Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
Formal volunteering and human capital for youth in Senegal
(USC Thesis Other)
Formal volunteering and human capital for youth in Senegal
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
Formal Volunteering and Human Capital for Youth in Senegal
by
Jennifer Morgan Bangoura
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2021
© Copyright by Jennifer Morgan Bangoura 2021
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Jennifer Morgan Bangoura certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Doug Lynch
Jacob Mati
Cathy Sloane Krop, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021
iv
Abstract
Formal volunteer programs can reinforce employability skills for youth in Senegal and help
create pathways to employment. These programs reinforce the assets, agency, and enabling
environment that youth in Senegal already possess. However, structural impediments, including
challenges presented by weak governance and challenging labor markets, can curtail youth’s
path to employment even when they have opportunities to develop their employability skills
through volunteering. This study examined formal volunteering in Senegal through the positive
youth development framework by assumed assets, agency, and enabling environments necessary
for developing a formal volunteer program that puts youth on the path to employment. This study
was conducted with a non-profit in Senegal focusing on the alumni experience, including
volunteers who had completed at least one year of service through a formal volunteer program. A
review of the literature prioritized a focus on volunteers from the Global South volunteering in
the Global South rather than the more common literature focused on volunteers from the Global
North volunteering in the Global South. Data analysis included a survey of alumni of a formal
volunteer program and subsequent semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed continuing
needs in the areas of assets, agency, and environment. After the discussion of the findings,
recommendations and implementation plans are suggested for each of the areas of continuing
need highlighted. The results provide insights for implementers and funders of formal volunteer
programs to inform their development, monitoring, and iteration.
Keywords: volunteering, human capital development, employability, youth, Senegal,
West Africa, skills development, positive youth development
v
Dedication
To the friends and colleagues who listened to me wax poetic about this seemingly never-ending
pursuit; I treasure you. Your cards, g-chats, babysitting, texts, and support carried me through.
To my mom and mother-in-law who made this all possible through their moral support and
childcare. Anne Lomax, I am more grateful for you after every visit and trek you make to be with
my family. You instilled in me a love of learning as a child, and you continue to show me what it
means to love through your actions; I love you! Foulématou Bangoura, you have shown me what
it means to live a life dedicated to your family and community and how to be a better mother and
wife. I ran fan ma!
To my children, Lillie Foulé and Alseny Henry. Watching you grow up has been one of the
greatest joys of my life. I can’t wait to enter this next chapter of life with you after writing the
ones below. I hope you maintain your curiosity about the world around you and keep asking
questions.
To my husband, Abdoulaye Bangoura. The day I finished my master’s degree you asked me
when I was going to start my doctorate. I did it, honey! Let’s keep holding hands and being
lifelong learners, but maybe we can give the degrees a rest, what do you say? I am grateful for
every encouraging message, meal and tea delivered to my desk, and for sitting next to me in my
office so I would keep writing after I wanted to stop. Today and always, my love.
vi
Acknowledgements
In January 2019, one week after I returned to work at 2U from maternity leave after
having my second child, I packed my bags and, along with my mother and three-month old son,
traveled to Los Angeles and the University of Southern California campus for an immersion to
meet cohort 13 and the fellow students and faculty with whom I spent hundreds of hours over the
next 33 months while pursuing this degree. I have so many people to thank for guiding me
through this journey and making it all possible.
To my committee: Dr. Cathy Krop, you are the epitome of an educator. I left every
meeting and presentation with you feeling better than the one before. You were a joy to work
with and made me feel like I could accomplish anything. Dr. Doug Lynch, I knew from the first
time I met you that I would want to have you on my committee. I love your approach to teaching
and engaging with the world and will carry your lessons with me. Dr. Jacob Mati, I felt like I was
hearing back from a celebrity when you agreed to be on my committee. Without you, this
research would not have been possible both from a citation perspective and for the rigor you
contributed through your comments and feedback. So many thanks.
To CorpsAfrica and Liz Fanning, I hope I make time in my life for others the way you
have done for me over the years. To Mamadou Sarr, Mareme Ndour, Mourad Abdennebi, and
Ellie Miller. I am grateful for every email, introduction, Zoom call, and clarification you
provided.
Thank you to the CorpsAfrica Senegal Volunteers and alumni. None of this would be
possible without you; I appreciate each of you. Thank you for sharing your rich insights and
perspective.
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice .....................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................2
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................5
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................5
Organizational Goal .............................................................................................................7
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Performance Goals ...............................................8
Stakeholder Group for the Study .........................................................................................9
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ...................................................................11
Overview of Theoretical and Methodological Framework ................................................11
Definitions..........................................................................................................................12
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................................12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................14
State of Formal Youth Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa .............................................14
Role of Formal Youth Volunteer Programs to Promote Path to Youth
Employment in Senegal .....................................................................................................20
Challenges to Formal Youth Volunteering Programs ........................................................22
Role of Private Sector to Support Formal Youth Volunteer Programs in Senegal ............27
Positive Youth Development’s Assets, Agency, and Enabling Environment
Framework .........................................................................................................................31
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................31
viii
Summary ............................................................................................................................39
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................41
Overview of Methodology .................................................................................................41
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................43
Ethics and Role of Researcher ...........................................................................................47
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ...............................................................................................50
Participating Stakeholders .................................................................................................50
Results for Research Questions Around Assets, Agency, and Environmental
Influences ...........................................................................................................................55
Research Question 1: What Assets Do CorpsAfrica Alumni Bring to Their
Service That Enable Them to Secure Meaningful Employment Following Their
Service? ..............................................................................................................................55
Research Question 2: What Were CorpsAfrica Alumni’s Expectations for
Employability Skill Development When They Entered Their Volunteer Service
and How Were These Met? ................................................................................................64
Research Question 3: How Does CorpsAfrica Foster a Network of Alumni to
Secure Employment? .........................................................................................................76
Summary of Results and Findings .....................................................................................91
Chapter Five: Recommendations ...................................................................................................94
Recommendations and Implementation Plan.....................................................................94
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................106
Suggestions for Future Research .....................................................................................106
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................107
References ....................................................................................................................................108
Appendix A: Survey Protocol ......................................................................................................125
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................130
Appendix C: USC Information Sheet for Exempt Research .......................................................133
ix
List of Tables
Table 1 Organizational Mission, Goal and Stakeholder Group’s Performance Goal 10
Table 2 Asset Influences 36
Table 3 Agency Influences 37
Table 4 Enabling Environment Influences 39
Table 5 Data Sources 42
Table 6 Survey Respondents Disaggregated by Gender by Cohort (n = 43) 51
Table 7 Demographic Information of Interview Participants 54
Table 8 Summary of Assumed Asset Influences Findings 56
Table 9 Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Asset (Interpersonal Skills) Influences 60
Table 10 Summary of Assumed Agency Influences Findings 64
Table 11 Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Agency Self-Efficacy Influences 68
Table 12 Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Agency Expectancy-Value Influences 75
Table 13 Summary of Assumed Environment Influences Findings 77
Table 14 Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Environment Healthy Relationships and
Bonding Influences 84
Table 15 Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Environment Belonging and Membership
Influences 88
Table 16 Summary of Asset, Agency, and Environment Influences Findings 92
Table 17 Overview of Recommendations 95
Table 18 Implementation Plan for Recommendation 1 98
Table 19 Implementation Plan for Recommendation 2 101
Table 20 Implementation Plan for Recommendation 3 103
Table 21 Implementation Plan for Recommendation 4 105
Table A1 Survey Instrument 126
Table B1 Interview Instrument 131
x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 33
Figure 2: Survey Respondents, Disaggregated by Gender by Cohort (n = 43) 51
Figure 3: What is Your Current Employment Status? (n = 43) 52
Figure 4: What Is Your Mindset Related to Empathy? 61
Figure 5: What Is Your Mindset Related to Embracing Ambiguity? 66
Figure 6: How Confident Are You in Implementing Projects in Your Current Situation
Successfully? 68
Figure 7: What Is Your Mindset Related to Iterate, Iterate, Iterate? 71
Figure 8: What Has Been Your Biggest Challenge Since Completing Your Service? 72
Figure 9: Are You a Member of the WhatsApp group of Alumni? 77
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The problem of practice being studied is the lack of sufficient formal volunteer
opportunities for Senegalese youth to expand their employability skills. Close to one billion
people volunteer each year globally (Salamon et al., 2018). This ranges from informal, direct
volunteering where people provide support to other individuals and households to organization-
based volunteering, where people participate in formal, structured volunteer opportunities
(International Labour Organization, 2011). There are many reasons people volunteer, including
the desire to help others, seeking opportunities to give back, and developing critical life skills
that benefit the volunteers themselves, the community where volunteers serve, and the larger
economy in addition to being an interim solution between education and formal employment
(Allison et al., 2002; Omoto & Snyder, 2008; Salamon et al., 2018). Over the next 10 to 30
years, the United Nations and the African Development Bank estimate that 25% to 33% of the
world’s youth population will be living in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA; African Development Bank,
2015; United Nations, 2015).
Further, the percentage of youth in SSA not in education, employment, or training
(NEET) is 16.1%, reflecting the percentage of youth who are not employed or who have left the
job search due to discouraging outcomes (ILO, 2020a). This underscores the potential for
volunteering to provide meaningful opportunities where youth can develop critical employability
skills to secure employment (UN, 2015a; AfDB, 2015). While it is understood that volunteering
provides numerous benefits to both an individual and society at large, there is a lack of data to
demonstrate its measurable impact on both volunteers as individuals and the larger economy
resulting in an undervaluing of its outcomes (Salamon et al., 2018). It is also difficult, if not
impossible, to compare various measured volunteering outcomes because of a lack of consensus
2
on the definition of volunteering, what is being measured, and how it is being measured (ILO,
2011). In Africa, volunteering exists as part of the social fabric of communities as well as
through formal opportunities and programming (Mati, 2012). There are a number of types of
formal volunteer programs and they can be categorized by the types of volunteers who have the
opportunity to serve in global communities including those from the Global North and from the
Global South (Mati, 2017). South-South volunteering refers to citizens of low to middle-income
countries who volunteer in their own country or in other countries in a similar economic situation
and is an essential component of thriving communities (Bannister, 2017; Mati 2017). While
volunteering is prevalent throughout SSA, the opportunity to develop relevant employability
skills is limited, and more formal volunteering opportunities can fill that gap.
Background of the Problem
Senegalese youth lack sufficient formal volunteer opportunities to develop employability
skills that prepare them for the future of work, which can perpetuate poverty and make
transitions later in life more difficult (Brudney et al., 2016; Fox et al., 2016). Several government
and non-government organizations and private-sector companies have sought to address this
issue through skills-building endeavors and youth-focused programming in Africa, including the
United Nations Volunteers (UNV) Programme, African Union Youth Volunteer Corps, and
CorpsAfrica (African Union, 2020; CorpsAfrica, 2020; UNV Programme, 2018). The desired
outcomes for these programs are to provide opportunities for African youth to deliver sustaining
impacts on their communities and neighboring countries, in addition to providing a steppingstone
to gainful employment and a lifelong commitment to civic service that serves to reinforce social
ties and build more enduring communities (UNV Programme, 2018). Finding the right
3
opportunities to build meaningful employability skillsets through volunteering impacts youth in
Senegal and around the world.
In Senegal, the rate of youth with advanced education not in education, employment, or
training (NEET) was 17.83% in 2015, which is over double the NEET rate for other countries in
the region, including Liberia (4.5%) and Ghana (7%; ILO, 2020b). NEET refers to those who are
unemployed and not currently seeking further education either through vocational training or
higher education (Robson, 2010). High NEET rates for youth with advanced education indicate a
lost opportunity to contribute meaningfully to their communities and national economy and to
engage in productive efforts for their own personal and professional development. South-South
volunteering can provide a solution to NEET youth to build their employability skillsets and
reinforce social ties (Graham et al., 2013; Mati, 2012). In their global civic engagement report,
Gallup (2018) assesses countries’ generosity through questions about their financial
contributions to charity, whether they have given time (volunteered), or helped someone they do
not know. In this Gallup report, on a scale of 0-100, Senegal ranks 28 with the highest score
assigned to Indonesia at 59 (Gallup, 2018). According to a recent UNV Programme report
(2018), Senegalese people volunteered for 227,591 hours of full-time equivalent workers in
2015, including both direct and organization-based volunteering. This high number of full-time
equivalence in volunteerism could indicate the importance of volunteering in Senegal, but also
the lack of formal employment and opportunities for youth to engage in meaningful, paid work.
Golub, Mbaye and Chwe (2015) discussed the role of labor market regulation in deterring
formal employment with a focus on how the weak labor market regulatory landscape in Senegal,
and throughout SSA, could cause an ongoing lack of formal employment opportunities, which
could push youth to pursue formal volunteering opportunities in the absence of formal
4
employment. The jobs crisis, including a lack of formal employment opportunities, skills gap for
African youth, and high unemployment indicate the need for integrated solutions among
government, civil society, and the private sector (Fox et al., 2020). The problem of a lack of
formal opportunities for youth to develop employability skills through volunteering is important
to address because of Senegal’s growing youth population that is already entering the workforce.
Senegal is an important country to focus on because it is one of 23 countries that, as of 2008, has
already “introduced policies, legislation or other measures specific or relevant to volunteering”
demonstrating the value placed on the practice in their own country despite a lack of resources to
match the commitment (UNV Programme, 2018, p. 104).
Further, the United Nations’ sustainable development goals recognize the important
contributions of country-level and volunteer groups to provide solutions to sustainable
development goals (United Nations, 2015). The eighth goal projects to “promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for
all” with a goal by 2020 to make a significant reduction in the percentage of NEET youth (UN,
2015a, p. 14). While progress has been made toward this goal, much work remains to be done to
reach it. Volunteer legislation has also been enacted in Senegal to address NEET and underscore
the value of volunteering and its contributions to society (UNV Programme, 2018). Senegalese
corporations are also engaged in providing solutions to NEET through corporate social
responsibility (CSR) efforts and building employment opportunities for urban youth (RSE
Senegal, 2009). While there are many opportunities for direct, or informal, volunteering, the
problem is that many formal programs are missing an opportunity to connect employment needs
with the training provided to volunteers and to develop a holistic model that produces volunteers
equipped with the employability skills needed to thrive in the workforce following their service.
5
Importance of the Study
The problem of a lack of sufficient formal opportunities for African youth to develop
employability skillsets locally through volunteering is important to study for a variety of reasons.
In 2015, there were 225 million youths living in Africa, and that number is expected to grow by
100% by 2055 with a projected population of approximately 500 million and the largest youth
population in the world (UN, 2015b). An increase in youth coming of working age will place
pressure on the economy to create jobs for productive employment for which youths will need to
have skills and training. One way to build skills is through volunteering. This matters with
regards to Senegal because of the economic and social value of volunteering in the country and
its impact both locally and globally, including the country’s GDP and overall well-being (UNV
Programme, 2018). The United Nations sustainable development goals outline the goal to
“achieve full employment for…young people” and reduce those who are not in employment,
education, or training (UNGA, 2015, p.19).
Organizational Context and Mission
CorpsAfrica is a New York City-based non-profit, with offices in Morocco, Senegal,
Malawi, and Rwanda. The organization provides young Africans the opportunity to volunteer for
a year in a rural community in their home country, or another CorpsAfrica country, and to
implement small-scale, high-impact projects identified by the community using the human-
centered design (HCD) approach (CorpsAfrica, 2020). The organization was started in 2013 with
a group of volunteers in Morocco and expanded to three other geographically diverse countries
across the continent. The organization’s values include locals helping locals, collaboration,
listening, capacity building, and evaluation and transparency (CorpsAfrica, 2020).
6
Following a year of service in their home country, volunteers are eligible to apply to
serve again in another CorpsAfrica country. This opportunity further reinforces their technical,
linguistic, and community development skills and reinforces the Pan-African network. The
organization is privately funded through U.S. and African corporate, foundation, and individual
donations and has supported over 290 volunteers in four countries: Morocco, Senegal, Malawi,
and Rwanda since inception (CorpsAfrica, 2020). Volunteers are mostly between the ages of 21
and 35, and at the application phase, are evaluated on their humility, creativity, resourcefulness,
flexibility, curiosity, and eagerness to make a difference (CorpsAfrica, 2020). At the time of the
study, there were 10 women and eight men serving as CorpsAfrica/Senegal volunteers for a total
cohort of 18 volunteers. Volunteers receive a monthly stipend that mirrors the benefits provided
by the United States Peace Corps in addition to a readjustment allowance to support their
reintegration upon their return home at the close of their service (CorpsAfrica, 2020). The
organization and employs 15 full-time staff in Africa across several departments, including titles
such as program coordinators, volunteer liaisons, monitoring and evaluation specialists,
bookkeepers, and country directors. The primary role of staff is to provide training and
organizational support to volunteers in addition to acting as liaisons to community partners and
government authorities.
CorpsAfrica funding comes from contract revenue from organizations such as The OCP
Group (previously known as The Office Chérifien des Phosphates), the National Basketball
Association, and an American law firm, Sanford, Heisler, and Sharp, LLP, in addition to
donations and in-kind contributions (CorpsAfrica, 2018). Funding is limited and divided between
the various countries where CorpsAfrica operates. Limited funding means programs must be
strategic in their focus to maximize impact.
7
I chose CorpsAfrica as a research partner due to my existing relationship with their
founder and executive director, Liz Fanning, who also was a Peace Corps Volunteer. Since I am
based in the United States and not in Senegal, I chose an organization with whom I already had a
connection to ensure ongoing communication and collaboration through the research study.
The primary role of volunteers is to partner with their communities to develop activities
and projects (using HCD) that build upon the community’s assets. CorpsAfrica has four primary
objectives for their programming:
1. Promote the professional and personal development of young Africans.
2. Inspire a strong Pan-African community and network of public service.
3. Connect rural areas to the vast resources and innovations of diverse NGO partners.
4. Build the capacity of rural villages to create self-sufficiency in every sector.
Organizational Goal
CorpsAfrica’s goal is that by June 2022, 90% of its alumni will report receiving adequate
employability skills training and feel prepared for a job search following their service
(CorpsAfrica, 2019). The achievement of the goal is measured by surveys administered pre-,
mid-, and post-service to volunteers and alumni. It is important to evaluate the organization’s
performance goal of 90% of Senegal alumni developing employability skills and job search
preparedness for a variety of reasons. If CorpsAfrica can demonstrate to potential volunteers and
funders that the program provides an opportunity to develop critical life skills, they will earn
credibility and prestige. Doing so will ensure a greater number and higher quality applications
and open the door to funders interested in promoting youth employment in Africa. Sustained
funding ensures that CorpsAfrica can continue to provide an opportunity for African youth to
develop employability skills and develop a commitment to civic service while contributing to a
8
reduction of poverty and other UN SDG goals. Evaluating performance will enable funders,
volunteers, and staff to gather essential information related to a volunteer’s service that can
positively impact volunteer outcomes.
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Performance Goals
There are several stakeholder groups engaged and invested in the success of CorpsAfrica.
These stakeholder groups include volunteers, staff, the board of directors, donors, and
development partners. Volunteers include the applicants, those currently serving, and alumni of
the program. They are the African youth representing their country who volunteer in rural, high-
poverty communities leveraging HCD as a tool for project identification. Volunteers are high-
achieving youth whose contributions and service define the purpose of CorpsAfrica. They are
important to achieving the organization’s performance goal because their volunteer service and
skills development throughout the program define the performance goal itself.
Headquarters, country-level staff, and the board of directors include the executive
director and founder, country directors, monitoring and evaluation specialists, program
coordinators, and advocates in the fields of African youth and economic development. This
stakeholder group defines the program objectives and operationalizes the mission and vision of
the organization through volunteer recruitment, training, service, and alumni support.
Headquarters, country-level staff, and the board of directors are important for achieving the
organization’s performance goal because they foster the enabling environment for volunteers to
have productive service experiences accompanied by rigorous measurement of outcomes that
demonstrate the value of volunteers’ service to other stakeholder groups. Their strategic vision
and fundraising efforts set the pace for the organization and enable volunteers to embark on
9
meaningful service experiences that build professional development skills while innovating
projects in high-needs communities throughout their country.
Corporate sponsors include the stakeholder group that provides funding, pro bono
services, donations, and credibility for CorpsAfrica to operate in four African countries.
Currently, corporate sponsors include OCP Group, the National Basketball Association, and
Sanford, Heisler, Sharp LLP. These funders provide the financial support for volunteers to have
a modest living stipend, implement projects, and provide recruitment and training of currently
serving volunteers in addition to alumni programming and outreach. Their financial support is
important to the achievement of the performance goal because it allows staff and volunteers to
conduct their activities.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Many stakeholders contribute to the achievement of the overall organizational goal of
90% of CorpsAfrica volunteers developing employability skills and feeling prepared for a job
search post-volunteer service. However, for this study, the focus was on the volunteer alumni to
explore how the volunteer experience impacted their employment outcomes. Therefore, the
stakeholders of focus for this study were all CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni. The stakeholders’ goal,
detailed in Table 1, is that by 2022 90% of CorpsAfrica volunteers will report having expanded
their employability skillset and job search preparedness throughout their service. Expanding
employability skillset means a measured growth in volunteers’ core work skills as defined by the
International Labour Organization (ILO, 2013), including learning to learn, communication,
teamwork, and problem solving in addition to measurable outcomes such as developing a
LinkedIn profile, completing timely field reports, communicating with field staff, and creating a
networking strategy to connect alumni throughout their service. If volunteers and alumni do not
10
achieve these milestone accomplishments, the organizational goal will not be achieved. By not
achieving the goal, volunteers will fail to demonstrate the full value of CorpsAfrica service,
which could lead to diminished funding and adversely impact the organization’s ability to
expand into all 54 African countries.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Goal and Stakeholder Group’s Performance Goal
Organizational mission
CorpsAfrica recruits, trains, and sends college-educated Africans to live in remote villages in
their own countries to facilitate small-scale, high-impact projects that are identified by local
people, along the lines of the Peace Corps model.
Organizational performance goal
By June 2022, CorpsAfrica/Senegal staff will have developed adequate training that ensures
90% of CorpsAfrica/Senegal volunteers will have developed employability skillsets and feel
prepared for a job search by the end of their service.
CorpsAfrica volunteers’ goal
By June 2022, 90% of CorpsAfrica Volunteer alumni will have gained employability skills as
defined by the International Labour Organization during their CorpsAfrica service and be
prepared for a job search as an alumni.
11
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the development of employability skills and job
search preparedness among CorpsAfrica volunteers because of their service. While a complete
evaluation project would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders
focused on in this analysis were alumni in Senegal. The analysis focused on their assets, agency,
and enabling environment related to developing employability skills and job search preparedness
during their service. As such, the research questions guiding this study were as follows:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skill development when
they entered their volunteer service and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Overview of Theoretical and Methodological Framework
Positive youth development (PYD; Hinson et al., 2016) is a measurement framework that
centers the experiences of youth, inclusive of their families, communities, and governments, as
experts in their lifelong development and was implemented as the conceptual framework. Assets,
agency, contributions, and enabling environments are the core program features associated with
PYD. These impact CorpsAfrica volunteers’ obtaining employability skills and feeling prepared
for a job search and will be observed based on both context-specific research as well as general
learning and motivation theory. The methodological framework was a mixed-methods counter-
narrative, consisting of a survey of alumni and individual interviews.
12
Definitions
• CorpsAfrica Volunteer: Volunteers are young Africans who dedicate a year to helping
disadvantaged communities in their own country and then possibly serve in another
CorpsAfrica country and community (CorpsAfrica, 2020).
• Employability Skills: The skills required of employees for them to continue learning, be
productive contributors, and advance within an organization, including learning to learn,
communication, teamwork, and problem solving (ILO, 2013).
• Global South: Low to middle-income countries recently decolonized (Gray & Gills,
2016).
• Not in Education, Employment, or Training (NEET): Unemployed and not currently
seeking further education through vocational training or higher education (Robson,
2010).
• South-South Volunteering: Citizens of the Global South who volunteer in disadvantaged
communities in their own country or another country in the Global South (UNV
Programme, 2018).
Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters are used to map this study. This chapter provided the key concepts and
terminology commonly found in a discussion about volunteering and employability skills
development in youth, focused on Senegalese youth. The organization’s mission, goals, and
stakeholders, and the framework for the project were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review
of the literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of South-South volunteering and
employment, alumni networks, policy, and funding are addressed. Chapter Two also presents the
volunteers’ assets, agency, contributions, and enabling environments explored via the study.
13
Chapter Three details the methodology when it comes to choosing participants, data collection,
and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data are assessed and analyzed, and key findings are
presented. Chapter Five provides recommendations for practice and for future research.
14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter explores literature relating to the lack of sufficient formal opportunities for
Senegalese youth to build employability skills through formal volunteer opportunities. The
literature review begins with the current state of formal youth employment in SSA, including
policy, the current state of employment for tertiary graduates, and the mismatch of skills between
what the workforce requires and what youth bring to their jobs. Next, the review examines how
formal volunteer programs can prepare youth for employment with a review of different types of
formal youth volunteering in SSA, youth volunteer policy in Senegal, how employability skills
can prepare youth for the future of work through volunteering, and challenges of implementing
volunteer programs. The review then explores the role of the private sector to support formal
youth volunteer programs in Senegal with an examination of what constitutes a high-quality
corporate-funded volunteer program and models of corporations investing in volunteer programs
in Senegal. The chapter concludes with a review of relevant research associated with PYD
(2016) and how it connects to the problem of practice.
State of Formal Youth Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa
Youth Employment Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa
Youth employment policy in SSA focuses on the duality of building employability skills
for youth and an environment where jobs can flourish and meet the growing supply of youth
eager to fill them. There is a need to build productive employment opportunities in both rural and
urban centers and the skills needed to flourish in them. Africans have jobs, but the quality is poor
(Coulibaly et al., 2019). Since people have no choice but to work, employment statistics alone do
not provide an accurate portrayal of the current employment situation (Golub & Mbaye, 2015).
There is a need to focus on both the supply (youth and their employability skills) and demand,
15
including job creation through favorable private sector policies that generate employment (Golub
& Mbaye, 2015). When companies cannot find employees locally with the requisite skills to
fulfill talent needs, they choose to hire expatriate talent, which costs more and does not
contribute to the holistic development of the local labor force (Golub & Mbaye, 2015).
Employment policy that promotes hiring and training locally could resolve this issue and
disconnect (Golub & Mbaye, 2015).
Africa’s growing youth population makes them one of the continent’s most promising
resources to advance change and promote innovation (African Union, 2006). The African Union
Youth Charter (2006) outlined that it is a human right for African youth to have access to decent,
non-exploitive employment. There is a need to develop macroeconomic policies to create more
jobs and reduce the number of youth forced into the informal economy where there are limited to
no protections (African Union, 2006). Employment policy should not solely focus on urban
opportunities in SSA, as there is a disconnect with the reality and need for policy that applies to
youth employment in rural areas as well, and there is more opportunity for synergy between
employment and youth policy in the variety of sectors that are present in any country (Schwebel
et al., 2019). These sectors include agriculture, fisheries, textiles, information and
communication technology, and tourism (Diene, 2012).
Research thus far consistently focuses on building youth’s skills, yet there is an
increasing need to focus on the demand side related to enabling policy environments for a private
sector that can create jobs (Schwebel et al., 2019). An analysis of constraints to youth
employment policy for Senegal found a gap in the representation of youth’s voices in the
development of policy impacting their livelihoods and future, and current policy does not
underscore the importance of integrating their perspective (Schwebel et al., 2019). In 2013,
16
Senegalese President Macky Sall launched the “Plan for an Emerging Senegal” (PSE) with the
goal of transforming the country into an emerging economy by 2035 (Emerging Senegal, 2020).
One of the three pillars of the framework is to improve human capital, and examples throughout
the plan involve job creation in both rural and urban settings.
While formal qualifications and skills are important to a successful progression in the
workplace, there has been a disproportionate focus on technical skills with limited focus on the
importance of transferable, or soft, skills (Kubes et al., 2004). As youth prepare for the transition
to work, they need opportunities to build their human and social capital beyond the classroom.
Current Employment Status of Tertiary Graduates in Sub-Saharan Africa
Education as an engine for social good is widely understood. However, university
graduates in Senegal face unemployment at higher rates than their counterparts that complete
secondary education. While enrollment in education has grown across Africa, job creation and
quality employment have not matched this growth.
Although SSA has the lowest rates of enrollment in higher education in the world, it has
still grown in absolute terms over the past 40 years from 400,000 students in 1970 to 7.2 million
students in 2013 (Darvas et al., 2017). Some research indicates there is a disconnect between
higher education curriculum and coursework and local labor market needs (Darvas et al., 2017).
However, formal volunteer programs can also exploit local labor as a replacement for
meaningful work and serve as interim work or internship experiences without becoming a bridge
to formal employment (Prince & Brown, 2016). While youth in SSA have historically turned to
the public sector for employment, the public sector cannot absorb the growing youth population,
nor does the structure incentivize acquiring skills that continue to prepare youth for the future of
work (Darvas et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential that the private sector have the necessary
17
conditions to hire and upskill talent to meet the needs of a growing population (Darvas et al.,
2017).
In Senegal, people with education beyond high school have the highest unemployment
rates (World Bank Group, 2017). Amelewonou and Brossard (2005) echoed this finding, as they
also found that tertiary graduates experience higher unemployment than their counterparts with
only primary or secondary education. When comparing the outcomes of Francophone and
Anglophone African countries, there is a marked difference in employment outcomes for
Francophone tertiary graduates (Majgaard & Mingat, 2012). Out of the nine countries
(Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Madagascar, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, and
Uganda) where tertiary graduates have higher unemployment rates, eight of them are
Francophone countries. This can be attributed to the labor market lacking the ability to absorb
college graduates because of a lack of jobs or could reflect that the quality of education does not
meet workforce needs.
In the shorter term, this outcome could deter youth from pursuing higher education if
they do not perceive the ultimate worth of investing in a degree by both time and money. There
are even greater discrepancies in employment for youth when compared by gender and whether
they are based in urban or rural centers, including higher rates of unemployment for women and
those in rural areas (World Bank Group, 2017). There are significant differences between
informal and formal employment rates with high rates of informal employment, which is less
desirable and often less safe and secure than formal employment (World Bank Group, 2017).
Education reform, including improving access and the quality of instruction at the tertiary level
in Senegal, can lead to better employment outcomes for college graduates (Boccanfuso et al.,
2015). Boccanfuso et al. (2015) found that education reform could improve the number of youth
18
that choose to remain in Senegal to pursue higher education, thus directly impacting the human
capital expansion in the country at a time when they need to maintain their best and brightest to
grow the economy and create jobs.
Researchers (Caprara et al, 2012; Delany & Perold, 2017; Fox et al., 2020; Mati, 2012),
and African youth, are asking how education is failing African youth when it comes to
employment outcomes following their studies. Ongoing research is needed to better understand
the disconnect between education and the labor markets African youth enter to explore the limits
of educational systems and job creation to absorb talent. While Senegalese youth are graduating
at record numbers, the skills they gain during their education are not adequately preparing them
for the workforce that awaits them. For some students, higher education in SSA does not equip
learners with the skills needed to thrive in the workplace (Boccanfuso et al., 2015).
Mismatch of Skills and Workforce Needs
Senegalese tertiary graduates leave their university education equipped with a theoretical
foundation that does not always align with the needs of the labor market (Baah-Boateng, 2016;
Boccanfuso et al., 2015; Youth Employment Network and International Youth Foundation,
2009). As of 2020, unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa is 6.6 percent of the total population
and 7.1 percent of the population in Senegal (World Bank, 2021a). In Senegal, the percentage of
NEET youth is 33.1 percent (World Bank, 2021b). To better understand the causes of high
African youth unemployment, it is essential to understand the employment landscape while
simultaneously exploring the supply (skills) side of the equation.
There is no magic wand when it comes to resolving youth unemployment in SSA. It is
complicated and necessitates a dynamic approach focused on the intersection of rigorous policy,
human capital development, and job creation, in addition to addressing low productivity that
19
ultimately results in low earnings (Dean & Fox, 2014). While there is a need to grow jobs in
urban centers, it is also important to expand opportunities in rural locations as well to include a
focus on the agricultural sector, which has promising opportunity for African youth (Dean &
Fox, 2014). Manufacturing and service industries also provide opportunities for growth, but there
are significant obstacles to growth in these sectors due to poor infrastructure and public services
(Dean & Fox, 2014).
Alternative learning pathways are gaining credibility to build transferable employment
and life skills, including through peer-to-peer learning and community centers (Brown et al.,
2015). At the same time, many studies on transferable skills programming do not include
evidence on cost-effectiveness, which prohibits a comprehensive assessment of the return on
investment of such programs (Brown et al., 2015). Increasingly, African universities are noting
the importance of entrepreneurship education and training as an important element of curriculum
to build those skills aligned with employability skills, including communication, problem
solving, creativity, and innovation, among others (Bawuah et al., 2006). Private institutions are
often more nimble in the design of their curriculum since they are not tied to national
requirements and, as such, have courses that reflect the skills currently needed in the private
sector, namely around science, technology, engineering, and mathematics such as computer
science and technology (Teferra & Altbackhl, 2004). It is suggested that when youth can mentor
others as they learn new life skills, they build their leadership and grow their mentees’ life skills
(Brown et al., 2015). Alumni can serve as effective mentors and, therefore, suggests the need to
nurture program alumni networks (Brown et al., 2015).
While some employment statistics indicate that the rate of youth unemployment in
Senegal is low, most youth cannot afford not to work, which results in a large amount of work
20
that is through self-employment and is informal, which is low-paying and more unstable than
formal sector employment (Mbaye & Gueye, 2018). It is encouraging that Senegal’s GDP per
capita has grown from 1983 to 2020, albeit marginally, from 1983 to 2020 from -5.64% to .87%,
which indicates an economy that is encouraging productivity and investment in policy that spurs
economic growth (Mbaye & Gueye, 2018; World Bank, 2021c). However, there is a disparity
when the growth is parsed by location. The rate of Senegalese NEET youth is over 50% in rural
locations compared to 35% in urban areas (Mbaye & Gueye, 2018).
The skills Senegalese university graduates gain through their studies can prepare them for
the technical components of their future employment. However, youth need experiential
opportunities like those found through volunteering to put their theoretical knowledge into
practice through hands-on learning experiences (Kolb, 1984). These experiences simultaneously
contribute meaningfully to their communities while building practical, transferable employment
skills for the youth themselves (Delany & Perold, 2017).
Role of Formal Youth Volunteer Programs to Promote Path to Youth Employment in
Senegal
The intersection of education, employability skills, and a favorable labor market prepare
the path for youth employment globally, including in Senegal (Dema et al., 2015). Formal
volunteering provides an opportunity for these areas to meaningfully intertwine to mutually
reinforce each stakeholders’ objective while providing opportunities for meaningful engagement
in one’s community. Formal volunteering, or service program volunteering, is facilitated through
an organization, whether it is a non-governmental or government agency. It is unique from
informal volunteering in that it has a formal structure surrounding it, related programming to
build the volunteer’s skills, and identified beneficiaries (Clotfelter, 1999; Mati, 2016). Formal
21
volunteering in SSA is different from volunteer schemes in the Global North because of how
much closer in socioeconomic status volunteers are to the people they serve (Mati, 2016). It is
necessary to align volunteer outcomes and objectives with the reality of the employment
landscape and labor market for the countries where youth reside. Aligning volunteer
programming with national youth employment policy will provide harmony in volunteering
training curriculum and objective ways to measure a program’s success (Caprara et al., 2012).
Social, cultural, and political nuance means that volunteering, including the motivations
for choosing to volunteer and the dynamic that unfolds between volunteers and the communities
or people they support, hold different meanings in different countries (Mati, 2016). There is a
tendency to define volunteering in the terms of the Global North rather than from the perspective
of other countries or traditions, which obscures the nuance present in those countries and from
those perspectives (Mati, 2016). South-South formal volunteering involves people from the
Global South volunteering in their own communities and volunteering with people and
communities with similar socioeconomic status to theirs, oftentimes facilitated through an NGO
or the government itself (Mati, 2016). Mati (2016) called this the horizontality of African
volunteering and underscores that it is fundamentally different from volunteers from the Global
North choosing to volunteer in the Global South. While dominant theories on volunteering center
the volunteer experience on the more researched North-South relationship, Mati (2016) noted
that due to the power dynamics inherent in divergent cultures, experiences, and socioeconomic
status, there is a need for a focus on the unique attributes of South-South volunteering, even
when the drivers of African volunteering, including as a benefit to others and
to build their career, are like what is found in volunteers globally (Mati, 2016).
22
Following decolonization in SSA, national service schemes became prominent, but
alleged corruption gave them a bad reputation and their focus on university graduates fostered an
elitist culture and perception (Patel & Wilson, 2004). Civic service has a deep, rich history
throughout SSA in pre-colonial and post-colonial times (Patel & Wilson, 2004). Different types
of civic service include national civic service, international programs, and local programs that
have a variety of objectives related to building skills, improving well-being and health, and
raising volunteers’ confidence, influence, and access to career opportunities and employment
outcomes (Patel & Wilson, 2004). There is also a legacy of national service programs started
following the end of colonial rule in the 1960s and 70s in Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, Gambia,
Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (Eberly & Sherraden, 1990).
While formal volunteering represents a smaller percentage of overall volunteering efforts
in SSA, it remains an important avenue for youth to develop employability skills that can
advance social and economic initiatives at the local, country, regional, and global levels.
Nonetheless, there remain obstacles at several levels to realizing the full potential of formal
youth volunteer programs as an avenue to improved employment outcomes for African youth.
Challenges to Formal Youth Volunteering Programs
Formal youth volunteer programs are not without their challenges or criticism. Youth
employment programs, including formal volunteer programs that put youth on a path to
employment, solely focused on the supply (skill) side without considering the reality of the labor
market (for which there is a paucity of data) can displace other youth from gaining employment
rather than boosting employment outcomes (Fox & Kaul, 2017). There is a need, in countries
that are already amid structural economic transformation, to focus on creating an enabling
environment for companies to enter the market and to expand job opportunities by growing small
23
businesses and increasing productivity (Fox & Kaul, 2017). There is also an aspirations gap and
mismatch between what African youth think a job will provide (earnings, hours, working
conditions) and what is available to them in the labor market (Fox & Kaul, 2017).
Youth employment programs, including those that seek to develop employability skills
through volunteering, often fail because they are based on faulty assumptions and diagnoses
about labor markets and ignore, or do not seek to understand, the on the ground reality about
available jobs and enabling environments for companies (Blattman & Ralston, 2015). In practice,
skills training and microfinance have shown little impact on poverty or stability, especially
relative to program cost (Blattman & Ralston, 2015).
There are several ways that the rate of failure can be reduced for youth employment
programs that currently present challenges to implementation. They include developing small-
scale pilot programs prior to designing broader initiatives, investing in collecting and analyzing
data on the labor market, and exploring multi-country studies to determine programs that are
most likely to succeed across borders (Filmer & Fox, 2014). While skills training programs are
popular as a tool to combat youth unemployment and to boost the capabilities of the labor market
in developing economies, program evaluations and assessments continue to highlight that even
with minimal success, they do not pass cost-benefit analyses (Blattman & Ralston, 2015). A
challenge for those designing programs to provide youth employment skills training is aligning
what youth want to learn and what the private sector needs in employees (Filmer & Fox, 2014).
An important reason employment programs fail is a lack of rigorous data around local labor
market needs and realities that prevent stakeholders from making the best decision about
program design and implementation (Blattman & Ralston, 2015).
24
Without a clear understanding of the problem at hand due to a lack of conclusive data,
youth employment programs are not able to be clear about their own assumptions, which results
in creating solutions to murky problems, which is costly and potentially harmful (Blattman &
Ralston, 2015; Filmer & Fox, 2014). Youth employment programs need to account for local
infrastructure, governance, and private sector investment as stakeholders design sustainable
solutions to have a meaningful impact on reducing youth unemployment and boosting
employability skills acquisition relevant to growing economies (Blattman & Ralston, 2015).
Building employability skills for youth without understanding the employment
opportunities on the other end also presents a challenge to successful program outcomes. African
employers indicate that they find that youth lack the employability skills needed to thrive in their
roles rather than lacking the technical skills to conduct their work (Filmer & Fox, 2014).
When it comes to employability skills training, private sector companies are best equipped to
indicate what skills are in demand. Otherwise, the programs risk irrelevance (Filmer & Fox,
2014). Governments are also often well-equipped to drive information-raising campaigns around
training opportunities and enable businesses to grow and increase employment opportunities
(Filmer & Fox, 2014). There is a need for better data on employment needs and related outcomes
to improve training and employability programming in formal youth volunteer programs (Filmer
& Fox, 2014).
Formal Youth Volunteer Policy in Senegal
African stakeholders, including governments, the African Union, and groups involved in
international development, are increasingly promoting youth volunteering to develop their
respective economies at all levels (Graham et al., 2013). This includes several types of
volunteering in Africa, which depend on the country and context (Graham et al., 2013). Three
25
types of volunteering are community-based, international, and professional, including through
CSR programs (Graham et al., 2013). Each type of volunteering schemas leverages a different
audience and way of engaging youth with the community. Formal volunteering takes place
through organizations that facilitate opportunities for those who are interested in giving their
time to worthwhile causes and can have a wide range in size and impact (Graham et al., 2013).
Comprehensive volunteer policies and regulatory environments that encourage formal youth
volunteering are necessary for volunteer organizations, and the volunteers who participate in
their programs, to be successful and contribute meaningfully (Graham et al., 2013). This is
achieved by developing and maintaining government relations, though this can be complicated
when the government is not trusted by the community or its citizens (Graham et al., 2013).
Philanthropic contributions can be a significant source of financing for volunteer organizations,
and some countries in SSA, including Senegal, have more robust NGO sectors that can garner
more donations through corporations and the private sector (Graham et al., 2013).
Senegal has draft legislation related to volunteer policy (UNV Programme, 2009) and,
since 2006, has a National Committee for Coordination and Promotion of Volunteering (UN
Volunteers, 2020). Volunteering provides an opportunity for youth to connect with people
outside of their immediate networks and expands their social capital while developing their
human capital (Caprara et al., 2012). Regional and national policies related to youth employment
offer promising opportunities to harmonize approaches related to building youth employability
skills through volunteering and civic service. By recognizing the assets youth bring to formal
volunteer opportunities, national youth employment policy can leverage the existing talent and
shape the talent pipeline for future opportunities (Caprara et al., 2012). Policy and educational
opportunities that promote opportunities for youth to build their employability skills through
26
volunteering aligned with the needs of the labor market and anticipates the future of work will
yield promising outcomes (Caprara et al., 2012).
Formal Volunteering to Develop Youth ’s Employability Skills for the Future of Work
The future of work in Africa requires youth to obtain new skills so that they can thrive
(Jieun et al., 2020). However, access to technology, stable internet, and the prevalence of
governmental safety nets impact how quickly the future of work can advance and its benefits
spread to all (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). The Fourth Industrial Revolution, a term defined by
World Economic Forum Founder Klaus Schwab in 2016, is distinct from the three previous
industrial revolutions because of its relationship to technology, including artificial intelligence,
autonomous vehicles, and nanotechnology and because of its velocity, breadth, depth, and
systems impact (Schwab, 2016). Some are concerned that this Fourth Industrial Revolution will
eliminate, without replacing, jobs since the upskilling for the workforce will require more
advanced technical skills even though all previous industrial revolutions have provided
considerable advances for all (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). The success or failure to adapt
to the future of work rests on enabling policies that allow for more widespread adoption of
technology by the entire population and not just a select few based on geography or existing
socioeconomic status (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). It is essential to improve broadband internet
access to realize the potential that the future of work can provide African youth through digital
skills acquisition (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018).
While digital skills remain important to obtain, there is also a need to build soft skills for
youth to succeed (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). Companies throughout Africa consistently point to
employees lacking adequate skills as an obstacle to growth in their companies (Milukshev &
Pagés, 2018). Milukshev and Pagés (2018) cited three reasons youth in Africa face persistent
27
unemployment: graduating from secondary and tertiary education at rates that do not align with
the growth of the labor market and jobs that do not exist for them, lacking the skills for the work
due to inadequate curriculum, and lacking the social capital to learn about open opportunities. As
Africa prepares for the Fourth Industrial Revolution, volunteers can simultaneously learn
technologies and disperse them to their communities of service, including telephone farming and
AI/machine learning for plant breeding (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018).
Entrepreneurship and vocational training have been lauded as the solution to the youth
unemployment challenge, but outcomes from soft skills training programs have not yielded
results (Assan & Nalutaaya, 2018). It is also important to consider the definition of
entrepreneurship in the context of Senegal and formal versus informal economies (Minard,
2009). While this is true for entrepreneurship and vocational training, formal volunteer programs
could fill the gap to deliver experiential learning that accounts for the need to simultaneously
focus on soft skills development. A lack of employability skills caused by an inadequate
curriculum is a serious barrier to employment for tertiary graduates (Assan & Nalutaaya, 2018).
USAID’s PYD toolkit offers a solution for building meaningful training that helps youth move
from education to employment (Assan & Nalutaaya, 2018). While current vocational and soft
skills training is not meeting the needs of the private sector, they remain important and need to
integrate the realities of the labor market into their curricula (Assan & Nalutaaya, 2018).
Role of Private Sector to Support Formal Youth Volunteer Programs in Senegal
Shifting Role of Private Sector Toward Greater Community Responsibility
There has been a shift in how the private sector in SSA approaches operating in the
countries and communities where they are established, from being disconnected and solely
focused on the products produced to considering the community and country where they operate
28
(Muthuri, 2008). Formal volunteer programs also seek more opportunities to collaborate with the
private sector (Berger et al., 2016). Increasingly, the private sector believes that corporate
community involvement is the right thing to do, and when they give something back to society,
they improve the well-being of the local community where they are based (Muthuri, 2008). In
addition, successful partnerships with communities are good for the business, as they help
establish a responsible reputation (Muthuri, 2008). Billis (2016) outlined several ways non-
profits, the private sector, and government intersect to create hybrid organizations with
intersecting and blurred connections to one another as related to volunteering in terms of priority
and accountability.
As the private sector consumes and invests in products, both resource and human capital,
there is a need for communities to have a voice, which can be facilitated through volunteers
(Manteaw, 2008). There is an opportunity for companies to develop their community
engagement efforts into cyclical learning loops for both the private sector and the communities
and volunteers engaged in their programming (Manteaw, 2008). There is also a need for
knowledge sharing between stakeholders to reinforce and expand learning.
In developing countries, CSR is different from what it is in more developed countries and
typically includes a greater focus on social themes rather than environmental or ethical issues
(Visser, 2008). In some countries and settings, CSR is a way to compensate for a lack of
governance and infrastructure and compensates for the gap left by inadequate services (Visser,
2008). The practice of CSR in Africa is not as formalized when compared to more developed
countries and is also less researched, especially outside of South Africa and Nigeria (Visser,
2008). Engaging companies with communities through CSR can contribute to sustainable
community development initiatives, but it is not a magic bullet, and there is the potential for
29
perpetuating a neocolonialist lens due to a power imbalance among stakeholders that, left
unchecked, can exacerbate relationships between companies and communities (Visser, 2008)
High-quality, corporate-funded volunteer programs are important to ensure CSR aligns
with the local context and needs in Senegal, and there is also a need to focus on shared value
creation to underscore the value of the investment for corporations themselves.
Models of Private Sector Investing in Volunteer Programs
The private sector in SSA, and around the world, is increasingly seeing the value of
investing in the communities where they operate, including in volunteer programs that develop
employability skills for volunteers and support the communities that are potential customers and
recipients of their products (Murphy & Ensher, 2006; Wiarda et al., 2016). Several national and
regional volunteer program models exist in SSA, including the African Union Youth Volunteer
Corps, the Voluntary Service Overseas, and the Ghana National Service Scheme. The African
Union Youth Volunteer Corps program has a complex financing model that includes the 54
member states’ contributions, international donors, and taxes on imports that fund the experience
for African youth ages 18 to 34 (Bryer et al., 2016). With the African Youth Volunteer Corps
model, volunteers serve for one year in an African Union member country other than their home
country in education, health care, government settings, and international organizations (African
Union, 2020). There is evidence that it is a model of investment through examples such as
Volunteers in Service to America, Servicio Pais (Chile), and the Nigerian National Youth
Service Corps, which all are forms of stipend-based national service with cost-shares through
federal, community, and private sector funding (Bryer et al., 2016).
Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) is registered in England and Wales and supports
volunteer program operations in 23 countries and over 4,700 volunteers globally (Voluntary
30
Services Overseas, 2021). There are teams of international and national volunteers who provide
technical support to communities, and VSO has relationships with private sector partners who
provide technical assistance and financial support in the health, education, and livelihoods
sectors (VSO, 2021). The organization sees volunteering as a way to transition to the workforce
(VSO, 2021). Wiarda et al. (2016) noted that business and the private sector should be seen as
integrated parts of civil society, especially concerning areas focused on economic development
and considered non-political such as those related to the environment and disaster relief.
The Ghana National Service Scheme (2020) provides recent high school and college
graduates in Ghana the opportunity to engage in civic service in their home country. While the
program is open to all Ghanaian youth, college graduates are mandated to contribute to human
capital development (Ghana National Service Scheme, 2020). Frontani and Taylor (2009)
studied the Ghana National Service Scheme and other civic service efforts in Ghana and noted a
lack of academic research on the role of civic service in Africa as a means to contribute to the
development of human capital or national development efforts at both the regional and country
level. This finding underscores the importance of more rigorous research into the role of national
service schemes for economic development and skills training in West Africa.
Corporations invest in volunteer programs for a myriad of reasons at the regional,
national, and local levels across SSA. At the core, these programs recognize that youth possess
skills they bring to their volunteer service that can be amplified through their volunteering,
contributing to the future employability and well-being of the individual, the growth of the
private sector, and the economy as a whole as they build workforce skills. It is important to
assess these efforts through the lens of PYD.
31
Positive Youth Development ’s Assets, Agency, and Enabling Environment Framework
The framework used in this research to address the problem of practice is PYD (Hinson
et al., 2016), which is a measurement framework that centers the experiences of youth, inclusive
of their families, communities, and governments, as experts in their lifelong development and
was implemented as the conceptual framework. Assets, agency, contributions, and enabling
environments are the core program features associated with PYD that impact CorpsAfrica
volunteers’ ability to obtain employability skills and to prepare for a job search. These features
were observed based on both context-specific research as well as general learning and motivation
theory.
A theory of change is the bridge between the current state and what the research aspires
to achieve (Scriven, 1991). The theory of change underlying this research is that African youth
and CorpsAfrica volunteers bring numerous assets and enabling environments when they serve
high-needs communities in their home countries. With additional research and a more nuanced
understanding of how volunteers amplify their employability skills through service, they will
have better job outcomes following their service. Therefore, the prestige of CorpsAfrica will rise,
which will garner additional funding and expand access to more volunteers.
Conceptual Framework
For volunteers to thrive and develop employability skillsets throughout their volunteer
service, they must leverage the key components of the PYD framework, including their agency,
assets, and an enabling environment. Navigating these components as they intersect with the key
concepts of their skills development and volunteer service can feel like a labyrinth. Agency
refers to volunteers feeling like they have what it takes to gain the skills they need during their
service and can persevere even in difficult times (Hinson et al., 2016). Their enabling
32
environment includes the people and bonds that encourage them through the difficult times that
can often feel like a maze. Their assets include relevant skills and training that lead them to the
intersecting key concepts such as their African youth identity, employability skills, and status
prior to joining CorpsAfrica/Senegal and their volunteering (Robson, 2010). Employability skills
are the skills required of employees to continue learning, be productive contributors, and
advance within an organization (ILO, 2013). These include learning to learn, communication,
teamwork, and problem solving (ILO, 2013). South-South volunteers are citizens of the Global
South who volunteer in disadvantaged communities in their own country or another country in
the Global South (UNV Programme, 2018).
Throughout the process, volunteers rely on their contributions (their own engagement) to
see themselves through difficult experiences by focusing on the positive forces within them and
that surround them.
Figure 1 details the conceptual framework of this study adapted from the PYD (2016)
Toolkit.
33
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Note. Adapted from Measuring Positive Youth Development Toolkit: A Guide for Implementers
of Youth Programs by L. Hinson, C. Kapungu, C. Jessee, M. Skinner, M. Bardini, & T. Evans-
Whipp, 2016. YouthPower Learning, Making Cents International.
This research used the lens of PYD to better understand influences on achieving
CorpsAfrica’s goal of 90% of alumni reporting that they received adequate employability skills
training and feel prepared for a job search following their service. This section examines PYD
influences of assets, agency, and enabling environment associated with reaching the established
goal.
Assets
• Training
• Formal Education
• Interpersonal Skills
Contribution
• Youth
Engagement
Enabling Environment
• Bonding
• Opportunities for prosocial
involvement
• Value and recognition
• Youth-friendly laws and
policies
Agency
• Positive
idenity
• Self-efficacy
• Positive
beliefs about
the future
34
Assets Influences
There are two types of assets related to meeting the organization’s performance goals:
training and interpersonal skills (social and communication skills; Hinson et al., 2016). Training
includes developing skills directly related to future employment and can be measured through
indicators such as the number of participants in specific training and the number who completed
the training (Hinson et al., 2016). Interpersonal skills include techniques to engage with other
people, include communication (both verbal and non-verbal) and the ability to negotiate and
navigate conflict (Hinson et al., 2016). These skills can be measured through pre and post-testing
at the end of training (Hinson et al., 2016).
This review explored training and interpersonal skills needed to achieve the performance
goal of 90% of Senegal alumni gaining employability skills and feeling prepared for a job search
following their service.
Skill Building: Training
To persist and succeed in their service and into the workforce, volunteers and alumni
need targeted training related to competencies relevant to their volunteer service and the
workforce. Training is obtaining the “knowledge, skills and attitudes that together lead to
improved performance in a specific environment” (Grossman & Salas, 2011, p. 104). Skill
building through training involves those skills related to transferable or “soft” skills (Fox &
Kaul, 2017). Since these skills are agnostic of industry or company, they are key areas to focus
on during volunteers’ service. This focus on skills building through training for youth is also
called supply-side interventions, and they focus on equipping youth with the tools for self-
employment and information about navigating the job search (Fox & Kaul, 2017). While training
is expensive and requires significant human and financial resources, it is important to ensure a
35
productive volunteer experience and positive outcomes for alumni as they prepare to enter the
workforce following their service (Stukas et al., 2006). Snyder and Omoto (2008) noted that
volunteers choose to engage in volunteering for several different reasons, including skills
development through ongoing training. Their research also found that volunteers are more likely
to be retained when their motivation for volunteering is achieved through their participation
(Snyder & Omoto, 2008). If volunteers expect skills building and training, they are more likely
to retain and persist in their service (Snyder & Omoto, 2008). Training needs vary depending on
the sector volunteers choose to pursue but may include training on life skills, entrepreneurship,
and cross-cultural communications.
Skill Building: Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills are also a key component of successful training for youth.
Interpersonal skills include the ability to collaborate and work with others productively. These
skills are increasingly focused on as a key to success in the workplace (Kanfer & Ackerman,
2005). Interpersonal skills build assets that youth can transfer to their volunteer experience and
into the workforce and include communication (both verbal and non-verbal), the ability to
resolve conflict and assert oneself, and negotiation (Hinson et al., 2016). With these skills,
volunteers will possess a component of what they need to achieve the goal of having the tools
and skills they need to persist in a job search.
Table 2 presents CorpsAfrica’s organizational mission and goal, in addition to assumed
asset influences and construct type. As Table 2 indicates, two asset features (skill building –
training and interpersonal skills) were assessed to determine volunteers’ training and
interpersonal skills growth in relation to the performance goal.
36
Table 2
Asset Influences
Asset feature Asset construct
type
CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni need to receive training during
their service that prepares them for employment
Training
Alumni need to build social and communication skills relevant
for future employability. (social and communication skills)
Interpersonal skills
Agency Influences
In addition to assets, agency is a key influence on performance. Agency is important to
achieve the goal and resolve any programmatic issues related to reinforcing volunteers’ ability to
persist in their training and service. To assess potential stakeholder gaps, this study focused on
two agency theories that could impact CorpsAfrica/Senegal’s ability to achieve its goals: self-
efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory, or their positive beliefs about the future.
Self-Efficacy Theory
To reach the performance goal of 90% of CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni gaining
employability skills and feeling prepared for a job search following their service, volunteers need
to believe they are equipped with the tools and skills they need to achieve the goal. Through
training and ongoing communication with volunteers about their experience, volunteers, and
ultimately alumni, will achieve the goal. Self-efficacy theory centers the stakeholder’s
experience, beliefs, and expectations about their ability to achieve their goals (Bandura, 2005;
Schunk & Pajares, 2005).
37
Expectancy-Value Theory
To feel a sense of agency related to their service, CorpsAfrica/Senegal volunteers, and
ultimately alumni, need to believe that the focus of their service and training is worthwhile and
will contribute to their individual motivations and objectives in addition to those of the overall
stakeholder goal (Schunk & Pajares, 2005). Self-efficacy and expectancy-value theory are
similar in their focus on beliefs related to motivations and outcomes (Schunk & Pajares, 2005).
Given the importance of the role of individual motivations to achieving the overarching
stakeholder goal, it is essential that CorpsAfrica/Senegal reinforce the role of the sum of the parts
for volunteers as they prepare for their transition to alumni and the potential role they can play in
impacting current and future volunteers and their contributions to CorpsAfrica’s overall mission
and achievement of the organizational goal.
Table 3
Agency Influences
Agency construct Agency influence
Self-Efficacy Alumni need to believe they are capable of effectively implementing
the principles of human-centered design.
Expectancy-Value Alumni need to see value for their efforts related to their CorpsAfrica
service with what they expect to achieve in their professional path.
38
Assumed Enabling Environment Influences
Enabling environment influences, in addition to assets and agency, determine whether
stakeholders can be successful in performing their roles in the organization and achieving their
goals. Enabling environmental influences can be categorized in two areas: healthy relationships
and bonding, and belonging and membership (Hinson et al., 2016).
Healthy Relationships and Bonding
Healthy relationships and bonding relate to how connected volunteers and alumni feel to
their peer group, staff, the community in which they serve, and fellow alumni, among others
(Hinson et al., 2016). To foster healthy relationships and bonding, there need to be opportunities
to foster positive interactions and connection (Hinson et al., 2016). When healthy relationships
and bonding are reinforced, alumni are more likely to persist in their service and receive
adequate training to achieve the organizational goal of alumni feeling prepared to pursue a job
search and leverage their community of support built throughout their service.
Belonging and Membership
Snyder and Omoto (2008) noted that a psychological sense of community is a key
element of volunteers having a productive and successful service experience. This means that
volunteers feel part of the communities where they serve, and the recipients of their volunteer
efforts feel that same sense of community and safety. Belonging and membership is the feeling
that one has adequate support and is cared for by their community, including by peers and
CorpsAfrica/Senegal staff (Hinson et al., 2016). Developing a sense of belonging in volunteers is
essential for fostering strong bonds among volunteers that persist following their service (Nesbit
et al., 2016). Table 4 details the enabling environment influences and their connection to the
CorpsAfrica mission and organizational goals.
39
Table 4
Enabling Environment Influences
Enabling environment influence
category
Enabling environment influences
Healthy relationships and bonding
(bonding)
CorpsAfrica facilitates bonding with members of peer
group by conclusion of training/programming and
among alumni
Belonging and membership (support) Continued alumni support following training and
volunteer service
Summary
Research indicates that volunteering can play a role in building employability skills for
youth as a transition from education to employment. While there are constraints to expanding
youth volunteer programming from pilot to practice, there is promising evidence that supply-side
interventions, coupled with private sector engagement, can yield promising results for youth.
Scholars researching the role of volunteering to develop employability skills note that for
volunteers to succeed, they must possess agency, assets, and an enabling environment as outlined
in the PYD framework (Hinson et al., 2016).
The literature makes clear that focusing on skill building alone will not create jobs for
Senegalese youth, and there is a clear need for alignment with the private sector. Focusing on
building a rigorous training curriculum that integrates private sector needs and accounts for the
assets, agency, and enabling environment necessary for volunteers to thrive may contribute to
achieving the organizational goal of alumni feeling equipped with the skills they need to lead a
job search. Chapter Three outlines the methodology for assessing the agency, assets, and
40
enabling environment in the context of CorpsAfrica/Senegal’s performance goals, utilizing
PYD’s (2016) framework.
41
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter details the research design and methods used to identify, collect, and analyze
information relevant to CorpsAfrica realizing the performance goal of 90% of volunteer alumni
gaining employability skills training and feeling prepared for a job search following their service.
Specifically, CorpsAfrica seeks to prepare alumni for their job search with employability skills
relevant to the Senegalese labor market. Detailed below is information related to the research
sample, data collection procedures, and instrumentation used in this mixed-methods study. The
chapter then provides information related to trustworthiness, credibility, ethics, limitations, and
delimitations relevant to the study. The research questions guiding this study are as follows:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skills development when
they entered their volunteer service, and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Overview of Methodology
This study consisted of mixed-methods research, recognizing the multiple realities that
CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni experienced and the essential status of context with regards to their
lived experiences. The alumni’s social and cultural contexts were integral to the study’s design
and the interviews with participants (Myers & Avison, 2002). This research design aligned with
the purpose of the study because the purpose was to describe, find meaning, and understand the
process as related to South-South volunteering in Senegal. The strategy of inquiry was a counter-
narrative, which aligns with PYD since it recognizes the value of participants’ stories as the true
narrative and does not only focus on the negativity surrounding them (ILO, 2020a; Tuck &
42
Yang, 2018). Governments and programming related to building employability skills through
service have historically not given youth the opportunity to share their experience and voice but
have focused on a top-down approach to developing programming. This approach underscores
the importance of focusing on youth’s lived experience to validate and elevate their perspective
(Fox et al., 2016). Table 5 outlines the research questions and the various methods that align with
the questions.
Table 5
Data Sources
Research questions Method 1 (survey) Method 2 (interview)
What assets did CorpsAfrica alumni
bring to their service that enable them
to secure meaningful employment
following their service?
X X
What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s
expectations for employability skill
development when they entered their
volunteer service, and how were these
met?
X X
How does CorpsAfrica foster a network
of alumni to secure employment?
X X
43
Data Sources
Two data sources informed this study. They were a survey and interviews. The survey
was administered first to all 66 CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni. The CorpsAfrica Deputy Director,
Mareme Ndour, emailed all alumni a copy of the survey on my behalf given her existing
relationship with Volunteers and alumni. Following the distribution of the survey, alumni
indicated their willingness to participate in an interview. Eleven alumni self-selected to
participate in interviews.
Survey
The first method of data collection was a survey administered to all 66
CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni.
Participants
The survey participants had previously served as CorpsAfrica volunteers in Senegal.
They are the youth who chose to volunteer in rural, high-poverty communities leveraging HCD
to determine and implement projects (CorpsAfrica, 2020). Alumni are high-achieving youth
whose contributions and service define the purpose of CorpsAfrica. They are important to the
achievement of the performance goal because their volunteer service and skills development
throughout the program define the performance goal itself. This was a non-
probabilistic/purposive sampling strategy wherein alumni were chosen for their relevance,
including all 66 Senegalese CorpsAfrica alumni who served in Senegal. I recruited survey
participants in partnership with CorpsAfrica headquarters and Senegal office. CorpsAfrica
Volunteers serve in cohorts or groups of which there are four. As such, the survey participants
were 1-year alumni, 2-year alumni, 3-year alumni, and 4-year alumni.
44
Survey Protocol
The bilingual English/French survey was administered via Google Forms in December
2020 to all recorded CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni. The survey consisted of 15 questions,
including open and closed options and nominal, ordinal, and interval questions aligned to the
PYD framework, which was the guiding framework for the dissertation (see Appendix A).
Survey Procedures
The survey was administered over a 3-month period. A pre-survey email was sent to alert
participants that the survey would be administered in the coming week. One week after sending
the survey, a reminder was sent to remind participants to complete the survey.
Interviews
The second source of data was interviews.
Participants
The interview participants had previously served as CorpsAfrica volunteers in Senegal.
This was a purposive sampling strategy wherein alumni were chosen for their relevance,
including from among all 66 CorpsAfrica alumni who served in Senegal. All 66 alumni received
a link to a survey to complete and were requested to self-select for an interview to discuss
additional aspects of their experience. The interview participants had completed their volunteer
service prior to being interviewed.
On March 2, 2021, I emailed the CorpsAfrica field office to request they email alumni
about their interest in being interview and completing an additional survey expressing their
interest. On March 3, 2021, the Senegalese government limited internet access in the country to
quell protests following rape allegations about a presidential candidate (Reuters, 2021). The staff
in Senegal emailed alumni on March 9, 2021, with a link to a request for participation in
45
interviews and to complete an informal survey if they were interested in participating in an
interview. The lack of internet access and the general state of unrest may have reduced the
number of responses to the request to confirm interest in being interviewed.
This request was sent to the entire group of CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni (n = 66) across
all four cohorts. Eleven alumni completed the survey and indicated their willingness to
participate in an interview, representing 18% of the total CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni population.
Ten of the 11 alumni responded to my follow-up outreach after they expressed interest in
participating in an interview to schedule a time to meet. An additional three of those 10 could not
participate due to scheduling conflicts, internet bandwidth, and time constraints. In total, seven
interviews were conducted. All interviews were conducted in French via Zoom between March
17, 2021, and April 17, 2021. Since over 95% of the population in Senegal is Muslim, I
attempted to complete all interviews before the beginning of Ramadan on April 12, 2021 (U.S.
Department of State, 2019). The duration of the semi-structured interviews ranged from 26 to 54
minutes. All the interviews were transcribed in French, but not translated, through the online
professional transcription service TranscribeMe! I translated interview excerpts for use in the
study from French to English.
Interview Protocol
Interviews were conducted via Zoom using video when possible and audio only when
bandwidth did not allow for video, with seven CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni. They were three
women and four men across each of the four cohorts. I used a semi-structured approach to allow
for a more relaxed interview style that permitted more expression on behalf of the participants.
The interview included 11 primary questions and 11 probe questions related to Patton’s (2015)
question types, including opinions and values, feeling, knowledge, sensory, background, and
46
experience and behavior. The questions aligned to the research questions and the PYD
framework, which was the guiding framework for the dissertation (see Appendix B).
Interview Procedures
Interviews were conducted over a one-month period from March 17, 2021, to April 17,
2021, and each interview lasted between 26 and 54 minutes. Interviews were held over Zoom
with an audio recording to capture the transcript of the call. Recordings of the calls were taken
only after receiving explicit permission from participants to record. Participants remained
anonymous in data analysis and were assigned names such as “Participant 1,” and notes have
corresponding monikers. The interviews were conducted in French, with the interview transcripts
reviewed immediately following to review content. The interviews were conducted virtually
from a private location to ensure no distractions. Following the interviews, I reviewed my notes
and submitted the recording for transcription. Upon receipt of transcription, I coded the
interviews using a priori and inductive codes (Johnson & Christensen, 2019).
Validity and Reliability
As noted by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), “All research is concerned with producing valid
and reliable knowledge in an ethical manner” (p. 237). Throughout this study, various strategies
were adopted to ensure that both the process and product of the research are credible and
trustworthy. I employed triangulation of data to ensure its validity and credibility. This included
a survey and interviews. I conducted member checks following data collection and analysis to
share preliminary findings with the participants. This took place throughout the interviews with
the participants to confirm understanding and comprehension since interviews were conducted in
French, my second language. Finally, I employed reflexivity to critically reflect on my
47
assumptions and worldview prior to engaging with participants to approach the interviews with
self-awareness and humility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics and Role of Researcher
The assumptions that underlie this study include a focus on individual agency with the
unique experiences and skills that youth possess and the structural forces that impact their career
paths including family, and the reality of their environment. The assumptions embedded in the
ways I think about research include that volunteering develops employability skills and that
volunteers will want to reflect on how their volunteer experience developed and refined their
employability skills. As a former Peace Corps volunteer, I needed to recognize projecting my
lived experience as a volunteer in West Africa onto West African volunteers serving in their
region and avoid drawing false parallels to our experiences. As I prepared for my research, I was
aware of the following questions and reflected on them throughout: how can I be a researcher
who seeks to understand and not to solve perceived problems through a projection of my own
lived experience? How does their CorpsAfrica service meet, exceed, or not meet expectations for
employability skills development? How will I develop connections with the volunteers for
genuine connections that recognize their expertise and value their lived experience?
I also have a standing relationship with the founder and executive director, Liz Fanning,
who is also a Returned Peace Corps Volunteer. My connection to her facilitated my research but
could also introduce bias into the final product due to our existing relationship.
I sought informed consent throughout the interview procedures, include explaining, in
French, the purpose of the study and how the data would be documented and disseminated. This
included note-taking during the interview and that I would transcribe the interviews for
anonymous use in my research and that the results would be consolidated in my dissertation and
48
shared with CorpsAfrica staff and funders, both current and potential. In addition, all participants
were made aware through a pre-interview outreach email and at the time of the interview that
participation was voluntary and that they could retract from the process at any time. I requested
permission to record our Zoom sessions and shared my protocol for protecting their contributions
by storing recorded footage. Regarding analysis and reporting, I maintained an anonymized note-
taking matrix and never included participant names when submitting footage for transcription or
during the coding process.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations included external forces related to the study that I was unable to control
(Creswell, 2014). Including multiple data sources such as a survey and interviews as a form of
triangulation helped to mitigate the impact of the limitations on the study’s outcomes, but it was
impossible to control for them all (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Some limitations
for this study were alumni access to the internet, sufficient bandwidth, and a device to complete
the survey or interview. Due to the cross-cultural nature of the study (I am American, and the
survey/interview participants are Senegalese), there were factors beyond their control, including
the dimension of power distance (Hofstede, 2001). This is a limitation because of the difference
in the way people respond to hierarchy (higher power distance) and an egalitarian approach
(lower power distance). According to Hofstede Insights’ (2020) country comparison, Senegal
scores 70, and the United States scores 40 on the power distance scale. The bias could come
from participants and their perception of me and from me as a researcher and my perceptions of
Senegalese youth and volunteering as a path to employment. There are also biases that may pose
a problem to the accuracy of survey and interview data collected, including recall and social
49
desirability bias wherein respondents misremember or skew their responses to provide answers
they believe fulfill what the researcher is seeking (Fisher, 1993; Hassan, 2005; Paulhus, 1991).
Delimitations include factors that the researcher can control through a thoughtfully
designed research study (Creswell, 2014). The study was designed to be comprehensive and
realistic given the time constraints for both participants and me. One factor is religion, and given
that Senegal is a majority Muslim country, all interviews and requests for follow-up were
attempted to be completed by mid-April 2021 to avoid conflicts with religious obligations
associated with Ramadan, which was between April 12, 2021, and May 11, 2021. During the
holy month of Ramadan, participants could be less likely to respond to requests for clarification
due to family/religious service obligations. Another limitation was that due to time constraints,
the study was limited to only one stakeholder group, CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni, and they self-
selected to participate in both the survey and follow-up interview. Those who self-selected could
have had a more positive experience as volunteers, which would skew the results. It was
important to review the research for internal validity to ensure the alumni narratives align with
reality and what that means, and credibility could come into question given the purposive
sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
50
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the development of employability skills and job
search preparedness among CorpsAfrica volunteers because of their service. The PYD (2016)
framework was applied to generate assumed influences on volunteers’ ability to obtain
employability skills and to prepare for a job search, as discussed in Chapter Two. These included
assumed asset, agency, and enabling environmental influences on CorpsAfrica’s goal that by
June 2022, 90% of alumni will report receiving adequate employability skills training and feel
prepared for a job search following their service (CorpsAfrica, 2019). The following three
questions guided the research of this study:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skill development when
they entered their volunteer service and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Participating Stakeholders
This study focused on the stakeholder group of CorpsAfrica Senegal volunteer alumni
who had completed their volunteer service from 2016 to 2021. There were 66 alumni from the
four cohorts of volunteers who had completed their service.
Survey Participants
The survey data for this study were collected from 43 (n = 43) responses to an online
survey distributed to all 66 (response rate of 65%) CorpsAfrica Senegal volunteer alumni. Data
collection for the survey occurred between December 14, 2020, and February 2021. The survey
was open for this period to ensure maximal response rate and time to complete the survey given
51
a variety of levels of internet access for respondents. Due to a need for the data for one of their
project reports, CorpsAfrica sent out a survey different from the one prepared for institutional
review board approval with related questions around employment outcomes and program
satisfaction. Given the similarities in questions, the data from the survey CorpsAfrica prepared
and distributed were used for analysis to avoid survey fatigue and a potential lower response rate
if a very similar survey was sent a short time after. Table 6 details the survey respondents and
their gender, disaggregated by cohort in total and by percentage.
Table 6
Survey Respondents Disaggregated by Gender by Cohort (n = 43)
Cohort
years of
service
Number of
males by
cohort who
participated in
survey
Number of females
by cohort who
participated in
survey
Male percentage Female
percentage
2016–2017 6 1 85.7% 14.3%
2017–2018 8 9 47.1% 52.9%
2018–2019 9 10 47.4% 52.6%
52
There are several considerations for the survey data. Since the original survey was sent in
December 2020 before the 2021 cohort’s graduation, there is a discrepancy in the population
who were eligible to complete the original survey sent by CorpsAfrica and those who were
eligible to participate in interviews with me in April 2021. As of May 2021, there were four
cohorts of CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni: 2016–2017, 2017–2018, 2018–2019, 2019–2020/21.
The 2019–2020 volunteers had their service extended until 2021 due to the COVID-19
pandemic. The first three cohorts of volunteers (2016–19) were included in the original survey
sent by the staff. Survey participants were able to select multiple options for their employment
status, which is why the total is greater than 43. Figure 2 shows the gender breakdown by cohort
in chart form to visualize the ratio of response rates by gender.
Figure 2
Survey Respondents, Disaggregated by Gender by Cohort (n=43)
1
9
10
6
8
9
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019
Number of Respondents
Year of Volunteer Service/Cohort
Female
Male
53
Figure 3 provides a visualization of employment status, including that 25 out of 43
respondents (48.1%) were currently employed. Alumni pursuing entrepreneurship were the next
largest group with eight respondents (15.4%).
Figure 3
What is Your Current Employment Status? (n= 43)
5
25
8
4
4
3
3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Actively job seeking
Employed
Entrepreneurship
Internship
Still re-adjusting
Studying
Actively seeking further education
Number of Respondents
Employment Status
54
Table 7 details the demographic information of the interview participants. For
confidentiality, participants were assigned numbers, and their ages are listed in a range.
Regarding employment status, three out of the seven participants were employed (43%), two out
of the seven were engaged in entrepreneurship (29%), one participant was an intern (14%) and
one participant was unemployed (14%).
Table 7
Demographic Information of Interview Participants
Participant (P) Gender Cohort Age range Employment
status
Interview
(minutes)
P1 Male 2019–2020 25–29 Intern 40
P2 Male 2017–2019 30–34 Employed 54
P3 Male 2016–2018 35–39 Employed 26
P4 Male 2020–2021 30–34 Entrepreneur 34
P5 Female 2020–2021 25–29 Unemployed 34
P6 Female 2020–2021 30–34 Entrepreneur 36
P7 Female 2019–2020 25–29 Employed 44
55
Results for Research Questions Around Assets, Agency, and Environmental Influences
The following sections present findings from analysis of the survey and interview data
for each of the three research questions, which are aligned with the three core areas of PYD
explored in this study: assets, agency, and environment. Under each research question, the
assumed influences on CorpsAfrica Alumni receiving adequate employability skills training and
feeling prepared for a job search following their service, as presented in Chapter Two, are
discussed. A synthesis of the findings is provided at the conclusion of each section and at the end
of Chapter Four. Chapter Five offers recommendations for the continuing needs identified during
the analysis.
Research Question 1: What Assets Do CorpsAfrica Alumni Bring to Their Service That
Enable Them to Secure Meaningful Employment Following Their Service?
The first research question of this study examined the assets that CorpsAfrica alumni
bring to their service that enable them to secure meaningful employment following their service.
According to PYD, there are three types of assets: training, formal education, and interpersonal
skills (Hinson et al., 2016). For this study, training and interpersonal skills were explored to
determine their connection to the research question. Table 8 provides an overview of the key
findings summarized from survey and interview results and how the results are connected to the
assumed influences on performance.
56
Table 8
Summary of Assumed Asset Influences Findings
Asset type Assumed asset influences Findings
Training
CorpsAfrica Senegal
alumni need to receive
training during their
service that prepares
alumni for employment.
1. Alumni reported thorough and ongoing
training in human-centered design (HCD)
during their service helped build their self-
efficacy and their ability to identify and
solve problems.
Interpersonal
skills
Alumni need to build
social and
communication skills
relevant for future
employability.
2. Alumni need additional digital skills
training for monitoring and evaluation and
project management.
3. Alumni developed a deeper sense of
empathy during their service, which
impacted communication with other
volunteers, CorpsAfrica staff, and their
community.
In the subsequent sections, findings for each of the assumed asset influences are
discussed based on the survey and interview data collected. The survey items listed were asked
using a 10-point Likert-type scale with values assigned from one (I don’t notice this mindset) to
10 (I have this mindset most of the time) for questions related to mindset and from one (least
confident) to 10 (most confident) for questions related to confidence. Interview data provide a
deeper understanding of the assets alumni bring to and receive from their service and their
continuing needs to further develop their assets for future employability.
CorpsAfrica Senegal Alumni Need to Receive Training During Service That Prepares
Them for Employment (Training)
Volunteers need relevant training to succeed as volunteers and in their careers (Fox &
Kaul, 2017; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Stukas et al., 2006). Despite having different motivations,
training and skills development is a common reason youth choose to volunteer (Snyder &
57
Omoto, 2008). The findings showcase the survey and interview results to better understand
participants’ experience with training throughout their service and how it impacted their
employment outcomes.
The finding under this theme (Finding 1) was that alumni report training in human-
centered design during their service reinforced their self-efficacy and their ability to identify and
solve problems CorpsAfrica adopted the HCD framework to guide volunteers’ training and
service and uses it to measure self-reported growth (CorpsAfrica, 2020). This model has seven
mindsets that guide its implementation: empathy, optimism, iteration, creative confidence,
making, embracing ambiguity, and learning from failure (IDEO.org, 2015). For alumni to feel
confident in implementing HCD into their professional lives, they need ongoing training in the
model through their service. Design thinking as a strategy to adapt to service was mentioned
throughout the interviews. P5 noted,
Once I arrived at my site, [my pre-service training] allowed me to experience empathy.
With CorpsAfrica’s tools, design thinking, and asset-based community development, it
really served me, and it was useful for my community. Because it is with the design-
thinking tool that we learned to identify problems, to live empathy, identification,
idealization, prototyping, and the test phase of the project that really allowed me in my
site to carry out four community projects.
P7 underscored the importance of design thinking and its role in building a sense of
community among volunteers and alumni as a shared experience among groups and a way to
approach problem solving, stating,
What defines the feeling of belonging, first of all, is the spirit of CorpsAfrica. I think that
is something we all have in common, the spirit of CorpsAfrica downright and the spirit of
58
volunteerism. Another thing that defines the alumni membership of CorpsAfrica, by the
way, is through our training. It is through our training during service, that is to say,
design thinking, and the things that we have all in common and that, currently, it is useful
to all of us.
Finally, P4 noted that HCD, in addition to leveraging their existing skillset, also helps volunteers
form a sense of belonging that serves them and their community in a lasting way when they
stated:
The fact of serving a community is already enormous. That is already a lot. This means
that all the skills you have, whether it’s the skills you had through school or the skills you
have in everyday life, you can put that to the benefit of a community. And to accompany
the community to develop, to become aware of their resources and to help the community
to know that they can solve their problems using their resources.
From reinforcing their existing skillset to helping volunteers draw out the assets of their
communities of service, HCD training prepared volunteers and alumni for meaningful volunteer
and professional interactions as they built upon their existing problem-solving and critical
thinking skills.
Alumni Need to Build Social and Communication Skills Relevant for Future Employability
(Interpersonal Skills)
CorpsAfrica Senegal alumni, like all employees, need strong interpersonal skills to
succeed in the workforce and overcome obstacles to employment in what is an already
challenging labor market (Kaburise, 2016; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2005). Skills-building for
interpersonal skills builds assets that youth can transfer to their volunteer experience and into the
workforce include verbal and non-verbal communication, the ability to resolve conflict and to
59
assert oneself, and negotiation (Hinson et al., 2016). With these skills, volunteers will possess a
component of what they need to have the tools and skills to persist in a job search. The following
sections present the findings from the survey and interviews on participants’ experience with
interpersonal skills development throughout their service and its role on their ability to later have
a successful job search and employment experience.
Finding 2: Alumni Need Additional Digital Skills Training for Monitoring and Evaluation
and Project Management
Volunteers bring many tangible assets to their service in terms of their ability to adapt to
their community and leverage HCD to spearhead meaningful, community-driven projects.
Interviewees referenced their need for ongoing support to produce robust reporting, which takes
place using digital platforms, software, and online tools. To submit reports and navigate
reporting tools, alumni need training in navigating these platforms that they may also use in the
workplace.
P5 discussed their ongoing interactions with CorpsAfrica following their service and how
they continued to rely on CorpsAfria staff for support in developing volunteer project reports
when they noted,
For the volunteers, we had good relations because this year, with the COVID situation, I
was the trainer of all the volunteers in Senegal [in a specific trade]. It allowed me to bring
my community much closer to CorpsAfrica and, also, it really helped me to work on
report writing and other things vis-à-vis the staff. So, the staff also accompanied me a lot
in the writing, especially in the written part in addition to other aspects.
Table 9 provides an overview of additional concepts probed regarding interpersonal skills
and their contribution to asset development for volunteers and alumni.
60
Table 9
Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Asset (Interpersonal Skills) Influences
Participant Statement Meaning
P5
I saw the offer of CorpsAfrica and I saw that it is
an opportunity, because it is a year of service, a
year in the rural world. So, it was a way of
better learning in a practical way what I
learned in theory in class, to relaunch myself in
the professional world.
Alumni valued the
opportunity to put theory
into practice and transfer
their academic experience to
practical field experience
valued in the workforce.
P1
Because if you compare to others, for example,
I’m taking my example, I didn’t have my
license. So, I was stopped in license 2, so I had
not had a university degree and yet I was
selected.
Alumni view their
CorpsAfrica experience as a
way to bolster their prior
academic achievements.
P3
In Senegal, generally, you are asked what degree
you have. With CorpsAfrica, I had the
opportunity to participate in trainings and even
after CorpsAfrica, through CorpsAfrica, to
participate in trainings and to have diplomas
and at the same now is the time to be able to
share this skill with other people because I
have the diploma.
Education and credentials
matter in Senegal and are a
strong signal of
accomplishment.
CorpsAfrica and the
ongoing training volunteers
and alumni receive are also
important value signals.
61
In sum, alumni gain digital skills during their service as they routinely hone their skills in
online project reporting and monitoring and evaluation through ongoing report submissions. At
the same time, they expressed additional and continual training needs in digital skills would be
useful for future employment. Alumni find value in their service as a companion to formal
education and a way to put theory into practice.
Finding 3: Alumni Developed a Deeper Sense of Empathy During Their Service, Which
Impacted Communication With Other Volunteers, CorpsAfrica Staff, and Their Community
Developing a stronger sense of empathy through service allowed alumni to form deeper
connections with future volunteers because they understood their experience in addition to the
empathy developed toward the communities in which they served. This sense of empathy
reinforced bonds among stakeholder groups and an ongoing sense of community and connection.
There is an important connection among empathy, volunteering, and employment (Celio et al.,
2011; Rothwell & Charleston, 2013). Building empathy helped prepare alumni for successful
employment opportunities following their service and reinforced their existing soft skills.
In the survey, 34 out of the 43 respondents ranked their ability to have an empathetic
mindset at a 9 or a 10, representing 79% of the group (Figure 4). This result means most survey
respondents stated they possessed an empathetic mindset most of the time. Empathy is an
important mindset to possess as alumni enter the workforce.
62
Figure 4
What Is Your Mindset Related to Empathy?
Interviewees emphasized how they perceived that they deepened their sense of empathy
during their volunteer service. From navigating a new way of living in their communities to
learning new languages, a strong sense of empathy allowed volunteers to persist in challenging
situations, a skill that alumni will need as they pursue opportunities following their service.
For example, P7 noted,
It was empathy because already the conditions for volunteering are such that when you
don’t like what you’re doing, you can’t do it. Also, if you can’t stand in the shoes of the
community, you will never be able to [do the work]. The first thing was empathy towards
all the communities, but also community development in the truest sense of the word.
P7 also expressed that empathy played a role in their local language acquisition when they stated,
0 0 0 0
1
0
3
5
15
19
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Numbder of Respondents
Mindset Rating (1=I don't have this mindset, 10=I have this mindset most of the time)
63
It was not enough to come and be accepted by the community, but [I also needed] to be
able to communicate with them because they did not speak French or English. They only
spoke [their local language], and I was from another ethnic group. It is empathy that
allowed me not only to approach people, to approach the community but also, above all,
to have this patience when it comes to communicating with them.
A strong empathetic mindset allowed volunteers and alumni to build bridges between one
another, their communities, and ultimately their professional workplace. It can also foster
solidarity among stakeholders which transcends empathy and builds on compassion and
recognizing the needs of others and developing a genuine sense of concern (Mati, 2017). From
deepening their understanding of the communities they served to building their skillset and
language acquisition, alumni expressed how their service helped foster their empathetic mindset.
Summary of Findings to Research Question 1
In sum, the prior training and interpersonal skills that alumni brought to their service in
addition to their growth in applying design thinking were key factors in their ability to
implement projects successfully and pursue meaningful employment opportunities following
their service. When alumni looked back on their experience, they consistently referenced their
growth in applying the concepts from HCD, their desire to amplify their digital skills for
reporting and project evaluation, and the importance of empathy to lead a successful service. All
these core areas are important to understand the assets that volunteers already bring to their
service, those which are further developed, and those that need further development and how
they apply to a successful job search and employment afterwards.
64
Research Question 2: What Were CorpsAfrica Alumni ’s Expectations for Employability
Skill Development When They Entered Their Volunteer Service and How Were These
Met?
The second research question that guided this study examined the agency that
CorpsAfrica alumni possessed related to employability skills development upon entering and
following their service. According to PYD, there are five types of agency: positive identity, self-
efficacy, ability to plan ahead/goal setting, perseverance (diligence), and positive beliefs about
the future (Hinson et al., 2016). For this study, self-efficacy and positive beliefs about the future
(expectancy-value) were explored to determine their connection to the research question. Table
10 provides an overview of the key findings summarized from the survey and interview results
and how the results are connected to the influences.
Table 10
Summary of Assumed Agency Influences Findings
Assumed agency influences Findings
Self-efficacy
Alumni need to believe they are
capable of effectively
implementing the principles of
human-centered design.
1. Alumni value experiential learning
to build their ability to execute
HCD principles
2. Alumni became comfortable with
ambiguity and getting outside of
their comfort zone during their
service
Expectancy-
value
Alumni need to see value for their
efforts related to their
CorpsAfrica service with what
they expect to achieve in their
professional path.
3. Alumni saw value in the feedback
from their community and fellow
volunteers to build their positive
identity and sense of self-worth
4. Alumni need opportunities for
ongoing mentorship and
sponsorship from industry
practitioners, volunteers, and
alumni to navigate their service
and meaningful career paths
65
Alumni Need to Believe They Are Capable of Effectively Implementing the Principles of
Human-Centered Design
CorpsAfrica uses HCD aligned with its asset-based community development approach.
HCD is a problem-solving approach “[to] create innovative new solutions rooted in people’s
actual needs” (IDEO.org, 2015, p. 9). For volunteers and alumni to leverage the HCD approach
themselves and reinforce their existing agency, they need to be trained in the design thinking
strategies and have opportunities to apply the theory. Human-centered design builds upon self-
efficacy theory, which centers the stakeholder experience and their beliefs and expectations
about their ability to achieve their goals (Bandura, 2005; Schunk & Pajares, 2005).
Finding 1: Alumni Value Experiential Learning to Build Their Ability to Execute HCD
Principles
Alumni expressed confidence in implementing the principles of HCD and seeking out
opportunities to leverage their past experiences and CorpsAfrica training to implement
community-led projects and continue to build their skillset. SP43 stressed the importance of
putting their skills into practice and the role of experiential learning on their career when they
noted that “CorpsAfrica allowed me to orient myself in relation to my skills and my career path.
Being a volunteer helped me a lot and allowed me to be a competitive candidate for the job
market in my home country.”
P7 reflected on the way that experiential learning encouraged them to reframe their
approach to communication and community development in stating,
It’s not easy for a [person] who already has a university education to come and work with
communities that were not even literate. It was a bit complicated, but I think it was the
design-thinking training that allowed me, not only beyond theory, to put these skills into
66
practice through focus groups, to through the development of joint projects, through the
prioritization of everything we did at the village level.
Having the opportunity to put HCD into practice throughout their service reinforced
volunteers’ skill development, as noted by P5:
In terms of skills, I can say that with CorpsAfrica, I gained the skills of identifying
problems and proposing solutions with their tool, the design thinking. There is also the
drafting of projects, project management, monitoring, evaluation of projects that we can
do, that I can develop anywhere now. And it’s all thanks to CorpsAfrica because when I
came, I didn’t have those skills.
In sum, the interviewees suggested that their service gave them confidence in their ability
to effectively implement HCD, a valuable skillset for their future employability.
Finding 2: Alumni Became Comfortable With Ambiguity and Getting Outside of Their
Comfort Zone During Their Service
Embracing ambiguity and getting outside of comfort zones are central components to
nearly all CorpsAfrica service opportunities. SP41 shared, “My service allowed me to give up a
lot of things including luxury, comfort, and well-being to achieve my goals.” P6 shared their
reflection on how their service gave them an opportunity to get outside of their comfort zone to
learn new skills and build meaningful connections among volunteers and their community when
they noted,
So, this feeling of belonging, I tell you that is what we have been given. [CorpsAfrica]
encouraged us to go towards the community, to get out of our comfort zone, to go and see
what there is elsewhere. So now we really feel heard. We say to ourselves that maybe
67
[our service] really allowed us to go further than we hoped, or to go and see something
that we did not think we would, or that we didn’t believe we were able to do.
Further, 29 out of the 43 survey respondents (67%) rated their perception of their mindset
related to embracing ambiguity as an 8 or higher on the Likert scale, as seen in Figure 5. This
relates to agency in that alumni need to embrace the ambiguity that can often accompany a job
search or the workforce. Therefore, when alumni indicate a perception of a higher level of
comfort with ambiguity, they may be better prepared to persist during uncertain periods, such as
those related to their job search or future employment. Table 11 details how alumni embraced
ambiguity and getting outside their comfort zone and its impact on their ability to navigate their
service and career journey after CorpsAfrica service.
Figure 5
What Is Your Mindset Related to Embracing Ambiguity?
1
2
0
2
3
2
10
13
6
10
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No
Answer
Number of Respondents
Mindset Rating (1= I don't have this mindset, 10= I have this mindset most of the time)
68
Table 11
Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Agency Self-Efficacy Influences
Participant Statement Meaning
P2 I was flexible, I knew how to adapt to several
areas, because since I was in college, I used to
participate in social activities and everything.
So, we had to travel a bit in Senegal. And also, I
master all that is networking and
communication, because, when I was at the
university, I was part and member of many
clubs.
Alumni who participated in
community-focused and
volunteer activities prior to
their service had a sense of
confidence in their ability
to adapt and persist in their
CorpsAfrica service.
P7 It’s not easy for a young girl who already has a
university education to come and work with
communities that were not even literate, in fact.
It was a bit complicated, but hey, I think it was
the design thinking training that allowed me, not
only beyond theory, to put these skills into
practice through focus groups, to through the
development of joint projects, through the
prioritization of everything we did at the village
level.
HCD helps volunteers and
alumni develop a flexible,
growth mindset and to
reframe their experience in
the context of the people
they are serving or with
whom they are working in
addition to boosting their
confidence to put theory
into practice.
P1 When I discovered the CorpsAfrica program, I
saw that the program first requires the volunteer
to get out of their comfort zone. So being a bit
of a sedentary person who has never been to
other regions, I said to myself that maybe it was
the opportunity not only to be able to already
leave where I am, to discover other horizons, to
discover ‘other things, but also learning above
all, because I knew there was something
missing, especially in the personal area.
Alumni saw CorpsAfrica as
an opportunity to explore
their own country, build
their confidence as they
expand their personal and
professional horizons, and
learn new skills.
P4
…their language, their culture. All this was
different to me. So, I had to call on my ability to
adapt myself. Since I had to be there for a year,
I had to adapt to this environment. Especially in
a village where there is no water, there is no
electricity, where the road is not certain nor the
network… [T]here are certain skills that you
need…to be able to adapt to that situation.
Alumni found value in
discovering new ways of
living and learning in their
own country and testing the
limits of their adaptability.
69
Alumni were also surveyed about their level of comfort in successfully implementing
projects in their current situation (Figure 6). Out of the 43 respondents, 33 (77%) rated their level
of confidence at an 8 or higher. This represents most alumni have a perception of a sense of
confidence in implementing successful projects during their service and could indicate the level
of success CorpsAfrica has had in fostering this sense of agency among volunteers and alumni.
Figure 6
How Confident Are You in Implementing Projects in Your Current Situation Successfully?
0 0
1 1 1
2
5
11 11 11
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Respondents
Level of Confidence (1= Least Confident, 10=Most Confident)
70
In sum, the flexible mindset that alumni brought to their service and developed during
their service were key factors in their ability to implement projects successfully. Building their
ability to execute HCD principles and dealing with ambiguity and situations outside of their
comfort zone further enhanced their beliefs in their capabilities. Volunteers bring a sense of
agency to their service, including a mindset that is open to exploring the possibilities of HCD for
those who have not yet implemented the strategy and is also a significant component gained
throughout their service through ongoing training in HCD and applying it to their work. This
confidence in themselves, in part, translates into their ability to navigate a successful job search
and employment following their service. Human-centered design, experiential learning, and the
opportunity to get outside of their comfort zones contributed to their sense of self-efficacy.
Alumni Need to See Value for Their Efforts Related to Their CorpsAfrica Service With
What They Expect to Achieve in Their Professional Path
Alumni need to believe that their service and training are valuable to themselves and their
communities for them to persist (Schunk & Pajares, 2005). While alumni expressed a number of
ways they saw value from their service, a continuing theme was the value to their work and to
the continued skills improvement from feedback and ongoing mentorship opportunities.
Finding 3: Alumni Need Feedback From Their Community and Fellow Volunteers to Build
Their Positive Identity and Sense of Self-Worth
Ongoing feedback helps alumni iterate on their work and reinforce the skills they brought
to their service in addition to those gained throughout their service. Some alumni developed a
stronger sense of the value of their efforts with respect to what they expected to achieve in their
professional path, as detailed by SP18 when they noted, “I already had the skills needed for the
role because I acquired them during my service. For example, participatory community
71
diagnostics, data collection, and analysis.” Throughout their ongoing reflection, report
submissions, and conversations with their community and CorpsAfrica staff, alumni receive
feedback on their progress and ability to do the work detailed by SP18. Feedback also helped
alumni see the value of their contributions to their community and how their service contributed
to what they expect to achieve in their professional path. P6 stated,
I would rather say success is what you leave behind, what the community sees in you as a
volunteer, but as a human being, but also as someone who has come to accompany them
in what they have. So, this is the feedback that the community has towards you, for
example, the vision they have of you before you came, maybe when you came and when
you end your service, that ‘ is that vision of community, the attachment of community.
The fact that the community understands that you have been useful in something.
Feedback can also come from self-reflection and iteration. One of the core concepts of
design thinking is one’s ability to iterate, reflected in the survey question about mindset relation
to the concept as seen in Figure 7. Thirty-six out of the 43 (84%) survey respondents rated their
mindset to iterate, iterate, iterate, a key concept emphasized throughout their service, at an 8 or
above on the 10-point scale, which indicates they are comfortable receiving feedback from
themselves, their peers, and/or their community and making necessary adjustments.
72
Figure 7
What Is Your Mindset Related to Iterate, Iterate, Iterate?
In sum, participants saw value in the opportunities for CorpsAfrica to provide timely and
relevant feedback to volunteers and alumni so they could improve upon and pivot in their service
and as they prepared for their job search and future employment following their service. For
alumni to see the value of their efforts related to their service with what they expected to achieve
in their professional path, they need ongoing opportunities to see how their work is, or is not,
meeting expectations, either theirs or those set by their community or CorpsAfrica.
0 0 0 0
1 1
4
6
11
19
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No
Answer
Number of Respondents
Mindset Rating (1= I don't have this mindset, 10= I have this mindset most of the time)
73
Finding 4: Alumni Need Opportunities for Ongoing Mentorship and Sponsorship From
Industry Practitioners, Volunteers, and Alumni to Navigate Their Service and Meaningful
Career Paths
Alumni continue to seek to give back to their communities following their service but
feel challenged in doing so. In the survey, alumni were asked, “What has been your biggest
challenge since completing your service?” Eleven out of the 43 respondents (26%) indicated that
finding ways to continue to give back to their community through volunteering or continuing
projects was their greatest challenge, as detailed in Figure 8. Eight out of the 43 respondents
(19%) indicated that their job search was their greatest challenge following their service, and 11
(26%) indicated that either ongoing skills training or furthering their education was most
difficult.
Figure 8
What Has Been Your Biggest Challenge Since Completing Your Service?
3
3
5
6
7
8
11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Entrepreneurship
Other
Education
Training
No Response
Job Search
Prosocial involvement/community
Number of Respondents
Biggest Challenge Post-Service
74
Interviewees discussed how their service directly impacts their ability to secure
employment following their service. SP10 noted, “[My CorpsAfrica] service was a determining
factor in being recruited for my job. And this last [job] directly led to my recruitment.” During
their service, volunteers call on alumni or other volunteers for support and guidance, but many
do so after meeting in person at a CorpsAfrica-sponsored event. P4 shared,
Well, for example, when I was assigned to the village there, I did not know anything
about the village, so I contacted the alumni who was there to ask him for advice, to ask
him for directions or else he give me his advice before I go. I contacted him. Also arrived
there, I contacted him again to find out what to do, what not to do, what are we doing in
the village, what shouldn’t be done in the village, et cetera. Here. I had to contact alumni
on this.
CorpsAfrica staff are mentors and people alumni can turn to for support outside of their
service. For example, P1 noted,
First of all, with the CorpsAfrica staff, I consider [them] to be real mentors. Starting with
the country staff and with Liz (CorpsAfrica executive director and founder). Even, I can
say, because, at CorpsAfrica, we have this unique identity that everyone is welcome,
everyone. So, these great people are mentors, idols, too, really, because even though
these are things outside of my role [as a volunteer], sometimes I call staff members as
godmothers. I call them, and they give me general life advice. So, this is a good thing.
While alumni pointed to the importance of mentorship and sponsorship to navigate their
service and meaningful career paths, they noted that not all sites have alumni that a volunteer can
call on for support. Alumni expressed the need for additional opportunities for ongoing
mentorship and sponsorship from industry practitioners and that they were able to call on other
75
alumni to help them navigate situations during, and following, their service. Table 12 details
additional statements related to expectancy-value influences as related to agency.
Table 12
Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Agency Expectancy-Value Influences
Participant Statement Meaning
P7
One thing led to another, there you have
it, I accumulated experience. At one
point after the license, I said to myself
that I had to get involved somewhere in
an organization that works directly with
the community. And if I have this
opportunity from there, it will allow me
not only to learn, but also to bring a
positive impact on vulnerable groups.
Alumni value the opportunity to
learn from their peers,
CorpsAfrica, and the community
where they serve and believe
their input and mentoring will
impact the alumni’s ability to
bring about change. All of these
groups contribute to their ability
to persist and thrive.
P5
First, I feel a sense of transformation,
because at first, I spoke to respond, but I
didn’t speak to listen. My service really
allowed me to have patience above all
and a team spirit, but also above all else
self-confidence. My service really
awakened the leadership that was
sleeping in me. My service gave me the
opportunity to bring out the best in
myself.... It is true that I served the
community, but the community, too, has
taught me, taught me a lot of things.
Alumni have a positive self-
perception and recognize that
CorpsAfrica did not create
potential out of thin air, but
rather taps into their existing
capabilities. Alumni value the
role of their community and
fellow volunteers to provide
insights about themselves they
had not previously seen.
P3
When CorpsAfrica sends you to [your]
site, usually you see the opportunities,
they have a lot of skills, but those skills,
they sleep. You are responsible for
awakening these skills and you realize
that you had those skills within you that
were hidden and so you yourself wake
up. So yourself you begin to see for
yourself the opportunities that were
offered to you, but that you never dared
to go after. So suddenly that gives you a
lot more motivation, actually.
Alumni appreciate the opportunity
that CorpsAfrica provides to
reflect on their own skills growth
and development and it
contributes to their motivation to
persist. Alumni see the
importance of exposure to new
opportunities and pathways and
could value mentorship to help
uncover those possibilities
previously unknown by them.
76
Mentorship and sponsorship can manifest in informal and formal ways. Alumni
consistently mentioned their need to turn to fellow volunteers or alumni to chart their course or
navigate situations at their volunteer site, or following their service without using the formal
terminology of mentorship. Volunteers and alumni are eager for more formalized channels,
including mentoring and peer-to-peer networking, that would allow for these interactions to
circumvent serendipity and democratize access to information, guidance, and support.
Summary of Findings to Research Question 2
CorpsAfrica alumni find value in applying their existing skills and those gained during
their service through practical experiences and experiential learning. These opportunities to learn
while doing provide ample opportunity to build their mindsets related to embracing ambiguity
and getting outside of their comfort zones. Ongoing feedback from staff, fellow volunteers, and
their community helps alumni to reinforce their sense of self and persist in their service and
subsequent job search. Alumni seek additional mentorship and connection to industry to meet
their employment expectations following their service.
Research Question 3: How Does CorpsAfrica Foster a Network of Alumni to Secure
Employment?
The final research question that guided this study examined the environment that
CorpsAfrica alumni possess that enables them to secure meaningful employment following their
service. According to PYD, there are several environmental influences on youth that include
bonding, opportunities for prosocial involvement, support, prosocial norms, value and
recognition, youth-responsive services, gender-responsive services, youth-friendly laws and
policies, gender-responsive policies, physical safety, and psychological safety (Hinson et al.,
2016). For this study, bonding was examined, specifically around healthy relationships and
77
bonding, and bonding and belonging and membership to determine their connection to the
research question. Table 13 provides an overview of the key findings summarized from the
survey and interview results and how the results are connected to the influences.
Table 13
Summary of Assumed Environment Influences Findings
Assumed environment
influences
Findings
Healthy
relationships
and bonding
CorpsAfrica facilitates bonding
with members of peer group
by conclusion of
training/programming and
among alumni
1. Alumni believe the community
groups through the WhatsApp and
Google platform need more
attention and support to have
value
2. Alumni value the support of
CorpsAfrica staff who contribute
significantly to their sense of
community and belonging
3. Alumni need opportunities to
interact with companies and
NGOs to build relationships for
future employment opportunities
Belonging
and
membership
Continued alumni support
following training and
volunteer service
4. Alumni need opportunities for in-
person meetings and training to
reinforce bonds
5. Alumni value opportunities for
prosocial involvement to reinforce
their connection to CorpsAfrica
78
CorpsAfrica Facilitates Bonding With Members of Peer Group by Conclusion of
Training/Programming and Among Alumni
Alumni need to feel connected to fellow alumni to maintain a sense of connection to the
program and to feel confident they can turn to fellow alumni and staff for support in their job
search and life following their service (Hinson et al., 2016). Ongoing positive interactions allow
for this sense of connection to be built and alumni to feel comfortable leaning on one another for
support (Hinson et al., 2016).
Finding 1: Alumni Believe the Community Groups Through the WhatsApp and Google
Platform Need More Attention and Support to Have Value
The WhatsApp group for alumni is a prominent touchpoint for them. WhatsApp groups
offer important opportunities for networking and information distribution (Agyepong et al.,
2021). Out of the 43 survey respondents, only one is not a part of the WhatsApp group, as seen
in Figure 9.
Figure 9
Are You a Member of the WhatsApp Group of Alumni?
42
1
Yes No
79
To gauge their level of connection with current volunteers, survey participants were also
asked, “Are you in contact with volunteers actually in the field?” Twenty-eight out of 43 (65%)
responded “Yes” that they are in contact, and 15 (35%) responded “No” they are not. Of those
who are in contact with current volunteers, when asked with whom, 21 indicated one or two
individual volunteers, one indicated some volunteers, and five indicated all volunteers. For those
who indicated they are not in contact with current volunteers, six indicated it is because they are
disconnected from their experience or are currently doing different types of work. One
respondent shared, “I am disconnected from CorpsAfrica activities, and my current work is
totally different from what CorpsAfrica is doing. In addition, I have other activities I’m doing
with my job.” Five responded that they have not had the opportunity or chance to connect with
them. One respondent shared that it is “because I haven’t been asked by any volunteer.”
Throughout the interviews, four out of the seven participants specifically referenced the
WhatsApp group as a way they connected with other volunteers and staff. P1 noted,
We have a group on WhatsApp, [for our] cohort, and there is also the [staff-led group].
Now, beyond these groups which brings together the staff and the volunteers, we also
have another group of alumni bringing together all the CorpsAfrica alumni from the first
to the last cohort. This is the group we created on Google.
In addition to connecting with fellow volunteers, alumni also use WhatsApp as a primary
communication tool with their communities. P7 shared, “Now, communication tools have made
things easier for us through WhatsApp. I often chat with my community through WhatsApp. I
call quite frequently. I call the village chief every month.” P3 further noted that they use
WhatsApp to share opportunities, which reinforces their cohesive volunteer network, stating, “In
some of the farms that I set up, I call on [alumni] who have agricultural skills to support me. And
80
when I see job opportunities, I send them to the platform [WhatsApp], because we have an
alumni platform.”
However, some volunteers suggested that leveraging the group for more rigorous job
search support and opportunity sharing has not been fully realized. For example, P2 indicated,
Well, for CorpsAfrica alumni, we have a WhatsApp group. Sometimes we share
opportunities. If there are, for example, Workshop Fellowship Programs, we share them.
Most of us are friends now, so we’re together all the time. We are going outside. We
hang out, and so on. But it’s true that it was not easy when I finished, because I went a
long time looking for work and all.
While some alumni suggested they feel connected and can maintain close relationships
with current volunteers and fellow alumni, others suggested that they lack opportunities to
engage with current volunteers or other alumni. Survey respondents and interview participants
cited various reasons around their bandwidth and the availability of communication tools related
to their ability to build or maintain connections among volunteers and alumni. Healthy
relationships and bonding and a sense of belonging and membership are important factors in the
experience of CorpsAfrica alumni to maintain their connection with the program and stay
engaged for potential employment opportunities.
Finding 2: Alumni Value the Support of CorpsAfrica Staff Who Contribute Significantly to
Their Sense of Community and Belonging
Capable staff leading the organization’s operations are essential for not only the daily
oversight of the organization, but they also play a key role in the overall volunteer and alumni
experience. While it is important for volunteers to have positive interactions with staff, Lorenzini
et al. (2020) noted that when youth are job seeking, interactions with peer groups can also create
81
stress and contribute to a sense of unworthiness if the job seeker senses feelings of judgement or
inadequacy in comparison. This underscores the role of CorpsAfrica staff to foster positive
interactions among volunteers and alumni with a spirit of encouragement.
One survey participant discussed how CorpsAfrica called on them to participate in an
internship opportunity, which fostered a sense of belonging for them. Each of the interviewes
mentioned staff multiple times in their interview when prompted to discuss key relationships
developed during their service. P3 noted how important their role was in their service:
Every time I am at CorpsAfrica, I am welcomed. I am always greeted like my first year.
It gives me a feeling of belonging and every time I meet a volunteer in the street, because
sometimes I wear the CorpsAfrica t-shirt, when they see me or when I see someone I see.
recognize in the platform, I say to him, “Are you a volunteer?” And he said to me, “Are
you another volunteer?” And we start discussing CorpsAfrica, CorpsAfrica issues and
voila. But also, in particular, the CorpsAfrica office. Every time I go there, I feel they
welcome me.
Staff foster genuine connections with volunteers and alumni in addition to their
administrative responsibilities. P4 stated, “The CorpsAfrica staff, we are already connected.
They are a resource even outside of our service, and their doors are not closed. We can go
whenever. We can discuss what we want, whether it is the director or the staff.”
In sum, having a strong sense of connection to the staff is an asset to fostering deeper
senses of belonging and membership for volunteers and alumni. The sense of belonging and
membership can lead to more engaged groups who provide opportunities to connect socially,
pursue employment, and advocate for the program. There is a stronger sense of community
82
among participants, both volunteer and alumni, when the staff has positive interactions with the
groups.
Finding 3: Alumni Need Opportunities to Interact With Companies and NGOs to Build
Relationships for Future Employment Opportunities
Alumni engage in their volunteer service to give back to their communities and to build
social capital and their networks. Volunteering can help build connections through interactions
with other volunteers, corporations, and government agencies. Alumni want more support in
their job search, which could be fostered by increased exposure to industry opportunities. Survey
Participant (SP) 43 noted that their most challenging experience following their service was
“find[ing] a job since CorpsAfrica did not help us much after service.” Others seek more support
in direct roles. P2 shared,
[It would be helpful if ]there were opportunities that CorpsAfrica could unlock for
alumni. If there were also scholarships, or like a job, even internship. [In other
CorpsAfrica countries,] I have seen people who finish there, they have, sometimes, more
chances to find a job because the office there, they put them in contact with these
networks. As soon as they finish, most of them have an internship for a start, and then
they are hired. Maybe [CorpsAfrica] could also organize, I don’t know, after work, like a
regular meeting per month, or even two months.
Where volunteers serve and their proximity to corporations also impacts their ability to
connect and network. P5 noted, “I did not have the same chance as the other volunteers to work
with other NGOs because I was in a somewhat remote area.” SP30, who had greater proximity,
noted, “I wouldn’t be where I am now without CorpsAfrica service. I have grown personally and
83
professionally. The experience helped me to secure [my] job.” Other volunteers expressed
pursuing their service because of a goal to work in the NGO sector, such as P6, who shared,
I had this desire, I really wanted to draw myself into the world of NGOs, but maybe the
opportunity was missing. So, when I got this opportunity, it made me want to keep
researching more, and it’s also always maybe to try my luck again whenever I see an
opportunity coming up, I will try to apply to see if I will still have my chance to continue
in the same field.
Table 14 documents statements from interview participants about their environment and
its connection to healthy relationships and bonding as related to their service and alumni
experience.
84
Table 14
Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Environment Healthy Relationships and Bonding
Influences
Participant Statement Meaning
P2
Sometimes, it’s late at night when I need something,
I just call them without worries, you know,
because like I said, when we were in the field, we
shared a lot, so when we come back, it’s where the
relationships are really strong. So, all the time we
talk, we talk, we talk, we talk. And that, that really
creates an atmosphere, a very brotherly
relationship between us.
Alumni value their
relationships with
fellow alumni as a
source of comfort and
support during and
following their
service.
P4
Well, for example when I was assigned to the village
there, I did not know anything about the village, so
I contacted the alumni who was there to ask him
for advice, to ask him for directions or else he give
me his advice before I go, or give me advice
before I go. I contacted him. Also [once I] arrived
there, I contacted him again to find out what to do,
what not to do, what are we doing in the village,
what shouldn’t be done in the village, et cetera.
During their service,
volunteers depend on
the insight of alumni
so they can proceed in
culturally appropriate
ways that will yield
the most productive
relationships with
their community of
service.
P2
When I see volunteers who have been selected for
other programs and it’s published on social media,
I can say that ‘wow, they did CorpsAfrica.’ It’s
like the alumni of our university.
Alumni are proud of
one another’s
accomplishments and
their connection.
P7
During the international day of volunteering, it is a
moment when all the volunteers, all the people
who have volunteered in their lives, they meet
French, Chinese, Japanese, Americans, the Peace
Corps. That’s when you tell yourself that we have
something different [in common] with them….
[I]nside, deep down, we say to ourselves that the
chance we have is to work directly with the
community and to live with these communities in
their living conditions. That, it is a feeling of pride
and when you are there and someone asks you
‘Where did you do your volunteer service?’, you
say it with a lot of pride: ‘I was in CorpsAfrica
Senegal.’
Alumni perceive their
experience with
CorpsAfrica to be
significant and
meaningful in the
context of their
community, country,
and the world.
85
CorpsAfrica has two goals aligned with employment outcomes: “promot[ing] the
professional and personal development of young Africans” and “connecting rural areas to the
vast resources and innovations of diverse NGO partners” (CorpsAfrica, 2020, para, 4). In
promoting their professional and personal development and building bridges between NGOs and
rural communities in the countries where they operate, including Senegal, CorpsAfrica can
continue to build bridges between the alumni and NGOs and private sector communities that
have aligned goals and interests to foster connection and opportunities for employment for
alumni following their service.
Continued Alumni Support Following Training and Volunteer Service
Possessing a psychological sense of community is essential for volunteers to lead
productive and successful service experiences and to feel cared for by their community,
including by peers and staff, and fosters bonds among volunteers that continues past their service
(Hinson et al., 2016; Nesbit et al., 2016; Snyder & Omoto, 2008). Volunteers and alumni come
into their service with the skills needed to foster this psychological sense of community;
CorpsAfrica seeks to build on this foundation to deepen that sense of connection. Whether
through in-person meetings or finding ways for alumni to give back to the CorpsAfrica
community, there are additional opportunities to explore to reinforce this sense of bonding and
membership.
Finding 4: Alumni Need Opportunities for In-Person Meetings and Training to Reinforce
Bonds
Connecting as a group with a shared purpose reinforces connections among groups of
people. Volunteering together and ongoing opportunities for connecting provide alumni the
chance to build social capital among one another and bridge and bond (Putnam, 2000). All
86
interview participants discussed the value of in-person meetings and their impact on their
service. For example, P7 noted,
Also, also in Senegal, if we could have these meetings quite frequently, with all the other
alumni of Senegal, that can help us, but also it can help our young brothers and our young
sisters who are going to live commit to volunteering each year. Because it allows us
allows us, on a monthly basis, to keep that legacy of CorpsAfrica. And the best way to
share it is through discussion and sharing sessions, and with direct contact, because
sometimes social networks, of course, is practical, but at the same time you get bored,
you tell yourself that you have other priorities to do and that it takes you time. But if it’s a
weekend, it’s to spend a whole weekend chatting and working. It can be interesting.
P7 again mentioned the value of connecting in person and said,
It would be good, to me, that CorpsAfrica alumni and, also, even the alumni from other
countries [meet in person] because this is what makes the charm of the CorpsAfrica
experience: that it is not only in Senegal. And what didn’t work in Senegal, I think, is
quite possible that it worked somewhere else and that other alumni experienced the same
thing. And I think that if we had this opportunity beyond our WhatsApp groups, to have
meetings, even if it’s once every 2 years or every 3 years with all the alumni of
CorpsAfrica, because this affects our personal and professional development; we must
dare to try it. If we had this opportunity, it would be great.
Meeting in person is not only connected to service opportunities. Alumni also looked
forward to the opportunity to connect for social events. COVID-19 impacted the frequency with
which volunteers and alumni could meet in person due to safety precautions. P4, for example,
stated,
87
I have real friends in CorpsAfrica. Friends even outside of work are real friends because
there are usually a lot of volunteers. They see me as their mentor, and we talk to each
other a lot when they have personal issues. Even to fit in, we talk to each other a lot. And
from time to time when they come to Dakar, we meet, we eat together, we exchange a lot.
It has become a family relationship. We become families, brothers, and sisters.
Table 15 documents additional statements from interview participants about the influence
of belonging and membership on their environment.
88
Table 15
Summary of Concepts Probed Regarding Environment Belonging and Membership Influences
Participant Statement Meaning
P2
For CorpsAfrica alumni, [the alumni group] is
not that solid at the moment. Because, when
you finish your service, the first thing you
think about is going back to school or
looking for a job. So, people don’t have time.
How shall I put it? For the Alumni
Association, because maybe they don’t see
their interest there. They see that, well, they
are wasting their time by being there, since
they didn’t see any opportunities coming
from them, so they prefer to look for work or
also go back to school to do their master’s
degree or to seek schooling. But, hey, we’re
still thinking about how we can re-energize,
meet regularly and all, but right after the
year, it’s not getting where we want.
Some alumni do not
currently see the value
of the alumni group
because it does not meet
their need for connection
and employment
opportunities,
professional
development, or
training.
P5
There is mutual esteem, there is the
information that passes because we are a
fourth cohort, and already we have to inform
ourselves about the opportunities of [job]
offers and the like. Because there is the
alumni manager, each time he sees calls for
proposals, opportunities for offers, he sends
them to us. And also, as alumni, we want to
carry out projects common to all alumni in
our cohort. So, it’s a network that brings us
closer and closer and really facilitates our
access to information and employability.
Other alumni find value in
the WhatsApp group and
alumni association
where employment and
fellowship opportunities
are shared and could see
more value from in-
person connection to
foster more
opportunities to share
openings.
P4
The alumni platform, these are the alumni.
They are the alumni of all four cohorts. We
have an office, we have a president, we have
everything and that’s where we share all our
information. But the office will still have to
do a lot because the office is lacking in
function. The operations, the financial
support is lacking…for the alumni club.
Alumni sense there is
organizational work that
needs to take place to
fulfill the full potential
of the alumni
association.
89
In-person meetings and opportunities to connect reinforce connections among alumni and
deepen their healthy relationships and bonding and sense of belonging and membership. Among
alumni, they value the opportunity to connect socially and reminisce about their service and
current life experiences. Between alumni and volunteers, alumni value being seen as mentors and
sources of information or resources. These opportunities to connect in person create ways for
alumni to build their social capital among themselves, volunteers, and their networks extending
outside of CorpsAfrica.
Finding 5: Alumni Value Opportunities for Prosocial Involvement to Reinforce Their
Connection to CorpsAfrica
Alumni are eager to continue to give back to their communities of service in addition to
supporting the cause of CorpsAfrica. Developing a strong connection to a particular group is
connected to the desire to boost self-esteem and develop identity at the individual and societal
levels (Tajfel, 1982; Turner, 1987). While some alumni may begin their volunteer service
focused on the individual and the contributions they make as a person, this attitude can transform
to be more focused on the group identity gained while volunteering (Simon et al., 2000).
Partnering with CorpsAfrica through their current employers is an additional way to channel
alumni support of the program and to foster prosocial involvement. In the survey, alumni who
are currently employed were asked, “Do you think CorpsAfrica/Senegal can partner with your
current organization?” Twenty-nine responded “Yes,” and nine responded “No.” Alumni are also
eager to support in a more grassroots fashion. P3 noted that they are eager to help when they can
and that “whenever CorpsAfrica does an activity, I personally go there, and when I can provide
logistical support, I provide logistical support.” The CorpsAfrica service itself is an opportunity
for prosocial involvement, as detailed by P5:
90
When I saw that CorpsAfrica also gave the possibility to young African Senegalese to
apply, I said to myself that it is an opportunity to serve my community, to be useful to my
country, and to say that at least one year, I served for the development of my country. I
was useful to my country for a year before settling in my own professional world.
However, alumni are also eager to find ways to maintain their connection to CorpsAfrica
through ongoing engagement and volunteering to support the organization. For example, P3
noted,
This “give back” means to be available to provide support to CorpsAfrica, and usually, it
is logistical support. When they organize activities, you go, you help in the activities. Or
when a volunteer organizes an activity, you go, you support that volunteer in his activity,
whether it is a current volunteer or an alumni. So give back, give back. Always, you owe
something.
During their service and afterwards, volunteers and alumni are eager to find ways to give
back to CorpsAfrica, whose mission they believe in and support. Alumni seek constructive ways
to channel their energy for developing their country and amplifying meaningful experiences for
other Senegalese youth to give back to their country while building their skillset. CorpsAfrica
can call on alumni support, based on their willingness to give back, and foster even more
involvement in volunteering as well as in making connections with alumni’s current employers
to potentially hire future alumni.
Summary of Findings to Research Question 3
Alumni find opportunities for connection to their enabling environment through
WhatsApp groups and connection to the staff. There is an expressed desire to reinforce bonds
with the broader ecosystem, including corporations and NGOs, to strengthen connections that
91
lead to employment. They are interested in more opportunities to connect in person to discuss
their service and build social capital among cohorts in addition to finding ways to continue to
give back to the CorpsAfrica community itself.
Summary of Results and Findings
CorpsAfrica alumni enter their service with valuable assets, agency, and enabling
environments that allow them to persist and succeed in their service. Serving as a volunteer
provides the opportunity to put theory into practice around reinforcing interpersonal skills,
fostering confidence, and building a supportive environment that creates self-reinforcing rings of
social capital among volunteers, alumni, and organizations hiring in Senegal so that alumni feel
even more prepared for a job search following their service. Table 17 details the results and
findings related to the assumed influences on alumni developing employability skills and job
search preparedness through their service. Table 16 provides a summary of findings based on the
assumed PYD influences that will be addressed through recommendations in Chapter Five.
Areas of continuing need will be addressed through relevant recommendations to address them.
These areas are reinforcing digital skills, developing more opportunities for mentorship and
sponsorship, strengthening alumni offerings, and creating more opportunities for alumni to
interact with organizations that are hiring in Senegal. Chapter Five will address these areas of
continuing need as relate to the research questions posed in this study.
92
Table 16
Summary of Asset, Agency, and Environment Influences Findings
Category Assumed influence Finding
Assets
Training CorpsAfrica Senegal
Alumni need to
receive training during
their service that
prepares them for
employment
1. Alumni report training in human-centered
design during their service reinforced their
self-efficacy and their ability to identify and
solve problems
Interpersonal
skills
Alumni need to build
social and
communication skills
relevant for future
employability.
2. Alumni need additional digital skills
training for monitoring and evaluation and
project management.
3. Alumni developed a deeper sense of
empathy during their service, which
impacted communication with other
volunteers, CorpsAfrica staff, and their
community
Agency
Self-efficacy Alumni need to believe
they are capable of
effectively
implementing the
principles of HCD
1. Alumni value experiential learning to build
their ability to execute HCD principles
2. Alumni became comfortable with ambiguity
and getting outside of their comfort zone
during their service
Expectancy-
value
Alumni need to see
value for their efforts
related to their
CorpsAfrica service
with what they expect
to achieve in their
professional path.
3. Alumni saw value in the feedback from
their community and fellow volunteers to
build their positive identity and sense of
self-worth
4. Alumni need opportunities for ongoing
mentorship and sponsorship from industry,
volunteers, and alumni to navigate their
service and meaningful career paths
93
Category Assumed influence Finding
Environment
Healthy
relationships
and bonding
CorpsAfrica facilitates
bonding with
members of peer
group by conclusion
of training and among
alumni
1. Alumni believe the community groups
through the WhatsApp and Google
platform need more attention and support
to have value
2. Alumni value the support of CorpsAfrica
staff who contributes significantly to their
sense of community and belonging
3. Alumni need opportunities to interact with
companies and NGOs to build
relationships for future employment
opportunities
Belonging and
membership
Continued alumni
support following
training and Volunteer
service
4. Alumni want opportunities for in-person
meetings and training to reinforce bonds
5. Alumni value opportunities for prosocial
involvement to reinforce their connection
to CorpsAfrica
94
Chapter Five: Recommendations
Expanding employability skills for youth in Senegal through formal volunteer programs
presents an opportunity to unlock the skills of the nearly 20 million youth who will make up over
60% of the country’s population by 2050 (PopulationPyramid, 2021b). Chapter Four provided
findings related to the research questions for this study. Three research questions guided the
study:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skill development when
they entered their volunteer service, and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Chapter Five presents recommendations based on the analysis of survey and interview
data. For each of the recommendations proposed, there is an accompanying implementation plan
provided.
CorpsAfrica has a robust sense of self-awareness with a propensity for ongoing learning
and improvement. These recommendations are shared to serve as a reference and resource for
staff to gauge where they could reinforce their existing efforts or bolster future interventions as
they seek to expand and improve existing programming for volunteers and alumni to improve
employability skills training and job search preparation.
Recommendations and Implementation Plan
There were 12 key findings in Chapter Four connected to each of the core PYD areas of
assets, agency, and enabling environment. Four of the key findings represent continuing needs
that CorpsAfrica can explore as growth opportunities to further their impact on Senegalese youth
95
and their path to employment. These findings were identified as continuing needs due to their
feasibility, relevance, and level of need. The recommendations are shared in order of the PYD
framework (assets, agency, environment) and do not necessarily indicate the urgency for
adoption. This chapter focuses on those areas of continuing need. Table 17 provides an overview
of the continuing needs identified from those key findings, including recommendations and their
relation to the results and findings of the research and assumed PYD influences.
Table 17
Overview of Recommendations
PYD Assumed
influences
Findings/Theme Recommendations CorpsAfrica goal
Assets CorpsAfrica
Senegal
Alumni need
to receive
training
during their
service that
prepares
alumni for
employment
Alumni need
additional
digital skills
training for
monitoring
and evaluation
and project
management.
Implement digital
skills training for
volunteers and
alumni
Promote the
professional and
personal
development of
young Africans.
Agency Alumni need to
see value for
their efforts
related to
their
CorpsAfrica
service with
what they
expect to
achieve in
their
professional
path.
Alumni need
opportunities
for ongoing
mentorship
and
sponsorship
from industry
practitioners,
volunteers,
and alumni to
navigate their
service and
meaningful
career paths
Reinforce alumni
association
model and
develop peer
mentorship
platform
Inspire a strong
Pan-African
community and
network of public
service.
96
PYD Assumed
influences
Findings/Theme Recommendations CorpsAfrica goal
Environment Continued
alumni
support
following
training and
Volunteer
service
Alumni need
opportunities
to interact
with
companies
and NGOs to
build
relationships
for future
employment
opportunities
Build career
services
offerings that
bridge gap
between current
Volunteers,
alumni, and
workforce
Connect rural areas
to the vast
resources and
innovations of
diverse NGO
partners.
Environment Continued
alumni
support
following
training and
volunteer
service
Alumni value
opportunities
for prosocial
involvement
to reinforce
their
connection to
CorpsAfrica
Hire a chief
community
officer (CCO) to
formalize
industry
partnerships and
build
connections
between alumni,
volunteers, and
the communities
they serve
Inspire a strong
Pan-African
community and
network of public
service.
Recommendation 1: Implement Digital Skills Training for Volunteers and Alumni
The Fourth Industrial Revolution may eliminate, without replacing, jobs since the
upskilling for the workforce will require more advanced technical skills even though all previous
industrial revolutions provided considerable advances for all (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017).
The success or failure to adapt to the future of work rests on more widespread adoption of
technology by the entire population (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018).
While digital skills remain important, there is also a need for building soft skills for youth
to succeed in new roles (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). Companies throughout Africa consistently
point to employees lacking both digital and soft skills as an obstacle to growth in their companies
97
(Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). The three reasons that Milukshev and Pagés (2018) cited for youth
in Africa facing persistent unemployment are that their graduation rates do not align with the
growth of the labor market, so jobs do not exist for them; they lack the skills for the work; and
they lack the social capital to learn about job openings. However, Baah-Boateng (2015) also
noted that the ILO’s definition of unemployment may be too narrow for some countries in Africa
and that the poor quality of employment also plays a role in the unemployment rates.
As Africa prepares for the Fourth Industrial Revolution, CorpsAfrica volunteers can
simultaneously learn technologies and disperse them to their communities of service including
telephone farming and AI/machine learning for plant breeding, which rely on mobile device
fluency rather than solely desktop-based computer use (Milukshev & Pagés, 2018). It is no
longer a preferred qualification on job descriptions to possess digital literacy; it is a requirement.
Digital skills training through volunteer programs improve the reporting, monitoring, and
evaluation of programs and activities while simultaneously building confidence in the volunteer
to perform those skills in their future employment. Training can include lessons on navigating
the internet, social media marketing, and data management.
Some examples of digital skills training programs that align with the value of formal
volunteer programs include Interns4Afrika, Shortlist Recruiting, Utiva’s partnership with
Nigeria’s National Youth Service Corps, and Google’s Digital Skills for Africa. These are
innovative examples of digital skills training that underscore the private sector’s role in
contributing to youth human capital development through community-minded programming.
CorpsAfrica volunteers and alumni need additional digital skills training for monitoring
and evaluation and project management. Formal digital skills training throughout volunteers’
service would allow them to build on their formal education and training to prepare them even
98
further for the world of work and employment opportunities following their service. Table 18
details an implementation plan for putting this recommendation into practice with specific
actions proposed in addition to a suggested timeline for planning and integration.
Table 18
Implementation Plan for Recommendation 1
RI: Implement digital skills training
Actions proposed Planning and integration
Conduct research on existing digital skills programs:
Interns4Afrika
Shortlist Recruiting
Utiva+Nigeria’s National Youth Service Corps
Google Digital Skills for Africa
Others
September-October 2021
Determine cost, Pan-African applicability, and opportunity to
implement in all CorpsAfrica countries
October-November 2021
Prepare report for presentation including consultation with
CorpsAfrica volunteers, alumni, and country-level staff
November-December 2021
Present draft report to the board of directors for discussion and
approval
January 2022
Prepare budget February 2022
99
Recommendation 2: Reinforce Alumni Association Model and Develop Peer Mentorship
Platform
Often considered a funding stream for universities in the United States, strong volunteer
alumni programming can also provide a foundation for career growth and progression in addition
to valuable social networks (VAESE, 2020). When volunteer alumni have a strong sense of
cohesion, built through alumni programming and support, they reinforce the value of the formal
volunteer program itself in addition to becoming a virtuous cycle of referrals for qualified
candidates for future cohorts of volunteers and ultimately references for future employment
opportunities. This programming exists through formal structures developed by volunteer
programs following service and through informal programming and peer networks. Alumni
programming can be a resource for attending and presenting at conferences, grant-awarding
opportunities, and job openings. In addition to these formal opportunities, alumni programming
can also be a force for social change, contribute to policymaking at the local and national level,
and contribute to skill development for participating members. Examples of alumni
programming are the Young African Leaders Initiative Regional Alumni Networks and the
International Fellows Program Alumni Association of Ghana (IFPAAG).
The IFPAAG, for example, was funded through the Ford Foundation International
Fellowships Program and, through its funding, created a community of practice (CoP) and
alumni association for returning scholars who completed an international education program in
the United States (Campbell & Lavallee, 2020). In analyzing their CoP in Ghana, Campbell and
Lavallee used Wenger’s (1998) framework for CoPs, which necessitates that a community have
three things: something in common, people who communicate and connect with one another, and
a ritual of working together to solve problems, continue to learn and gain skills (Campbell &
100
Lavallee, 2020). Campbell and Lavallee’s review of alumni programming in Ghana provides rich
insight into best practices for building a CoP around a common area of interest.
Building a mentorship platform is a natural extension of reinforcing alumni programming
because the purpose and population are the same: to build bonds among alumni and current
volunteers to support their ability to persist in their service and thrive in their job search
afterwards. Mentoring has a positive impact on employment outcomes (Chacón et al., 2008).
Examples of mentorship platforms that could be customized for use by CorpsAfrica by using
their branding to appear as a CorpsAfrica product are The FIVE Network, Chronus, Mentor
Africa Foundation, and Upstream. The FIVE Network, for example, provides synchronous and
asynchronous touchpoints for mentors and mentees to connect and micro-mentoring
opportunities through 15 minutes of mobile-first check-ins and adaptive learning that suggests
ongoing skills-building based on the user’s responses and interactions on the platform (The FIVE
Network, 2021).
Alumni need opportunities for ongoing mentorship and sponsorship from industry
practitioners, volunteers, and alumni to navigate their service and meaningful career paths. Three
interviewees mentioned, unprompted, how they learned about CorpsAfrica: by word of mouth or
social media. This is noteworthy in that CorpsAfrica seeks to recruit the best applicants and an
alumni association could help support recruitment through quality referrals. Table 19 outlines an
implementation plan for actualizing this recommendation with detailed actions in addition to a
suggested timeline for planning and integration.
101
Table 19
Implementation Plan for Recommendation 2
R2: Reinforce alumni association model & develop peer mentorship
platform
Actions proposed Planning
Assess current state of alumni programming in Senegal and determine
opportunities to integrate programming with application process (i.e.
how alumni influence Volunteer applications and source candidates)
September-
October 2021
Research alumni community platforms and draft a content calendar October-
November 2021
Design and develop ongoing alumni engagement activities that fulfill
mission and vision of CorpsAfrica
November-
December 2021
Present plan to country-level staff and board of directors for feedback
and approval
January 2022
Recommendation 3: Build Career Services Offerings That Bridge Gap Between Current
Volunteers, Alumni, and Workforce
Career services encompass several areas of support that volunteers and volunteer alumni
can receive to prepare them for professional success following their volunteer service. Career
coaching and support must adapt to the context for the job seekers, yet some aspects of the job
search remain consistent across cultures. Some foundational aspects include the need for trained
advisors to provide job application material preparation and review, coaching on appropriate
career pathways, guidance on appropriate networking techniques, and industry engagement and
company exploration. Since volunteering does impact human capital, it is important to provide
coaching through a career services provider on how to articulate and elevate the volunteering
experience as valuable career preparation (Day & Devlin, 1998).
Alumni need opportunities to interact with companies and NGOs to build relationships
for future employment opportunities, and robust career services offerings can help foster those
102
connections. Examples of large-scale career center programs and global career platforms are the
Iraq U.S. Embassy-funded Career Development Center program, the USAID-funded Morocco
Career Center and Egypt Career Center programs, Power to Fly, and Localized.
Since 2012, the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), for example, has
partnered with over 47 public universities throughout Iraq to install career development centers
(CDCs) through funding as part of the U.S.-Iraq Higher Education Partnerships Program,
sponsored by the U.S. Embassy, Baghdad (IREX, 2021). McManus and Muyangana (2021)
evaluated the CDCs’ role in improving students’ employability in addition to providing
recommendations to improve their offerings. The CDCs provide a number of interventions to
improve employment outcomes for students, including internships, job boards, job fairs, Design
Days, short courses (technical training), workshops and training, a guest speaker series, employer
visits, student advising, and career material reviews (McManus & Muyangana, 2021). Through
their analysis of these offerings and survey and focus group interviews with over 500 alumni,
McManus and Muyangana determined that the CDCs have a positive impact on employment
outcomes and alumni job satisfaction.
Table 20 provides a summary of steps to implement career services offerings for
volunteers and alumni to connect them with the workforce and employment opportunities.
103
Table 20
Implementation Plan for Recommendation 3
R3: Build career services offerings that bridge gap between current volunteers, alumni, and
workforce
Actions proposed Planning
Research existing career platforms and connect with partnership teams to
determine country-level relevance and applicability
September-
November 2021
Conduct labor market assessment and determine alignment with
CorpsAfrica programming and how training aligns with labor market
needs
November 2021-
February 2022
Prepare and distribute ‘first-destination’ survey for alumni to determine
employment outcomes
March 2022
Determine feasibility of hiring full-time career services personnel to
provide support to all CorpsAfrica countries
April 2022
Develop career curriculum relevant to CorpsAfrica framework and
Volunteer and alumni experience
May-July 2022
Recommendation IV: Hire a Chief Community Officer to Formalize Industry Partnerships
and Build Connections Between Alumni, Volunteers, and the Communities They Serve
CorpsAfrica manages ongoing obligations familiar to many non-profits: fundraising,
marketing, volunteer recruitment, training, program management, reporting, and back again.
Multiple interview participants mentioned the cyclical nature of how they learned about
CorpsAfrica as a volunteer opportunity and how it led them to apply and, in turn, became their
path to employment. While some of these opportunities happen by chance, a chief community
officer (CCO) could nurture an applicant pool and industry partnerships that create synergy with
one another and propel the CorpsAfrica brand while reinforcing ongoing opportunities to hire
alumni and supplement field training and the curriculum.
104
One example of where organizations build community among their stakeholders is
through social networking sites, including Facebook pages. Kang et al. (2015) evaluated how
restaurants leveraged their consumer relationships on their Facebook pages to encourage brand
loyalty and interactions with their establishment. They found a positive correlation between
interactions on their Facebook page and brand loyalty. There is also evidence that social media
can support learning in academic settings in addition to informal learning communities and
spaces for peer connection and interaction (Ahern et al., 2016). These findings align with
CorpsAfrica’s efforts to build a stronger sense of community among volunteers and alumni and
subsequent interactions that could lead to positive employment outcomes by building social
capital among participants.
Building community among prospective volunteers, those currently serving, and alumni
could provide meaningful ways for CorpsAfrica to deepen their connections and become brand
ambassadors for the program, which, in turn, bolsters its value and awareness throughout
Senegal and abroad. Jones and Vogl (2020) examined how successful companies leveraged the
power of brand-building through community with reviews of companies like Yelp, Twitch,
Salesforce, Airbnb, Sephora, and Patagonia.
Table 21 outlines a recommended implantation plan for developing a CCO role to
positively impact alumni and their employment outcomes.
105
Table 21
Implementation Plan for Recommendation 4
R4: Hire a chief community officer (CCO) to formalize industry partnerships and build
connections between alumni, volunteers, and the communities they serve
Actions Proposed Planning
Review literature on building community including ‘The Art of
Community’ and ‘Building Brand Communities’
September-
October 2021
Complete ‘The Art of Community’ Seven Principles for Belonging
worksheets for each CorpsAfrica country and then for CorpsAfrica overall
November-
December 2021
Assess digital and in-person communities connected to CorpsAfrica and
how they contribute and detract from the mission and values of the
organization
January-
February 2022
Develop 90-day and 1-year action plan for the role and how CCO can liaise
with community managers at country level to ensure consistent
application of community engagement throughout programs
March 2022
Present plan to board of directors for feedback and approval April 2022
Based on the analysis of survey data and interviews with alumni, there are four primary
recommendations suggested to support the organizational goal that, by June 2022, 90% of
alumni will report receiving adequate employability skills training and feel prepared for a job
search following their service. These recommendations are to implement digital skills training
for volunteers and alumni; reinforce the alumni association model and develop peer mentorship
platform; build career services offerings that bridge the gap among current volunteers, alumni,
and the workforce; and hire a CCO to formalize industry partnerships and build connections
among alumni, volunteers, and the communities they serve. These recommendations will build
on the existing assets, agency and enabling environment volunteers and alumni bring to their
service.
106
Limitations of the Study
There were several limitations that impacted the study and inhibited me from collecting
more data and insights to inform the findings and recommendations.
First, this study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which impacted people,
communities, and governments in every corner of the world. Specific constraints included
disruptions to schedules, the ability to conduct in-person interviews, general fatigue, cognitive
overload, and a sense of security to health and safety.
Second, the stakeholder group only included alumni from Senegal. The study’s depth and
rigor would have been enhanced by a comparative analysis from interviews with volunteers and
alumni in all CorpsAfrica countries in addition to the communities where volunteers serve and
the companies that employ alumni. There would be great value in including the voices of
funders, employers, and Ministries of Youth to compare patterns and identify opportunities for
collaboration. Due to the small program size in Senegal, there were a small number of interviews
conducted.
Finally, since the CorpsAfrica office in Senegal needed to send a survey similar to the
one I developed just two months before I received institutional review board approval, the study
did not include the original questionnaire developed that was more directly aligned with the
research questions and the study’s conceptual framework.
Suggestions for Future Research
Formal youth volunteer programs will continue to be an essential complement to
education and training as the number of youth expands dramatically in SSA in the coming
decades. CorpsAfrica is a relatively young NGO with an exciting runway ahead of them to
improve employment outcomes and have a lasting impact on the volunteers themselves and the
107
communities they serve. It is suggested that similar research continue to be conducted since there
is a lack of research on programs designed for volunteering in the Global South by volunteers
originating from the Global South. Many studies on volunteering focus on the practice’s impact
on volunteers from the Global North who volunteer in the Global South and exclude the voices
and perspectives of the communities of service and the opportunities that should be further
developed for local youth.
Conclusion
The purpose of this project was to understand how formal volunteer programs could
influence employability outcomes for alumni. By using the PYD framework (Hinson et al.,
2016), the results of the study approached participant contributions from an asset-based lens.
Some of the key findings centered on the need for ongoing HCD and digital skills training, the
value of experiential learning to execute HCD principles, the need for ongoing mentorship from
peers and industry, and the value of community building among volunteers and alumni to foster a
community of learning, growth, and connection.
Formal volunteer programs will not resolve youth unemployment on their own. However,
as an integrated approach and coordinated government and community-led interventions,
programs like CorpsAfrica offer a promising path to productive employment and meaningful
work that makes a difference in the lives of youth, their families, and the communities they
serve. Current projections indicate that 61% of the population in Senegal will be under the age of
29 by 2050 (PopulationPyramid, 2021b) compared to 34.2% of the population in the United
States (PopulationPyramid, 2021a). Innovative, creative solutions to addressing youth
unemployment and pathways to work to adapt for the future of work are essential to leveraging
the potential and promise of youth in Senegal and around the world.
108
References
Adoho, F., Chakravarty, S., Korkoyah, D. T., Lundberg, M. K. A., & Tasneem, A. (2014). The
impact of an adolescent girls employment program: The EPAG project in Liberia (World
Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6832). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6832
African Development Bank. (AFDB). (2015). African ecological futures 2015.
https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/GenericDocuments/xwwf_afric
an_futures_report_english-lo-rez.pdf
Africanews. (2019). Orange confirms its ambition to achieve digital inclusion for all and opens
its second Orange digital center in Dakar. https://www.africanews.com/2019/10/24/
orange-confirms-its-ambition-to-achieve-digital-inclusion-for-all-and-opens-its-second-
orange-digital-center-in-dakar//
African Union. (2006). African youth charter.
African Union. (2020). African union youth volunteer corps. https://au.int/en/volunteer/african-
union-youth-volunteer-corps
Agyepong, I. A., Godt, S., Sombie, I., Binka, C., Okine, V., & Ingabire, M.-G. (2021).
Strengthening capacities and resource allocation for co-production of health research in
low and middle income countries. BMJ, 372(166–n), 166.
Ahern, L., Feller, J., & Nagle, T. (2016). Social media as a support for learning in universities:
an empirical study of Facebook Groups. Journal of Decision Systems, 25 (sup1), 35–49.
https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2016.1187421
Allison, L., Okun, M., & Dutridge, K. (2002). Assessing volunteer motives: A comparison of an
open-ended probe and Likert rating scales. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.677
109
Almas, S., Chacón-Fuertes, F., & Pérez-Muñoz, A. (2020). Direct and indirect effects of
transformational leadership on volunteers’ intention to remain at non-profit organizations.
Intervención Psicosocial, 29(3), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2020a17
Amelewonou, K., & Brossard, M. (2005). Développer l’éducation secondaire en Afrique:
Enjeux, contraintes et marges de manoeuvre. UNESCO-BREDA.
Assan, J., & Nalutaaya, V. (2018). Africa’s youth unemployment challenge and the pursuit of
soft skills development by university students. Review of European Studies, 10(3), 58.
https://doi.org/10.5539/res.v10n3p58
Baah-Boateng, W. (2015). Unemployment in Africa: How appropriate is the global definition
and measurement for policy purpose. International Journal of Manpower, 36(5), 650–
667. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-02-2014-0047
Baah-Boateng, W. (2016). Developing youth skills for employment. African Center for Economic
Transformation.
Baillie Smith, M., Fadel, B., O’Loghlen, A., & Hazeldine, S. (2020). Volunteering hierarchies in
the Global South: Remuneration and livelihoods. Voluntas.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-020-00254-1
Bandura, A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. G. Smith & M. A. Hitt
(Eds.), Great minds in management (pp. 9–35). Oxford University Press.
Bannister, T. (2017). Volunteering, a participatory approach to South–South cooperation.
www.unv.org/news/volunteering-participatory-approach-south-south-cooperation
Bawuah, K., Buame, S., & Hinson, R. (2006). Reflections on entrepreneurship education in
African tertiary institutions. Acta Commercii. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v6i1.78
110
Berger, G., Blugerman, L., Guo, C., Petrov, R., & Smith, D. (2016). Relationships and
collaboration among associations. In S. Smith (Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of
volunteering, civic participation, and nonprofit associations(pp. 1162-1185). Palgrave
Macmillan UK.
Billis, D. (2016). Hybrid associations and blurred sector boundaries. In S. Smith (Ed). The
Palgrave handbook of volunteering, civic participation, and nonprofit associations(pp.
206-220). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-26317-9_9
Blattman, C., & Ralston, L. (2015). Generating employment in poor and fragile states: Evidence
from labor market and entrepreneurship programs.
Boccanfuso, D., Larouche, A., & Trandafir, M. (2015). Quality of higher education and the labor
market in developing countries: Evidence from an education reform in Senegal. World
Development, 74, 412–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.05.007
Brown, A., Rankin, K., Picon, M., & Cameron, D. (2015). The state of evidence on the impact of
transferable skills programming on youth in low and middle-income countries (3ie
Scoping Paper 4). International Initiative for Impact Evaluation.
Bryer, T., Pliscoff, C., Lough, B., Obadare, E., & Smith, D. (2016). Stipended national service
volunteering. In S. Smith (Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of volunteering, civic
participation, and nonprofit associations (pp. 259-274). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-26317-9_12
Campbell, A. C., & Lavallee, C. A. (2020). A community of practice for social justice:
Examining the case of an international scholarship alumni association in Ghana. Journal
of Studies in International Education, 24(4), 409–423.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315319842343
111
Campbell, B., & Baxter, A. R. (2019). Exploring the attributes and practices of alumni
associations that advance social change. International Journal of Educational
Development, 66, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2018.10.003
Caprara, D., Mati, J., Obadare, E., & Perold, H. (2012). Volunteering and civic service in three
African regions. Brookings Institution Reports.
Celio, C. I., Durlak, J., & Dymnicki, A. (2011). A meta-analysis of the impact of service learning
on students. Journal of Experiential Education, 34(2), 164–181.
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382591103400205
Chacón, F., Vecina, M. L., & Dávila, M. C. (2007). The three-stage model of volunteers’
duration of service. Social Behavior and Personality, 35(5), 627–642.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2007.35.5.627
Cling, J. P., Gubert, F., Nordman, C. J., & Robilliard, A.-S. (2007). Youth and labour markets in
Africa: A critical review of the literature (DIAL Working Paper No. 49). Développement
Institutions & Analyses de Long terme.
Clotfelter, C. T. (1999). Why ‘amateurs’? Law and Contemporary Problems, 62(4), 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1192264
CorpsAfrica (2019). Outcomes statement: CorpsAfrica’s lines of responsibility.
CorpsAfrica. (2020). The model. https://www.CA.org/the-model.html
Coulibaly, B., Gandhi, D., & Mbaye, A. A. (2019). Job creation for youth in Africa: Assessing
the employment intensity of industries without smokestacks. Brookings.
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2019/12/16/job-creation-for-youth-in-
africa-assessing-the-employment-intensity-of-industries-without-smokestacks/
112
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods
approaches. SAGE.
Darvas, P., Shang, G., Yijun, S., & Bilal, B. (2017). Sharing higher education’s promise beyond
the few in sub-Saharan Africa. Directions in Development. World Bank.
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1050-3
Day, K. M., & Devlin, R. A. (1998). The payoff to work without pay: Volunteer work as an
investment in human capital. The Canadian Journal of Economics. Revue Canadienne
d’Economique, 31(5), 1179–1191. https://doi.org/10.2307/136465
Dean, F., & Fox, L. (2014). Youth employment in sub-Saharan Africa. Africa Development
Series. WorldBank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0107-5
Delany, A., & Perold, H. (2017). The role of civic service in enhancing youth employability:
reflections on national youth service programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa. In J. Butcher &
C. Einolf (Eds.), Perspectives on volunteering. nonprofit and civil society studies (An
International Multidisciplinary Series). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
39899-0_4
Dema, G., Díaz, J. J., & Chacaltana, J. (2015). What do we know about first job programmes and
policies in Latin America? ILO Regional Office.
Diene, M. (2012). Senegal: Strategies to integrate youth into the labor market. The Brookings
Institution, Africa Growth Initiative. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2016/06/01_snapshot_senegal_diene.pdf
Eberly, D. J., & Sherraden, M. W. (1990). The moral equivalent of war?: A study of non-
military service in nine nations. Greenwood Press.
113
Emerging Senegal. (2020). Presidency of Senegal: Emerging Senegal.
http://www.presidence.sn/en/pse/emerging-senegal
Filmer, D., & Fox, L. (2014). Youth employment in Sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank.
http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-1-4648-0107-5
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0107-5
Fisher, R. J. (1993). Social desirability bias and the validity of indirect questioning. The Journal
of Consumer Research, 20(2), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1086/209351
The FIVE Network. (2021). About. https://thefivenetwork.com/about-five/
Fox, L., & Kaul, U. (2017). The evidence is in: How should youth employment programs in low-
income countries be designed? USAID.
Fox, L., Mader, P., Sumberg, J., Flynn, J., & Oosterom, M. (2020). Africa’s ‘youth employment’
crisis is actually a ‘missing jobs’ crisis. The Brookings Institution.
Fox, L., Senbet, L., & Simbanegavi, W. (2016). Youth employment in sub-Saharan Africa:
Challenges, constraints and opportunities. Journal of African Economies, 25(suppl1), i3–
i15. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejv027
Frontani, H., & Taylor, L. (2009). Development through civic service: The Peace Corps and
national service programmes in Ghana. Progress in Development Studies, 9(2), 87–99.
https://doi.org/10.1177/146499340800900201
Gallup (2018). The world’s most generous countries. Gallup Inc.
Ghana National Service Scheme. (2020). About. https://nss.gov.gh/
Golub, S., & Mbaye, A. A. (2015). Creating good jobs in Africa: demand- and supply-side
policies. Jobs and Development Blog, World Bank, August 18.
114
http://blogs.worldbank.org/jobs/creating-good-jobs-africa-demand-and-supply-side-
policies
Golub, S.S., Mbaye, A.A., & Chwe, H. (2015). Labor market regulations in sub-saharan Africa,
with a focus on Senegal.
Google. (2020). Digital skills for Africa. https://learndigital.withgoogle.com/digitalskills
Graham, L., Patel, L., Ulriksen, M., Moodley, J., & Mavungu, E. (2013). Volunteering in Africa:
An overview of volunteer effort in Africa and its potential to contribute to development.
University of Johannesburg & Swedish Red Cross.
Gray, K., & Gills, B. (2016). South–South cooperation and the rise of the Global South. Third
World Quarterly, 37(4), 557–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1128817
Grossman, R., & Salas, E. (2011). The transfer of training: What really matters. International
Journal of Training and Development, 15, 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-
2419.2011.00373.x
Hassan, E. (2005). Recall bias can be a threat to retrospective and prospective research designs.
International Journal of Epidemiology, 3(2), 1–7.
Hinson, L., Kapungu, C., Jessee, C., Skinner, M., Bardini, M., & Evans-Whipp, T. (2016).
Measuring positive youth development toolkit: A guide for implementers of youth
programs. YouthPower Learning, Making Cents International.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Sage.
Hofstede Insights. (2020). Country comparison: Senegal and United States.
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/senegal,the-usa/
IDEO.org. (2015). The field guide to human-centered design.
115
International Labour Organization. (2009). ILO school-to-work transition survey: A
methodological guide.
International Labour Organization. (2011). Manual on the measurement of volunteer work.
http://ccss.jhu.edu/wp-
content/uploads/downloads/2012/01/ILO_Manual_FINAL_English_1.4.2012.pdf
International Labour Organization. (2013). Enhancing youth employability: The importance of
core work skills. Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/-
--ifp_skills/documents/publication/wcms_234467.pdf
International Labour Organization. (2015). Global employment trends for youth 2015: Scaling up
investments in decent jobs for youth. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---
dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_412015.pdf
International Labour Organization. (2020a). Global employment trends for youth 2020:
Technology and the future of jobs. Geneva.
International Labour Organization. (2020b). ILOSTAT database: Unemployment with advanced
education (% of total labor force with advanced education) – Senegal.
IREX. (2021). U.S.–Iraq higher education partnerships program.
https://www.irex.org/project/us-iraq-higher-education-partnerships-program
Jieun, C., Dutz, M., & Usman, Z. (2020). The future of work in Africa: Harnessing the potential
of digital technologies for all. Africa Development Forum. World Bank.
Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. (2019). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches (pp. 561–570). Sage.
Jones, C. M., & Vogl, C. H. (2020). Building brand communities: How organizations succeed by
creating belonging (1st ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
116
Kaburise, P. (2016). Improving soft skills and communication in response to youth
unemployment. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies, 11(2), 87–101.
https://doi.org/10.1080/18186874.2016.1248061
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. (2005). Work competence: A person-oriented perspective. In A.
Elliot, A., & C. Dweck, C. (2005). Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 336-
353). The Guilford Press.
Kang, J., Tang, L., & Fiore, A. M. (2015). Restaurant brand pages on Facebook. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(7), 1662–1684.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Prentice Hall.
Kubes, M., Spillerova, D., & Kurnicky, R. (2004). Competences of managers – skills of excellent
managers. Grada.
Lorenzini, J., Baglioni, S., Giugni, M., Cinalli, M., & Lahusen, C. (2020). Young people and
long-term unemployment: personal, social, and political effects. Taylor & Francis.
Minard, C. S. L. (2009). Valuing entrepreneurship in the informal economy in Senegal. Social
Enterprise Journal, 5(3), 186–209.
Majgaard, K., & Mingat, A. (2012). Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A comparative analysis.
World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8889-1
Manteaw, B. (2008). From tokenism to social justice: Rethinking the bottom line for sustainable
community development. Community Development Journal: An International Forum,
43(5), 428–443.
Mascarenhas, N. (2021). Chief community officer is the new CMO.
https://techcrunch.com/2021/02/20/chief-community-officer-is-the-new-cmo/
117
Mati, J. M. (2012). Youth volunteer exchange programmes in Southern and Eastern Africa:
Models and effects. International Forum for Volunteering in Development.
Mati, J. M. (2016). Horizontality: The ignored particularity of African volunteering.
Mati, J. M. (2017). Models, developments, and effects of transborder youth volunteer exchange
programs in Eastern and Southern Africa. In Butcher, Jacqueline, and Christopher J.
Einolf, eds. Perspectives on Volunteering: Voices from the South (pp. 129-148).
Springer, Cham.
Mbaye, A. A., Golub, S., & Gueye, F. (2020). Formal and informal enterprise in francophone
Africa: analysis and policies for a vibrant private sector. University of Cape Town Press.
Mbaye, A. M., & Gueye, F. (2018). Labor markets and jobs in West Africa, working paper series
n° 297. African Development Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
McKenzie, D. J., & Woodru, C. (2012). What are we learning from business training and
entrepreneurship evaluations around the developing world? (Working Paper).
https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6202
McKinsey Global Institute. (2017). A future that works: Automation, employment, and
productivity.
McManus, J., & Muyangana, S. (2021). Evaluation of career development centers in Iraq.
IDinsight. https://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/Career%20Services%20Evaluation%20
Full%20Report_0.pdf
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Milukshev, N., & Pagés, C. (2018). The future of work in emerging and developing economies.
The Future of Work: Regional Perspectives.
118
Murphy, S., & Ensher, E. (2006). Best practices of prosocial organizations in youth
development. In R. Clary, (Ed.). Mobilizing adults for positive youth development (pp.
117-135). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29340-X_7
Muthuri, J. (2008). Participation and accountability in corporate community involvement
programmes: A research agenda. Community Development Journal: An International
Forum, 43(2), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsl053
Myers, M. D., & Avison, D. E. (2002). Qualitative research in information systems: A reader.
SAGE.
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2019). Summer 2019 salary survey.
https://www.naceweb.org/uploadedfiles/files/2019/publication/executive-summary/2019-
nace-salary-survey-summer-executive-summary.pdf
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2020a). Career services benchmark survey
2019-2020. https://www.naceweb.org/store/2020/nace-career-services-benchmark-report/
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2020b). Career services staff salaries begin to
separate at management level. https://www.naceweb.org/career-development/trends-and-
predictions/career-services-staff-salaries-begin-to-separate-at-management-level/
Nesbit, R., Rimes, H., Smith, D., Akhter, S., Akingbola, K., Domaradzka-Widla, A.,
Kristmundsson, O., Malunga, C., & Sasson, U. (2016). Leadership and management of
association. In S. Smith (Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of volunteering, civic
participation, and nonprofit associations (pp. 915–945). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Omoto, A., & Snyder, M. (2002). Considerations of community: The context and process of
volunteerism. The American Behavioral Scientist, 45(5), 846–867.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764202045005007
119
Patel, L., & Wilson, T. (2004). Civic service in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nonprofit and Voluntary
Sector Quarterly, 33(Special Issue), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764004269741
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). SAGE
Publications.
Paulhus, D. L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J. P. Robinson, P. R.
Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological
Attitudes (pp. 17–59). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-590241-
0.50006-X
PopulationPyramid. (2019). Senegal: 2019. https://www.populationpyramid.net/senegal/2019/
PopulationPyramid. (2021a). United States of America: 2050
https://www.populationpyramid.net/united-states-of-america/2050/
PopulationPyramid. (2021b). Senegal: 2050. https://www.populationpyramid.net/senegal/2050/
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone. Simon & Schuster.
Prince, R., & Brown, H. (2016). Introduction: The politics & ethics of voluntary labour in
Africa. In H. Brown (Author) & R. Prince (Ed.), Volunteer Economies: The politics and
ethics of voluntary labour in Africa (pp. 1-28). Boydell & Brewer.
Reuters. (2021). Senegal restricts internet as protests over rape allegation escalate.
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/05/africa/senegal-protests-rape-charge-intl/index.html
Robson, K. (2010). The afterlife of NEETs. In P. Attewell & K. Newman (Eds.), Growing gaps
educational inequality around the world (pp. 185–210). Oxford University Press.
Rothwell, A., & Charleston, B. (2013). International volunteering: Employability, leadership
and more. Education + Training, 55(2), 159–173.
https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911311304805
120
RSE Senegal. (2009). Forum francophone des dirigeants et cadres d’entreprises sur le partage
des bonnes pratiques en matiere de responsabilite sociale et societale (RSE).
https://www.forumrsesn.org/forum-rse-pr%C3%A9c%C3%A9dents/
Salamon, L., Wojciech Sokolowski, S., & Haddock, M. (2018). The scope and scale of global
volunteering: Current estimates and next steps. Bonn.
Schunk, D., & Pajares, F. (2005). Competence perceptions and academic functioning. In A.
Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.). Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 85-104). The
Guilford Press.
Schwab, K. (2016). The fourth industrial revolution. World Economic Forum.
Schwebel, D., Estruch, E., Wobst, P., & Grandelis, I. (2019). Policies for youth employment in
Sub-Saharan Africa – Beyond stylized facts. Oxford University Press.
Scriven, M. (1991). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
Simon, B., Sturmer, S., & Steffens, K. (2000). Helping individuals or group members? The role
of individual and collective identification in AIDS volunteers. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 26, 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200266008
Snyder, M. & Omoto, A. (2008). Volunteerism: Social issues perspectives and social policy
implications. Social Issues and Policy Review, 2(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-
2409.2008.00009.x
Stukas, A., Daly, M., & Clary, E. (2006). Lessons from research on volunteering for mobilizing
adults to volunteer for positive youth development. In R. Clary, (Ed.). Mobilizing adults
for positive youth development (pp. 65-82). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-
29340-X_4
Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge University Press.
121
Teferra, A., & Altbackhl, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century.
Higher Education, 47(1), 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:HIGH.0000009822.49980.30
Trading Economics. (2020). Senegal gross domestic product per capita PPP.
https://tradingeconomics.com/senegal/gdp-per-capita-ppp
Tuck, E., & Wayne, Y. (2014). R-Words: Refusing research. In D. Paris, & M.
Winn. Humanizing research: Decolonizing qualitative inquiry with youth and
communities (p. 223–248). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Turner, J. C. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil
Blackwell.
UNESCO. (2018). Digital skills critical for jobs and social inclusion.
https://en.unesco.org/news/digital-skills-critical-jobs-and-social-inclusion
UN General Assembly (UNGA). (2015, September). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development. [United Nations.]. Resolution, 70(1), 25.
United Nations. (2015a). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable
development. https://www.refworld.org/docid/57b6e3e44.html
United Nations. (2015b). Youth population trends and sustainable development.
https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/YouthPOP.pdf
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015).
Population 2030: Demographic challenges and opportunities for sustainable
development planning (ST/ESA/SER.A/389).
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2017). Cities are the engines of development.
122
United Nations Volunteers. (2009). Laws and Policies Affecting Volunteerism Since 2001.
International Center for Not-for-Profit Law and the European center for Not-for-Profit
Law.
United Nations Volunteers. (2020). Volunteering database: Senegal.
http://knowledge.unv.org/country/senegal
United Nations Volunteers Programme. (2018). State of the world’s volunteerism report. The
thread that binds: Volunteerism and community resilience. Bonn.
U.S. Department of State. (2019). 2019 report on international religious freedom: Senegal.
https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/senegal/
Visser, W. (2006). Revisiting Carroll’s CSR Pyramid: An African Perspective. In E. R. Pedersen
& M. Hunicke (Eds.), Corporate Citizenship in Developing Countries (pp. 29–56).
Copenhagen Business School.
Visser, W. (2008). Corporate social responsibility in developing countries. In A. Crane,
McWilliams, D. Matten, J. Moon, & D. Seigel (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of corporate
social responsibility (pp. 473-479). Oxford University Press
Voluntary Alumni Engagement in Support of Education. (2020). The alumni relations
benchmarking study. https://f.hubspotusercontent00.net/hubfs/263750/Alumni_
Access_VAESE_Study%202020_VF.pdf
Voluntary Services Overseas (2021). About. https://www.vsointernational.org/about
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803932
Wiarda, H., Adams, P., Lam, W., & Wilson, D. (2016). Corporatism versus pluralism and
authoritarianism as association contexts. In S. Smith (Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of
123
volunteering, civic participation, and nonprofit associations (pp. 1116-1138). Palgrave
Macmillan UK.
World Bank. (2015). Skills and jobs: Lessons learned and options for collaboration. Technical
Report.
World Bank. (2019). Digital skills 16 African countries to prepare action plans - a technical
assistance program of PASET and the digital economy for Africa initiative.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/12/11/digital-skills-16-african-
countries-to-prepare-action-plans-a-technical-assistance-program-of-paset-and-the-
digital-economy-for-africa-initiative
World Bank. (2020). Youth unemployment rate for developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa
[SLUEM1524ZSSSA], retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis;
https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SLUEM1524ZSSSA
World Bank Group. (2017). Enquête nationale sur l’emploi au Sénégal troisième trimestre 2017.
World Bank (2021a). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) -
Sub-Saharan Africa.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?locations=ZG
World Bank (2021b). Share of youth not in education, employment or training, total (% of youth
population) - Sub-Saharan Africa.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.NEET.ZS?end=2019&locations=ZG&start
=2019&view=bar
World Bank (2021c). GDP growth (annual %) – Senegal.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=SN
124
Youth Employment Network and International Youth Foundation. (2009). Private sector demand
for labour in Ghana and Senegal: Findings from Ghana and Senegal.
125
Appendix A: Survey Protocol
Research Questions:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skill development when
they entered their volunteer service and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Respondent Type: All CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni (50+ alumni)
Introduction to Survey: I am conducting research on the CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni
experience. I am eager to hear from you about what your experience was like as a Volunteer and
how it has impacted your employment opportunities as an alumnus. This will help CorpsAfrica
staff, funders, and stakeholders better understand the needs of alumni following your service.
The survey should take 10–15 minutes, and your responses are completely anonymous.
If you have any questions about the survey, please email me at bangoura@usc.edu. I appreciate
your input.
Table A1
Survey Instrument
Question Open
(O) or
Closed
(C)?
RQ Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal, interval,
ratio)
Response options (if close-
ended)
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Which year did you complete your
CorpsAfrica service?
C N/A N/A a. 2020
b. 2019
c. 2018
d. 2017
N/A
What gender do you identify as? C N/A N/A a. Male
b. Female
c. Other
d. Prefer not to answer
N/A
What is your age? C N/A N/A a. 15–19
b. 20–24
c. 25–29
d. 30–34
e. 35–39
N/A
What is your gender? C N/A N/A a. Female
b. Male
c. Prefer not to answer
What is your highest level of
completed education?
C N/A N/A a. Primary school
b. Secondary school
c. Vocational education
d. University
e. Post-graduate
N/A
126
Question Open
(O) or
Closed
(C)?
RQ Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal, interval,
ratio)
a. Response options (if
close-ended)
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Employment status C N/A N/A 1. Full-time employment
(includes contractual work)
2. Full-time employment with
part-time studies
3. Part-time employment
(includes contractual work)
4. Full-time student
5. Full-time student with part-
time employment
6. Part-time student with part-
time employment
7. Unemployed, looking for
work
8. Full-time parent
9. Self-employed
10. Other (please specify):
____________
N/A
Being a CorpsAfrica Volunteer
helped me develop the following
employability skills:
C 2 Ordinal (select all that apply on scale
listed)
a. Learning to learn
b. Communication
c. Teamwork
d. Problem solving
Strongly Disagree = 1;
Disagree = 2; Agree = 3;
Strongly Agree = 4
Assets, Support
127
Question Open
(O) or
Closed
(C)?
RQ Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal, interval,
ratio)
Response options (if close-
ended)
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
I joined CorpsAfrica for the
following reasons (select all that
apply):
C 2 Nominal a. Develop employability
skills
b. Advance my career
c. Serve my country
d. Have an adventure
e. Other (explain)
Agency
Following my CorpsAfrica service,
I have confidence in my ability
to…
C 2 Ordinal (select all that apply)
a. Conduct a job search
b. Use human-centered
design
c. Work as part of a team
d. Communicate
e. Other
Agency
I feel a sense of connection with
CorpsAfrica alumni
C 3 Ordinal Strongly Disagree–Strongly
Agree
Enabling
Environment
I have secured employment that
leverages skills learned through
CorpsAfrica.
C 1 Ordinal Strongly Disagree–Strongly
Agree
Enabling
Environment
I brought useful skills to my
CorpsAfrica service
C 1 Ordinal Strongly Disagree–Strongly
Agree
Enabling
Environment
I feel connected to CorpsAfrica O 3 Ordinal Strongly Disagree–Strongly
Agree
Enabling
Environment
128
Note. Excerpts adapted from ILO school-to-work transition survey: A methodological guide, by International Labour Organization.
(2009).
Question Open
(O) or
Closed
(C)?
RQ Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal, interval,
ratio)
Response options (if close-
ended)
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
129
130
Appendix B: Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
1. What assets do CorpsAfrica alumni bring to their service that enable them to secure
meaningful employment following their service?
2. What were CorpsAfrica alumni’s expectations for employability skill development when
they entered their volunteer service and how were these met?
3. How does CorpsAfrica foster a network of alumni to secure employment?
Respondent Type: CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni selected from random sample of survey
participants (6–9 total, aim for gender balance)
Introduction to the Interview: My name is Jennifer Bangoura and I’m delighted to connect
with you for my research. The purpose of my study is to explore the relationship between
volunteering with CorpsAfrica and the development of employability skills that prepare
Volunteers for a job search following their service. I appreciate you making the time to meet
with me for this interview – your experience and opinions are incredibly valuable to the field.
The results of the research are intended to improve the training and support of CorpsAfrica
Volunteers and alumni and also demonstrate to funding partners the value of investing in
CorpsAfrica. The interview should last no longer than one hour. Your answers will remain
anonymous and the audio recording will be safely stored. You may decide to not continue
participation at any time during our interview. May I record the interview and take notes? Do
you have any questions?
Table B1
Interview Instrument
# Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ
Addressed
Key PYD
Concept/Domain
Addressed
PYD Program
Feature
1. What sparked your interest in applying to
become a CorpsAfrica Volunteer.
What role did your future employment
prospects have in your choice to
volunteer with CorpsAfrica?
1 Assets
Skill building
2. When you applied to CorpsAfrica, what
types of skills did you think you would
need to be successful as a Volunteer?
1 Assets Skill building
3. When you reflect on your experience as a
CorpsAfrica Volunteer, what are two of
the most important impacts the
experience has had or are having on
you?
1 Agency Skill building
4. All CorpsAfrica Volunteers brought their
own assets, agency and enabling
environments to their service. As you
reflect on what you brought to your
service, which ones may have been
strengthened or changed through your
experience in the program?
How did your CorpsAfrica service
impact your growth in assets, agency
and your enabling environment?
1 Assets/Agency/En
abling
Environment
5. How do you define success as a
CorpsAfrica alumnus?
2 Agency
6. How did you apply human-centered
design thinking to your service?
2 Agency Skill building
7. What are you doing now following your
CorpsAfrica service?
Tell me more. How influential was your
service to what you are doing now?
1 Agency Skill building
131
# Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ
Addressed
Key PYD
Concept/Domain
Addressed
PYD Program
Feature
8. How connected do you feel to
CorpsAfrica alumni and staff and your
ability to reach out to them for support?
Can you give me an example of a time
when you experienced a sense of
belonging and membership as a
CorpsAfrica alumni?
3 Enabling
Environment
Healthy
relationships
and bonding
9. What are some of the key relationships
that you developed as a CorpsAfrica
Volunteer?
How do you feel like you’re able to
nourish those relationships and connect
with alumni or staff?
3 Enabling
Environment
Healthy
relationships
and bonding
10. What did you get out of your service in
terms of skills development?
Tell me about your communication skills
and how they were impacted by your
service. X
2 Enabling
Environment
Skill building
11. What specific training did you receive
during your service that helped prepare
you for future employment?
Now looking back, what additional
training, if any, would you have liked
to receive in preparation for
employment?
3 Enabling
Environment
Healthy
relationships
and bonding
12. How were your expectations met as a
CorpsAfrica Volunteer?
What advice would you give someone
applying to be a CorpsAfrica
Volunteer? Or How could they have
been met better, if at all?
2 Enabling
Environment
Enabling
Environment
Note. Excerpts adapted from Youth Volunteer Exchange Programmes in Southern and Eastern Africa: Models and Effects by J. Mati,
2012, International Forum for Volunteering in Development.
Conclusion to the Interview: Thank you again for making the time to meet and share your experience and perspective. You’ve given
a lot of valuable insight that will help shape this study and my dissertation. As a next step, I will follow up with you in 2–3 months
with the results of my research. May I be in touch if I need any additional information or clarification?
132
133
Appendix C: USC Information Sheet for Exempt Research
STUDY TITLE: The Role of Formal Volunteer Programming Through CorpsAfrica Senegal on
Human Capital Development for Youth in Senegal
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Jennifer Bangoura
FACULTY ADVISORY: Dr. Cathy Krop
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of my study is to explore the relationship between volunteering with CorpsAfrica
and the development of employability skills that prepare Volunteers for a job search following
their service. The results of the research are intended to improve the training and support of
CorpsAfrica Volunteers and alumni and demonstrate to funding partners the value of investing in
CorpsAfrica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
The interview participants will include CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni who have previously served
as CorpsAfrica Volunteers in Senegal. This will be a purposive sampling strategy wherein
alumni are chosen for their relevance including from among all CorpsAfrica alumni (50+ youth)
who served in Senegal. All CorpsAfrica/Senegal alumni will receive a link to a survey to
complete and will be requested to self-select for an interview to discuss additional aspects of
their experience. The interview participants will be Senegalese youth who have completed their
CorpsAfrica volunteer service prior to participating in the interview.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation in the interview. However, your participation
will add to the knowledge base on human capital development through formal volunteering in
Senegal.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will not result in negative
consequences. You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation
in this research study.
134
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Jennifer Bangoura is the Principal Investigator for this study, and the University of Southern
California faculty advisor is Dr. Cathy Krop. If you have any questions about this study, please
contact Jennifer Bangoura (bangoura@usc.edu) or Dr. Cathy Krop (krop@usc.edu).
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. If you have any questions about your rights as a research
participant, please contact the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at
(323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu.
Abstract (if available)
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
Developing socially intelligent leaders through field education: an evaluation study of behavioral competency education methods
PDF
Getting paid: the promise of paid work-based learning opportunities for youth
PDF
The development of change leadership skills in aspiring community college leaders
PDF
Latino corporate leadership for human capital and productivity
PDF
Industry 4.0 impacts on U.S. food industry executive self-directed learning
PDF
Solving for the luck factor: leveling access to leadership through an organization-based sponsorship program
PDF
Why are they still here: a look at employee retention amidst the COVID-19 pandemic
PDF
Perceptions of employment nationalization policies in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries
PDF
Efficacy of non-formal education programs in educational outcomes of marginalized Filipino children: an evaluation study
PDF
Increasing workplace civility in higher education: a field study
PDF
Modeling collaboration in K–12 teacher professional development
PDF
Black disabled lives matter: barriers to employment for African Americans with a disability
PDF
Preparing for the future of work: exploring worker perceptions of the impact of automation
PDF
Sociocultural human performance: education and learning for promotion in the American fire service
PDF
Early to mid-career employee development: an exploratory study
PDF
Organizational agility and agile development methods: an evaluation study
PDF
Clearing the way: pathways to retention of women in engineering
PDF
Untapped workforce: employer perceptions of people with intellectual disabilities
PDF
The rich auntie effect: increasing socioeconomic advancement for opportunity youth of color
PDF
Consultants leverage organizational change for successful adoption of agile methods in government organizations
Asset Metadata
Creator
Bangoura, Jennifer Morgan
(author)
Core Title
Formal volunteering and human capital for youth in Senegal
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2021-08
Publication Date
08/10/2021
Defense Date
07/12/2021
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
employability,human capital development,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive youth development,Senegal,skills development,volunteering,West Africa,Youth
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Krop, Cathy (
committee chair
), Lynch, Doug (
committee member
), Mati, Jacob (
committee member
)
Creator Email
bangoura@usc.edu,jennifermbangoura@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC15722210
Unique identifier
UC15722210
Legacy Identifier
etd-BangouraJe-10031
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Bangoura, Jennifer Morgan
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
employability
human capital development
positive youth development
skills development