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Teacher perceptions of classroom management practices in public elementary schools

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Teacher perceptions of classroom management practices in public elementary schools

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Content TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
by
Kathryn Sampilo Wilson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2006
Copyright 2006 Kathryn Sampilo Wilson
ii
DEDICATION
First and foremost, I dedicate this work to my family. To my parents, for
always having high expectations for me and supporting me. To my sister, Sarah, for
being my best friend and my “rock”. To my sister, Tricia, who always gave of
herself to help me take care of life’s little surprises. To my daughter, Kaitlyn Lauryn,
for keeping my spirits up and being a very good reason to finish this paper.
To my best friend, Dale Gudani, for always being there to support and
encourage me...no matter what time of the day I needed you!
Last, but definitely not least, to my husband, William, whose unconditional
love and support is what got me where I am now. You pushed me when I needed
pushing and you held me up whenever I would fall apart. You took care of almost
every aspect of life, so that I could achieve this goal. You gave up so many things to
help me and I appreciate and love you for it. (You can have your wife back now!)
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to my committee chairs, Drs. Melora
Sundt and Ron Astor, who provided me with a guiding light. They continuously
challenged me to discover and unveil what was not readily apparent, resulting in my
persistent search for the answer to the question, “So what?” I am honored to have
worked with you.
A tremendous, heart-felt thank you goes out to Dr. Anne (Amy) Cox-
Petersen, my mentor. Her knowledge, skills, selflessness, and professionalism
encourage me to follow in her footsteps to one day become such an asset to the field
of education. I hope to one day inspire teachers as she has inspired me.
A special thank you to Dr. Christina Luna, my “nag,” for the impetus she
gave me along the way.
To Mr. Jack Hay for always believing in me.
To Drs. Sharon Bear and Harold Urman for their professionalism and
dedication to my work and completion of this paper.
To Drs. Shalamon Duke, Greg Schulz, Lynn Matassarin, Robert Valles, and
Kathleen Bruce, for their unending support and lasting friendship.
To Wendy Bsela for her encouragement and the numerous “vent sessions.”
To my friends, family, and the Orange County Cohort Class of 2006 who
made this journey a truly memorable one. You helped me balance work, school, and
becoming a new mom. Your help and encouragement got me through this experience
in one piece. Thank you!
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
List of Tables vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
A Brief History of School Reform, Climates, and Learning 2
Problem Statement 5
Purpose of the Study 5
Significance of the Study 6
Research Questions 7
Overview of Methodology 7
Delimitations and Limitations 8
Definition of Terms 9
Organization of the Dissertation 10
Chapter 2: Literature Review 12
Positive Classroom Management Techniques 14
Physical Maltreatment 16
Psychological Maltreatment 22
Gaps in the Literature 27
Rationalization for Occurrences 28
Theoretical Views 30
Effects on Students 33
Research Questions 37
Summary 37
Chapter 3: Methodology 39
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research 40
Participants 41
Sample Selection 42
Instrumentation 43
Data Collection 44
Data Analysis 45
Methodological Limitations 45
Chapter 4: Results 47
Participant Characteristics 47
v
Classroom Management Technique Prevalence and Frequency 50
Perceptions of Level of Effectiveness 68
Rationale for Technique Use and Perceived Effectiveness 70
Relationship between Teacher Perceptions and Practices 74
Summary 77
Chapter 5: Discussion 79
Summary of the Study and the Findings 80
Relationship to the Literature 90
Implications for Policy and Practice 90
Limitations of the Study 94
Recommendations for Future Research 97
Conclusion 100
References 101
Appendices 109
Appendix A 110
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Teacher Demographics 49
Table 2: Teachers’ Use of Classroom Management Techniques 51
Table 3: Prevalence of Classroom Management Techniques 53
Table 4: Frequency of Self-Reported Negative Classroom Management
Technique Use 55
Table 5: Frequency of Observed Negative Classroom Management
Technique Use 56
Table 6: Gender and Self-Reported Classroom Management
Technique Use (More than 3 Times) 58
Table 7: Grade Level Taught and Self-Reported Classroom Management
Technique Use (More than 3 Times) 61
Table 8: Number of Years of Teaching Experience and Self-Reported
Technique Use (More than 3 Times) 64
Table 9: Level of Education and Self-Reported Technique Use
(More than 3 Times) 66
Table 10: Teacher Perceptions of Technique Effectiveness 69
Table 11: Correlations between Perceived Effectiveness and Self-Reported
Practice 75
vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of elementary
school teachers in public schools in Southern California regarding their use of
classroom management techniques, specifically examining physical and
psychological practices to maintain classroom discipline. The research design
involved a survey that was used to collect data on teacher perceptions, use, and
observed use of specific classroom management techniques by other teachers.
Four research questions were developed to guide the study: (1) Which
classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to engage in most
frequently? (2) Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today? (3) Which classroom management practices do
elementary school teachers regard as effective in changing student behavior? (4)
What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques that
teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
This study surveyed 285 teachers in various Title 1 elementary schools
servicing Kindergarten through Grade 8 students in Southern California. Descriptive
statistics were calculated to examine the prevalence of positive and negative
classroom management techniques, teachers’ perceptions of their effectiveness, and
the relationship between teachers’ perceptions and actual practice in K-8 classrooms
today.
Due to the design of this study, causation could not be determined. This study
found that teachers reported to engage in positive classroom management techniques
viii
more often than negative classroom management techniques. Although positive
technique use was reported to be more prevalent, proportion of teachers using
negative techniques was evident. Further, data suggested that various variables, such
as gender, grade level taught, years of teaching experience, and level of education,
may have influenced teacher perception and use of positive and negative classroom
management techniques. Additionally, this study found that teachers perceived
positive classroom management techniques as effective. Conversely, they perceived
negative classroom management techniques as ineffective. The examination of the
relationship between teacher perception and practice yielded correlations that
demonstrated statistical significance between perceived level of effectiveness and
practice.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In an age of high stakes and accountability, affording students a safe school
climate and learning-conducive environment is essential to school reform (Everett &
Price, 1997). Researchers define school climate in various ways, and there is no one
true definition (Cushing, Horner, & Barrier, 2003; Hoy, 1990; Perone, 1998). Tagiuri
(1968) defined climate as the set of internal characteristics that distinguishes one
organization from another. According to Hoy (1990), school climate is “the
relatively enduring quality of the school environment that is experienced by
participants, affects their behavior, and is based on their collective perceptions of
behavior in schools” (p. 152). Bulach and Malone (1994) stated that school climate
incorporates the areas of school order, discipline, and safety. Finally, McBrien and
Brandt (1994) defined school climate as “the sum of the values, cultures, safety
practices, and organizational structures within a school that cause it to function and
react in particular ways” (p. 89). From these examples, it is clear that defining school
climate is as problematic as understanding what contributes to it.
Students need a positive school climate to develop academically and socially
(Harvey & Housman, 2004; Hyman & Snook, 2001; Mcevoy & Welker, 2000).
Positive climates in youth serving organizations, such as schools, can empower
youth and thwart adversarial encounters (Tate & Copas, 2003). According to
Gottfredson and Gottfredson (1985), through positive school climates, students are
treated fairly and are respected and, as a result, come to believe that they belong to
2
and are a part of the school. In literature on school effectiveness, positive school
climate has been suggested as a characteristic found in flourishing schools (Bulach &
Malone, 1994).
A Brief History of School Reform, Climates, and Learning
Dating back as far as the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,
society has been concerned with school reform (Katznelson & Weir, 1985), and
public education has been reformed in scores of different ways. In fact, reform could
be regarded as the fourth “R” of public education (Ravitch, 2000). The No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB) (2002) is the latest federal attempt at comprehensive reform of
United States public schools. The successful implementation of school reform,
however, depends upon providing students with a safe school climate and an
environment conducive to learning (Everett & Price, 1997). Thus, it is important to
consider school climate, particularly violence, and its effects on learning.
The results of surveys conducted by the U.S. Department of Education (1997)
during the 1990s suggested the occurrence, not prevalence, of school violence. The
victimization rate for students aged 12 to 18 years during the ten years between 1992
and 2002 generally declined both at and away from school (Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2004). Figures for other categories of violence in general also decreased
during this same period. For example, total crimes, thefts, serious violent crimes (i.e.,
rape, robbery, sexual assault, and aggravated assault), and violent crimes all
decreased in number (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004). Nevertheless, school-
related homicides and suicides still occasionally occurred. Between July 1, 1999 and
3
June 30, 2000, the number of school related homicides and suicides involving school
age youth was fewer that 1 homicide or suicide per 1 million students (DeVoe et al.,
2003). Additionally, there was an estimated 525,000 student attacks each month in
public schools (Kilpatrick, 2002).
Statistics indicate that school and general community violence rates are
declining (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004). Moreover, Furlong and Morrison
(2000) stated that the incidence of school-related violence reported during the above
noted period was overestimated:
Given that almost all basic information about the prevalence of school-related
violence has been gleaned from studies that do not report using any response
reliability or validity checks, it is likely that known rates of various types of
school-related violence are overestimates of their true rates. (p. 8)
Nevertheless, school violence remains a concern. As the media have
broadcast throughout the news and in the newspapers, violence in schools has
reached epidemic proportions worldwide. From school shootings to bullying, school
violence has become a national and international problem (Behre, Astor, & Meyer,
2001; Fields, 2000; Furlong, Morrison, Skiba, & Cornell, 2004; Perone, 1998). Since
1993, there have been 1, 291 reports of school violence (Furlong et al., 2004).
Compared to the span between 1979 and 1992, which included 210 references to
school violence, this statistic demonstrates the growing problem of public school
violence. As a result, the public, educators, and politicians have joined in a call for
safe schools and a more positive school climate (Bulach & Malone, 1994; Hyman &
Snook, 2001).
4
School violence is ubiquitous, although not prevalent. Recently, researchers
have investigated selected effects, rationale, and the presence of school violence
worldwide (Furlong et al., 2004). The findings were similar across nations and
cultures and have led to the examination of a broad range of related topics, from
administrative styles to school climate. Among myriad variables associated with
school climate and school violence, two general factors have been identified that
affect overall school climate: physical and psychological maltreatment of children
(Hyman & Snook, 2000).
According to Furlong and Morrison (2000), researchers have begun to
investigate multidimensional influences, such as teacher practices and behavioral
contexts associated with school violence and school climate. Current reform
movements, such as NCLB, are designed to identify factors, such as the
maltreatment of children, which influence school climate (Hyman & Snook, 2000).
In identifying these varied factors, movements to improve the conditions and
practices within schools have been designed.
One major component of many education reform movements includes a focus
on teacher quality and their instructional practices (Darling-Hammond & Bransford,
2005). According to Hyman and Snook (2001), in relation to classroom management
practices, positive school climates are characterized by very low levels or the
absence of sarcasm, ridicule, put-downs, and other verbal assaults from school staff.
The goal of influencing school climate by means of improving teacher quality and
practices is shared among stakeholders in the field of education.
5
Problem Statement
The assessment of school climate must consider the effect of many variables,
including school disruptions within the classroom and on the playground (Barton &
Wenglinsky, 1999). Although limited research has provided information about
teacher practices and classroom management, these factors can affect children’s
behavior and their school performance (Berry, Hoke & Hirsch, 2004). DiGiulio
(2001) argued that schools breed antisocial behaviors, further asserting that only
changing classroom and teacher practices can overcome or alleviate what is seen by
many as a crisis situation in schools today. Instead of teaching socialization skills,
schools medicate children and adolescents or apply legal measures that result in
student suspensions or expulsion. He urged schools to be proactive in preventing
antisocial student behavior or violence in school.
Purpose of the Study
This quantitative study will examine the perceptions of elementary school
teachers in public schools in Southern California in terms of their use of classroom
management techniques, specifically physical and psychological practices to
maintain classroom discipline. Elementary schools were selected for this
investigation because the majority of studies about classroom management have
examined classroom discipline in higher education or in international schools
(Chapell et al., 2004; Ganesan, 2004).
Despite the increasing number of studies that document the bullying of
students, scant research has been devoted to investigating potentially harmful
6
consequences that result from teacher bullying. According to Everett and Price
(1997), teachers communicate their attitudes and beliefs about children’s behavior
directly and indirectly, sometimes damaging school climate. When teachers harbor
negative perceptions of school climate, they may unintentionally telegraph these
attitudes to their students, colleagues, and community members. In addition, teacher
perceptions of school climate may affect their willingness to improve that climate or
participate in school reform.
By focusing on the teacher perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors used for
maintaining classroom discipline, this research seeks to provide teachers and the
administrators who are responsible for teacher supervision with knowledge regarding
the use of classroom management practices. Similarly, this research seeks to provide
teacher preparation programs with supplemental knowledge about classroom
management practices that may enhance their programs.
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study of teacher perceptions of classroom
management practices in public elementary schools lies in its potential to add new
information to extant professional literature. This study should provide information
about teachers’ perceptions of classroom management practices used in schools.
Teachers, administrators, and teacher preparation programs potentially could apply
the findings to educational reform movements, policy changes, and professional
development. In addition, the findings should support the need for additional
research of classroom management practices, teacher bullying, and the relationship
7
between these variables and school climate. It is hoped that the results of this
proposed will influence best practices in elementary schools, creating change that is
necessary in overcoming the challenges that students and schools face today.
Research Questions
To gain insight to the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of elementary
school teachers, the following research questions guided the study:
1. Which classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to
engage in most frequently?
2. Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?
3. Which classroom management practices do elementary school teachers
regard as effective in changing student behavior?
4. What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques
that teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
Overview of Methodology
Quantitative research methods were used to conduct an in-depth analysis of
teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors concerning classroom management
techniques to modify student behavior. Research demonstrates that incidents of
nonlethal violence in schools, such as verbal abuse, are regularly observed and
experienced by students and staff (Benbenishty, Astor, Zeira, & Vinokur, 2002).
However, as noted by Mcevoy and Welker (2000), there is an absence of agreed-
upon valid and reliable instruments for measuring violence-related attitudes and
8
behavior in the classroom and, as such, school violence is often measured by
reported victimization (Perone, 1998). Some researchers have argued that data
gathered from a survey method represent the most practical and ethical measurement
of school violence (Skiba et al., 2004). Thus, in the present study, a survey method
used to collect data on teacher perceptions and observed use of specific classroom
management techniques by other teachers.
Delimitations and Limitations
Delimitations and limitations are important to note in any research endeavor.
The ones that pertain to this study are presented below.
Delimitations of the Study
The study gathered quantitative data, drawn from a convenience sample of
400 teachers who taught kindergarten through 8
th
grade in Orange, San Bernardino,
and Los Angeles Counties, located in California. As such, the data collected are only
representative of this population and results may not be generalizable to any schools
in the U.S. or even California.
The use of a survey method also delimits this proposed research. It is
assumed that the use of a questionnaire is an appropriate instrument to obtain the
subjective data related to school classroom management practices and perceptions,
attitudes, and behavior to which participants will respond. However, while a breadth
of information was obtained, the data may lack depth.
9
Limitations of the Study
There are several possible limitations of the study. Although each
questionnaire will be identical in content, the condition of its administration may
have varied. The conditions of administration depended on the principal who
administered the questionnaires, who were mailed the survey packet. Therefore, the
location, time, and other environmental factors related to administering the
questionnaires could not be controlled. Further, the data collected were based solely
on the perceptions of the participating teachers.
Whenever a questionnaire is utilized, there is the possibility of respondents
providing socially acceptable answers, particularly when the questions are sensitive
in nature. Nevertheless, it was necessary to assume that participants replied
accurately. However, caution should be used in generalizing the results of this study
to any other group of teachers.
Definitions of Terms
Affective education is “schooling that helps students deal in a positive way
with their emotions and values” (McBrien & Brandt, 1997, p. 4).
At-risk refers to “students who have a higher than average probability of
dropping out or failing school” (McBrien & Brandt, 1997, p. 9).
Effective schools are those n which all students, especially those from
families in poverty, learn at a higher-than-expected level (McBrien & Brandt, 1997).
10
Elementary school is one in which the lowest grade is less than or equal to
grade 3 and the highest grade is less than or equal to grade 8 (U.S. Department of
Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, 2001a).
Professional development, also known as staff development or training, refers
to the experiences staff members encounter as they build knowledge and skills. An
example is attending an annual reading conference (McBrien & Brandt, 1997).
Punishment is “a procedure that decreases the chance that a misbehavior will
recur” (Hyman & Snook, 1999, p. 32).
Title I was first established in 1965 and refers to schools that service poor and
disadvantaged children. To promote focus on the areas of improved teaching and
learning to help at-risk students, Title 1 funds programs that supplement normal
instruction, such as extended day reading programs.
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 provided an
overview of the problem, including the purpose and significance of the study, the
research questions, delimitations and limitations, and relevant terms, as they pertain
to teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, and practice of classroom management
techniques. Chapter 2 presents the relevant literature and includes a brief historical
summary that focuses on physical and psychological maltreatment that has been used
in classrooms by teachers. Chapter 3 contains the study design, including the
instrumentation, sample and school sites, data collection method, and analysis of the
data. Chapter 4 presents the findings and addresses the research question. Chapter 5
11
contains a summary the study and presents conclusions and implications for teachers,
administrators, and teacher preparation programs. The chapter concludes with
recommendations for future research.
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
School climate refers to the quality and consistency of interpersonal
interactions within the school community that influence children’s cognitive, social,
and psychological development (Ben-Avie, Emmons, & Haynes, 1997; Hyman &
Snook, 2000). The establishment and preservation of a positive school climate afford
students potentially successful and motivating opportunities, academically and
socially. A school’s climate can positively influence or interfere with learning and
the development of children (Sackney, 1988). Brophy (1998), Hyman and Snook
(2001), and Ozer (2005) concluded that students in schools with positive climates
enjoy school, exhibit positive demeanors, and have an increase in self-esteem. In
addition, positive school climate may result in increased academic achievement and
prevent violent behavior (Hyman & Snook, 2001; Sexton-Radek, 2005; Smith et al.,
1999).
Classroom management, a component of school climate, refers to strategies
that teachers use to maintain behavior conducive to a productive and safe learning
environment (Hyman et al., 1997; Pasi, 2001). These strategies must be examined in
terms of their ability to prevent school violence and enable the implementation of
interventions. Effective discipline should encourage appropriate behavior and not
involve retribution or humiliation. Additionally, punishment should correspond to
the severity of the infraction and student needs (Schwartz & ERIC Clearinghouse on
Urban Education, 2001). Effective classroom management aids in enhancing a
13
school climate that affords students, staff, and community members an environment
that empowers, motivates, and fosters success (Pasi, 2001).
The media offer a significant contribution to perpetuating punitiveness
toward American school children (Hyman, 1990). For example, in the film Lean on
Me, Principal Joe Clark, portrayed by Morgan Freeman, depicted a hard-nosed
principal who used a bat and intimidation to rid a high school of school violence.
Demonstrating the positive effects of school discipline, which included
psychological maltreatment, Lean on Me may have developed misconceptions about
discipline. Additionally, news broadcasts inform the public of classroom discipline
practices and teacher misconduct. In a special news report, “Kept in the Closet,” Ana
Garcia (2005) reported that time-out rooms were being used to calm students down.
Thus, the media play an important role in informing or misinforming society of the
use of maltreatment as discipline and its potential effects.
To provide teachers with the knowledge and skills they need to manage
classrooms effectively, it is important to examine positive and negative classroom
management techniques and the disparity between teacher perception and practices.
As such, this study examines teacher perceptions and use of positive and negative
classroom management practices for modifying student behavior. To this end, this
chapter includes research on effective positive classroom management techniques
and two important topics in maltreatment research: physical maltreatment and
psychological, or emotional, maltreatment. Selected effects of maltreatment on
students are presented.
14
The first section contains a review of effective positive classroom
management techniques. The second section provides the history and use of physical
maltreatment by classroom teachers, while the third presents the history and use of
psychological maltreatment. The fourth section contains a presentation of teachers’
rationale for using maltreatment as a means of maintaining classroom discipline. The
fifth section provides a brief discussion of the effects of maltreatment on students.
Positive Classroom Management Techniques
The aim of effective classroom management is to establish and maintain a
positive and productive learning environment for all learners (Woolfolk, 1995). To
achieve such an environment, classroom management practices are set in place and
implemented. The following literature includes brief descriptions of selected positive
classroom management techniques that have been demonstrated to be effective in
elementary classrooms.
Praise
According to Hyman et al. (1997), praise is a vital component of instruction.
Examples of praise include saying, “Good job!” to a student or making the simple
gesture of a thumb up in response to a desired behavior. If perceived as sincere,
praise may correlate with positive student attitudes and behaviors (Brophy, 1998). In
addition, praise conveys positive teacher affect and provides students with
information about the worth of their behaviors (Schunk, 2004).
15
Physical Proximity
Physical proximity refers to the non-verbal technique of a teacher standing or
being in a place near a student (Clarizio, 1980; Woolfolk, 1995). Such a technique,
which does not cost a teacher’s time, is used to sustain attention and typically stop
misbehavior. In addition, through physical proximity, verbal confrontation may be
avoided.
Parental Involvement
Parental involvement has been shown to affect behavior, attitude, and self-
efficacy (Finn, 1998). When parents take an active role in their child’s education,
success may be positively influenced, cognitively and affectively. Further, effective
bridges between home and school have shown to improve learning for all students
(Toomey & Allen, 1991). With parental involvement, educators and administrators
gain as well. For example, a study of parental involvement in elementary schools
found that parents and principals rated teachers higher in overall teaching ability and
interpersonal skills (Epstein, 1991).
Token Systems
A token reinforcement system involves students receiving a “token” for a
desired behavior (Woolfolk, 1995). Some examples of token systems include marble
jars, class money, table points, or anything identified as a reward. According to
Woolfolk (1995), token systems may be used to motivate and encourage students.
16
With-it-ness
According to Woolfolk (1995), with-it-ness describes the state of awareness
of everything happening in a classroom. Teachers communicate their with-it-ness by
constantly scanning the room or making eye contact with students. By demonstrating
with-it-ness, teachers may prevent disruptions.
Physical Maltreatment
For several decades, teachers and social workers have focused on physical
maltreatment. Because of its negative nature and ill effects, teacher use of physical
maltreatment has been difficult to investigate. There is no single definition of
physical maltreatment (Hyman et al., 1997; Hyman & Snook, 1999). Physical
maltreatment includes spanking, hitting, slapping, shaking, or misusing time-outs.
According to Hyman and Snook (1999), physical maltreatment is used
interchangeably with the term corporal punishment. Thus, the following section
contains a description of corporal punishment, in general, followed by a discussion
of two examples of corporal punishment: the improper use of time-outs and sexual
harassment.
Despite the confusion regarding the definitions of time-outs and sexual
harassment, the following discussion explains how these factors are categorized as
physical maltreatment. Although each section explores these areas of physical
maltreatment, it is important to recognize the overlap between them. Both factors are
examples of physical maltreatment, or corporal punishment, evident in today’s
schools (Heins, 2003).
17
Corporal Punishment
According to Andero and Stewart (2002), corporal punishment is a
disciplinary method in which “a supervising adult deliberately inflicts pain upon a
child in response to a child’s unacceptable behavior or inappropriate language” (p.
90). Similarly, Ortentlicher (1992) reported that the American Medical Association
defined corporal punishment as the “intentional infliction of pain or discomfort
and/or use of physical force upon a student as punishment for an offense or
behavior” (p. 3205). Accordingly, Greydanus et al. (2003) described corporal
punishment as the intentional application of pain to curtail behavior. Hoping to end
the offence, prevent its occurrence, and serve as an example for other students,
teachers use corporal punishment in the classroom as a behavior modification
technique (Andero & Stewart, 2002; Hyman & Wise, 1979; Wilson, 1982; Youssef,
Attia, & Kamel, 1998).
Having its ancestry in Colonial America, the use of corporal punishment in
the schools dates back to the days of the whipping posts (Hyman, 1990). Colonists
believed in demonstrating that teachers were superior to students (Hyman, 1990).
Teachers, or Masters, as they were called, were said to have “reigned supreme as
long as they were stronger than their students” (p. 34). In Colonial America,
floggings, the whipping posts, the pillory, and other methods of corporal punishment
served as the prime methods of classroom discipline (Hyman, 1990). Corporal
punishment was not only in the classrooms; it was used throughout colonial
communities to ensure safety and enforce social norms.
18
Similarly, Hyman and Wise (1979) noted that, in 1850, Boston schools
reported that 65 beatings were necessary to run a school of 400 students. Grossman,
Rauh, and Rivara (1995) found that the use of corporal punishment as student
discipline was prevalent in elementary and secondary schools in Washington State.
In this study, a questionnaire was mailed to a cross-section of 1,018 elementary and
secondary schools in Washington. The results indicated that almost 11% of schools
permitted corporal punishment, and 3.2% reported its actual use during one school
year.
More recently, Benbenishty, Zeira, and Astor (2002) found that corporal
punishment by teachers was prevalent in Israeli students in grades 7-11. In this study,
a sample of 10,410 Israeli students were administered a self-report questionnaire
regarding their victimization by staff members. Results indicated that, though
reported less frequently than emotional maltreatment, physical maltreatment was
evident among the sample of students surveyed. Approximately 8% reported that
they were grabbed or pushed, pinched or slapped, about 5% reported that they had
been kicked or punched, and approximately 13% reported that they had experienced
some other form of physical maltreatment, further demonstrating the prevalence of
corporal punishment in schools.
Although in Ingraham v. Wright, 97 S. CT. 1401 (1977) the U.S. Constitution
does not explicitly prohibit corporal punishment, the majority of states have banned
it use. Essentially, teachers may be disciplined or terminated for violating local or
state provisions regulating the use of corporal punishment (Cambron-McCabe,
19
McCarthy, & Thomas, 2004). For example, a tenured teacher in Illinois was
terminated for electrically shocking students with a cattle prod as a discipline
technique (Rolando v. School Directors, 358 N.E.2d 945, Ill., 1976). In addition to
dismissal, teachers may face criminal charges and fines for using corporal
punishment. Despite such ramifications, individual states still advocate and uphold
the use of corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure. The use of corporal
punishment continues because the definition of unreasonable use is unclear, and the
myth that corporal punishment is effective remains.
The use of such a technique in classrooms for disciplinary reason has varied,
based upon changing educational philosophies and practices. The notion that “good
old fashioned discipline” worked in the past serves as justification for its continued
use. Retribution for use of corporal punishment in schools has been contingent on
existing school and state policies. Although controversial, corporal punishment is
perceived differently, ranging from the view that schools act “in loco parentis” to the
idea that corporal punishment is an absolutely intolerable act. Examining the
frequency of corporal punishment in classrooms may benefit the current literature
and justify the need for further research. The following discussion addresses two
specific forms of corporal punishment: time-outs and sexual harassment.
Time-outs. There are three types of time-outs: (a) exclusionary time-out, (b)
nonexclusionary time-out, and (c) seclusionary time-out (Hyman et al., 1997). The
exclusionary time-out, which has the potential alter the behavior of both the target
student and nontarget students, refers to removing the unruly child to another part of
20
the classroom, facing away from classmates. A nonexclusionary time-out refers to
removing the target student to another part of the classroom, but permitting the child
to observe classmates. During a seclusionary time-out, a target student is removed
from the classroom for a period of time.
The improper use of time-outs can create physical discomfort and
embarrassment for students. Also known as deprivation punishment, time-outs refer
to the removing of a child from a positive experience to a negative experience
(Hyman & Snook, 1999). In this case, the teacher hopes that the child’s desire is to
return to a positive situation. A time-out is used to stop a negative behavior by
allowing the child to return whenever acting appropriately.
Paulson (1983) found that the use of time-outs was prevalent in preschools to
gain compliance from children. From 1976 to 1981, he visited approximately 60 to
70 preschools in the New York City metropolitan area. He sought to determine the
prevalence and forms of physical and psychological maltreatment against preschool
children, ages 2 1/2 to 5 years. Time-outs used included expulsion from class or
isolation in class. Occasionally, teachers forget about the isolated children and they
remained in time-out positions for extended periods of time. Research has suggested
that the use of time-outs may result in lower self-esteem, emotional distress, and
poor social and academic development (Andero & Stewart, 2002; Hyman, 1990;
Hyman & Snook, 1999; Orange, 2000; Shumba, 2002). Similarly, Clarizio (1980)
found that the use of time-outs was ineffective for withdrawn students, potentially
decreasing self-esteem and increasing emotional distress.
21
When used incorrectly, time-outs constitute a form of corporal punishment.
Procedures such as putting students in closets, requiring that students touch their toes
for a designated period, or inserting socks in a student’s mouth during a time-out are
examples of a teacher’s failure to discipline in a positive and effective manner.
According to Hyman and Snook (1999), whenever repeated or ineffective time-outs
are used and behavior is not changed, the punishment should not be used. To do so
risks detrimental effects, such as post-traumatic stress. Because such negative effects
can result from the improper and overuse of time-outs, the exploration of prevalence
and perceptions of this practice are important for teachers to understand.
Sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is a type of physical maltreatment and
refers to any unwanted sexual attention from teachers, staff members, parents, or
peers (Hyman & Snook, 1999). CBS News (2004) reported that more than 4.5
million children are victims of sexual harassment by school employees each year.
Teachers were reportedly the most common offenders. Teachers are trusted to care
for and protect children, yet there is a need to protect children from teachers (Heins,
2003). Although most teacher do not engage in such harmful actions, sexual
harassment continues to exist in schools nationwide (CBS News, 2004; Hyman &
Snook, 1999).
Recently, the media has publicized many incidents related to sexual
misconduct between student and school faculty. Offending behaviors include leering,
pinching, grabbing, suggestive verbal comments, pressuring for sexual activity,
spreading sexual rumors, making sexual or sexist jokes, pulling at another student’s
22
clothing, cornering or brushing up against a student in a sexual orientation, date rape,
or writing sexual graffiti about a student (CBS News, 2004; Hyman & Snook, 1999).
The safety and the well being of our youth are important components of school
reform and are needed for the development of productive and well rounded citizens.
As such, the examination of the prevalence and perceptions of sexual harassment is
needed to help ensure a positive school climate.
Psychological Maltreatment
According to Dupper and Meyer-Adams (2002), low-level violence, such as
psychological maltreatment, is a “largely neglected aspect of school violence” (p.
350). Because psychological maltreatment, also referred to as emotional
maltreatment, does not leave any physical markings and is difficult to determine,
researchers have suggested that psychological maltreatment is likely the most
invisible form of child maltreatment and its frequency is underestimated (Tomison &
Tucci, 1997). Similar to the term physical maltreatment, psychological maltreatment
lacks any single clear definition. Hyman and Snook (1999) offered this definition of
psychological maltreatment:
Discipline and control techniques based on fear and intimidation, low
quantity and quality of human interaction in which teachers communicate a
lack of interest, caring, and affection for students, self-worth, encouragement
to be dependent and subservient, motivational techniques for performance
that are overly critical, excessively demanding, unreasonable, and ignore
children’s abilities, denial of opportunities for healthy risk taking, verbal
assaults, scapegoating and bullying, and failure to intervene. (p. 54)
Psychological maltreatment is also known as the “hidden form” of abuse
(Hyman & Snook, 1999). This type of abuse includes a broad range of psychological
23
maltreatment, such as the use of verbal bullying, ridicule, sarcasm, put downs,
taunting, name calling, public humiliation, rejection, discrimination and bigotry, and
adultism (Brendtro, 2001; Harber, 2004; Hyman & Snook, 1999, 2001;
Konstantareas & Debois, 2001; Paulson, 1983; Tate & Copas, 2003). Psychological
maltreatment uses intimidation and fear to control and manipulate another person’s
behavior and attitudes (Hyman & Snook, 1999). Psychological maltreatment
interferes with opportunities for students to practice conflict resolution, develop their
self-worth, of engage in healthy risk taking. Difficult to assess, the use of
psychological maltreatment is often overlooked, ignored, or concealed. Therefore, it
is important to provide educators with the knowledge necessary to avoid such
practices. In this regard, the following discussion focuses on verbal bullying,
humiliation, rejection, discrimination, and adultism.
Verbal Bullying
Verbal bullying, which is the most common form of maltreatment used by
teachers, consists of ridicule, name-calling, sarcasm, threats, and insult (Paulson,
1983; Maag, 2001). According to Hyman (1997), teachers often scream or use
sarcasm, threats, and ridicule to control students’ behavior. Although it is assumed
that verbal bullying is more prevalent in middle school, high school, and college
levels, verbal bullying occurs in all grades, including preschool and the primary
grades (Chapell et al., 2004; Paulson, 1983). The negative effects of verbal bullying
can interfere with the development of self-esteem and self-efficacy, as well as overall
physical and emotional development.
24
Ridicule, sarcasm, and put-downs. Ridicule, a variant of bullying behavior, is
often used by teachers to stop an unwanted behavior (Brendtro, 2001; Hyman &
Snook, 1999). Especially prevalent in middle and junior high school classrooms,
ridicule and sarcasm are used to tolerate and curtail poor attitudes and behavior of
students in this age group (Hyman & Snook, 1999).
Often teachers use ridicule, sarcasm, and put downs in hopes of motivating
their students to excel (Hyman & Snook, 1999). With good intentions, teachers often
err and victimize students by making fun of them, making jokes about situations,
speaking sarcastically, or by putting them down. As stated by Heins (2003), teachers
demonstrate their contempt via heavy sarcasm, rolling of their eyes, yelling at
students, and other forms of psychological maltreatment.
Tantamount to ridicule, taunting has also been demonstrated to be a form of
psychological maltreatment that teachers use in the classroom. Teachers taunt
students by using ridicule, sarcasm, put downs, and adultism in the hopes of
modifying the students’ behavior (Hyman & Snook, 1999). Similarly called “name-
calling,” this form of verbal bullying uses intimidation and humiliation to manipulate
student behavior. Based on the assumption that name-calling would cause the student
to avoid future occurrences of the dire behavior, name-calling victimizes the student
and attacks his or her self-esteem (Hyman & Snook, 1999).
Most of the time, teachers are unaware of the frequency of their actions. In
addition, research is very limited because an examination of teachers’ use of
maltreatment is not readily acceptable, given the sensitivity of the issue (Heins,
25
2003). An examination of the prevalence of such behaviors, however, would be
beneficial to teachers and students alike.
Public Humiliation
Analogous to verbal bullying, public humiliation can be observed on school
campuses worldwide. Teachers often humiliate students by “setting an example” for
their peers, as a means to modify behavior (Ganesan, 2004). Examples of public
humiliation include writing student names on the board or requiring students to serve
recess standing against the wall or to sit the class wearing a dunce cap. Some
teachers use public humiliation overtly and knowingly, while others use it
inadvertently (Ganesan, 2004; Heins, 2003; Hyman, 1990).
Rejection
Rejection is a form of psychological maltreatment that also has been broadly
called emotional abuse (Hyman & Snook, 1999). Rejection refers to the teacher
withholding affection or compassion for a child. This practice is disadvantageous to
a child’s development. Rejection by teachers may affect student outcomes and
behavior development (Lago-Delello, 1998). Out of frustration, teachers may prefer
to avoid dealing with discipline problems and chose to reject the student. Similar to
the use of time-outs, rejection “rids” the classroom of the student, which may result
in the student developing low self-esteem or aggressive behavior.
Discrimination and Bigotry
Teachers may disclose their own bigotry through subtle forms of prejudiced
behaviors (Hyman & Snook, 1999). Comparable to other forms of psychological
26
maltreatment methods, teachers often demonstrate bigotry by using cognizant and
unconscious remarks (Hyman, 1990). For example, a teacher may make comments
about a student’s skin color or religious practices. According to Hyman (1990),
research on self-fulfilling prophecy suggests that forms of psychological
maltreatment occur when teachers unconsciously or consciously act on their biases
relative to race, ethnicity, religion, or other stereotypes.
Research has not found a substantive disparity across racial or ethnic groups,
although patterns have suggested some differences between Black and Hispanic
students in regard to victimization (Furlong & Morrison, 2000). A study by Furlong
and Morrison (1998) suggested that African American students reported higher rates
of victimization than do Hispanic students. Similarly, discrimination due to social
class has been demonstrated in classrooms. It was found that minority and poor
“white” children received more “lickings” than did middle and upper class students
(Hyman, 1997).
Adultism
Known as the “overlooked ism,” adultism refers to demonstrating an assumed
superiority of adults (Tate & Copas, 2003). According to Swinderski and Palma
(1999), adultism is the “disrespect the adult world shows toward the intelligence,
needs, and potential of children” (p. 1). Similar to discrimination and bigotry,
adultism fails to support student development and growth by alienating students and
denying them opportunities.
27
Examples of adultism seen in schools include traditional forms of teaching,
such as direct instruction, during which the teacher is stands and lectures, while
students sit and listen, the failure to allow students to participate in decision making,
and making verbal comments such as “When are you going to grow up?” Many of
the previous examples of physical and psychological maltreatment could be regarded
as forms of adultism (Bell, 2005). The adult who inflicts pain, whether physical or
psychological, disrespects students and assumes that adults are superior to students
because adults are more knowledgeable, more mature, or larger. Using this “ism,”
teachers deprive students of the opportunity to grow, develop, and learn problem
solving (Tate & Copas, 2003).
Gaps in the Literature
A growing awareness of teacher bullying has emerged since the 1990s.
Because this concept is highly controversial, there is a lack of research regarding
negative classroom management practices used in California classrooms. As
suggested by Heins (2003), research is scant due to teachers not admitting to
bullying and administrators not allowing such research to be conducted. Teacher
unions and schools are uncomfortable with researching teacher bullying, fearing
retribution. Because of this, research currently available on the use of physical and
psychological maltreatment as a classroom management practice in U.S. classrooms
has been minimal, if not existent (Smith et al., 1999).
In addition to the unacceptability of studying this topic, research has been
limited by the absence of a clear definition of reasonable and unreasonable
28
implementation of psychological and physical maltreatment. As evidenced by court
cases, news reports, and extant literature, educational researchers, administrators,
teachers, and community members are challenged to justify and identify classroom
management practices that are unreasonable or inappropriate (Cambron-McCabe et
al., 2004; Clarizio, 1980; Garcia, 2005). Thus, it is important that an examination of
teachers’ perceptions and an exploration of the use of such negative techniques be
conducted.
Rationalization for Occurrences
Every teacher holds his or her philosophy about classroom discipline (Hyman
et al., 1997). Many teachers practice techniques that they learned from their own
teachers growing up, master teachers, or fellow colleagues. Basically, teachers will
use techniques that they feel are effective and useful. In studies conducted on the
issue of maltreatment use in the classroom, teachers have given the following
rationalizations: ease and availability, cultural norms, different theoretical views,
religious beliefs, and misconception (Andero & Stewart, 2002; Konstantareas &
Debois, 2001; Wilson, 1982). These rationalizations are discussed below.
Ease and Availability
A student hits another student and the teacher quickly yells at him—easy,
available, and usually effective in stopping the behavior. Contrary to popular belief,
studies of corporal punishment have demonstrated that corporal punishment is used
as a first punishment rather than as a “last resort” (Hyman, 1997). According to
Skinner (1976), the use of corporal punishment is learned because results are quick.
29
The use of techniques such as corporal punishment and verbal bullying are
immediate and readily available to teachers (Clarizio, 1980; Hyman, 1997). Teachers
do not need additional funding or materials, nor do they need to prepare much while
inflicting physical or psychological maltreatment. Thus, the use of physical or
psychological maltreatment is easy and available for teachers when prompt attention
to student misbehavior is needed.
Religious Beliefs and Cultural Norms
“Historical evidence suggests that religious attitudes affect how parents
punish their children” (Hyman, 1990, p. 39). “Spare the rod and spoil the child” is an
old religious saying found in the Bible that reflects the beliefs of many of those who
support the use of corporal punishment. In Christian theology, corporal punishment
is deemed acceptable because it is a method of “beating the devil” out of children
(Hyman, 1990). This fundamental belief is based on the concern over the effects of
the devil’s influence on children and the need to rid the children of evil influence. In
addition to the advocacy of corporal punishment, many religious individuals hold the
belief that the disservice of youth organizations, such as schools, is fashioned by the
work of the devil.
Similar to religious beliefs, cultural norms play an important role in the
decisions to use maltreatment as a means of child rearing and discipline. Much
research has demonstrated the differences between social and ethnic groups in this
regard. According to Hyman (1997), regional comparisons demonstrate that the
30
highest proportion of corporal punishment in America is prevalent in states of the
South and Southwest.
Theoretical Views
Examining how classroom management techniques are perceived and used
entails examining teachers’ perceptions and behaviors. The systematic study of
human behavior includes examining learning processes. To provide explanations
about the “underlying mechanisms” involved in the learning process, theories help
researchers examine why factors, such as school climate and classroom management
techniques, are important (Ormrod, 1999). For this study, theory provides the
framework for the exploration of teachers’ perceptions and use of classroom
management techniques. It is important to understand how teachers’ use of certain
techniques curtails behavior, how teachers’ perceive and understand classroom
management techniques, and how students change behavior because of such
techniques.
Ormrod (1999) posits four advantages to using theories in examining learning
processes: (a) theories allow for the summary of results and the integration of
principles, (b) theories provide starting points for new research, (c) theories help us
make sense of research results and findings, and (d) theories can aid in the
development of programs and designs of learning environments that are conducive to
optimal human learning. It is important to note, however, that no single theory can
explain everything about learning (Ormrod, 1999; Woolfolk, 1995). In addition,
theories affect what new information is disseminated, therefore possibly biasing
31
knowledge about learning (Ormrod, 1999). With this, the following discussion
includes various learning theories that may be taken into account when examining
teachers’ perceptions of classroom management techniques and the prevalence of
such techniques.
Constructivism
Constructivism, one of four major learning theory schools, is based on the
belief that learners, having some prior knowledge and experience, build their own set
of constructs, or content, rather than receiving it from others, to make sense of things
(Leonard, 2002; McBrien & Brandt, 1997). According to social constructivist
approaches, learning takes place in a social situation (Woolfolk, 1995). Rather than
being teacher centered, constructivism relies on student centered and collaborative
learning (Leonard, 2002). According to Woolfolk (1995), constructivists share the
belief that higher mental processes develop through interactions, therefore
collaborative learning is highly valued. Relative to behavior modification, student
behavior is learned based on the interactions that students have with their
environment, including interactions with teachers.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is the “first psychological perspective to have significant impact
on our understanding of how human beings learn” (Ormrod, 1999, p. 9). Based on an
examination of behaviorism, Ormrod (1999) presented the following seven
assumptions about learning:
32
1. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors.
2. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of the
study is on stimuli and response.
3. Internal cognitive processes are largely expelled from scientific study.
4. Learning entails a behavior change.
5. Humans are born with a “blank slate”—tabula rasa.
6. Learning is fundamentally the result of environmental events.
7. The most functional theories tend to be parsimonious ones.
Operant conditioning. Operant conditioning involves a stimulus and a
reinforcer that are used to elicit a specific response (Leonard, 2002). Coined by B. F.
Skinner, the term operant conditioning aims to achieve “behavior shaping” or
behavior modeling (Leonard, 2002, p. 142). Woolfolk (1995) defined operant
conditioning as “learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened
by consequences or antecedents” (p. 202). In regard to physical and psychological
maltreatment, punishment is often confused with negative reinforcement (Woolfolk,
1995). Reinforcement is used to strengthen behavior, whereas punishment involves
decreasing or suppressing behavior (Ormrod, 1999; Woolfolk, 1995).
Applied behavior analysis. Also referred to as behavior modification, applied
behavior analysis encompasses the procedures in which an individual’s environment
is modified to promote reinforcement of acceptable behaviors and nonreinforcement
of nonacceptable behaviors (Ormrod, 1999; Woolfolk, 1995). For example, in regard
to the use of time-outs, the Premack Principle, which states that a more preferred
33
activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less preferred activity (time-out), demonstrates
the implementation of applied behavior analysis (Woolfolk, 1995).
Social learning theory. Developed by Albert Bandura in 1977, social learning
theory posits that human learning is a continuous reciprocal interaction of cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental factors (Leonard, 2002; Schunk, 2004). Also known
as “observational learning” or “modeling theory,” social learning theory centers on
behavior modeling, in which the child observes and then emulates the behavior of
adults or other children around him or her (Hyman, 1990; Leonard, 2002; Schunk,
2004). Sometimes referred to as social cognitive theory, social learning theory posits
that people’s behavior is regulated by “internal standards and self-evaluative
reactions to their actions” (Schunk, 2004, p. 84). As stated by Leonard (2002), the
learner assesses and evaluates the model being observed by internalizing it and then
attempting to imitate it. Social learning theory suggests that there may be a
relationship between abusive educator behavior and increases in student misbehavior
(Hyman & Perone, 1998). As a student observes the teacher practicing physical or
psychological maltreatment, the student learns the behavior and may develop
aggressive behavior.
Effects on Students
Research on the effects of classroom management techniques on students has
played an important role in the development of teacher education and school reform
movements. The strength of interactions of teachers and students can have an effect
on school climate, learning, self-esteem, behavior, and overall development (Furlong
34
& Morrison, 2000). The use of physical and psychological maltreatment as a
classroom management technique has been shown to create several negative effects
on students (Hyman et al., 1997). As research suggests, six sets of symptoms are
apparent in students who experience psychological and physical maltreatment:
personality change, avoidance behavior, academic deficiency, sleep disturbances,
somatic symptoms, and unwanted recollections (Hyman, 1990).
Evidence suggests that the use of psychological and physical maltreatment as
punishment in schools contributes to affective, social, and legal problems (Hyman,
1997). “Further, some researchers have related harsh forms of physical punishment
to negative developmental outcomes, including delinquency, psychopathology,
academic failure, substance abuse, and others” (Ellison, Bartkowski, & Segal, 1996,
p. 1004). In addition to emotional effects, the use of maltreatment has been shown to
result in physical effects such as welts, bruises, hematomas, and even death (Hyman
& Snook, 1999). Finally, the use of maltreatment has been shown to affect academic
achievement, attention, motivation, and school attendance (Hyman et al., 1997).
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Studies suggest that some students who have experienced highly punitive
discipline, such as physical and psychological maltreatment, suffer from post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or educator-induced post-traumatic stress disorder
(EIPSD) (Hyman et al., 1994; Hyman & Perone, 1998). PTSD is a disorder that
emerges due to experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event or the discovery of such
an experience occurring to someone interpersonally close to the individual (Cook-
35
Cottone, 2004). Symptoms of PTSD include nightmares related to the traumatic
event, reactivity to relevant stimuli, and “numbing of responsiveness.” Some
examples of symptoms exhibited specifically by school-aged children include bed
wetting, refusal to attend school, clinging behavior, withdrawal, declining academic
performance, and aggressive behavior towards peers (Cook-Cottone, 2004).
Emotional Effects
Studies suggest that strong negative emotions, such as fear, anger, anxiety,
guilt, and shame result from physical and psychological maltreatment (Brendtro,
2001; Hyman & Perone, 1998). One major effect of psychological maltreatment is
the disintegration of self-esteem and confidence (Hyman & Perone, 1998). For
example, research conducted by Hyman and Snook (2001) found that certain
students reported chronic ridicule and rejection from peers or adults leading to
alienation. Such alienation may cause students to feel poorly about themselves and
may lead to a decrease in self-confidence.
Behavioral Effects
When teachers use discipline techniques that inflict some sort of physical or
psychological maltreatment on students, harmful effects may develop in students.
Such behavioral effects may include increased aggression, withdrawal, and decrease
in attention (Hyman, 1997; Paulson, 1983). Hyman and Perone (1998) suggest that
punishment can lead to the development of operant aggression, which is a direct
verbal or physical attack against the teacher. Examining school referrals of about 830
students in New York, Eckenrode, Laird, and Doris (1993) found that students who
36
had experienced physical maltreatment demonstrated more disciplinary problems, as
compared to students who did not experience maltreatment. In relation to behavior
modification, students exposed to maltreatment may cease the unacceptable behavior
in one class, but may further demonstrate it in another. In addition, the student will
most likely act out more (Hyman & Perone, 1998).
Academic Achievement
Unfortunately, research conducted on the effect of maltreatment on academic
achievement is nominal. Research suggests that students who have been subjected to
psychological and physical maltreatment develop an antagonism towards school
(Hyman & Snook, 2001). Thus, low attendance and low motivation may result from
this feeling toward school, which in turn will affect academic achievement.
A study conducted by Kinard (2001) suggests that, when exposed to
maltreatment, both physical and psychological, children’s student achievement is
influenced. Examining the perceived and actual academic competence of 195
maltreated children and 179 nonmaltreated children, Kinard (2001) found that
maltreated children scored significantly lower on the Wide Range Achievement Test
(WRAT) than did nonmaltreated children. Similarly, Solomon and Serres (1999)
suggest that verbal aggression contributes to lowering academic achievement. They
studied 144 French Canadian school children attending four public schools.
Analyzing the school records of these 10 year old students, Solomon and Serres
(1999) found that students who reported that their parents were verbally aggressive
with them performed more poorly in mathematics and French. Likewise, Eckenrode
37
et al. (1993) found that academic achievement of maltreated students suffered.
Examining school records of 831 students in New York, they found that students
were more likely to repeat a grade and score lower on standardized tests than were
nonmaltreated students.
Research Questions
1. Which classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to
engage in most frequently?
2. Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?
3. Which classroom management practices do elementary school teachers
regard as effective in changing student behavior?
4. What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques
that teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
Summary
A positive school climate is imperative to a child’s learning and
development. Efforts to reduce school violence and improve school climate include
the examination of various factors that affect school climate. Of the various factors,
student-teacher relationships are the most important to examine. As demonstrated in
the literature, interactions between students and teachers play an important role in
school climate and a student’s overall learning experience.
When focusing on student-teacher interactions in regard to behavior
modification, the examination of physical and psychological maltreatment by
38
teachers is necessary. The understanding derived from such an examination is
needed for the development of programs and policies that will enable schools to
achieve the highest quality education. As Eckenrode et al. (1993) stated, the
maltreatment of children has significant effects on a student’s emotions, behavior,
and academic achievement. These effects are important to recognize because a
child’s development is of prime concern for parents, teachers, and community
members.
Based on differing philosophies, education, environment, and religious
backgrounds, teachers have varying perceptions and practice different classroom
management techniques (Hyman, 1997). As such, their perceptions of disciplinary
practices need to be examination.
This chapter presented a brief historical overview of maltreatment in schools
and a summary of the literature related to physical and psychological maltreatment
as a means of classroom discipline and its possible effects on students. The next
chapter, Chapter 3, presents the design, sample, instrumentation, data collection, and
data analysis, as used in this study.
39
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This study used a self-report questionnaire to determine teacher perceptions
of classroom management techniques in public elementary schools in Southern
California. Understanding the classroom management techniques used in elementary
classrooms today could provide valuable information for universities seeking to
develop and improve their teacher preparation programs. Similarly, such information
could help administrators ensure and enhance effective instructional practices in
public schools. To acquire this information, this proposed study addressed the
following research questions:
1. Which classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to engage
in most frequently?
2. Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?
3. Which classroom management practices do elementary school teachers
regard as effective in changing student behavior?
4. What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques
that teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
As noted above, there is a lack of research that focuses on the use of physical
and psychological maltreatment as a classroom management practice U.S. public
schools. This lack of research, however, does not mean that maltreatment in
40
classrooms does not exist. As such, this study used a quantitative methodology to
determine teacher perceptions of maltreatment.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
In general, there are two types of research: qualitative and quantitative.
Quantitative research is driven by the scientific method (i.e., hypothesis testing),
whereas qualitative research is based upon practices adapted from ethnographic
research methodology. Depending on the nature of the study, one method is
generally more appropriate than the other; however, often a combined qualitative and
quantitative approach is used. The nature of the present study lent itself to the choice
of a quantitative methodology.
Based on the collection and analysis of non-numerical data, such as
interviews and observations, qualitative research aims at “describing or answering
questions about a particular, localized occurrence or context and the perspectives of a
participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices” (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p.
202). The following characteristics exist in most qualitative studies: (a) a natural
setting, (b) data in the form of words or pictures, (c) a focus on process and product,
(d) inductive data analysis, and (e) concern with making sense out of the data
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).
Conversely, quantitative research, which involves a logical positivist
approach, is based on the collection and analysis of quantifiable data that are used to
describe current conditions, investigate relationships, and study cause-and-effect
phenomena (Gay & Airasian, 2000). An example of quantitative research is the
41
examination of the prevalence and frequency of violence within a population (Willig,
2001). With the aim of generalizing research findings to larger populations,
quantitative studies have been most appropriate for testing theory (Andrade, 2003).
The value of qualitative research is controversial. According to Fraenkel and
Wallen (2003), qualitative research designs represent a researcher’s paradigm, or
worldview, and are concerned with identifying “alternative visions of what the world
is like” (p. 434). Qualitative research strives to examine the insider’s perspective,
attaining a holistic point of view (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Quantitative
approaches are often associated with positivism, which relies principally upon
empirical data. In addition, some quantitative researchers contend that both the
natural and social sciences evaluate for testable and confirmable theories that
elucidate phenomena by demonstrating how they are derived from theoretical
assumptions (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003; Gay & Airasian, 2000). Regarding the use of
data, Gorard (2001) noted that there are two points of view about numeric data: (a)
“numbers are fab” and (b) “numbers are rubbish” (p. 4).
Overall, there are pros and cons to both types of research. Some researchers
argue that the use of quantitative methods to assess human behavior, as used in this
study, yield inaccurate results, given the topic examined. Other researchers endorse
the use of a survey method to determine behavior or practice.
Participants
The population of this study consisted of teachers of Kindergarten through
Grade 8 in Title 1 elementary and middle schools in Southern California. The unit of
42
analysis was teachers, who participated based on availability and willingness to
participate. Title I schools, schools servicing educationally disadvantaged students,
including the children of migrant workers, were chosen for this study. Research has
suggested that students of low socioeconomic status are affected by negative
interactions and are more apt to develop behavioral problems due to these
interactions (Eckenrode et al., 1993; Heimer, 1997).
Specifically, the convenience sample consisted of teachers in 17 urban Title I
schools in Orange County, 5 urban Title I schools in San Bernardino County, and 14
urban Title I schools in Los Angeles County. The teachers included in this sample
were veteran and beginning teachers, differing in the number of years of teaching
experience. The teachers serviced diverse groups of learners, primarily comprised of
second language learners and low socioeconomic families. In addition, the teachers
taught in schools with an average of 700 to 800 students. Teachers in various grades,
ranging from Kindergarten to Grade 8, were surveyed as a means also to provide
information by grade level.
Sample Selection
The primary recruitment method for this study was a network of school
district officials, including superintendents and district administrators. According to
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003), in school-based surveys, a higher response rate can be
obtained if a questionnaire is sent to persons in authority to administer to potential
respondents. Referred by superintendents of participating school districts, principals
of Title I schools in various districts were identified. Identified schools were mailed
43
a survey package that included a cover letter and information sheet explaining the
purpose of the study and the importance of the research. The letter was believed to
have motivated the cooperation of the sample by describing their research
contribution. The letter assures confidentiality and the anonymity of the respondents.
The letter also certified the approval of the study by the Institutional Review Board
of the University of Southern California.
Instrumentation
Survey research is intended to describe current conditions (Gay & Airasian,
2000). The most common types of instruments used in survey research are the
questionnaire and the scheduled interview (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). In descriptive
research, instrument development is challenging. Questionnaire items must be clear,
consistent, and tactful (Gay & Airasian, 2000). The questionnaire used for this study
consisted of closed-ended, multiple-choice, Likert-scaled responses, and one open-
ended question (Appendix A). This allowed for standardization of the collected data.
Closed-ended questions were used to enhance the consistency of responses across
respondents (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). One open-ended question at the end of the
survey allowed for more individualized responses.
Each question was designed to address specific classroom management
practices that research (Hyman, 1997; Woolfolk, 1995) has suggested creates
positive and negative effects on behavior modification. Items included in the survey
identify and define specific classroom management practices for behavior
modification and include demographic inquiries (e.g., grade level, number of years
44
teaching). Based on the literature on effective classroom management techniques,
positive classroom management techniques, such as the use of praise and proximity,
were chosen as items to be included in the survey for this study. To examine
negative classroom management techniques, techniques indicated in existing
literature on physical and psychological maltreatment in the classroom, such as
name-calling and physical consequences, were chosen as items to be included on the
survey for this study. Teachers were asked to report the frequency of use of selected
classroom management practices within a given period, to report their observations
of specific classroom management practices used by other teachers, and to rate the
effectiveness of the practices identified.
Data Collection
A cross-sectional survey design was used to collect information on the
perceptions and prevalence of specific classroom management techniques. Using a
cross-sectional design enabled the researcher to obtain a “snapshot of a group of
people or organization” via data collection at a single point in time (Fink &
Kosecoff, 1998; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).
There are four basic ways to collect survey data: (a) live administration of the
survey, (b) mail, (c) telephone, or (d) face-to-face interviews (Fraenkel &Wallen,
2003). The format selected for this study was the mail survey method. According to
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003), the mail survey mode requires no facilities, is fairly
inexpensive, requires no training of the questioner, allows for random sampling, and
is the best method in encouraging responses to sensitive topics.
45
The use of maltreatment in the classroom as a means of classroom
management is a highly sensitive issue. Thus, the use of the mail survey allowed for
increased anonymity, as the identification of respondents was not required. Assuring
participants of anonymity increases the likelihood of obtaining answers that are more
accurate by decreasing the reactivity effect or interviewer bias, which often occurs
during interviews of a face-to-face delivery of the survey (Gorard, 2001). In addition,
administering surveys via mail afforded participants ample time to give thoughtful
answers to the questions asked.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to examine teachers’ perceptions and
engagement in specific classroom management techniques for behavior modification.
In this quantitative study, survey responses were recorded and used as the basis for
drawing conclusions from the findings. As suggested by Fraenkel and Wallen
(2003), the findings included the identification of the number of respondents and the
overall percentage of returns. Descriptive statistics (i.e., means, standard deviations,
percentages) were used to determine the number of responses to each survey item.
To examine the relationship between actual practice and teacher perception, a
correlational analysis was conducted.
Methodological Limitations
Methodological limitations could influence the validity and interpretation of
the findings from this study. Respondents may not have answered the questions
accurately. Some respondents may not have answered every question. A major
46
limitation of the study is the sampling method, which used convenience and
purposive sampling. It cannot be assumed that a convenience sample is
representative of the population.
47
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the study, including the types of
classroom management techniques practiced and observed, teachers’ perceptions of
classroom management techniques, and the relationship between their perceptions
and practices. The findings are then used to address the research questions, as were
presented in Chapter 1:
1. Which classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to
engage in most frequently?
2. Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?
3. Which classroom management practices do elementary school teachers
regard as effective in changing student behavior?
4. What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques
that teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
To gain an understanding of the factors related to the use of classroom
management techniques, these questions will be addressed in terms of gender, grade
level taught, number of years teaching, and level of education.
Participant Characteristics
The primary investigator distributed 1,029 surveys to teachers of
Kindergarten through Grade 8 in Title 1 elementary and middle schools in Southern
California. Although 38 of the participating schools serviced students in Grades K-6,
48
it is important to note that the number of middle schools (4) that responded to the
survey did not make up a sample size that gave an adequate representation of
teachers servicing Grades 7 and 8. In addition, to relate grade level divisions found at
some elementary schools with those created by curriculum programs, the sample was
divided into K-3 (primary) and 4-8 (intermediate) grade levels. This classification
also allowed for a somewhat equivalent division within the sample.
The return from the first distribution was 181 surveys. A second request for
participation was rendered via email two weeks after the initial deadline and resulted
in an additional 104 returned surveys. Thus, teachers completed and returned a total
of 285 surveys to the primary investigator from March to June 2006, for a response
rate of 28%. Of the completed surveys, 27 were lost in transition from one
elementary school to the primary investigator.
As presented in Table 1, the sample was comprised of 87.7% female and
12.3% male teachers, of whom 56% taught K-3 (primary) and 42.5% taught grades
4-8 (intermediate). Nearly three-quarters (74.1%) of the teachers reported teaching
for at least six years and 57.6% held a master’s degree and a teaching credential.
49
Table 1
Teacher Demographics
Variable n Percentage
Gender
Female 235 87.7%
Male 33 12.3%
Grade taught
Primary (K-3) 145 56.0%
Intermediate (4-8) 110 42.5%
Years of teaching experience
More than 20 years 36 13.3%
11-20 years 69 25.6%
6-10 years 95 35.2%
4-5 years 33 12.2%
2-3 years 21 7.8%
1 year 6 2.2%
Less than 1 year 10 3.7%
Degree and teacher certification
Master’s degree + credential 156 57.6%
Bachelor’s degree + credential 112 41.3%
Bachelor’s degree 3 1.1%
50
The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 12.0. The participants were
asked to complete three sections of the survey instrument: questions addressing
classroom management technique prevalence, questions addressing the participant’s
perception of the level of effectiveness of each classroom management technique and
the reasoning behind the use of those deemed effective, and a demographic
questionnaire.
Classroom Management Technique Prevalence and Frequency
To answer Research Questions 1 and 2, which concerned classroom
management techniques self-reported by teachers and which negative classroom
management practices are prevalent in K-8 classrooms today, descriptive statistics
were used. Teachers used a 5-point Likert scale to record their responses: “Never”
(1), “Once” (2), “Twice” (3), “Three Times” (4), and “More Than 3 Times” (5).
Participants were asked to report on their use of each classroom management
technique within a two-week period. Additionally, participants were asked to report
on how often they observed other teachers practicing each classroom management
technique within the same period. Their responses are summarized in Table 2 below.
For all tables, positive behaviors are indicated in green and negative in red.
51
Table 2
Teachers’ Use of Classroom Management Techniques
Technique n “Never” Used Have Used
Praise 283 0.4% 99.6%
With-it-ness 282 1.1% 98.9%
Proximity 285 1.4% 98.6%
Involve parents 284 13.4% 86.6%
In front of peers (ridicule) 283 14.5% 85.5%
Token system 280 21.8% 78.2%
Separation 283 25.4% 74.6%
Yelling/shouting 284 38.0% 62.0%
Sarcasm 284 49.6% 50.4%
Make comments (adultism) 284 67.6% 32.0%
Physical consequences 279 91.0% 9.0%
Name calling 282 96.5% 3.5%
The percentages presented in Table 2 above demonstrate that the majority of
teachers reported engaging in positive classroom management techniques, with
“praise” being the most popular technique used. A lower percentage of teachers
reported engaging in negative classroom management techniques, with the exception
of techniques such as ridicule (85.5%) and separation (74.6%). Finally, the data in
52
Table 2 show that techniques such as name-calling (3.5%) and physical
consequences (9%) were rarely used.
The results presented in Table 3 below demonstrate that teachers self-
reported engaging in positive classroom management techniques more often than
negative techniques, with praise (M = 4.90, SD = 0.44) as the technique used most
often and name-calling (M = 1.07, SD = 0.42) least often. Overall, although reported
to be used less frequently, negative classroom management techniques were used.
53
Table 3
Prevalence of Classroom Management Techniques
Self-Reported
Observation of Others
Technique n
Mean
(Rank)
SD n
Mean
(Rank) SD
Praise 283 4.90 ( 1) 0.44 270 3.99 ( 1) 1.23
With-it-ness 282 4.87 ( 2) 0.45 253 3.26 ( 2) 1.57
Proximity 285 4.54 ( 3) 0.84 261 3.22 ( 3) 1.53
Token system 280 3.78 ( 4) 1.67 257 3.16 ( 4) 1.66
Involve parents 284 3.23 ( 5) 1.41 257 2.85 ( 7) 1.46
In front of peers
(ridicule)
283 3.19 ( 6) 1.43 253 2.86 ( 6) 1.49
Separation 283 2.71 ( 7) 1.42 260 2.87 ( 5) 1.47
Yelling/shouting 284 2.36 ( 8) 1.40 260 2.62 ( 8) 1.45
Sarcasm 284 1.99 ( 9) 1.29 258 2.02 ( 9) 1.36
Make comments
(adultism)
284 1.62 (10) 1.09 257 1.54 (10) 1.08
Physical
consequences
279 1.18 (11) 0.70 260 1.28 (11) 0.76
Name calling 282 1.07 (12) 0.42 263 1.12 (12) 0.49
Based on the mean scores of teachers’ self-reported responses, teachers
practiced positive classroom management techniques more often than negative
techniques. For example, when asked to indicate how frequently teachers practice
classroom management techniques, 92.9% (263 teachers) reported having used
54
praise (M = 4.90, SD = 0.44) “More than 3 Times,” 91.0% (265 teachers) reported
having used with-it-ness (M = 4.78, SD = 0.45) “More than 3 Times,” and 70% (200
teachers) reported having used proximity (M = 4.54, SD = 0.84) “More than 3
Times” within a two-week period.
Similarly, teachers reported that they had observed other teachers using
positive classroom management techniques. For example, 49% (132 teachers)
reported to have observed other teachers using praise (M = 3.99, SD = 1.23).
Although the mean score (3.99) indicated that praise was reported as observed
frequently, the standard deviation of 1.23 demonstrated that there was more
variability in the responses given by teachers about the observed use of praise by
others.
Although the mean scores of teachers’ self-reported responses regarding
negative classroom management techniques were low, the relatively large standard
deviations called for the examination of the number of responses and percentages for
each point on the Likert scale. For example, the mean score for ridicule was 3.19,
suggesting that, on average, teachers used ridicule twice within a two-week period.
However, based on the percentages, teachers reported using ridicule, by disciplining
students in front of their peers, more often than not. Among the 283 teachers who
responded to this item, 28.3% (80 teachers) reported having used ridicule “More than
3 Times” within a two-week period, while 14.5% (14 teachers) reported “Never”
using ridicule, 21.9% (62 teachers) reported using ridicule “Once,” 22.3% (63
teachers) reported using ridicule “Twice,” and 13.1% (37 teachers) reported using
55
ridicule “3 Times.” Teachers also self-reported their use of separation, for which the
mean was 2.71 (SD = 1.42). Again, although the mean score was low, the percentage
of responses demonstrated a reported prevalence of the use of negative classroom
management techniques, including yelling and sarcasm. With the exception of name-
calling, physical consequences, and adultism, the variation in percentages of
responses to frequency demonstrated a more accurate picture of prevalence than the
examination of mean scores. The percentages for the use of negative classroom
management techniques are summarized below in Table 4.
Table 4
Frequency of Self-Reported Negative Classroom Management Technique Use
Technique n Never Once Twice 3 Times > 3 Times
Ridicule 283 14.5% 21.9% 22.3% 13.1% 28.3%
Separation 283 25.4% 24.4% 21.9% 9.9% 18.4%
Yelling 284 38.0% 24.3% 14.1% 11.3% 12.3%
Sarcasm 284 49.6% 25.7% 10.9% 3.9% 9.9%
Adultism 284 67.6% 15.5% 9.2% 2.8% 4.9%
Physical
consequences
279 91.0% 5.0% 1.1% 0.4% 2.5%
Name calling 282 96.5% 1.4% 1.1% 0.7% 0.4%
Correspondingly, teachers reported that they observed other teachers using
negative classroom management techniques less often than positive techniques.
Unlike the self-reported data, teachers observed other teachers using separation (M =
56
2.87, SD = 1.47) more often than other negative classroom management techniques.
The use of ridicule (M = 2.86, SD = 1.49), yelling (M = 2.62, SD = 1.45), and
sarcasm (M = 2.02, SD = 1.36) also were observed. Similar to teachers’ self-reported
data, the variation in responses regarding frequency of observed use of yelling,
sarcasm, ridicule, and separation was depicted through the percentages of responses
given by teachers, as seen below in Table 5.
Table 5
Frequency of Observed Negative Classroom Management Technique Use
Technique n Never Once Twice 3 Times > 3 Times
Separation 260 21.9% 26.2% 17.3% 9.9% 22.7%
Ridicule 253 25.7% 19.8% 18.2% 15.4% 20.9%
Yelling 260 30.8% 22.3% 18.1% 11.9% 16.9%
Sarcasm 258 55.4% 13.6% 14.3% 7.0% 9.7%
Adultism 257 72.4% 14.0% 6.2% 1.6% 5.8%
Physical
consequences
260 82.3% 12.3% 2.7% 11.9 2.7%
Name calling 263 92.8% 3.4% 3.0% 0.4% 0.4%
Again, while mean scores for negative classroom management techniques
were low, relative to the mean scores for positive techniques, the wide range of
standard deviations for the use of other negative classroom management techniques,
as observed by teachers, called for the analysis of additional descriptive statistics,
specifically, the percentages of reported observed frequencies. For example,
57
although 72.4% of teachers reported that they “Never” observed other teachers using
adultism (making comments to students such as “When are you going to grow up?”
or “Would you please act your age?”) (M = 1.54, SD = 1.08), as a classroom
management technique, 15 of 257 teachers responded that they had observed this
technique being used “More than 3 Times” within a two-week time frame. Similarly,
82.3% of teachers reported that they “Never” observed other teachers using physical
consequences (M = 1.28, SD = 0.76) as a classroom management technique.
However, 7 of 260 teachers reported that they had observed other teachers using
physical consequences “More than 3 Times” within a two-week period. Name-
calling was a technique used rarely by teachers (M = 1.12, SD = 0.49).
In investigating the prevalence and frequency of classroom management
technique use, it is important to note that additional variables may play a role in
teacher use and perception of classroom management techniques. Using the
demographic data provided by this study, the variables of gender and grade level
taught were examined.
Gender
A cross-tabulation comparing gender and self-reported use of classroom
management techniques was conducted to further examine the relationship between
gender and frequency. Gender was compared with the response “More than 3 Times”
to the items asking teachers to indicate the frequency of their use of the technique.
The comparisons are summarized in Table 6 below. Note the smaller sample of male
teachers who responded.
58
Table 6
Gender and Self-Reported Classroom Management Technique Use (More than 3
Times)
Female Male
Technique n Percentage
(rank)
n Percentage
(rank)
Praise 233 93.1% (1) 33 90.9% (1)
With-it-ness 232 92.2% (2) 33 84.8% (2)
Proximity 235 71.5% (3) 33 66.7% (3)
Token system 230 61.3% (4) 33 57.6% (4)
In front of peers (ridicule)* 233 26.2% (5) 33 48.5% (5)
Separation 233 17.2% (6) 33 30.3% (6)
Involve parents 234 29.5% (7) 33 27.3% (7)
Yelling/shouting* 234 10.7% (8) 33 24.2% (8)
Sarcasm** 234 7.3% (9) 33 24.2% (8)
Make comments
(adultism)*
244 3.8% (10) 33 12.1% (9)
Physical consequences* 229 1.7% (11) 33 9.1% (10)
Name calling* 232 0.0% (12) 33 3.0% (11)
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
The data presented indicate that both female and male teachers reported using
positive classroom management practices, with “praise” used most frequently and
59
“involving parents” used the least. Interestingly, the results from the cross-tabulation
demonstrated that male teachers reported using negative classroom management
techniques more frequently than did female teachers, with “ridicule” (48.5%)
reported to have been used the most by male teachers and “name-calling” (3.0%)
reported to have been used the least.
To examine whether gender and use of classroom management techniques
were related to each other, a Chi Square (X
2
) test of independence was conducted.
The Chi Square test of independence is designed to examine whether two categorical
variables are related to each other in a way not expected by chance. This analysis
was conducted to examine whether males and females differ significantly in their use
of classroom management techniques.
The X
2
test for independence indicated that there was no significant
relationship between gender and use of praise, X
2
(1, n = 266) = 0.64, p > .05;
physical proximity, X
2
(1, n = 268) = 0.57, p > .05; involve parents, X
2
(1, n = 267) =
0.79, p > .05; use of a token system, X
2
(1, n = 263) = 0.68, p > .05; with-it-ness,
X
2
(1, n = 265) = 0.16, p > .05; and separation, X
2
(1, N = 266) = 0.07, p > .05.
Conversely, the X
2
test for independence indicated that there was a
significant relationship between gender and use of ridicule, X
2
(1, n = 266) = 0.01, p
< .05; physical consequences, X
2
(1, n = 262) = 0.01, p < .05; sarcasm, X
2
(1, n= 267)
= 0.00, p < .05; name calling, X
2
(1, n = 265) = 0.01, p < .05; yelling, X
2
(1, n = 267)
= 0.03, p < .05; and adultism, X
2
(1, n = 267) = 0.04, p < .05.
60
The results indicated that, other than the use of separation, there was a
significant relationship between gender and use of negative classroom management
techniques. Based on the data in Table 6 above, male teachers reported to have used
both positive and negative classroom management techniques. However, in
comparison to female teachers’ use of negative classroom management techniques,
male teachers used negative classroom management techniques more often.
Grade Level Taught
Similar to gender, the grade level taught by a teacher is a variable that may
play a role in teacher use and perception of classroom management techniques. A
cross-tabulation, shown in Table 7 below, was conducted to compare the variable of
“grade level taught” with the response of “More than 3 Times” to the items asking
the teacher to indicate the frequency of their use of each of the techniques. Note that
the sample sizes of primary and intermediate teachers were close in number.
61
Table 7
Grade Level Taught and Self-Reported Classroom Management Technique Use
(More than 3 Times)
Primary (K-3) Intermediate (4-8)
Technique n Percentage
(rank)
n Percentage
(rank)
Praise 144 95.8% (1) 109 88.1% (2)
With-it-ness 143 91.6% (2) 109 93.6% (1)
Token system** 142 71.1% (3) 109 48.6% (4)
Proximity 145 69.0% (4) 110 74.5% (3)
Involve parents 145 27.6% (5) 110 30.9% (6)
In front of peers (ridicule) 143 26.6% (6) 110 32.7% (5)
Separation 144 17.4% (7) 110 21.1% (7)
Yelling/shouting 144 10.4% (8) 110 15.5% (9)
Sarcasm** 144 2.8% (9) 110 19.1% (8)
Make comments
(adultism)**
144 1.4% (10) 110 9.1% (10)
Physical consequences 140 0.7% (11) 110 4.5% (11)
Name calling* 142 0.0% (12) 110 0.9% (12)
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
In comparison to intermediate teachers (88.1%), primary teachers (95.8%)
used praise more often. Similarly, primary teachers (71.1%) reported having used a
token system as a technique more often than did intermediate teachers (48.6%). The
62
results also demonstrated that intermediate teachers engaged in negative classroom
management techniques more often than did primary teachers. For example, 32.7%
of intermediate teachers reported having used ridicule “More than 3 Times,” whereas
26.6% of primary teachers reported using ridicule “More than 3 Times.” Similarly,
19.1% of intermediate teachers reported having used sarcasm, while only 2.8% of
primary teachers reported using this technique.
Levene’s test of equality of variances was used to determine whether equal
variances could be assumed, and a t-test for equality of means was conducted for
each variable. For the majority (67%) of the techniques, there was no significant
difference between primary and intermediate teachers. Only four techniques
demonstrated significant differences between primary and intermediate teachers.
Specifically, there was a significant difference (t = 3.89, df = 207.32, p = 0.00)
between primary teachers (M = 4.16) and intermediate teachers (M = 3.34) on the
use of a token system as a positive classroom management technique.
In regard to negative techniques, significant differences were found between
primary and intermediate teachers on the use of sarcasm, name-calling, and adultism.
For sarcasm, t = -4.98, df = 178.54, p = 0.00, with primary teachers having a mean of
1.67 and intermediate teachers with a mean of 2.48. For name-calling, t = -2.54, df =
111.88, p = 0.01, with primary teachers having a mean of 1.01 and intermediate
teachings with a mean of 1.16. Finally, for adultism, t = -3.81, df = 168.37, p = 0.00,
with primary teachers having a mean of 1.40 and intermediate teachers with a mean
of 1.94.
63
Number of Years of Teaching Experience
A cross-tabulation comparing the number of years of teaching experience and
self-reported use of classroom management techniques was conducted to further
examine the relationship between experience and frequency. Experience was
compared with the response “More than 3 Times” to the items asking teachers to
indicate the frequency of their use of the technique. The comparison is summarized
below in Table 8.
64
Table 8
Number of Year of Teaching Experience and Self-Reported Technique Use (More
than 3 Times)
Technique
3 Years or
Less
n = 37
4-10 Years
n = 127
11 to > 20
Years
n = 104
With-it-ness 86.5% 91.3% 92.3%
Praise 94.6% 93.7% 91.3%
Proximity 73.0% 70.1% 73.1%
Token system 64.9% 64.6% 52.9%
Involve parents 29.7% 26.8% 32.7%
In front of peers (ridicule) 35.1% 29.9% 25.0%
Separation 27.0% 19.7% 14.4%
Yelling/shouting 21.6% 11.8% 9.6%
Sarcasm 8.1% 10.2% 8.7%
Make comments (adultism) 8.1% 3.9% 4.8%
Physical consequences 5.4% 1.6% 2.9%
Name calling 0.0% 0.8% 0.0%
As seen in Table 8, the results demonstrate that a higher percentage of new
teachers (5.4%) reported to have used physical consequences than did teachers who
had 11 or more years of experience (2.9%) or 4 to 10 years of experience (1.6%).
The data presented in Table 8 above indicate that the preferred mode for new
(3 years or less), mid (4 to 10 years), and senior (11 to > 20 years) teachers was
65
positive classroom management. Although all teachers reported engaging in positive
classroom management techniques more often than negative ones, they still used
both positive and negative strategies, not just one or the other strategy. New teachers
reported engaging in positive classroom management techniques, such as praise
(94.6%) and a token system (64.9%), more often than did mid and senior teachers.
However, they new teachers also reported engaging in negative classroom
management techniques, such as ridicule (35.1%), separation (27.0%), yelling
(21.6%), adultism (8.1%), and physical consequences (5.4%), more often than mid
and senior teachers.
Level of Education
A cross-tabulation comparing the level of education and self-reported use of
classroom management techniques was conducted to further examine the relationship
between education and frequency. Experience was compared with the response of
“More than 3 Times” to the items asking teachers to indicate the frequency of their
use of the technique. The comparison is summarized below in Table 9.
66
Table 9
Level of Education and Self-Reported Technique Use (More than 3 Times)
Technique
BA/BS
only
n = 3
BA/BS +
Credential
n = 112
MA/MS +
Credential
n = 154
Praise 100.0% 93.8% 92.2%
With-it-ness 100.0% 92.7% 90.3%
Proximity 100.0% 70.5% 71.2%
Token system 33.3% 65.5% 58.2%
Involve parents 66.7% 23.2% 32.9%
In front of peers (ridicule) 66.7% 22.7% 32.1%
Separation 66.7% 18.2% 17.9%
Yelling/shouting 33.3% 10.8% 12.8%
Sarcasm 0.0% 5.4% 12.2%
Make comments (adultism) 33.3% 0.9% 7.1%
Physical consequences 0.0% 1.8% 3.3%
Name calling 0.0% 0.0% 0.6%
The results presented in Table 9 demonstrate that more teachers who reported
holding a master’s degree and a teaching credential engaged in all classroom
management techniques “More than 3 times” than did teachers without a credential
or teachers with bachelor’s degree and a credential. In comparison to teachers
67
possessing valid teaching credentials, teachers without teaching credentials reported
using negative classroom management techniques more often (e.g., separation,
66.7%).
Based on the reports of teachers who held only a bachelor’s degree (n = 3),
positive classroom management techniques, such as praise (100.0%), physical
proximity (100.0%), with-it-ness (100.0%), and parental involvement (66.7%), were
used “More than 3 Times” by the teachers who had not received instruction under a
certified teacher education program. In addition, teachers who held only a bachelor’s
degree reported using negative classroom management techniques such as ridicule
(66.7%), separation (66.7%), yelling (33.3%), and adultism (33.3%) “More than 3
Times.” It is important to note that teachers without teaching credentials reported not
engaging in sarcasm (0.0%), physical consequences (0.0%), or name-calling (0.0%),
unlike teachers who held teaching credentials. These data indicate that teachers who
held only a bachelor’s degree engaged often in both positive and negative classroom
management techniques.
Unlike teachers who held only a bachelor’s degree, teachers who held a
bachelor’s degree and a valid teaching credential reported using positive classroom
management techniques such as praise (93.8%), with-it-ness (92.7%), proximity
(70.5%), and a token system (65.5%) more often than negative classroom
management techniques, such as ridicule (22.7%), separation (18.2%), and yelling
(10.8%). Unlike teachers who did not hold a teaching credential, teachers who
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reported holding a bachelor’s degree and a valid teaching credential reported having
used parental involvement (23.2%) less often than did teachers without a teaching
credential (66.7%).
Similar teachers who had a bachelor’s degree and a valid teaching credential,
teachers with a master’s degree and a valid teaching credential engaged in a
combination of both positive and negative classroom management techniques, with
positive classroom management techniques reported more often.
Perceptions of Level of Effectiveness
Research Question 3 asked which classroom management practices
elementary teachers regard as effective in changing student behavior. Teachers used
a 5-point Likert scale to record their responses as follows: “Not Effective” (1),
“Somewhat Effective” (2), “Effective” (3), “Quite Effective” (4), and “Very
Effective” (5). Teachers were asked to rate the effectiveness of each classroom
management technique, according to their experience. The results are presented
below in Table 10.
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Table 10
Teacher Perceptions of Technique Effectiveness
Technique Mean SD
Proximity 4.39 0.77
Praise 4.32 0.91
With-it-ness 4.15 0.93
Involve parents 3.53 1.21
Token system 3.42 1.27
Separation 2.91 1.05
In front of peers (ridicule) 2.44 1.04
Yelling/shouting 1.97 1.02
Make comments (adultism) 1.45 0.77
Sarcasm 1.41 0.74
Physical consequences 1.31 0.69
Name calling 1.03 0.21
As seen in Table 10, positive classroom management techniques were rated
as “effective” to “quite effective.” Although on average, there was a higher mean for
the use of praise, teachers reported that physical proximity, which is described as the
state of being close to or near the student, was slightly more effective as a behavior
management technique. Similar to frequency of use, teachers demonstrated their
beliefs that positive classroom management techniques, such as praise, proximity,
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and with-it-ness, were effective in behavior management. Although mean scores for
the effectiveness negative classroom management techniques were low, it was
evident that some teachers perceived techniques such as ridicule (M = 2.44, SD =
1.04) and separation (M = 2.91, SD = 1.05) as slightly effective. As with reported
use, the standard deviations for perceived level of effectiveness indicated that there
was variability in the responses given by teachers.
Rationale for Technique Use and Perceived Effectiveness
When considering teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness, understanding their
rationale for using certain techniques is important. To allow us to further examine
their rationale, teachers were asked to respond to an open-ended question, following
their ratings of classroom management technique effectiveness. Several themes
emerged from these responses: ease of use and immediate response, student-teacher
relationship quality, motivation, environment, and effects on student self esteem.
Ease of Use and Immediate Response
As stated in the review of the literature, negative classroom management
techniques have been used by teachers as “first punishments” because results are
quick and the technique is readily available (Hyman, 1997). This was seen in the
response of one teacher, who elaborated on the technique of separation: “Separation
is administered very quickly, eliminates the problem immediately, and prevents
recidivism.” Similar to the technique of separation, the technique of yelling was
described by one teacher as follows: “Yelling gets their attention right away.”
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These responses, along with others, showed that some positive classroom
management techniques, such as praise, proximity, and with-it-ness, were used
because they were readily available and resulted in an immediate response. For
example, the effectiveness of proximity was explained by one teacher as follows:
“Standing right next to a student that is misbehaving in class always gets their
immediate attention. It makes them very aware of what they are doing, and that they
need to work on self-discipline.” The same teacher also explained the effectiveness
of demonstrating with-it-ness:
My students love to be caught ‘doing good.’ It is amazing how just a quick
look around the room, and spotting someone that is being an outstanding
classroom citizen, can quickly pull the rest of the class together. Usually, I
don’t even have to say anything. That with-it-ness is enough to catch their
attention.
Student-Teacher Relationship Quality
The quality of the relationship between the student and the teacher has been
discussed in the literature regarding school climate. As research has suggested,
student-teacher relationships affect school climate, both positively and negatively
(Everett & Price, 1997). As explained by teachers in this study, some use of specific
classroom management techniques may develop, strengthen, maintain, or damage
student-teacher relationships. Thus, some teachers rated the effectiveness of certain
techniques based on their beliefs that their use affects student-teacher relationships.
For example, one teacher explained why sarcasm and yelling were effective:
On the flip side, I do believe that sarcasm and using a very loud voice can
also be successful. If a caring relationship has been established with the
student, they know that their teacher truly cares for their well being and
wants them to be successful. Sarcasm shows them that you share an
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understanding, one which was established between teacher and student—an
understanding which should be respected by both.
Teachers also explained how student-teacher relationships were affected by
the use of positive classroom management techniques. As one teacher explained,
“Knowing you are aware of conditions tells the students you care about them (with-
it-ness).” Similarly, another teacher explained, “The most powerful technique is
with-it-ness because it can be used to reward, warn, and connect the teacher with
individuals, as well as the class as a whole.”
Motivation
In relation to the development and maintenance of student-teacher
relationships, studies have suggested that students demonstrate motivation when
teachers are attentive and demonstrate genuine concern (Woolfolk, 1995). Both
positive and negative classroom management techniques were rated as effective due
to teachers’ beliefs that the use of some techniques motivated students to
demonstrate the desired behaviors. For example, one teacher explained the
effectiveness of their use of a token system. “I use table points and a marble jar for
rewards. Rewarding for behavior with a positive energy flow produces a willingness
and a desire to behave and get praise (i.e., feeling good vs. feeling bad). Another
teacher explained the effectiveness of the use of ridicule:
I think there does need to be some negative techniques. Embarrassment in
front of the class is used to prevent others from doing the same. A great
example is telling students up-front that they cannot use class time to pass
notes or I will read the note to the class. This embarrassment only has to be
done once or twice to influence wise choices of others.
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Environment
Although much emphasis in this paper has been placed on school climate, the
results of this study demonstrate that the knowledge of a student’s home climate also
may be a factor influencing the use of classroom management techniques. This was
demonstrated by one teacher’s explanation of the effectiveness of the use of physical
consequences. “This technique should be used with boys who do not have a father in
the home, who have an abundance of boyish energy, and do not know how to
channel it into becoming a man.” Here, knowledge of a student’s home life has been
shown to possibly affect the teacher’s perception of the use of physical maltreatment.
Additionally, the teacher’s stereotypical views of the students and their households
could negatively influence their ability to teach effectively. Another teacher stated:
As a teacher, I am strongly against ‘negative discipline.’ However, different
students, from different backgrounds and home lives, require different
methods of management. You have to understand that when students are
stealing books, lighting matches during a substitute, trying to intimidate each
other, etc., a ‘look’ just may not be enough.
Again, this response demonstrates that the environment plays a role in a
teacher’s perception of the effectiveness of negative classroom management
techniques. To further demonstrate that the environment may influence the use of
negative classroom management techniques and teacher perceptions of effectiveness,
another teacher asserted:
If I taught in an affluent area like Irvine, I probably could rely on a phone call
home. But, being a teacher in an area where gangs are highly prevalent,
cussing is the primary language, and drugs are like candy sold in the nearest
store, you need more than a ‘good job’ or a ‘pat on the back.’ You need to
speak their language, walk their walk to be respected. Once you gain that
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respect, then techniques such as praise will mean something to these kids.
Otherwise, it’s all just a joke to them.
Effects on Student Self-esteem
Similar to what research has suggested, classroom management techniques,
as perceived by teachers, were reported to have an effect on student self-esteem. One
teacher stated:
Positive reinforcement and ‘with-it-ness’ are the two most effective
techniques. You want to build student self-esteem for them to be successful.
If they are successful and feel positive about themselves. It promotes honesty,
integrity, and a desire to succeed. If students have a positive attitude, less
energy needs to be put into discipline.
Based on the comment above, it was suggested that self-esteem can be
affected by positive feelings about themselves and by success, as communicated
through a teacher’s with-it-ness and use of positive reinforcement. In relation to the
use of negative classroom management techniques, some teachers suggested that the
use of negative classroom management techniques, such as yelling and physical
consequences, adversely affect self-esteem. As one teacher stated:
I believe in positive and intrinsic motivation. I believe teachers need to build
students’ self-esteem. In order to get the correct behavior, we need to clearly
explain acceptable behaviors, model the behaviors, and reward for choosing
good behaviors. Rewarding isn’t necessarily something students receive.
They should feel proud of themselves and want to make good choices.
Negative consequences don’t create that sense of pride.
Relationship between Teacher Perceptions and Practices
Pearson’s product-moment correlations were used to address Research
Question 4, which concerned whether a relationship exists between which classroom
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management techniques that teachers say are the most effective and the techniques
they self-report as engaging in (Table 11).
Table 11
Correlations between Perceived Effectiveness and Self-Reported Practice
Technique Pearson’s r Sig. (2-tailed)
Sarcasm 0.71 0.00
Physical consequences 0.68 0.00
Token system 0.65 0.00
Yelling/shouting 0.64 0.00
Make comments (adultism) 0.58 0.00
In front of peers (ridicule) 0.57 0.00
Name calling 0.52 0.00
Separation 0.46 0.00
Proximity 0.33 0.00
Involve parents 0.27 0.00
Praise 0.24 0.00
With-it-ness 0.16 0.01
An analysis of the relationship between teacher perceptions and practices of
classroom management techniques showed statistically significant correlations
between perceived effectiveness and self-reported practice (p < 0.05). Although
statistically significant, not all correlations demonstrated practical significance.
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Specifically, a positive and statistically significant correlation was found between
perceived level of effectiveness and practice of praise (r = 0.24, p < 0.05), physical
proximity (r = 0.33, p < 0.05), involve parents (r = 0.27, p < 0.05), and with-it-ness
(r = 0.16, p < 0.05). Based on the (low) strength of the correlations, the results
suggest that teachers who use these techniques may not always find them to be
effective, as demonstrated by the higher variance in the perceived level of
effectiveness than in the use of the techniques. In comparison, items such as using a
token system demonstrated both statistical and practical significance, with r = 0.65, p
< 0.05 (2-tailed). In other words, teachers who use a token system also may perceive
it as an effective classroom management technique.
Additionally, it is important to note that all correlations between the use of
negative classroom management techniques and teachers’ perceptions of their level
of effectiveness depict both statistical and practical significance: ridicule (r = 0.57, p
< 0.05), physical consequence (r = 0.68, p < 0.05), separation (r = 0.46, p < 0.05),
sarcasm (r = 0.71, p < 0.05), name-calling (r = 0.52, p < 0.05), yelling (r = 0.64, p <
0.05), and adultism (r = 0.58, p < 0.05). These values indicate that there is wide
variation in their use and correlations with perceptions of level of effectiveness, thus
demonstrating that teachers who say that they do not use negative classroom
management techniques may be doing so because they do not perceive these
techniques as effective. Likewise, teachers who say that they use negative classroom
management techniques may perceive them to be effective.
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Summary
Descriptive statistics used to address Research Questions 1 and 2 yielded the
mean scores that portray teachers as reporting to engage in positive classroom
management techniques more often than negative classroom management
techniques. Although the use of positive techniques is depicted to be more prevalent
than the use of negative classroom management techniques, based on self-report
data, the proportion of teachers using negative classroom management techniques
became evident through the reported frequencies.
The mean scores from the descriptive statistics regarding teacher perceptions
of the effectiveness of classroom management techniques revealed that, generally,
teachers have a strong perception that positive classroom management techniques are
effective and negative classroom management practices are ineffective. Despite this
evidence, some teachers engage in negative classroom management techniques, as
seen in the percentages of teachers who indicated that they have used negative
techniques.
Responses derived from the open-ended question of the survey resulted in the
emergence of several themes: ease of use and immediacy of response, student-
teacher relationship quality, motivation, environment, and effects on student self
esteem. Responses from teachers, as to why certain classroom management
techniques were used, provided the rationale for teachers’ use and perceptions of
effectiveness of certain techniques.
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To further examine the relationship between teacher perceptions and actual
practice of classroom management techniques, a Pearson product-moment
correlation was conducted. The results demonstrated a statistical significant
relationship between the use of positive classroom management techniques and
teachers’ perceptions of their effectiveness. A range of low to moderate correlations
was found to exist between teachers’ perceptions and reported practice.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Since the introduction of the NCLB Act in 2002, the provision of safe and
effective school environments conducive to learning has played an important role in
school reform aimed at affording students safe learning communities and improving
education. Moreover, the ongoing examination of America’s public education system
has influenced various school reform movements.
As suggested by Bulach and Malone (1994), a positive school climate is a
characteristic of a thriving school. In the attempt to establish a safe environment
conducive to learning, teacher accountability, quality, and instructional practices
have been on the forefront of many measures to improve schools (Darling-Hammond
& Bransford, 2005).
The focus of this study was to investigate the prevalence of positive and
negative classroom management techniques, teachers’ perceptions of their
effectiveness, and the relationship between teachers’ perceptions and actual practice
in K-8 classrooms today. The sample studied was comprised of 285 teachers
servicing Grades K-8 in Title 1 schools in Southern California.
This chapter begins with a summary of the study and the findings, followed
by the addressing of the research questions and a discussion of the limitations of the
study. Suggestions for improving the current study and recommendations for future
research are then provided. This is followed by implications for policy and practice,
which are discussed in terms of teacher preparation and professional development.
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The chapter concludes with closing statements regarding the use of positive and
negative classroom management techniques.
Summary of the Study and the Findings
The provision of a safe school climates and an environment conducive to
learning remains at the forefront of reform efforts. Researchers have continued to
scrutinize the prevalence and selected effects of school violence worldwide (Furlong
et al., 2004). Among a multitude of variables connected with school climate and
school violence, two general aspects, demonstrated to affect overall school climate,
are the physical and the psychological maltreatment of children (Hyman & Snook,
2000).
In Chapter 2, the extant literature was reviewed and included the history,
definition, and effects of negative classroom management techniques, such as
emotional and corporal punishment. Additionally, gaps in the literature,
rationalization for the occurrence of maltreatment, and theoretical views were
discussed.
Although past research has explained the harmful effects of the use of
negative classroom management techniques, such as the development of low self-
esteem and post-traumatic stress disorder, there is limited research examining the
prevalence of negative classroom management techniques in regions, such as
California, which no longer allow the use of corporal punishment as a form of
behavior management. This lack of research may be due to the sensitivity of the
issue at hand, legal issues, and social norms.
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The purpose of this study was to provide data to answer the following
research questions:
1. Which classroom management techniques are teachers self-reporting to
engage in most frequently?
2. Which positive and negative classroom management practices are
prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?
3. Which classroom management practices do elementary school teachers
regard as effective in changing student behavior?
4. What is the relationship between what classroom management techniques
that teachers say are the most effective and what they self-report they engage in?
As described in Chapter 3, this quantitative study surveyed 1,029 teachers of
Title 1 students in Southern California. Intended to demonstrate prevalence, examine
teachers’ perceptions, and determine whether a relationship between perceptions of
effectiveness and actual practice exists, teachers were asked to complete a survey
comprised of three sections: classroom management prevalence (self-reported and
observations of others), perceived level of effectiveness, and demographics. To gain
more insight into the rationale for the use of classroom management techniques, one
open-ended question was included in the survey, asking teachers to explain why they
perceived certain classroom management techniques as effective.
The results of the data analysis, presented in Chapter 4, demonstrated the
prevalence of classroom management techniques in the classrooms surveyed and
revealed teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of such techniques. The following
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is a brief description of the findings from this study. Subsequently, their relation to
the literature is discussed.
The first research question asked, “Which classroom management techniques
are teachers self-reporting to engage in most frequently?” This study found that
teachers reported engaging in positive classroom management techniques most
frequently, with techniques such as praise and proximity being the techniques most
frequently used. Conversely, with the exception of the use of ridicule, separation,
sarcasm, and yelling, negative classroom management techniques, such as name-
calling, adultism, and the use of physical consequences, were used less frequently
(less than 50% of teachers reported using these techniques).
Extremes, such as corporal punishment, rarely occur, so the fact that there is
any score here is important. In other words, even though negative classroom
management techniques were reported to occur less often, any occurrence is
important to note. For example, out of almost 300 teachers, about 25 teachers
reported having used physical consequences as a classroom management technique
and about 10 teachers reported having used name-calling. Both are classroom
management techniques that have been shown to harm students emotionally,
behaviorally, and academically (Hyman, 1997; Paulson, 1983). Data such as these
suggest that changes must be made in the accountability of teachers and schools.
Having even one teacher use negative classroom management techniques, such as
physical consequences, calls for change. As the extant literature has demonstrated,
such negative practices have been shown to lead to emotional, behavioral, and
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academic problems. Thus, it is important that policy and practice be changed to
increase teacher accountability, as discussed later in this chapter.
The second research question asked, “Which positive and negative classroom
management practices are prevalent in K-8 classrooms today?” For this question, an
analysis of descriptive statistics, including percentages, mean scores, and standard
deviations was conducted to ascertain the reported prevalence of the following
classroom management techniques: praise, physical proximity, parental involvement,
token systems, with-it-ness, ridicule, physical consequences, separation, sarcasm,
name-calling, yelling, and adultism. These classroom management techniques were
chosen based on their identification as positive and negative techniques in the extant
literature on classroom management.
In this study, descriptive statistics were used to determine the reported use of
positive and negative classroom management technique. The analysis indicated that
both positive and negative classroom management techniques were reported as
having been used by teachers. Based on the percentage of responses, the use of
positive classroom management techniques was higher than the use of negative
techniques, with the use of a token system (78.2%) being the least reported of the
positive techniques included in the study. Although reported to be used less than the
majority of the positive classroom management techniques, negative classroom
management techniques were evident, with ridicule (85.5%) reported the most and
the use of physical consequences (9.0%) reported the least.
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To gain a better understanding of the prevalence and frequency of positive
and negative classroom management techniques, differences in the use of these
techniques by the variables of gender, grade level taught, number of years teaching,
and level of education also were examined. In relation to gender, it was found that,
with the exception of the use of a token system, male teachers reported having used
negative classroom management techniques more often than did female teachers.
The results of a X
2
test for independence indicated that there was a significant
relationship between gender and use of negative classroom management techniques,
such as ridicule, X
2
(1, N = 266) = 0.01, p < .05 and physical consequences, X
2
(1, N =
262) = 0.01, p < .05. The results indicated that, other than the use of separation, there
was a significant relationship between gender and use of negative classroom
management techniques. This finding suggests that female teachers engage in more
nurturing practices, in comparison to male teachers. Taking these findings into
account, questions such as “Are sex roles operating and are male teachers expected
to use, or get away with, negative strategies more than are females?” or “Does the
gender of the student matter?”
There also may be an influence created by school norms and culture that
encourage certain teachers to engage in negative classroom management practice.
Based on personal experience, I believe that there are stereotypes associated with
male versus female teachers. As a teacher who has taught for nine years, I have
attended many classroom organization meetings. I have observed principals make
decisions regarding where to place students with behavior problems. More often than
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not, I have heard principals make statements such as, “This student is a handful. He
needs a man to straighten him up. Give him to a male teacher.”
Based on these findings, school districts and teacher education programs may
address the relationship between gender and effective classroom management
practices through professional development opportunities, peer assistance programs,
and case studies. In addition, future studies could investigate and address these
possible issues and concerns through an adapted instrument, interviews, or
observations.
In regard to grade level taught, intermediate teachers reported having used
negative classroom management techniques more often than did primary teachers.
Conversely, primary teachers reported having used positive classroom management
techniques more often than did intermediate teachers. Based on the statements
provided by the responses to the open-ended question on the survey, which asked
teachers to explain their rationale for using the techniques they reported using, I
conclude that some intermediate teachers engage in positive classroom management
techniques less frequently because such techniques are not perceived as effective in
classroom management due to the students’ age and level of maturity. For example,
one teacher stated, “You say ‘good job’ to a 7
th
grader and you’ll just get laughed at,
or the kid will get teased by his peers. Sure, it may work with the little kids, but
when they’re older, you have to use more abrasive techniques to get your point
across that you mean business.” Again, relating this finding to personal experiences,
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I have observed that certain techniques need to be used in an age appropriate context.
For example, sarcastic statements are not easily understood by younger students.
Findings from this study may lead to the questions, “Do teachers respond
differently to older students?” and “Does school structure (e.g., K-5 or K-8)
influence how teachers respond to younger and older students?” To examine these
questions more deeply, future studies could investigate various age groups of
students, in different school structures, and their interactions with teachers via
interviews, observations, or surveys.
Through the examination of the variables of years of teaching experience and
use of classroom management techniques, additional information on prevalence and
frequency of classroom management technique use was determined. This study
found that new, mid, and senior teachers reported having engaged in both positive
and negative classroom management techniques. New teachers reported having used
negative techniques, such as ridicule (35.1%), separation (27.0%), yelling (21.6%),
adultism (8.1%), and physical consequences (5.4%) more often than did mid and
senior teachers.
Interestingly, new teachers reported using negative classroom management
techniques more often than positive classroom management techniques. For
example, of the teachers who reported using yelling “More than 3 Times,” 24.3%
were new teachers, whereas of the teachers who reported using with-it-ness “More
than 3 Times,” 13.2% were new teachers. There may be various reasons why these
results were attained. For example, these findings may lend support to the findings in
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literature regarding the lack of teacher preparation in the area of classroom
management. New teachers may not be using effective classroom management
techniques because they may not be aware of them. Additionally, these findings may
support the literature on school climate and how the many variables included in
school climate (e.g., teacher quality, school safety, environmental factors) may affect
teacher behavior. Based on these findings, possible recommendations may include
adaptations to current new teacher assistance programs, increase in time spent as a
student teacher during teacher education, or additional coursework focusing on
effective classroom management practices.
In regard to the variable of level of education, this study found that more
frequent use of all classroom management techniques included in this study may be
related to higher levels of education attained. Teachers without a credential reported
using negative classroom management techniques more often than did teachers with
a valid teaching credential. For example, 33.3% of teachers who reported using
adultism “More than 3 Times” did not hold a teaching credential, whereas 0.9% of
credentialed teachers holding a bachelor’s degree reported using adultism.
These findings may be due to a variety of reasons. One reason may be that, as
teachers attain higher levels of education, they may become more aware of the
different classroom management techniques and the effectiveness of each strategy. In
addition, teachers without a valid teaching credential may not be aware of the harm
that negative classroom management techniques may have on students, due to lack of
teacher education. Another reason may be that teachers without a valid teaching
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credential may not be as prepared to deal with behavior management, thus turning
toward the use of negative classroom management practices due to their availability
and ease of use. To assist non-credentialed teachers or teachers in need of additional
education, it should be recommended that professional development opportunities be
encouraged at each site, teacher evaluation be increased, or teacher assistance
programs be mandated.
The third research question of this study asked, “Which classroom
management practices do elementary teachers regard as effective in changing student
behavior?” In this study, teachers were asked to rate, using a Likert-scale, how
effective they perceived each classroom management technique to be, based on their
experience. Additionally, in response to an open-ended question, teachers were asked
to explain why they rated classroom management techniques as effective. This study
found that most teachers perceived positive classroom management techniques, such
as proximity, praise, and with-it-ness, to be “quite effective.” Techniques, such as
parental involvement and the use of a token system were perceived to be “effective,”
while separation and ridicule were perceived to be “somewhat effective.” Although
this study found that teachers perceived negative classroom management techniques,
such as yelling, adultism, sarcasm, physical consequences, and name-calling, to be
“not effective,” there was variation in responses given, as indicated by the standard
deviations. These findings suggest that there may be a misalignment between teacher
perceptions and actual practice.
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Teacher perceptions may influence actual practice of classroom management
technique use. For example, as a teacher in a low socio-economic community, I have
encountered many students who have come from a home in which there is no
discipline or questionable practices are used. This leads to the question, “Do teachers
act based on their perceived social responsibility?” or “Is there stereotyping involved
in their choice of classroom management technique use?” Many times you may hear
a teacher say, “I have to teach them how to behave because their parents don’t do
that.” Teachers’ attributions of place have been demonstrated to affect the education
of students; thus, such attributions need to be explored further (Darling-Hammond,
1999). Therefore, future studies may want to examine more closely the reasons
behind the use of negative classroom management techniques. Future studies may
accomplish this by conducting on-site observations or interviews.
The fourth research question posed by this study asked, “What is the
relationship between what classroom management techniques that teachers say are
the most effective and what they self report they engage in?” A Pearson’s product-
moment correlation was conducted to determine whether there was a relationship
between teachers’ perceptions and use of classroom management techniques. The
results indicated that the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness
and use of classroom management techniques was statistically significant. Given that
this study used non-random sampling methods, causation could not be determined.
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Relationship to the Literature
The findings of the present study support the existing literature regarding the
prevalence of maltreatment within schools, the need for a positive school climate,
and the teacher’s role in creating such a climate. Previous studies have found that
emotional and physical maltreatment, via the use of negative classroom management
techniques, is prevalent practices in schools. Research has suggested that such
negative practices can lead to negative results. Although the findings of this study do
not provide information about the effects of the use of classroom management
techniques, the result that both positive and negative techniques were reported to be
used in classrooms today may provide future researchers with a base upon which to
examine aspects of school violence, specifically teacher bullying.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Policy
The use of classroom management techniques in the educational system is
largely contingent on school policy, school climate, and the community’s norms. For
example, in this study one teacher explained:
I taught in East Los Angeles for about five years. There, it was acceptable
and encouraged for teachers to make kids hold up a quarter, which was rolled
up in a tissue, against the wall until the teacher said so. Then again, I taught
in an area where crime and vandalism was normal. I remember the time I
walked in my classroom to see my room trashed, like a hurricane hit it! I
remember ‘patrolling’ the halls—you couldn’t walk more than five feet
without hearing ‘fuck this’ and ‘bitch that.’ I now teach in the OC. It’s a lot
different here. You so much as put a kid in time-out and you have a parent at
your door, watching your every move.
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This implies that schools, districts, and policymakers must strive to improve
school climate as a means to influence teacher perceptions and use of classroom
management techniques. If education is to function as the means through which all
people can accomplish and achieve, it is imperative that we find the resources and
tactics necessary to accommodate every member of our community, regardless of
area, background, or financial situation. Policymakers should create legislation that
would provide schools in all types of locations with the resources and programs
needed to enhance and maintain a safe climate, conducive to learning.
Not only should policymakers create legislation, but it would be beneficial to
see these programs and resources through, assisting in their implementation and
monitoring their progress. Through consistent evaluation and adaptation, these
programs could flourish and benefit all. In conjunction, schools and communities
should create a shared sense of responsibility over the occurrences at schools and the
betterment of the climate. In doing so, the interactions between students and
teachers, students and their peers, community members, and so forth may be more
positive and less violent.
Some Southern California schools are faced with much adversity and
hardship. With some classrooms comprised of 45 students and only 34 desks, and
some schools being vandalized on a daily basis, the need for a safe environment is
clear. As an area with a growing minority population and many needy families, it is
the purpose of our educational system to provide the means and opportunity to
succeed in life. If our educational system fails to educate all populations, we will fail
92
to provide the tools necessary for these individuals to be positive and productive
community members. As a result, the economy, safety, and well being of Southern
California could be affected.
Teacher Education and Professional Development
Despite the limitations of this study, the results have implications for
teachers, teacher preparation programs, administrators, and school districts. Based on
the results of this study, it is evident that teacher perceptions and their practice of
classroom management techniques, although reported and not validated, are not
consistent with what researchers have identified to be effective and beneficial to
students, learning, and school climate. Although it is true that no two classrooms are
the same, consistency between effective practices is desirable.
Dating back to the 1970s, educational research has been conducted to
examine the causes and effects of school violence (Hyman et al., 1997). Hyman et al.
(1997) asserted that, based on the research conducted, teacher education in school
discipline is insufficient. In addition, it has been noted that continued professional
development regarding classroom management and student discipline is needed
(U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, 2001b).
Affording students with a positive school climate entails providing teachers with the
adequate education, guidance, and professional development to promote such an
environment.
Teacher education can be defined in various ways. Some may define teacher
education as attendance at a staff development, while others may define teacher
93
education as the student teaching experience. For the purpose of this study, teacher
education was defined as the academic coursework and pre-service activities that
teaching credential candidates undergo to earn the Ryan Multiple Subjects
Professional Clear Teaching Credential.
Many teachers are graduating from teacher preparation programs
inadequately prepared to handle the increasingly challenging behaviors of students in
urban schools today (Maag, 2001). Behavior management has been consistently
mentioned by teachers as an area in which they would like more training (Jones,
1996; Maag, 1999). Usually, general education teachers study discipline strategies
and methods within an educational psychology class or infused throughout their
teacher preparation program (Jones, 1996). Due to the complexity involved in
effective discipline, teachers are finding that they are unprepared for the various
behavior issues presented within the classroom today.
Based on the results of this study, it is apparent that teachers may be aware of
the effectiveness of both positive and negative classroom management techniques.
Although aware, some teachers have reported using negative classroom management
techniques, asserting that they are necessary to curtailing extreme behavior and
“getting your point across.” Because negative classroom management techniques are
perceived as effective by some, it is important to further offer professional
development and teacher education that affords teachers and soon-to-be teachers
with behavior management education that is current and valid. More often than not,
teachers will know what “textbook classroom management” entails, but they may
94
use negative classroom management techniques to attain immediate results in
behavior management. Doing this may result in adverse effects in students, as
discussed in the literature review.
Administration
It is important that administrators examine the impact of their practices and
policies on teacher evaluation. The findings from this study imply that principals are
unaware of or unresponsive to the practice of negative classroom management
techniques. Engaging in a more proactive, hands-on approach to teacher evaluation
may lead to the decrease in negative classroom management techniques and an
increase in more positive relationships. In addition to teacher evaluation,
administrators should lend more support to teachers in regard to discipline. As stated
by one teacher in this study, “We have to do these things. The principals just look the
other way. They don’t care to deal with these situations. Well, they won’t until
parents get upset—and that doesn’t happen in such a low income area.” Another
teacher stated, “They get away with hitting the teacher. No wait—the student did get
a punishment. She got to eat lunch with the Vice Principal for hitting me.” This
implies a need for fair and consistent discipline, not only in the classroom, but also
from an administrative standpoint.
Limitations of the Study
Due to the focus and method of this study, there were certain limitations.
Such limitations included the data analysis, the low return rate, the possibility of
socially desirable responding, and time constraints.
95
Data Analysis
The most significant limitation of this study was that part of this study was
correlational and caution must be taken in implying causality. Additionally, due to
the instrument design, data regarding grade level (primary and intermediate) did not
allow for further analysis. Teachers were asked to indicate whether they taught in
grades K-3 (primary) or grades 4-8 (intermediate). Such grouping did not allow for
data analysis to explore individual grade level differences or school context
differences.
Low Return Rate
An additional limitation of this study included the low return rate. With only
285 out of 1,029 distributed surveys returned, the sample size was not adequate to
provide an accurate picture of what occurs in all K-8 Title 1 classrooms in Southern
California. The low return rate may have been due to the possibility that those
teachers who tended to use more negative behavioral techniques self-selected out of
the study due to the sensitivity of the topic, fear of retribution, or lack of incentives.
Future studies could attempt to increase the response rate by offering incentives for
participation or by using web surveys to facilitate dispersion, increase anonymity,
and ease of response. In addition, adapting study protocol to have principals
administer the surveys at a specific time, such as during a staff meeting, could
increase the response rate, but may decrease anonymity and may increase bias.
Additionally, with teaching being a predominantly female occupation, the sample of
male teachers was relatively small and, as such, it is difficult to draw conclusions
96
about the relationship between gender and classroom management techniques.
Although, there is concern about small sample size due to bias, the results from this
study had sufficient variation that the possibility of bias may have been reduced.
Socially Desirable Responding
One limitation that may have affected the data attained in this study is
socially desirable responding. Socially desirable responding is a major concern in
any survey or interview work that involves highly sensitive and controversial issues,
such school violence. School violence is a sensitive issue to discuss and, even more
so, teacher bullying is a highly controversial issue. Thus, the tendency to answer
based on social desirability may have affected the study.
Given that the survey asked for teachers to report on data about their
practices and perceptions, some teachers may have answered based on what they
perceived to be a socially acceptable response, rather than what actually occurs at the
school or what they actually believe to be effective in classroom management. For
example, after completion and submission of the survey, one participant commented
to the principal investigator, “I lied on that thing. Others don’t understand my
discipline. So, I wrote what I knew was right. Sorry.” Statements such as this one
further support the assertion presented by Heins (2003) that research is scant due to
teachers’ reluctance to admit to the use of negative techniques, due to fear of
retribution. Socially desirable response bias is a concern when conducting research
that involves sensitive issues and concerns. Although the survey used in this study
97
was anonymous and careful wording of questions may have reduced the level of
socially desirable responding, these procedures cannot eradicate the concern.
Time Constraints
Distributed during Spring 2006, teachers were faced with the closing of
school, state testing windows, Open House events, and other school related events
that may have presented a time management problem. One teacher noted at the
bottom of the survey, “This is not a good time for this. Actually, we’re teachers—
there is no good time for this.” Based upon personal experience as a teacher in a Title
1 elementary school, I agree that there is no “good time” for involvement in some
studies. Teachers across the nation are faced with the dilemma of “getting it all in”
with limited time and resources.
Recommendations for Future Research
This research may serve as a starting point for more detailed investigations.
Such examinations may expand on the survey component or adapt the method of
data collection.
Due the design of this study, especially its limitations, one cannot make
assumptions about causality. In addition, due to the use of a convenience sample, the
results of this study may not be generalizable to other teachers and schools in
Southern California. Although the results may not be generalized outside the current
sample and assumptions of causation may not be made, the results of this study can
lead to the further investigation of teacher perceptions and practice of classroom
98
management techniques. Although causation was not established, more insight into
causation could be made with a different study design.
To broaden the survey component, some survey items could have been
redesigned to offer different selections to better discriminate between various groups
of teachers and schools. For instance, the demographic section of the survey used in
this study could have been changed to reflect a breakdown of K-3 (primary grades),
4-6 (intermediate grades), and grades 7-8 (middle school). For the purpose of this
study, the breakdown K-3 and 4-8 was created due to the number of teachers
surveyed in each group and the distinction in current curriculum programs that
divide primary and intermediate levels into these groups. For future research,
examining the responses of teachers at each individual grade level may have allowed
for a deeper exploration of the differences in practice and perception. Additionally,
such a breakdown in grade levels may have demonstrated a difference in how
teachers manage different age groups, as depicted by some of the responses to the
open-ended question included in survey for this study.
Again, reflecting on the use of the demographic section of the survey, an item
regarding the type of school the teacher works in would have been beneficial in
examining how context may be a factor in classroom management technique use. For
example, the item would have ask teachers to indicate whether they taught at a “K-
5,” “K-6,” “K-8,” “6-8,” or “7-8” school. Thus, data may have been collected and
compared between the various groupings.
99
To further expand the survey instrument and data collection, surveys that ask
for parent and student responses about classroom management practices may allow
for a comparison between perceptions of classroom management techniques. In
addition, questions such as “Are there any negative strategies which are perceived as
acceptable by parents?” or “How do these perceptions align with teacher behavior?”
may be addressed. Even further, perceptions of parents of different cultural
ethnicities, ages, educational background, or family structure (e.g., single mothers)
may be examined through the adaptation of the survey instrument.
Future studies may include actual observations of teacher practices or
interviews to gain more information about teacher perceptions and their rationale for
the use of certain classroom management techniques. Conducting actual observations
of teachers engaging in classroom management techniques may lend support to the
findings of the current study. In addition, through observations, research could be
extended to examine gender differences in the victims of emotional and physical
maltreatment (e.g., do teachers use sarcasm more with boys or girls?). Interviews
could provide additional information about the rationale for teachers’ use of certain
classroom management techniques. Future studies could interview teachers regarding
what they think about when selecting a strategy. In addition to providing more
insight into a teacher’s rationale, interviews could allow for an exploration of
classroom management techniques not included in the survey.
100
Conclusion
The results from this study indicated that teachers reported engaging in both
positive and negative classroom management techniques. It should be noted that,
based on the data presented in this study, there are not “good” and “bad” teachers.
Teachers appear to be using combinations of both positive and negative strategies. In
addition, this study depicted teacher perceptions of the effectiveness of positive and
negative classroom management techniques. Although descriptive statistics of self-
reported behavior depicted teachers as using positive classroom management
techniques more often, and further demonstrated that teachers perceived positive
classroom management techniques to be “quite effective,” it was also demonstrated
that teachers reported using negative classroom management techniques. Given that
negative classroom management techniques have been demonstrated to lead to
negative effects in students and, in turn, school climate, school reform movements
must include the development and implementation of effective teacher preparation
and teacher education programs that include classroom management education and
instruction. It is important to note that poor classroom management is detrimental to
a school’s climate, the relationship between student and teacher, and the overall
learning experience.
101
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APPENDICES
110
APPENDIX A: SURVEY
Classroom Management Technique Prevalence
Directions: Thank you for volunteering your time to answer this survey. Studies on
school climate suggest that teachers play a critical role by maintaining classroom
discipline, order, and norms. However, very little is known about what teachers
actually do in their classes or what they see other teachers do to accomplish these
goals. We realize that some of the discipline techniques and behaviors may not occur
in your class, but you may see others use these techniques. Therefore we are
interested in both your practices and the practices of other teachers in your school.
Please answer these items honestly. There is no right or wrong answer and all
responses will be anonymous. Please know that there is no need to attach your name
or other identification information to this survey. For each question circle the one
answer that reflects your answer.
Never Once Twice 3 times
More
than 3
times
1 2 3 4 5
Praise (i.e. verbal praise, “Great
job!”)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers
engage in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Use physical proximity (i.e. stand
closer to the students who is
misbehaving)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers
engage in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
111
Never Once Twice 3 times
More
than 3
times
1 2 3 4 5
Involve parents (i.e. phone call
home, email, notes home, home
visits)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Use of a token system with points
or a chart (i.e. table points, marble
jar, candy)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrate With-it-ness
(communicating to students that
you are aware of everything that is
happening in the classroom; always
scanning the room, making eye
contact with individual students)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
112
Never Once Twice 3 times
More
than 3
times
1 2 3 4 5
Discipline students in front of their
peers so they will be an example to
the group that is also engaged in
such behaviors (i.e. reprimand a
student in front of the class)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Give student a physical
consequence (i.e. run 2 laps, “give
me 20 push ups”, stand on one foot
or hands up)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Separation: Removal from
class/Time-outs/Standing apart in a
classroom location
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
113
Never Once Twice 3 times
More
than 3
times
1 2 3 4 5
Use sarcasm to modify behavior
(i.e., “Now that was a bright thing
to do!”)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Name calling (i.e. crybaby, stupid,
retarded)
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
Yelling/Shouting/Using a very
loud voice
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
114
Never Once Twice 3 times
More
than 3
times
1 2 3 4 5
Make comments to students such
as “When are you going to grow
up?” or “Would you please act
your age?”
Looking back at the past 2
weeks, how often would you
say you used this technique to
modify behavior?
1 2 3 4 5
In the past 2 weeks, how often
would you say you have
observed other teachers engage
in this technique?
1 2 3 4 5
115
Level of Effectiveness
For the following, please rate the level of effectiveness of each classroom
management technique, according to your experience. Please circle your response
based on the following scale:
Not
Effective
Somewhat
Effective
Effective
Quite
Effective
Very
Effective
1 2 3 4 5
Praise (i.e. verbal praise,
“Great job!”)
1 2 3 4 5
Use physical proximity
(i.e. stand closer to the
students who is
misbehaving)
1 2 3 4 5
Involve parents (i.e.
phone call home, email,
notes home, home visits)
1 2 3 4 5
Use of a token system
with points or a chart (i.e.
table points, marble jar,
candy)
1 2 3 4 5
Demonstrate With-it-ness
(communicating to
students that you are
aware of everything that
is happening in the
classroom; always
scanning the room,
making eye contact with
individual students)
1 2 3 4 5
Discipline students in
front of their peers so
they will be an example
to the group that is also
engaged in such
behaviors (i.e. reprimand
a student in front of the
class)
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Not
effective
Somewhat
effective
Effective Quite effective Very effective
116
Give student a physical
consequence (i.e. run 2
laps, “give me 20 push
ups”, stand on one foot or
hands up)
1 2 3 4 5
Separation: Removal
from class/Time-
outs/Standing in a
separate classroom
location
1 2 3 4 5
Use sarcasm to modify
behavior
1 2 3 4 5
Name calling (i.e.
crybaby, stupid, dumb)
1 2 3 4 5
Yelling/Shouting/Using a
very loud voice
1 2 3 4 5
Make comments such as
“Because I’m the
teacher.” or “Would you
please act your age?”
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Not
effective
Somewhat
effective
Effective Quite effective Very effective
117
Please answer the following:
Please explain why you rated classroom management techniques on the previous
page as effective/quite effective/very effective. Please indicate the name of the
technique you are referring to when stating your reason(s) why it is effective.
Not
Effective
Somewhat
Effective
Effective
Quite
Effective
Very
Effective
How would you rate
your classroom
discipline management
strategies in your class
overall?
1 2 3 4 5
118
Demographics
For the purpose of this study, a few details about you and your school are needed.
Please be assured that your responses are anonymous and that all analyses are
aggregated. Please do not write your name on this form.
Gender:
1.) Female
2.) Male
Grade level taught:
1.) Primary (K-3)
2.) Intermediate (4-8)
# of years as a teacher:
1.) Less than a year
2.) 1 year
3.) 2-3 years
4.) 4-5 years
5.) 6-10 years
6.) 11-20 years
7.) More than 20 years
Highest level of education:
1.) B.A. or B.S. only
2.) B.A. or B.S. + credential
3.) M.A. or M.S. + credential
4.) Ed.D. or Ph.D.
Dear Teacher,
Dealing with classroom management and school discipline is one important factor in
achieving results in schools today. We know teachers use a variety of methods to
maintain discipline in the classroom. Your experiences, thoughts, and ideas
regarding this matter lend to the field of educational research, teacher development,
and educational reform. Your insights are appreciated! Thank you!

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of elementary school teachers in public schools in Southern California regarding their use of classroom management techniques, specifically examining physical and psychological practices to maintain classroom discipline. The research design involved a survey that was used to collect data on teacher perceptions, use, and observed use of specific classroom management techniques by other teachers.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wilson, Kathryn Sampilo (author)

Core Title Teacher perceptions of classroom management practices in public elementary schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/17/2006

Defense Date 09/06/2006

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag classroom management,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Sundt, Melora A. (committee chair), Astor, Ron Avi (committee member), Cox-Petersen, Anne (committee member)

Creator Email kswilson@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m167

Unique identifier UC1177251

Identifier etd-Wilson-20061117 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-28827 (legacy record id),usctheses-m167 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Wilson-20061117.pdf

Dmrecord 28827

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wilson, Kathryn Sampilo

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu