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The impact of school racial climate on the retention of teachers of color
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The Impact of School Racial Climate on the Retention of Teachers of Color
by
Sakinah Patton Harrison
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2021
© Copyright by Sakinah Patton Harrison 2021
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Sakinah Patton Harrison certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. Mark Robison, Committee Member
Dr. Akilah Lyons-Moore, Committee Member
Dr. Briana Hinga, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021
iv
Abstract
This study examined how school racial climate impacts the retention of teachers of color
by exploring their lived experiences and the organizational and motivational influences. The
study uses Critical Race Theory (CRT) as an analytical lens to explore the narratives shared from
study participants and the gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2002) to affirm the
assumed influences from interviews. Through examining the sociocultural forces that shape the
experiences of teacher of color, this study explores how issues related to race and racism
influence their job satisfaction and was designed to learn about how the racial climate in an
urban public school district impacts the retention of teachers of color. The findings revealed the
organizational culture impacts school racial climate and influences the level of satisfaction
teachers of color have with their jobs while increasing their commitment to remain in the district
to support students of color.
v
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to every teacher of color working in service of the
education of all children. I am grateful for the teachers of color that shared their experiences and
reflections that shaped this work.
This study would not have been possible without all of the ancestors that came before me
– we bring you with us and recognize it is because of your commitment and sacrifice that we are
here. We are because of you, and we are eternally grateful.
vi
Acknowledgements
The journey of pursuing my doctoral degree and the completion of this dissertation has
not been a solitary endeavor. Thank you, God, and Accentors for making this possible. I want to
thank my husband, Michael V. Harrison. Words cannot express the depth of my gratitude for
your light and love. Your ability to show up for me and our family during this process speaks to
the depth of your commitment to me and our family. To our children, Ellis, Grant and Airis, I
appreciate your encouragement throughout this process. You all have been witnesses to what can
happen when you put forth effort to accomplish a goal. Thank you all for your patience and
understanding, for giving up some family time by allowing me to pursue this degree, this could
not have happened without your support. My parents Donald Patton and Alice Walker Patton
you are the ultimate example of how to live your values and I appreciate your support throughout
my personal and professional journey - you laid the foundation, and for that I am grateful. My
siblings, Khalid Patton, Naima Patton Tyson, Nicole Patton Terry, Maria Patton Gamell, Aisha
Patton Bonner and Amina Patton I truly adore each of you and appreciate your encouragement,
love, and support – the twenty cousins are learning from our example and that of our ancestors. I
am also deeply grateful to the eight teachers of color who entrusted me with their stories,
experiences, and insight – thank you. Thank you for your time, being vulnerable and sharing
your stories with me – your courage and commitment inspire me. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge my chair, Dr. Briana Hinga for dedicating her time and providing meaningful
guidance through this journey. I would also like to acknowledge my committee members, Dr.
Mark Robison and Dr. Akilah Lyons-Moore for their time, feedback, and expertise.
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................. 2
Importance of Addressing the Problem ............................................................................... 3
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 4
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 4
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 5
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 6
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ....................................................................................... 7
Stakeholder Group for the Study ......................................................................................... 8
Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 8
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ...................................................................... 9
Critical Race Theory .......................................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Project ................................................................................................ 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 14
Race and Education in the United States ........................................................................... 14
Contemporary Factors Impacting the Teacher of Color Pipeline ...................................... 18
Racial and Ethnic Diversity of Teacher Workforce .......................................................... 22
Benefits to Diversifying the Teacher Workforce .............................................................. 23
Stakeholder Organizational and Motivation Influences .................................................... 29
viii
Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................................ 43
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 43
Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................................. 46
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 49
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 50
Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 52
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 53
Theoretical Framework: Gap Analysis and Critical Race Theory .................................... 55
Participant Profile .............................................................................................................. 56
Organization Results and Findings .................................................................................... 59
Motivation Results and Findings ....................................................................................... 83
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation ........................................................... 102
Continuing Needs Related to Organization and Motivation ........................................... 103
Proposed Recommendations ........................................................................................... 104
Capacity and Resource Requirements ............................................................................. 110
Evaluation and Critical Race Theory .............................................................................. 110
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 117
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 118
References ................................................................................................................................... 120
Appendix: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................... 148
ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Goal 7
Table 2: Assumed Organizational Influences 34
Table 3: Assumed Motivation Influence 42
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Influences 54
Table 5: Assumed Motivation Influences 55
Table 6: Demographic Information of Interview Participants (N = 8) 58
Table 7: Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes and Affirmation 60
Table 8: Assumed Organizational Influences, Instrument, and Validation 62
Table 9: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Race and Racism 65
Table 10: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Implicit Bias 67
Table 11: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Leadership 68
Table 12: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Anti-racism 69
Table 13: Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes, and Validation 71
Table 14: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Diversifying the Workforce 72
Table 15: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2 – Recruitment 73
Table 16: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Retention 74
Table 17: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Women of Color in Leadership 76
Table 18: Assumed Organizational Influences, Instrument and Validation 78
Table 19: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Setting 1: Professional Growth and
Development 80
Table 20: Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Setting 82
Table 21: Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes, and Validation 85
Table 22: Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes, Instrument, and Validation 86
Table 23: Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct – Systems Change Motivation 88
x
Table 24: Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes and Validation 89
Table 25: Affirmation for Motivation Race-Focused Construct 2: Systems Change Satisfaction 91
Table 26: Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct 2 – Support for Teachers of Color
93
Table 27: Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct 2 – Role 95
Table 28: Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes and Validation 96
Table 29: Affirmation for Motivation Collective Agency – Culture 98
Table 30: Affirmation for Motivation Collective Agency: Value 100
Table 31: Continuing Needs 103
Table 32: Summary of Action Steps and Timeline for Creating Culturally Affirming
Environments at the School and District Level 106
Table 33: Summary of Action Steps and Timeline for Improving the Working Conditions for
Teachers of Color 107
Table 34: Summary Action Steps and Timeline for Prioritizing Diversifying the Workforce 108
Table 35: Summary Action Steps and Timeline for Create Formal Structures of Support for
Teachers of Color 109
Table 36: Recommendations and Connections to Critical Race Theory 112
Table 37: Recommendations, Interventions, Methods, Indicators, and Timeline 116
1
Chapter One: Introduction
While the cultural diversity of the United States continues to grow, the teaching
workforce does not reflect student demographics. For the first time in the United States, the
majority of public school students are students of color and culturally and linguistically diverse
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2010) while teachers remain predominately
monoracial, monoethnic, monocultural, and monolingual (Little & Bartlett, 2010). The National
Center for Education Statistics 2015–2016 survey found at the national level about 80% of public
school teachers identify as White while minority students make up over 40% of the public school
population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). The teaching workforce in Michigan
is predominantly comprised of White teachers at 92%, with the next largest group, Black/African
American teachers, comprising only 6% of teachers and all other minority groups 1% or less
(Michigan Department of Education, 2018). According to the Michigan Department of
Education, 67 % of students in Michigan’s K-12 public schools were White, 18% were African
American, 7 % were Hispanic, 3% were Asian, 3 % were multi-race and less than 1 % were
Native American.
A Michigan League for Public Policy 2018 report called attention to the diversity
disparity between teachers and students. While 1 of every 3 Michigan students was a child of
color in the 2017–18 school year, more than 90% of teachers and 80% of school administrators
were White with the percentage of African American teachers declining. Research suggests
students of color benefit academically from assignment to teachers of their own race and
ethnicity. It is important for all teachers to be prepared to meet the needs of diverse students from
a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds and for students to have teachers that reflect their
2
diversity. This study focused on how the racial climate of Midwest Public Schools District
impacts the retention of teachers of color.
Background of the Problem
Numerous studies show that the diversity of the teaching workforce benefits students.
Empirical research provides evidence that a match between the race and ethnicity of teachers and
students leads to better academic outcomes (Clotfelter et al., 2007; Dee, 2004; Egalite et al.,
2015). While researchers, policy makers and practitioners have articulated the importance of
increasing the racial and ethnic diversity of the U.S. teaching profession (Goings & Bianco,
2016; U.S. Department of Education, 2016), the teaching workforce has remained predominantly
White.
The problem of inadequate racial and ethnic diversity of the teaching workforce can be
traced back to the results of the Brown versus Board of Education supreme court decision of
1954. At that time, there were approximately 82,000 Black teachers responsible for the education
of the nation’s two million Black public school students (Hawkins, 1994). A decade later, over
38,000 Black teachers and administrators had lost their positions in 17 southern and border states
(Ethridge, 1979). While the focus of the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision
was to integrate schools, large numbers of Black teachers and principals were displaced, causing
a significant decrease in the number of minority teachers in the field (Fultz, 2004; Tillman, 2004;
White, 2016).
The challenge of increasing teacher diversity continues today. For example, more than
40% of public schools do not have a single teacher of color (United States Department of
Education, 2016). However, people of color represent about 40% of the population and
approximately 50% of students (Carver-Thomas, 2018). More specifically, disaggregated data by
3
individual racial or ethnic group reveals the largest gap exists between Latinx students and
teachers. In fact, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, the proportion of
Latinx students is expected to grow to one-third of the student population by 2025 (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2009). The predicted population growth further demonstrates the
need to diversity the teaching workforce to meet the needs of the student population.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of diversifying the teaching workforce is important to address for a variety
of reasons. There are several empirically-based arguments to address the benefits of teacher
diversity such as, teachers of color serve as role models to all students and bring their cultural
knowledge and experiences which add value to school environments (Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
Due to their personal experiences, minority teachers tend to have increased awareness of
injustice, racism, and culturally disconnected curriculum in educational environments (Irizarry &
Donaldson, 2012). Research shows students of color are more likely to graduate from high
school and succeed in college when they have teachers of color who serve as role models and
support their attachment to school and learning (Carver-Thomas, 2018). The evidence confirms
that well prepared teachers of color contribute to the educational experiences and academic
outcomes of students of color (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). While minority teacher recruitment is
imperative to addressing gaps in the teacher pipeline, there are also retention issues. In the state
of Michigan, the teacher turnover rate is high, specifically in schools with high concentrations of
poverty including urban and charter schools (Steelcase Foundation, 2019). A Michigan
Department of Education 2018 study found the average teacher turnover among the state’s public
schools was 19.8% between 2012–13 and 2013–14, which is higher than the national average of
15.7% (Michigan Department of Education, 2018). The report highlighted the variation in
4
turnover rates across district type, including rural, suburban, and urban and showed that urban
districts have the highest teacher turnover at 24.3%, followed by rural 16.1%, and suburban
15.4%.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Midwest Public Schools District is located in southwest Michigan, with a population
of 76,019 people. The majority of the population is White, 64%, with the next largest ethnicity
Black or African American residents at 20%, Hispanic or Latino residents 7%, two or more
races’ residents 5%, Asian 2%, and American Indian and Alaska Native 0.1% (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2018). Midwest Public Schools serves students in grades PreK – 12. According to the
2017–2018 District Annual Education Report, Midwest Public Schools has grown from the 24th
to the 12th largest school district in the state of Michigan with approximately 13,000 students
and over 9,000 teachers and staff. In 2018, 15% of teachers in the district were people of color
which is a decrease of 3% over last 10 years. In fact, in the 2018- 2019 school year, the number
of teachers of color are as follows: African American 102, Asian 22, Hispanic 18, and American
Indian 8. The diversity of the student population in the district continues to increase.
Additionally, 55% of the student population are students of color, which is an increase of 15%
over the last 5 years and over 70% are eligible for free and reduced-priced lunch.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the root of this study is the disproportionate
number of teachers of color within the Midwest Public Schools District. This is a problem based
on the research conducted by the Michigan Department of Education which found the workforce
in the state is comprised of mainly White educators at 92%, Black or African American at 6%
and all other minority groups at 1% or less (Registry of Education Personnel, 2018). More
5
specifically, in Midwest Public Schools, 40% of the student population is Black or African
American and 15% Hispanic or Latino and the workforce is over 80% White. This problem
affects the organization’s goal to have a workforce that reflects the diversity of the student
population. While students of color are expected to make up more than half of the student
population by 2024, the elementary and secondary educator workforce remains overwhelmingly
White (United States Department of Education, 2016). School environments are places where
academic knowledge is constructed and transmitted in addition to a setting where values are
formed. Mercer and Mercer (1986) stated the racial and ethnic makeup of the teacher workforce
communicate a strong message to children about the distribution of power in society. The
conceptions students’ form about race and how race operates in their daily lives shape the
development of their beliefs on achievement, attitudes, and identity in the school context (Carter
& Carter, 2008). Therefore, inability to address this challenge can have a negative impact on the
academic achievement of students of color, the development of their self-identity and affirming
their cultural relevance in the world.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal for Midwest Public Schools District is to increase teacher diversity from 15% to
20% by Fall 2025. The assistant superintendent of human resources has articulated the
commitment of the district to recruit, develop, and retain skilled teachers, with a focus on
teachers of color to reflect “the faces of families in the school district” (Dorsey-Smith, 2020). In
the state of Michigan, fewer high school students enter college with the intent of entering the
field, impacting the teacher pipeline (Steelcase Foundation, 2019). In fact, in the 2013–2014
school year there were 11,287 students enrolled in teacher preparation programs in Michigan, but
the 2016–17 school year, there were only 6,859 students enrolled in teacher preparation
6
programs, which is a decrease of over 60% in just three years (U.S. Department of Labor, 2018).
When the data is disaggregated by race, the enrollment numbers for teachers of color are even
lower. In the 2016–2017 school year, only 7% were African American, 3% were Latinx and 2%
were Asian (U.S. Department of Labor, 2018). The number of teachers of color entering the
teacher pipeline contribute to challenge in attracting teachers of color to enter the school district.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The three stakeholder groups that are imperative to the achievement of the organizational
goal are teachers of color, principals, and district office leadership. There are approximately 150
teachers of color in the school district, and they contribute to achieving the goal of increasing
teacher diversity in several ways. Teachers must be prepared to support the needs and education
of all students. The racial and ethnic diversity of teachers within a school influence the school
culture by bringing their unique perspectives to their work. They have the ability to affirm the
identify of students and engage in culturally responsive teaching. There are 27 principals in
Midwest Public Schools, 58% are White and 39% are Black. School leaders are responsible for
setting a school culture and climate that are culturally responsive environments that welcome
children and families in the school community. Principals also play an important role in
promoting equity for all students and developing supportive and inclusive working environments
for teachers. District office leadership consists of 10 people, and they set the vision and creates
the culture of school systems. This entails determining the priorities of the district including how
the needs of all kids and families are addressed.
7
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1 presents the stakeholder groups that directly contribute to and benefit from the
achievement of the performance goal.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Goal
Organizational mission
The mission of Midwest Public Schools District is to nurture the dreams of all students and
empower all students to contribute to a better world.
Organizational performance goal
By Fall 2025, Midwest Public Schools District will increase educators of color by 5%.
Teachers of color Principals District office leadership
By Fall 2023, teachers of
color will report a high level
of employee satisfaction
with the racial climate of
the school district.
By Spring 2023 principals
will create School
Improvement Plans to
reflect three ways in which
they will support the
teachers of color in their
building.
By Fall 2023 district office
leadership will implement a
strategic plan that centers
equity and includes a
human capital strategy that
creates the proper
conditions for attracting,
nurturing, and retaining
teachers of color.
8
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the increasing teacher
diversity in the district, the stakeholder group for this study are teachers of color in Midwest
Public Schools District. The stakeholders’ goal is by fall 2023, teachers of color will report high
level of employee satisfaction with the racial climate of the school district. School Improvement
Teams are in place at each school to provide an opportunity for stakeholder groups to come
together and identify individual school challenges, co-construct solutions and provide
recommendations to district office staff on what is needed to support schools in achieving their
goals. Progress towards the goal will be measured by teachers of color sharing their experiences
and how they collectively inform systems change within the school district.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to conduct an analysis to examine the root causes of the
disproportionate number of educators of color in the Midwest Public Schools District. That said,
this study centered the experiences of teachers of color and situate those experiences to examine
the retention of teachers of color in the Midwest Public Schools District. The analysis focused on
causes for this problem due to organizational and motivational influences. The analysis began by
generating a list of assumed influences that will be examined systematically to focus on affirmed
causes.
As such, the questions that guide this study were following:
1. How does the racial climate of the school district influence the retention of teachers
of color?
2. How does organizational culture influence work environments for teachers of color?
9
a. What are the organizational factors that contribute to low representation of
teacher of color in the district?
3. How do the racialized experiences of teachers of color impact their motivation to
inform systemic-level change?
a. What motivation and organizational solutions are recommended to increase
representation of teachers of color in the district workforce?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Two conceptual frameworks provided focus for the research study. Clark and Estes’
(2008) gap analysis framework is utilized to demonstrate the critical influences affecting the
problem of practice combined with critical race theory (CRT) to center the experiences of
teachers of color and contextualize the study through racialized, gendered, classed structures, and
discourses in the education. The gap analysis framework prescribes a three-pronged approach,
analyzing the motivation and knowledge of the stakeholder group, as well as the organizational
influences that relate to the organizational goal. While the KMO framework was helpful in
resolving issues and addressing improvement at an organizational level, within the context of this
study, the intent was to explore the narratives of teachers of color and recognize the inherit
knowledge that exists through their experiences. Therefore, the knowledge component of the
KMO model was not an area of focus in this study.
The structure of this study focused on the organizational and motivation influences, using
CRT as an analytical tool to centralize the role of race and racism in the experiences of teacher of
color. Critical race theory (CRT) is an important analytical tool used in the field of education to
offer critical perspective on racism, inequities and power dynamics that exist in the system
(Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Taylor, 2009). CRT provides a lens to examine the structures
10
teachers of color experience while challenging dominant narratives and reflect multiple
perspectives. Grounding the study in critical race epistemology recognizes people of color as
holders and disseminators of knowledge (Delgado Bernal, 1998), and sets the foundation that
they hold the knowledge to shift oppressive structures. Further, CRT as an analytical tool was
used to understand and examine the nuances of racial climate within schools while valuing
teachers of color as legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding and analyzing racial
subordination in the field of education (Yosso et al., 2001). This study was opportunity to learn
from the experiences of teachers of color and how their motivation may be influenced by
organizational factors. Lastly, motivation and organizational factors were understood through an
intercentricity of race and racism.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory (CRT) developed out of critical legal studies to examine the
relationship between race, racism, and power, in response to the 1970s civil rights litigation in
the United States (Haynes, 2008) and centers itself around race and racism, while also focusing
on the intersections of gender, class, sexual orientation, income and other factors (Brayboy,
2005). Critical race theory in education challenges the dominant discourse on race and racism by
examining how educational theory, policy and practice are used to subordinate certain racial and
ethnic groups (Yosso et al., 2001). As such, CRT provides a lens to examine structural and
institutional racism in schools. Diversifying the teaching workforce supports the five tenets
scholars of CRT have identified to guide research and will be utilized to design this study (Kohli,
2009; Yosso et al., 2001):
1) Intercentricity of Race and Racism. A key principle of CRT is that race and racism are
pervasive, institutional, and systematic (Bell, 1992; Dixson & Rousseau Anderson,
11
2018). CRT in education centers race and racism, while concentrating on the intersections
of racism with other forms of subordination such as class, gender, and language
(Solórzano & Delgado 2001; Yosso et al., 2001).
2) Challenge Dominant Ideology. CRT challenges assumptions of racial and cultural
hierarchy in educational settings such as colorblindness, meritocracy, and race neutrality
(Yosso et al., 2001) as these claims act as a camouflage for the self-interest, power, and
privilege of dominant groups in U.S. society (Solórzano, 1997; Yosso et al., 2001).
3) Commitment to Social Justice. CRT in education works to empower underrepresented
groups that have been marginalized and eliminate racism (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal,
2001) while seeking to advance a social justice agenda (Yosso et al., 2001).
4) Valuing Experiential Knowledge. CRT research recognizes experiential knowledge
teacher of color hold as legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding and
analyzing their experiences (Solórzano & Delgado 2001; Kohli, 2009). This tenant is
particularly important for this study for centering the lived experiences of teachers to
examine the racial climate in schools.
5) Interdisciplinary. Through the lens of CRT, this study will analyze race and racism in
education by placing them in both an historical and contemporary context using
interdisciplinary methods (Delgado, 2017; García, 1995).
CRT frames this study’s examination of the experiences of teachers of color in Midwest Public
Schools District. CRT is used to explore how their experiences related to race and racism impact
their job satisfaction and desire to remain in the district.
12
Definitions
For the purpose of this study, specific terms used in this research are defined in this
section.
Attrition refers to teachers who leave the teaching profession; attrition decreases the
supply of teachers (Ingersoll, 2001).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy refers to a teaching approach that is culturally conscious
of, sensitive to, and responsive to minority students whose culture is not a part of the White,
middle-class mainstream education (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Centering term refers to uplifting, trusting, and valuing the lived experiences of the
people most impacted by the issue(s) and inequity(ies). This includes shifting power and control
and working towards approaches where those that are most impacted are a part of leading,
identifying solutions, setting priorities, creating policy agendas, and shifting narrative.
Counter-storytelling is an approach that calls attention to the voices of marginalized
people of color by listening to how their own experiences, and the knowledge that emerges from
them, illuminate, and disrupt dominant narratives about race, racism and racial progress in
society and schools (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001).
Cultural competence refers to having an awareness of one’s own cultural identity and
views about difference, and the ability to learn and build on the varying cultural and community
norms of students and their families. It is the ability to understand the within-group differences
that make each student unique, while celebrating the between-group variations that make our
country a tapestry.
Minority refers to a person who identify as Hispanic, African American/Black, Asian,
American Indian/Alaskan Native, and/or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
13
Race is a social construct, a human-invented classification system and was invented to define
physical differences between people but has more often been used as a tool for oppression and
violence.
Racism refers to racial prejudice supported by institutional power, used to the advantage
of one race and to the disadvantage of another race.
School racial climate describes the perceptions of how race functions with regard to
school values, practices, and norms as experienced by individuals within the school environment.
Teacher of color refers to any K-12 public school teacher who identifies as Hispanic,
African American/Black, Asian, American Indian/Alaskan Native, and/or Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides an overview of key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about teacher diversity within a
public school context. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the initial
concepts of gap analysis and CRT were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of teacher diversity, race and education, and
inclusive working conditions will be addressed. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering
elements as well as methodology when it comes to the choice of participants, data collection and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides
solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.
14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The purpose of this study was to examine the factors related to the underrepresentation of
educators of color in the Midwest Public Schools District. This chapter is a review of literature
related to diversifying the teaching workforce. The review of literature is divided into four sections
and review the historical interactions between race and education in the United States, current
trends, and benefits in diversifying the teaching workforce, and the role of leadership in teacher
diversity. This chapter also reviews critical race, organizational and motivation theory with a
view toward understanding the experiences of teachers of color and factors impacting their
satisfaction with Midwest Public Schools District.
Race and Education in the United States
The United States educational system is criticized for imposing the values of American
culture on to other groups of people at the expense of their own culture (Haynes, 2008).
Historically, the education system has transmitted a hierarchy that prioritizes and enforces
majority culture (Bell 2004; Nakanishi & Nishida, 1995; Woodson, 1933). Examining race as a
social construct is important to understand the dynamics between race and education in the
United States school systems because of the role race plays in the construction of discriminatory
institutionalized practices (Arai & Kivel, 2009). Markus (2008) describes race as an entrenched
practice of sorting ethnic groups while assigning disparate value, power and privilege while
being used to justify prejudice. The following section will provide historical context to the racial
experiences of several minority groups with the U.S. education system and how those
experiences impact connect to the current state of teacher diversity.
There are historical and contemporary factors influencing the current number of teachers
of color in the education workforce. Historical factors include the colonization of Native land
15
and the role of education in Indigenous communities, assimilation into American culture for
Mexicans in the form of schooling and the desegregation of schools leading to attrition of Black
teachers. The next section will review the conditions under which Native, Mexican, and African
American communities experienced the education system and policies and practices that
influence their participation in the workforce.
Native American Education in United States
Indigenous peoples and education have a complex history in the U.S. context, including
power around the role and purpose of education (Brayboy, 2014). Mi’qmaq scholar, Marie
Battiste describes that in the process of colonization, Europeans dismissed the knowledge held
by Indigenous peoples and viewed it as being in binary opposition to “scientific,” “western,”
“Eurocentric,” or “modern” knowledge (Battiste, 2002). As Creek scholar, K. Tsianina
Lomawaima stated, the history of American Indian education can be boiled down to three simple
words: battle for power (Lomawaima, 2000). Brayboy (2014) further articulates, “education in
its many forms is imbued with power: power to control young peoples’ bodies, epistemic
engagement, curriculum and teaching; power to best determine how education and schooling are
utilized and to what end; power to control what kinds of knowledge is shared—or not— when,
and where” (p. 396). Indian Boarding schools were implemented across the United States in the
19th century continuing until the 1970s. During this time, Indigenous children were removed
from their homes and sent to schools operated by the federal government or churches to
assimilate into American culture and forced to give up their native language and customs. These
experiences inform values related to the American educational system that has been designed
and implemented from the dominant society perspective (Writer, 2001). These policies and
practices impact the representation of Native American educators in the field and how Native
16
American students are supported in their identity in U.S. classrooms. According to NCES, in
2017–18, 1% of public school teachers were American Indian or Alaska Native and the student
population of American Indian and Alaska Native students comprised approximately 1% of the
total student population in the United States (NCES, 2020).
Latinx Education in United States
Ortiz and Telles (2012) argue that Mexican Americans have been racialized throughout
U.S. history and is made evident by inequitable education and experiences of discrimination and
stereotyping. The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo of 1848, states that “Mexicans became Mexican
Americans with the stroke of a pen” (Moll & Ruiz, 2009, p. 364), however, the hostility that
surrounds the Mexicans and the Mexican-American War contributed to the poor educational
opportunities offered Mexican Americans in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Scholars discuss
schooling at that time as a form of social control, a form of indoctrination to assimilate into
American culture, with no regards for the preservation of native language and customs (Moll &
Ruiz, 2009; Wiley, 2007). In the 1960s, ‘‘Chicano’’ activists radicalized the Mexican American
movement for civil rights, leading to an affirmation of their Indigenous or non-White roots while
advocating equal opportunity for all, regardless of race (Ortiz & Telles, 2012). These policies
and practices have influenced the number of Latinx teachers in the workforce. Between 2000 and
2017, the percentage of U.S. Hispanic children school-age children increased from 16 to 25%
(NCES 2019). In 2017–18, about 9% of public school teachers were Hispanic which is higher
than in 1999 – 2000, when 6% were Hispanic (NCES, 2020). While the number of Latinx
students has increased 159% since 1987, and the share of Latinx teachers has increased 245%
over the same period (Ingersoll et al., 2017). Simply put, while the number of Latinx teachers
17
entering the profession is growing, they are also exiting the profession at higher rates than other
teachers.
African American Education in the United States
Woodson (1933) argued in The Mis-Education of the Negro, schools in the United States
are not designed to cultivate agency, strength, and skills of Black Americans but function as
institutions to transform Black Americans into individuals who have assimilated to a culture of
Whiteness in a Eurocentric educational system. Eurocentric ideals remain evident in public
school systems and can dominate school policies, procedures, and practices (Delgado, 2000). For
example, Eurocentric curriculum is not inclusive of teachers and students of color and can
perpetuate cultural invisibility (Kohli, 2009), while misinterpreting or omitting their history,
experiences, and contributions (Boyle-Baise & Sleeter, 2008). This ideology impacts teachers
and students of color and prevents comprehensive understanding of the academic, cultural, and
social challenges that minority groups experience in school systems (Bell, 1992; Delgado, 2000;
Kohli, 2009). Moreover, these practices can lead to “dysconscious racism,” where a dominant
group unconsciously implements and perpetuates institutional policies and practices that
legitimize assumptions and stereotypes about minority groups (Jackson, 1999; King, 1991a). A
tradition of excellence and an agenda for Black education dates back to the1860s (Foster, 1997;
Siddle Walker, 2001). Black educators helped to build and operate schools, secure funding, and
other resources, and worked as advocates for the education of Black children (Tillman, 2004).
Teaching was a significant profession in the Black community and served as a primary
leadership role, particularly for Black women (Ethridge, 1979; Foster, 1997; Yeakey et al.,
1986). However, the result of polices such as the groundbreaking Brown versus Board of
Education supreme court decision of 1954 impacted the number of Black teachers that remained
18
in the education workforce. A consequence of school integration where large numbers of Black
educators lost their jobs and were displaced. This led to a sharp decrease in the number of
minority teachers in the workforce (Fultz, 2004; Tillman, 2004; White, 2016). In 1954,
approximately 82,000 African American teachers were responsible for the education of the two
million African American public school students (Hawkins, 1994). This policy put
predominately White school boards and superintendents in control of personnel decisions, such
as hiring, firing, and transfers, in previously all-Black schools (Irvine, 1988). The decisions made
to enforce the policy decreased the Black teacher labor force (D’Amico et al., 2017). A decade
after the policy was enacted, over 38,000 Black educators lost their jobs (Ethridge, 1979;
Holmes, 1990) and between 1975 and 1985, the number of Black students majoring in education
declined by 66% (Smith, 1987). The percentage of Blacks in the teaching workforce continues to
decline such that in 2017–18, Blacks comprised only 7% of the national workforce (NCES,
2020).
The historical factors contribute to the contemporary issues that influence the decrease in
teachers of color in the education pipeline (Madkins, 2011). In fact, the number of Native
American and Black teachers in the workforce continues to decline. Overall, teachers of color
leave the profession at a higher annual rate than do White teachers, 19% versus 15%
respectively. Factors impacting the teacher of color pipeline are explored in greater detail in the
following sections.
Contemporary Factors Impacting the Teacher of Color Pipeline
There are several issues that influence the conditions that impact the number of teachers
of color in the education workforce. The teacher pipeline follows a linear process of preparation,
certification, recruitment and assignment, development, and retention. There is substantial
19
research on the challenges related to the teacher of color pipeline, specifically the examination of
recruitment and retentions efforts. These factors include obstacles to college completion (Al-
Asfour & Abraham, 2016; Hargrove et al., 2008; Mattern et al. 2013; Santos & Haycock, 2016;
Steward et al., 2015); the impact of student debt on teacher preparation enrollment and
completion (Rothstein & Rouse, 2011; Baum & O’Malley, 2003; Gasman et al., 2017; Scott-
Clayton & Li, 2016); quality of teacher preparation and teacher licensure exams (Carver-Thomas
& Darling-Hammond, 2017; Haney et al., 1987; Ingersoll et al., 2012; Tyler, 2011; & Tyler
2011); and school teaching conditions (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll &
May, 2011; Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Levine, 2005; Simon & Johnson, 2015). While it is important
to understand all challenges related to recruitment to address the teacher of color shortage,
critically examining the experiences of teachers of color can provide insight to the factors related
to retention. The next section will explore the nuances of attrition and working conditions and
the impact on teachers of color.
Retention
Data analyses confirm that teaching remains a primarily White, non-Hispanic workforce
and that a gap continues to persist between the percentage of minority students and the
percentage of minority teachers in U.S. schools (Ingersoll et al., 2018). However, this gap is not
solely due to a failure to recruit new minority teachers. In fact, these data indicate that new
teacher recruitment strategies alone do not directly address a major source of minority teacher
staffing problems – retention and attrition (Ingersoll et al., 2019). In an analysis of the National
Center for Education Statistics’ nationally representative Schools and Staffing Survey and the
longitudinal supplement, the Teacher Follow-up Survey found from 1987 to 2012 the number of
minority teachers entering the profession has more than doubled (Ingersoll et al., 2019). Using
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the data from the NCES educational surveys, Ingersoll (2001 found that teacher retention was
influenced by varying factors including retirement, school staffing decisions, personal reasons,
interest in pursuing another job, and/or job dissatisfaction. The data also showed that 39% of
entering teachers leave the profession within the first five years of teaching (Ingersoll, 2002).
Using the data from the NCES educational surveys, Ingersoll (2002) found that teacher retention
was influenced by varying factors including retirement, school staffing decisions, personal
reasons, interest in pursuing another job, and/or job dissatisfaction. The data also showed that
39% of entering teachers leave the profession within the first five years of teaching (Ingersoll,
2002). The lack of retention of teachers, specifically related to teachers of color is connected to teachers
of color being two to three times more likely to be concentrated in high-poverty, high-minority
urban public schools with the most challenging working conditions (Ingersoll, Merrill, & May,
2014).
Teachers of color leave the profession for several reasons. Research conducted by the
Learning Policy Institute found the most frequently cited reasons for teachers leaving were
incompetent and unsupportive leadership, dissatisfaction with the frequency of student testing
and heightened accountability expectations, lack of autonomy, and working conditions (Carver-
Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). The data reveals teachers of color leave the profession at a
higher rate than White teachers with a statistically significant difference in the overall turnover
rates of teachers of color and White teachers, 18.9% and 15.1%, respectively (Ingersoll et al.,
2019). The patterns of attrition summarized by the data do not control for additional influences
that have been found to impact teachers’ decisions to stay in their classrooms, move schools, or
leave teaching altogether, including compensation, student characteristics, teacher preparation
and mentoring, age, and experience, and working conditions.
21
Working Conditions
The working and organizational conditions within schools are strongly related to minority
teacher departures, resulting in disproportionate losses of minority teachers in the profession
(Borman & Dowling, 2008; Ingersoll, 2001; Johnson, 2004; Loeb et al., 2005; Sutcher et al.,
2019). Moreover, according to Ingersoll, the highest rated factors by far for minority teachers
leaving the profession was the level of collective faculty decision-making influence in the school
and the degree of individual instructional autonomy held by teachers in their classrooms
(Ingersoll et al., 2019). Other frequently cited factors are overall dissatisfaction with including
salaries, accountability, opportunities for development, input into decision making, and school
leadership (Ingersoll et al., 2018). School organization, management, and leadership matter, as
their practices, policies, characteristics, and conditions are connected to their ability to retain
minority teachers (Ingersoll et al., 2019). While there has been an increase in the minority
teaching pool, their work environments have also caused an increase in minority teacher
departures which can entail costs and other negative consequences for the larger system.
(Ingersoll & Perda, 2010). Therefore, high levels of teachers of color leaving the profession not
only have implications for the profession but may also be a symptom of underlying problems in
how well organizations function and support diverse talent (Ingersoll et al., 2018). Achinstein et
al., (2010) suggested that because teachers of color are placed in hard to staff urban schools with
limited access to supportive administrators and limited professional development opportunities
they are more likely to leave the profession. Kohli (2016) found in her analysis of 218 narratives
from teachers of color that schools served as racially hostile environments influenced retention
rates. These researchers highlighted the importance of immersing teachers of color into
environments where their perspectives and identity are valued. Simon and Johnson (2015) found
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that increasing teacher workforce diversity benefits teachers of color by reducing feelings of
isolation, frustration, and fatigue.
Racial and Ethnic Diversity of Teacher Workforce
This section provides a brief overview of the current racial and ethnic demographics of
the teaching workforce and student population. Over the past several decades there has been
substantial research focused on the racial and ethnic diversity of the teaching workforce in an
effort to ensure the nation’s workforce reflects student diversity.
Current State of Racial and Ethnic Diversity of Teacher Workforce
The 2014 U.S. census report suggests the United States will be a majority-minority
country in 2044, with a projection that the minority population will rise to 56% of the total in
2060, compared with 38% in 2014 (Colby & Ortman, 2014). This forecasting resembles the shift
in ethnic and racial composition of public schools across the United States. In fact, public school
enrollments are projected by 2022 to increase in Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and
students of two or more races while concurrently White student enrollment is projected to
decrease of (Hussar & Bailey, 2013). According to NCES, between fall 2015 and fall 2027, the
percentage of students enrolled in public schools who are White is projected to continue to
decrease, from 49% to 45% while the percentage of students of color are projected to increase,
Hispanic (from 26% to 29%), Asian/Pacific Islander (from 5% to 6%), and of two or more races
(from 3% to 4%), the percentages of students who are Black and American Indian/Alaska Native
in 2027 are projected to remain at 15% and 1%, respectively (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2009).
There has been little progress toward ensuring that the diversity of the teaching
workforce reflects the diversity of the student body in U.S. public schools (Albert Shanker
23
Institute, 2015). An Ingersoll et al.’s (2018) analyses confirm that teaching workforce is a
primarily White, non-Hispanic and the gap continues to persist between the percentage of
minority students and the percentage of minority teachers in U.S. schools. For instance, in the
2015–2016 school year, about 39% of the nation’s population belonged to minority groups, 51%
of all public elementary and secondary school students were minority, but only 19.9% of all
public elementary and secondary school teachers were minority. More specifically, in 2015–16,
about 80% of public school teachers were White, 9% were Hispanic, 7% were Black, 2% were
Asian, and 1% were of two or more races; additionally, those who were American Indian/Alaska
Native and those who were Pacific Islander each made up less than 1% of public school teachers
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2015).
Benefits to Diversifying the Teacher Workforce
Teachers of color add value to the profession by serving as role models, increasing
student academic achievement, having high expectations of students, and engaging in culturally
responsive pedagogy. Research shows all students benefit from having teachers of color,
especially students of color. Villegas and Irvine (2010) identify effective instructional practices
exhibited by teachers of color who improve the academic outcomes and school experiences of
students, such as implementing culturally responsive teaching, and having high expectations for
students. Teachers of color are more likely to carry positive views of students of color than
White teachers, including more favorable perceptions of their academic potential and higher
expectations for their learning (Boyle-Baise & Sleeter, 2000; Dee, 2005). Several of these areas
are further explored in the following sections.
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Role Models
School environments inform how values are created in addition to being a place where
knowledge is built and transferred (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). United States education systems
perpetuate the stratification that exists in the country when students of color do not see
themselves represented in the workforce (Villegas & Lucas, 2004). Mercer and Mercer (1986)
articulated that the racial and ethnic composition of the teaching force coveys a message to
students about how power is distributed in American society. Scholars have argued that teachers
of color have a role model effect, whereby students of color identify with seeing people of color
in professional roles (Auerbach, 2007; Clewell & Villegas, 1998; Guarino et al., 2006; Quiocho
& Rios 2000; Villegas & Lucas, 2004). According to Irvine (1988), people of color being seen in
professional roles sends a message to White students that people from minority backgrounds can
hold positions of authority and are successful and contributing members of society. This
exposure also benefits students of color by allowing them to see themselves in their teachers
(Zirkel, 2002). Social identity can be defined as how people think about themselves and others.
Through those identities, narratives are formed and reinforced through one’s environments.
Teachers of color play an important role in helping to facilitate positive self-identities for
children of color by undermining stereotype threat, the phenomenon of underperforming because
of feeling stereotyped as an underperformer (Steele, 1997) that exists in larger society. Scholars
acknowledge that race and identity are critical for understanding patterns of belonging,
motivation, and performance because stigmatized social identity groups such as Black
Americans are at a heightened risk of receiving disconfirming messages about whether they fit
within academic spaces (Cohen & García, 2008; Cook et al., 2012; Walton & Cohen, 2011). The
Measure of Effective Teaching study found that minority students in grades 6 to 9 of Black,
25
Latinx, and White teachers had a more favorable perceptions of their minority versus White
teachers including areas of feeling cared for and academically challenged (Cherng & Halpin,
2016).
Academic Achievement
Teachers of color positively impact the academic growth and achievement of students of
color (Achinstein et al., 2010). Research has demonstrated that an assignment to a same race
teacher significantly increased the math and reading achievement of students of color. Thomas
Dee (2004) conducted a seminal study in which data from the Tennessee Project STAR class size
experiment data was analyzed and found students taught by a same race teacher performed
higher in both reading and math. The results were higher when a Black teacher was assigned to a
Black student (Dee, 2004). Additional studies substantiated these findings. For example, most
recently a 2015 Florida study showed gains were greater in math and reading when Black
teachers were matched with Black students, as opposed to those matched with White teachers
(Egalite et al., 2015). Using longitudinal data from North Carolina, researchers found when
students were assigned to a teacher of the same race, they performed better in both reading and
math as opposed to when assigned to a teacher of a different race (Clotfelter et al., 2007;
Goldhaber & Hansen, 2010). In fact, Goldhaber and Hansen (2010) found the effects to be larger
for Black students. Nasir (2012) explores how schools make available particular racialized
identities to students that shape students’ processes of engagement and learning, as well as their
outcomes, recognizing the cultural processes that unfold within the racialized social context of
schools.
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High Expectations
Teachers of color are more likely to carry positive views of students of color than White
teachers, including more favorable perceptions of their academic potential and higher
expectations for their learning (Fox, 2015; Gershenson et al., 2016; Ouazad, 2014; Tenenbaum &
Ruck, 2007). There is also evidence to support the role teachers of color play in other areas
beyond student achievement such as behavior, performance, and teachers’ subjective
evaluations. Ehrenberg (1995) found that teachers’ subjective evaluations were better with same
race students. Upon reviewing the same data, Dee (2005) discovered having a teacher of a
different race increased the likelihood that students were viewed as disruptive by 46%,
inattentive by 34%, and rarely completing assignments by 28%. Moreover, a 2017 study revealed
Black students were less likely to receive exclusionary discipline if they were taught exclusively
by Black teachers (Lindsay & Hart, 2017). Furthermore, another study found that expectations of
educational attainment were significantly lower for Black students (Gershenson et al., 2016).
Teachers having low expectations of students could lead to stereotype threat, whereby low
expectations either cause emotional responses that directly harm performance or cause students
to disengage with educational environments (Steele, 1997).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Irvine (1988) articulated that teachers of color bring a deep understanding of the cultural
experiences of students of color and are able to leverage that connection to support academic
outcomes (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). In this regard, teachers of color can function as cultural
translators and advocates for students of color because they have multicultural awareness
(Cherng & Davis, 2017). Culturally relevant pedagogy as defined by Gay & Howard (2000) is
“using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of
27
ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them”
(p. 29). The concept of culturally relevant teaching places the cultural backgrounds of students at
the center teaching and benefits students of all ethnicities, religions, and backgrounds by
providing an opportunity to incorporate themselves into their own learning process (Gay &
Howard, 2000). Culturally responsive teaching ensures that learning takes place in a cultural
context in a learning environment and supports the construction of new ideas to make meaning
(Ladson-Billings, 1994). Through a three-year study, Ladson-Billings (1994) found culturally
relevant pedagogy must meet the following standards: developing students academically,
nurturing cultural competence, and developing critical consciousness. Beauboeuf-Lafont (1999),
examined culturally relevant teaching as a political pedagogy, developing the concept of
politically relevant teaching rooted in utilizing knowledge of social inequalities to empower
marginalized students, and noting the importance of the political clarity of teachers who used
their own powers to empower children to understand and undermine subordination. Foster
(1993) contends, it is important to understand the effect of teachers’ cultural background or
racial identity on their beliefs and practices and how teachers’ awareness of their students’ ethnic
or cultural backgrounds positively influences and shapes their practice as educators. Teachers of
color are more likely to utilize culturally relevant pedagogies, which supports the development of
positive cultural identities (Dixson & Dingus, 2008; Irizarry & Donaldson, 2012; Lynn, 2006),
and serve as cultural brokers with the community (Eddy & Easton-Brooks, 2011; García-
Nevarez et al., 2005; Gomez & Rodriguez, 2011). In sum, teachers of color add value to schools
and have the potential for improving the educational experiences and academic outcomes of
students of color through engaging in culturally relevant pedagogy (Villegas & Lucas, 2004).
28
Role of Leaders in Teacher Diversity
Ingersoll and May (2011) suggest that school organization, management and leadership
are most related to retention. State and district policies can help school leaders develop the skills
to center equity and create school environments in which teachers of color want to stay. Research
shows work conditions such as competent and supportive leadership are found to be related to
teachers’ decisions to stay in or leave a school. At the school district level, superintendents have
the ability to make diversifying the school district’s teaching workforce a priority (Goings &
Bianco, 2016). In addition to superintendents, human resource officers have an important role in
diversifying the teaching workforce and can be gatekeepers responsible for recruitment and
initial interviewing of teacher candidates. D’Amico et al. (2017) found in their analysis of one
large school district that, Black candidates were less likely than White candidates to be hired.
School leaders influence teaching conditions and are responsible for creating safe, welcoming
school environments that guide the education of diverse student populations. Principals serve as
instructional leaders, setting norms for students and staff, and nurturing a positive and
encouraging culture (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). Moreover, principals have a direct
influence on the racial diversity of their staff. For instance, in an effort to decentralize school
districts, principals increasingly have the autonomy to hire teachers that they deem are a fit for
their school (Laura, 2018). School leaders that recognize that teacher diversity is important are
more likely to recruit and retain teachers of color (Goings & Bianco 2016). Educational leaders
who engage in equity work are described as being able to recognize that society and societal
institutions marginalize certain groups and work to decrease inequities through their work
(Theoharis, 2007). The National Policy Board for Educational Administration contends that
school leaders must confront and alter institutional biases of student marginalization, deficit-
29
based schooling, and low expectations associated with race, class, culture and language, gender
and sexual orientation, and disability or special status and address matters of equity and cultural
responsiveness in all aspects of leadership (NPBEA, 2015). Effective leaders ensure that each
student is treated fairly, respectfully, and with an understanding of each student’s culture and
context (NPBEA, 2015, p. 11).
Stakeholder Organizational and Motivation Influences
Organization Influences
This section begins with a focus on the organization because of its critical influence on
the stakeholder group, teachers of color. As outlined in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework, organizational influences impact stakeholder performance. To understand the impact
of organizational influences on stakeholder experience, this section will explore how teachers of
color experience the organizational culture.
There are organizational influences that determine whether a group can be successful in
supporting the organization to achieve their goals. Schein (1996) denoted; organizational culture
comprises norms that are accepted within an organization. Due to the complex and dynamic
nature of organizational culture, it is important to consider influences that impact performance.
One of those influences is leadership and the role it plays in promoting an organizational culture
that supports all staff. Employees must be provided with the tools to achieve organizational
goals, as well as alignment between the organizational culture and behavior (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) identified two categories of organizational influences:
cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models are defined as shared mental schema and
are often invisible by those who hold them (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models are
30
dynamic rather than static traits and are expressed through cultural practices such as behavior
and rules in specific contexts (Rueda, 2011). Within the context of a school district, cultural
models help shape the ways that organization is structured, including the values, practices,
policies, and reward structures (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings on the other hand are the visible
manifestations of cultural models. For example, a cultural setting is manifested in people coming
together to carry out a joint activity that accomplishes something of value (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Within a school district context, cultural settings are where organizational
policies and practices are enacted (Rueda, 2011). Therefore, in trying to understand and perhaps
influence behavior in a school or district, it is important to understand the characteristics of the
cultural setting (Rueda, 2011).
Another key organizational influence is the racial climate of schools. School climate
refers to the social atmosphere of a learning environment in which students have different
experiences, depending on the protocols set up by the teachers and administrators (Moos, 1979).
A positive school climate is a school environment that makes students feel emotionally and
physically safe, create a sense of belonging, respect for their well-being and have high
expectations for success (Voight et al., 2015). However, school racial climate broadens the
school climate lens to reflect how race and perceptions of race impact schooling (Mattison &
Aber, 2007). The racial climate of the school analyzes the perceptions of race relations, racial
fairness, racial treatment, and experiences of racism in the school (Watkins & Aber, 2009). The
racialized climate of the school not only impact the students’ ability to learn but shapes the
experiences of teachers of color due to the beliefs, values, and assumptions held in the
environment. I will review cultural models, cultural settings and school racial climate in the
following section as key organizational influences that inform stakeholder performance.
31
The School District Needs to Address Issues of Race and Racism
School districts have a responsibility to challenge racism in their schools because racial
hierarchy are still a part of the schooling process (Kohli & Solórzano, 2012). Kumashiro (2000)
argued that educational spaces must be anti-oppressive and must welcome individuals who are
Othered for their race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and ability status. However, naming race can
be difficult when discussions of race and K-12 education are often silenced by colorblind
practices and policies (Bonilla-Silva, 2010). Bonilla-Silva (2010) defined colorblindness as a
practice of ignoring race or racial difference. Many teachers of color work within systems that
despite serving majority students of color, continue to operate as sites of whiteness (Matias &
Liou, 2015). A culture of colorblindness and racial microaggressions manifest as macro and
micro forms of racism and take a toll on the professional growth and retention of teachers of
color (Kohli, 2018). Racial microaggressions are subtle racial insults that support a racial and
cultural hierarchy of minority inferiority (Kohli & Solórzano, 2012). These practices impact the
climate of a school environment and can hinder individuals of color from feeling seen and
valued. In a 2016 national qualitative survey, Black teachers shared they face racial
discrimination and stereotyping that leave them feeling alienated and restricted from
participating in the school community, impacting their ability to be effective and ultimately, their
desire to remain in the profession (Griffin & Tackie, 2016). The district can create a safe and
affirming environments for teachers of color. Supporting educators to confront these issues will
support the organizational goal to increase teacher diversity. This study will explore how
teachers of color experience issues of race and racism.
According to Goodenow (1993), belonging requires experiences of being liked,
respected, and valued. Increasing connectedness creates trusting and caring relationships that
32
promote open communication among administrators, teachers, staff, students, families, and
communities. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011) shared the concept of value consonance which is
defined as the degree to which teachers feel that they share the prevailing norms and values at
the school where they are teaching. Their research found value consonance was positively related
to teachers’ feeling of belonging and job satisfaction. Therefore, creating an environment where
teachers feel a sense of belonging and value will support the stakeholder goal of increasing
employee satisfaction and increasing teacher diversity in the school district. Teachers of color
should feel like valuable members of the school and should be able to mobilize with their peers
to change conditions to address root structural causes of racial oppression. The level of
engagement may be influenced by a by a sense of belonging and trust teachers of color feel in
their work environments (Gray et al., 2018). This study seeks to understand how the experiences
teachers of color have in their work environments influence their level of job satisfaction.
The School District’s Commitment to Diversifying the Workforce
Teacher diversity is an asset that promotes a dynamic, inclusive learning environment for
all students. The school district has to demonstrate commitment to having a teacher workforce
reflect the diversity of the student population. Organizational culture inevitably filters and affects
all attempts to improve performance, and successful performance improvement will depend on
taking the specific organizational culture in to account (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore,
employees must be provided with concrete resources to achieve the stated organizational goals,
as there needs to be alignment between the organizational culture and behavior (Clark & Estes,
2008). Districts have to address to the racial climate in schools and its impact on teachers of
color when considering diversifying the teaching force. As an analysis by Kohli in 2018
revealed, the racism impacted the well-being, growth, and retention of teachers of color. The
33
district needs strategies in place to recruit, employ, support, and retain a workforce that includes
racial, gender, and linguistic diversity, as well as culturally competent administrative,
instructional and support personnel to address racial discrimination and bias in school-district
hiring practices (Griffin & Tackie, 2016). These contextual factors will influence the
organization’s ability to reach the goal of increasing teacher diversity.
The School District Needs to Demonstrate a Commitment to Equity
Organizational culture focuses on values, beliefs and assumptions held by leadership. To
move a school toward cultural proficiency stewarded by culturally responsive leadership, school
leaders must build the framework through culturally responsive pedagogy, which begins with the
process of critical self-reflection (Gay & Kirkland, 2003). Culturally responsive leaders must
also facilitate a positive school climate and nurture positive relationships with the community.
These partnerships increase the sense of trust between students, families, and schools, which in
turn improves student connectedness to school and feelings of inclusiveness. An equity analysis
requires an interrogation of questions such as who is being well served, left out or harmed by the
policies and practices of the organization and leaders of equity should be committed to
interrupting policies, practices, and procedures that, explicitly or implicitly, perpetuate unequal
outcomes for children who are furthest away from opportunity.
Table 2 presents information specific to the assumed organizational influences. As shown
in the table, there are both cultural models and cultural settings identified.
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Table 2
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational influence category Assumed organizational influences
Cultural Model Influence 1
The school district needs to address issues of
race and racism.
Cultural Model Influence 2
The school district needs to diversify the
teaching workforce.
Cultural Setting Influence 1
The school district needs to demonstrate a
commitment to equity.
Motivational Influences
Motivation is a construct that helps to explain why individuals choose to approach or
avoid a task, and once engaged whether they put in effort and persist or simply quit (Kumar et
al., 2018). Teachers are often motivated by values, ethical motives, and intrinsic motivation
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011). Social-cognitive theory adopts an agentic perspective to human
development, adaptation, and change and distinguishes among three modes of agency: personal
agency exercised individually; proxy agency in which people secure desired outcomes by
influencing others to act on their behalf; and collective agency in which people act in concert to
shape their future (Bandura, 2002). The theory also encompasses perceived collective efficacy,
representing shared beliefs in the power to produce desired effects by collective action (Bandura,
1997, 2000). A fundamental assumption of all social-cognitive theories of motivation is that
individuals have an inherent need for independence, personal agency, responsibility, and control
(Kumar et al., 2018). While there are several theories regarding the construct of motivation, this
study is grounded in CRT and will contextualize the concept of motivation within the structure
of schools and the school district. CRT provides a framework to examine how the structures in
35
place seek to protect the motivation teachers of color bring into school environments. Therefore,
rather than measuring their motivation to navigate racialized school environments, this study is a
shift to understand and elevate their experiences using the CRT framework to examine how the
systemic structures in place impact the motivation teachers of color bring to school
environments.
Race-Focused Construct
Race as a sociohistorical construct has not traditionally been investigated in educational
psychology research (DeCuir-Gunby & Schutz 2014). DeCuir-Gunby and Schutz (2014)
examined educational psychology’s use of race-focused and race-reimaged constructs. Race-
focused constructs (e.g., racial identity, racial socialization, stereotype threat, etc.) are centered
around issues of race and are developed from racial categorizations and racial categorization
theories (Helms et al., 2005), whereas race-reimaged constructs are traditional constructs (e.g.,
self-efficacy, self-regulation, achievement motivation, etc.) that are reconceptualized to include
racially influenced, sociocultural perspectives (e.g. history, context, multiple identities, etc.).
This study will use a race-focused approach and is grounded in race-based and cultural theories
because of the focus on how a racial group experiences a racially grounded construct, in which
the construct itself is essential to understanding the experience of the research participants
(DeCuir-Gunby & Schutz, 2014). This approach to research was identified for several reasons.
DeCuir-Gunby and Schutz (2014) stated that adopting a race-focused approach requires the
following: (a) focusing on a construct that is theoretically based in racial literature rather than
presenting racial group(s) as demographic information, (b) a race-focused approach is
concentrated on understanding the race-focused construct instead of how race explains other
constructs, and (c) utilizing a race-focused approach goes further than comparing racial groups,
36
but focuses on how a racial group(s) experiences a racially grounded construct. The racialized
experiences of teachers of color are core to the study and will determine the level to which those
experiences influence their motivation to inform systemic-level change and impact their
satisfaction as employees of the school district.
The Racialized Experiences of Teachers of Color Impact Their Motivation to
Inform Systemic-Level Change. Research in Australia, New Zealand, England, and the United
States found the main source of satisfaction among teachers was the opportunity to make a
difference and contribute to children’s development (Scott et al., 2001). However, the racial
climates of school’s specifically impact teachers of color and can influence their motivation to
fight for change. Communities of color have organized themselves against injustice, yet the
internal environment and culture of a school district reveal the challenges teachers of color face
to influence systemic change (Kohli, 2016). For example, Landon-Billings (1991) shares the
notion of multiple consciousness, where Black teachers function within the power structure and
without it in terms of race, gender, and class (pg 4) and navigate systems that often exclude them
and children of nondominant groups. The cultural underpinning of schools in the United States is
largely consistent with middle-class, European values (Boykin, 2004), which can cause schools
to not value and acknowledge the strengths of diversity in their buildings including teachers,
students, and families. The messages about race and culture communicated at school (Aldana &
Byrd, 2015; Byrd, 2015) dissuade teachers of color to challenge a structure that centers
Eurocentric hierarchies that inadequately frame people of color through deficits (Valencia, 1997,
2010; Yosso, 2005). Rauscher and Wilson (2017) found gender discrimination and White racial
privilege as workplace stressors for teachers of color that impact their experiences. Therefore,
37
this study will examine the sociocultural forces that shape the experiences of teacher of color,
and how issues related to race and racism influence their job satisfaction.
The Role of Teachers of Color in Influencing and Informing Policy at the Individual
School and District Level. Agency is intentional efforts to affect and to make a difference,
which makes it necessary for the transformation of work practices and cultures (Hökkä et al.,
2017). Toom et al. (2015) describe the concept of teacher agency as teachers’ efforts to make
choices and act deliberately in ways that make a significant difference while professional agency
explicitly refers to professionals who act intentionally, exercise control, and influence their
professional identity, work, work environment, and professional development (Eteläpelto et al.,
2013). Collective agency refers to the idea of a group of people sharing and pursuing a common
interest in order to improve their own lives, and to affect larger contexts (Ibrahim, 2006). A
study conducted in 2017 explored teachers’ professional collective identity and agency which
demonstrated how both identity and collective agency are interconnected and found that a shared
understanding of collective identity directs collective agency (Hökkä et al., 2017). The study
emphasizes the need to creating trusting environments where all teachers felt validated, heard,
and accepted for collective agency to be created. Similarity, collective identity requires personal
narratives to be shared in trusting and welcoming environments. Simply put, teachers’ having a
common understanding of themselves and position in an organization they are able to
collectively influence work environments and their professional identities (Hökkä et al., 2017).
There are both personal and contextual social factors that shape, facilitate, or restrict
teachers’ agency in their various professional and organizational contexts. The shared efforts to
teachers of color to take stances within the school district may be challenging without collective
agency. While communities of color have organized against systemic injustices such as Brown
38
vs Board of Education and school funding formulas (Yazzie and Martinez v. State of New
Mexico) and culturally responsive curriculum (Cammarota, 2008), teachers of color face the
power and political dynamics of a school system. Therefore, influencing policy at the school and
district level presents challenges without collective agency amongst teachers. Additional issues
such as having a sense of belonging are explored in the sections that follow (Gray et al., 2018).
The Racialized Experiences of Teachers of Color Impact Their Level of Satisfaction
as Employees of the School District. Kohli (2016) The majority of public schools in the United
States are staffed by mostly White teachers and administrators (Feistritzer et al., 2011) and often
implement curricula mandates that don’t reflect diverse perspectives (Calderon, 2014), and a
non-inclusive school culture that promotes dominant values (Olivos, 2009). Dixon et al. (2019)
study found, teachers of color reported having challenges with colorblindness and racial
microaggressions (Kohli & Solórzano, 2012; Perez Huber & Solórzano, 2015). Moreover, Kohli
(2016) suggests that viewing the literature with a critical race lens it is revelated the racialized
experiences of teachers of color take a toll on their well-being, growth, impact their overall job
satisfaction and retention. For example, novice teachers of color did not feel supported in
navigating sociocultural issues that valued their racial identity, according to study conducing by
Achinstein and Aguirre (2008). Similarly, Madsen and Mabokela (2000) revealed Black teachers
faced burdens such as being asked to serve in stereotypical roles, along with feelings of isolation
(Mabokela & Madsen, 2007). Due to the racialized experiences teachers of color face from their
teacher preparation programs and in their daily teaching lives racism could also serve as a barrier
in their professional growth and retention, particularly for teachers who are committed to
challenging racial inequity. As Kohli (2016) points out, research has not yet connected racism to
39
the attrition of teachers of color, annually, racial minority teachers exit the profession at a rate
24% higher than their White counterparts (Easton-Brooks, 2013; Robinson et al., 2003).
Teachers of Color Have Autonomy in Classroom to Implement Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy. It is important to analyze how instruction and curriculum affect the
experiences of not only students, but the educators charged with implementation. Culturally
relevant pedagogy functions as an instructional opportunity for belonging that affirms students in
their racial identity. Teachers of color have the opportunity to disrupt societal inequities in the
educational system through curricular experiences connected to real life issues. Black students in
culturally affirming classrooms have opportunities to explore their racial identity in a context
that legitimizes their culture, thereby allowing them to see commonalities and take pride in their
connection to people who look like them (Gray et al., 2018). Gray et al., (2018) argues
curriculum often does not acknowledge the cultural values of its learners signals that the
perspectives, philosophies, and histories of Eurocentric racial-ethnic groups are more important
than those of other groups. Culturally responsive teaching encompasses the critical
consciousness and cultural competence of educators (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Culturally responsive pedagogy draws on the cultural roots and connects the experiences
of students to content (Ladson-Billings, 1991). In other words, culturally responsive teaching
supports students in creating meaning to understand the world by using the students’ culture to
empower them to critically examine the educational process and content to discover their role in
creating a multicultural society (Ladson-Billings, 1991). Some school environments may not
support this approach, as it challenges dominant ideology and authenticates knowledge that may
not be valued and centers the experiences of those that may be excluded due to race, ethnicity,
class, or gender (Ladson-Billings, 1991). Implementing culturally responsive pedagogy exposes
40
students to cultural concepts from creates the space for increased self-understanding and
appreciation for a variety of ethnic groups (Gray et al., 2018). Dixson et al. (2019) reports
teachers of color not connecting to the assigned curriculum and not empowered to make
alterations to ensure students see themselves represented in course content. Research has cited
this lack of autonomy, having the power and responsibility to take actions that lead to growth
and society change (Kumar et al., 2018) to cause teacher of color to leave the profession
(Ingersoll & May, 2011).
Collective Agency
Collective self-efficacy is a collective version of self-efficacy and can be defined as a
group’s belief that they, as a whole, can accomplish a goal (Bandura, 1993). There is an
increasing body of research that demonstrates the impact of perceived collective efficacy on
group functioning (Bandura, 2000). Bandura (1997) analyzed the effects of naturally developed
beliefs of collective efficacy in diverse social systems, specifically in education. The findings
taken as a whole show that the higher the perceived collective efficacy, the higher the group’s
motivational investment in their undertakings, the stronger their staying power in the face of
impediments and setbacks, and the greater their performance accomplishments (Bandura, 2000).
Collective agency adds the sense of autonomy to have the power and responsibility to take
actions that lead to individual growth and societal change (Kumar et al., 2018). However,
collective efficacy often does not consider the lived experiences of people of color (Kumar et al.
2018). In the context of this study, teachers of color contribute to the societal change of creating
opportunity structures for students of color (Gray et al., 2018). Specifically, this study will
explore the extent to which teachers of color perceive that they have the power to influence the
cultural responsiveness of their work environment that support their professional growth and
41
student achievement. Without demonstrating collective agency, teachers of color may not be able
to report a high level of employee satisfaction, thus leave the district.
Teachers of color need to have a sense of belonging in school culture. Interpersonal
relationships with peers are key to establishing a sense of belonging (Gray et al., 2018). The
concept of belonging is important when exploring collective identity among educators Davey &
Davey (2013). Research suggests individuals can develop a positive sense of belonging when the
cultural values promoted in schools are compatible with the cultural values that they bring with
them to school (Dotterer et al., 2009). Hökkä et al. (2017) describe collective identity as a
professional community of teachers that sees and values itself as a group and how the group is
situated and valued within the whole organization. These concepts connect to the experiences
teachers of color have in position and power dynamics of the school district (Davey, 2013) and
how connectedness to school culture can impact what opportunities exist for meaningful
participation and the inform the quality of relationships created. This study will further explore
how teachers of color are supported institutionally and the structures that exists to facilitate their
motivation.
Table 3 identifies the assumed motivation influences which focuses on race-focused
construct and collective agency. The following influences are essential in understanding how the
teachers of color engage in their work environment.
42
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Influence
Motivation construct Assumed motivation influence
Race-Focused Construct 1 The racialized experiences of teachers of color impact their
motivation to inform systemic-level change.
Race-Focused Construct 2 The racialized experiences of teachers of color impact their
level of satisfaction as employees of the school district.
Collective Agency Teachers of color have a sense of belonging in school culture.
This section explained multiple things that influence the experiences of teachers of color
in the school district. Those things include the culture of the individual schools and district as
well as the motivation teachers of color bring to the school environment. The following chapter
will discuss the methods of the study while providing more information on the participants.
43
Chapter Three: Methods
The qualitative study focuses on the interaction between organizational culture and the
racialized experiences of teachers of color in an urban public school district. In this chapter the
research design and methods for sampling, data collection and analysis are presented. In the final
section ethics and limitations are reviewed. The stakeholder group is teachers of color and the
following research questions guided this study:
1. How does the racial climate of the school district influence the retention of teachers of
color?
2. How does organizational culture influence work environments for teachers of color?
a. What are the organizational factors that contribute to low representation of teacher of
color in the district?
3. How do the racialized experiences of teachers of color influence their motivation to
inform systemic-level change?
a. What motivation and organizational solutions are recommended to increase
representation of teachers of color in the district workforce?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population for this study were teachers of color in the Midwest Public
Schools District. The selection criteria utilized for participation are teachers of color in the
school district across prekindergarten through twelfth grade. Teachers of color are defined as
Midwest Public Schools personnel that identify as nonwhite, non-Hispanic and serve as teachers
of record in their classroom. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework and CRT,
this study explored the experiences of teachers of color in relation to the racial climate of the
school district and their perceptions of the climate’s influence on their well-being.
44
Interview Sampling Strategy
The research questions necessitated a qualitative study, so purposeful sampling was
appropriate, as I am interested in an in-depth understanding of the experiences of teachers of
color in an urban public school district. I utilized the snowball strategy to recruit participants for
the study. I have built trusting relationships with several teachers of color in the school district
through my involvement with the Parent Teacher Organization and School Improvement Team.
Through these relationships there is an opportunity to build out the network through the
recommendations from those teachers of color to create a heterogenous sample. This approach
provides an opportunity to identify a purposeful sample and go deeper with those participants
rather than generalize.
As stated by Merriam & Tisdell (2016) purposeful sampling assumes that the investigator
wants to discover, understand, and gain insight, therefore must select a sample from which the
most can be learned. According to the 2018–2019 Michigan Department of Education, there are
approximately 830 teachers in the state, of which 83% are White (Michigan Department of
Education, 2019). Of the 150 teachers of color Midwest Public Schools, I recruited 10 to
participate in the study across prekindergarten through twelfth grade. Engaging with a small
number of teachers provided the opportunity to go in depth and learn more about the individual
experiences and narratives of teachers of color with the school district.
I conducted individual interviews with each participant. The participants are teachers of
color who have taught in the school district for at least one year. These individuals were selected
because they were able to share their experiences in the school district and provided data to help
in answer the research questions. The tenets of CRT require that research validates the racialized
45
realities of participants (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001), benefits them and their community
(Solórzano & Yosso, 2001), and co-constructs meaning with participants (Pizarro, 1998).
Therefore, using a CRT lens and work for social justice, this sampling criteria will be utilized to
identify participants.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
All participants are teachers of color in Midwest Public Schools.
Criterion 2
All participants in the study are the teacher of record in a prekindergarten through twelfth
grade classroom.
Criterion 3
All participants have been a teacher for a least one school year.
Criterion 4
All participants will be motivated to enact systemic-level change.
Teachers were recruited through the snowball strategy. The teachers connected me to
other teachers of color within the school district. This recruitment strategy is appropriate based
on the criteria outlined and the lack of access to an internal database that might allow another
approach. Additionally, due to the relatively small pool of participants to select from, variation is
important across race, gender and even grade level. This variation will supported me in
answering the research questions by providing insight to the organizational culture across
multiple schools and the different work environments. Additional insight will also be provided
across the experiences of males and females in the district. The experiences of participants varied
46
across these areas and will provide diverse perspectives to the sample. I reached out to each
participant individually via email and by phone with a recruitment script to discuss the study.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Individual interviews were the best method to collect data due to personal nature of the
study. Interviews provided the space for teachers of color to go deeper and share their own
experiences. I was able to collect detailed information about their personal feelings, perceptions,
and opinions. By interviewing the participants there is an additional level of nuance because I
was able to ask clarifying to questions, probe to go deeper on a particular topic and ask follow-up
questions.
Interviews
I conducted individual interviews with each participant. There was a total of 10
interviews conducted. Each interview was formal and scheduled in advance to ensure there was
ample time to cover the material. The interviews took place virtually via videoconference. The
interview protocol offered support as an instrument of inquiry in asking questions for specific
information related to the aims of a study (Patton, 2015). I used a semi-structured approach with
open-ended questions as an instrument for conversation to capture participants experiences. This
is the best approach because it assumes that the participants define the world in their own unique
ways (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were recorded with the permission of participants
and notes were taken during the interview. The questions asked were centered on the
participants’ experiences as teachers of color in the school district and are directly connected the
assumed influences.
47
Documents
I used a systemic procedure to collect documents for my research. The documents
provided context and support the credibility of the study. I collected documents in multiple ways.
I obtained the school district strategic plan from the website. The school district also publishes a
monthly paper, Excelsior that is mailed out to all residents within the school district. Both
documents are online and publicly available. I reviewed meeting minutes from board meetings
held by the school district. The strategic plan provided data around the school districts
commitment to diversifying the teaching workforce and commitment to equity. The minutes
from the school board meetings provided data on the role teachers of color play in influencing
and informing policy at the district level.
Data Analysis
To gain nuanced meaning from the data collected from the interviews, I engaged in
qualitative coding. I began with a deductive approach using a priori codes to reflect categories
that are already of interest before the research began, such as race, principal, school culture, and
culturally responsive pedagogy. The cyclical process of coding supported me in moving through
the hierarchy of coding towards patterns and ultimately findings in the analysis process. Coding
with clarity, rigor and thoroughness supported me in determining the patterns that emerged. CRT
was utilized as an analytical lens to code the data collected. Through exploring the stories shared
by teachers of color, themes emerged based on the narratives shared from participants. The
themes related to the research questions were sorted into categories. Memos were used as a
formal process to document thoughts, concerns, and to jumpstart the initial stage of analysis.
Reflections were utilized after interviews to serve as a bridge between what participants shared
48
during the interviews and what I observed. Both tools were used to capture trends, themes, and
patterns of responses.
Corbin and Strauss (2008) point out, analytic tools are heuristic devices that assist to
understand possible meaning. Several analytic tools were used to assist in thinking through the
data. For example, due to the various meanings of a word or phrase, it was important to
determine which may need further analysis. This is particularly important given my study
because language varied as we discussed the racialized experiences of participants. Another
analytic tool I used is drawing upon personal experience. I share similar experiences with the
stakeholder group, and I can used those experiences to stimulate thinking about various
dimensions of concepts. Lastly, I asked additional questions to uncover contextual factors which
added additional nuance to the analytical process. I used tables to organize and make sense of the
data collected.
The district strategic plan, meeting minutes, and newspaper articles were used as a form
of data. These documents are easily accessible. Documents provided historical understanding,
tracked changes and development efforts of the organization because they are products of the
context in which they were created, thus grounded in real world (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), document analysis is objective because the presence
of the investigator does not alter what is being studied. These documents were informative to my
research topic and helped to build categories and theoretical constructs thus becoming evidence
to support the findings and answer the research questions. The information gathered was
cataloged and coded. I used charts to organize the data.
49
Credibility and Trustworthiness
While credibility focuses on the method and trustworthiness on the role of researcher,
both are connected and critically important. I ensured rigor in carrying out the study to ensure
trustworthiness. I used multiple strategies to increase the credibility of the study. First, I used
triangulation by using more than one method of data collection, interviews, and documents
analysis. By using a variety of methods, I reduced the risk of systemic biases due to a specific
method (Maxwell, 2013). The second strategy I used is member checks by soliciting feedback on
preliminary findings from my stakeholder group (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This strategy
eliminated the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what participants say and do and
their perspective they have on what is going on, as well as being an important way of identifying
my own bias and misunderstanding of what I observed (Maxwell, 2013). The third strategy I
used is collecting copious, low inference fieldnotes, of which were verbatim and mechanically
recorded.
I considered my positionality within the context of this study, due to the relationships I
have with participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I am a Black woman and have previously
taught in urban school districts and I did not want this to impact the type of information the
participants shared with me, which could have resulted in being a limitation of the study, because
it is something I can’t control. I am a Black woman, and my research is centered on the
experiences of teachers of color which supported the development of trust with participants. Due
to the power relations inherent in the research act itself, critical attention was paid to the role of
reflexivity. A basic assumption in my theoretical framework, CRT is that the world is informed
by structured power relations based on race, gender, class sexual orientation, dis/ability or
religion and therefore including the research study itself (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To
50
challenge the power relations that exists, I conducted my research with my stakeholder group,
not on them and own the effects of positionality and insider/outsider stances (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). I exercised disciplined subjectivity to explain my biases, dispositions, and assumptions
regarding my study. While I believe this study is imperative to address key gaps that exist within
the school district, my various roles made it quite complex. I am a parent of two Black male
students that attend school in the district, I serve on the School Improvement Team and the
Parent Teacher Organization at their elementary school.
Merriam & Tisdell (2016) explains that ethical dilemmas typically depend on the
investigator’s own sensitivity and values. In my role as the researcher, I recognize there are
assumptions and biases that I bring to the table. Therefore, I was intentional about incorporating
disciplined subjectivity, specifically based on my 17-year career in public education, my current
occupation as a national education program officer and being a Black mother of two boys of
color within the school district. As a former classroom teacher, teacher mentor, school
administrator and central office staff, I understand the experiences of all parties within the school
context. Due to my interests and the multiple roles that I have, it was important for me to make
sure participants understood my role as the researcher. I was intentional about acknowledging
how my experiences as a parent and educator informed my interactions with participants and was
sure not cause any harm to participants for their involvement in the study.
Ethics
There are three ethical principles I considered as a researcher conducting a qualitative
study – respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. I will further detail while explaining key
applications of ethical principles.
51
I partnered with participants to investigate the research questions. My approach to
informed consent included ensuring participants understood the nature of the research, awareness
of any risks it poses, and that they were not forced either covertly or overly to participate (Rubin
& Rubin, 2012). According to Glesne (2011), through informed consent study participants were
made aware that participation is voluntary and any aspects of the research that might affect their
well-being they could freely choose to stop participation at any point in the study. Upon further
discussion, I shared the process by which the study would be conducted and that confidentiality
mechanisms were in place including the use of pseudonyms.
To understand how conventional research relationships with power are disproportionately
located on the side of the researcher (Glesne, 2010), and the researcher is often viewed as the
ultimate source of authority, I addressed those dynamics by protecting their confidences and
preserving their anonymity (Glesne, 2011). Since I worked with staff of the school district, I do
not want any of the information shared or data collected to negatively impact their employment. I
might be tempted to become an advocate – decide to take a position on some issue that I become
aware of through the research and champion a cause (Glesne, 2010). Due to my awareness of this
possibility, I will need to think through ways in which forms of presentations and publications
could resolve this issue or ways to contextualize the findings to elevate the differential realities
of participants, which could lead to more effective interpretation of the data (Glesne, 2010).
Additionally, the interview process could present an opportunity for an ethical dilemma to occur.
Interviews, due to the open-ended nature, can carry risk and rewards (Merriam, 2009). With that,
I will need to focus my role as a researcher, which is not to solve problems, but instead to listen
and gather data.
52
Limitations
There were limitations with my study. I sought 10 participants to interview for my
sample, but I was only able to get eight to participate. The COVID-19 pandemic presented
challenges for recruitment for participants. Additionally, the method I am using to collect data is
interviews. This method has inherent limitations including my ability to verify the truthfulness of
my participants. Additionally, the construct of race is limiting. Participants self-identified their
race and are perceived differently. Each participant has their own and unique racialized
experiences.
53
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine how the school racial climate impacts the
retention of teachers of color through exploring their lived experiences and the organizational
and motivation influences. The study used CRT as an analytical lens to explore the narratives
shared from participants and the gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2008) to affirm the
assumed influences from interviews. As stated in Chapter Two CRT does not allow scholars to
see research participants as data sources alone (Pizarro, 1998). Those who share their stories
through interviews are people, with voices, complex lives, and struggles; it would be unjust for
researchers to take these stories for their own benefit. Instead, CRT as a method demands that
research must benefit the participants, and the communities they come from (Pizarro, 1998). This
study was designed to learn about how the racial climate in an urban public school district
impacts the retention of teachers of color through exploring their experiences. The questions that
guided this study were:
1. How does the racial climate of the school district influence the retention of teachers
of color?
2. How does organizational culture influence work environments for teachers of color?
a. What are the organizational factors that contribute to low representation of
teacher of color in the district?
3. How do the racialized experiences of teachers of color impact their motivation to
inform systemic-level change?
a. What motivation and organizational solutions are recommended to increase
representation of teachers of color in the district workforce?
54
To answer these questions, the data collection interview protocols focused on six assumed
influences, three organizational noted in Table 4 and three motivation, as shown in Table 5
below:
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational influence Assumed organizational influence
Cultural Model Influence 1
The school district needs to address issues of race
and racism.
Cultural Model Influence 2
The school district needs to diversify the teaching
workforce.
Cultural Setting Influence The school district needs to demonstrate a
commitment to equity.
55
Table 5
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivation construct Assumed motivation influence
Race-Focused Construct 1 The racialized experiences of teachers of color
impact their motivation to inform systemic-level
change.
Race-Focused Construct 2 The racialized experiences of teachers of color
impact their level of satisfaction as employees of the
school district.
Collective Agency Teachers of color need to have a sense of belonging
in school culture.
Theoretical Framework: Gap Analysis and Critical Race Theory
Clark and Estes (2008) determined there were three “active ingredients” that influence
performance in every organization: (a) knowledge and skills, (b) motivation, and (c)
organizational goals (KMO; Clark & Estes, 2008). As previously stated, while the KMO
framework is helpful in resolving issues and addressing improvement at an organizational level,
it is important to recognize that each influence is not always an effective means to understand
possible solutions. This is the case with knowledge and why this study focused on organizational
and motivation influences on the retention of teachers of color. More specifically, the structure of
this study focused on organizational and motivation influences, using CRT as an analytical tool
to centralize the role of race and racism in the experiences of teacher of color.
Scholars have adopted CRT in various disciplinary areas, including education, to explore
the nature of race and racism (Ladson-Billings & Tate 1995; Solórzano, 1997) and values the
experiential knowledge of people of color in analyzing law and society. CRT challenges
ahistorical, decontextualized analysis of how the law operates and supports the recognition of the
56
enduring and primary role that race has occupied in patterning society (Crenshaw et al. 1995),
and in education offers a lens to understand the ways that race operates in the context districts
and schools. For example, within the context of this study, CRT in education explores how race
operates in society and in education, at both the structural, local, and everyday level and provides
a lens to understand the endemic nature of racism while simultaneously valuing the experiential
knowledge of teachers of color. More specifically, through counter-storytelling, this study
elevates the voices of teachers of color by listening to how their own experiences, and the
knowledge that emerges from them, illuminate, and disrupt dominant narratives about race,
racism and racial progress in society and schools (Solórzano & Yosso 2001).
Participant Profile
The participants for the study are teachers of color from Midwest Public School District.
A total of 10 interviewees were invited to participate in the study. One of the confirmed
participants left the school district in the Fall of 2020 and no longer met the criteria outlined in
chapter 3. The other confirmed participant contracted COVID-19 and was also unable to
participate. In total, eight interviews were conducted. The gender of seven participants is female,
which is an important factor to consider as it relates to the data collected and findings.
Additionally, participants self-identified as it relates to race. 5 of the participants identify as
biracial, Black and White.
Riley is a Black female educator and is very connected into the local community. She is a
native of the state and graduate of the local university. She participates in the Future Black
Educators initiative at the local university and mentors incoming teachers to the district. She
recently married her college sweetheart, a White male. Serena is a seasoned Asian American
educator. She has taught generations of families in the local community. She is very connected to
57
the families she serves and is very proud of her Asian American heritage. Rita is a biracial
female and shared people often assume she is White. She has worked across multiple schools in
the district. Aaliyah is a biracial female and shared her father, a Black man also worked for the
district, in central office and her mother, a White woman was also an educator. She shared she is
on her own personal journey around race, racism, and identity. Gabrielle is a biracial female,
relatively new to the community and an experienced educator. She is confident in her identity
and often finds herself in teachable moments with colleagues around issues of race. Maria is a
biracial female and from the community. She has been in the field of education for a long time
and most of her career with the district. She feels it is her responsibility as an educator to expose
her students to diversity. Chole is a biracial female from a neighboring city. She has six children,
all of which have attended schools in the district. She has had challenging experiences with race
as a teacher and a parent of Black boys in the district. She is a vocal advocate on behalf of
children at the school and district level. Aiden is a Black male and relatively new teacher. He
attended the local university and did his student teaching in the district. He shared he is often the
only Black male teacher in the buildings he’s worked in and there are not many across the
district.
In order to protect their identity, participants have been assigned pseudonyms. The
participants represent educators across elementary and middle school, special education, and art
education. Semi-structured interviews ranged in time from 50-minutes to one hour and were
conducted virtually. All of the interviews were transcribed through the professional service
offered by Rev.com. Table 6 shows the demographic information of the interview participants.
58
Table 6
Demographic Information of Interview Participants (N = 8)
Pseudonym
participant Gender Race/Ethnicity
Years of
teaching
Years teaching
in current school Grade
Participant 1
RWW- Riley
F Black 9 8 Kindergarten
Participant 2
SG-Serena
F Asian American 19 6 Kindergarten
Participant 3
RE-Rita
F Biracial
(Black and White)
8 7 4th
Participant 4
AK-Aaliyah
F Biracial
(Black and White)
14 2 6th
Participant 5
GF-Gabrielle
F Biracial
(Black and White)
26 1 Special
Education
Participant 6
MS-Maria
F Biracial
(Black and White)
16 14 Specials – Art
Participant 7
CK-Chole
F Biracial (Black
and White)
9 2 6th and 7th
ELA
Participant 8
AB-Aiden
M Black 6 5 Middle school
special
education
In the following section, findings and themes generated from analysis of the interviews
and document analysis are presented in subsections of organization and motivation. Under each
subsection, the assumed influences as discussed in Chapter Two are affirmed one by one through
the findings from the research. The analysis was done under the lens of CRT; therefore the
voices of the participants are shared verbatim, in quotes. A synthesis analysis is provided in the
end as a summary.
59
Organization Results and Findings
As introduced in Chapter Two, it is important to understand how the cultural models and
cultural settings of Midwest Public Schools from the perspective of both the organizational
culture and the more visible aspects of the organization, influence the racial climate and
experiences of teachers of color. Organizational influences include how a setting is structured,
the policies and practices that define it, and how people interact with each other within a given
environment (Rueda, 2011). Organizational influences can be classified into two categories –
models and settings (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural models represent the values,
beliefs, and attitudes that are invisible and automated, whereas cultural settings are visible and
concrete manifestations of cultural models within activity environments (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). This section details the findings of assumed organizational influences as
foundational assets or continuing organizational needs for the Midwest Public Schools related to
racial climate and the retention of teachers of color. Assumed cultural model and cultural setting
organizational influences were assessed through interviews and document analysis as referenced
in Table 7.
The participants responses for the questions were analyzed and then put into the a priori
codes or influences. The participants responded to the assumed influences through the interview
questions and themes arose. The responses for each participant were analyzed under an influence
and determined if the influence was affirmed, partially affirmed, or not affirmed. It was noted if
there was not enough information from a participant, and then counted toward not affirmed.
Table 7 below shows the assumed organizational influences, themes and affirmations.
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Table 7
Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes and Affirmation
Assumed influences Themes Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not
affirmed
New
influence
Cultural Model 1:
The school district
needs to address
issues of race and
racism.
1. Anti-racism
2. Implicit bias
3. Race
4. Racism
5. Leadership
√
√
√
√
√
Cultural Model 2:
The school district
needs to diversify
the teaching
workforce.
1. Diversifying the
teaching
workforce
2. Recruitment
3. Retention
4. Women of color in
leadership
√
√
√
√
√
Cultural setting
influence:
The school district
needs to
demonstrate a
commitment to
equity.
1. Cultural
Responsiveness
2. Professional
growth and
development
√
√
√
Organizational Influences
Rueda (2011) describes organizational culture through cultural models and cultural
settings, findings will be categorized into these two themes. As noted in Chapter Two,
intercentricity of race and racism is a key principle of CRT. This principle is that race and racism
are pervasive, institutional, and systematic (Bell, 1987; Dixson & Rousseau Anderson, 2018).
CRT is used as an analysis and interpret the data to explore how the participants experiences
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related to race and racism impact their job satisfaction and desire to remain in the district. As
stated by Rueda (2011) cultural models help shape the ways that organization is structured,
including the values, practices, policies, and reward structures. In the following section, two
cultural models will be reviewed – (1) The school district needs to address issues of race and
racism; (2) The school district needs to diversify the teaching workforce and one cultural setting
(1) The school district needs to demonstrate a commitment to equity.
Cultural Models
Two assumed cultural model organizational influences related to issues of race, racism
and diversifying the workforce were explored in this study. More specifically, how the district
addresses attitudes and beliefs around race and racism within the organization were discussed
during the interview. Interview questions and document analysis were used to analyze the
cultural model influences at the Midwest Public School District. In the following sections, the
assumed influences are explained, followed by the themes that arose from data collection and
analysis and finally explicit connections of the findings to the research questions of the study.
The School District Needs to Address Issues of Race and Racism. CRT research
recognizes the experiential knowledge teachers of color hold as legitimate, appropriate, and
critical to understanding and analyzing their experiences (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001;
Kohli, 2009). This tenant is particularly important for this study in centering the lived
experiences of teachers to examine the racial climate in schools. To understand and value the
experiential knowledge of participants, several questions were asked to investigate how the
district addresses attitudes and beliefs around race and racism as part of the organizational
culture. During data collection participants were asked to discuss their experiences with
engaging in conversations about race and racism, within the context of their school and a district
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level. The findings indicate there is a continuing need for the school district needs to address
issues of race, racism, implicit bias, and leadership capacity. Table 8 highlights the effect of the
assumed influences on the first cultural model organizational assumptions of this study.
Table 8
Assumed Organizational Influences, Instrument, and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
The school district needs
to address issues of
race and racism.
Cultural
Model
Interview How does your school engage
staff in conversations about
race? Racism?
Can you share an example of a
time when you experienced
racism in the context of your
school environment?
63
Race and Racism. Naming race is difficult when discussions of race and education,
specifically in K-12 teaching, are silenced by colorblind practices and policies (Bonilla-Silva &
Embrick, 2006; Gillborn, 2006; Pollock, 2005). Each participant confirmed that conversations
about race and racism at the district level are framed within the context of culturally responsive
trainings usually take place at the beginning of school year. During these trainings, the terms
race and racism are not explicitly discussed. However, at the school level, if the topic of race and
racism are discussed, it is at the discretion of the school leadership. In addition, the racial identity
of teachers arose as teachers shared their experiences within the Midwest Public Schools District.
Moreover, it is important to understand the effect of teachers’ cultural background or racial
identity on their beliefs which shape their practice as educators (Foster, 1993). That said, several
teachers did not feel supported in navigating sociocultural issues that challenged or valued their
racial identity. Five participants racially identify as biracial: Black and White. Several expressed
challenges with embracing their own identity while navigating racial charged conversations
within their school environment.
Rita described an experience at her school with having her identify questioned and
feeling invisible and overlooked by colleagues. She shared,
The thing that I deal with most often is just like having my identity raised. And so, people
assume that I’m White and I am not a person of color, that I’m just…tan. For example,
we’ll talk about things, and they try to go around the room and like count how many
people of color in the room. And they don’t include me in that that’s happened in both
schools.
The experience Rita shared speaks to the racial identity teachers of color bring to the classroom.
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Gabrielle spoke about her experience with engaging in conversations about race at the
district level and how issues of race are often brought up in a negative way. She shared,
I’m not going to say it was a taboo subject to talk about, but they really steered clear
away from actually talking about race. The time when it did come up, to me, it was more
negative like what these students can’t do because of this, than the other adversity or low
socioeconomics, and race came in then. I think one thing that has to be learned is, not all
Black boys are bad boys.
Conversely, Aaliyah reflected on her experience with another educator of color and the
importance of him “seeing her” and not questioning her identity as a mixed-race woman, rather
he encouraged her to have agency in engaging in conversations about race. She commented,
Mr. Ellis and I, we get together every Wednesday before class, and it’s our social
emotional time where we can decompress, and we can talk to each other. And that’s
where we had the conversation about what we were going to do in our Social Emotional
Learning (SEL) lesson, which talked about race. And he asked me, he was like, “Why did
you default to me?” And I was like, “I see you as more qualified to tell me if this is too
early or too raw.” He goes, “Why do you think that?” I go, “Well, I’m biracial, but you’re
full African American, and I just wanted to...” He’s like, “No, no, your experience has as
much validity as mine.” And that conversation, it helped me find myself.
There are two key themes that arose from this analysis, racial identity of teachers of color
and professional development focused on culturally responsive practice yet avoiding addressing
issues of race. These themes directly connect to the research questions around how the racial
climate and work environments influence teachers of color. Scholars acknowledge that race and
identity are critical for understanding patterns of belonging, motivation, and performance. Given
65
the importance of racial identity in education contexts, the racial identity and socialization of
teachers of color influence their pedagogical practices and are connected to how they are
perceived in the school environment. However, the participants are navigating a district and
school environments that approach their racial identity with colorblindness and avoid
conversations regarding race and racism. Understanding and exploring racial identity will
support the desire expressed by teachers of color to seen, heard and have their identity valued.
Culturally responsive practice functions as an instructional opportunity for belonging that
reaffirms students in their racial identity. While research speaks to culturally affirming
classrooms being places to explore racial identity, teachers of color expressed firm disagreement
that the training they receive on culturally responsive practice is addressing issues of race and
racism, which prohibits effective culturally responsive practice to be implemented. Furthermore,
participants expressed distress with having to explain and justify their identity to colleagues,
which untimely impacts their connectedness to the school and district. Table 9 shows the
affirmation for organizational cultural model for race and racism.
Table 9
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Race and Racism
Category Affirm
Partially affirm
Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Race
Racism
Ö (8/8)
Ö (8/8)
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Implicit Bias. Participants were asked to share an example of a time when they
experienced racism or implicit bias within the context of their schoolwork environment. All eight
participants shared an example from an experience with either peers, parents, students, or school
leadership. Aaliyah shared her personal experiences with bias being rooted in her parents internal
marriage and how they and she was treated in school as a child. While in a vulnerable place of
reflection she shared, “No, I’m not going to get emotional, it’s because I’ve experienced bias just
by being born, my parents marrying that I want to give kids who haven’t been given the chance,
the chance that some others wouldn’t. I’ve noticed that it’s (race) a topic that you don’t talk
about unless it’s an issue.” While reflecting on her own experience with implicit bias, Chole
shared an example of racism and implicit bias in her role as a teacher and a parent of Midwest
Public School District. She shared,
It has helped me become an advocate for my Black and brown students, especially my
Black and brown males, because of the negative experiences I’ve had with the implicit
biases with my own son. “Oh, let’s get a group of boys together, these nine Black boys
who are too rowdy for the general population, and let’s have them eat separate from the
rest of the group. Let’s have them play in the playground by themselves. Let’s give them
one activity helper that’s a Black man that they can relate to. Let’s call it ‘the lunch
bunch. Let’s make them a group and keep them from everybody else.” For two years that
happened to my son in the district.
The implicit bias participants experience connects to the organizational culture and influences
the work environments they must navigate as teachers of color. These experiences connect to the
research questions and inform the level of satisfaction teachers of color have with the district, not
only as employees, but in one case as a parent of Black students in the district.
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Table 10
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Implicit Bias
Category Affirm
Partially affirm
Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Implicit bias
Ö (8/8)
Leadership. While reflecting on their experiences with race and racism, several teachers
mentioned the role of leadership in shaping the racial climate – which varies based on the leader.
Six teachers discussed the role of district leadership or school leaders in creating a safe or unsafe
environment to engage in conversations around race, racism, and implicit bias. For example,
Gabrielle pointed out “the district has culture and climate coaches. They’re supposed to help
with the culture and climate of the school, but they’re all White women. They don’t represent the
kids in the school. They don’t represent all the staff in the building.”
Aiden, the only male participant has had a different experience than his peers in this
study. He reflected on his experience with school leadership, he shared,
I’ve had conversations with several colleagues about it (race) and it’s very different from
person to person in building to building. Based on the leadership of the building and their
background, in my current building our principal is an African American male so he
approaches it from a different standpoint than some of the other buildings, who are led by
someone who is not an African American male. I have someone I can identify with
someone that I feel comfortable with which a lot of people, especially people of color
don’t have that situation. I’m very fortunate I can go in and when I explain something to
him, he understands.
68
Conversely, Chole a teacher with several years of experience in the district, across both
elementary and middle school shared her reflection on the progression of the district.
It’s definitely been a progression. We’re talking about it (race) more. In the very
beginning, it was just the principal saying, “You got to put on your snow goggles.” She
loved that reference. “You put on your snow goggles,” because when you’re skiing, the
snow goggles help you block out all the White. You have to be able to see color. She was
really good about that, but the staff was like, “I don’t even see color.” That’s where we
started off nine years ago when I first came to the district, and it slowly changed to them
understanding more. Now we’re at a place where there’s a lot of tension. A lot of... my
White coworkers feel attacked. “I treat my Black students just like I treat my White
students.
Leadership reflects the organizational culture that participants experience that influence their
work environments. Some participants expressed having to navigate colorblind work
environments, while others described schools that demonstrate qualities of equity minded
leadership. The values held by leadership vary by school. In connection to the research
questions, leadership not only impacts the racial climate of schools but the organizational culture
that teachers of color have to navigate.
Table 11
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Leadership
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Leadership
Ö (6/8)
Ö (2/8)
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Emergent Theme: Anti-Racism. All participants shared their vision and opportunity for
the district to embrace antiracism approaches. More specifically, two teachers shared their
thoughts as it relates to their school. Serena shared,
I think what happens is, in the school setting it’s been hard getting that word race used.
Even the name of our workgroup is Cultural Relevancy. What I want the name to be is
anti-bias anti-racism team. Because that’s what we’re really working towards.” Because
my question was, if we’re talking about school improvement, how can we not talk about
race at our school? And with everything going on in the current climate and that has been
going on, how can we ignore it? So, we’ve taken more of the grassroots approach of like,
“We’ll call it cultural relevancy because that’s what you feel comfortable as a system
calling it.” Because saying we have an anti-racism team means we have race issues at our
school, and we’re not saying that. We’ve got a culture issue. And culture makes it kind of
sound a little more sugar coated, a little softer to the ears. It protects that White fragility
of saying that there’s race issues.
Through this emergent theme, participants expressed the opportunity for the district to address
racial climate and improve job satisfaction by providing a solution to support the current and
future workforce by being explicit about anti-racist practices and policies, which directly
connects to the research questions around organizational culture.
Table 12
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 1 – Anti-racism
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Anti-racism
Ö (8/8)
Ö
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The data collected from this inquiry of cultural models influences affirm Midwest Public
School District needs to address issues of race and racism and determine how to effectively value
racial equity as part of the organizational culture. While there is a continuing need to address
issues of race and racism, current assets lie within the experiences of the teachers.
The School District Needs to Diversify the Workforce. CRT challenges assumptions of
racial and cultural hierarchy in educational settings such as colorblindness, meritocracy, and race
neutrality (Yosso et al., 2001) as these claims act as a camouflage for the self-interest, power,
and privilege of dominant groups in U.S. society (Solórzano, 1997; Yosso et al., 2001). This
tenant of CRT is critical to understand for this study as it relates to the experiences of teachers of
color and how they are viewed, seen, and heard within their school context and the school
district. Each participant was asked to reflect on how the racial climate of their school impacts
their professional experience, including if it impacts their desire to remain employed with the
district. All eight participants affirmed that Midwest Public Schools District needs to diversify
the workforce. However, data analysis is further nuanced when probing further with participants
around recruitment, retention, and an emergent theme – women of color in leadership. The
findings indicate there is a continuing need for the school district to address the recruitment and
retention of teachers of color. Table 13 highlights the effect of the assumed influences on the
second cultural model organizational assumptions of this study.
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Table 13
Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes, and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
The school district needs
to diversify the
workforce.
Cultural
model
Interview What attracted you to
the district? What
can the district do
to attract more
teachers of color?
Why do you remain
with the district?
Document
Analysis
What ways can the
district retain
teachers of color?
How has the school
district addressed
diversifying the
education
workforce?
Diversifying the Workforce. As discussed in Chapter 2, research shows work conditions,
such as competent and supportive leadership, are found to be related to teachers’ decisions to
stay in or leave a school. At the school district level, superintendents have the ability to make
diversifying the school district’s teaching workforce a priority (Goings & Bianco, 2016). In
addition to superintendents, human resource officers have an important role in diversifying the
teaching workforce and can be gatekeepers responsible for recruitment and initial interviewing of
teacher candidates.
Participants were asked if they were aware of any specific initiatives within the school
district to support diversifying the workforce, seven teachers shared that were not aware of any
work being done or a formal strategy in place to support diversifying the workforce. However,
Chole shared “I just heard at a board meeting, so if we would’ve done this (interview) last week,
72
I would’ve said, “I don’t really know, but there’s a grant that they’re developing or that they
have secured to help pull in and retain Black teachers. Even though they’ve said that a million
times, we need to make our teacher population match our student population. It’s been said, but
up until last Thursday, there wasn’t anything that I knew that the district was doing.”
Participants shared their lack of knowledge and desire to want more information around
the priorities and commitment of the district to diversify the workforce. These questions will
inform recommendations around solutions to increase the representation of teachers of color in
the district workforce.
Table 14
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Diversifying the Workforce
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Diversifying the
workforce
Ö (6/8)
Ö (2/8)
73
Recruitment. All eight participants discussed their experience with recruitment into the
school district. The job fair was identified as a resource to gain employment. One teacher shared
the lack of diverse representation of people of color at the fair. Riley shared “it would be nice to
have teachers of color involved in the recruitment process, actually having people of color at the
fair, having people who can talk your language is so important.” Aiden expressed a similar
perspective, MPSD tries very hard, or at least they say they do try very hard to be diverse, but the
majority of the diversity is that the administrative level. You know what would pull people in,
just being real with people… a lot of times they don’t come across as authentic when they go to
these job fairs and career fairs and try to recruit teachers.” The culture of the school district
influences how participants feel about their ability to inform systemic change through the current
recruitment strategy. Participants shared recommendations on how to increase representation of
teachers of color in the district teaching workforce.
Table 15
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2 – Recruitment
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Recruitment
Ö (6/8) Ö (2/8)
74
Retention. All eight participants discussed the impact the racial climate has on them
remaining with the district. More specifically, each educator expressed a desire to remain with
the district because they feel a level of responsibility to support students of color in serving as an
advocate and role model. Aiden shared, “it does impact my desire to stay, in the sense that I want
to stay with the district because we need the representation for our children. Six participants
discussed the importance of students having teachers that look like them in the classroom and in
leadership positions, and not in disciplinary roles. Aaliyah shared an observation “what I’m
noticing is those who are in teaching positions are of the majority, and those people who are of
ancillary staff are minority. And what we need more teacher wise is to have people of color
teaching the active content.” Additionally, seven teachers shared the salary and benefit package
as competitive and influences their decision to remain with the district. Serena expressed, “I am a
critical lover of the institution. I graduated from here, I’m very proud to say that. But I also see
things now that I’m like, it was not this perfect district that I thought in graduating high school.
I’m grateful for it, it definitely sent me to college feeling like I had experience with kids from all
walks of life, all different demographics.” The culture of the school district influences how
participants feel about their ability to inform systemic change through the current retention
strategy. In connection to the research question, participants offered recommendations on how to
increase representation of teachers of color in the district workforce.
Table 16
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Retention
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed
New
influence
Cultural model
Retention
Ö (6/8) Ö (2/8)
75
Emergent Theme: Women of Color in Leadership. Participants were asked to share their
experience with how they entered the district. Seven participants reflected on the relationships
they have with women of color in leadership positions, which included school leadership and
central office staff that offered insight and support in navigating the system. Serena reflected,
“each of my professional moves happened because a person of color advocated and helped me
get a foot in the door. I feel like that’s important for your work that you’re doing because it was
those connections and that network that I had and the authentic relationships.” Riley shared, “I
like seeing people of color in those leadership roles. I have a very good relationship with people
that are in those positions of authority. So, like seeing that, I’m like, okay, that could be me one
day.” Gabrielle is a veteran teacher, that is new to the district, shared she felt there was
opportunity for her to grow in the district by seeing women of color in leadership positions.
“When I saw women of color in positions of power, that is what I said. “Okay. All right.” And
they were shot callers. And then I got to say, when we were doing this stuff with virtual, they put
me on a committee for that, when we did the online learning. I mean, it gets a little
overwhelming, but it is a point of pride for me. Because here I am new to the district, and they’re
already calling me to be on committees, that’s going to spearhead different things. I mean, I do
like that. Personally, I could see growth for myself. I honestly can see that this is the district that
I can retire. I could see myself moving back into administration here and then retiring.”
Through this emergent theme, participants expressed their appreciation for being able to
engage with women of color in leadership positions as mentors to support them in navigating
complex work environments in the district. Additionally, participants expressed appreciation for
seeing and being connected to women of color in leadership positions which encouraged their
76
desire to remain with the district – by seeing what’s possible for them in the future. Being
connected to women of color speaks to the informal culture that exists in the district that
encourages the retention of participants. It is also important to note that the gender of the
participants influenced this theme, as all the female participants shared the importance of seeing
women of color in leadership, and the male participant did not.
Table 17
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Model 2: Women of Color in Leadership
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Women of color in
leadership
(2/8)
Ö (5/8) Ö (1/8) Ö
77
The data collected from this inquiry of cultural model influences affirmed that
participants believed the Midwest Public School District has not determined how to effectively
diversify the workforce. Due to the racialized experiences teachers of color have faced could
serve as a barrier in their professional growth and retention, particularly for teachers who are
committed to challenging racial inequity. However, teachers expressed these challenges as
opportunities to further engage and do more on behalf of children. While there is a continuing
need to implement strategies to diversify the workforce, document analysis of the district board
meeting and website reveal there are new efforts underway through the Racial Equity Taskforce
and partnerships with local universities to prioritize this issue.
Cultural Settings
As noted in Chapter Two, cultural settings are the visible manifestations of cultural
models, therefore, in trying to understand and perhaps influence behavior in a school or district,
it is important to understand the characteristics of the cultural setting (Rueda, 2011). Within a
school district context, cultural settings are where organizational policies and practices are
enacted (Rueda, 2011). One assumed cultural setting organizational influence pertaining to the
racial climate of the district was explored. More specifically, how the district supports teachers
of color in their professional growth and development were investigated.
The School District Needs to Demonstrate a Commitment to Equity. CRT in
education works to empower underrepresented groups that have been marginalized and eliminate
racism (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001) while seeking to advance a social justice agenda
(Yosso et al., 2001). This tenant connects to a commitment to social justice reflected in the
responses from all interview participants. Through this interdisciplinary lens, the theme explores
how the experiences of teacher of color related opportunities for professional growth and
78
development impact their job satisfaction. All eight participants affirmed that the Midwest Public
Schools District needs to demonstrate a commitment to equity. Interview questions and
document analysis were used to analyze the cultural setting influences at Midwest Public School
District. The findings indicate there is a continuing need for the school district to demonstrate a
commitment to equity through professional growth and development and accurately defining and
implementing culturally responsive practice and pedagogy. Table 18 highlights the effect of the
assumed influences on the cultural setting organizational assumptions of this study.
Table 18
Assumed Organizational Influences, Instrument and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
The school district needs
to demonstrate a
commitment to
equity.
Cultural
Setting
Interview How are you supported in your
professional growth and
development?
Can you provide an example of
how you are supported as a
teacher of color? What
specific initiatives or programs
that have been implemented to
support your growth and
development?
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Professional Growth and Development. All eight participants agree that Midwest Public
School District offers professional development opportunities. However, each participant shared
there are not any opportunities available that center the needs and specifically supports teachers
of color. Aiden shared an experience brought to him by his school leader, a Black male, because
he recognized the need to support him as a Black teacher. He shared, “there has been one time in
my career where there’s been a specialized PD that centered around my identity, as a Black male
teacher. And that was something my principal brought to me, and it wasn’t something that he
was told the bring or wasn’t something that the district provided, it was because he’s a Black
male and it was something he thought was important. We went to a Black male educators
conference.” Rita shared, the district has culturally responsive teaching that we’re supposed to be
putting energy and effort behind. I think if you asked district leaders, they would say that’s
ongoing work, but it really feels like isolated professional development at the beginning of the
year. So, we do have conversations around race or racism, like the week before students come
back when we’re doing teacher professional development. And then from there, it ranges a ton
based on the different buildings you’re in. Rita commented, “I think there’s just a lot more
variability. Some buildings have a positive culture, but never talk about race. Some buildings
address race in small ways, but don’t do it on a larger scale. So, I’m not, I’m not confident that
we’re really digging in and doing the actual work to improve equity for all of our students and
our staff.”
The responses from participants speaks to the research question focused on the
organizational culture of the district. While there is professional development offered,
participants shared it is not relevant to their experiences as teachers of color. The opportunities to
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support the professional growth and development of participants are sought out and offered by
external groups, not connected to the school district.
Table 19
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Setting 1: Professional Growth and Development
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed New influence
Cultural model
Professional growth and
development
Ö (5/8) Ö (3/8)
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Emergent Theme: Cultural Responsiveness. CRT challenges assumptions of racial and
cultural hierarchy in educational settings such as colorblindness, meritocracy, and race neutrality
(Yosso et al., 2001) as these claims act as a camouflage for the self-interest, power, and privilege
of dominant groups in U.S. society (Solórzano, 1997; Yosso et al., 2001). All eight participants
shared their experience with participating in Culturally Responsive training from the school
district. Chole shared, “this is how conversations around race are framed at the district level and
at the school level, race is a topic we don’t talk about.”
As noted in Chapter Two, the concept of culturally relevant teaching places the cultural
backgrounds of students at the center teaching and benefits students of all ethnicities, religions,
and backgrounds by providing an opportunity to incorporate themselves into their own learning
process (Gay, 2000). Whereas culturally responsive leadership within the context of schools
incorporates the philosophies, practices, and policies that create inclusive school environments
for students and families from ethnically and racially diverse backgrounds (Johnson, 2014).
Riley shared,
I feel like there has been like some training on being culturally responsive, but I always
feel like we kind of dance around the issue of race at times. I kind of felt like we’re kind
of used those terms, but then again, like we’re not really diving deep enough into them.
Like I personally, like, instead of being culturally responsive, I like, I like the idea of
being anti-racist like, you know, like, let’s just say we anti-racist. I don’t know what it is
about that term versus being culturally responsive. But I feel like people say culturally
responsive, that’s just a more comfortable term for them.
Midwest Public Schools District has decided not to explicitly address issues of race and racism.
Discussions are framed within the context of culturally responsive training that is offered one
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time a year to teachers across the district. These choices impact the school racial climate and
overarching organizational culture of the district that teachers of color have to navigate, which as
stated varies at the school level and is determined by school leadership.
Table 20
Affirmation for Organizational Cultural Setting
Category Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not affirmed New influence
Cultural setting
Cultural responsiveness
Ö (8/8)
Ö
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The data collected from this inquiry affirm that the participants believe Midwest Public
School District has expressed a commitment to equity, that is framed as culturally responsive
practice, but does not include explicit conversations around race or being an anti-racist
institution. Document analysis revealed there are no specific initiatives designed to provide
support to teachers of color at the district and school building level. There is a continuing need to
provide support to teachers of color in their professional growth and development. While there
are not current opportunities specifically to support teachers of color, since the district is
committed to providing professional development opportunities, this is a cultural setting
organizational influence area that the district to build upon. Using CRT as a framework, this
section highlighted how the organizational culture impact the racialized experiences of teacher of
color in Midwest Public School District. The narratives shared by each participant elevated the
role of race and racism in their school and district, that directly connects to their level of
satisfaction as employees. There are current assets that exist in the district. Participants elevated
some of the challenges and shared opportunities to address those challenges.
Motivation Results and Findings
As introduced in Chapter Two, it is important to understand how the race-focused
constructs within the Midwest Public School District and collective agency influence the racial
climate and experiences of teachers of color. Motivation is a construct that helps to explain why
individuals choose to approach or avoid a task, and once engaged whether they put in effort and
persist or simply quit (Kumar et al., 2018). Teachers are often motivated by values, ethical
motives, and intrinsic motivation (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011). The motivation influences
categories for this study are – race-focused construct and collective agency. As noted in Chapter
Two, race-focused constructs (e.g., racial identity, racial socialization, stereotype threat, etc.) are
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centered around issues of race and are developed from racial categorizations and racial
categorization theories (Helms et al., 2005). Collective agency adds the sense of autonomy to
have the power and responsibility to take actions that lead to individual growth (Kumar et al.,
2018) and act intentionally, exercise control, and have an effect on their professional identity,
work, work environment, and professional development (Eteläpelto et al., 2013; Harteis &
Goller, 2014; Stevenson & Gilliland, 2016). This section details the findings of assumed
motivational influences for the Midwest Public School District related to racial climate and the
retention of teachers of color. Assumed race-focused and collective agency motivational
influences were assessed through interviews and document analysis as referenced in Table 21.
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Table 21
Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes, and Validation
Assumed influences Themes Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not
affirmed
New
influence
Race-focused construct
1: The racialized
experiences of
teachers of color
impact their
motivation to inform
systemic-level
change.
1. Systems
Change:
Motivation
√
Race-focused construct
2: The racialized
experiences of
teachers of color
impact their level of
satisfaction as
employees of the
school district.
1. Systems
Change:
Satisfaction
2. Support for
Teachers of
Color
3. Role
√
√
√
√
Collective agency:
Teachers of color
need to have a sense
of belonging in
school culture.
1. Culture
2. Value
√
√
Motivational Influences
One of the tenets of CRT in education as referenced in Chapter Two, works to empower
underrepresented groups that have been marginalized and eliminate racism (Solórzano &
Delgado Bernal, 2001) while seeking to advance a social justice agenda (Yosso et al., 2001).
This framework is used to contextualize the concept of motivation within the structure of schools
and the school district as well as to examine how the systemic structures in place impact the
motivation teachers of color bring to school environments through elevating their experiences.
CRT as an analysis is used to interpret the data to explore how the racialized experiences
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influence teachers of color motivation to inform systemic-level change and shape their
satisfaction as employees of the school district.
Race-Focused Constructs
Two assumed race-focused constructs motivational influences related to systems change
and level of satisfaction were explored in this study. More specifically, how the racialized
experiences of teachers of color impact their job satisfaction as well as their motivation to inform
change at the school and district level were investigated. Interview questions and document
analysis were used to analyze the cultural model influences at the Midwest Public School
District. Table 22 highlights the effect of the first race-focused motivational assumptions of this
study.
Table 22
Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes, Instrument, and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
The racialized
experiences of
teachers of color
impact their
motivation to inform
systemic-level
change.
Race-focused
construct
Interview
Can you provide an example of a
time you felt empowered to
push back against a policy or
decision at your school or
systems level?
Can you describe a way in which
you feel empowered to address
race related issues at the school
or district level?
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The racialized experiences of teachers of color impact their motivation to inform
systemic-level change. CRT research recognizes the experiential knowledge teacher of color
hold as legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding and analyzing their experiences
(Solórzano & Delgado, 2001; Kohli, 2009). This tenant centers the lived experiences of teachers
to examine the racial climate in schools. The racial climate of a school can impacts teachers of
color and can influence their motivation to fight for change (Kohli, 2016). To understand and
value the experiential knowledge of participants, several questions were asked to investigate how
teachers felt empowered addresses race related issues, policies, or decisions.
Systems Change: Motivation. Seven participants expressed that their experiences with
race have impacted their motivation to inform systemic change – some with at the school level
and others at the district level. Teachers expressed their level of motivation was connected to the
being an advocate for themselves and their students, despite the possibility of being labeled by
colleagues and peers. Chole shared an exchange she had with her former and current school
leader,
We have new leadership. Last year, (with my previous principal) it was my first year in
middle school and we had a principal who didn’t make the fairest choices. At one point,
he said, “Would you please sit down?” I said, “No, I will not sit down, and I will not shut
up.” He said I was being aggressive. I said, “me standing is being aggressive?” “Well, it’s
your tone. It’s your facial expressions.” “I’m sorry sometimes I talk like this. I’m not
swearing, I’m not yelling. I’m sorry you don’t like my tone. I’m not being disrespectful.”
Now we have a new principal. The new principal said to me, “So, I just want to tell you,
you don’t have to be Angela Davis anymore.” “What?” “Yeah, I heard about you. Don’t
be storming in my office trying to right the wrongs.” “Is this a joke?” He meant it as a
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joke, but I didn’t take it as a joke, and this is from a Black administrator. Just letting me
know, “Don’t be Angela Davis. We don’t need that.” For my principal to tell me, even in
a joking way, I mean what’s wrong with Angela Davis? Because she’s a strong voice?
Because she’s an activist? Because she challenges leadership? You’re telling me not to
advocate for my students? That doesn’t value me right there.
Several teachers shared they don’t have any issues pushing back, and three expressed that they
are active in the local teacher’s union. Aiden is a novice teacher and shared “Anyone who knows
me will tell you I feel empowered to push back about anything. On top of being a teacher, I am
heavily involved in the teachers union as well.” Gabrielle, the veteran teacher expressed “I think,
for me, it’s the uniqueness, because once you get to a certain level, you know your worth. And
I’m just not going to take it, if there’s something that I need to express myself, I have no issue
with expressing it.”
Participants shared a sense of empowerment around how their racialized experiences
increase their motivation to inform systemic-level change. Due to their lived experience in
personally dealing with racism and witnessing racism on behalf of their students, participants
expressed a sense of responsibility to speak up to inform change that needs to happen at the
school and district level.
Table 23
Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct – Systems Change Motivation
Category Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not affirmed New influence
Race-focused construct
Systems change:
Motivation
Ö (7/8)
Ö (1/8)
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The data collected from this inquiry of race-focused influences strongly affect teacher’s
motivation to inform systemic-level change and demonstrates a continuing need of Midwest
Public School District to support teachers of color and leverage their experiences to support
systemic change.
The Racialized Experiences of Teachers of Color Impact Their Level of Satisfaction
as Employees of the School District. As stated in Chapter 2, a source of satisfaction among
teachers was the opportunity to make a difference and contribute to children’s development
(Scott et al., 2001). Kohli (2016) suggests that viewing the literature with a critical race lens it is
revelated the racialized experiences of teachers of color take a toll on their well-being, growth,
impact their overall job satisfaction and retention. In examining the sociocultural forces that
shape the experiences of teacher of color, questions were asked to investigate how race related
experiences influence their job satisfaction. All eight participant affirm the racialized experiences
impact their level of satisfaction as employees of the school district. Table 24 highlights the
effect of the second race-focused motivational assumptions of this study.
Table 24
Assumed Motivation Influences, Themes and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
The racialized
experiences of
teachers of color
impact their level of
satisfaction as
employees of the
school district.
Race-focused
construct
Interview
How does the racial
climate of your
school impact your
professional
experience? Does it
impact your desire
to remain
employed with the
district?
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Systems Change: Satisfaction
All eight participants expressed that their racialized experiences impact their level of
satisfaction as employees of the school district. Several teachers spoke about having challenges
with colorblindness and racial microaggressions. However, even though each teacher has
encountered issues, when asked if the racial climate impacts your desire to remain employed
with the district, each educator talked about how those challenges makes them want to not only
stay with the district, but even move into leadership positions and leverage their influence for
greater impact for children of color in the district. Aaliyah shared, “it does impact my desire to
stay with Midwest Public Schools District, but I think in the sense that I want to stay...the work
that I’ve done on a lot of the committees that I was asked to be on, that gives weight and impact
to the ability of me being able to address them with issues with racial justice and race in the
district.”
Chole reflected on her love of teaching but has decided she needs to move into
leadership. Chloe stated “I don’t want to be a teacher; I need to do something more. I need a
bigger voice and I need a bigger stick because I’m so tied down with the red tape of being a
teacher and lesson planning and grading. Seeing the injustice that our Black and Brown boys,
and our girls face.” Other teachers spoke about using those experiences as an opportunity to
teach colleagues. Gabrielle shared,
For me, I don’t it allow it to impact me in a negative way. I use different moments as
teachable moments. And sometimes it may come off as, “Who does she think she is? But
I’m not going to allow certain things to hinder what I’m supposed to do as far as teaching
kids. For example, I was getting ready to approach a teacher, and to me, I didn’t
appreciate what she did when I went to approach her. Instead of her just saying, “Hold on
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a minute,” she said, “uh-uh boo-boo,” like that to me. And I immediately checked her.
That’s not how you talk to me.
Rita also reflected on her experiences that have caused her to want to remain with the
district. “So that makes me want to stay. The fact that there are people in leadership who are
willing to put money and time and effort behind working around the racial climate. My current
principal I know is definitely very engaged in this work. He’s a Black male, so he has lived it,
which I think is different just in comparison to previous principals that I’ve worked for, who’ve
all been White women. So that makes me want to stay and continue to contribute to the work
that’s happening. I’m sometimes impatient with the amount of progress that we’re getting. It’s
like the difference between what people say is happening and what’s actually happening on a
day-to-day basis.”
Participants shared how their racialized experiences impact their level of satisfaction as
employees of the school district. Examples were given that demonstrate their desire to remain in
the profession and their commitment to the children and families they serve – in spite of issues
related to racism.
Table 25
Affirmation for Motivation Race-Focused Construct 2: Systems Change Satisfaction
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed
New
influence
Race-focused construct
Systems change:
Satisfaction
Ö (8/8)
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Support for Teachers of Color. All eight teachers expressed that there is no formal
system of support for teachers of color. There are informal systems of support such as hallway
chats or group texts with colleagues in their building. Aiden shared “honestly, there’s no formal
or informal method of you know, supporting each other and coming together, we’re so
fragmented that a lot of us don’t even know where we are.”
Aaliyah shared “So before professional developments, back when they were in person,
we would just kind of gravitate toward each other. We had a professional development that was
going to be on talking about race relations. And I was one of the first people there, my dad has
taught me social pressure says, “Okay, BP time.” And he’s like, “Don’t be what they expect of
you. So, I always get there early, and I just sat down. And then our art teacher, who’s African
American, came and sat by me. Our other science teacher, who’s African American, came and
sat by me. And then we had our Spanish teacher come and sit by me. So, we all, I didn’t cause it,
but just me sitting in a certain place, but we all kind of, “Okay, we’re all going to have this
conversation. We’re going to stick together.” It was an unspoken thing, but I wasn’t the only one
who noticed it, because when the meeting was just started, the science teacher talked to me. He
was like, “Uh, do you realize what we did?” We were just like, “yeah.” So, it’s very informal,
voluntary on our own parts to talk with each other.”
Participants shared there are no formal structures of support in place to build
connectiveness and to support one another, which impacts the overall level of satisfaction with
the district. Participants offered suggestions and recommendations on how MPSD could directly
support them as well as increase the representation of teachers of color in the workforce.
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Table 26
Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct 2 – Support for Teachers of Color
Category Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not affirmed
New
influence
Race -focused construct
Support for teachers of
color
Ö (8/8)
Emergent Theme: Role. All eight participants reflected on their role and passion for
teaching, being an advocate for children of color. Aaliyah shared, “it makes me want to stay
because they need a voice. They need someone who is going to speak up for them.” Serena
shared “I believe I was called to move to a new school to help advocate for those students of
color because they are being forgotten or pushed to the side or grouped together or marginalized
and they don’t have people advocating for them. So, maybe I am there to help be their advocate
or help be there to help get those conversations started. That’s kind of guided my professional
development. I’m a teacher and an advocate and I don’t have to pick. I can be both. I can follow
my true heart and follow who I am.”
Teachers also want help shape positive identities for students of color and to see
themselves in their teachers. Studies have shown that many teachers of color did not feel
supported in navigating sociocultural issues that valued their racial identity. Teachers of color
play an important role in helping to facilitate positive self-identities for children of color by
undermining stereotype threat, the phenomenon of underperforming because of feeling
stereotyped as an underperformer (Steele, 1997) that exists in larger society. Serena shared her
experiences with her own identity being questioned, in addition to navigating the stereotyping
and deficit thinking of students of color by White colleagues that did not realize she is a woman
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of color. “People look at me and don’t know what race category I fall into. So, I would call it
racism when there are conversations from White colleagues about students of color in front of
me, because the assumption is I identify as White because my skin might be a little bit lighter.”
Madsen and Mabokela (2000) revealed Black teachers faced burdens such as being asked
to serve in stereotypical roles, along with feelings of isolation (Mabokela & Madsen, 2007).
Several teachers talked about roles in terms of being informally assigned as disciplinarians or
assumptions made on their official role in the school. Aiden commented “I meet people and they
come in and they assume I am the security guard, or they assume I am the para pro, or I’m
custodial staff, which there is nothing wrong with those roles, but I want to expose our kids to
one more option, you can do this profession, and you can do it well. Aaliyah shared “And I think
that’s really important in all levels, teachers of color are often put in places where there is trouble
or disciplinary issues. And I think staff of color need to be in all positions, not just disciplinary.
Not just principal, not just behavioral specialist, they need to be in the classroom engaging with
students in that way.”
Participants shared how work environments shape their experiences. More specifically,
how stereotype threat deems them experts in disciplinary roles, but not pedological practices.
While their experiences connected to racial climate shape their experiences and work
environments, participants expressed commitment to their role and using their role to inform
necessary changes within their schools and district.
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Table 27
Affirmation for Motivation Race-focused Construct 2 – Role
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed
New
influence
Race-focused construct
Role
Ö (8/8)
Ö
The data collected from this inquiry of race-focused influence strongly affect the level of
satisfaction teachers of color have as employees of the school district. Due to the racialized
experiences teachers of color have, they have a commitment to remain in the school district to
support students of color. This commitment is a current asset to Midwest Public School District
while also demonstrating a continuing need to support teachers of color.
Collective Agency
Two assumed collective agency motivational influences related to culture were explored
in this study. More specifically, the degree to which teachers of color have a sense of belonging
in school culture. Interview questions and document analysis were used to analyze the collective
agency influences at the Midwest School District. Table 28 highlights the effect of the collective
agency motivational assumptions of this study.
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Table 28
Assumed Organizational Influences, Themes and Validation
Assumed influences Category Instrument Aligned questions
Teachers of color need
to have a sense of
belonging in school
culture.
Collective
Agency
Interview
How would you describe the
culture of Midwest Public
School District?
How would you describe the
culture of your school?
Can you describe ways that
MPSD makes you feel valued
as a teacher?
Document
Analysis
How do teachers of color
convene and support one
another in MPSD? In your
school? Is it formal or
informal?
Teachers of color need to have a sense of belonging in school culture. As stated in
Chapter 2, interpersonal relationships with peers are key to establishing a sense of belonging
(Gray et al., 2018). The concept of belonging is important when exploring collective identity
among educators Davey (2013). This idea aligns with the commitment to social justice tenant of
CRT in education, that works to empower underrepresented groups that have been marginalized
and eliminate racism (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, 2001) while seeking to advance a social
justice agenda (Yosso et al., 2001). Participant’s responses affirmed the validity of this assumed
influence.
Culture
Agency is intentional efforts to affect and to make a difference, which makes it necessary
for the transformation of work practices and cultures (Hökkä et al., 2017). Research suggests
individuals can develop a positive sense of belonging when the cultural values promoted in
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schools are compatible with the cultural values that they bring with them to school (Dotterer et
al., 2009). All eight participants expressed that having a sense of belonging is important. Several
teachers spoke about how the disconnect between individual school culture and the overall
culture of the school district being inconsistent, and at times in direct conflict with one another.
Additionally, teachers talked about the challenges around what is stated by the district and the
implementation at the school level. Serena, a veteran teacher shared, “I feel like it’s the
subculture within MPS of teachers of color who are trying to look out for each other, combat
isolation in a very authentic way.” Rita shared,
I think the stated mission and vision and values of the district are strong. They support
individual student identities. They’re trying to reach all students. They’re trying to break
down barriers for students who come from lower socioeconomic status or English
language learners. I think in practice the culture doesn’t look as polished as it sometimes
comes across in publications. There’s always that gap between how people describe
things, and you know, what kind of a goal you’re working towards versus what it actually
looks like on the ground.
Serena commented,
The culture in the district right now is fragile and I think it’s tense. I would say tense is
probably the right word. I feel like I would have to say the racial climate is definitely
impacting the culture. There are districts I know where after the George Floyd murder
there were statements put out by the district. I know there were parents and teachers kind
of waiting to see if that was going to happen with Midwest Public Schools. But there’s
been no discussion of that as a district and it feels like one of those missed opportunities.
Aiden reflected on the culture of the district due to a new superintendent.
98
The culture recently has changed since we have a new superintendent and that’s typically
expected as leadership changes. But I think some of the components will stay the same.
The culture of our district, specifically, we are very data driven but not necessarily in the
most positive way, which drives the culture of you know how we expect to get things
done. The social culture there’s very much a hierarchy in our district of who are the shot
callers, which makes sense someone’s got to make the decision but from a teacher
perspective it doesn’t feel like our perspective is being heard: the people on the ground.
So, the overall culture is that everyone cares for kids but everyone at some extent their
hands are tied, and no one is no one really knows by, or no one is willing to admit by
whom and that affects the culture, because, as it rolls downhill, it gets to us, we can’t help
but to be affected.
The organizational culture connected to the racial climate influences the experience of teachers
of color in the district. Participants elevated some challenges that exist as well as assets and
opportunities for the district to build upon to support the collective agency of teachers of color
and culture of the district as a whole.
Table 29
Affirmation for Motivation Collective Agency – Culture
Category Affirm Partially affirm Not affirmed
New
influence
Collective agency
Culture
Ö (8/8)
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Value
Seven participants reflected on the question of value and ways in which Midwest Public
Schools makes them feel valued. There were a range of responses including value surrounding
their expertise and salary. Chole shared, “I don’t feel valued.” Another teacher commented, on
the value she feels being bred from relationships that have been built with colleagues in the
district, Serena reflected, “I feel valued at MPS, but I preface it by saying I know it’s because of
the relationships I’ve built with people that are in positions of power that have moved into
positions of power in the district.” Gabrielle reflected, “every time they have something going
on, they want experts, they always asking me to join on this team and that team, which is nice,
but sometimes it can be daunting. But personally, I do feel valued because anytime I go to any,
even the higher ups, like at district office, they know me by name.” Rita shared an appreciation
for the salary in comparison to other districts. “Midwest Public Schools has a higher salary scale
for teachers. I feel like I’m fairly compensated for the work that I’m doing and for the level of
education that I bring. I think individual administrators and teaching colleagues are really where
I get most of my appreciation and feeling valued. I would say that most of that is kind of
unofficial, not very much of it comes from the district. It would be great if the district was asking
me these questions instead of you, you know, not that I don’t appreciate the work that you’re
doing, but I think this is useful information for them to have.”
Participants offered recommendations and solutions to address how the district values
them as professionals. As stated, there is an opportunity at the district level to address
organizational culture to support the needs of teachers of color.
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Table 30
Affirmation for Motivation Collective Agency: Value
Category Affirm
Partially
affirm
Not affirmed
New
influence
Collective agency
Value
Ö (7/8)
Ö (1/8)
The data collected from this inquiry of collective agency influences strongly affect the
sense of belonging in school culture teachers of color experience. Midwest Public School District
has a continuing need to create a more supportive culture.
Using CRT as a framework, this section highlights how the racialized experiences of
teacher of color impact motivation. Each participant shared how those experiences influence
their level of satisfaction with their jobs in addition to opportunities to challenge policies and
practices within their school and district. Through reflecting on their experiences, teachers of
color identified their responsibility and agency in disrupting systems of injustice. While teachers
shared they have tried to create a sense of belonging through informal networks, their critical
race reflections can serve as insight to shape future opportunities.
The organization findings connect back to the research questions about the culture of the
organization. The findings affirmed that organizational culture impacts the school racial climate
in school and at the district level and influences the level of satisfaction teachers of color have
with the district. Additionally, while teachers of color shared adverse experiences related to
racial identity and racism, those experiences have encouraged them to remain in the district at the
classroom level and aspirations of exploring leadership roles to be advocates on behalf of
students of color. The motivation findings connect to the research questions around how the
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experiences of teachers of color impact their motivation to inform systemic change. The
motivation findings affirmed, regardless of their adverse experiences, teachers remain because of
their commitment to the children and families they serve. They also view their role as vital to
ensure students of color are affirmed in their identity and have educators that look like them in
their educational journey.
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Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation
This study sought to understand how school racial climate impacts the retention of
teachers color in an urban school district. Previous research has revealed that teachers of color
must navigate challenging work conditions, feeling undervalued and not having the autonomy to
engage in anti-racist pedagogical practices (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2011). The tenants of the
Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO framework provided the structure for this study and CRT
supported those structures to shape the analysis. To understand the experiences of the teachers
related to motivation and organizational influences, three main research questions were asked (a)
How does the racial climate of the school district influence Black teacher retention in Midwest
Public Schools District? (b) How does organizational culture influence work environments for
teachers of color and what are the organizational factors that contribute to low representation of
teacher of color in the district? (c) How do the racialized experiences of teachers of color impact
their motivation to inform systemic-level change and what motivation and organizational
solutions are recommended to increase representation of teachers of color in the district
workforce?
The findings in Chapter Four affirmed that, indeed, teachers of color do not feel
supported by the school district and in many cases within their school building. Furthermore,
there is still a continuing need for school leaders to demonstrate equity minded leadership
practices and embrace anti-racist approaches to supporting the workforce. The study’s continuing
needs are the areas that have opportunity for improvement. This chapter addresses the continuing
needs of the school district with evidence-based recommendations, an implementation plan and
evaluation plan related to the recommendations proposed. This chapter will be categorized into
five main sections. The first section will reiterate continuing need to address the organizational
103
and motivation influences, the second section will focus on the evidence-based solutions
proposed for the continuing needs, the third section will focus on an implementation plan related
to the solutions, the fourth section will focus on the evaluation of the recommended solutions,
and, finally, in the fifth section, recommendations for further research will be discussed.
Continuing Needs Related to Organization and Motivation
The findings affirmed several challenges elevated by teachers of color that the district
needs to mitigate to effectively support teachers of color in the school district. These include
three organizational and three motivation needs. Table 31 reflects the continuing needs that will
be the focus of discussion in this chapter.
Table 31
Continuing Needs
Organization Assumed organizational influences Result
Cultural Model 1 The school district needs to address issues
of race and racism.
Continuing need
Cultural Model 2 The school district needs to diversify the
teaching workforce.
Continuing need
Cultural Setting Influence 1 The school district needs to demonstrate a
commitment to equity
Continuing need
Motivation Assumed Teacher Motivation Influences Result
Race-Focused Construct 1
The racialized experiences of teachers of
color impact their motivation to inform
systemic-level change.
Continuing need
Race-Focused Construct 2
The racialized experiences of teachers of
color impact their level of satisfaction as
employees of the school district.
Continuing need
Collective Agency Teachers of color need to have a sense of
belonging in school culture.
Continuing need
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Under the organization needs, the school district needs to address issues of race and
racism, demonstrate a commitment to equity and to diversifying the workforce. Under the
motivation needs, teachers need to have a sense of belonging in school culture. In addition,
teachers believe that their racialized experiences impact their motivation to inform systemic
change and impacts their level of satisfaction with the school district. Following are
recommendations for how these continuing needs may be resolved.
Proposed Recommendations
The mission of Midwest Public Schools is to nurture the dreams of all students and
empower all students to contribute to a better world. In order to fulfill this mission, the
continuing needs identified in the findings have to be addressed with evidence-based solutions.
Teachers of color shared several concerns about issues of equity, race and racism and some
recommendations emerged. Recommendations were directed towards organizational and
motivation influences. There are four main recommendations that will support teachers of color
in their level of satisfaction with district. The recommendations are based on the evidence
provided by the teachers of color that participated in the study. These are: 1) Create culturally
affirming environments at the school and district level. 2) Improve the working conditions for
teachers of color; 3) Prioritize diversifying the workforce; and 4) Create formal structures to
support for teachers of color.
Recommendation 1: Create Culturally Affirming Environments at the School and District
Level
Culturally affirming environments can empower and engage all education stakeholders in
the processes of developing cultural competency within districts and school communities.
Implementing culturally responsive pedagogy can support creating culturally affirming
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environments. For students of color, educational researchers assert meaningful learning takes
place in classroom environments where knowledge is culturally relevant, critically examined,
and constructed by students (Bartolomé, 2008; 2004; Gay & Kirkland, 2003; Ladson-Billings,
1994). Teachers who use culturally relevant pedagogy as an instructional practice, acknowledge
that students’ cultural backgrounds form a legitimate source of knowledge that can be infused
into academic learning experiences to enhance existing and develop new academic skills and
knowledge (Bartolomé, 2008; Gay & Kirkland, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1994). For teachers of
color, being in culturally affirming environments demonstrates respect for their humanity and
racial identity, allowing them to feel free to be their authentic selves. On the contrary, many of
the current experiences that teacher of color shared are having to navigate colorblind work
cultures that leaves them feeling invisible. The district has an opportunity to be explicit about
their commitment to equity. Midwest Public Schools can articulate their approach to ensuring
that their workforce feels empowered, supported in a culturally and linguistically affirming
environment. There is an opportunity to engage with district leadership to build structures to
systematically support school leaders in equity-driven efforts to create affirming school
environments, including prioritizing funding for anti-racism and equity efforts, in addition to
adopting training materials for culturally proficient leadership. The process should include
continuous improvement, allowing for shared reflection, learning, and adjustment that centers
equity.
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Table 32
Summary of Action Steps and Timeline for Creating Culturally Affirming Environments at the
School and District Level
Action steps Timeframe
i. Engage district to learn about the Equity Taskforce that
was recently commissioned by the superintendent.
August 2021
ii. Engage district about conducting an equity audit
including surveying staff to get feedback on their
experiences (i.e., equity, racism, and culturally
affirming learning environments).
October 2021
iii. Create a professional learning plan, at the district and
school level, in partnership with a diverse representation
of teachers to ensure curriculum are inclusive and
respectful of all racial and ethnic groups.
October 2021 and
ongoing
iv. Develop school site plan teams that includes a diverse
representation of teachers to set explicit goals for
culturally affirming school environments in the schools.
October 2021 and
ongoing
Recommendation 2: Improve the Working Conditions for Teachers of Color
As previously cited, the climate within the school district and building reflects many
factors that include working conditions. Once teachers of color enter the classroom, the teaching
conditions they encounter can discourage them from staying at the same school or even staying
in the profession (Ingersoll & May, 2017). Scholars have noted that schools that serve the most
students of color often contend with a range of challenges, including lack of effective leadership
support, accountability pressures and a lack of resources and support (Simon & Johnson, 2015).
For teachers of color, specifically, turnover has strongly associated with a lack of classroom
autonomy and school influence (Ingersoll & May, 2017). Teachers of color in this study
expressed having to navigate racial discrimination, stereotyping, and colleagues that questioned
107
their expertise. There is an opportunity to learn more about the experiences of teachers of color
across the district by conducting a survey to understand the working conditions they experience.
For example, teachers of color report that their schools lack structural, and resource supports as
well as relevant professional development they need for continued growth in their career. By
collecting additional data from those most impacted by issues related to working conditions, the
district can determine a course of action that can result in systemic change.
Table 33
Summary of Action Steps and Timeline for Improving the Working Conditions for Teachers of
Color
Action steps Timeframe
i. Engage district about conducting a staff experience
survey and/or focus groups at the school level to
understand teachers of color experience and work
conditions.
October 2020 and ongoing
ii. Use the data from the staff experience survey and/or
focus groups to inform actions steps to address the
needs of teachers of color connected to working
conditions and professional growth opportunities.
November 2020 and ongoing
108
Recommendation 3: District Should Prioritize Diversifying the Workforce
Hiring people of color is not enough to create culturally affirming environments. Districts
need to have structures and programs whose goals are to foster environments that value teachers
of color. Teachers of color in this study shared how they would appreciate the opportunity to
learn more about the current efforts underway to address diversifying the workforce. They also
shared the desire to want to participate in job fairs to engage with potential new teachers. There
is an opportunity to implement policies and procedures to support the development and
sustainability of efforts to diversify the teaching workforce while supporting current and
incoming teachers of color. The recruitment and retention of teachers of color require an
intentional commitment to increasing teacher diversity, including commitments of funding, staff,
and time.
Table 34
Summary Action Steps and Timeline for Prioritizing Diversifying the Workforce
Action steps Timeframe
i. Collect and use data to examine school district
preservice practices (recruitment, interview, hiring)
and in-service practices (induction and mentoring).
August 2021 and ongoing
ii. Invest in the recruitment, preparation, and
development of strong, diverse leaders committed
to positive working conditions for a diverse
workforce.
August 2021 and ongoing
iii. Determine feasibility of establishing pay scales and
financial incentives such as loan forgiveness,
service scholarships, and relocation incentives for
new teachers coming into the district.
August 2021 and ongoing
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Recommendation 4: Create Formal Structures of Support for Teachers of Color
There are several qualitative studies which convey the frustration, fatigue, and feelings of
isolation teachers of color experience when there are very few, if any, teachers or school leaders
that share their race or ethnicity (Ingersoll & May, 2017). While there has been focus on
recruitment efforts, there should also focus on retaining teachers of color. Teachers of color in
this study shared their desire to want to connect with other educators and to create support
systems for one another. Creating an affinity group where members share a key identity offers
community and comfort where teachers of color can address challenges, engage in honest
dialogue, and cultivate critical thought-partnership with colleagues.
Table 35
Summary Action Steps and Timeline for Create Formal Structures of Support for Teachers of
Color
Action steps Timeframe
i. Create formal structures to support teacher of color.
Review placement of teachers of color to build
cohorts and reduce isolation.
October 2021
ii. Invite teachers of color to codesign the affinity
network.
October 2021
110
Capacity and Resource Requirements
The study participants expressed the desire to engage in further conversation at the school
and district level around their experiences as teachers of color in the school district. Addressing
issues related to their experiences is complex and requires an understanding and critical
examination in to the intricate and nuanced nature their experiences. As such, the school district
needs to create the infrastructure to engage in the processes required. In order for the
perspectives and reflections teachers of color to be heard, authentic engagement must take place
and there needs to be a process for teachers to engage. This requires taking in to account the staff
time and possibly additional external support. Resources will need to be devoted to the Equity
Audit, an evaluator to conduct the macro and micro evaluation of the district and to conduct staff
experience survey and focus groups. Consultants will assist with development of a human capital
strategy and trainers will need to be consulted on training regarding culturally responsive
pedagogy. Finally, staff time needs to be considered to create the school site plans and
professional learning agenda. In turn, teachers of color could feel seen, heard, appreciated, and
increase their level of satisfaction with the school district. They could serve as ambassadors for
the district and engage in the recruitment pipeline through encouraging high school and college
students to consider the profession and offer support to novice teachers entering the district. This
effort can also support the equity analysis of the district by investing in their own capacity to
support their workforce.
Evaluation and Critical Race Theory
As previously stated, CRT in education challenges the dominant discourse on race and
racism by examining how educational theory, policy and practice are used to subordinate certain
racial and ethnic groups (Yosso et al., 2001). Within the context of this study, CRT provided a
111
way to examine structural and institutional racism in schools. Furthermore, CRT provided the
framing to explore the experiences of teachers of color related to race, racism, and the impact
their job satisfaction and desire to remain in the district. Therefore, under the lens of CRT, the
evaluation of this study explicitly centers the experiences of teachers of color, with their voices
being central in naming the needs and metrics to address school racial climate in Midwest Public
Schools District and is guided by the five tenets previous explored:
1. Intercentricity of Race and Racism. A key principle of CRT is that race and racism are
pervasive, institutional, and systematic (Bell, 1987; Dixson & Rousseau Anderson,
2018). CRT in education centers race and racism, while concentrating on the intersections
of racism with other forms of subordination such as class, gender, and language
(Solórzano & Delgado, 2001; Yosso et al., 2001).
2. Challenge Dominant Ideology. CRT challenges assumptions of racial and cultural
hierarchy in educational settings such as colorblindness, meritocracy, and race neutrality
(Yosso et al., 2001) as these claims act as a camouflage for the self-interest, power, and
privilege of dominant groups in U.S. society (Solórzano, 1997; Yosso et al., 2001).
3. Commitment to Social Justice. CRT in education works to empower underrepresented
groups that have been marginalized and eliminate racism (Solórzano & Delgado Bernal,
2001) while seeking to advance a social justice agenda (Yosso et al., 2001).
4. Valuing Experiential Knowledge. CRT research recognizes experiential knowledge
teacher of color hold as legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding and
analyzing their experiences (Solórzano & Delgado, 2001; Kohli, 2009). This tenant is
particularly important for this study for centering the lived experiences of teachers to
examine the racial climate in schools.
112
5. Interdisciplinary. Through the lens of CTR, this study will analyze race and racism in
education by placing them in both an historical and contemporary context using
interdisciplinary methods (Delgado, 1984, 1992; García, 1995).
Table 34 shows the recommendations and tenets connected to CRT.
Table 36
Recommendations and Connections to Critical Race Theory
Recommendations Tenets of critical race theory
Recommendation 1
Create culturally affirming environments at
the school and district level.
Tenet 1. Intercentricity of Race and Racism
Tenet 2. Challenge Dominant Ideology
Tenet 3. Commitment to Social Justice
Tenet 4. Valuing Experiential Knowledge
Tenet 5. Interdisciplinary
Recommendation 2
Improve the working conditions for
teachers of color.
Tenet 1. Intercentricity of Race and Racism
Tenet 2. Challenge Dominant Ideology
Tenet 3. Commitment to Social Justice
Tenet 4. Valuing Experiential Knowledge
Tenet 5. Interdisciplinary
Recommendation 3
Prioritize diversifying the workforce.
Tenet 1. Intercentricity of Race and Racism
Tenet 2. Challenge Dominant Ideology
Tenet 3. Commitment to Social Justice
Tenet 4. Valuing Experiential Knowledge
Tenet 5. Interdisciplinary
Recommendation 4
Create formal structures for teachers of
color to support one another.
Tenet 1. Intercentricity of Race and Racism
Tenet 2. Challenge Dominant Ideology
Tenet 3. Commitment to Social Justice
Tenet 4. Valuing Experiential Knowledge
Tenet 5. Interdisciplinary
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In the next section, CRT principles are applied to each recommendation as informed by
the teachers of color in the study.
Intercentricity of Race and Racism
Each recommendation applies to the tenant of centrality of race and racism. The premise
of this tenant focuses on the need within education to center race and racism, including
intersections with other forms of subordination such as gender, class, and citizenship. Midwest
Public Schools can take an intersectional lens to understand the experiences of teachers of color
to examine how to create culturally affirming environments. Teachers of color disclosed that
their current experiences consist of them navigating school environments where authentic
conversations about race and racism do not exist, rather couched in trainings around culturally
responsive practice. With the knowledge that teachers of color experience racism within their
school environments, an approach to address these challenges can improve the working
conditions under which teachers of color operate. Additionally, in relation to diversifying the
workforce, analyzing existing data with a racial equity lens can provide insight into recruitment
and retention of teachers of color. Lastly, providing support systems for teachers of color and the
space to connect around their unique experiences can decrease isolation and improve overall job
satisfaction and improve retention.
Challenge Dominant Ideology
Every recommendation put forward applies to challenging the dominant perspective. This
tenant works to challenge to dominant narratives and center marginalized perspectives. Midwest
Public Schools can challenge the dominant narratives that exist within the district to center the
voices of teachers of color and their experiences across each recommendation. There is an
opportunity for the district to understand what it means to work in an environment that does not
114
affirm your identity, challenges your expertise, and does not have the necessary supportive
structures in place for you to be successful. All these factors impact the retention and level of
satisfaction teachers of color have with the district. Additionally, while the dominant narrative
lifted by teachers of color is that having a workforce that represents the student population is
common within the district, there is not much evidence of how this work is being prioritized at
the district level.
Commitment to Social Justice
Each recommendation applies to the tenant of commitment to social justice. The teachers
of color centered in this study are all motivated by a social justice agenda. Their experiences
speak to their identity being questioned by colleagues and parents while they are also positioned
as advocates for students of color in their schools. By creating safe spaces for teachers of color to
connect with one another offers the structure needed to reduce isolation and the environment to
build relationships and mentorship across the district.
Valuing Experiential Knowledge
Every recommendation is connected to the tenant of valuing the experiential knowledge
of teachers of color. Through centering the narratives of teachers of color, a lens into social
inequality within the context of Midwest Public Schools has been elevated. With this
information, the district can attempt to understand social inequality through the experiences of
teachers of color to create culturally affirming environments, improve working conditions,
implement strategies to diversify the workforce and implement systems of support for teachers of
color.
115
Interdisciplinary
Each recommendation comes from an interdisciplinary analysis by placing them in both
an historical and contemporary context. Teachers of color shared multiple perspectives within
the current context connected to each recommendation. Drawing from their experiential
knowledge, teachers of color identified opportunities to build on the counting need of the district
to improve the racial climate of the district, reflected in the recommendations.
The recommendations put forward by the teachers of color to the district requires support
and commitment to bring about sustainable change. Table 37 provides interventions, methods,
indicators, and a timeline to implement an ongoing process of evaluation for the district to
consider.
116
Table 37
Recommendations, Interventions, Methods, Indicators, and Timeline
Recommendations Interventions Methods Indicators Timeline
Recommendation 1
Create culturally
affirming
environments at
the school and
district level.
Improve the
racial climate
in district by
implementing
an evaluation
at the macro
and micro
level.
Conduct staff
experience
surveys and/or
focus groups
and
disaggregate the
results by race
and ethnicity
and use the
outcomes to
improve policies
and programs.
Increased
levels of
satisfaction
on staff
experience
surveys.
Fall 2021 and
Ongoing
Recommendation 2
Improve the
working
conditions for
teachers of color.
Improve working
conditions by
examining
approaches to
assigning
teachers to
schools and
provide
professional
development
and leadership
training.
Conduct staff
experience
surveys,
disaggregating
the results by
race and
ethnicity, and
use the
outcomes to
improve policies
and programs.
Retention
rates for
teachers of
color.
Increased in
levels of
satisfaction
on staff
experience
surveys.
Fall 2021 and
Ongoing
Recommendation 3
Prioritize
diversifying the
workforce.
Collect and use
data to
examine
school district
recruitment,
interview, and
hiring
practices.
Invest in
mentorship and
career ladders
for current and
aspiring
teachers, and
district leaders.
Track and report
disaggregated
human capital
data—including
application
submission,
invited to
interview,
advances to
subsequent
interview
rounds, receives
a job offer, is
hired by the
school district,
Increase in
teachers of
color
interviewed,
hired, retained,
and promoted.
Retention rates
for teachers of
color.
Fall 2021
and
Ongoing
117
Recommendations Interventions Methods Indicators Timeline
and is
successfully
retained over
multiple years.
Establish
quantitative
targets with
date-specific
benchmarks to
improve
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion at each
step of the
recruitment,
hiring, and
retention
pipeline.
Recommendation 4
Create formal
structures of
support for
teachers of color.
Develop
professional
affinity
network.
Conduct a survey
to teachers of
color to
determine the
effectiveness of
the network.
Increased levels
of satisfaction
on staff
experience
surveys.
Fall 2021
and
Ongoing
Future Research
This study focused on how school racial climate impacts the experiences of teachers of color.
While the focus on the study was on Midwest Public Schools District, teachers of color in other
schools may have different organizational and motivation experiences. Further critical
exploration of the narratives of teachers of color can elevate their experiences throughout the
education continuum – beginning at their development and into the field as a novice teacher and
throughout their career. Some suggestions for future research follow.
118
1. Elevate the narratives of teachers of color and patterns that emerge from their
experiences.
2. Explore the resilience teachers of color demonstrate while working to improve the
educational opportunities of students of color.
3. Engage in research around the informal and formal communities of support teachers of
color have created and how that impacts their experience as teachers.
4. Explore policy and practice efforts that center the narratives shared by teachers of color.
Conclusion
The findings in this study revealed the organizational culture impacts school racial
climate and influence the level of satisfaction teachers of color have with their jobs. This study
was conducted to determine the organization and motivation influences related to job satisfaction
of teachers of color. Through interviews and document analysis, some challenges were
identified, and evidence-based recommendations were made.
Theorized within the scholarly tradition of CRT, counterstorytelling is a process in which
marginalized people share narratives that challenge accepted views, myths, values, and norms
(Yosso, 2006) and offer experiences from teachers of color, identifying opportunities to resist,
persist, and thrive. The CRT framework recognizes that oral histories and counterstorytelling are
legitimate and appropriate methodologies to analyze the experiences of teachers of color. This
study sought to explore the lived experiences, using a critical race analysis to explore school
racial climate and the challenges teachers of color encounter. The participants share a deep
commitment to being advocates for students of color and to confronting injustice in their
classrooms, schools, and district. Midwest Public Schools could benefit from embracing
practices, policies and mindsets of equity minded leadership that are institutionally focused,
119
critically race conscious, systemically aware, evidenced based, and action oriented (Felix, 2015).
This work is imperative to diversifying the workforce and building an educator workforce that is
representative of the increasingly diverse population of students.
120
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Appendix: Interview Protocol
Introduction
Thanks for meeting with me today. I am conducting this exercise as part of my dissertation
research with my doctoral program at the University of Southern California, exploring
diversifying the teaching workforce. I anticipate taking no more than an hour of your time, and I
have approximately 30 questions for your consideration. I also appreciate your willingness to
participate in a follow-up if needed.
Your participation is completely voluntary. We can skip any question you want at any time, and
you may stop the interview at any time. Any identifiable information obtained in connection with
this study will remain confidential. Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym)
and maintained separately. If you are comfortable with it, I would like to record our conversation
and the recording will be destroyed after it is transcribed. Do you have any questions? Ready to
begin?
Respondent Name: _______________________________________________
School Name: _______________________________________________
Grade Level: _______________________________________________
# Years teaching: _______________________________________________
# Years in current school: _______________________________________________
Race / Ethnicity: _______________________________________________
Gender: _______________________________________________
Location of Interview: _______________________________________________
Time in / Time Out: _______________________________________________
1. Recruitment
1. Will you share your story of how you became a teacher?
2. How did you come to be in your current position at this school?
2. Race and Racism
1. How does your school engage staff in conversations about race? Racism?
2. Can you share an example of a time when you experienced racism in the context
of your school environment?
3. How do you define implicit bias?
i. Can you provide an example of implicit bias you’ve experienced in your
school environment? How was the issue addressed?
4. How does the racial climate of your school impact your professional experience?
Does it impact your desire to remain employed with the district?
149
3. Impacting Systems Change
1. Can you provide an example of a time you felt empowered to push back against a
policy or decision at your school or systems level?
2. Can you describe a way in which you feel empowered to address race related
issues at the school or district level?
4. Sense of Belonging in School Culture
1. How would you describe the culture of Midwest Public Schools?
2. How would you describe the culture of your school?
3. Can you describe ways that MPS makes you feel valued as a teacher?
4. How do teachers of color convene and support one another in MPS? In your
school? Is it formal or informal?
5. Professional Growth and Development
a. How are you supported in your professional growth and development?
b. Can you provide an example of how you are supported as a teacher of color?
What specific initiatives or programs that have been implemented to support your
growth and development?
6. Diversifying the Teaching Workforce
1. How has the school district addressed diversifying the education workforce?
2. What attracted you to the district? What can the district do to attract more teachers
of color?
3. Why do you remain with the district? What ways can the district retain teachers of
color?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study examined how school racial climate impacts the retention of teachers of color by exploring their lived experiences and the organizational and motivational influences. The study uses Critical Race Theory (CRT) as an analytical lens to explore the narratives shared from study participants and the gap analysis framework by Clark and Estes (2002) to affirm the assumed influences from interviews. Through examining the sociocultural forces that shape the experiences of teacher of color, this study explores how issues related to race and racism influence their job satisfaction and was designed to learn about how the racial climate in an urban public school district impacts the retention of teachers of color. The findings revealed the organizational culture impacts school racial climate and influences the level of satisfaction teachers of color have with their jobs while increasing their commitment to remain in the district to support students of color.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Harrison, Sakinah Patton
(author)
Core Title
The impact of school racial climate on the retention of teachers of color
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Global Executive
Degree Conferral Date
2021-08
Publication Date
08/04/2021
Defense Date
08/03/2021
Publisher
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Tag
critical race theory,OAI-PMH Harvest,racial climate,Racism,retention,teacher experiences,teachers of color
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Hinga, Briana (
committee chair
), Lyons-Moore, Akilah (
committee member
), Robison, Mark (
committee member
)
Creator Email
sakinah.harrison@gmail.com,sakinahh@usc.edu
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Tags
critical race theory
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