational resources, policies, procedures, cultural settings, and cultural models. Whenever
stakeholders report organizational processes that inhibit goals, achievement, and organizational
success, these are known as organizational barriers. To assess the assumed organizational
influences of this study, each organizational category was analyzed.
Resources assessment. Stakeholder access to critical resources is integral to
organizational success. According to Bakker and Demerouti (2006), job demands in the
workplace have significant physical and psychological challenges that require cognitive and
mental effort from employees. In the organizational context, job demands are unfavorable
physical environments, intensive work pressure, demanding social interactions with clients, and a
lack of organizational resources. According to Bakker and Demerouti (2006), unmet employee
needs are known to exacerbate the impact of job-related stress. In the educational context, they
find that job resources in the form of higher levels of support and organizational innovation can
act as a buffer for environmental stressors (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Constanza et al., 2016).
To validate the organizational resources, CDCR teachers were asked to complete an
online survey during a four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer Likert-type
questions to gauge whether their organization provides the essential tools, workspace, materials,
and resources to support positive student outcomes in the correctional education classroom.
Policies, processes, and procedures assessment. Clark and Estes (2008) find that
effective organizations have policies and procedures in place that enable stakeholders to achieve
desired goals. To achieve this end, policies and procedures are in place that are aligned with
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organizational goals, inadequate policies and practices are eliminated, and a concerted effort is
made to engage stakeholder feedback.
To validate the organizational policies, processes, and procedures, CDCR were asked to
complete an online survey during a four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer
Likert-type questions to gauge whether their organizational policies, processes, and procedures
are aligned with organizational goals.
Cultural settings assessment. Clark and Estes (2008) define culture as the values and
belief systems that people learn from personal experience. Cultural settings, ostensibly, represent
what is visible within an organization, what an organization values, and can function as a form of
innovation and collaboration (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011). To validate the cultural settings
of the organization, CDCR teachers were asked to complete an online survey during a four-week
period. The survey asked participants to answer Likert-type questions to gauge whether their
organization's cultural settings foster deeper learning and teacher collaboration with expert
teachers.
Cultural models assessment. There are many organizational influences that are related
to cultural models. Clark and Estes (2008) contend that some organizations go beyond
organizational performance goals and seek to better both their communities and society at large.
More specifically, they find that a powerful mediator for individual performance entails
modifying both the organizational culture and the knowledge, skills, and motivation of
stakeholders (Clark & Estes, 2008). In essence, an organization’s cultural models define who
they are, what they do, and how they go about effecting meaningful change.
To validate the organizational cultural models, CDCR teachers were asked to complete
an online survey during a four-week period. The survey asked participants to answer Likert-type
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questions to gauge whether their organization’s cultural models provide teacher training and
professional development that enhances teacher knowledge, teacher motivation, promotes
equity-based pedagogical practices that are responsive to student needs, understand the impact of
systemic racism and structural oppression for minorities, and provides informational resources to
teachers. Table 7 provides an overview of the methods used and survey items.
Table 7
Summary of Organizational Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Organization Influences Survey Items
Resources
Teachers need resources,
essential tools, workspace, and materials to support
positive student outcomes in the correctional
education classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization ensures that I am
provided the tools, workspace,
materials, and resources needed to
support positive student outcomes in
the classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Organizations need to have policies that align
with ...
organizational goals to be successful. Likert-Type Question.
My organization’s policies align
with its organizational goals.
● Strongly agree
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Assumed Organization Influences Survey Items
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
and support positive educational outcomes for
ethnic and racialized minorities in correctional
educational programs.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization’s policies target
and support positive educational
outcomes for ethnic and racial
minorities in correctional education.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Cultural Setting
The organization’s cultural settings....
provide opportunities for teachers to experience
peer review with expert teachers and educators.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization has a culture that
supports peer review with expert
teachers and educators.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
fosters teacher collaboration. Likert-Type Question.
My organization has a culture that
fosters teacher collaboration.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
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Assumed Organization Influences Survey Items
Cultural Models
Teachers need to be part of a cultural model that...
enhances the knowledge and skill of teachers. Likert-Type Question.
My organization has enhanced my
knowledge and skill as a
correctional education teacher:
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
enhances the motivation of teachers.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization has enhanced my
motivation as a correctional
education teacher:
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
provides training and professional development
needed to meet the specific learning needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization provides the
training and professional
development needed to meet the
specific learning needs of our adult
students.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
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supports equity-based pedagogical practices that
are responsive to the emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization provides
opportunities to learn about equity-
based teaching practices that are
responsive to the emotional needs of
adult students in correctional
education.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
understands the impact of systemic racism and
structural oppression for ethnic and racial
minorities participating in correctional education
programs.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization provides teachers
opportunities to learn about the
impact of systemic racism and
structural oppression for ethnic and
racial minorities participating in
correctional education programs.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
provides informational resources (e.g., qualitative
data, academic research, academic journals) that
help support positive educational outcomes for
ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in
correctional education programs.
Likert-Type Question.
My organization provides
informational resources (e.g.,
qualitative data, academic research,
academic journals) that help support
positive educational outcomes for
ethnic and racial minority students
enrolled in correctional education
programs.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
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Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The survey participants for this study were correctional education teachers who are
CDCR teachers. This was an appropriate target population for this study as it looks to validate
the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of correctional education
teachers. Ultimately, the data collection and analysis of data looked to address the research
questions with the ultimate purpose of a deepened understanding that improves stakeholder
performance, organizational performance, and student academic achievement (Clark & Estes,
2008; Duke & Martin, 2011).
Recruitment
The recruitment strategy for this study was a purposive sampling of California
Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) teachers who work with adult students in
CDCR institutions. With purposive sampling, the researcher locates members of the population
that align with both the research questions and theoretical framework (Johnsen & Christensen,
2015). Moreover, Maxwell (2013) argues that purposive sampling, as a research protocol, is
reflective, responsive, and intentional in gathering critically important information from a
specific population. For this study, the CDCR’s Research Office Committee (ROC) granted its
approval for CDCR teachers to participate in this study, but first required institutional review
board (IRB) approval from the University of Southern California and the Committee for
Protection of Human Subjects (CPHS). After IRB approvals were received from the University
of Southern California, the ROC, and the CPHS, the CDCR’s Data Concierge Service (DCS)
assisted in the recruitment effort by sending an invitation to CDCR teachers to participate in this
study. The invitation emailed by the DCS included a brief description of the study, informed
consent, ensured that there would be no personally identifiable information collected (Bogdan &
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Biklen, 2007), stated that participation was voluntary, and provided a secure link to the survey.
Instrumentation
Survey Design
The survey designed for this study aimed to understand the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences of CDCR teachers. To validate the assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences, this study utilized a quantitative survey approach to collect data
from CDCR teachers. The survey questions used to validate the assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences of CDCR teachers consisted of multiple-choice questions,
dichotomous scale questions, and Likert-type questions. The full text of survey items and
potential responses that were used in this gap analysis study can be found in Appendix A.
Data Collection
After receiving IRB approval from the University of Southern California, the ROC, and
the CPHS, prospective CDCR participants were invited to participate in the study by the
CDCR’s DCS. For this study, all communication with CDCR teachers came from the DCS. For
survey research, Salant and Dillman (1994) recommend a four-week survey protocol to increase
survey response rates (as cited in Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The four-week survey protocol is
an administrative process that commences with an email to all CDCR teachers that serves as an
invitation to participate in the study.
This initial email was designed to communicate the purpose of the study, to provide
informed consent, to establish a research-based affiliation with the University of Southern
California, and to provide the contact information for the DCS. In the following week, the survey
formally commenced, and a secure link to the study was provided. One week later, the first
“reminder” email encouraging survey participation was sent to all CDCR teachers. Lastly, a final
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“reminder” email was sent one-week before the four-week survey protocol was set to close. The
survey officially closed after the four-week protocol was observed. All participant survey data
was collected using Qualtrics online software.
Data Analysis
Surveys
The survey protocol for this study used descriptive statistics such as frequencies, counts,
percentages, and an a priori method to measure participants’ assumed gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. The analysis of the assumed influences helped
identify critically important organizational assets as well as organizational needs. Assumed
knowledge gaps were categorized by factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive
knowledge. Motivational gaps were categorized by value, self-efficacy, and attributions.
Organizational gaps were categorized by resources; policies, processes, and procedures; cultural
settings; and cultural models.
Trustworthiness of Data
Salkind (2014) and Krueger and Casey (2009) state that increasing reliability can be
achieved by making sure that survey instructions are clear, protocols are standardized, question
difficulty is moderated, and the researcher controls for external events. Robinson and Leonard
(2019) argue that research questions and the conceptual and theoretical framework of the study
should guide the survey construction process (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). To this end, all
survey questions were directly aligned with both the research questions and the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis theoretical framework. Moreover, the survey instrument used for this study
was alpha tested, beta tested, and was subjected to peer examination with subject-matter experts,
doctoral program candidates, and the USC dissertation committee before it was finalized
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(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013).
Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study is a correctional educator who has extensive experience
working in the field of adult and correctional education. As a correctional educator, doctoral
student, and principal investigator of this study, the researcher acknowledges his unique
perspective and role. For this gap analysis evaluation study, the investigator designed the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and selected a purposive sample
of CDCR teachers as the stakeholder group of focus. The principal investigator also applied to
receive IRB approval for this study from the University of Southern California, the CDCR’s
Research Office Committee (ROC), and the State of California’s Committee for the Protection of
Human Subjects (CPHS). Upon receiving the required IRB approvals, the principal investigator
collaborated with the CDCR’s Data Concierge Service to address all organizational concerns
pertaining to the study, drafted all study-related communications, adapted Salant and Dillman’s
(1994) four-week survey protocol for this study, and collected and analyzed all survey
participant responses using Qualtrics online software.
Limitations
There are a few limitations that need to be recognized in this study. According to Bergin
(2018), recognizing the limitations of a study can point to future improvements and can move the
research forward. Moreover, identifying the limitations of a study is part of an ethical and
professional approach to conducting research that legitimizes and makes and important
contribution to scholarly work.
The first limitation of this study is the purposive sample population of CDCR teachers.
Because this study surveyed correctional education teachers in the state of California, the
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findings of this study may not be representative of all correctional educators, nationally. A
second limitation of this study is the sample population’s degree of organizational training and
professional development. According to the CDCR’s organizational literature, CDCR teachers
are purportedly offered access to regular training and professional development from subject-
matter experts. Thus, the CDCR’s organizational investment in its teacher capacity and human
capital might limit the generalizability of the findings identified in this study to the field of
correctional education. Finally, the fact that all participant data is anonymous might serve as
another limitation of this study. Disaggregating participant data by age, race, gender, experience,
and region could reveal important demographic information and gaps in practitioner knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Because this study does not collect personally
identifiable information, important gaps in practitioner knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, mitigated by demographic identifiers, are rendered invisible. These
limitations might effectively be addressed in future research.
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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the organization’s performance related to a
larger problem of practice. This study focused on CDCR teachers’ knowledge, skill, motivation,
and organizational influences. More specifically, this evaluation study aimed to understand how
teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affect their ability to meet the
academic and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population.
While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, the stakeholder group
selected for this evaluation study is CDCR teachers.
As such, the questions that guide this study are as follows:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent
teachers from meeting the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically
and culturally diverse student population in a correctional setting?
2. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for correctional education
programs?
To identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent teachers
from meeting the academic needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population
in correctional education, this study utilizes a quantitative survey approach to data collection. As
such, CDCR teachers’ current knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will be
validated via electronic survey.
Participants
The CDCR operates 35 correctional institutions for adult male and female offenders
across the State of California (California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation, 2021).
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One of the organizational goals is to “ensure that the CDCR workforce receives the necessary
training to produce a high-quality workforce" (CDCR, 2020). Because CDCR teachers are in
positions to effectuate transformational change in their academic spaces by meeting the diverse
learning and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse student population,
assessing the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of CDCR correctional
education teachers aligns with the organizational mission and goals. To this end, the participants
who provided survey data for this study were correctional education teachers from the CDCR.
To commence the study, the CDCR's Data Concierge Service (DCS) sent invitations to
participate in this study to 1,009 teachers who work with adult inmates at the CDCR. After the
estimated 1,009 teachers received an invitation to participate, 389 (38.6%) CDCR participant
responses were received. Of the 389 participant responses received, 255 (65.6%) participant
responses were fully completed, 92 (23.7%) participant responses were deleted because they
were incomplete, and 42 (10.7%) participant responses were deleted after the participants elected
to withdraw from the study.
Data Validation
This study utilized data gathered from CDCR teacher responses to validate the assumed
needs and assets of CDCR teachers based on the assumed causes identified in this study. The
criteria used to validate gaps in the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences were as follows: survey results with less than 80% agreement in the factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge indicated a gap in the aforementioned
knowledge influences; survey results with less than 80% agreement (as indicated by survey
responses falling within the “strongly agree” and “agree” category) in value, self-efficacy, and
attribution indicated a gap in motivational influences, and survey results with less than 80%
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agreement in the organizational influences (resources; policies, processes, procedures; cultural
settings; cultural model) indicated a gap in organizational influences.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
CDCR teachers’ knowledge influences were assessed through the administration of a
survey protocol. The assumed causes of CDCR teachers’ knowledge gaps are presented in the
following categories: declarative factual knowledge, declarative conceptual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. The results of the abovementioned
knowledge surveys are presented in Tables 8-17 and are used to validate the assumed causes of
CDCR teachers’ knowledge gaps as outlined in this study.
Declarative Factual Knowledge
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ declarative factual knowledge.
More specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete a survey that assessed their
knowledge and understanding of the basic tenets of working memory processing and cognitive
load theory, knowledge of teaching practices that improve student outcomes, and elements of
effective instructional design that enhance learning. The survey data have been organized and
evaluated to validate the assumed causes of existing performance gaps in CDCR teachers’
declarative factual knowledge.
Declarative factual knowledge influence 1: Teachers understand teaching practices
that can improve student learning outcomes.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify instructional practices that can
improve student learning outcomes for students. Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR
teacher responses for the declarative factual knowledge influences, and no interviews,
observations, or document analysis was performed. Two of the six instructional practices
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provided below are correct and were informed by the academic literature. The correct items are
in bolded font below. Additionally, one of the options provided for this declarative factual
knowledge question allowed the participants to indicate a lack of knowledge by selecting, “I
don’t know.” The knowledge gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement.
Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in declarative factual knowledge.
Table 8
Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of Teaching Practices that Can Improve
Student Learning Outcomes
# Declarative Factual Knowledge Item % Count Sample
Size
Identify teaching practices that improve
learning outcomes for students:
Select all that apply.
1 Design instruction to meet student learning
styles.
94.1% 240 255
2 Offer students frequent practice on a
learning task to build mastery.
92.9% 237 255
3 Make the information being taught
personally relevant to students.
91.8% 234 255
4 Allow students to collaborate on problem-
solving activities with minimal oversight.
75.3% 192 255
5 Ask students to organize and outline
information.
72.9% 186 255
6 Have students re-study information in
preparation for tests.
68.2 % 174 255
7 Encourage students to engage in rote
memorization of complex procedures.
33.3% 85 255
8 I don’t know. 0% 0 255
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Summary. The assumed influence assessed if CDCR teachers have declarative factual
knowledge of teaching practices that improve student outcomes. Survey results indicate that 234
of 255 (91.8%) survey respondents correctly identified one of the correct responses in this
factual knowledge domain (Make information personally relevant to students), while 237 of the
255 (92.9%) survey respondents correctly identified the second correct response (Offer students
frequent practice on a learning task to build mastery) provided in this declarative factual
knowledge domain. Interestingly, the response with the highest frequency for this question,
design instruction to meet the learning styles of students, was selected by 240 of the 255 (94.1%)
respondents, although the concept of “learning styles” is not supported by empirical research and
has been identified in the academic literature as a learning myth that is prevalent in both the
teaching profession and in educational consumer spaces (Hoffman, 2015). Based on the 80%
threshold established in this study, this declarative factual knowledge item is an asset for CDCR
teachers.
Declarative factual knowledge influence 2: Teachers need to know elements of
effective instructional design that enhance student learning.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify elements of effective instructional
design that enhance student learning. Of the seven instructional design strategies provided on the
survey, only two strategies are correct and were informed by effective instructional design
principles known to enhance student learning. The correct items are in bolded font below.
Additionally, one of the options provided for this declarative factual knowledge question allowed
the participants to indicate a lack of knowledge by selecting, “I don’t know.” The knowledge gap
threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80%
agreement indicated a gap in declarative factual knowledge.
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Table 9
Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of Effective Instructional Design that
Enhance Student Learning
# Declarative Factual Knowledge Item % Count Sample
Size
Identify elements of effective instructional
design that enhance student learning.
Select all that apply.
1 Adding interesting information to the
instructional design to enhance the learning of
new material.
87.1% 222 255
2 Pre-teaching vocabulary and important
terminology before teaching complex
information.
86.3% 220 255
3 Providing students with cues for selecting
important information.
76.5% 195 255
4 Having students practice complex problems,
from start to finish, to build mastery.
61.6% 157 255
5 Providing students an opportunity to practice
learned concepts for long periods of time.
54.9% 140 255
6 Having students re-study learned information to
increase memorization.
50.6 % 129 255
7 When explaining a learning task to students,
separate words from images to reduce
instructional complexity.
25.9% 66 255
8 I don’t know. .8% 2 255
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Summary. The assumed influence assessed if CDCR teachers have declarative factual
knowledge of elements of effective instructional design that enhance student learning. Survey
results indicate that 220of 255 (86.3%) survey respondents correctly identified one of the correct
responses in this factual knowledge domain (Pre-teaching vocabulary and important
terminology before teaching complex information), while 195 of the 255 (76.5%) survey
respondents correctly identified the second correct response provided in this declarative factual
knowledge domain (Providing students with cues for selecting important information).
Interestingly, the response with the highest frequency for this question (adding interesting
information to the instructional design to enhance the learning of new material) was selected by
222 of 255 (87.1%) respondents, although this element of instructional design is known to
increase extraneous load for the learner and can adversely impact student learning outcomes
(Kalyuga et al., 2010). Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in
CDCR teachers’ declarative factual knowledge for this survey item.
Declarative factual knowledge influence 3: Teachers need to understand the basic
tenets of the information processing model and cognitive load theory.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify basic tenets of the information
processing model and cognitive load theory in two separate questions. From an instructional
design context, understanding the basic tenets of the information-processing model and cognitive
load theory is an important function for enhancing student learning outcomes. In one question,
survey respondents were asked to demonstrate knowledge of human working memory processing
capacity. In the second question, survey respondents were asked to identify the correct number of
channels that exist in the information processing model. The correct answers to both declarative
factual knowledge questions are in bold font below. Additionally, one of the options provided for
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this factual knowledge question allowed the participants to indicate a lack of knowledge by
selecting, “I don’t know.” The knowledge gap threshold established for this study requires 80%
agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in declarative factual
knowledge.
Table 10
Survey Results for Declarative Factual Knowledge of the Basic Tenets of the Information
Processing Model and Cognitive Load Theory
# Declarative Factual Knowledge Item % Count
Working memory processing capacity for humans is:
Select the best answer.
1 Unlimited. 14.3% 36
2 Limited. 36.9% 93
3 Similar to long-term memory. 11.9% 30
4 I don’t know. 36.9% 93
Total Respondents 100% 252
# Declarative Factual Knowledge Item % Count
How many channels exist in the human information
processing system?
Select the best answer.
1 1 2.4% 6
2 2 3.2% 8
3 3 8.8% 22
4 4 13.2% 33
5 I don’t know. 72.4% 181
Total Respondents 100% 250
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Summary. The assumed declarative factual knowledge influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have declarative factual knowledge of the basic elements of the information processing
model and cognitive load theory. Of the 252 respondents who answered the first question, 93
(36.9%) respondents correctly identified that working memory processing for humans is limited,
93 (36.9%) respondents indicated that they did not know the answer, and 66 (26.2%) respondents
selected incorrect responses to the declarative factual knowledge question. Based on the 80%
threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ declarative factual
knowledge for this survey item.
Additionally, of the 250 respondents who answered the second question, 8 (3.2%)
respondents correctly identified that two channels exist in the human information processing
system, 181 (72.4%) respondents indicated that they did not know the answer, and 61 (26.4%)
respondents selected incorrect responses to the declarative factual knowledge question. Based on
80% the threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ declarative factual
knowledge for this survey item.
Conceptual Knowledge
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ declarative conceptual knowledge.
More specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete a survey that assessed their
knowledge of using disaggregated achievement data to improve student test scores. The survey
data have been organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed causes of existing
performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ declarative conceptual knowledge.
Declarative conceptual knowledge influence 1: Teachers know the importance of
disaggregating student achievement data to improve test scores.
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Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Teachers know the importance of disaggregating
student achievement data to improve student test scores.” A survey question was used to collect
CDCR teacher responses for the declarative conceptual knowledge influence, and no interviews,
observations, or document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this
study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The declarative conceptual
knowledge gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with
less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in declarative conceptual knowledge.
Table 11
Survey Results for Declarative Conceptual Knowledge of Disaggregating Student Achievement
Data to Improve Test Scores
# Declarative Conceptual Knowledge Item % Count
Disaggregating student achievement data improves
student test scores.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 6.8% 17
2 Agree 33.7% 84
3 Neutral 41.4% 103
4 Disagree 9.6% 24
5 Strongly disagree 8.4% 21
Total Respondents 100% 249
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Summary. The assumed declarative conceptual knowledge influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have declarative conceptual knowledge of disaggregating student data to improve
student test scores. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “Disaggregating student achievement data improves student test scores.” Of the 249
respondents who answered this question, 101 (40.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or
“agree” that disaggregating student achievement data improves student test scores, while 45
(18%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 103 (41.4%)
respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ declarative conceptual knowledge for this survey item.
Procedural Knowledge
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ procedural knowledge. One
assumed cause of the stakeholder gap is that correctional education teachers do not have
knowledge of conflict prevention techniques, practices, and methods that would better meet the
mental health and emotional needs of culturally and ethnically diverse student population
(Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Ely, 2011; Kistler, 1995). The survey data have been
organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed causes of existing performance gaps
represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ procedural knowledge.
Procedural knowledge influence 1: Teachers know how to use trauma-informed
practices in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to rate themselves on the following question:
“Do you know how to support students in the classroom who have experienced trauma.” Survey
questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher responses for the procedural knowledge
influences, and no interviews, observations, or document analysis was performed. A
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dichotomous scale (Yes/No) was used to assess this procedural knowledge influence. The
procedural knowledge gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey
results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in procedural knowledge.
Table 12
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Trauma-Informed Practices in the Correctional
Education Classroom
# Procedural Knowledge Item % Count
Do you know how to support the students in your
classroom who have experienced trauma?
Multiple Choice.
1 Yes 62.6% 159
2 No 37.4% 95
Total Respondents 100% 254
95
Summary. The assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have knowledge of trauma-informed practices in a correctional education setting. Of the 254
respondents who answered this question, 159 (62.6%) respondents replied with “Yes,” while 95
(37.4%) respondents replied with “No.” Based on the 80% threshold established in this study,
there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ procedural knowledge for this survey item.
Procedural knowledge influence 2: Teachers know how to de-escalate a volatile
situation in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to rate themselves on the following question:
“Do you know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional educational classroom?”
A dichotomous scale (Yes/No) was used to assess this procedural knowledge influence. The
procedural knowledge gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey
results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in procedural knowledge.
Table 13
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of De-Escalating a Volatile Situation in the
Correctional Education Classroom
# Procedural Knowledge Item % Count
Do you know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in
the correctional educational classroom?
Multiple Choice.
1 Yes 94.1% 239
2 No 5.9% 15
Total Respondents 100% 254
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Summary. The assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in a correctional education setting. Of the 254
respondents who answered this question, 239 (94.1%) respondents replied with “Yes,” while 15
(5.9%) respondents replied with “No.” Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, this
procedural knowledge influence is an asset for CDCR teachers.
Procedural knowledge influence 3: Teachers know how to implement trauma-
informed practices in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify teaching practices that would best
support the students in the correctional education classroom who had experienced trauma. Of the
five practices provided on the survey, only two strategies were correct and were informed by the
academic literature. The correct items are in bolded font below. Additionally, one of the options
provided for this procedural knowledge question allowed the participants to indicate a lack of
knowledge by selecting, “I don’t know.” The procedural knowledge gap threshold established for
this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap
in procedural knowledge.
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Table 14
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Implementing Trauma-Informed Practices in the
Correctional Education Classroom
# Procedural Knowledge Item % Count Sample
Size
Which of the following practices will best
support students who have experienced trauma
in the correctional education classroom?
Select all that apply.
1 Teachers should be responsive to the needs
of their students who have experienced
trauma.
84.3% 215 255
2 Treat all students the same. 18% 46 255
3 Trauma has no effect on student outcomes in
the classroom.
1.2% 3 255
4 Teachers need to understand how trauma
impacts human development.
86.7% 221 255
5 Implement rigid disciplinary structures so all
students are treated fairly.
7.5% 19 255
6 I don’t know. 1.2% 16 255
Summary. The assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
know how to implement trauma-informed practices in the correctional education classroom. The
results of this analysis indicate that 215 of 255 (84.3%) survey respondents correctly identified
one of the correct responses in this procedural knowledge domain (Teachers should be
responsive to the needs of their students who have experienced trauma), while 221 of the 255
(86.7%) survey respondents correctly identified the second correct response (Teachers need to
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understand how trauma impacts human development) provided in this procedural knowledge
domain. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, this procedural knowledge
influence is an asset for CDCR teachers.
Procedural knowledge influence 4: Teachers know conflict prevention practices that
will de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify conflict prevention practices that
would de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom. Of the six conflict
prevention practices provided on the survey, only two strategies are correct and were informed
by the academic literature. The correct items are in bolded font below. Additionally, one of the
options provided for this procedural knowledge question allowed the participants to indicate a
lack of knowledge by selecting, “I don’t know.” The procedural knowledge gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in procedural knowledge.
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Table 15
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge of Conflict Prevention Practices that will De-escalate
a Volatile Situation in the Correctional Education Classroom
# Procedural Knowledge Item % Count Sample
Size
Which of the following practices will reduce
conflict in the correctional education
classroom?
Select all that apply.
1 Explain the school suspension and expulsion
policies to students.
29% 74 255
2 Establish rigid disciplinary policies to set the
tone in the classroom.
15.3% 39 255
3 Forge a sense of community and solidarity in
the classroom.
87.5% 223 255
4 Teachers need to have an understanding of
how trauma impacts student learning,
motivation, and behavior.
83.9% 214 255
5 Lower the instructional complexity so all
students feel at ease in the classroom.
25.1% 64 255
6 Teachers should focus on maintaining control
of their classrooms at all times.
39.6% 101 255
7 I don’t know. 1.2% 3 255
Summary. The assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have knowledge of conflict prevention practices that will de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom. The results of this analysis indicate that 223 of 255 (87.5%)
survey respondents correctly identified one of the correct responses in this procedural knowledge
domain (Forge a sense of community and solidarity in the classroom), while 214 of the 255
(83.9%) survey respondents correctly identified the second correct response (Teachers need to
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have an understanding of how trauma impacts student learning, motivation, and behavior)
provided in this procedural knowledge domain. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, this procedural knowledge influence is an asset for CDCR teachers.
Metacognitive Knowledge
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ metacognitive knowledge. More
specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete a survey that assessed their use of personal
reflection in the areas of student trauma exposure and their understanding of the prevalence of
student trauma for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in correctional education
programs. The survey data have been organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed
causes of existing performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ metacognitive
knowledge.
Metacognitive knowledge influence 1: Teachers know how to reflect on how their own
teaching practices impact students who have experienced trauma.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “I regularly reflect on how my own teaching practices in
the classroom impact students with trauma exposure.” Survey questions were used to collect all
CDCR teacher responses for the metacognitive influences, and no interviews, observations, or
document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The metacognitive knowledge gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in metacognitive knowledge.
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Table 16
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of How Teacher Practices Impact Students Who
Have Experienced Trauma
#
Metacognitive Knowledge Item
%
Count
I regularly reflect on how my own teaching practices in
the classroom impact students with trauma exposure.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 15.6% 39
2 Agree 39.6% 99
3 Neutral 33.6% 84
4 Disagree 8% 20
5 Strongly disagree 3.2% 8
Total Respondents 100% 250
Summary. The assumed metacognitive knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have metacognitive knowledge of how teacher practices impact students who have experienced
trauma. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement:
“I regularly reflect on how my own teaching practices in the classroom impact students with
trauma exposure.” Of the 250 respondents who answered this question, 138 (55.2%) respondents
either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 28 (11.2%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or
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“disagree.” Additionally, 84 (33.6%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on
the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ metacognitive
knowledge for this survey item.
Metacognitive knowledge influence 2: Teachers know how to reflect on the
prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education
programs.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “I regularly reflect on how ethnic and racial minorities in
correctional education programs are disproportionately impacted by trauma exposure and
PTSD.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to
“Strongly Disagree.” The metacognitive knowledge gap threshold established for this study
requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in
metacognitive knowledge.
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Table 17
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge of the Prevalence of Student Trauma for Ethnic and
Racial Minority Students in Correctional Education Programs
# Metacognitive Knowledge Item % Count
I regularly reflect on how ethnic and racial minority
students in correctional education programs are
disproportionately impacted by trauma exposure and
PTSD.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 17.3% 43
2 Agree 32.1% 80
3 Neutral 31.7% 79
4 Disagree 11.2% 28
5 Strongly disagree 7.6% 19
Total Respondents 100% 249
Summary. The assumed metacognitive knowledge influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have metacognitive knowledge of prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial minorities in
correctional education programs. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on
the following statement: “I regularly reflect on how ethnic and racial minority students in
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correctional education programs are disproportionately impacted by trauma exposure and
PTSD.” Of the 249 respondents who answered this question, 123 (49.4%) respondents either
“strongly agree” or “agree,” while 47 (18.8%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or
“disagree.” Additionally, 79 (31.7%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on
the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ metacognitive
knowledge for this survey item.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
CDCR teachers’ motivational influences were assessed through the administration of a
survey protocol. The assumed causes of CDCR teachers’ motivational gaps are presented in the
following categories: value, self-efficacy, and attribution. The results of the motivational survey
data are presented in Tables 18-26 and are used to validate the assumed causes of CDCR
teachers’ motivational gaps outlined in this study
Value
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ utility value. More specifically,
CDCR teachers were asked to complete a survey that assessed their utility value for instructional
practices that support positive student learning outcomes, trauma-informed practices, and
conflict prevention techniques using Likert-type survey questions. The survey data have been
organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed causes of existing performance gaps
represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ utility value.
Value influence 1: Teachers need to have utility value for understanding how
student learning is enhanced.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Understanding how student learning is enhanced will
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help me become a more successful teacher.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR
teacher responses for the value motivation influences, and no interviews, observations, or
document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The utility value motivation gap threshold established
for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a
gap in participants’ utility value motivation for instructional practices that enhance student
learning.
Table 18
Survey Results for Utility Value Motivation for Understanding How Student Learning is
Enhanced
# Value Motivation Item % Count
Understanding how student learning is enhanced will
help me become a more successful teacher.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 58.5% 137
2 Agree 37.6% 88
3 Neutral 3% 7
4 Disagree .4% 1
5 Strongly disagree .4% 1
Total Respondents 100% 234
106
Summary. The assumed value motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
value motivation for understanding how student learning is enhanced. CDCR teachers were
asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “Understanding how student
learning is enhanced will help me become a more successful teacher.” Of the 234 respondents
who answered this question, 225 (96.2%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 2
(.8%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 7 (3%) respondents
remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, this
value motivation influence is an asset for CDCR teachers.
Value influence 2: Teachers need to have utility value for de-escalating a volatile
situation in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Knowing how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom will help me achieve my instructional goals.” The 5-point
Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The
utility value motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey
results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ utility value motivation for
de-escalating a volatile situation in the classroom.
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Table 19
Survey Results for Utility Value Motivation for De-escalating a Volatile Situation in the
Classroom
# Value Motivation Item % Count
Knowing how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom will help me achieve
my instructional goals.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 56.4% 132
2 Agree 36.8% 86
3 Neutral 6% 14
4 Disagree .9% 2
5 Strongly disagree 0% 0
Total Respondents % 234
Summary. The assumed value motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
value motivation for de-escalating a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom.
CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement:
“Knowing how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom will
help me achieve my instructional goals.” Of the 234 respondents who answered this question,
218 (93.2%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 2 (.9%) respondents
“disagree.” Additionally, 14 (6%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on
the 80% threshold established in this study, this value motivation influence is an asset for CDCR
teachers.
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Value influence 3: Teachers need to have utility value for meeting the emotional
needs of students in the correctional educational classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Meeting the emotional needs of my students in the
correctional education classroom is useful for my job-related duties.” The 5-point Likert-type
scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The utility value
motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with
less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ utility value motivation for meeting the
emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom.
Table 20
Survey Results for Utility Value Motivation for Meeting the Emotional Needs Student
# Value Motivation Item % Count
Meeting the emotional needs of my students in the
correctional education classroom is useful for my job-
related duties.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 37.3% 87
2 Agree 44.2% 103
3 Neutral 13.3% 31
4 Disagree 3.9% 9
5 Strongly disagree 1.3% 3
Total Respondents 100% 233
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Summary. The assumed value motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
value motivation for meeting the emotional needs of students in the correctional education
classroom. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “Meeting the emotional needs of my students in the correctional education classroom
is useful for my job-related duties.” Of the 233 respondents who answered this question, 190
(81.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 12 (5.2%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 31 (13.3%) respondents remained neutral on this
survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, this value motivation
influence is an asset for CDCR teachers.
Self-Efficacy
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ self-efficacy. To this end, CDCR
teachers were asked to complete Likert-type questions that assessed their self-efficacy in de-
escalating volatile situations in the classroom and meeting the mental health and emotional needs
of their students. The survey data have been organized and evaluated to validate whether the
assumed causes of existing performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy motivation influence 1: Teachers need to have confidence in their
ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “I am confident I can do an excellent job de-escalating a
volatile situation in the classroom.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher
responses for the self-efficacy motivation influences, and no interviews, observations, or
document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The self-efficacy motivation gap threshold established
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for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a
gap in participants’ self-efficacy motivation in de-escalating a volatile situation in the classroom.
Table 21
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for De-escalating a Volatile Situation in the
Classroom
# Self-Efficacy Motivation Item % Count
I am confident I can do an excellent job de-escalating a
volatile situation in the classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 27.6% 64
2 Agree 53.9% 125
3 Neutral 14.7% 34
4 Disagree 2.3% 6
5 Strongly disagree 1.3% 3
Total Respondents 100% 232
111
Summary. The assumed self-efficacy motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have self-efficacy motivation for de-escalating a volatile situation in the correctional education
classroom. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “I am confident I can do an excellent job de-escalating a volatile situation in the
classroom.” Of the 232 respondents who answered this question, 189 (81.5%) respondents either
“strongly agree” or “agree,” while 9 (3.6%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.”
Additionally, 34 (14.7%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80%
threshold established in this study, this self-efficacy motivation influence is an asset for CDCR
teachers.
Self-efficacy motivation influence 2: Teachers need to have confidence in their
ability to meet the emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “I am confident that I can meet the emotional needs of
my students in the correctional education classroom.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this
study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The self-efficacy motivation gap
threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80%
agreement indicated a gap in participants’ self-efficacy motivation in meeting the emotional
needs of students in the correctional education classroom.
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Table 22
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for Meeting the Emotional Needs of Students
# Self-Efficacy Motivation Item % Count
I am confident that I can meet the emotional needs of my
students in the correctional education classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 16.4% 38
2 Agree 46.1% 107
3 Neutral 30.2% 70
4 Disagree 5.2% 12
5 Strongly disagree 2.2% 5
Total Respondents 100% 232
Summary. The assumed self-efficacy motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have self-efficacy motivation for meeting the emotional needs of students in the correctional
education classroom. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the
following statement: “I am confident that I can meet the emotional needs of my students in the
correctional education classroom.” Of the 232 respondents who answered this question, 145
(62.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 17 (7.4%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 70 (30.2%) respondents remained neutral on this
survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR
teachers’ self-efficacy motivation for this survey item.
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Self-efficacy motivation influence 3: Teachers need to have confidence in their
ability to meet the specific learning needs of students with learning challenges.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “I am confident that I can meet the specific learning
needs of students with learning challenges in my classroom.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used
for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The self-efficacy
motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with
less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ self-efficacy motivation to meet the
specific learning needs of students with learning challenges.
Table 23
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Motivation for Meeting the Specific Learning Needs of Students
with Learning Challenges
# Self-Efficacy Motivation Item % Count
I am confident that I can meet the specific learning needs
of students with learning challenges in my classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 20% 44
2 Agree 55% 121
3 Neutral 18.2% 40
4 Disagree 5.5% 12
5 Strongly disagree 1.4% 3
Total Respondents 100% 220
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Summary. The assumed self-efficacy motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers
have self-efficacy motivation for meeting the specific learning needs of students with learning
challenges. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “I am confident that I can meet the specific learning needs of students with learning
challenges in my classroom.” Of the 220 respondents who answered this question, 165 (75%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 15 (6.9%) respondents either “strongly
disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 40 (18.2%) respondents remained neutral on this survey
item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’
self-efficacy motivation for this survey item.
Attribution
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ attribution. To this end, CDCR
teachers were asked to complete Likert-type survey questions that assessed their attributions in
their ability to meet the emotional needs of students, to de-escalate a volatile situation in the
classroom, and their ability to meet the needs of students with learning challenges. The survey
data have been organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed causes of existing
performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ attribution.
Attribution motivation influence 1: Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet
the emotional needs of students to their effort rather than their natural ability.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Meeting the emotional needs of students in a
correctional education setting is guided more by my effort than my natural ability.” Survey
questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher responses for the attribution motivation
influences, and no interviews, observations, or document analysis was performed. The 5-point
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Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The
attribution motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey
results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ attribution motivation to
attribute their ability to meet the emotional needs of students to their effort rather than their
ability.
Table 24
Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Their Ability to Meet the Emotional Needs
of Students to Their Effort Rather Than Their Ability
# Attribution Motivation Item % Count
Meeting the emotional needs of students in a correctional
education setting is guided more by my effort than my
natural ability.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 9.1% 20
2 Agree 38.4% 84
3 Neutral 31.5% 69
4 Disagree 18.3% 40
5 Strongly disagree 2.7% 6
Total Respondents 100% 219
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Summary. The assumed motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have attribution
motivation to attribute their ability to meet the emotional needs of students to their effort rather
than their ability. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “Meeting the emotional needs of students in a correctional education setting is guided
more by my effort than my natural ability.” Of the 219 respondents who answered this question,
104 (47.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 46 (21%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 69 (31.5%) respondents remained neutral on this
survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR
teachers’ attribution motivation for this survey item.
Attribution motivation influence 2: Teachers need to attribute their ability to de-
escalate a volatile situation in a correctional education setting to their effort rather than
their natural ability.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “De-escalating a volatile situation in a correctional
education setting is guided more by my effort rather than my natural ability.” The 5-point Likert-
type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The
attribution motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey
results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ attribution motivation to
attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom to their effort rather than
their ability.
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Table 25
Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Their Ability to De-escalate a Volatile
Situation in the Classroom to Their Effort Rather Than Their Ability
# Attribution Motivation Item % Count
De-escalating a volatile situation in a correctional
education setting is guided more by my effort rather than
my natural ability.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 8.6% 19
2 Agree 39.8% 88
3 Neutral 27.6% 61
4 Disagree 20.8% 46
5 Strongly disagree 3.2% 7
Total Respondents 100% 221
Summary. The assumed motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have attribution
motivation to attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom to their
effort rather than their ability. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the
following statement: “De-escalating a volatile situation in a correctional education setting is
guided more by my effort rather than my natural ability.” Of the 221 respondents who answered
this question, 107 (48.4%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 53 (24%)
respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 61 (27.6%) respondents
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remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there
is a gap in CDCR teachers’ attribution motivation for this survey item.
Attribution motivation influence 3: Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet
the needs of students with learning challenges in a correctional education setting to their
effort rather than their natural ability.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “Meeting the needs of students with learning challenges
in a correctional education setting is guided more by my effort rather than my natural ability.”
The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly
Disagree.” The attribution motivation gap threshold established for this study requires 80%
agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’
attribution motivation to attribute their ability to meet the needs of students with learning
challenges in a correctional education setting to their effort rather than their ability.
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Table 26
Survey Results for Attribution Motivation to Attribute Their Ability to Meet the Needs of Students
with Learning Challenges to Their Effort Rather Than Their Ability
# Attribution Motivation Item % Count
Meeting the needs of students with learning challenges in
a correctional education setting is guided more by my
effort rather than my natural ability.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 14% 31
2 Agree 46.4% 103
3 Neutral 23.9% 53
4 Disagree 13.5% 30
5 Strongly disagree 2.3% 5
Total Respondents 100% 222
Summary. The assumed motivation influence assessed if CDCR teachers have attribution
motivation to attribute their ability to meet the needs of students with learning challenges to their
effort rather than their ability. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the
following statement: “Meeting the needs of students with learning challenges in a correctional
education setting is guided more by my effort rather than my natural ability.” Of the 222
120
respondents who answered this question, 134 (60.4%) respondents either “strongly agree” or
“agree,” while 35 (15.8%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 53
(23.9%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold
established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ attribution motivation for this survey
item.
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes
CDCR teachers’ organizational influences were assessed through the administration of a
survey protocol. The assumed causes of CDCR teachers’ organizational gaps are presented in the
following categories: resources, policies and procedures, cultural settings, and cultural models.
The results of the organizational survey data are presented in Tables 27-37 and are used to
validate the assumed causes of CDCR teachers’ organizational gaps outlined in this study
Resources
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ organizational resources. More
specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete Likert-type questions that assessed whether
they received the resources, tools, workspace, and materials needed to support positive student
outcomes in the classroom. The survey data have been organized and evaluated to validate
whether the assumed causes of existing performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’
organizational resources.
Resources influence 1: Teachers need tools, workspace, materials, and resources to
support positive student learning outcomes in the correctional education classroom.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization ensures that I am provided the tools,
workspace, materials, and resources needed to support positive student outcomes in the
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classroom.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher responses for the
organizational resources influence, and no interviews, observations, or document analysis was
performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to
“Strongly Disagree.” The organizational resources gap threshold established for this study
requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in
participants’ organizational resources.
Table 27
Survey Results for Organizational Resources that Support Positive Student Outcomes in the
Correctional Education Classroom
# Organizational Resources Item % Count
My organization ensures that I am provided the tools,
workspace, materials, and resources needed to support
positive student outcomes in the classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 16.2% 36
2 Agree 35.6% 79
3 Neutral 16.2% 36
4 Disagree 18% 40
5 Strongly disagree 14% 31
Total Respondents 100% 222
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Summary. The assumed organizational influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
organizational resources that support positive student outcomes in the correctional education
classroom. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following
statement: “My organization ensures that I am provided the tools, workspace, materials, and
resources needed to support positive student outcomes in the classroom.” Of the 222 respondents
who answered this question, 115 (51.8%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while
71 (32%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 36 (16.2%)
respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational resources for this survey item.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ organizational policies, processes,
and procedures. More specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete Likert-type questions
that assessed whether organizational policies, processes, and procedures aligned with
organizational goals and supported positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority
students in their program. The survey data have been organized and evaluated to validate
whether the assumed causes of existing performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’
organizational policies, processes, and procedures.
Policies, processes, and procedures influence 1: Teachers need to have policies that
align with organizational goals to be successful.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization’s policies align with its organizational
goals.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher responses for the organizational
policies, processes, and procedures influences, and no interviews, observations, or document
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analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly
Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational policies, processes, and procedures gap
threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80%
agreement indicated a gap in participants’ organizational policies, processes, and procedures that
align with its organizational goals.
Table 28
Survey Results for Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures that Align with
Organizational Goals
# Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
My organization’s policies align with its organizational
goals.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 6% 13
2 Agree 41.4% 89
3 Neutral 28.4% 61
4 Disagree 14.9% 32
5 Strongly disagree 9.3% 20
Total Respondents 100% 215
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Summary. The assumed organizational influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
organizational policies, processes, and procedures that align with organizational goals. CDCR
teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My
organization’s policies align with its organizational goals.” Of the 215 respondents who
answered this question, 102 (47.4%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 52
(24.2%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 61 (28.4%)
respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational policies, processes, and procedures for
this survey item.
Policies, processes, and procedures influence 2: Teachers need to have policies that
align with and support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in
correctional educational programs.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization’s policies target and support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in our program.” The 5-point Likert-type
scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The
organizational policies, processes, and procedures gap threshold established for this study
requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in
participants’ organizational policies, processes, and procedures that align with and support
positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education
programs.
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Table 29
Survey Results for Organizational Policies, Processes, and Procedures that Align with and
Support Positive Educational Outcomes for Ethnic and Racial Minorities in Correctional
Education Programs
# Policies, Processes, and Procedures Item % Count
My organization’s policies target and support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in
our program.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 7.9% 17
2 Agree 25.6% 55
3 Neutral 34% 73
4 Disagree 23.7% 51
5 Strongly disagree 8.8% 19
Total Respondents 100% 215
Summary. The assumed organizational influence assessed if CDCR teachers have
organizational policies, processes, and procedures that align with and support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education programs.
. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My
organization’s policies target and support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial
minorities in our program.” Of the 215 respondents who answered this question, 72 (33.5%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 70 (32.5%) respondents either “strongly
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disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 73 (34%) respondents remained neutral on this survey
item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’
organizational policies, processes, and procedures for this survey item.
Cultural Settings
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ cultural settings. More
specifically, CDCR teachers were asked to complete Likert-type questions that assessed whether
the cultural settings of the organization provided opportunities for teachers to experience peer
review with expert teachers and educators and fostered teacher collaboration. The survey data
have been organized and evaluated to validate whether the assumed causes of existing
performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’ cultural settings.
Cultural settings influence 1: The organization’s cultural settings provide
opportunities for teachers to experience peer review with expert teachers and educators.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization has a culture that supports peer review
with expert teachers and educators.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher
responses for the organizational cultural settings influences, and no interviews, observations, or
document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural settings gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in participants’ organizational cultural settings that provide teachers
opportunities to experience peer review with expert teachers and educators.
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Table 30
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Settings that Provide Teachers Opportunities to
Experience Peer Review with Expert Teachers and Educators
# Cultural Settings Item % Count
My organization’s culture supports my learning and
growth by providing opportunities to work with subject
matter experts and more experienced teachers.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 8% 17
2 Agree 28.6% 61
3 Neutral 22.5% 48
4 Disagree 24.9% 53
5 Strongly disagree 16% 34
Total Respondents 100% 213
Summary. The assumed organizational cultural settings influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural settings that provide teachers with opportunities to
experience peer review with expert teachers and educators. CDCR teachers were asked to rate
their level of agreement on the following statement: “My organization’s culture supports my
learning and growth by providing opportunities to work with subject matter experts and more
experienced teachers.” Of the 213 respondents who answered this question, 78 (36.6%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 87 (40.9%) respondents either “strongly
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disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 48 (22.5%) respondents remained neutral on this survey
item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’
organizational cultural settings for this survey item.
Cultural settings influence 2: The organization’s cultural settings fosters teacher
collaboration.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization has a culture that fosters teacher
collaboration.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to
“Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural settings gap threshold established for this study
requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in
participants’ organizational cultural settings that foster teacher collaboration.
Table 31
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Settings that Fosters Teacher Collaboration
# Cultural Settings Item % Count
My organization has a culture that fosters teacher
collaboration.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 12.6% 27
2 Agree 43.3% 93
3 Neutral 18.6% 40
4 Disagree 14% 30
5 Strongly disagree 11.6% 25
Total Respondents 100% 215
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Summary. The assumed organizational cultural settings influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural settings that foster teacher collaboration. CDCR teachers
were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My organization has a
culture that fosters teacher collaboration.” Of the 215 respondents who answered this question,
120 (55.9%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 55 (25.6%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 40 (18.6%) respondents remained neutral on this
survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR
teachers’ organizational cultural settings for this survey item.
Cultural Models
A survey protocol was used to assess CDCR teachers’ cultural models. More specifically,
CDCR teachers were asked to complete Likert-type questions that assessed whether the cultural
models of the organization offer the following levels of support: enhancing teacher knowledge,
skill, and motivation; invest in teacher training that targets the needs of an ethnically and
culturally diverse student population; creates opportunities for CDCR teachers to learn about
equity-based pedagogical practices that are responsive to the mental health needs of an ethnically
and culturally diverse student population; helps teachers understand the impact of systemic
racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities enrolled in their correctional
education programs; provides teachers with informational resources that help support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students; and exhibits confidence in its
ability to execute change. The survey data have been organized and evaluated to validate
whether the assumed causes of existing performance gaps represent a gap in CDCR teachers’
cultural models.
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Cultural models influence 1: The organization’s cultural models enhance teacher
knowledge and skill.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization has enhanced my knowledge and skill
as a correctional education teacher.” Survey questions were used to collect all CDCR teacher
responses for the organizational cultural models influences, and no interviews, observations, or
document analysis was performed. The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural models gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in participants’ organizational cultural models that enhance teacher knowledge
and skill.
Table 32
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Enhance Teacher Knowledge and Skill
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization has enhanced my knowledge and skill
as a correctional education teacher.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 10.8% 23
2 Agree 44.8% 95
3 Neutral 20.3% 43
4 Disagree 12.3% 26
5 Strongly disagree 11.8% 25
Total Respondents 100% 212
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Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural models that enhance teacher knowledge and skill. CDCR
teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My
organization has enhanced my knowledge and skill as a correctional education teacher.” Of the
212 respondents who answered this question, 118 (55.6%) respondents either “strongly agree” or
“agree,” while 51 (24.1%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 43
(20.3%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold
established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational cultural models for this
survey item.
Cultural models influence 2: The organization’s cultural models enhance teacher
motivation.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization has enhanced my motivation as a
correctional education teacher.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural models gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in participants’ organizational cultural models that enhance motivation.
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Table 33
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Enhance Teacher Motivation
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization has enhanced my motivation as a
correctional education teacher.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 8.3% 18
2 Agree 31% 67
3 Neutral 24.1% 52
4 Disagree 20.8% 45
5 Strongly disagree 15.7% 34
Total Respondents 100% 216
Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural models that enhance teacher motivation. CDCR teachers
were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My organization has
enhanced my motivation as a correctional education teacher.” Of the 216 respondents who
answered this question, 85 (39.3%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 79
(36.5%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 52 (24.1%)
respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational cultural models for this survey item.
Cultural models influence 3: The organization’s cultural models provide the
training and professional development needed to meet the specific learning needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population.
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Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization provides the training and professional
development needed to meet the specific learning needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse
adult student population.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from
“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural models gap threshold
established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement
indicated a gap in participants’ organizational cultural models that provide the training and
professional development needed to meet the specific learning needs of an ethnically and
culturally diverse adult student population.
Table 34
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Provide the Training and Professional
Development Needed to Meet the Specific Learning Needs of an Ethnically & Culturally Diverse
Adult Student Population
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization provides the training and professional
development needed to meet the specific learning needs
of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 4.2% 9
2 Agree 25.4% 54
3 Neutral 28.2% 60
4 Disagree 24.9% 53
5 Strongly disagree 17.4% 37
Total Respondents 100% 213
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Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural models that provide the training and professional
development needed to meet the specific learning needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse
adult student population. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the
following statement: “My organization provides the training and professional development
needed to meet the specific learning needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population.” Of the 213 respondents who answered this question, 63 (29.6%) respondents either
“strongly agree” or “agree,” while 90 (42.3%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or
“disagree.” Additionally, 60 (28.2%) respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on
the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational
cultural models for this survey item.
Cultural models influence 4: The organization’s cultural models support equity-
based pedagogical practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of an ethnically and
culturally diverse adult student population.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization provides opportunities to learn about
equity-based teaching practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of the adult students in
my classroom.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree”
to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural models gap threshold established for this
study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in
participants’ organizational cultural models that provide opportunities to learn about equity-
based teaching practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of the adult student
population.
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Table 35
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Support Equity-Based Pedagogical
Practices Responsive to the Emotional Needs of the Adult Student Population
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization provides opportunities to learn about
equity-based teaching practices that are responsive to the
emotional needs of the adult students in my classroom.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 4.7% 10
2 Agree 19.2% 41
3 Neutral 31.5% 67
4 Disagree 28.6% 61
5 Strongly disagree 16% 34
Total Respondents 100% 213
Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural models that provide opportunities to learn about equity-
based teaching practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of adult students. CDCR
teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My
organization provides opportunities to learn about equity-based teaching practices that are
responsive to the emotional needs of the adult students in my classroom.” Of the 213 respondents
who answered this question, 51 (23.9%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 95
(44.6%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 67 (31.5%)
respondents remained neutral on this survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this
study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’ organizational cultural models for this survey item.
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Cultural models influence 5: The organization’s cultural models understand the
impact of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities
participating in correctional education programs.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization provides teachers opportunities to
learn about the impact of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial
minorities participating in correctional education programs.” The 5-point Likert-type scale used
for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” The organizational cultural
models gap threshold established for this study requires 80% agreement. Survey results with less
than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’ organizational cultural models that facilitate
the collective understanding of the impact of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic
and racial minorities participating in correctional education programs.
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Table 36
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Understand the Impact of Systemic
Racism and Structural Oppression for Ethnic and Racial Minorities in Correctional Education
Programs
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization provides teachers opportunities to learn
about the impact of systemic racism and structural
oppression for ethnic and racial minorities participating
in correctional education programs.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 3.7% 8
2 Agree 15.3% 33
3 Neutral 24.7% 53
4 Disagree 36.3% 78
5 Strongly disagree 20% 43
Total Respondents 100% 215
Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers have organizational cultural models that provide opportunities to learn about the impact
of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial minority students in
correctional education programs. CDCR teachers were asked to rate their level of agreement on
the following statement: “My organization provides teachers opportunities to learn about the
impact of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities participating
in correctional education programs.” Of the 215 respondents who answered this question, 41
(19%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 121 (56.3%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 53 (24.7%) respondents remained neutral on this
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survey item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR
teachers’ organizational cultural models for this survey item.
Cultural models influence 6: The organization’s cultural models provide
informational resources (qualitative data, academic research, academic journals) that help
support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in
correctional education programs.
Survey results. CDCR teachers were asked to identify their level of agreement for the
following 5-point Likert-type question, “My organization provides informational resources (e.g.,
qualitative data, academic research, academic journals) that help support positive educational
outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in correctional education programs.”
The 5-point Likert-type scale used for this study ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly
Disagree.” The organizational cultural models gap threshold established for this study requires
80% agreement. Survey results with less than 80% agreement indicated a gap in participants’
organizational cultural models that provide informational resources that help support positive
educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in correctional education
programs.
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Table 37
Survey Results for Organizational Cultural Models that Provide Informational Resources that
Help Support Positive Educational Outcomes for Ethnic and Racial Minority Students
# Cultural Models Item % Count
My organization provides informational resources (e.g.,
qualitative data, academic research, and academic
journals) that help support positive educational outcomes
for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in
correctional education programs.
Likert-Type Question.
1 Strongly agree 3.7% 8
2 Agree 15.3% 33
3 Neutral 25% 54
4 Disagree 34.7% 75
5 Strongly disagree 21.3% 46
Total Respondents 100% 216
Summary. The assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed if CDCR
teachers’ organizational cultural models provide informational resources that help support
positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students. CDCR teachers were
asked to rate their level of agreement on the following statement: “My organization provides
informational resources (e.g., qualitative data, academic research, and academic journals) that
help support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in
correctional education programs.” Of the 216 respondents who answered this question, 41 (19%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 121 (56%) respondents either “strongly
disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, 54 (25%) respondents remained neutral on this survey
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item. Based on the 80% threshold established in this study, there is a gap in CDCR teachers’
organizational cultural models for this survey item.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge
The following list is a compendium of declarative factual, declarative conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge influences examined as part of this gap analysis
evaluation study. The validated knowledge gaps were as follows: two of three declarative factual
knowledge gaps were validated; one of one declarative conceptual knowledge gaps were
validated; one of four procedural knowledge gaps were validated; and two of two metacognitive
knowledge gaps were validated. Table 38 presents an overview of the results of the assessment
of each assumed knowledge influence. Survey results with greater than 80% agreement were
validated as knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets. Conversely, survey results with
less than 80% agreement were validated as knowledge, motivation, and organizational
performance gaps. Recommendations to improve the identified causes are discussed in Chapter
Five.
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Table 38
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes Demonstrated
Assumed Knowledge Influences Demonstrated Asset or Need
Declarative Factual
Teachers understand the basic elements of the information processing model and cognitive
load theory…………………………………………………………………………………….Need
Teachers know teaching practices that improve student learning outcomes…………………Asset
Teachers know elements of effective instructional design that enhance student learning……Need
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers know the importance of disaggregating student achievement data to improve student
test scores……………………………………………………………………………………...Need
Procedural
Teachers know how to use trauma-informed practices in the classroom……………………..Need
Teachers know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom……………………..Asset
Teachers know how to implement trauma-informed practiced practices in the classroom…..Asset
Teachers know conflict prevention practices that will de-escalate a volatile situation in the
classroom……………………………………………………………………………………..Asset
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on how their own teaching practices impact students who have experienced
trauma…………………………………………………………………………………………Need
Teachers reflect on the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial minorities in
correctional education classrooms…………………………………………………………….Need
______________________________________________________________________________
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Motivation
The following list is a compendium of all motivational influences examined as part of
this gap analysis evaluation study. The validated gaps were as follows: zero of three value
motivation gaps were validated; two of three self-efficacy motivation gaps were validated; and
three of three attribution motivation gaps were validated. Table 39 presents an overview of the
results of the assessment of each assumed motivation influence. Recommendations to improve
the demonstrated causes are discussed in Chapter Five.
Table 39
Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes Demonstrated
Assumed Motivation Influences Demonstrated Asset or Need
Value
Teachers need to have utility value for knowing how student learning is enhanced…………Asset
Teachers need to have utility value for de-escalating a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom……………………………………………………………..Asset
Teachers need to have utility value for meeting the emotional needs of students in the
correctional education classroom……………………………………………………………..Asset
Self-Efficacy
Teachers need to have confidence in their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom……………………………………………………………..Asset
Teachers need to have confidence in their ability to meet the emotional needs of students
in the correctional education classroom………………………………………………………Need
Teachers need to have confidence in their ability to meet the specific learning needs of
students with learning challenges……………………………………………………………..Need
Attributions
Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet the emotional needs of students to their
effort rather than their natural ability…………………………………………………………Need
Teachers need to attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in a correctional
education setting to their effort rather than their natural ability………………………………Need
Teachers need to attribute their ability to meet the needs of students with learning challenges
in a correctional education setting to their effort rather than their natural ability…………….Need
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Organization
The following list is a compendium of organizational influences examined as part of this
gap analysis evaluation study. The gaps validated were as follows: one of one organizational
resource gaps were validated; two of two organizational policies, processes, and procedures gaps
were validated; two of two organizational culture setting gaps were validated; and six of six
organizational culture model gaps were validated. Table 40 presents an overview of the results of
the assessment of each assumed organizational influence. Recommendations to improve the
demonstrated causes are discussed in Chapter Five.
Table 40
Summary of Assumed Organization Causes Demonstrated
Assumed Organizational Influences Demonstrated Asset or Need
Resources
Teachers need tools, workspace, materials, and resources to support positive student
learning outcomes in the correctional education classroom…………………………………..Need
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Teachers need to have policies that align with organizational goals to be successful………..Need
Teachers need to have policies that align with and support positive educational outcomes
for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional educational programs………………………..Need
Cultural Settings
The organization’s cultural settings provide opportunities for teachers to experience
peer review with expert teachers and educators………………………………………………Need
The organization’s cultural settings fosters teacher collaboration……………………………Need
Cultural Models
The organization’s cultural models enhance the knowledge and skill of teachers…………...Need
The organization’s cultural models enhance the motivation of teachers……………………..Need
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The organization’s cultural models provide training and professional development that
meets the specific learning needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population..................................................................................................................................Need
The organization’s cultural models support equity-based pedagogical practices that are
responsive to the emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student
population……………………………………………………………………………………..Need
The organization’s cultural models understand the impact of systemic racism and
structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities participating in correctional
education programs…………………………………………………………………………...Need
The organization’s cultural models provide informational resources (qualitative data,
academic research, academic journals) that help support positive educational outcomes
for ethnic and racial minority students enrolled in correctional education
programs………………………………………………………………………………………Need
Chapter Five examines the recommendations and solutions for the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational demonstrated causes presented here. The recommendations and
solutions presented in this gap-analysis evaluation study are culled from a review of the
academic literature. These recommendations and solutions will be shared with CDCR
stakeholders.
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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to evaluate the organization’s
performance related to a larger problem of practice. Specifically, this gap analysis study focused
on the areas of CDCR teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and
explored whether CDCR teachers have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
needed to meet the learning and emotional needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult
student population in a correctional education setting. To this end, the validation and
prioritization of the assumed causes of knowledge, motivation, and organizational performance
gaps were explored.
The questions that guide this study were as follows:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps that prevent
teachers from meeting the academic and emotional needs of an ethnically
and culturally diverse student population in a correctional setting?
2. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for correctional education
programs?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes of CDCR teachers‘
performance gaps were validated using a survey instrument protocol. As referenced in Table 41
below, each of the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps have been given a
high priority for achieving greater organizational performance and success. Additionally, each of
the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational performance gaps examined in this
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study provide an evidence-based principle, academic citations, and offer a context-specific
recommendation for the validated causes.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Six of nine assumed knowledge influence gaps were validated through
surveys. More specifically, the knowledge influence gaps were as follows: two of three assumed
declarative factual knowledge influences were gaps; the one assumed declarative conceptual
knowledge influence was a gap; one of four assumed procedural knowledge influences were
gaps, while the remaining three assumed procedural knowledge influences were assets; and two
of two assumed metacognitive knowledge influences were gaps. Following the summary of
knowledge influences and recommendations provided in Table 41 is a discussion for each of the
high priority assumed causes that were validated, a research-based principle, and a context-
specific recommendation.
Table 41
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Priority
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Declarative Factual
Knowledge
Teachers understand the basic
elements of the information
processing model and cognitive
load theory.
High When teacher
knowledge of the
information processing
model and cognitive
load theory is
enhanced, students will
experience greater skill
development and
Provide web-based visual
job aid checklists for
teachers on the
information processing
model and cognitive load
theory.
147
performance (Dembo &
Eaton, 2000).
Teachers know teaching
practices that improve student
learning outcomes.
Low The utilization of
different teaching
strategies is required
for different learning
tasks (Dembo & Eaton,
2000).
Provide visual job aid
checklists for teachers that
list evidence-based
teaching practices that are
known to improve student
skill development and
student learning outcomes.
Teachers know elements of
effective instructional design
that enhance student learning.
High When active processing
and germane load is
effectively managed as
part of the instructional
design process, student
learning and
performance is
enhanced (Kalyuga et
al., 2010).
Provide information and
web-based visual job aid
checklists for teachers that
list elements of
instructional design that
are known to enhance
student learning.
Declarative Conceptual
Knowledge
Teachers know the importance
of disaggregating student
achievement data to improve test
scores.
High Examining
disaggregated data can
help identify gaps in
educational outcomes
for students enrolled in
correctional education
programs (Harris &
Bensimon, 2007)
Provide teachers with
information to learn from
the disaggregated data of
correctional education
students. Learning, in this
context, will provide
critically important data
for faculty, administrators,
and organizations and can
serve as a catalyst for
improving educational
outcomes for historically
marginalized groups.
Procedural
Knowledge
Teachers need to know how to
use trauma-informed practices in
the correctional education
program.
High
Teachers require
professional
development and
training in trauma-
Provide teacher training in
trauma-informed
interventions that are
148
informed practices to
meet the significant
mental health and
emotional needs of the
adult student
population in
correctional education
programs (Casperite,
2011; Leitch, 2017).
responsive to the needs of
incarcerated populations.
Teachers need to know how to
de-escalate a volatile situation in
the correctional education
classroom.
Low The effective
management of student
discipline and conflict
prevention is vitally
important for both
teachers and students in
correctional education
settings (Casperite,
2011).
Provide teacher training in
Positive Behavioral
Interventions & Supports
(PBIS) and conflict
prevention practices that
avoid conflict, build
effective relationships,
instill academic rigor in
teacher instruction, and
maintain high performance
and learning expectations
for all students in
correctional education
programs (Castillo, 2014;
Swain-Bradway et al.,
2013).
Teachers know how to
implement trauma-informed
practices in the correctional
education classroom.
Low Teachers require
professional
development and
training in trauma-
informed practices to
meet the significant
mental health and
emotional needs of the
adult student
population in
correctional education
programs (Casperite,
2011; Leitch, 2017).
Provide teachers with
training in trauma-
informed interventions
that are responsive to the
needs of incarcerated
populations.
Teachers know how to
implement conflict prevention
practices that will de-escalate a
Low The effective
management of student
discipline and conflict
prevention is vitally
Provide teachers with
training in Positive
Behavioral Interventions
& Supports (PBIS) and
149
volatile situation in the
correctional education classroom
important for both
teachers and students in
correctional education
settings (Casperite,
2011).
conflict prevention
practices that avoid
conflict, build effective
relationships, instill
academic rigor in teacher
instruction, and maintain
high performance and
learning expectations for
all students in correctional
education programs
(Castillo, 2014; Swain-
Bradway et al., 2013).
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Teachers need to know how to
reflect on how their own
teaching practices impact
students with trauma exposure.
High
The prevalence of
mental health and
emotional disabilities
among the incarcerated
adult population will
require correctional
education teachers to
reflect on how their
own teaching practices
impact the students
they work with (Leitch,
2017).
Teachers need to receive
information and web-
based visual job aids in the
study of adverse childhood
experiences (ACE's) and
trauma (Felitti et al., 1998)
to better understand (a) the
prevalence of trauma in
the general population,
and (b) the established link
between ACE's and
negative life outcomes.
Teachers need to know how to
reflect on the prevalence of
student trauma for ethnic and
racial minorities in correctional
education programs.
High The prevalence of
mental health and
emotional disabilities
among the incarcerated
adult population will
require correctional
education teachers to
reflect on how their
own teaching practices
impact ethnic and racial
minority students
(Leitch, 2017).
The organization should
seek out teacher feedback
on their metacognitive
practices, (via anonymous
surveys) collect data,
perform data analysis, and
share their findings with
teachers to increase
teacher metacognitive
reflection and self-
monitoring.
150
Declarative knowledge solutions. Three assumed declarative factual knowledge
influences were examined as part of this gap analysis study. The data from this study validated
gaps across two of three assumed declarative factual knowledge influences. The first assumed
declarative factual knowledge influences assessed whether CDCR teachers understood
the basic elements of the information processing model and cognitive load theory. The second
assumed declarative factual knowledge influence assessed if teachers knew teaching practices
that improved student learning outcomes. Finally, the third assumed declarative factual
knowledge influence assessed whether teachers knew elements of effective instructional design
that enhanced student learning.
For the first assumed declarative factual knowledge influence, teachers understand the
basic elements of the information processing model and cognitive load theory, a gap in
declarative factual knowledge was validated in this study. Of the 252 respondents who answered
the first question about working memory capacity for humans, only 93 (36.9%) respondents
correctly identified that working memory capacity for humans is limited. Additionally, of the
250 respondents who answered the second question about the number of channels that exist in
the human information processing system, only 8 (3.2%) respondents correctly identified that
two channels exist in the information processing system.
According to Dembo and Eaton (2000), when teacher knowledge of the information
processing model and cognitive load theory is enhanced, student performance and skill
development will increase. Moreover, teachers who teach students basic elements of the
information processing model can increase the understanding of how human memory functions
and can highlight effective practices for different learning challenges (Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
151
To mitigate the existing declarative factual knowledge gap, teachers should be provided web-
based visual job aid checklists on the information-processing model, cognitive-load theory, and
practices that support student learning and skill development. Moreover, the organization should
consider providing teachers with web-based access to information about the information
processing model and cognitive load theory based on the research of Agunis and Kraiger (2009).
Agunis and Kraiger (2009) found that web-based instruction was 6% more effective than
classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge. Moreover, Clark & Estes (2008) found
that providing job aid checklists to people with extensive experience is a cost-effective way of
communicating high-level, self-help information because it is individualized, does not require
immediate feedback, and is considered to be a highly successful practice for achieving
performance goals. This recommendation aligns with Dembo and Eaton's (2000) principle which
states that when teacher knowledge of the information processing model and cognitive load
theory is enhanced, students will experience greater skill development and performance.
Therefore, if the organization provides teachers with web-based visual job aids about the
information processing model and cognitive load theory, teachers will have a better
understanding of the human cognitive architecture, the limits of working memory processing,
and it will improve student learning transfer and student learning outcomes.
The second assumed declarative factual knowledge influence, teachers know teaching
practices that improve student learning outcomes, was validated as an asset in this study. Survey
results indicated that 234 of 255 (91.8%) respondents correctly identified one of two correct
responses in this factual knowledge influence (make information personally relevant to students),
while 237 of the 255 (92.9%) respondents correctly identified the second correct response (offer
students’ frequent practice on a learning task to build mastery) provided in this declarative
152
factual knowledge influence. However, the response with the highest frequency for this
declarative factual knowledge question, design instruction to meet the learning styles of students,
was incorrect and it was selected by 240 of the 255 (94.1%) respondents. Interestingly, the
concept of “learning styles” is not supported by empirical research and has been identified in the
academic literature as a learning myth. Although there is little to none empirical evidence that
teaching to students' preferred learning styles is an effective teaching practice, the concept of
learning styles is still prevalent in both the teaching profession and in educational consumer
spaces (Hoffman, 2015). To mitigate this misinformation, teachers should receive web-based
information and visual job aid checklists that highlight the utilization of effective teaching
strategies for different learning tasks; practices that support novice learners; using advanced
organizers and worked examples to limit cognitive load; appropriate learning strategies that
support the retrieval of essential information; and learning strategies and skills that will help
students learn complex information (Ambrose et al., 2010; Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Although
this declarative factual knowledge influence has been validated as an organizational asset,
teachers would still benefit if the organization provided web-based information and visual job
aid checklists that provide evidence-based teaching practices that are known to improve student
learning, skill development, and student learning outcomes.
For the third assumed declarative factual knowledge influence, teachers know elements of
effective instructional design that enhance student learning, a gap in declarative factual
knowledge was validated in this study. Survey results indicated that while 220 of 255 (86.3%)
respondents correctly identified one of two correct responses in this declarative factual
knowledge influence (Pre-teaching vocabulary and important terminology before teaching
complex information), only 195 of the 255 (76.5%) respondents correctly identified the second
153
correct response (Providing student with cues for selecting important information) provided in
this declarative factual knowledge influence. Interestingly, the response with the highest
frequency for this declarative factual knowledge question (adding interesting information to the
instructional design to enhance the learning of new material) was selected by 222 of 255
(87.1%) respondents, although this element of instructional design is known to increase
extraneous load for the learner and can adversely impact student learning outcomes (Kalyuga et
al., 2010). However, when active processing and germane load is effectively managed as part of
the instructional design process, both student learning and performance is enhanced (Kalyuga et
al., 2010). To mitigate the existing declarative factual knowledge gap, teachers should be
provided web-based job aids and checklists that provide information about the elements of sound
instructional design. It is strongly recommended that teachers are provided web-based instruction
as it is proven to be more effective than classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge
(Aguinis & Krager, 2009). Additionally, because many teachers already have formal training and
extensive classroom teaching experience, providing web-based visual job aids is a cost-effective
approach to training. It does not require guided practice, immediate feedback, and it can
significantly reduce the cost of increasing teacher knowledge and skill (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This aligns with the principle which states that when active processing and germane load is
effectively managed as part of the instructional design process, student learning and performance
is enhanced (Kalyuga et al., 2010). Therefore, if the organization increases the instructional
design capacity of teachers by providing web-based visual job aids, it can be expected that
students' working memory processing will be improved, it will enhance student learning transfer,
it will better support students learning complex information, and it will support life-long student
learning and skill development (Mayer & Moreno, 2011).
154
Conceptual knowledge solutions. One assumed conceptual knowledge influence was
examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated a gap
in the assumed conceptual knowledge influence. The assumed conceptual knowledge influence
assessed whether CDCR teachers knew the importance of disaggregating student achievement
data to improve test scores. Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are
discussed below.
For the assumed conceptual factual knowledge influence, teachers know the importance
of disaggregating student achievement data to improve test scores, a gap in declarative
conceptual knowledge was validated in this study. Survey results indicated that of the 249
respondents who answered this question, 101 (40.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or
“agree” that disaggregating student achievement data improves student test scores, while 45
(18%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” According to Koo (2016), meeting
the specific learning needs of students are not prioritized outcomes in correctional education.
Additionally, because racial disparities are not well-known to all people, structural inequities and
racial disparities must be highlighted with data to change organizational practices and improve
student learning outcomes (Aspen Institute, 2013; Gregory et al., 2016; Harris & Bensimon,
2007; Hollar & Hollar, 2016). To mitigate this declarative conceptual knowledge gap,
correctional organizations should provide teachers with information that communicates the
importance of disaggregating student data to improve test scores. This can be easily
accomplished if correctional education organizations and administrators provide critically
important information about disaggregating student data to improve test scores and create time
for teacher collaboration and data analysis in small groups or in on-site professional learning
communities. Once teachers study disaggregated data in collaboration with their peers, they will
155
have an increased capacity to examine individual biases, systemic racism, and structural forms of
oppression that have functionally marginalized ethnic and racial minorities in educational
institutions (Devine et al., 2012; Gregory et al., 2016; Harris & Bensimon, 2007; Hollar &
Hollar, 2016). This recommendation aligns with Harris and Bensimon's (2007) principle on
conceptual knowledge which states that examining disaggregated data can help identify gaps in
educational outcomes for students in correctional education programs. As such, if the
organization provides teachers with information that highlights the importance of disaggregating
student data to improve student test scores, it can be expected that organizational and individual
learning will serve as an important catalyst for improving both test scores and education
outcomes for historically marginalized groups in correctional education programs.
Procedural knowledge solutions. Four assumed procedural knowledge influences were
examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated gaps
across one of the four assumed procedural knowledge influences. The first assumed procedural
knowledge influence assessed whether CDCR teachers knew how to use trauma-informed
practices in the classroom. The second assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed
whether teachers knew how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education
classroom. The third assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed whether teachers knew
how to implement trauma-informed practices in the correctional education classroom. Finally,
the fourth assumed procedural knowledge influence assessed whether teachers knew how to
implement conflict prevention practices in the correctional education classroom.
Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
For the first assumed procedural knowledge influence, teachers know how to use trauma-
informed practices in the correctional education classroom, a gap in procedural knowledge was
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validated in this study. Of the 254 respondents who were asked if they knew how to use trauma-
informed practices in the classroom, 159 (62.6%) respondents replied with “Yes,” while 95
(37.4%) respondents replied with “No.” These findings indicate that only 62.6% of teachers
reported knowing how to use trauma-informed practices in the correctional education classroom.
In their seminal work on adverse childhood experiences (ACE's), Felitti et al. (1998)
established the prevalence of trauma in the general population and uncovered the plethora of
adverse personal, socio-economic, and mental health outcomes that are associated with trauma
exposure. Many scholars who studied ACE's, PTSD, and the STPP would later establish the link
between ACE's, PTSD, and increased incidences of incarceration (Benitez et al., 2013; Butcher
et al., 2014; Castillo, 2014; Fox et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2016; Randall & Haskell, 2013; Ross
& Brown, 2016; Santiago et al., 2018). In the correctional education context, Casperite (2011),
DelliCarpini (2008), Ely (2011), and Kistler (1995) have corroborated these findings and have
observed the correctional education population to have significant mental health and emotional
needs. In line with these findings, Casperite (2011) found that 55% of the male correctional
education population had been diagnosed with mental health issues. Despite these findings, many
scholars argue that teachers do not have the knowledge of trauma-informed practices and
interventions to meet the needs of the student population they serve (Bronson et al., 2015;
Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Ely, 2011; Kistler, 1995; Leitch, 2017. Moreover, Randall
& Haskell (2013) argue that paradigmatic shifts in medicine have led to important findings that
support the integration of trauma-informed approaches in a variety of organizational contexts and
recognize such efforts to be an integral part of policy and practice in organizational settings.
To support teachers in the workplace, the organization can provide training so that
teachers can have a better understanding of how their teaching practices impact students with
157
trauma, mental health, and emotional needs. According to Clark and Estes (2008), training is
essential when providing a visual job aid checklist of "what to do" or "how to do it" is not
enough. As such, teacher training to meet the emotional needs of students should provide "how
to" knowledge, important information, visual job aids, guided practice, and corrective feedback
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Moreover, this teacher training can be facilitated in person, in the
classroom, or via web-based and computer-based learning. In fact, Agunis and Kraiger (2009)
found that web-based instruction was 6% more effective than classroom instruction for teaching
declarative knowledge, and was equally as effective for teaching procedural knowledge. By
providing teachers with training in PBIS and trauma-informed practices, teachers will learn
critically important trauma-informed techniques, methods, skills, and will gain an understanding
of when certain steps are appropriate (Krathwohl, 2002). This recommendation aligns with
Casperite (2011) and Leitch's (2017) principle that states that teachers require training in trauma-
informed practices to meet the significant mental health and emotional needs of adult students in
correctional education programs. As such, if the organization provides the recommended
training, teachers will become more responsive to the needs of the offender and incarcerated
population, and they will have the capacity to implement trauma-informed practices in the
correctional education classroom.
The second assumed procedural knowledge influence, teachers know how to de-escalate
a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom, was validated as an asset in this
study. Of the 255 respondents who answered this question, 215 (94.1%) respondents replied with
“Yes,” while only 15 (5.9%) respondents replied with “No.” Based on the 80% threshold
established for this study, this procedural knowledge influence has been validated as an
organizational asset and there are no recommendations or solutions needed.
158
The third assumed procedural knowledge influence, teachers know how to implement
trauma-informed practices in the correctional education classroom, was validated as an asset in
this study. Of the 255 respondents who answered this question, 239 (84.3%) respondents
correctly identified that teachers should be responsive to the needs of their students who have
experienced trauma, and 221 (86.7%) respondents identified the other correct response, teachers
need to understand how trauma impacts human development. Based on the 80% threshold
established for this study, this procedural knowledge influence has been validated as an
organizational asset and there are no recommendations or solutions needed.
The fourth assumed procedural knowledge influence, teachers know conflict prevention
practices that will de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom, was
validated as an asset in this study. Of the 255 respondents who answered this question, 223
(87.5%) respondents correctly identified that teachers should forge a sense of community and
solidarity in the classroom, and 214 (83.9%) respondents identified the other correct response,
teachers need to have an understanding of how trauma impacts student learning, motivation, and
behavior. Based on the 80% threshold established for this study, this procedural knowledge
influence has been validated as an organizational asset and there are no recommendations or
solutions needed.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Two assumed metacognitive knowledge influences
were examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated
gaps across two of two assumed metacognitive knowledge influences. The first assumed
metacognitive knowledge influence assessed whether teachers reflected on how their own
teaching practices impacted students who have experienced trauma. The second assumed
metacognitive knowledge influence assessed whether teachers reflected on the prevalence of
159
student trauma for ethnic and racial minority students who participated in correctional education
programs. Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
For the first assumed metacognitive knowledge influence, teachers know how to reflect
on how their own teaching practices impact students who have experienced trauma, a gap in
metacognitive knowledge was validated in this study. Of the 250 respondents who answered this
question, 138 (55.2%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 28 (11.2%)
respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” According to Ellit et al. (2018) and
Krathwohl (2002), performance monitoring and self-recording are critically important processes
that lead to increased personal development and self-knowledge. In correctional education, it is
critical that correctional education teachers have the ability to reflect on how their own teaching
practices impact the students they work with. To mitigate this metacognitive knowledge gap,
correctional organizations should provide teachers with anonymous surveys that ask teachers to
self-record how often they reflect on how their own teaching practices impact students with
trauma exposure. The data collected from these surveys should be reported back to teachers so
that they can engage in their own development, build self-knowledge, and practice reflection and
self-monitoring. Next, correctional organizations should provide teachers with web-based
information and visual job aids on the study of adverse childhood experiences (ACE's) and
trauma (Felitti et al., 1998). These resources will help teachers better understand the prevalence
of trauma in the general population and the adverse life outcomes that are explicitly linked to
trauma exposure. This recommendation aligns with Leitch's (2017) principle which states the
prevalence of mental health and emotional disabilities among the incarcerated adult population
will require correctional education teachers to reflect on how their own teaching practices impact
the students they work with. Once teachers have an enhanced awareness of student trauma, its
160
concomitant effects, and participate in metacognitive self-reflection, they will be better equipped
to reflect on how their own teaching practices impact the students they work with.
The second assumed metacognitive knowledge influence, teachers know how to reflect
on the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education
programs, was validated as a gap in this study. Of the 249 respondents who answered this
question, 123 (49.4%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 47 (18.8%)
respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.” In their research on PTSD and youth
trauma, Rohde-Collins (2012) and Benitez et al. (2013) report that over 50% of the school-aged
children living in urban cities report having witnessed assaultive violence. Similarly, Dierkhising
et al. (2012) note that roughly 90% of youth in the juvenile justice system report some level of
trauma exposure and over 25% meet the clinical definition of PTSD. Perhaps the research most
relevant to the existing metacognitive knowledge influence is McCauley's (2017) finding that the
most common disability among African Americans, Hispanic, and White youth is emotional
disability, with 48% of African Americans and 49% of Hispanic youth reporting the highest
levels of emotional disability. Compellingly, Leitch (2017), McCauley (2017), and Wade and
Ortiz (2016) indicate that ethnic and racial minorities with elevated levels of trauma exposure
and PTSD are at increased risk for future justice system interaction, arrest, and incarceration.
Because adult inmates report higher rates of PTSD (Bronson et al,, 2015; Leitch, 2017; Miller &
Najavits, 2012) and a wide range of learning, intellectual, emotional, and cognitive disabilities
(Casperite, 2011; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016; McCauley, 2017), Leitch (2017) argues that
correctional education programs will have to consider trauma-informed interventions that are
responsive to the needs of offender and incarcerated populations.
161
To mitigate the assumed metacognitive knowledge gap, teachers need to receive
information and web-based visual job aids so that they can reflect on the prevalence of trauma
exposure and PTSD for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education. This
recommendation aligns with Leitch's (2017) metacognitive knowledge principle that states that
the prevalence of mental health and emotional disabilities among the incarcerated population will
require teachers to reflect on how their own teaching practices will require trauma-informed
interventions. As such, if the organization provides web-based information and visual job aids
for teachers on the prevalence of student trauma for ethnic and racial minority students, it can be
expected to increase teacher cognition, will promote greater self-awareness, will increase self-
regulatory behaviors and reflection (Medina et al., 2017), and will highlight racial disparities and
structural inequities that are not well-known to all people.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Five of nine assumed motivation influence gaps were validated through
surveys. More specifically, the motivation influence gaps were as follows: zero of three assumed
value motivation influences were gaps; two of three assumed self-efficacy motivation influences
were gaps; and three of three assumed attribution motivation influences were gaps. Following the
summary of motivation influences and recommendations provided in Table 42 is a discussion for
each of the high priority assumed causes that were validated, a research-based principle, and a
context-specific recommendation.
162
Table 42
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Priority
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Value
Teachers need to have utility
value for understanding how
student learning is enhanced.
Low Utility value denotes
a person's choice to
do something based
on the existence of a
benefit or greater
likelihood of
achieving a future
goal (Clark & Estes,
2008; Wigfield et al.,
1998).
Provide teachers with
information and visual
job aids that explain
how student learning
outcomes are impacted
by their own
instructional practices.
Teachers need to have utility
value for de-escalating a
volatile situation in the
correctional education
classroom
Low Utility value denotes
a person's choice to
do something based
on the existence of a
benefit or greater
likelihood of
achieving a future
goal (Clark & Estes,
2008; Wigfield et al.,
1998).
Provide teachers with
information and visual
job aids that explain
how their knowledge of
conflict prevention
techniques help them
meet their own
instructional goals.
Teachers need to have utility
value for meeting the
emotional needs of students
in the correctional education
classroom.
Low Utility value denotes
a person's choice to
do something based
on the existence of a
benefit or greater
likelihood of
achieving a future
goal (Clark & Estes,
2008; Wigfield et al.,
1998).
Provide teachers with
information and visual
job aids that explain
how meeting the
emotional needs of
students helps teachers
meet their own
instructional goals.
163
Self-Efficacy
Teachers need to have
confidence in their ability to
de-escalate a volatile situation
in the correctional education
classroom.
High Self-efficacy or the
belief in oneself is a
huge predictor of
later success (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Provide teachers with
training that actively
targets the development
of their self-efficacy
using mastery
experiences, social
modeling, and social
persuasion (Bandura,
2018).
Teachers need to have
confidence in their ability to
meet the emotional needs of
students in the correctional
education classroom.
High Self-efficacy or the
belief in oneself is a
huge predictor of
later success (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Provide teachers with
training that actively
targets the development
of their self-efficacy
using mastery
experiences, social
modeling, and social
persuasion (Bandura,
2018).
Teachers need to have the
ability to meet the specific
learning needs of student with
learning challenges.
High Self-efficacy or the
belief in oneself is a
huge predictor of
later success (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Provide teachers with
training that actively
targets the development
of their self-efficacy
using mastery
experiences, social
modeling, and social
persuasion (Bandura,
2018).
Attributions
Teachers need to attribute
their ability to meet the
emotional needs of students
in a correctional education
setting to their effort rather
than natural ability.
High Learning and
motivation is
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failure to
effort rather than
Provide teachers with
visual job aids that
summarize the extant
research on attribution
theory, the importance
of a positive mindset,
and the connection
164
ability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).
between sustained effort
and future success.
Teachers need to attribute
their ability to de-escalate a
volatile situation in a
correctional education setting
to their effort rather than
natural ability.
High Learning and
motivation is
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failure to
effort rather than
ability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).
Provide teachers with
visual job aids that
summarize the extant
research on attribution
theory, the importance
of a positive mindset,
and the connection
between sustained effort
and future success.
Teachers need attribute their
ability to meet the needs of
students with learning
challenges in a correctional
education setting to their
effort rather than natural
ability.
High Learning and
motivation is
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failure to
effort rather than
ability (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).
Provide teacher with
visual job aids that
summarize the extant
research on attribution
theory, the importance
of a positive mindset,
and the connection
between sustained effort
and future success.
Value solutions. Three of the assumed value motivation influences were examined as
part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated gaps across zero of
three assumed value motivation influences. The first assumed value motivation influence
assessed whether teachers have utility value for understanding how student learning is enhanced.
The second assumed value motivation influence assessed whether teachers have utility value for
de-escalating a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom. The third assumed
value motivation influence assessed whether teachers have utility value for meeting the
emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom. Recommendations and
solutions to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
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The first assumed value motivation influence, teachers need to have utility value for
understanding how student learning is enhanced, was validated as an asset in this study. Of the
234 respondents who answered this question, 225 (96.2%) respondents either “strongly agree” or
“agree,” while 2 (.8%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.”Based on the 80%
threshold established for this study, this value motivation influence has been validated as an
organizational asset and there are no recommendations or solutions needed.
The second assumed value motivation influence, teachers need to have utility value for
de-escalating a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom, was also validated as
an asset in this study. Of the 234 respondents who answered this question, 218 (93.2%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 2 (.9%) respondents “disagree.” Based on
the 80% threshold established for this study, this value motivation influence has been validated
as an organizational asset and there are no recommendations or solutions needed.
The third assumed value motivation influence, teachers need to have utility value for
meeting the emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom, was validated
as an asset in this study. Of the 233 respondents who answered this question, 190 (81.5%)
respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 12 (5.2%) respondents either “strongly
disagree” or “disagree.” Based on the 80% threshold established for this study, this value
motivation influence has been validated as an organizational asset and there are no
recommendations or solutions needed.
Self-efficacy solutions. Three of the assumed self-efficacy motivation influences were
examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated gaps
across one of three assumed self-efficacy motivation influences. The first assumed self-efficacy
motivation influence assessed whether teachers have confidence in their ability to de-escalate a
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volatile situation in the correctional education classroom. The second assumed self-efficacy
motivation influence assessed whether teachers have confidence in their ability to meet the
emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom. The third assumed self-
efficacy motivation influence assessed whether teachers have confidence in their ability to meet
the specific learning needs of students with learning challenges. Recommendations and solutions
to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
The first assumed self-efficacy motivation influence, teachers need to have confidence in
their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional education classroom, was
validated as an asset in this study. Of the 232 respondents who answered this question, 189
(81.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 9 (3.6%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Based on the 80% threshold established for this study, this
assumed self-efficacy motivation influence has been validated as an organizational asset and
there are no recommendations or solutions needed.
The second assumed self-efficacy motivation influence, teachers have the self-efficacy
motivation to meet the emotional needs of students in the correctional education classroom, was
validated as a gap in this study. Of the 232 respondents who answered this question, only 145
(62.5%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 17 (7.4%) respondents either
“strongly disagree” or “disagree.” Additionally, the third assumed self-efficacy motivation
influence, teachers have confidence in their ability to meet the specific learning needs of students
with learning challenges, was validated as a gap in this study. Of the 220 respondents who
answered this question, only 165 (75%) respondents either “strongly agree” or “agree,” while 15
(6.9%) respondents either “strongly disagree” or “disagree.”
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Self-efficacy beliefs influence a broad spectrum of human functioning, e.g., performance,
perseverance, goals, aspirations, outcome expectations, perceptions of barriers (Bandura, 2012;
Bandura, 2018), and are a huge predictor of future success (Clark & Estes, 2008). Interestingly,
Elliot et al. (2018) notes that self-efficacy is domain-oriented rather than a global trait. Because
self-efficacy is domain-oriented, it explains why teachers might report a high degree of self-
efficacy in their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom, but report a low
degree of self-efficacy in their ability to meet the emotional or learning needs of students in the
correctional education classroom. To mitigate the assumed self-efficacy motivation gaps,
teachers need to receive training to learn about and develop their self-efficacy. According to
Clark and Estes (2008), training is needed when there is a gap in "how to" knowledge and skills.
To effectively mitigate this gap, information, visual job aids, and corrective feedback is needed.
Additionally, training can occur in any environment if the training design meets specific
performance objectives, is applied using relevant examples, and provides practice examples.
Furthermore, Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) found that employees who completed
professional development and training experienced improved job performance, performance
consistency, were more self-efficacious, had better outcome expectancies, and experienced a
greater degree of personal well-being. As Bandura (200) has noted, although individuals shape
their own experiences, self-efficacy plays a primary function in their perceived ability to
accomplish a task. Informed by Bandura's (2000) agentic perspective, if teachers do not have the
self-efficacy in their ability to accomplish a goal, such as meeting the emotional or specific
learning needs of students, then the goal will not be accomplished.
Bandura (2000) also dispels a common misrepresentation of self-efficacy by stating that
it does not represent selfishness or individualism. In fact, enhancing the self-efficacy of
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individuals in diverse social systems, e.g., educational systems, organizations, sports teams,
combat teams, and urban neighborhoods, can bolster the collective efficacy of the respective
group. In essence, by enhancing the individual self-efficacy of teachers, the collective efficacy of
the group is enhanced in return. Moreover, the increased perception of collective efficacy leads
to higher motivational investment, resilience in the face of barriers, and improved performance
(Bandura, 2000) Most importantly, however, cultivating a strong sense of personal self-efficacy
for individuals, in diverse social systems, can help effect positive societal change, while
contributing to the collective efficacy of the group.
To develop self-efficacy, Bandura (2018) proposed the following: Mastery experiences,
social modeling, and social persuasion. Mastery experiences can be used to develop resilient
self-efficacy in the face of performance barriers. To overcome these barriers, individuals will
have to demonstrate persistence and perseverance in the face of adversity. Having teachers
collaborate on a difficult task will help them develop persistence and perseverance in the face of
barriers, and will build resilience in the face of adversity. In doing so, however, an individual can
learn how to manage failure so that it is informative and not demoralizing.
Social modeling refers to seeing relatable others succeed in an endeavor by using
perseverance and effort. An effective practice to implement social modeling could incorporate
expert teachers and subject-matter experts in the training design who discuss their own
experience as teachers. Because the "relatable other" shares certain identifiable traits with
trainees, they have the ability to raise the aspirations and beliefs of others.
Last, social persuasion is characterized by the ability of people to be persuaded by others
to have an increased belief in themselves. An important opportunity to implement social
persuasion is to have a supportive administrative team. Providing corrective and positive
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feedback to teachers can positively affect their degree of self-efficacy (Clark & Estes, 2008).
According to Bandura (2018), if people are persuaded to believe in their own abilities, they can
be expected to put forth more effort in the face of adversity and achieve greater success.
Therefore, the organization should provide teacher training that helps teachers develop
their self-efficacy. This recommendation aligns with the Clark and Estes (2008) principle which
states that self-efficacy and the belief in oneself is a huge predictor of later success. As such,
when the organization provides its teachers with self-efficacy training, apprised by Bandura's
(2018) model for developing individual self-efficacy, it can be expected that teachers will feel
more self-efficacious in their ability to meet the needs of the students in correctional education
programs.
Attribution solutions. Three of the assumed attribution motivation influences were
examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated gaps
across three of three assumed attribution motivation influences. The first assumed attribution
motivation influence assessed whether teachers attribute their ability to meet the emotional needs
of students to their effort rather than their natural ability. The second assumed attribution
motivation influence assessed whether attribute their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in a
correctional education setting to their effort rather than their natural ability. The third assumed
attribution motivation influence assessed whether teachers attribute their ability to meet the
needs of students with learning challenges in a correctional education setting to their effort rather
than their natural ability. Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are
discussed below.
The data from this study validated gaps across three of three assumed attribution
motivation influences. With attributional theory, past experiences are an ever-present and
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powerful moderating factor of motivation that sustains effort and shapes how people perceive
their future (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Schunk et al., 2008). Weiner’s model of attributions
suggests that people who attribute higher levels of aptitude in a specific domain report higher
levels of mastery, ability, and future success (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Eccles, 2009; Elliot
et al., 2018). Conversely, people who attribute failure in a specific domain to lower levels of
aptitude and ability report lower levels of persistence and lower levels of future success.
Therefore, for teachers to successfully meet the emotional needs of students, to deescalate a
volatile situation in the classroom, and to meet the specific learning challenges of students, their
attributions should focus on effort rather than their natural ability.
To support teachers' in the workplace, the organization can provide visual job aid
checklists that explain the basic tenets of attributional theory, the motivational influences of past
experiences, and the explicit connection between mindset, effort, and future success. This
recommendation aligns with Anderman and Anderman's (2009) principle on attribution theory
which states that learning and motivation is enhanced when individuals attribute success or
failure to effort rather than ability. As such, if the organization provides teachers with visual jobs
aids that summarize important elements of attribution theory and distill the connection between
effort and future success, it can be expected that teacher learning, motivation, and attribution
motivation will be enhanced.
Organizational Recommendations
Introduction. Eleven of eleven assumed organizational influence gaps were validated
through surveys. More specifically, the organizational influence gaps were as follows: one of one
assumed organizational resource influences was a gap; two of two assumed organizational
policies, processes, and procedures influences were gaps; two of two assumed organizational
171
cultural settings influences were gaps; and six of six assumed organizational cultural models
influences were gaps. Following the summary of organizational influences and recommendations
provided in Table 43 is a discussion for each of the high priority assumed causes that were
validated, a research-based principle, and a context-specific recommendation.
Table 43
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organizational
Influence
Priority
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Resources
Teachers need resources,
essential tools, workspace,
and materials to support
positive student outcomes in
the correctional education
setting.
High Having appropriate
resources is critical
to organizational
success (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Correctional education
organizations should
survey employees
regularly to determine if
they have the resources,
essential tools,
workspace, and
materials needed to
support positive student
outcomes in the
classroom.
Policies, Processes, and
Procedures
Organizations need to have
policies that align with
organizational goals to be
successful.
High Effective
organizations have
policies, processes,
and procedures in
place that enable
stakeholders to
achieve their
performance goals
Organizational policies,
processes, and
procedures must be
aligned with
organizational goals,
and a concerted effort
must be made to engage
stakeholder feedback.
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(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Organizations need to have
policies that align with and
support positive educational
outcomes for ethnic and
racialized minorities in
correctional educational
programs.
High Effective
organizations have
policies, processes,
and procedures in
place that enable
stakeholders to
achieve their
performance goals
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Organizational policies,
processes, and
procedures must be
aligned with
organizational goals,
and a concerted effort
must be made to engage
stakeholder feedback.
Cultural Settings
The organization’s cultural
settings provide opportunities
for teachers to experience
peer review with expert
teachers and educators.
High The organization's
cultural settings
communicate its
values and beliefs
(Clark & Estes).
The organization's
cultural settings should
provide teachers with
opportunities to
collaborate with
educators, expert
teachers, and to examine
qualitative and
quantitative data.
The organization’s cultural
settings fosters teacher
collaboration.
High The organization's
cultural settings
communicate its
values and beliefs
(Clark & Estes).
The organization's
cultural settings should
provide teachers with
opportunities to
collaborate with
educators, expert
teachers, and to examine
qualitative and
quantitative data.
Cultural Models
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that enhances
the knowledge of teachers.
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
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performance goals
and should seek to
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
knowledge, skill, and
motivation of
stakeholders.
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that enhances
the motivation of teachers.
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
performance goals
and should seek to
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and
motivation of
stakeholders.
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that invests in
teacher training and
professional development that
targets the learning needs of
an ethnically and culturally
diverse adult student
population.
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
performance goals
and should seek to
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and
motivation of
stakeholders.
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that supports
equity-based pedagogical
practices that are responsive
to the emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
performance goals
and should seek to
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and
174
diverse adult student
population.
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
motivation of
stakeholders.
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that
understands the impact of
systemic racism and
structural oppression for
ethnic and racial minorities
participating in correctional
education programs.
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
performance goals
and should seek to
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and
motivation of
stakeholders.
Teachers need to be part of a
cultural model that provides
informational resources (e.g.,
qualitative data, academic
research, academic journals)
that help support positive
educational outcomes for
ethnic and racial minority
students enrolled in
correctional education
programs.
High An organization's
cultural models
should go beyond
organizational
performance goals
and should seek to
better their
communities,
stakeholders, and
society at large
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
The organization should
modify its
organizational culture in
ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and
motivation of
stakeholders.
Resources solutions. One assumed organizational resource influence was examined as
part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated a gap in the
assumed organizational resource influence evaluated in this study. The assumed organizational
resource influence assessed whether teachers had the tools, workspace, materials, and resources
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needed to support positive student learning outcomes in the classroom. Recommendations and
solutions to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
Having organizational resources is critical to organizational success (Clark & Estes,
2008). According to Bakker and Demerouti (2006), job demands in the workplace can have a
physical and psychological impact which requires significant cognitive and mental effort from
employees. In the organizational context, unfavorable physical environments, intensive work
pressure, demanding social interactions with clients, and unmet employee needs are known to
exacerbate the impact of job-related stress (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006). To mitigate the existing
organizational resources gap, the organization should survey existing teachers at the beginning
and end of each semester to determine if teachers have the resources, essential tools, workspace,
and materials needed to support positive student outcomes in the classroom. This
recommendation aligns with the Clark and Estes (2008) principle which states that having
appropriate resources is critical to organizational success. Following through with this
recommendation will ensure that teachers have the resources, essential tools, workspace, and
materials to support positive student outcomes in the correctional education setting.
Policies, processes, and procedures solutions. Two of the assumed organizational
policies, processes, and procedures influences were examined as part of this gap analysis
evaluation study. The data from this study validated gaps across two of two assumed
organizational policies, processes, and procedures influences. The first assumed organizational
influence assessed whether teachers have policies that align with the organizational goals. The
second assumed organizational influence assessed whether teachers have policies that support
positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education
programs. Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are discussed below.
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According to Hemmens and Marquart (2000) and Koo (2016), correctional education
students have lower levels of academic achievement than the general population at large. In fact,
in their study of 775 ex-inmates released from the Texas Department of Corrections, over 55% of
those surveyed were found to have not completed high school. Low academic achievement,
however, is not endemic to correctional education programs or students. Bensimon et al. (2007)
cite similar educational disparities in academic achievement for ethnic and racial minorities in
higher education and argue that educational outcomes have not been prioritized metrics for
minorities in educational institutions. In fact, in nearly every quantifiable metric in higher
education, Whites and Asians are overrepresented while ethnic and racial minorities are
underrepresented (Bensimon et al., 2007). In an effort to close this racialized achievement gap in
correctional education, scholars argue that educational organizations should prioritize
educational outcomes for all ethnic and racialized minorities by providing students increased
access to teachers who are well-trained, whose skill-set targets their specific learning and
emotional needs, and are both competent and caring professionals (Darling-Hammond, et al.,
2014; DelliCarpini, 2008; Koo, 2016; Weaver et al., 2020).
To mitigate the existing organizational policies, processes, and procedures gap, the
organization must establish policies, processes, and procedures that align with the instructional
goals of the organization. Additionally, the organization must make a concerted effort to collect
teacher feedback. This recommendation aligns with the Clark & Estes (2008) principle that
effective organizations have policies, processes, and procedures in place that enable stakeholders
to achieve their performance goals. If the organization implements this recommendation, it can
be expected that the alignment of policies, processes, procedures and organizational goals will
lead to greater organizational success.
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Cultural settings solutions. Two of the assumed organizational cultural settings
influences were examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study
validated gaps across two of two assumed organizational cultural settings influences. The first
assumed organizational cultural settings influence assessed whether the organization's cultural
settings provide opportunities for teachers to experience peer review with expert teachers and
educators. The second assumed organizational cultural settings influence assessed whether the
organization's cultural settings fostered teacher collaboration. Recommendations and solutions to
improve the identified causes are discussed below.
Clark and Estes (2008) define culture as the values and belief systems that people learn
from personal experience. Cultural settings, ostensibly, represent what is visible within an
organization, what an organization values, and can function as a form of innovation and
collaboration (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011). According to Fractor (2019), teachers need to
have opportunities to collaborate within organizational spaces, examine data, and learn from
peers (Fractor, 2019). Organizational collaboration also appears to be an integral part of
successful interventions, learning development (Marsh, 2012; Marsh & Farrell, 2015; Schneider
et al., 1996; Schwandt & Marquardt, 1999), improved performance, and contributes to the
adoption of collective organizational practices (Marsh & Farrell, 2015). Furthermore, according
to Darling-Hammond et al. (2014), Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), Marsh (2012), and Stone
and Heen (2014), fostering teaching collaboration can help (a) reach vulnerable groups, (b)
explore successful models, (c) improve teacher buy-in (d) evaluate teacher readiness, (e) increase
sharing, interaction, and discussion (f) create teacher collaboration partners, (g) increase teacher
satisfaction, and (h) hone instructional strategies. Lastly, peer review and collaboration in
correctional education, with expert teachers and educators, can help low performing schools,
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offers opportunities for deeper learning, and helps other educators sharpen their research skill
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2014). To mitigate the gap in organizational cultural settings, the
organization's cultural settings should provide teachers with opportunities to collaborate with
educators, expert teachers, and to examine qualitative and quantitative data. This
recommendation aligns with the Clark and Estes (2008) principle which state that an
organization's cultural settings should communicate its values and beliefs. If the organization
implements this recommendation, it can be expected that collaboration with educators and
teacher experts will function as a form of organizational innovation that will improve its
collective performance.
Cultural models solutions. Six of the assumed organizational cultural models influences
were examined as part of this gap analysis evaluation study. The data from this study validated
gaps across six of six assumed organizational cultural models influences. The first assumed
organizational cultural models influence assessed whether the organization's cultural models
enhance the knowledge and skill of teachers. The second assumed organizational cultural models
influence assessed whether the organization's cultural models enhance the motivation of teachers.
The third assumed organizational cultural models influence assessed whether the organization's
cultural models provide training and professional development that meets the specific learning
needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. The fourth assumed
organizational cultural models influence assessed whether the organization's cultural models
support equity-based pedagogical practices that are responsive to the emotional needs of an
ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. The fifth assumed organizational
cultural models influence assessed whether the organization's cultural models understand the
impact of systemic racism and structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities in
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correctional education programs. Finally, the sixth assumed organizational cultural models
influence assessed whether the organization's cultural models provide informational resources
that help support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional
education programs. Recommendations and solutions to improve the identified causes are
discussed below.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), an organization's cultural models should go beyond
organizational performance goals and should seek to better their communities, stakeholders, and
society at large (Clark & Estes, 2008). More specifically, they argue, cultural models function as
a powerful mediator for improving individual knowledge, skill, motivation, performance and
modifying the organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). To achieve success at the cultural
models level, correctional organizations must recognize the value of information, visual job aids,
training, and education, if needed (Clark & Estes, 2008). Correctional education organizations
should also be open to providing the aforementioned training types in different learning settings,
e.g., in the classroom, from home, in small institutional silos, and via web or computer-based
learning (Clark & Estes, 2008).
As Garvin et al. (2008) and Moran & Brightman (2000) argue, organizations are not
monolithic, and one size-fits-all strategies are highly unlikely to be successful. Moreover, Garvin
et al. (2008) find that it is not enough to have a clear organizational vision, incentives, and
copious levels of organizational training. Rather, the organization must learn to create the
necessary conditions so that employees are skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring
knowledge. To mitigate the existing organizational cultural model gaps, the organization must
increase teacher knowledge and motivation. The organization must also create learning
environments for teachers that support the development of concrete learning processes and
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practices that facilitate the integration and sharing of knowledge. Last, the organization must
support the learning and emotional needs of minority students in correctional education
programs, and it should provide teachers with opportunities to learn about the structural barriers
that exist for ethnic and racial minorities. This recommendation aligns with the Clark and Estes
(2008) principle that an organization's cultural models should go beyond organizational
performance goals and should seek to better their communities, stakeholders, and society at
large. Ultimately, by modifying its organizational cultural models, the organization will increase
its capacity to more successfully meet the needs of both teachers and student population
participating in correctional education programming.
Implementation of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations
The knowledge recommendations and solutions identified in this study should be fully
implemented and supported. To mitigate the declarative factual knowledge gaps identified in this
study, teachers will need to be provided visual job aid checklists on the information processing
model, cognitive load theory, and elements of instructional design. Improving teacher declarative
factual knowledge in these areas will enhance student skill and performance. Furthermore, when
teachers are able to effectively manage active processing, extraneous load, and germane load as
part of their daily instructional design, student learning, student performance, and student
outcomes will be enhanced. To mitigate the conceptual factual knowledge gap identified in this
study, teachers will need to be provided with disaggregated data from correctional education
students, so they know the importance of disaggregating student achievement data to improve
test scores. Examining disaggregated student achievement data will provide critically important
data for faculty, administrators, and organizations and can serve as a catalyst for improving test
scores and educational outcomes for historically marginalized groups. To mitigate the procedural
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knowledge gap identified in this study, the organization will need to provide teacher training in
trauma-informed interventions that are responsive to the needs of the incarcerated population.
Because web-based training is more effective than in-classroom training for procedural
knowledge learning, it is strongly recommended that teachers receive this training via web-based
or computer-based learning systems. Once teachers know how to use trauma-informed practices
in the classroom, they will be able to meet the significant mental health and emotional needs of
the adult student population in correctional education programs. Finally, to mitigate the
metacognitive knowledge gap identified in this study, the organization will need to provide
teachers with opportunities to engage in self-reflective practices and must provide teachers web-
based information and visual job aids on the subject of trauma-informed practices. If these
recommendations are implemented, it is expected that teachers will improve their metacognitive
practice and will have an increased awareness of the prevalence of trauma for ethnic and racial
minorities in correctional education.
The motivation recommendations and solutions identified in this study should also be
fully implemented and supported. To mitigate the value motivation gaps, the organization should
provide teachers with information and visual job aids that explain how student learning outcomes
are impacted by their own instructional practices. Moreover, teachers should be informed that
their knowledge of conflict prevention techniques and their ability to meet the emotional needs
of students helps them meet their own personal and professional goals. To mitigate the self-
efficacy motivation gap, the organization should provide teachers with training that actively
targets and develops teacher self-efficacy and enhances their ability to meet student learning
needs, emotional needs, and their ability to de-escalate a volatile situation in the classroom. To
supplement this training, the organization should consider adopting the model proposed by
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Bandura (2018) that utilizes mastery experiences, social modeling, and social persuasion.
Finally, to mitigate the attribution motivation gaps identified in this study, the organization
should provide teachers with visual job aids that summarize the extant research on attribution
theory, the importance of having a positive mindset, and the evidence-based connection between
sustained effort and future success. If the organization fully implements these recommendations
and solutions, it can be expected that teacher learning and motivation will be enhanced.
Finally, the organizational recommendations and solutions identified in this study should
be fully implemented and supported. To mitigate the organizational resource gaps identified in
this study, the organization should survey employees regularly to determine if they have the
resources, essential tools, workspace, and materials needed to support positive student outcomes
in the classroom. To mitigate the policies, processes, and procedures gaps identified in this study,
organizational policies, processes, and procedures must be aligned with organizational goals, and
a concerted effort must be made to engage stakeholder feedback. To mitigate the organizational
cultural settings gaps, the organization's cultural settings should provide teachers with
opportunities to collaborate with educators, expert teachers, and to examine qualitative and
quantitative data. Finally, to mitigate the organizational cultural model gaps identified in this
study, the organization should modify its organizational culture in ways that enhance the
knowledge, skill, and motivation of stakeholders. By enhancing the organization's cultural
models beyond mere organizational performance goals, the organization will have the
opportunity to better their communities, stakeholder development, and society at large.
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Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation and evaluation plan used for this gap analysis evaluation study
utilized Kirkpatrick's Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) and
was informed by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. Kirkpatrick's four levels of
evaluation were first published in 1959 and it is widely considered to be the best-known
methodology for conducting an evaluation. While Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick's (2006) model
was initially developed to evaluate organizational training and professional development (Rueda,
2011), it has been adapted for this gap analysis evaluation study due to its inherent
generalizability across many organizational systems. The four levels of evaluation proposed for
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations and solutions identified in this
study are outlined below.
Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 assessment is concerned with gauging the reactions of participants to the learning
experience or training provided (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2006). An important qualification
to make at this stage is that learning is not being measured. The sole purpose of the Level 1
assessment is to get learner feedback of the learning experience. Additionally, the feedback
received serves as an important indicator of the learner's motivation and self-efficacy for the
learning experience or training.
Level 2: Learning
The purpose of Level 2 is to measure student learning as a result of the training received.
To adequately assess learning at Level 2, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) state that the
following must be determined: (a) what knowledge was learned? (b) whether or not skills were
184
developed? and (c) what attitudes were changed? Additionally, to adequately measure the
learning that took place, there must be an evaluation between the learner's pre and posttest
knowledge. To meet this objective, the test instruments that are used to assess pre and posttest
knowledge, after a training is completed, must be identical. To establish that learning took place,
a difference between pretest and posttest knowledge must be observed.
Level 3: Behavior
Level 3 is concerned with the important concept of learning transfer. At this stage, the
focus is to determine if the learning that was gained has been successfully applied in another
domain or a new situation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) note that only 30% of learning
will successfully transfer at Level 3. To effectively evaluate transfer at this level, Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2006) recommend conducting an evaluation both before and after the change
program is implemented. However, they recommend allowing enough time for the behavior
change to occur. Ultimately, to effectively measure learning transfer, learners must be given an
opportunity to demonstrate their learning.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4 is considered the ultimate evaluation of learning transfer as it measures the
impact of the training session on learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). In the simplest of
terms, with Level 4 evaluation you are able to see if the training was successful. In the context of
this gap analysis evaluation study, if the recommendations and solutions provided for the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps are followed and evaluated after the change
program is implemented, the organization will be able to determine if the recommendations and
solutions produced a positive impact.
185
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The implementation and evaluation plan used for this gap analysis evaluation study
utilized Kirkpatrick's Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) and
was informed by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. By adopting the proposed
four level implementation and evaluation plan, the organization can effectively assess teacher
reactions to the learning experience, can use a pre and posttest to determine if learning occurred,
can assess whether learning transfer took place in another domain or new situation, and can
determine if the proposed recommendations and solutions had an impact on performance.
Ultimately, the organization must determine if the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
recommendations offered in this study provided the information, visual job aids, web-based job
aids, and training needed to mitigate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
performance gaps identified in this study.
Conclusion
This Clark & Estes (2008) gap analysis evaluation study aimed to understand California
Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affected their ability to meet the academic and emotional needs of
an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. CDCR teachers were surveyed with
the goal of validating the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as
organizational assets or performance gaps. Evaluating CDCR teacher knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences served an important purpose (Clark & Estes, 2008). First, this
evaluation supported the implementation of an evidence-based action plan that can mitigate the
knowledge and motivation gaps that were identified in this study (Clark & Estes, 2008). Next,
the evaluation facilitated the communication of critical stakeholder feedback that helped identify
186
organizational influences that function as organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008). Last, the
data collected from teacher surveys was then analyzed and used to provide evidence-based
recommendations and solutions for implementation. For the recommended evaluation,
Kirkpatrick's Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) was utilized so
the organization could evaluate the impact of the proposed implementation and evaluation plan
used in this study.
187
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209
Appendix A: Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089
Assessing Correctional Educator Capacity in Adult Correctional Education Programs:
A Gap Analysis
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Joseph Guerrero at the University
of Southern California. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part.
This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything
that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation
(CDCR) teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008)
that affect their ability to meet the academic and emotional learning needs of ethnic and racial
minority students in correctional education programs.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you are a CDCR teacher, you are invited to participate in this study. If you agree to take part in
this study, you will be asked to complete an online survey that will take approximately 15-20
minutes. Your participation is completely voluntary.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address or other identifiable information will not be collected.
Required language:
The members of the research team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Joseph
Guerrero at guerrejr@usc.edu. The faculty advisor is Dr. Darline Robles, dprobles@usc.edu.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
210
Appendix B: Survey Protocol
Survey Items
I am a correctional education teacher who is currently employed by the California Department of
Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR).
● Yes
● No
If No, please press here and end this survey. Thank you.
Multiple Choice. (K.DF)
Select all that apply
Identify teaching practices that improve learning outcomes for students:
● Encourage students to engage in rote memorization of complex procedures
● Design instruction to meet student learning styles
● Allow students to collaborate on problem-solving activities with minimal oversight
● Offer students frequent practice on a learning task to build mastery
● Ask students to organize and outline information
● Make the information being taught personally relevant to students
● Have student re-study information in preparation for tests
● I don’t know
Multiple Choice. (K.DF)
Select all that apply.
Identify elements of effective instructional design that enhance student learning:
● Having student practice complex problems, from start to finish, to build mastery
● Providing students an opportunity to practice learned concepts for a long period of time.
● Providing students with cues for selecting important information
● Pre-teaching vocabulary and important terminology before teaching complex information
● Adding interesting information to the instructional design to enhance the learning of new
material
● Having students re-study learned information to increase memorization
● When explaining a learning task to students, separate words from images to reduce instructional
complexity
● I don’t know
211
Multiple choice. (K.DF)
Select the best answer.
Working memory processing capacity for human is:
• Unlimited
• Limited
• Similar to long-term memory
• I don’t know
Multiple choice. (K.DF)
Select the best answer.
How many channels exist in the human information processing system?
• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• I don’t know
Likert-Type Question. (K.DC)
Disaggregating student achievement data improves student test scores.
● Strongly disagree
● Disagree
● Neutral
● Agree
● Strongly agree
Likert-Type Question. (K.DF)
Multiple Choice.
Do you have the knowledge and training needed to meet the needs of adult students with learning
challenges?
● Yes
● No
Dichotomous Question. (K.P)
Multiple Choice.
Do you know how to support the students in your classroom who have experienced trauma?
● Yes
212
● No
Dichotomous Question. (K.P)
Multiple Choice.
Do you know how to de-escalate a volatile situation in the correctional educational classroom?
● Yes
● No
Multiple Choice. (K.P)
Which of the following practices would best support students who have experienced trauma in the
correctional education classroom?
Select all that apply
● Teachers should be responsive to the needs of their students who have experienced trauma
● Treat all students the same
● Trauma has no effect on student outcomes in the classroom
● Teachers need to understand how trauma impacts human development
● Implement rigid disciplinary structures so all students are treated fairly
● I don’t know
Multiple Choice. (K.P)
Which of the following practices will reduce conflict in the correctional education classroom?
Select all that apply.
● Explain the school suspension and expulsion policies to all students
● Establish rigid disciplinary policies to set the tone
● Forge a sense of community and solidarity in the classroom
● Teachers need to have an understanding of how trauma impacts student learning, motivation,
and behavior
● Lower the instructional complexity so all students feel at ease in the classroom
● Teachers should focus on maintaining control of their classroom at all times.
● I don’t know
Survey Items
Likert-Type Question. (K.M)
I regularly reflect on how my own teaching practices in the classroom impact students with trauma
exposure.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
213
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (K.M)
I regularly reflect on how ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education programs are
disproportionately impacted by trauma exposure and PTSD.
• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (K.M)
I regularly reflect on how my knowledge of conflict prevention techniques supports students with
significant mental health and emotional needs.
• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question (K.M)
I regularly reflect on how my knowledge of student learning impacts student learning outcomes in the
classroom.
• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree
Survey Items
Likert-Type Question. (M.V)
Understanding how student learning is enhanced will help me become a more successful teacher.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
214
Likert-Type Question. (M.V)
Knowing how to de-escalate a volatile situation in my classroom will help me achieve my
instructional goals.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.V)
Meeting the emotional needs of students in my classroom is useful for my job-related duties.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.SE)
I am confident I can do an excellent job de-escalating a volatile situation in my classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.SE)
I am confident that I can meet the emotional needs of students in my classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.SE)
I am confident that I can meet the specific learning needs of students with learning challenges in my
classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
215
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.A)
Meeting the emotional needs of students in my classroom is guided more by my effort than natural
ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.A)
De-escalating a volatile situation in my classroom is guided more by my effort than my natural ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (M.A)
Meeting the needs of students with learning challenges is guided more by my effort than my natural
ability.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Survey Items
Likert-Type Question. (O.R)
My organization ensures that I am provided the tools, workspace, materials, and resources needed to
support positive student outcomes in the classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
216
Likert-Type Question. (O.P)
My organization’s policies align with its organizational goals.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.P)
My organization’s policies target specifically target positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial
minorities in our programs.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CS)
My organization’s culture supports my learning and growth by providing opportunities to work with
subject matter experts and more experienced teachers.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CS)
My organization has a culture that fosters teacher collaboration.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
217
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization has enhanced my knowledge and skill as a correctional education teacher:
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization has enhanced my motivation as a correctional education teacher:
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization provides the training and professional development needed to meet the specific
learning needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization provides opportunities to learn about equity-based teaching practices that are
responsive to the emotional needs of the adult students in my classroom.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization provides opportunities to learn about conflict prevention techniques and practices so I
can de-escalate a potentially volatile situation in my classroom.
● Strongly agree
218
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization provides teachers opportunities to learn about the impact of systemic racism and
structural oppression for ethnic and racial minorities in correctional education programs.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Likert-Type Question. (O.CM)
My organization provides informational resources (e.g., qualitative data, academic research, academic
journals) that help support positive educational outcomes for ethnic and racial minority students.
● Strongly agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly disagree
Exit Survey:
To withdraw from this study: Select the response below if you no longer wish to participate in this
study. Selecting the option provided below ensures that your data will not be used in this study:
I no longer wish to participate in this survey.
To submit your survey data: Proceed by clicking on the forward arrow provided on the bottom right-
hand corner of this page.
219
Appendix C: Recruitment Letter
Recruitment Letter
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:
This research study aims to understand the world of correctional educators who work for the
California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation (CDCR). Your participation in this
study is an important contribution to the correctional education literature. Moreover, it can
highlight the needs of both CDCR correctional educators and students in the California
Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT:
Participation in this study is voluntary, and there will be no identifiable information collected in
this study.
INFORMED CONSENT:
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by a graduate student from the
University of Southern California. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose
to participate. This document explains information about this study. If you have any questions,
please contact the CDCR Data Concierge Team at Data.Requests@cdcr.ca.gov or (916) 255-
0185.
SPECIAL NOTE:
If at any time during the survey you decide you no longer wish to participate, please click to the
last page of the survey, and select the option that reads, "I no longer wish to participate in this
survey." If this option is selected, your survey data will not be used in this study.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The current correctional education model provides educational access for students enrolled in educational programming. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that correctional education programming and teacher pedagogical practices do not align with the specific academic and emotional needs of the correctional education adult student population. In fact, many learners in correctional education programs have significant levels of academic variability, high rates of trauma exposure, significant mental health needs, and have been disproportionately impacted by discriminatory policies and practices in K–12 institutions. Thus, the question remains whether correctional educational teachers have the capacity to meet the specific learning and emotional needs of students in correctional education programs. Therefore, the problem of practice addressed in this gap analysis evaluation study aimed to understand California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) teachers' knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences and their ability to meet the needs of an ethnically and culturally diverse adult student population. To this end, the study utilized a non-experimental, quantitative online research survey protocol and used Qualtrics online software to collect and analyze participant data. The recruitment strategy for this study consisted of a purposive sampling of CDCR correctional education teachers who taught in 35 adult correctional institutions throughout the state of California. In this study, no personally identifiable information was collected. Finally, the assumed KMO influences identified in this study were based on the academic literature and were validated as either organizational assets or KMO performance gaps. Upon the validation of the assumed causes of KMO performance gaps, research-based recommendations and solutions were provided.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Guerrero, Joseph Ruben, Jr.
(author)
Core Title
Assessing correctional educator capacity in adult correctional education programs: a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2021-08
Publication Date
08/06/2021
Defense Date
07/15/2021
Publisher
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)
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Tags
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