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The role of district leadership and the implementation of 21st century skills through professional development

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The role of district leadership and the implementation of 21st century skills through professional development

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THE ROLE OF DISTRICT LEADERSHIP AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
21
ST
CENTURY SKILLS THROUGH PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

by

Sarah Elizabeth Niemann

____________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATON

May 2011

Copyright 2011 Sarah Elizabeth Niemann
ii
DEDICATION
To my loving husband…thank you:
• For accepting that I did not always have time to hang out and have fun.
• For finding time to make wonderful memories as newlyweds with our
two crazy dogs.
• For turning “date night” into study night so that we could be students
together.
• For letting me lock myself in the bedroom to be without distractions.
• For your laughter and support; I love you.
We knew that these first few years as a married couple would be challenging for
many reasons, but I can say that the process has been one of growth, understanding,
support, and encouragement for both of us. I also dedicate this work to my amazing
family. To my parents who have always believed in me, who have always
encouraged me to do well and set high goals, and have supported me in various ways
throughout this process, I am very blessed to have you in my life. Lastly, I would
like to thank Angela Brathwaite for being my dissertation partner throughout this
process. We kept each other motivated and accountable and she was a true blessing
for me. Thank you everybody.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to start out by thanking the wonderful faculty who make up the
doctoral family of professors at the Rossier School of Education at USC. In
particular, I would like to thank Dr. Rudy Castruita for his constant and enduring
support, and sarcastic humor. He is an amazing dissertation chair, an insightful
educator, and a consummate professional. I truly enjoyed working with him and am
grateful for his guidance. I would also like to recognize the two other members of
my committee, Dr. Chuck Hinman and Dr. Pedro Garcia. Dr. Garcia provided me
with nothing but encouragement, words of wisdom and support, and laughs
throughout this process. Dr. Hinman stepped up to assist in this process at the last
minute, and for this, I am very appreciative. I truly could not have imagined a more
dynamic team of mentors. The professional experiences learned from them and
personal relationships I have made with them have, without a doubt, made me a
better educator. Thank you for believing in me.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication……………………………………………………………………… …ii
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………...…iii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………v
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………. …vi
Abstract……………………………………………………………………….. …vii
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study…………………………………………. …1
Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………………………………... …16
Chapter 3: Methodology………………………………………………….. …41
Chapter 4: Findings, Analysis, and Discussion…………………………... …49
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications……………………..…98
References…………………………………………………………………… …108
Appendices
Appendix A: District Leadership Interview Guide…………………….. …113
Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire for Urban Superintendents or……. …115
Other District Leaders
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Survey Questionnaire for Superintendents……………………….. …77
Table 2: Research Question 1……………………………………………….…82
Table 3: Research Question 2……………………………………………… …85
Table 4: Research Question 3……………………………………………….…88
Table 5: Research Question 4……………………………………………….…91
Table 6: Research Question 5……………………………………………….…94
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Knowledge-and-Skills Rainbow…………………………………...…22
Figure 2: Duration of Tenure as Superintendent……………………………..…75
Figure 3: Duration of Tenure in Current District…………………………….…75
Figure 4: Number of Students Supervised by Superintendents……………... …76
vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to understand the effective practices used by
urban superintendents as it pertains to implementing professional development
relevant to the acquisition of 21
st
century skills. This study focused on urban school
districts in the state of California, using a mix of both surveys and interviews to
collect data from superintendents and an expert in the field of education. The data
gathered was meant to provide insights into effective professional development
practices and the monitoring and evaluation of those programs. The study also
sought to determine what skill set is used by districts in California to prepare
students to be 21
st
century citizens and what tools district leaders used to acquire
their definitions and vision for those skills.
From this study emerged findings that can assist other district leaders who
wish to embark on similar district transformations. Through a series of
collaborative, vision-setting meetings with both internal and external stakeholders,
urban superintendents are creating definitions of skills and the buy-in necessary to
create a new vision in order to prepare their students for instruction that promotes
21
st
century skill attainment. These same superintendents, through a detailed
professional development plan that is ongoing, provides opportunities for coaching
and reflection, monitoring, and evaluation will help the students in their districts
achieve academically as they use 21
st
century skills to support the academic
curriculum already in place in most districts.

1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
We operate in nearly 200 countries, do business in some 125
languages, and employ people from over 215 different nationalities.
Respecting and understanding the fundamental value of diversity is
vital to who we are and the way we do business. Understanding and
valuing different cultures has shaped my ability to lead our business,
and it's an absolute imperative for anyone who works at The Coca-
Cola Company.”

- Douglas N. Daft: chairman and chief executive
officer of The Coca-Cola Company

The 21
st
century is a time of great change and great challenge for educators
across the nation. In America, competitiveness, leadership, innovation, and
entrepreneurship is needed to promote economic dynamism in every sector of
society. To prepare students for global challenges, they must be educated to become
culturally sophisticated individuals who can understand and solve complex
problems. They must have the intellectual agility to see connections between
disciplines and among sectors, across a broad intellectual nexus. Students need to
acquire a multicultural understanding and have the ability to operate within a global
context (Knox, 2006). They must be productive in a world which will require them
to reason, to question, to analyze, to evaluate, and to assess by bringing together
ideas, institutions, and people from around the world, and across cultures, as
situations command (Wagner, 2008). Because today’s students are faced with the
globally interlinked marketplace of ideas and forces — they must be prepared to
2
thrive, to contribute, to approach challenge, and to lead within this context
(Friedman, 2005). Educational leaders in the 21
st
century have the challenge of
meeting the demands of the globalized economy, while also focusing on federal and
state accountabilities and assessments. The current system of education must be
reengineered so that the skills needed for the 21
st
century are taught in a way that
complements that core academic content (Wagner, 2008). There is a slight paradigm
shift in the implementation of 21
st
century skills, but it is not as drastic as replacing
the current academic landscape with the teaching of 21
st
century skills. Rather, it is
recognizing that those skills and the core content can be taught as a way to
complement each other with the right teacher preparation and training in
instructional strategies.
Background of the Problem
The roots of current school accountability efforts and the emphasis on core
academics can be traced to numerous Federal laws designed to exert pressure on the
states to increase student academic achievement. Concerns about America’s ability
to compete in a global economy, a convergence of pressures including the demand
for higher levels of student performance, and the increase of rigorous and transparent
accountability measures have altered the way in which schools do business
(Freidman, 2007). Beginning with the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and extending
through the civil rights legislation of the 1960’s and the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, the Congress of the United States has moved to
ensure a quality education for all students (Elmore & Fuhrman, 1990; EdSource,
3
2004). As the nation developed an awareness of and responsiveness towards the
needs of all students, the federal government established an expanded foothold in an
area of policy previously left to the states (Kantor & Lowe, 2006). It is this same
foothold that makes it difficult for teachers to incorporate anything into their
curriculum that takes time away from the tested material. The increase in federal
involvement means a decrease in local control.
In 1983, under the Reagan administration, a landmark report titled A Nation
at Risk highlighted the demand for increased levels of accountability for student
learning. In this report, the members of the National Commission on Excellence
(NCE) constructed a foreboding narrative regarding the relationship between public
school outcomes and the nation’s economic and political security. The foundation
for the current push for educational accountability finds it roots in the NCE report
and the national drive to maintain global competitiveness. Since that time, the goal
of improving educational outcomes has held a dominant position in the socio-
political arena in the United States. A subsequent National Council on Education
and the Economy (NCEE) report titled Tough Choices or Tough Times confirms
research that ties student achievement to both individual wage earning capacity and
the strength of the national workforce (Friedman, 2005).
In the past decade, the United States has undergone a well-documented shift
toward Standards-Based Education. Federal Accountability measures, namely the
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, have effectively ensured that test-based
accountability systems for schools be put in place nationwide. Since this shift began,
4
efforts to raise student achievement and meet these standards have become a
widespread phenomenon. National, state, and local agencies were attempting to
implement programs to affect student achievement from preschool to graduation.
NCLB was also the first policy to hold schools and districts accountable to
improving the learning and achievement of all significant subgroups, whether it is
racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic. The creation of academic standards in most
subjects, annual assessments of those standards, and a mandate to improve
proficiency became federal mandates with both incentives and consequences
inherent in the policy. It is the current emphasis on testing and standards that pushes
the teaching of 21
st
century skills to the wayside. Theses mandates are “diversions
that prevent us from devoting serious attention to developing a more global mindset
and helping our children acquire the knowledge and skill sets they will need to
succeed” (Bassett, 2005).
As schools across the country face increased pressures relating to
accountability, the federal government wrestles the implications of student
performance from a more global perspective. America ranks as one of the most
economically developed countries in the world and belongs to a consortium of
industrialized nations (The United States, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom,
France, Germany, Italy, and Russia) commonly referred to as the G8 or Group of
Eight. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) provides international
student achievement comparisons with data compiled from three international
assessment surveys: the Indicators of National Education Systems (INES) project,
5
the Program for International Students Assessment (PISA), and the Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS). Indicators relating to math
and reading achievement demonstrate underperformance of American students, as
compared to their peers in other G8 nations. German, French, Japanese, and
Canadian students outperformed 15-year-olds in the United States in both math and
reading (Ruzzi, 2006). The United States was also found to have the 3
rd
largest
achievement gap when comparing the wealthiest and poorest students - a gap of 82
points. Only France (88 points) and Germany (102 points) had wider gaps than
American students of poverty (Miller, Sen, Malley, & Burns, 2009). The United
States has much at stake in a global economy where student achievement is linked to
worker productivity and wage earning capacity.
In more recent years, concern over subject competency and the skills
arguably needed to succeed in the 21
st
century have called into question the
standards-based assessments and data-driven models prevalent in school districts
today. School and business leaders argue the need to push for the development of a
target skill set in students — a new component of education deemed necessary for
success in the 21
st
century. At every level of the educational arena, this paradigm
shift has created a need to reassess and realign expectations and instructional
strategies to facilitate change in this direction (Achieve Inc., 2008). A call for
educational standards and practices that push schools to better prepare students for
life beyond high school in the 21
st
century has come from postsecondary institutions,
as well as employers.
6
We need to be fully prepared for a world of ever-increasing competition. In
such a rapidly changing environment, the development of literacy, numeracy,
and information-technology skills is not enough. We need to train people to
do more than that – to solve problems, work with others and take charge of
their own learning and development. That is why all the key skills are
essential (Roberts, 1998, p.1).

As the push for innovation has converged with standards-based accountability
systems, it has created a challenge that reaches to the very root of educational
purpose (Achieve Inc., 2008). On one hand, educators understand the need to
develop a program that prepares students for real world success. On the other hand,
meeting state and federal expectations for student achievement weighs heavily on
instructional decision-making.
In a high school just outside of Stockholm, called the Tensta Gymnasium, a
new and ambitious model of a school was created in a proactive attempt to meet the
declining enrollment, student boredom, and dropout rates that plague so many
schools across the world. The students in the school are mostly trilingual and sit at
desks with wireless computers, while the teacher encourages student collaboration
and exhibits creative scaffolding. Students are able to read websites in various
languages and email peers across the aisle and around the world (Suarez-Orozco,
2009). The Tensta Gymnasium is one of many schools that have adjusted the way
that they do business in order to prepare students for both academic and global
competition.
On the other side of the globe, Tony Wagner (2008) visited some of the
highest achieving and affluent schools in the United States. In one high school
7
honors math class, he noted that students filled in worksheets of math problems with
no teacher interaction. In a history class, he found students using colored pencils to
color in maps using their textbooks. In yet another science class, Wagner observed
students taking a test that was all multiple-choice questions. In an interview with a
12
th
grade student, the young man confided in Wagner that his longest essay as a
senior was a 2-page “How To” essay. In a majority of classrooms visited by
Wagner, he found that the teachers engaged in a core curriculum that seemed to be
rote and autonomous because they were being held accountable for test scores on
academic standards only.
A paradox exists between developing innovative instructional practices and
the framework of standardized accountability systems. The balance between
preparing students to perform well on standardized tests, as well as for the rigors of
college and the 21
st
century, has become an innovator’s conundrum. “The ever-
present threat of failing to make AYP, with its public embarrassment, stigma, and
outcomes-or-else philosophy, produces fear and conformity among educators – both
of which stand in stark contrast to the objectives of 21
st
century schools” (Schoen &
Fusarelli, 2008, p. 182). While the current landscape in education is focused on
measurements of student achievement and school improvement, little has been done
to acknowledge the learning needs of students.
NCLB focuses on teacher quality and testing the traditional curriculum of the
20
th
century, without regard for new competencies required for 21
st
century
schools. In contrast, the 21
st
century skills movement seeks to fundamentally
restructure classroom learning experiences through students’ exposure to
more authentic activities such as collaborative interdisciplinary problem
8
solving and places less emphasis on teacher and testing subject area skills in
isolation (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008, p. 183).

Despite the gap between the values of standards-based programs and concept of
innovation, progress toward a marriage between the two is requisite for schools and
students.
The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills is one of the leading advocates for the
promotion of 21
st
century skills. In their survey of over 400 leading businesses, 80%
of employers ranked critical thinking skills and the ability to ask good questions as
the number one skill needed by individuals in the workforce (Wagner, 2008). In the
world of work, Tony Wagner identified seven survival skills; packaged together –
these skills are labeled 21
st
century skills. Those skills include:
1. Critical thinking and problem solving
2. Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
3. Agility and adaptability
4. Initiative and entrepreneurialism
5. Effective oral and written communication
6. Accessing and analyzing information
7. Curiosity and imagination
In the current system of assessment and curriculum, educators and policy makers
have not begun to emphasize the importance of these skills in the classroom (Silva,
2008). Educators must teach these skills to ensure that students can navigate in a
9
global workforce and economy. “It is imperative that our education system evolve at
a rate comparable to that of our society” (Bassett, 2005).
The educational system and the classroom instruction that is in place today, is
not adequate for the ever-changing global economy. Schools today are barely
preparing students to live in the world of yesterday, and as America continues to play
catch-up, it should begin to look at how to educate students for a world that does not
yet exist (DeLorenzo, et al. 2009). Unlike the United States, other countries are
reexamining their current systems of education and making fundamental changes in
response to changed political conditions and demographic shifts in order to prepare
their students to be successful in the knowledge-intensive, high-tech, and globalized
economy. “American educators could also learn from other countries that have more
wide-scale experience with choice mechanisms. Other countries have made more
serious commitments to the development of language abilities, new kinds of
international literacy, and global competence than the U.S.” (Stewart, 2005, p. 3).
As schools reengineer themselves to meet the demands of the 21
st
century, the
“disciplines of middle and secondary schools will succumb at last to a much more
thematically based and project-oriented program” (Bassett, 2005). Critical thinking
skills should be incorporated into the curriculum as the pedagogical shifts begin to
occur.
While the idea of 21
st
century skills has been around for many years, the new
challenge comes from ensuring that this content is incorporated into the curricula
during a time that is so standards-based and transparent assessment has been
10
vigorously demanded. The hope would be that the academic content stays intact, but
the way in which it is taught be reexamined. Neuroscientists and learning theorists
have espoused the importance of using 21
st
century skills to teach the academic
content for years, and yet there is still a major disconnect at many levels of the
educational structure (Broadfoot, 2000). 21
st
century skills and the academic content
are not exclusive of each other, but instead are most effective when implemented in
support of each other (Silva, 2008). With this concept as a foundation, it is possible
to teach the core curriculum using the skills necessary for the 21
st
century. Using
this framework, students may not only learn the academic content, but they will also
be prepared to compete in a global and ever-changing economy.
Statement of the Problem
Public school districts continue to be inundated with mandates regarding high
stakes testing and teaching only core academic standards despite the demands facing
the students entering a globalized workforce. Many districts fall short in
implementing the teaching of 21
st
century skills in the classroom, while in reality
districts should prepare teachers to support what they do in the classroom with the
use of those same skills. Part of the problem is that 21
st
century skills is defined in
many different ways by various researchers, authors, and districts.
While some districts have incorporated 21
st
century skills into their schools,
either through Career and Technical Education (CTE) or classroom-based pedagogy,
there continues to be a lack of training, assessment, monitoring, and evaluation of
such programs because high- stakes testing has to be a priority under current federal
11
and state policies. Research points to 21
st
century skills and its role in education, but
missing are analyses of districts and schools that are meeting their accountability
targets while incorporating the teaching of those 21
st
century skills to enhance the
learning process. Moreover, scant data exists on how districts and educational
leaders prepare their teachers to transform their current instructional pedagogy from
the traditional classroom of direct instruction into one that prepares students for the
new globalized world.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine how diverse urban school districts
define 21
st
century skills and prepare and train their administrators and teachers to
utilize 21
st
century skills through professional development to enhance the core
academic content already being targeted in schools. More specifically, this study
will look at the instructional strategies implemented by teachers in the classroom, the
definitions and training provided by the districts, and the evaluation of those
programs. This study will focus on districts that have implemented the teaching of
21
st
century skills in combination with the academic content. Combining these two
into a new core curriculum means that students will be able to demonstrate
proficiency both on high stakes tests and in the workplace.
The five research questions for this study are:
1. How do school districts in California define 21
st
century skills?
2. What staff development programs do districts provide to support those
skills?
12
3. What does professional development of 21
st
century skills look like?
4. What is the role of district leadership in providing effective 21
st
century
professional development?
5. How do districts evaluate those programs?
Limitations
This study is representative only of a small number of school districts in
California even though there are over 1000 school districts in the state. This study
will also only focus on professional development and evaluation at the high school
level. This study offers snapshots of a small population of districts while going more
in-depth in only a handful of districts who appear to be succeeding in the
implementation of 21
st
century skills and the teaching of academic content. A body
of research regarding classroom instruction, professional development, district-wide
improvement and evaluation will contextualize the findings of this study.
Additionally, the definitions of 21
st
century skills are numerous and vary from
district to district making it difficult to generalize to all school districts in the state of
California.
Delimitations
The definitions of 21
st
century skills are numerous and vary among the
different researchers. For the purpose of this study, Tony Wagner’s definition of the
seven skills will be utilized as the framework for research. Given that the school
districts in California vary in so many variables, for this study, urban school districts
with a student population of 15,000 or more will be the focus.
13
Definition of Related Terms
21
st
Century Skills - Critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration
across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, innovation and
entrepreneurialism; effective oral and written communication skills; accessing and
analyzing information; and curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
API – The CDE website defines API in the following way:
The Academic Performance Index is the cornerstone of California’s Public
Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA). The purpose of the API is to
measure the academic performance and growth of schools. It is a numeric
index (or scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school’s
score on the API is an indicator of a school’s performance level. The
statewide API performance target for all schools is 800. A school’s growth is
measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal. A school’s API
Base is subtracted from its API Growth to determine how much the school
improved in a year.

AYP – The CDE website defines AYP thusly:
The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 requires that
California determine whether or not each public school and local educational
agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). (A LEA is a
school district or county office of education). AYP criteria encompass four
areas: participation rate, percent proficient (also referred to as Annual
Measurable Objectives or AMOs), API as an additional indicator for AYP,
and graduation rate. Each of these four areas has specific requirements.
Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be met in both English-
language arts (ELA) and in mathematics.

Career Technical Education (CTE) Program - A program that consists of a
multi-year sequence of courses that integrates core academic knowledge with
technical and occupational knowledge to provide students with a pathway to
postsecondary education and the work force (California Department of Education,
2009).
14
Globalization - The shrinking of the world due to an increase of human
interaction that adds to the spread and influence of human impacts and results in
greater interdependency (Ervin & Smith, 2008).
NCLB – No Child Left Behind is the latest reauthorization of ESEA and
requires states to set goals for all students to be at least proficient on statewide
standardized assessments based on statewide academic content standards by the
2013-2014 school year (Department of Education website).
Program for International Student Assessments (PISA) - A system of
international assessments that measures the performance of 15-year-olds in reading
literacy, mathematics literacy, and science literacy every three years (U. S.
Department of Education, 2006).
Program Improvement – According to the CDE website:
The NCLB Act requires all states to implement statewide accountability
systems based on challenging state standards in reading and mathematics,
annual testing for all students in grades 3-8, and annual statewide progress
objectives ensuring that all groups of students reach proficiency within 12
years. Assessment results are disaggregated by socioeconomic status, race,
ethnicity, disability, and limited English proficiency to ensure that no group
is left behind. Local educational agencies (LEAs) and schools that fail to
make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward statewide proficiency goals are
subject to improvement and corrective action measures. In California,
Program Improvement (PI) is the formal designation for Title I-funded
schools and LEAs that fail to make AYP for two consecutive years.

TIMSS – The Trends in Mathematics and Science Study is administered by
the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
It strives to create comparative analysis of educational achievement, curriculum, and
15
instructional delivery in mathematics and science by testing students in the fourth
and eighth grades (Mullis & Martin, 2006).
16
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
As educational policy shifts from NCLB to Race to the Top, President
Obama (2009) recognized the need for a different kind of educational accountability
system. In his speech regarding his five new pillars of education, he said,
I’m calling on our nation’s governors and state education chiefs to develop
standards and assessments that don’t simply measure whether students can
fill in bubbles on a test, but whether they possess 21
st
century skills like
problem-solving and critical thinking and entrepreneurship and creativity.

In this transitional time, there is even more pressure for schools and districts to
perform well on standardized tests that are based on a wide breadth of academic
content standards. With the demand for accountability, many districts continue to
focus on teaching the power standards and core academic content rather than the
skills that are needed to be successful in the 21
st
century because that is how their
success is measured in comparison to other schools.
The review of literature is presented in three sections within this chapter that
address the current definitions of 21
st
century skills, the obstacles that make
implementation more difficult, how districts implement the teaching of those skills,
and the roles of professional development, assessment and evaluation. This chapter
begins with a historical overview, which highlights the history of why the teaching
of 21
st
century skills is important, the background of how those skills are utilized,
and recent trends within the secondary level. It will present the current need for a
17
globalized educational system. The accountability and assessment section discusses
the current policy and accountability system and how that plays a critical role in
determining what is taught in classrooms as well as the need for authentic
assessments and the limited models for assessment that exist. The role of
professional development will be shared as it pertains to what districts are doing to
prepare teachers to change the way they teach, as well as the characteristics of
effective professional development and the role of leadership as it pertains to
effective professional development.
Historical Background and Overview of 21
st
Century Skills
“Education plays four universal roles on society’s evolving stage. It
empowers us to contribute to work and society, exercise and develop our personal
talents, fulfill our civic responsibilities, and carry our traditions and values forward”
(Trilling & Fadel, 2009). While Trilling and Fadel assert that these pillars have
remained constant since the beginning of the educational system, they also recognize
that they look different in the current Knowledge Age than they did in the Agrarian
Age. To demonstrate their point, they discuss how little has changed in education
over the years. Many of the current educational systems still “operate on an agrarian
calendar (summers off to allow students to work in the fields), an industrial time
clock (fifty-minute classroom periods marked by bells), and a list of curriculum
subjects invented in the Middle Ages (language, math, science, and the arts)” (2009).
In the Agrarian Age, farming was the center of education and the economy. In the
Industrial Age, a transition was made from farm to city and a need for job-specific
18
training in areas of mass production and factories became the focus. Engineering
and science skills, as well as managerial and financial knowledge were needed to
maintain the complex industries that were beginning in many urban locations
(Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
Trilling and Fadel (2009) state that the current educational landscape is called
the Knowledge Age and it is marked by a “newly flat world of connected knowledge
work, global markets, tele-linked citizens, and blended cultural traditions” (p. 12). In
this Knowledge Age, the current educational landscape needs to be adjusted to meet
the demands of a globalized economy. Suarez (2005) expands upon the same belief
by saying, “An intellectually curious, cognitively autonomous, socially responsible,
democratically engaged, productive, and globally conscious member of the human
family in the 21
st
century cannot be educated in the 20
th
century factory model of
education” (p. 100). In the 21
st
century, students in the United States are not only
competing against each other for careers, they are competing against students from
all over the globe. The real concern is that American students are leaving public
schools less prepared than their international counterparts. “Creating an aligned 21
st

century public education system that prepares students, workers and citizens to
triumph in the global skills race is the central economic competitiveness issue for the
next decade” (Partnership, p. 1).
The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills is one of the agencies leading the push
for school systems to reexamine their priorities and take a look at the brutal facts. In
2003, the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study found that 15-year-olds in the
19
United States ranked 36
th
in science and 35
th
in mathematics out of the 57 countries
studied. They also found that even the highest-achieving students performed lower
than their international peers (PISA, 2005). In the same study, PISA found that 15-
year-olds in the United States scored 29
th
out of 40 countries in the area of problem
solving – a skill that is widely recognized as one of the most important for success in
the 21
st
century (Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation, 1998).
In addition to the skills and knowledge gaps, the United States has the ninth highest
drop out rate in the world with approximately one million students dropping out of
school every year (Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation).
While the world and economy are quickly adjusting to the new Knowledge Era, little
can be said about adjustments made in education to prepare students to compete and
succeed.
The culture and policies around education in the past few decades have really
been about closing the achievement gap between white, middle-class students and
more disadvantaged minority students by requiring more testing and accountability
to lessen the gap. If this gap continues to be the main focus of assessment and
teaching, the global achievement gap will continue to increase everyday (Wagner,
2008). Educational change calls for a desire and preparedness to embrace new ways
of thinking to guide educational practice and policy (Ordonez & Ramler, 2004).
This paradigm shift does not simply call for a new way of teaching and assessment,
it demands for a new way of preparing students to be successful in post-secondary
education and the workforce. ACHIEVE, created by the National Governors
20
Association, interviewed 300 college professors who taught at either two or four-
year colleges. The results were startling. The research stated that 1) 70% say
students do not comprehend complex reading materials; 2) 66% say that students
cannot think critically; 3) 65% say students lack appropriate work and study habits;
4) 62% say students write poorly; 5) 59% say students do not know how to do
research; and 6) 55% say students cannot apply what they have learned to solve
problems (Wagner, 2008). This research reinforces the idea that the current
educational system focuses more on subject content than on competencies. It is both
the responsibilities of the districts to train classroom teachers, and those teachers to
implement strategies that focus on teaching competencies to support the academic
content. This paradigm shift will help to ensure that students in the United States
can succeed in postsecondary education and in a global economy.
The creation of vision and the building of reform is not an easy thing for
districts (Fullan, 2005). Accepting the realization that schools cannot continue with
“business as usual” means that all levels of the school and district must be engaged
in a new system of implementation.
The question of implementation is simply whether or not a given idea,
practice or program gets ‘put in place’. In focusing on teaching and learning,
for example, I have suggested that implementation consists of (1) using new
materials, (2) engaging in new behaviors and practices and, (3) incorporating
new beliefs. The logic is straight forward – no matter how promising a new
idea may be, it cannot impact student learning if it is superficially
implemented (Fullan, 2001, p. 12).

District personnel and teachers must look closely at the appropriate reform for their
context. Focusing upon the emerging economic and societal demands for specific
21
skills and attributes relevant to the 21
st
century may help districts begin to envision a
strategy that can be addressed by specific professional development and training that
aim to develop the teaching of those skills that are being demanded by postsecondary
educational institutions, industry and the labor market.
“We are currently preparing students for jobs that don’t yet exist…using
technologies that haven’t been invented…in order to solve problems we don’t even
know are problems yet” (Riley, 2003). This statement sits at the crux of the problem
when it comes to a concrete definition of 21
st
Century Skills: what skills are needed
to prepare students to be successful in the global economy of the future? One of
education’s main roles is to prepare students to be workers and citizens that are able
to deal with the challenges of their times; this being said, education becomes the key
to economic survival in the 21
st
century. Even with many educators, authors, and
researchers agreeing that there is a need to reform districts to implement the teaching
of 21
st
century skills, there is not a clear and agreed upon definition of what those
skills are.
The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills utilizes what is called the Knowledge-
and-Skills Rainbow with core subjects and interdisciplinary 21
st
century themes
categorized into three main subgroups: a) Learning and innovation skills, b)
Information, media, and technology skills, and c) Life and career skills (Trilling &
Fadel, 2009). The Knowledge-and-Skills Rainbow, as a whole, looks like Figure 1.
22
Figure 1: Knowledge-and-Skills Rainbow
(Source: P21 Website)

Trilling and Fadel (2009), along with the Partnership, have determined what skills
are most needed to be taught in America’s schools if students are to be ready to
compete in a globalized world. Each of the 3 themes shown above in the rainbow
has a core set of competencies to support that skill set. Those 21
st
century skills are
defined as:
1. Critical thinking and problem solving
2. Communication and collaboration
3. Creativity and Innovation
4. Access information efficiently and effectively
23
5. Evaluate information critically and competently
6. Use information accurately and creatively
7. Flexibility and adaptability
8. Initiative and self-direction
9. Social and cross-cultural skills
10. Productivity and accountability skills
11. Leadership and responsibility skills
Trilling and Fadel state that these skills are necessary if education is to meet its
actual goal of preparing students to contribute in both the work and civic aspects of
the 21
st
century. Their book, 21
st
Century Skills discusses at length what each of
those skills are and provides generic outlines of how those skills look in a classroom.
Another well-known researcher, educator, and author in the area of 21
st

century skills is Tony Wagner. In The Global Achievement Gap, Wagner (2008)
defines a new kind of achievement gap, the one between what schools are teaching
and the skills that are actually needed in careers, college and citizenship in the 21
st

century. Wagner interviews over 400 business leaders and summarizes key pieces of
research in order to consolidate his list of necessary skills into 7 Survival Skills. For
the purpose of this study, Wagner’s model of 21
st
century skills will be utilized.
Those skills include: a) critical thinking and problem solving, b) collaboration across
networks and leading by influence, c) agility and adaptability, d) initiative and
entrepreneurialism, e) effective oral and written communication, f) accessing and
analyzing information, and g) curiosity and imagination. While Wagner’s
24
framework is shorter than the Partnership’s, they both share similar themes. It could
be argued that any one of the skills listed in the first framework could fit into one of
Wagner’s themes.
Even with all of the increased awareness surrounding the need for 21
st

century skills, it is not an easy reformation for districts. Current policies,
assessments, and limited resources and time, make change difficult to accomplish in
schools. “Society’s educational systems must transform their objectives, curricula,
pedagogies, and assessments to help all students attain the sophisticated outcome
requisite for a prosperous, attractive lifestyle based on effective contributions in
work and citizenship” (Dede, 2007, p. 3). In order to make such a widespread and
systemic reform, change needs to happen at all levels.
Accountability and Assessment
The implementation of No Child Left Behind created a system of assessment
and accountability that the United States has never had from the federal level.
Before NCLB, guaranteeing adequate student progress in all subjects among all
subgroups was not part of the educational system. Had the educational system raised
its standards and expectations for student performance, equity, and access, especially
for students in urban and rural areas, the massive national intervention would not
have been required (Buchen, 2004). The intent behind the policy was to ensure that
all students in the United States would be prepared for both postsecondary education
and the workplace; the focus became the achievement gap between the white
students and the minority subgroups. The creation of NCLB recognized the need for
25
American schools to improve in their educating of all students with both incentives
and consequences built into the accountability plan. While many educators would
agree that the intent behind the policy was good, the unintended consequences of its
actual implementation are ever present in schools today. Critics of NCLB argue that
the benefits are outweighed by the flaws of the law, including: the unrealistic goal of
100% proficiency of all students in reading and math by 2014, punitive measures for
educators and institutions that are not making Annual Yearly Progress (AYP), a
weak definition of “highly-qualified teachers,” and the most significant, the highly
varied standard that individual states use for determining whether or not students are
proficient (Wagner, 2008).
NCLB mandates improvement in achievement in core academic subjects and
therefore, those core subjects become the focus of instruction. Educators sometimes
discuss the frustrations of teaching to the test, but “teaching to the test isn’t
necessarily bad – as long as it’s a good test” (Wagner, 2008, p.90). Once state tests
are given and those results are returned back to the districts, schools receive a
specific and limited allotment of time to improve the achievement of struggling
students in order to escape the label and sanctions of Program Improvement (PI) or
school closures. These external pressures, it is hoped, will force districts and schools
to improve and comply with mandates (Anderson, 2003). Unless modifications are
made to NCLB, district and school leaders are not likely to teach or promote the
knowledge, leadership capacities, instruction, or pedagogical skills that are required
to build the capacity for success in the 21
st
century (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008).
26
Wagner agrees that the current system of assessment and accountability tests
memorization and recall in the form of multiple-choice tests. Of the 50 different
state definitions of proficiency, not one state has the same definition as another, and
not one state has standards of proficiency that meet the demands for work, college, or
citizenship in the 21
st
century. It is the job of a district to analyze and implement an
academically rigorous curriculum in the 21
st
century that can support the academic
content that is required by law.
Districts that want to prepare students for both the acquisition of skills and
knowledge will have to question the traditional educational practices that have
created the achievement gaps that are currently placing the United States in a
struggling economic position. The emphasis on standardized test scores as skill-
enhancement strategies results partly from a failure to conceptualize and measure a
broader array of skills that are vital to success in the workplace (Lerman, 2008). If
the nation’s schools are able to significantly increase the percentage of students who
leave school prepared to flourish in postsecondary education and training programs,
the overall effect will be to reduce the earnings gap between college-educated
workers and workers with no postsecondary education (Levy & Murnane, 2006).
With the widening gap currently facing the United States and the dramatic changes
occurring in the nation’s economy, the economic futures of poorly educated students
are in jeopardy and may weaken the commitment to democratic values that sustain
the nation (Levy & Murnane, 2006). Unless this gap is narrowed, the United States
will lack a highly-skilled labor force. There is debate as to whether or not
27
standardized testing is the appropriate measure of student performance, and whether
or not the current forms of accountability actually improve student achievement
(Brewer, et al., 2008).
There is a great amount of thought and reflection that districts must go
through in order to figure out how to meet the demand for the implementation of 21
st

century skills competencies and the accountability measures to which they are held.
Many forward thinking educators are trying to simultaneously infuse innovative
practices, critical thinking skills, adaptability, and creativity while still trying to meet
the requirements of AYP and NCLB (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). This is
increasingly hard to do as the year 2014 approaches; the unrealistic deadlines and
goals, partnered with the threat of failure means that schools are less likely to move
their focus away from strictly teaching core subjects. District leaders may find
success on standardized tests and remain satisfied with the status quo of pedagogy,
relegating their vision back to one that is a traditional school structure (Fullan, 2005).
District leaders who believe that one is not exclusive of the other have to begin to
look at instruction and assessment in new ways.
Using multiple forms of data to determine how all bodies within a school
district are progressing towards their goals is gaining more and more recognition
(Reeves, 2002). These data-systems can both guide instruction while still holding
students and educators accountable to policy-implemented goals (Anderson, 2003).
Rather than gathering data simply on how students perform on knowledge-based
assessments, information could also be collected on how students have mastered the
28
21
st
century skills. If districts could gather assessment data on how well students
perform in these skills: critical thinking, real world problem solving, researching,
analyzing, and synthesizing, then leaders would know how to align professional
development to impact instruction in those areas (Conley, 2007). The obstacle is that
very little research exists about assessment systems for 21
st
century skills.
Since NCLB has created a focus on standards-based accountability systems,
financial support has not been widely used to create a more authentic assessment
system, which are usually more costly (Silva, 2008). There are a few assessments
and shifts towards a focus on both skills and knowledge on a large-scale basis that
are being implemented around the nation. Some states are reevaluating their
standards. Standards are created to answer the age-old question: What should our
children be learning? In the past, standards told educators what children should
know by the end of a certain grade; this is where the shift begins (Wagner, 2008).
“For the 21
st
century, standards emphasize what students should be able to do with
this content – defining skills students can employ when applying the content to
useful work in each subject area. These 21
st
century standards also include levels of
mastery for a given standard, from novice to expert” (Wagner). Wagner highlights
West Virginia as a state that has not only changed its standards, but also changed its
assessment practices. They did this by focusing on fewer standards while going into
more depth and analysis. Multiple methods of assessments including portfolios,
student project work, classroom observations, performance rubrics, online quizzes,
29
simulation-based assessments, juried presentations, and exhibits and performances,
allow students to gain feedback in a more holistic way.
Maria Araceli Ruiz-Primo (2009) has both written and lectured numerous
times about the need for assessments that are appropriate for the 21
st
century. She
said that the first step is to take a look at the long list of skills that have been
presented for this context and to define the absolute list to be taught and assessed.
After the skills have been selected, they need to be prioritized. “Based on this
definition, the developers use conceptual analysis to identify behaviors, responses, or
activities most representative of the construct in order to create an observation
model. Next, the developers use the observation model as the basis for developing
the assessment, with specific situations designed to elicit the behaviors, responses, or
activities included in the observation model” (Ruiz-Primo). Using this model,
educators need to determine the purpose of the assessment: Is it for accountability,
evaluation, or informing instruction? Another recommendation from Ruiz-Primo is
that the 21
st
century skills assessments be on-line so that it can be used as a wide-
scale assessment.
“Whether or not the trendy label of 21
st
century skills lasts, what’s important
is the evolving research on how people learn. Teachers were taught to cover content
first and wait for children to get older before having them apply it. Now research
shows that people learn best by learning content at the same time they are acquiring
and applying new skills” (Silva, 2008). Silva is one of the few researchers to
examine the current assessments that could be utilized to measure complex thinking
30
skills and mastery of core content. Perhaps one of the most promoted and publicized
assessments for 21
st
century skills is the College Work and Readiness Assessment
(CWRA), which was developed by the Council to Aid Education and the RAND
Cooperation. This assessment requires students use a variety of resources (many of
which are online) to create a solution to a real-world problem (Wagner, 2008). This
exam is ninety minutes and is given to high school students. It is designed to be
formative while providing schools and districts with classroom level data to help
inform instruction (Council of Aide to Education, 2010). At this point, the CWRA
has only been piloted by a handful of schools and the cost is crippling given the
current state of education; the exam costs 40 dollars per student instead of the 60
cents that it costs for each multiple choice exam (Silva, 2008).
The International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme has been utilized
in both public and private schools for the last 40 years. The mission of this program
is to combine high standards and high stakes accountability with higher order critical
thinking skills. The goals of this program is: 1) the development of critical thinking
and reflective skills, 2) the development of research skills, 3) the development of
independent learning skills, 4) the development of intercultural understanding, 5) the
retaining of knowledge, 6) the understanding of key concepts, and 7) the application
of standard methods. Students in the IB program are assessed using performance
tasks ranging from the extended essay, multiple-choice and open-ended problem
solving, data-analysis and case studies. The IB, like the few other programs
available, costs a lot of money in the areas of professional development, training and
31
assessment, as well as impartial graders to ensure validity (International
Baccalaureate, 2010).
The consensus in the literature regarding assessments for the 21
st
century is
that the systems put in place must be affordable, utilize the Internet, be aligned with
state standards, and focus on themes and big ideas rather than a comprehensive list
that includes all state standards. “Though several promising systems are in the early
stages of development, one has to be able to overcome all of the challenges of
scalability” (Ruiz-Primo, 2009). It is the role of the district to adopt, promote, and
train teachers in a system that serves their needs in a way that is doable within their
constraints. It is up to the districts to define the skills and prioritize them in order to
train teachers to improve upon and change their instructional practices.
The Role of Leadership and Professional Development in Reform
The district and school leaders play an essential and irreplaceable role
in creating high quality and professional learning for all teachers.

- Dennis Sparks, 2010

Considerable debate has long existed among educators about the role of the
district office in regards to the creation of vision, the selection of curriculum, and the
training of teachers and educators as instructional leaders. In districts that
successfully implement a drastic transformation, the professional development of
both experienced and novice teachers is a top priority. “Teachers must become 21
st

century learners themselves, learning from inquiry, design, and collaborative
approaches that build a strong community of professional educators” (Trilling &
32
Fadel, 2009). This instructional transformation is most likely to be successful if the
support, vision, and leadership are implemented beginning at the district level.
While some districts have adopted a hands-off approach to school reform as a way to
create a sense of identity and empower the site, this approach ultimately thwarts
sustained improvement because it is the role of the district leaders to perform a
number of critical tasks if all schools are to thrive (Sparks, 2002). It is the role of
leaders to provide both the pressure and support to initiate and sustain reform.
District leaders and school systems must “clearly articulate standards for student
learning, teaching, leadership, and staff development and then establish
accountability and incentive systems related to those standards” (Sparks, 2002, p.
52). In essence, district leaders build the capacity needed for any school reform.
Judith Langer (2001) found that districts which have been successful in
implementing wide-scale reform have coordinated efforts to improve student
achievement, fostered teacher preparation, both in formal and informal professional
communities, created urgency within the teachers, engendered a caring attitude
among colleagues and students, and fostered a climate with a focus on life-long
learning. Langer agrees with Sparks in that it is the role of district leadership to
build capacity in whatever skills the district determines to be needed by the teachers.
Elmore (2000) found that district superintendents play the most integral part in
shaping district structures. He concludes that “instructionally effective school
districts have superintendents who are knowledgeable about and key initiators of
change in teaching and learning” (p. 35). Those same superintendents used data to
33
analyze student performance and create focus and a sense of urgency. They also
made substantial investments in highly specified and targeted professional
development.
Elmore and Burney (2000) point out the role of district leadership:
In the district, professional development is a management strategy rather than
a specialized administrative function. Professional development is what
administrative leaders do when they are doing their jobs, not as a specialized
function that some people in the organization do and others do not…Anyone
with line administrative responsibility in the organization has responsibility
for professional development as a central part of his or her job description (p.
175-175).

They are supported in their statement by Robert Slavin (2001) who also argues that
the district office plays a significant role in professional development by helping
schools select comprehensive models of reform which include changes in instruction,
curriculum, assessment, parent involvement, school organization, and oftentimes,
vision. He recommends that districts make it clear to school sites that professional
development is “Job One” and that new programs of reform phase in new models
starting with the most enthusiastic schools.
Miles and Hornbeck (2000) found that districts seldom do a good job of
implementing staff development at the district level, but more importantly, district
funding on staff development is varied and fragmented. In a study of four school
districts, they found a range of $1,500 to $5,000 per teacher per year. They also
discovered that districts spent more on staff development than they thought they did
and the development provided by the districts was not really focused on academic
content. They recommend, “districts align professional development resources with
34
academic goals, focus on fewer topics, and reexamine the professional development
activities of each major department” (p. 55). Their recommendation extends further
by encouraging district leaders to create more accountability for providing quality
professional development and forcing district offices to review the planning,
budgeting and evaluation process associated with staff training.
School districts that hope to succeed in change must have a district leader
who can facilitate a shared vision of learning; sustain an instructional program;
ensure a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment; collaborate with families
and communities; act with integrity; and understand the political, social, economic,
legal, and cultural context of the district (Holloway, 2001). Richard DuFour (2000)
believes that the development of school personnel has to be a priority for
superintendents. He contends that the most powerful types of professional
development are job-embedded, collaborative in nature and intentional. “Teacher
isolation is so deeply ingrained in the traditional fabric of schools,” he writes, “that
leaders cannot simply invite teachers to create a collaborative culture. They must
identify and implement specific, strategic interventions that help teachers work
together rather than alone” (p. 20). DuFour recommends that superintendents lead
staff development and redesign school structures so that every teacher is a part of a
team, provide time for collaboration during the school day, mandate that
collaboration focuses on teaching and learning, monitor individual and
organizational growth, and provide the context for change and the motivation to
pursue it.
35
The research regarding the need for district supported professional
development is extensive, but the analysis of professional development programs
utilized to support the acquisition of 21
st
century skills is in its infancy. One theme
that is consistent through many of the reports that are discussed is that teachers need
support in learning and modeling 21
st
century skills if they hope to transform their
classrooms into an environment that prepares students to be global citizens. Wehling
(2007), in Building a 21
st
Century U.S. Education System, highlights the fact that
little has changed in education in the last 50 years. He argues that the current
educational organization is remnant of the 19
th
century factory model of teaching and
learning. According to Wehling, 21
st
century professional development needs to be
representative of the information economy where the use of teamwork is crucial. He
argues that for any district to create a 21
st
century learning environment, districts
must begin with transforming teacher practices. Wehling concludes that stand-and-
deliver teaching to passive students needs to be replaced with research-based policies
and strategies that support 21
st
century learning and teaching. He states, “It is time to
end this tradition, by changing the roles, rules, relationships, and tolls that replicated
the factory-era culture of schooling from one generation of teachers to the next” (p.
59). He finds that teacher collaboration models the development of knowledge
mastery and helps to improve the teacher’s own understanding and effectiveness.
The new form of professional development needs to engage teachers in professional
activities that build collaboration and teaches them how to facilitate instructional
change.
36
In successful district transformations, professional development that includes
both novice and expert teachers is a top priority of district leaders. In order to
revamp education at the school sites to incorporate 21
st
century skills, teachers must
become 21
st
century learners themselves, learning from inquiry, design, and
collaborative approaches (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Teachers for this generation must
learn to develop their design, coaching, and facilitating skills to guide and support
their students’ learning projects. Columbia Teachers College and many professional
development programs are shifting toward a 21
st
century education model that has
not been commonly taught in schools of education (Trilling & Fadel). Trilling and
Fadel highlight West Virginia’s concerted effort to teach project learning methods to
all teachers in the state. Using professional development created by the Intel Teach
Program and Oracle Education Foundation’s Project Learning Institute, as well as
state and local programs, the teachers in West Virginia are learning how to teach 21
st

century skills to their students.
Trilling and Fadel (2009) found that effective professional development that
gives teachers the skills they need to become effective 21
st
century teachers tends to
be:
1. Experiential
2. Grounded in a teacher’s own questions, problems and challenges
3. Collaborative, using the collective experience and expertise of fellow
teachers and educators to explore learning methods
37
4. Connected to teacher’s work with students, curriculum, and school
culture as well as connected with the technology of globalized learning
5. Sustained with modeling, coaching, mentoring, ad collaborative problem
solving
6. Integrated with all other aspects of school change, reform, and
transformation.
Trilling and Fadel conclude with the idea that professional development for the 21
st

century must “be well coordinated with ongoing changes in curriculum, assessment,
standards, and the overall learning environment” (p. 139).
Cochran-Smith and Lytley (1999) assert that the focus of professional
development has to change if any real transformation is to take place. They share a
common misconception about the belief that more content knowledge makes better
teachers. Instead, they charge district leaders to create a new kind of learning
environment for teachers. They found that inquiry-based professional development
could offer directions for pre-service education, curriculum construction, school and
social change for the 21
st
century. New visions of professional development have
been formed to suggest that what is needed are opportunities for teachers to explore
and question their own ideas and other’s interpretations, ideologies, and practices.
“This means that teachers learn by challenging their own assumptions; identifying
salient issues of practice; posing problems; studying their own students, classrooms,
and schools; constructing and reconstructing curriculum; and taking on roles of
38
leadership and activism in efforts to transform classrooms, schools and societies”
(Cochran-Smith & Lytley, p. 279).
The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills (2006) also argues that 21
st
century
development be infused in professional development for teachers and administrators.
They believe that teachers need to learn how to teach the traditional whole class
model as well as how to properly differentiate their instruction to incorporate flexible
grouping, collaborative inquiry, project-based learning, and online resources if
schools are to prepare students to meet the demands of today and tomorrow. The
Partnership encourages the creation of 21
st
century coaches who can provide teachers
with ongoing professional development and content-specific mentoring throughout
the school year. The Partnership advises districts to provide targeted training for
teachers and administrators so that they know exactly what skills they need to teach
and how to properly incorporate them to enhance student learning.
A reoccurring theme in the development of 21
st
century educators is the
ability of teachers to apply pedagogical knowledge to problem-solving and authentic
experiences (Wagner, 2008). In his book, Wagner describes in depth an organization
of schools called High Tech High. The professional development for these teachers
and administrators provided them with the opportunity to collaborate and build
teams. The professional development at these sites not only talked about how to
incorporate the skills, it was designed to truly model how people learn. Teachers in
this type of training analyzed student work that was demonstrative of the rigorous,
authentic, real-world connections made in various content areas. According to
39
Wagner, High Tech High has seen a tremendous amount of success in the amount of
students attending four-year colleges and they attribute that success to the effective
teaching and learning that occurs on each of the campuses.
Conclusion
As presented in this literature review, ample research supports the need for
21
st
century skill implementation and the need for district leaders to provide
professional development to administrators and teachers. While NCLB mandates
that growth in academic content areas be measured, and the states impose standards
and definitions of proficient, the pedagogy of teaching is not dictated. The use of
21
st
century skills as a way to enhance learning is an effective way to support
academic content – students who learn how to think critically, collaborate,
communicate, create, and analyze will be successful in school and prepared for a
globalized society. Successful implementation of learning requires that new forms
of assessment be utilized if teachers are to evaluate if students are learning the skills
as well as the content taught. High-stakes assessments, as well as performance tasks
like student portfolios, exhibitions, research papers, and projects that focus on real-
world problem solving will all serve to measure student achievement in a more
holistic approach. Once obstacles relating to scalability and cost are conquered, new
assessment systems could supplement the statewide assessments by measuring
student achievement in terms of 21
st
century skill attainment, or current statewide
assessments can be modified and streamlined to assess both.
40
It is the role of the district leader to initiate and sustain school reform; he or
she builds capacity for change (Sparks, 2002). School districts that hope to succeed
in change must have a district leader who can facilitate a shared vision of learning;
sustain an instructional program; ensure a safe, efficient, and effective learning
environment; collaborate with families and communities; act with integrity; and
understand the political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context of the district
(Holloway, 2001). The training of teachers and other personnel has to be a priority
for superintendents (DuFour, 2004). Districts that want to incorporate the teaching
of 21
st
century skills in the classroom need to first create a definition for those
schools and then provide meaningful and authentic professional development for
administrators and teachers. Professional development for 21
st
century skills should
both inform teachers and model those necessary skills in the learning process.
Teachers need to be trained to teach the traditional class model as well as how to
incorporate flexible grouping, collaborative inquiry, project-based learning and
online resources. The development, at its very foundation, should be inquiry-based.
A necessary skill for professional development programs is to teach teachers how to
apply pedagogical knowledge to problem-solving and authentic experiences
(Wagner, 2008).
While a concrete definition and the creation of new assessments to evaluate
the achievement of 21
st
century skills is beyond the scope of this dissertation, an
exploration into effective teacher preparation facilitated by district superintendents
and other district leadership will be the focus.
41
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The current educational focus is more of a reaction to the demand imposed by
federal programs prescribed by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) policy. Schools
are required to meet a level of proficiency determined by a specific set of academic
content standards and measurable outcomes. There is a heightened level of
accountability for schools and districts to meet those levels of proficiency for all
students in all major content areas. The sanctions and consequences placed on
schools and districts have unintentionally narrowed the curriculum to focus on those
standards that are measured through high-stakes standardized examinations. The
question then becomes: Are students actually learning and being assessed on
curriculum that is appropriate for the changing world of the 21
st
century? There is
significant research to validate the need for the teaching of 21
st
century skills as well
as research to support the argument that using 21
st
century skills to support the
academic content can be some of the most effective instructional strategies. Some
districts in California have recognized the need to incorporate the teaching of 21
st

century skills as a way to enhance the curriculum, improve student results, and
prepare students to be aware of globalization, and consequently become competitive
citizens while still meeting the demands of NCLB.
The purpose of this study is to identify specific urban school districts that
have defined 21
st
century skills and have used that definition to change the
42
educational landscape in its secondary schools. This study will base its findings by
analyzing the data collected by the interviews conducted with five selected district
superintendents and the surveys returned by the superintendents. This chapter
explains the various parts of the methodology in detail: the research questions from
which all of the interview and survey protocols are derived; the sample and
population to be interviewed and surveyed; the instrumentation; the data collection
and analysis; and finally, the ethical considerations in play because of the nature of
the research. Criterion for participation has been created using district population,
diversity or an explicit push towards 21
st
century learning. This study seeks to
determine how superintendents and other upper-level district administrators provide
professional development to teachers and site administrators so that 21
st
century
skills can be utilized in high school classrooms to create students who are ready to be
successful participants in a rapidly changing global environment.
Research Questions
The research questions that will be addressed in the study are as follows:
1. How do school districts in California define 21
st
century skills?
2. What staff development programs do districts provide to support those
skills?
3. What does professional development of 21
st
century skills look like?
4. What is the role of district leadership in providing effective 21
st
century
professional development?
5. How do districts evaluate those programs?
43
The purpose of the research questions are to gain an understanding of the processes
and strategies utilized by district leadership to help their students become proficient
in academic content and the acquisition of 21
st
century skills including: creating a
district-wide definition of 21
st
century skills, allocating resources for professional
development, planning and providing professional development, and assessing the
growth and outcomes of those programs. These types of applied research questions
have been selected because of the high level of transferability. It is hoped that
insight will be gained on how to train teachers to better prepare high school students
for the globalized world and that the knowledge gained can be applied to similar
districts.
Sample and Population
Using purposeful sampling techniques, five superintendents of large urban
school districts served as the units of analysis within this study. They were selected
utilizing the following criteria: a) the school district served by the superintendent
will have a student population of at least 15,000; b) the diversity of the school
district must be a reflection of the diversity within the state of California; c) the
district has a defined vision of 21
st
century skills, offers the International
Baccalaureate Program, or a Career and Technical Education Program; or d) the
superintendents have facilitated the teaching of 21
st
century skills through providing
professional development on at least one or more of the skills defined earlier. These
criteria helped to ensure a diverse representation of districts that allowed for the
generalization to other districts. Purposeful sampling was used to identify the
44
districts that meet the criteria with final district selection governed by both
convenience and willingness of the district superintendent to participate. Also, an
interview with Dr. Douglas Reeves, an educational expert was conducted.
District leaders who meet the criteria listed above received a letter inviting
them to participate in the study and a follow up letter that detailed the purpose and
process of the study. The follow up letter explained the scope of the study and
outlined the requirements and ethical safeguards that the researcher had to enforce in
order to meet the protocol outlined by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for
conducting research on human beings.
Along with the five superintendents who were interviewed, 35
superintendents were asked to complete a short survey, which was administered
using the internet-survey tool Survey Monkey. The purposeful sampling for selecting
the survey participants included the size of the district as well as the student
demographics. These superintendents received a letter requesting them to participate
in the survey. This letter also outlined the purpose and scope of this study as well as
provided them with directions for how to complete the survey. Once again, IRB
requirements and guarantees of confidentiality were provided to each participant
before his or her portion was completed.
Instrumentation
This study utilized both semi-structured interviews with questionnaires as
well as survey questionnaires. Patton (2002) says, “the purpose of qualitative
interviewing is to capture how those being interviewed view the world, to learn their
45
terminology and judgments, and to capture the complexities of their individual
perceptions and experiences” (p. 348). Interviews were used to dig deeper into the
process; they are a necessary part of understanding the thought process behind each
decision in regards to the incorporation of 21
st
century skill development and teacher
training. A set of both interview and survey protocols was assembled to facilitate
this process based on the research questions previously listed, and those questions
were designed to be appropriate for the stakeholders involved in the sample. The
interview questions were designed to be open-ended to allow for some leeway and
the addition of probing questions within the structure of the interview. The interview
and survey questions were broken up into sections that correspond to the research
questions in this study. The protocols for both the interviews and the surveys are
included in the appendices. The interviews conducted include both open and closed-
ended questions. The researcher was trying to obtain as much information as
possible. Respondents were specifically asked how teachers are trained to utilize 21
st

century skills as instructional strategies to enhance the learning of academic content.
Data Collection
The data collection took place at two different levels – one for the surveys
and the other for the interviews. The survey questionnaire was mailed to the 35
superintendents with the pertaining protocol and a returned stamped envelope.
Participants were also given the option to complete the survey online. In both
instances, confidentiality of identities and answers were maintained. The answers
from the surveys were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
46
(SPSS) to be recorded and analyzed. The data from the surveys were used to both
evaluate current data, but also to create predictions about future possibilities of
generalization regarding teacher training and instruction.
At the next level, interviews were scheduled with the five superintendents
and Dr. Reeves from which data was gathered. Before meeting with each
superintendent, he or she each received a copy of the interview protocol including
those questions that were asked during the process. It was the hope of the researcher
that prior exposure to the questions would allow the superintendents time to reflect
upon their involvement in order to give thorough and descriptive responses to the
questions asked of them. A private setting was arranged to limit interruptions and
maintain confidentiality.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study is to understand how urban school districts prepare
teachers to utilize 21
st
century skills an as instructional strategy to enhance the
academic content. The study examines how districts define those skills they consider
to be 21
st
century skills and how those district superintendents carried out their vision
of infusing those skills through professional development. Both the survey and
interview instruments were created with the express intent of identifying and
understanding these practices in relation to the literature provided and the purpose of
this study.
As interviews and surveys were completed, the researcher made sure that all
of the information regarding participants was coded correctly and ethically. The
47
researcher dissected the information gathered to solicit patterns and analyzed the data
using the inductive analysis approach. Patton (2002) states that the inductive
analysis approach is the immersion between relevant details of the data to find
patterns, themes, and relationships. Interviews were recorded using an audio
recorder and those interviews were transcribed verbatim using an outside
transcription service. Interview data, like survey data, was also coded as were all
field notes. Prior categorization of the interview and survey protocols in relationship
to the research questions helped to make the process more efficient. The coding
reflects the themes of the research questions including the definitions of 21
st
century
skills and the different aspects of a district’s role in the professional development and
evaluation of those programs. The online software, which houses the survey, also
coded the Internet protocol addresses to ensure that identities of the participants are
protected. As patterns began to emerge in the data-collection process, pattern-
matching logic was employed as a way to compare numerical data patterns with a
predicted estimation (Yinn, 1989). Using this logic, reoccurring themes served as
evidence for particular aspects of professional development strategies provided by
superintendents in the training of 21
st
century skills.
Ethical Considerations
This study is part of the University of Southern California’s Ed.D. Program
and has been approved by the Institutional Review Board for meeting the
requirements to conduct research using human subjects. Additionally, all subjects
who participated in the sample submitted written consent before completing the
48
survey or interview. This verification ensured that all participation in this research
was done on a voluntary basis and with the appropriate permissions. Before the
commencement of all of the interviews, participants were reminded of their signed
consent forms and were given the opportunity to back out or not answer any question
at any time throughout the interview process. All names of individuals and of
districts in the following chapters are aliases. The goal of the researcher is to portray
the results found in the most accurate light and to treat all involved in the study with
professionalism at all times.
49
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION
In order to determine how district administrators are using professional
development to train teachers to implement 21
st
century skills at the classroom level,
five superintendents of large, urban districts were selected to be interviewed and
surveyed. The five superintendents selected represent one district in each of the five
major southern California counties: Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Los
Angeles, and Orange County. Dr. Douglas Reeves was also interviewed as an expert
in the field of education and professional development. In addition to the interviews,
35 surveys were sent to other districts in those same counties. Of the 35 surveys that
went out to superintendents, 27 were completed and returned.
This study sought to examine the thoughts, planning, training, perception,
monitoring, and evaluation regarding the integration of 21
st
century skills as a means
to support the academic content especially as it pertains to the training of teachers
through professional development. Two primary instruments were used to gather
data: (1) District Leadership Interview Guide (Appendix A) and Survey
Questionnaire for Superintendents (Appendix B).
The interview protocol questions sought to answer five research questions
focused on themes relating to both 21
st
century skills and professional development.
These categories included: a) how districts define 21
st
century skills; b) staff
development programs used to support the implementation of those skills; c) the
characteristics of professional development aimed at training teachers to incorporate
50
those skills; d) the role of district leadership in providing training; and e) the
evaluation of those programs. Within these five thematic categories, a series of sub-
questions was asked to elicit more detailed and expansive information and to
characterize specific qualities of effective professional development that would be
beneficial to other districts.
The superintendents interviewed were selected because of their willingness to
be interviewed as the representative from the county and because of their desire to be
part of further research aimed at teaching students and teachers to rise to the
demands of globalization in education. The superintendents shared their beliefs and
district practices as it pertained to the training of teachers as to how to make their
students critical thinkers, collaborative in nature, adaptable, effective
communicators, imaginative, analytical, and technologically savvy. In addition, Dr.
Douglas Reeves shared his insights regarding the future of education as it pertains to
21
st
century skills and professional development.
The data presented in this study will be organized as follows: a) each research
question will be listed, along with all of the supplemental sub-questions, and the
responses from the five superintendents who were interviewed will be detailed; b)
the results of the surveys as a whole will be evaluated; and c) and analysis of the
individual responses and survey results will be conducted.
Findings
This study looked at five research questions created to elicit strategies used
by urban superintendents to train, monitor, and evaluate teachers as they
51
implemented 21
st
century skill development in their districts. The research questions
are as follows:
1. How do school districts in southern California define 21
st
century skills?
2. What staff development programs do districts provide to support those
skills?
3. What does professional development of 21
st
century skills look like?
4. What is the role of district leadership in providing effective 21
st
century
professional development?
5. How do districts evaluate those programs?
Research Question #1: How do school districts in southern California define 21
st

century skills?
The five superintendents interviewed were asked as the first sub-question 1:
In your district, what is the skill set that your students need to be successful in the
21
st
century? Superintendent 1 stated that students need to be successful in all of the
curricular areas as well as be able to work in groups, know how to communicate both
orally and in written form, be able to problem solve, and use various types of
technology. Superintendent 1 also made it clear that it was the district’s
responsibility to prepare kids for careers and college. Superintendent 2
acknowledged that the district was currently working to define those skills even
though they realize that they are already operant as they live out their lives in the 21
st

century. Superintendent 2 said that the district has recognized the need to push
critical thinking and communication skills with all of the teachers. Superintendent 3
52
stated that preparing students for the 21
st
century really comes from providing them
with whatever skills they need in order to be successful in their lives. Superintendent
3 went on to say that those skills revolve around accessing information, being
flexible, being able to work in teams, and being able to think critically. In district 4,
the superintendent talked in great detail about the need for students to be able to use
technologically in proper ways as critical researchers. Superintendent 4 also
acknowledged the need for students to learn collaboration and communication skills,
and most importantly, this superintendent said that the district is working to improve
the work ethic of the students. Superintendent 5’s district has acknowledged the fact
that 21
st
century skills are constantly evolving and that it is difficult for stakeholders
to imagine what the students will need to know in fifteen years. This district is
evolving a complex technology plan as well as finding ways to encourage critical
thinking, collaboration, and creative skills.
The second sub-question asked in the interviews was: How did you establish
your vision of what a school district should be in the 21
st
century? Superintent1
believed the process needed to be inclusive of all stakeholders as part of a visioning
activity. Superintendent 1 stated that the visioning answers the question, “what are
our wishes, hopes, and dreams for the students and how do we make that happen?”
Superintendent 1, whose district has a mission and vision that aligns with 21
st

century skill development, said that it takes many people to process through many
drafts before a true vision can be aligned with 21
st
century skills, state content
standards, and core values. Superintendent 2 talked about meeting with his board
53
and executive round table to assess where the district is and to make goals pertaining
to 21
st
century skills. Superintendent 2 admitted that they are in the midst of an in-
depth conversation about thorough strategic planning because rigor and relevance is
what they consider to be the keystone to success. Superintendent 3 said that the
school board really created the need for a vision that was inclusive of 21
st
century
skills. From that point, this district gathered the teachers and administrators and they
created the vision for the district to align with the board’s direction. Superintendent
4 also talked about visioning as a collaborative process, which included the board,
teachers, and site and district leadership. This district went further to include
classified personnel at the district level in planning and follow up conversations so
that those employees would understand how their work impacts students daily.
Perhaps the most unique aspect of the visioning process completed by this district
was to invite CEOs and business managers from surrounding reputable companies to
come and speak to the stakeholders about the skills they feel are necessary for
students to master. Superintendent 5 acknowledged that the district is not as far
along in creating a clear vision for the 21
st
century as the district would like to be.
The stakeholders have heard speakers, read current research and invited experts to
come and share as they work through the process of creating a vision.
The third sub-question asked was: What strategies did the district utilize to
determine the skills that students need? Superintendent 1 cited the SCANS study
from 2000, the state standards and much of the research that has been done on
college and career readiness as information reviewed to help lead the district in
54
outlining their vision. Superintendent 2 said that those conversations took place at
both the district and site levels. This district partners with an outside agency called
Focus on Results and that group helped them to determine how to create their
instructional focus. Superintendent 3 talked about the importance of creating a team
made up of members strategically picked for their strengths and knowledge. The
district used this team of people to develop specific skills needed and goals for
student achievement. District 4 started the process by asking different stakeholders
to complete assessment pieces and they worked with an outside group called the
Alliance for Education. That alliance includes company members, local
homebuilders, parents, and educators. The district wanted to hear from as many
participants and perspectives as they could as to the skills needed by the students.
The superintendent in district 5 turned to other districts to find out what they were
doing in relationship to the acquisition of 21
st
century skills. The district leaders
attended the Blackboard Conference in Florida and used that opportunity to learn
from similar districts as they continue to define the skills they intend to be the focus.
The final sub-question for this research question was: How do you define
academic rigor in this globalized world? Superintendent 1 stated that academic
rigor, as a term, is overused. For the purpose of the interview, Superintendent 1
explained it as “something that is engaging and challenging, but not frustrating…and
of course, academically relevant.” Superintendent 2 admitted also that he lacked a
clear definition for what academic rigor in the 21
st
century looked like and responded
with a more generic definition saying that it is instruction at the appropriate grade
55
level and content that pushes students towards being successful and prepared for the
next level. Superintendent 3 said that academic rigor in the 21
st
century really has to
do with a deep level of learning and the need to instill in students an intrinsic desire
to learn and be successful. Superintendent 3 also spoke about how rigor really
means teaching students to apply their knowledge and go beyond what is obvious
into a way of thinking that is creative and unique. Superintendent 4 talked about the
implementation of new assessments and rubrics that set new standards for mastery in
the district. The standards, assessments, and rubrics used by this district have a
performance component and work on a numerical scale clustered by thematic
standards. Rigor, said Superintendent 4, is asking students to be challenged and held
accountable in ways that make them truly learn the material. Superintendent 5
acknowledged that his way of thinking is different than most. Superintendent 5 says
that changing rigor is a systems question, which should include multiple curriculums
and multiple inputs. Rigor, in this context, means personalizing the learning
experience so that students have multiple ways to achieve the outcomes.
Research Question #2: What staff development programs do districts provide to
support those skills?
The first sub-question asked: How has district leadership supported the
advancement of 21
st
century skills through professional development?
Superintendent 1 commented that they needed more money to fully implement their
plan of professional development, but stated clearly that the district has a distinct
vision and so has made the commitment to invest the time to create the human
56
capital needed for the vision to be successful. Superintendent 1 spoke specifically
about all of the new technology in the district and how overwhelmed some of the
teachers are by it. Superintendent 1 argued that the “district has a responsibility to
the employees to teach them, not just throw them into the deep end.” Superintendent
2 said that the most important part of being able to support the advancement is
having open and honest communication with all stakeholders, including the board of
education and community. Board meetings in District 2 are televised so messages
have to be clear and communication should yield a lack of public surprises and
condescension. Secondly, this district has made a commitment to dual-immersion
programs and will be piloting their sixth language program during the next school
year. Superintendent 3 talked about the role of district administration in providing
the resources and time for the district vision to be supported. As a leader,
Superintendent 3 provides training to the district and site teams and then expects that
they teach the majority of the stakeholders involved. District 3 has made a
commitment to providing its teachers with current technology in all classrooms and
encourages the use of all types of technology within the curriculum. In District 4,
the superintendent admitted that the proper professional development, with multiple
layers of development is integral to bringing new ideas, strategies, or visions into a
district. Superintendent 4 went on to say that the district has to commit to the time
and money it takes to let teachers receive training, implement what they have
learned, and then reconnect with the purpose of reflecting on the implementation.
District 4 has regularly scheduled collaboration time for teachers weekly and the
57
superintendent believes this to be critical for the success of any of their trainings.
Lastly, Superintendent 5 has met with colleagues from other countries and has
partnerships with schools in Japan and in China, but is still looking to find a good
model in California for a district that is really moving its teachers forward in 21
st

century skills. This district relies predominately on internal professional
development and the belief is held that most professional development should be
optional.
The second sub-question was: How does the district’s professional
development plan emphasize 21
st
century skills? Superintendent 1 shared that both
the strategic plan and district budget reflect the vision. Superintendent 1 said that
when a district decides that something is important to them, they have the obligation
to infuse it into the core of all that they do and create so that it becomes systemic in
nature and public to all stakeholders. Superintendent 2 asserted that the district has
been careful about using buzz words like 21
st
century skills and life-long learners
without clear definitions. This district has a professional development plan, but they
are working as an executive team to re-outline their plan. Superintendent 3 said that
both the professional development plan and the Single Plan for Student Achievement
serve as a foundation for which resources and time are allocated. The school board
and district cabinet has made 21
st
century skill acquisition a priority and that is
evident in the documents and in the support from district leadership. Superintendent
4 said that most of the professional development plan has to do with the new
standards, assessments, and rubrics that the district has implemented to unify all of
58
the schools with a common rigorous curriculum. This district uses their professional
development plan as a backbone for the technology grants and academies that they
are creating within the district. In the last district, Superintendent 5 said that the
professional development plan is a work in progress. The key to making it
successful, according to this superintendent, is that the plan encourages frequent
professional development that is truly optional in nature. As more people are
exposed to the material, implement it and find success, the more other individuals
will want to be trained. This is the model supported by this district.
The last sub-question asked has three parts: Have you utilized any outside
group to provide professional development or is most of it done in-house? How do
you decide the efficient way to provide that staff development? Superintendent 1
stated that the district had partaken in a number of different kinds of professional
development related to 21
st
century skills. The International Baccalaureate teachers
regularly travel to their trainings, but at the same time, they provide in-house
trainings to other teachers as the “experts” in the district. Superintendent 1 has done
work with Pivot Learning, the Association of California School Administrators, and
the University of Southern California and uses those resources to bring out-of-district
input and resources to the leadership team. Superintendent 2 referred to outsourcing
much of the professional development in the district to a group called Focus on
Results. Since this group has been working with the district for so many years,
Superintendent 2 said that they have been working to build human capital so that
more teacher-leaders emerge and more of the work becomes systemic across the
59
district. District 3 uses many of the opportunities provided by Discovery Education,
but continues to do a bulk of their trainings in-house. The superintendent has a lot of
faith in the assistant superintendent in charge of secondary education and
professional development and the team that has been created to support that goal.
Since the teachers and administrators in the district have responded well to the in-
house model, this district will continue to use it. Superintendent 4 admitted that the
type of training desired dictated whether or not they brought in outside agencies or
completed it using inside resources. Many times, this district uses the “trainer of
trainers” model so that they can train larger groups using inside employees.
According to this superintendent, it creates more buy-in and credibility among the
naysayers in the district to use this model. The superintendent in district 5 said that
the precedent is clear that the district uses an in-house model for all trainings. More
importantly, Superintendent 5 reiterated the importance of voluntary involvement in
all training:
I come from a constructivist view that people have to construct meaning and
if you’re there involuntarily, you’re constructing meaning of ‘I don’t want to
be here.” Frankly, you’re disruptive even though you’re not jumping up and
down. There are ways to be disruptive and that is an ethos that pervades the
place. Meanwhile, there are folks that given the opportunity to be a
professional, want to step up. These are the people who will go back and
actually start to implement it – this is a proper change model.
60
Research Question #3: What does professional development of 21
st
century skills
look like?
Superintendents were asked the following sub-question first: What is
different about the professional development provided to stakeholders since the
implementation of 21
st
century skills? Superintendent 1 stated the biggest difference
observed in the professional development is that the content is much more reflective
and focuses on how to teach more than on what to teach. Superintendent 1 continued
on to say that this type of professional development is much more hands-on and
interactive in nature so that teachers can see the skills in action and apply them to
their own classrooms. Superintendent 2 noted that the biggest distinction in the
types of professional development had to do with the use of data and providing a
much more efficient way to drive instruction and interventions. Superintendent 3
stated that professional development for 21
st
century skills is much more hands-on
and activity-based. This development, according to Superintendent 3, works with
teachers to show them how education can and should be more project-based since
that is what students will be asked to do in the working world. Superintendent 4
mentioned the trends in more recent professional development. Superintendent 4
described staff development before the implementation of 21
st
century skills as “the
teachers sitting around, looking at a PowerPoint, getting a notebook and talking
about what strategies they use in a classroom. This notebook almost always got
placed on a shelf in the classroom and maybe a handful of teachers would try
something from it.” New professional development, in this district, “has changed
61
with the new focus and this has changed what they are doing and how they are doing
it.” Most importantly, Superintendent 4 said that the district leaders are actually
going around and assessing to make sure that teachers are using what they have
learned. Superintendent 5 said that the key to effective 21
st
century development is
any development that teaches teachers how to create learning opportunities and
assessments that are authentic in nature and asks them to design lesson plans in
which the teacher serves as more of a facilitator than a lecturer.
The second sub-question asked was: What are some key elements to
effective professional development? Superintendent 1 aligned effective professional
development with giving a good lesson saying:
One shot professional development is not effective. You have to know what
you want to achieve and the learner needs to know what you are trying to
achieve. You have to introduce it, you have to give some guided practice,
you have to give them time to try it independently, give them time to
implement, and then you have to coach them to move forward.

Superintendent 2 also stated that the shotgun approach to professional development
in the district has not been successful. Instead, they have found that consistent
collaborative time where teachers have time to reflect and learn from the reflection
so that they can adapt has been the most rewarding professional development. Most
importantly, Superintendent 2 said that investing time and providing a clear message
as to the intent of the district has been key. Superintendent 3 reinforced the idea that
effective professional development cannot be a one-shot deal. This superintendent
stated that it has to be integrated into a daily or weekly experience with teachers and
that the most powerful development occurs teacher to teacher. Superintendent 3
62
went on to say that effective professional development must include good
collaboration time and an emphasis on supporting best practices and that all of this
must take place in a non-threatening and collegial environment. Superintendent 4
believed that the most critical component to any professional development is the
follow up. After the initial training, Superintendent 4 said that there needs to
opportunities for one-on-one or small group accountability and then a chance for
leaders or other teachers to see what has been implemented, or a model and an
opportunity for another follow up. According to Superintendent 4, after the teachers
have had an opportunity to implement, they need to get together with their
colleagues to reflect, share successes and obstacles, and find ways to improve. In
district 5, the superintendent stated that effective professional development has to be
research-based because this gives the teachers a reason to implement what they are
learning. At the beginning of all staff development in the district, the superintendent
or other district leaders share the research behind the strategies so that the
participants would be knowledgeable about the why and the how. Lastly,
Superintendent 5 reiterated the philosophy that professional development needs to
voluntary.
The third sub-question that followed was: How is professional development
of 21
st
century skills structured? Superintendent 1 stated district leaders and trainers
focused professional development on skill-sets as chunks while using the trainings as
opportunities to model the skill. Superintendent 2 shared the point that professional
development should be imbedded in what is already going on in the district. This
63
district was currently undergoing an instructional audit and was using this as an
opportunity to share strategies and best practices as well as train teachers where the
needs arise. Superintendent 3 said that the district has structured the trainings into
three themes: 1) understanding what 21
st
century skills are, 2) learning how these
skills effect the work that teachers are doing in the classroom, and 3) talking about
the techniques, tools, collaboration, technology, and engagement that need to be
implemented to be successful. District 4 has revamped its assessments, rubrics, and
scales to make them reflective of 21
st
century skills and has implemented these new
systems district-wide. All professional development in the district for the past two
years has focused on creating these tools and the district superintendent is proud of
all that has been accomplished. Superintendent 5 stated that professional
development in the district is thematic, but admitted that 21
st
century skills has only
recently become a priority for training in the district.
Finally, the fourth sub-question for this topic was: What have you found to
be the most effective professional development regarding 21
st
century skills?
Superintendent 1 recognized the value in bringing in outside agencies like Ed Trust
West to audit instruction as well as provide trainings. That district also frequently
used teacher leaders as trainers and has found both models to be effective.
Specifically, Superintendent 1 found that opportunities to meet in small groups,
jigsaw, and reflect provided effective learning for the participants. Superintendent 2
stated that 21
st
century skill professional development needed to be embedded into
the collaboration that already exists in the district so that conversations about critical
64
thinking and communication skills would be ongoing. Superintendent 3 said that the
district is really pushing the implementation of technology and so the district has
committed to providing technology and models how to use it in all of their training.
Superintendent 3 found these trainings, as well as their trainings about making the
learning relevant and authentic to be the most effective development of 21
st
century
skills that the district has offered to teachers and administrators. Superintendent 4
sited the work that had been done in the district to create the new assessments,
rubrics, and scales as the most effective professional development facilitated by the
district because they had devoted the most effort, resources, and monitoring than
they had done previously. Superintendent 5 stated that the most effective 21
st

century professional development in the district focused on using technology in ways
beyond PowerPoint; the goal of the trainings were to show teachers how to
incorporate technology used by students rather than as a teacher-tool.
Research Question #4: What is the role of district leadership in providing effective
21
st
century professional development?
Superintendents were asked the following sub-question first: Does the
district provide direct professional development to all school administrators and
teachers, or are sites expected to carry out the vision in the way they deem best?
Superintendent 1 admitted that in the current economical climate, the district is not
providing professional development to all stakeholders as effectively as they hoped
to do. At the beginning of the year, all administrators from the K-12 schools were
involved in professional development together and then they were expected to carry
65
out the vision. Superintendent 1 stated that sites do more of the training than is ideal.
Superintendent 2 explained that it is a combination of both district and site-based
professional development which was made possible through collaboration. The
district leaders provide the frameworks to be utilized by the principals and then the
sites depend on their leaders and instructional leadership team to implement that
learning. Superintendent 3 shared that the district holds several smaller trainings of
administrators and key teacher-leaders at the district office and then those leaders
become trainers for the rest of the district. Superintendent 3 stated that the district
has tried several models, and with the current budget climate, has found this to be the
most effective way to share the learning especially when the right people are selected
for the initial training. District 4 said that the professional development is very much
uniform in that they train staff from all of the sites and then those teachers share the
message with the help of district personnel. Since the new model of assessments and
learning were implemented at all of the secondary sites at the same time, a consistent
message and frequent trainings were provided to all stakeholders. Superintendent 5
admitted that professional development is limited in the district due to the budget.
The professional development that is offered is done so in a way to insure that
attendance is voluntary and the superintendent has found that good professional
development draws an audience after the news spreads.
The second sub-questions asked was: What district organizational structures
exist to support students’ acquisition of 21
st
century skills? Superintendent 1 shared
that the district offers a variety of classes at the secondary level, including academy
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and College and Technical Education classes that provide students with opportunities
outside of the typical classes. This district also offers an International Baccalaureate
Program that they are hoping to expand which focuses on project and performance-
based assignments. Lastly, District 1 provides mandatory interventions embedded
within the regular school day and after school for all students who struggle in core
subjects. Superintendent 2 shared that the structure of 21
st
century skills are
embedded within the work that they do with Focus on Results so much so that it has
become systemic for most school sites. District 3 has embedded the implementation
of 21
st
century skills at the site into the evaluations for both principals and teachers.
They have also instituted technology incentives for those teachers and schools who
use their trainings in the classroom. Superintendent 4 shared that the district has
revamped the school day to build in teacher collaboration every week. This time is
set aside for the teachers within Professional Learning Communities to share data
and practices and provides time to district leaders to provide small group trainings
and post-training meetings. Superintendent 5 advocated the need to provide a wide
variety of Career and Technical Education classes as well as an online class offering
for students in the district. According to the superintendent, this district is one of the
few in the county to offer free web-based learning for students.
Third, superintendents were asked the following sub-question: How do you
get stakeholders to buy in to the need for 21
st
century skills implementation?
Superintendent 1 admitted that creating the buy-in among stakeholders was not much
of a challenge for the district. Superintendent 1 shared that the district has a large
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educational foundation and a high amount of parental involvement. Superintendent
1 stated that the key players in the district, the school board, foundation, and a
majority of the teachers agreed that there was a need to do things differently and so
they welcomed the trainings and vision set forth by the district. Superintendent 2
also shared that moving the district forward to incorporate 21
st
century skills was not
a tough battle. Superintendent 2 stated “the community has a sophistication, but also
an expectation within the community that the district prepares their students for the
future.” The biggest job to increasing buy-in, according to Superintendent 2 is
communicating the vision with the community and all other stakeholders.
Superintendent 3 shared that the key to creating buy-in is to create a new belief
system among the teachers by getting them to understand that there is a necessity for
something new. Superintendent 3 continued by saying that merely evaluating
teachers and principals based on the material is not enough to create a school that
really believes the mission and fully implements it. Superintendent 4 shared that the
key to building buy-in is communicating with all stakeholders, including classified
personnel at the school sites and district office, business owners, parents, and the
more “typical” stakeholders. Superintendent 4 continued by saying that it is also
important to teach everyone why a given reform is important and how other districts,
who are similar, have implemented the same program and have seen success.
Superintendent 5 reiterated the thought that buy-in is not a problem when the
trainings are voluntary, the program being implemented is research-based, and that
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research has been shared with the stakeholders so that they understand the reason
behind the changes.
Research question #5: How do districts evaluate those programs?
Superintendents were asked the following: How does district leadership
evaluate professional development on 21
st
century skills? Superintendent 1 shared
that after each professional development, participants are asked to complete
evaluations. This district also collects electronic surveys at the end of the year to
evaluate overall effectiveness, helpfulness, and next steps. Superintendent 2 shared
that the district also asks participants to evaluate professional developments at the
end of each session and then the superintendents review the comments to make
improvements before the next activity. Superintendent 3 stated that the real
evaluation comes with the monitoring of student achievement. This district requires
participants to provide feedback, but Superintendent 3 recognizes that this evaluative
process is rather shallow in its credibility for determining effectiveness. According
to this superintendent, the only way to determine whether or not the professional
development was effective is to monitor how it has changed the teaching
methodologies that the students are exposed to and evaluate how this change
manifests itself in student achievement. Superintendent 4 shared that professional
development is evaluated by participants after the completion of each session, but
that the small group meetings after teachers have an opportunity to try the new
strategies have been the most productive. Superintendent 5 shared that since
professional development is optional, it is evaluated based on the demand for the
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same professional development after the initial session. This superintendent
continued by saying that good professional development sells itself and creates more
interested participants when colleagues share their successes.
The second sub-question answered was: How are teachers held accountable
for implementing 21
st
century teaching into their classroom? Superintendent 1
admitted that daily principal walk-throughs is an expectation in the district and that
much of the accountability falls to the principals to insure that teachers are
implementing what they have learned in trainings regarding 21
st
century skills.
Superintendent 2 shared that the district is in the process of re-writing their
evaluation protocols to include 21
st
century skills and student data. Superintendent 2
also recognized that this is a sensitive union issue and a process that will take time to
fully implement; Superintendent 2 admitted that the district currently has no formal
process in place. Superintendent 3 shared a similar outlook as Superintendent 1.
This district depends greatly on site administrators to monitor the implementation of
the district’s vision and to embed their effectiveness within the evaluations.
Superintendent 4 shared that with the built in collaboration time, the district has
found that teachers really monitor each other and hold each other accountable to
implementing the practices, assessments, rubrics, and scales that are crucial to the
professional development the district has offered. Superintendent 5 admitted that
very little is done to monitor teachers as they implement what they have learned
beyond asking them at the end of the year, “What has changed in your classroom
based on the training you attended?”
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The third sub-question had two parts: How has the district done on statewide
testing programs? Have you seen improvements on those tests since you have
implemented a focus on 21
st
century skills? Superintendent 1 acknowledged that the
district has seen tremendous growth in scores, but more importantly, has seen a
decrease in their achievement gap between the Caucasian and Latino subgroups.
District 2 has also had steady gains in API, although Superintendent 2 recognizes
that there are a number of factors that account for this growth, with the
implementation of 21
st
century skills being only one of them. Superintendent 3
shared that the district has definitely seen an increase in its API score in the past few
years. More importantly, this superintendent has seen a correlation “between schools
where teachers are more open-minded and willing to integrate 21
st
century skills in
their instruction.” Superintendent 4 said that the district has seen large growth for an
already high-achieving district in the last two years since their push for 21
st
century
skills. Superintendent 5 admits some secondary sites have increased and some have
decreased over the last few years, but this superintendent recognizes that not enough
has been done in the area of 21
st
century skills for this to be effective. This district,
according to the superintendent, has seen slight incremental gains in the district API,
but it is mostly carried by the elementary and middle school sites.
Lastly, superintendents were asked: Are district-aligned benchmarks and
classroom assessments more aligned to the outcome goals of 21
st
century skills?
Superintendent 1 admitted that most of the assessments at the school are still
standards-based, although many of the benchmarks are being re-worked to include
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21
st
century skills. According to Superintendent 1, the standards-based assessments
validate all of the learning that takes place and that data is evaluated to guide
teaching. Superintendent 2 stated that current district benchmarks and assessments
do not align with 21
st
century skills, rather they are very reflective of state standards.
This superintendent believes that 21
st
century skills will be incorporated into new
benchmarks when the national standards come into play in 2014. Superintendent 3
shared that most district assessments are still standards-aligned while some of the
site benchmarks assess 21
st
century skills as well as state standards. Superintendent
4 stated that the district is proud of the new assessments and scales created and
implemented by all of the secondary sites because there is a very clear 21
st
century
skill component. Superintendent 4 also shared that many of the assessments are
more project or portfolio-based rather than all multiple choice. Lastly,
Superintendent 5 shared that the district and site assessments are strictly standards-
based and even those which the district is currently using are outdated and in need of
rewriting.
Survey Data
The survey was distributed to 35 superintendents, 27 of whom completed and
submitted their responses. The following figures illustrate the demographic
characteristics of the superintendents surveyed, and the figures reveal the results
collected from the survey questionnaire. The Survey Questionnaire Summary
compiles the answers from the surveys, and the data is divided into yes, no, and no
response categories. The survey yielded a number of generalizations by the majority
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of superintendents questioned. The data illustrate significant patterns related to the
unanimous yes results in 4 specific areas: a) the number of districts that have
engaged in conversations of how to improve student achievement; b) the
superintendents’ beliefs that the educational system must change to address the needs
of the 21
st
century; c) the districts that are actively seeking methodologies and
strategies to help students acquire the essential skills required by postsecondary
institutions; and d) the districts that have begun researching the necessary 21
st

century skill set. The unanimous responses to these four questions indicate that
districts are focused on improving student achievement, that district leaders value the
need for 21
st
century skills, that districts are seeking new methodologies, and
districts are in the process of defining what that skill set looks like. The 27
superintendents in the study agree that the K-12 educational system needs to have a
plan to change to meet the demands of the 21
st
century, however, as indicated by
survey results, variability exists in terms of coherent strategic plans among districts,
an ability to define 21
st
century skills, an awareness among the staffs to be able to
articulate those skills, and an awareness of global economic competition to help
guide the process.
The key issues indicated by the survey results are corroborated by the five
interviews conducted with the superintendents. Educational leaders understand that
change is inherent in school organizations, but their survey responses indicate that
clear direction, frequent trainings, concrete expectations, and a well-articulated
professional development plan are lacking. Districts in Southern California are not
73
united in their pursuit of educational reform for the 21
st
century. The diversity
represented among the districts is as great as are the problems and the support or lack
of support. While superintendents can agree that increasing student achievement is
at the forefront of their educational agendas, the obstacles they face in terms of
implementing reform measures varies and are often district-specific. The survey
results indicate that, for a majority of the superintendents, the boards of trustees have
directed them to research curriculum that addresses issues of internationalism and
globalization, but how that translates into 21
st
century skills development is left
unarticulated. The question for urban superintendents is: How are they able to
incorporate the concepts of globalization and internationalism when they are forced
to address the immediate demands of state accountability measures; closing the
achievement gap; budgetary cuts, resistance from stakeholders; and other obstacles,
and be able to produce students capable of succeeding in postsecondary education
and in the globally competitive workforce.
The survey results demonstrated that 92% of the districts are preparing
students for the labor force in the 21
st
century by teaching job/career skills, 96% of
the superintendents are familiar will 21
st
century skills, 78% of districts engage in
some professional development related to 21
st
century skills, 78% of districts
surveyed have a Career and Technical Education Program, 85% of districts surveyed
have engaged in conversations about how to create graduates who will be more
competitive, and 96% of superintendents believe that without a focused effort to
teach 21
st
century skills, the United States will fall behind other countries. In
74
contrast, 70% of superintendents shared that their staffs could not articulate 21
st

century skills, 58% responded that their strategic plan did not include a plan for 21
st

century skills development, 78% stated that professional development on these skills
was not regular, 78% do not have an International Baccalaureate Program, 59%
admitted that they lacked current technology, half of them shared that deviating from
the current curriculum would not be accepted by the Board of Trustees, and 81%
admitted that they felt limited by the current economic climate.
The superintendents involved in this study have taken the first steps in
discussion about the competitive global environment and the research involved in
defining those skills. “One of the functions of the future and especially of future
curricula is to set up the conditions and parameters of learning. Specifically, plans
for the future of education need to address the future of everything else that is
changing” (Buchen, 2004, p. 165). These first steps are indicative of the concern the
superintendents have for educational reform and their desire to move away form the
traditional models of operating schools. The following figures detail the results from
the survey. Figure 2 represents the number of years the superintendent has been a
superintendent. Figure 3 charts the number of years the superintendent has held his
or her current position in the district. Figure 4 illustrates the number of students
supervised by the superintendents in their individual district.
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Figure 2: Duration of Tenure as Superintendent

Figure 3: Duration of Tenure in Current District

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Figure 4: Number of Students Supervised by Superintendents

77
Table 1: Survey Questionnaire for Superintendents

4. My district is an urban district that educates an ethnically diverse student population:
Yes 14 (52%) No 13 (48%) No Response 0 (0%)
5. My district has engaged in conversations of how to improve student achievement:
Yes 27 (100%) No 0 (0%) No Response 0 (0%)
6. I am of the opinion that today’s educational system must change to address the needs of the 21
st

century:
Yes 27 (100%) No 0 (0%) No Response 0 (0%)
7. My district is actively seeking teaching methodologies and strategies to help students access
essential skills required by postsecondary educational institutions:
Yes 27 (100%) No 0 (0%) No Response 0 (0%)
8. My district is working toward preparing students for the labor force in the 21
st
century by
implicitly teaching job/career skills:
Yes 25 (92%) No 0 (0%) No Response 0 (0%) Comments 1 and 2
8% Just beginning
9. My district has begun the process of researching the necessary skill set students must acquire to
become proficient learners in the 21
st
century:
Yes 27 (100%) No 0 (0%) No Response 0 (0%)
10. I am familiar with the essential 21
st
century skills students should possess:
Yes 26 (96%) No 1 (4%) No Response 0 (0%)
11. The staff can articulate the essential 21
st
century skills students should acquire during their
academic careers:
Yes 6 (22%) No 19 (70%) No Response 0 (0%) Comments 1 and 2
8% Some staff
12. My district has a coherent, well-articulated vision and strategic plan for implementing 21
st

century skills:
Yes 8 (30%) No 16 (58%) No Response 0 (0%) Comment 1
4% In process
Comments 2 and 3
8% In the middle
13. My district engages in professional development related to 21
st
century skills:
Yes 21 (78%) No 6 (22%) No Response 0 (0%)
14. Professional development for 21
st
century skills is regular:
Yes 6 (22%) No 21 (78%) No Response 0 (0%)
15. Professional development for 21
st
century skills is site-based:
Yes 14 (52%) No 12 (44%) No Response 1 (4%)
16. My district has begun to focus on issues related to globalization and internationalism as they
relate to education:
Yes 13 (48%) No 13 (48%) No Response 1 (4%)
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Table 1, continued

17. My school community has begun to discuss educating students in a competitive global
environment:
Yes 23 (85%) No 4 (15%) No Response 0 (0%)
18. My Board of Trustees has directed me to research curriculum that addresses issues of
internationalism, globalization, and job preparedness:
Yes 11 (41%) No 16 (59%) No Response 0 (0%)
19. Without a concerted effort to address specific 21
st
century skills for students, the United States
will fall behind its global competitors:
Yes 26 (96%) No 1 (4%) No Response 0 (0%)
20. My district has successful Career and Technical Education program:
Yes 21 (78%) No 6 (22%) No Response 0 (0%)
21. My district offers the International Baccalaureate Program:
Yes 6 (22%) No 21 (78%) No Response 0 (0%)
22. My district has state of the art technology in a majority of the classrooms:
Yes 11 (41%) No 16 (59%) No Response 0 (0%)
23. I feel pressure politically to make sure students can perform proficiently on high stakes testing,
and deviating from test preparation strategies and the state standards is not sanctioned by the Board
of Trustees:
Yes 13 (48%) No 13 (48%) No Response 1 (4%) Comment 1
I marked yes, although
part of the statement
could be marked no for
me.
24. A number of schools in my district are in Program Improvement (PI) status:
Yes 15 (56%) No 12 (44%) No Response 0 (0%)
25. The current economic climate is restricting my district from implementing or attempting to
implement changes to the curriculum:
Yes 22 (81%) No 5 (19%) No Response 0 (0%)
26. Despite state and federal mandates that hold students accountable for the mastery of state
standards and high stakes testing, my district is in the process of introducing innovative techniques
for engaging students in the classroom:
Yes 25 (92%) No 2 (8%) No Response 0 (0%)
27. I have been successful in working with the Board of Trustees, the staff, and the community to
bring about educational reform that addresses 21
st
century skills:
Yes 18 (66%) No 6 (22%) No Response 1 (4%) Comment 1
4% We are on our way
Comment 2
4% It is too soon
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Dr. Douglas Reeves is the founder of the Leadership and Learning Center and
is a highly regarded expert in the field of education, the data driven decision-making
process, and professional development and 21
st
century skill enhancement. Dr.
Reeves has published more than 20 books about organizational effectiveness and
leadership with some of his most recent works focusing on the future of schools in
the 21
st
century. In an expert interview with Dr. Douglas Reeves, this study sought
to answer the following six questions:
1. How do you define 21
st
century skills? What is the skill-set that students
need to be competitive in a global economy?
2. With the new National Standards, the push for 21
st
century skill
implementation, and the model for data teams, what direction do you see
schools moving towards in the next ten years?
3. What do you envision as a model 21
st
century classroom?
4. How can districts use professional development to effectively train their
teachers to create lessons that teach 21
st
century skills? What does that
professional development look like?
5. What is different about professional development of 21
st
century skills
versus previous hot topics?
6. What have you found to be some of the most effective professional
development regarding 21
st
century skills?
Dr. Reeves shared that he believes a handful of skills comprise the skills needed by
students for them to be successful in the 21
st
century. This list includes
80
communication, critical thinking, global awareness, and the ability to acquire new
skills using the latest technology. He also recognized that the same list could have
been made in the early years of the 16
th
Century, when all of those skills were
critical, including the new technology – the printing press. According to Reeves, the
difference now is that there is a need for students to be competitive with a new class
of globalized peers. Reeves expressed concern over mandating any “new skills”
because teacher time is limited, and any “new skills” could ultimately lead to
teachers failing to teach essentials, such as reading comprehension and writing (not
texting).
In response to the second question, Reeves said:
If schools take the new Common Core State Standards (not really National
Standards, but close) seriously, then there will be a great deal more writing
and communication in schools. But we’ve known for more than ten years
how important writing is, and teachers are actually doing less of it now. With
financial constraints in states and school systems and the consistent
unwillingness of schools to change, I am not optimistic that education in the
U.S. will change dramatically. Contrast that to the 1996 pledge by the
Chinese government that they would increase by a factor of twelve the
number of “key” universities and bring educational opportunities to hundreds
of millions of more children in just a decade. They did it, and it is no surprise
that Shanghai students outperformed those in the U.S.

When asked to describe a 21
st
century classroom, Reeves shared that it would
include a highly trained (not just certified but really trained, the way a physician or
lawyer would have years of practice and support after formal education) educator, a
committed leader, daily assessment of students in formal and informal ways, and
students who have clear learning goals. He stated that students would have access to
a variety of technology, but would also use consistent critical thinking skills to
81
challenge technology and information on the web. According to Reeves, students
would be able to experiment, take appropriate risks, and explore new areas. He also
felt that toxic grading practices and the abuse of authority by administrators and
teachers would be absent as the culture of the educational institution was
transformed.
When asked to discuss professional development as it pertains to 21
st
century
skills, Reeves shared that classes in every discipline would, for example, include
communication and critical thinking instead of leaving this type of content to core
subjects. He articulated that professional development should not be about using
technology or other artifacts of 21
st
Century skills. Effective professional
development, according to Reeves, includes a combination of seminars, one-to-one
coaching, on-line learning, and on-site implementation support. Reeves continued
by saying that the content is different in that ALL teachers are expected to include
explicit communication (reading and writing and speaking) instruction. The format
is different in that rather than workshops, PD includes coaching and one-to-one
implementation support rather than the one-shot training models of the past. As a
researcher and educational consultant, Reeves advocates for the “7 to 1” rule that
says that seven days of on-site implementation support is needed for every one day
of traditional seminars or workshops. He emphasizes the need to follow up, provide
time for implementation, create an accountability model, and support teachers
through reflection.
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Analysis
Research Question #1: How do school districts in California define 21
st
century
skills?
Table 2: Research Question 1

Research Question 1: How do school districts in California define 21
st
century skills?
(a) Skill set as defined by district
Superintendent 1 Successful in content areas; able to work in groups; strong communication
and problem solving skills; and technologically savvy
Superintendent 2 Critical thinking and communication skills
Superintendent 3 The ability to access information; be flexible; be able to work in teams; and
be critical thinkers
Superintendent 4 The ability to use technology; be critical researchers; be collaborative; be
effective communicators; and have a strong work ethic
Superintendent 5 Effective with technology; critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity
(b) Establishing a vision
Superintendent 1 Inclusive of all stakeholders; visioning activity; living document; inclusive of
state standards
Superintendent 2 In-depth conversation; strategic planning; meet with all stakeholders
Superintendent 3 Push from School Board; involvement of all stakeholders
Superintendent 4 Collaborative process including classified; invitation of local business
owners; follow up conversations
Superintendent 5 Listen to speakers; read current research; hire experts
(c) Strategies utilized to determine skills
Superintendent 1 Read SCANS and other research
Superintendent 2 Conversations at site and district level; partnership with outside agency
Superintendent 3 Create a strategic team of staff to plan
Superintendent 4 Stakeholders complete an assessment; work with businesses, homebuilders,
parents, and educators
Superintendent 5 Talk to other superintendents; attend conferences
(d) Definitions of academic rigor
Superintendent 1 Engaging and challenging; academically relevant
Superintendent 2 Grade-level appropriate instruction that pushes students and prepares them
for the next level
Superintendent 3 Deep level of learning; creating an intrinsic desire to learn
Superintendent 4 Assessments and rubrics that are performance-based and thematically
clustered
Superintendent 5 Personalize the learning experience
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The five superintendents shared similar beliefs regarding the definition of 21
st

century skills and the process of creating a district vision to reflect the
implementation of that those skills. The four most predominant skills mentioned
included the ability for students to be effective communicators, the ability for
students to work collaboratively in teams, the ability to be critical-thinkers, and
lastly, those superintendents felt that students need to be technologically savvy.
Addressing the concerns of communities and stakeholders, strategic planning,
visioning retreats and meetings, and learning from current research are perceived
imperatives for districts to establish a living vision that encompasses 21
st
century
skills. One district in particular, went above the other districts to invite business
managers from local prestigious companies to provide input as to what skills are
needed by students in order for them to be successful. Each superintendent realized
the necessity for developing strategies to assess what students need to learn and most
of the superintendents relied on some influences outside of the district to help them
pinpoint those skills. While two of the superintendents chose to engage in
conversations within their own district boundaries, two relied on outside
conversations, and one relied on both inside and outside input, all of the district
leaders recognized the need for collaborative planning rather than one person making
the decision. In order to begin the reformation process, urban superintendents
recognized that they must engage in many conversations with different stakeholders
if any change is going to happen within the district. These discussions provided
participants, and even naysayers, with opportunities to share input, to argue specific
84
concerns, to illustrate hopes, and to work together to create a common goal and
strategic plan.
The superintendents interviewed in the study recognized the challenge in
defining academic rigor for the 21
st
century. While the most common theme
illustrated in their responses was that academic rigor is curriculum that is challenging
in nature and provides a deep level of learning for students, individual
superintendents understood that the same definition also means that students are
provided with an individualized learning experience and performance-based tasks.
In these statements alone, superintendents can expect to be met with some resistance
because individualized differentiation and performance-based tasks require a change
in teaching methodologies and acquiring buy-in for a new philosophy or vision can
be a monumental job for a superintendent. Districts are the keepers of institutional
memory and to try to change, transform, or reform can seem like institutional
homicide (Barth, 2007). As a change-agent, a superintendent knows that the process
of visioning, defining, strategizing, and moving forward will require the support of
many stakeholders, and so they understand that the communications, clear
definitions and visions created as a team are critical to the success of the program.
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Research Questions #2: What staff development programs do districts provide to
support those skills?
Table 3: Research Question 2

Research Question 2: What staff development programs do districts provide to support those
skills?
(a) District support the advancement through professional development
Superintendent 1 Need more money; clear vision; commitment to create human capital;
provide the necessary technology; obligated to provide training
Superintendent 2 Open and honest communication with stakeholders; commitment to dual-
immersion programs
Superintendent 3 Provide resources and time; provide current technology and training
Superintendent 4 Commit the time and money; provide multiple layers of development; offer
frequent trainings and regularly scheduled collaboration time for teachers
Superintendent 5 Partnerships with other schools and countries; searching for a model district;
internal professional development
(b) Professional development plan emphasize 21
st
century skills
Superintendent 1 Strategic plan and budget reflect vision; infuse vision into everything; make
vision systemic
Superintendent 2 Work with executive team to outline clear plan
Superintendent 3 Use PD plan and Strategic Plan as a foundation for resources and time;
documents support vision
Superintendent 4 Use plan to apply for funding, create academies, address new performance
standards and assessments
Superintendent 5 Frequent professional development that is optional
(c) Utilize outside groups v. in-house training; efficient professional development
Superintendent 1 International Baccalaureate trainings; in-house trainings; Pivot Learning;
ACSA; and USC
Superintendent 2 Outsourced trainings to Focus on Results; build human capital; create a
systemic approach; create teacher leaders
Superintendent 3 Use Discovery Education; most trainings are in-house; use district
administrators to create trainings
Superintendent 4 Trainings completed by in-house employees and outside agencies; trainer of
trainers model; train in smaller groups
Superintendent 5 Use an in-house model for all trainings, attendance at trainings is always
optional

A superintendent’s ability to create a shared vision among all stakeholders
and then to carry out that vision within a large district is an enormous and difficult
86
task. The districts involved clearly made a commitment to advance the
implementation of 21
st
century skills, although the level of that commitment varies
among the districts. While Superintendent 1 acknowledged that the district needs
more money to carry out the ideal, this district, along with districts 3 and 4 recognize
that the district must be willing to support the vision by committing both time and
financial resources into building human capital within their respective districts.
Districts 1 and 3 have both earmarked a substantial amount of money into funding
state-of-the-art technology for teachers in the district because those superintendents
believe that it is part of their job to provide the tools necessary for the teachers to be
able to complete the job they are being asked to do. District 2 has demonstrated a
different type of commitment to 21
st
century skill advancement by increasing the
number of dual-enrollment programs offered within the district; for many students in
the district, these students will actually be learning a third language.
The superintendents’ responses regarding professional development plans
and professional development models in regards to 21
st
century skills
implementation were also varied. While one of the districts had aligned their
professional development plan into the strategic plan and district budget so that all of
their documents were aligned and the vision systemic, two other districts relied on
the professional development plan mostly to attain outside monies like grants or
academies. Superintendent 5 shared that although the district has a professional
development plan, it does not really do more than simply outline their belief system
that professional development should be frequent and optional. All of the
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superintendents questioned recognized the practicality and benefits to having
trainings being held in-house as a way to create human capital, sustain buy-in, and
save money in a climate when money is tight. All but one of the superintendents
shared that they also occasionally use outside agencies to provide professional
development such as Discovery Education, Association of California School
Administrators, Focus on Results, and the International Baccalaureate model as a
way to supplement or introduce new concepts. Even with this model, only a
handpicked population is trained and then they become the trainers for the rest of the
district. Superintendent 5 is the only leader who shared that all professional
development is done in-house, and what is also unique about this district is that all
professional development is also optional. There was not a uniform way of creating
a professional development plan to address the learning needs of teachers, nor the
skills they would require to be able to cultivate 21
st
century skills in their students. It
is apparent that without a clear, succinct, well-thought-out, comprehensive plan for
training teachers, the 21
st
century skills reform will be insufficient. Superintendents
need to be familiar with current research trends, be able to identify best practices,
and train teachers to implement these practices in order to ensure the viability of 21
st

century skills (Honey & Kay, 2006). Superintendents need to invest a great deal of
time and energy in order to develop an effective plan for the professional
development of teachers so that change can be seen in the material and
methodologies utilized by the teachers in the classroom.
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Research Question #3: What does professional development of 21
st
century skills
look like?
Table 4: Research Question 3

Research Question 3: What does professional development of 21
st
century skills look like?
(a) Different about 21
st
century professional development
Superintendent 1 Content is more reflective; focuses on how to teach rather than what to teach; hands-
on; interactive
Superintendent 2 21
st
century PD focuses more on data and efficient ways to drive instruction and
monitor interventions
Superintendent 3 Hands-on; activity-based; shows teachers how to be more project-based like the real
world
Superintendent 4 Changes how and what teachers are doing; much more district monitoring and
assessing
Superintendent 5 Teaches teachers how to create learning environments that are authentic; teacher as
facilitator
(b) Elements of effective professional development
Superintendent 1 Multiple trainings, time to implement, and then coaching after that; no “one-shot”
trainings
Superintendent 2 No shotgun approach; consistent collaborative time for teachers to reflect; invest
time; provide clear message
Superintendent 3 “One-shot” approach does not work; integrate it into consistent experiences; teacher
to teacher; non-threatening, collaborative environment; support best practices
Superintendent 4 Follow-up is the most critical component; one-on-one or small group accountability;
provide a model; provide reflection time after teachers have had an opportunity to
implement
Superintendent 5 Research-based; share research with participants; participation needs to be voluntary
(c) Structure of 21
st
century professional development
Superintendent 1 Skill sets are chunked; trainings provide opportunities to model
Superintendent 2 Imbedded in what is already happening in the district
Superintendent 3 Structured PD into 3 themes
Superintendent 4 Revamped assessments and tools; implemented district-wide; all encompassing
Superintendent 5 PD is thematic; 21
st
century skills is new for them
(d) Most effective professional development
Superintendent 1 Sometimes outside agencies like Ed Trust West; teacher leaders as trainers;
opportunities to meet in small groups, jigsaw, and reflect
Superintendent 2 Embedded in the collaboration time; engage in ongoing conversations about critical
thinking and communication skills
Superintendent 3 Provide technology and model how to use it; PD about making learning relevant and
authentic was most powerful
Superintendent 4 The new assessments and rubrics because they devoted more effort, resources, time,
and monitoring than ever before
Superintendent 5 Finding ways to use technology beyond Power Point; students use technology rather
than teachers
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In conversations where superintendents were asked to describe how 21
st

century skills professional development is different than its predecessors, some
common descriptors emerged. All of the superintendents recognized that
professional development has evolved from less of the content-based focus to a more
how-to-teach approach. The superintendents shared that recent professional
development asks teachers to make content more reflective and authentic to students,
the trainings are more hands-on and serve as models for what classrooms could look
like, describe the role of the teacher as a facilitator, and shows teachers how to
effectively use data to monitor student achievement.
The five superintendents shared the common belief that effective professional
development, no matter the topic, cannot simply be a one-time session. The most
predominant response shared was that professional development needed to evolve
over time, allowing for multiple sessions, opportunity for teachers to implement the
new strategies, and situations where teachers can reflect with other teachers or
coaches after the implementation process. One superintendent shared that the real
key to effective professional development is the accountability, monitoring, and
reflection that comes after the initial training. According to this superintendent, even
the best one-hour training does nothing if teachers are not held responsible to
integrating what they have learned into the classroom. Superintendents also found it
to be beneficial to break up the concept of 21
st
century skills into smaller chunks or
thematic units so that the learning became more digestible for the participants
involved. Richard Elmore states that in order to improve schools, three things need
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to change fundamentally and concurrently: a) the perceptions and beliefs of those in
education regarding what it possible and what is worth doing; b) the organizational
structures in what that same work is completed; and c) the ways in which teachers
learn to do work (Elmore, 2004). In order to focus on training teachers to be 21
st

century teachers, frequent trainings, with follow-up, clustered by theme, structured
with collaboration time and reflection, and monitored by the district would provide a
meaningful learning experience for those involved.
Research Question #4: What is the role of district leadership in providing effective
21
st
century professional development?
The tenuous financial climate in California has been problematic for
superintendents for a number of reasons, including their ability to bring 21
st
century
skills instruction into their districts. Three of the superintendents shared that their
district lacked professional development because of financial restraints due to budget
cuts in the State. All of the district superintendents share the belief that a majority of
staff developments and trainings should be taught by educators within the district
while recognizing that there are appropriate times to bring in outside agencies. Four
of the superintendents commented on the importance of having some sort of
framework for trainers or administrators to use as a foundation so that trainings
throughout the district maintain a consistent message.
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Table 5: Research Question 4

Research Question 4: What is the role of district leadership in providing effective 21
st
century
professional development?
(a) Format of professional development
Superintendent 1 PD suffering because of lack of money; district trains all administrators; PD
of teachers is site-based
Superintendent 2 Combination of district and site-based PD; use of frameworks to insure
consistency
Superintendent 3 Holds several small trainings with key leaders; teachers as trainers model;
struggles with budget climate
Superintendent 4 Uniform trainings within the district; teachers as trainers model; frequent
trainings
Superintendent 5 PD suffering because of lack of money; PD is always optional to teachers
(c) Organizational structures to support skill acquisition
Superintendent 1 Variety of classes at secondary level; academies and CTE courses; IB
programs; mandatory interventions
Superintendent 2 Structure is embedded within work with Focus on Results, CTE and
academy courses
Superintendent 3 Evaluates principals and teachers based on implementation; instituted
technology incentives
Superintendent 4 Revamped school day to include weekly collaboration time; Professional
Learning Communities; small trainings and follow-up
Superintendent 5 Wide variety of Career and Technical Education classes; online classes
available
(d) Creating buy-in with stakeholders
Superintendent 1 Creating buy-in was not a challenge; district has large educational
foundation and parent involvement; the stakeholders agreed and worked
together to create vision
Superintendent 2 Creating buy-in was easy; parents in district are sophisticated and have an
expectation that schools prepare students for the future; the key is
communication with all stakeholders
Superintendent 3 Helping teachers understand the necessity behind the change; create a new
belief system; evaluation is not enough
Superintendent 4 Communicating with stakeholders (even those not usually included); teach
stakeholders the “why” behind the decision and share others who have been
successful
Superintendent 5 Buy-in is not a problem because trainings are optional; share the research
behind the model
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While all of the districts involved clearly had organizational structures to help
support 21
st
century skill development, the responses provided by the
superintendents were quite varied. Three of the districts offer programs outside of a
typical 6-period, core academic model. These districts offer Career and Technical
Education courses like multi-media and television production; offer academy-based
learning environments like construction or cosmetology; International Baccalaureate
programs, and online or virtual classroom environments. Four out of the five
districts have implemented weekly or bi-weekly collaboration time for teachers
within the regular school day. District 3 has even gone so far as to embed 21
st

century skill implementation into principal evaluations and provides technology
incentives to those schools and programs the most effective 21
st
century learning.
In working with their boards of trustees and other stakeholders to create buy-
in, the superintendents approached creating momentum for 21
st
century skills
implementation in different ways because some of the superintendents already had
buy-in from key stakeholders. At the same time, even if a vision and plan had
already been established by the school boards, foundations, parent committees, or
because of a number of conversations between the superintendent and other
stakeholders, those leaders still had to sell their ideas and elucidate the essential
capacities for student learning. Most superintendents shared that creating buy-in
with groups other than the teachers was a relatively easy thing to do, but that open
communication and sharing the research behind the decision to create a new belief
system really helped them to move forward with support. By dealing with concerns
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and unions head-on, ensuring that clear goals and expectations were expressed, being
open in their communications, and sharing the research, the superintendents had tried
to effectively bring those opposed to 21
st
century skills development into a state of
greater understanding and acceptance.
Research Question #5: How do districts evaluate those programs?
Providing trainings for teachers can be relatively easy, but creating
meaningful trainings where actual professional growth is gained because of the
trainings takes more thought, time, and resources. Superintendents were asked how
they evaluated the trainings that were offered to teachers and administrators in the
district and four of them shared that they had participants complete some sort of
evaluation or feedback form after each session. One superintendent admitted that no
formal evaluation as to the effectiveness of the trainings is routinely offered.
Perhaps the most insightful monitoring processes that were reflected in the answers
involve analyzing student achievement and actually assessing whether or not
teaching methodologies have changed as well as asking small groups to reflect on the
implementation of the trainings after some time has passed. Those districts that take
the time to actually hold teachers accountable for using the new material will see
greater consistency in implementation than those who merely ask participants to
complete a feedback form. Accountability for the implementation of 21
st
century
skill development falls mostly on the principals in the districts analyzed. While most
of the superintendents shared that they rely on principals to monitor, only one district
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has a formal process in place that is embedded within the evaluations of those
principals.

Table 6: Research Question 5

Research Question 5: How do districts evaluate those programs?
(a) Evaluation of PD related to 21
st
century skills
Superintendent 1 Participants complete evaluations after session; electronic surveys at the end
of the year
Superintendent 2 Participants complete evaluations after session; superintendents review
comments and make adjustments
Superintendent 3 Monitor student achievement; participants provide feedback; monitor how it
has changed teaching methodologies
Superintendent 4 Evaluated by participants after each session; small group meetings to reflect
on implementation
Superintendent 5 Demand for the same professional development; creating more interest
(b) Teacher accountability for implementation
Superintendent 1 Daily principal walk-throughs; accountability falls to principals;
Superintendent 2 Evaluation protocols will include 21
st
century skills and student data;
currently, the district does not have anything in place
Superintendent 3 Responsibility is on site principals; embeds effectiveness within teacher
evaluations
Superintendent 4 Teachers really monitor each other
Superintendent 5 Nothing formal is done; quick questionnaire at the end of the school year
(c) Effect on standardized testing
Superintendent 1 Significant growth in scores; decrease in achievement gap
Superintendent 2 Steady growth in API; acknowledges that 21
st
century skills is only one
factor
Superintendent 3 Increase in API scores; correlation between growth and 21
st
century skills
Superintendent 4 Large growth in last 2 years for an already high achieving district; correlates
with their push for 21
st
century skills
Superintendent 5 API has slight incremental gains; growth mostly in elementary and middle
schools; not enough done in 21
st
century skills to be effective
(d) Change in benchmarks and assessments
Superintendent 1 Most benchmarks are currently standards-based; many benchmarks are being
reworked to include 21
st
century skills; standards-based data is crucial
Superintendent 2 Current benchmarks are aligned to state standards; 21
st
century skills will be
incorporated with national standards in 2014
Superintendent 3 District benchmarks are aligned to standards; some site assessments have a
21
st
century component
Superintendent 4 District and site assessments contain a very clear 21
st
century component;
many assessments are project of portfolio based
Superintendent 5 District and site assessments are strictly standards-based; all assessments are
in need of rewriting
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The way in which politicians and the public measure student success have
caused significant challenges for urban superintendents. In addition to ever
increasing pressure from political and local spheres, the necessity of meeting state
and federal accountability measures continues to be on the forefront of educators’
minds as the years grow closer to 2014 when according to the mandates of NCLB all
students must be proficient in English and math. While a number of superintendents
believed that implementing 21
st
century skill development was compatible with state
standards and the core academic content, the truth remains that 21
st
century skills are
not assessed on state standardized exams. The superintendents interviewed, who had
focused on 21
st
century skill development have, in fact, seen an increase in their
student achievement. One superintendent shared that not only had achievement
improved, but that the achievement gap between the Caucasian and the Latino
populations had decreased. The goal of infusing 21
st
century skills into the current
curriculum has the potential to provide the appropriate levels of academic growth for
the student population. Superintendent 4 shared that superintendents are hired to
determine what is important to the district for student learning, and to pursue that
vision in creative ways despite the obstacles and popularity contests.
While all of the superintendents see the value in incorporating 21
st
century
skills into regular lesson plans, assignments, benchmarks, and assessments, only one
superintendent can say that there is a very clear 21
st
century skill component in a
majority of the work students complete and the way in which they are assessed.
Superintendents know that reworking benchmarks, changing curriculum, and
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training teachers takes time and resources in order for it to be effective, but they also
recognize that it is a vital step in order to prepare students to be global citizens.
Summary
This chapter presented the results from the interviews with the five urban
superintendents and the survey instrument. The data gathered from the multiple
responses of the superintendents and survey instrument was followed by an analysis
of the responses and how they supported the literature review in Chapter 2 and the
research questions. Chapter 4 discussed issues shared by the urban superintendents
as they attempted to infuse 21
st
century skills into their district’s curriculum and how
they utilized professional development as a way to change teaching methodologies to
improve student achievement. The findings analyzed in this chapter were reviewed
for any themes, patterns, strategies, or suggestions that could assist urban districts in
their promotion of 21
st
century skills development.
The most noteworthy findings derived from the survey data and the
interviews were about the importance of having: a clear understanding of what skill-
set students need to be competitive in a global economy; a district vision supported
by stakeholders; a commitment to ongoing professional development and the
evaluation and monitoring of teacher implementation; and the understanding that 21
st

century skills have to support the academic content rather than replace it. Setting
priorities in a district to complement 21
st
century skill development is vital for
moving any educational institution towards 21
st
century learning and away from the
traditional learning environment.
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The data gathered in this study clearly indicate that urban superintendents in
Southern California are concerned with supplementing the academic content with
21
st
century skills, developing effective professional development and training
programs, rewriting assessments and creating new assignments that are authentic in
nature and performance-based, providing the latest technology to students and staff,
and providing students with learning experiences that mirror the ways in which
students will be critical thinkers outside the classroom. In the following chapter, a
summary of the study, conclusions, and implications for educational change are
presented.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
This chapter provides an overview of the study, a summary of the research
findings, conclusions derived form the data collected and the research reviewed in
Chapter 2, the implications of the study, and opportunities for future research. The
federal and state mandates of No Child Left Behind have created a public pressure for
urban superintendents and educators in those districts to teach curriculum and skills
that are assessed on state-mandated testing. Going beyond the state standards to
include 21
st
century skill development is a necessary task if districts want to prepare
students to be competitive in a global economy. This study, through interviews and
surveys involving urban superintendents sought to illicit best practices and strategies
they utilized to bring about educational change through the use of professional
development. The superintendents who shared their experiences highlighted the
need for a clearly expressed and supported vision, a devotion to the proper training
of teachers, and the commitment to monitor student achievement and teacher
methodologies.
Summary of the Study
This study worked to detail the methods and trainings implemented by urban
superintendents to effectively train their teachers toward an emphasis on 21
st
century
skills development and preparing students to be global citizens. The study also
reviewed ways in which superintendents develop human capital in order to make
change systemic. As superintendents in Southern California continue to be faced
99
with federal and state accountability measures, consequences for underperforming
districts, and resistance to change, these superintendents emerged as visionary
instructional leaders who were attempting to change the culture of their districts to
embrace 21
st
century skill development. Through interviews with five urban
superintendents, an interview with educational expert Dr. Douglas Reeves, and a
survey completed by 27 superintendents, data was compiled and analyzed to
highlight specific strategies for visioning, training, and evaluating the
implementation of 21
st
century skills. The interview protocol and survey were
guided by the following research questions:
1. How do school districts in California define 21
st
century skills?
2. What staff development programs do districts provide to support those
skills?
3. What does professional development of 21
st
century skills look like?
4. What is the role of district leadership in providing effective 21
st
century
professional development?
5. How do districts evaluate those programs?
The literature reviewed covered the skill sets needed by students to be global
citizens, educational reform, accountability, the role of professional development, the
characteristics of effective professional development, and changing economic
conditions related to globalization and education. The literature reviewed
highlighted the belief that the current educational model is not enough to adequately
prepare students for a global society unless there is a change in curriculum and
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methodologies, new methods for promoting critical thinking and inquiry, and
learning experiences that are similar to real-world situations.
Conclusions
Data gathered from this research study, particularly the interviews with the
superintendents, reveal that a superintendent must be familiar with, and work with,
the instructional and political environments of the district and community that he or
she serves. Recognizing this climate will assist the superintendent in determining the
necessary information needed to structure the change process, which is essential for
gaining the support needed for 21
st
century skills transformation (Datnow, 2000). Dr.
Reeves, and the superintendents who participated in this research, helped to
illuminate some essential components to the successful delivery of 21
st
century skills
implementation.
The results of the research from this study would further indicate that
superintendents need to create a cohesive vision plan for the district that is clear and
focused in nature, and that vision needs to be developed as a result of collaboration
with both internal and external stakeholders. As the instructional leader, it is his or
her responsibility to establish, and make public, the goals and transformation plan
that will be implemented to improve student achievement. The superintendent must
acknowledge and anticipate any concerns or counter arguments that will likely be
encountered and be ready to face those set backs with answers and communication.
These challenges are inevitable, which means that superintendents must plan and be
prepared as they work to implement their vision. Elements of this research study,
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that necessarily involved reform efforts at the district level, also suggest that the
vision set forth by the district needs to: a) focus on strengthening teaching
methodologies and learning outcomes; b) provide clear and focused objectives; c)
include a professional development plan, and d) demand accountability and ensure
monitoring. The district’s success in creating systemic change will depend on
consistent implementation, the dedication of time, and the revolution of a culture that
aligns organizational structures, financial resources, and relationships with the vision
(Childress, et. al., 2006). With collaboration, communication, articulation, and a
district-wide alignment of objectives around a cohesive strategy, a superintendent
can successfully begin to move the district towards an emphasis on 21
st
century
skills.
Additionally, the data gathered for this study would also indicate that once
the vision and objectives are established, the district needs to create a strategic
professional development model, which encompasses all of the grade levels for
which that district is responsible in educating. This professional development can be
a combination of both external agencies and internal educators, but the professional
development model needs to ensure that: a) professional development is mandated;
b) there is accountability for teachers and administrators to implement; c) monitoring
occurs; and d) stakeholders are provided with opportunities to reflect with colleagues
and coaches. Districts with successful professional development plans have moved
beyond the one-time training into a model that recognizes that without monitoring
and accountability, true implementation does not occur.
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The structure of 21
st
century development has changed, but so has the content
and delivery of those trainings. Districts need to have a clear definition of what they
deem to be necessary 21
st
century skills so that teachers are aware of exactly what is
expected of them. 21
st
century skills professional development looks to show
teachers that how they teach is just as important as what they teach. With this new
model of training, teachers learn how to administer appropriate daily assessments,
structure experiments into the learning environment in every content area, take risks
and explore new ways of interacting with students. Teachers serve more as
facilitators of learning as the classroom becomes more of a hands-on environment
for students. Professional development of the 21
st
century not only teaches and
encourage these skills, many of the trainings model these skills so that teachers can
see the effectiveness of rethinking learning and teaching. These expectations
translate into modification of the traditional curriculum and curricular delivery.
“When we consider priorities for the 21
st
century, education is at the very
core of our concerns. The role of education is arguably the most critical variable in
projecting a satisfactory and sustainable future for mankind” (Ordonez & Ramler,
2007, p. 75). Superintendents have been charged with the task of educating and
preparing students for a world that is constantly changing using an educational
system that has barely changed over the years. They are charged with the
responsibility of considering alternative futures for their students while moving their
districts towards continuous improvement (Marx, 2000). Despite political resistance,
flawed accountability models, recent budgetary cuts, teacher resistance, unions and
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contracts, and achievement gaps and decline in scores on state tests, the
superintendents in this study were moving forward with their visions of
implementing 21
st
century learning, increasing student achievement, changing
teacher practices, and decreasing the achievement gap. They recognize that their job
is critical and that the improvement process is ongoing and must include an
awareness of globalization and its impact on the education of students.
Implications
It is crucial, for superintendents in this educational climate, to serve as
intellectual leaders for their districts and act as learning entrepreneurs for community
members and stakeholders (Marx, 2000). This study highlighted superintendents
that recognized the importance of creating a curriculum that is innovative and that
balances the relationship of academic content standards and 21
st
century skills.
These superintendents understood that the two responsibilities are not discrete, but
rather compliment each other, and are interrelated. They recognized that educators
need to be cautious so as to not make the 21
st
skills movement another trend leading
to little or no lasting change in American schools. As many educators would agree,
current assessment and federal and state accountability models focus too much on
teaching rote academic content and multiple-choice skills. Because of the sanctions
that are aligned with the mandates of NCLB, those skills have become the focus of
classrooms all over the nation at the expense of 21
st
century skills such as
communication, collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, the use of
technology and creativity, work ethic, and global understanding. While current state
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and federal testing models make teaching state standards a priority, districts and
teachers need to create assessments and benchmarks that can assess both standards
and 21
st
century skills. Districts that have overhauled their testing models in this
fashion have seen indisputable gains in student achievement.
Public education is primarily a non-profit organization, and its goal, student
achievement and learning, is at the forefront of the private sector and labor market.
With this reality in mind, it is the role of the superintendent to develop the human
capital he or she oversees to its fullest potential (Marx, 2000). Districts and schools
can use the improvement of teachers’ performance as a mantra to guide them through
changes in their educational institutions and to increase students learning outcomes.
Creating organizational capabilities to lead any transformation is a long process for
any district. District leaders need to create a leadership team made up of key
personnel who are both innovative thinkers and motivational leaders for their
colleagues. These team members must have clearly specified and diversified
responsibilities; they must embrace their role in the transformation of culture and
accept accountability for its development and progress (Hall, 2008). This district-
wide collaboration will create breadth to the success of the program and is more
likely to make any changes much more systemic. This leadership team collaborates
on new ideas, programs, curriculum, trainings, and monitoring processes to
determine what will work best with the district’s vision, its current culture, and the
capacity of curriculum and methodologies.
105
In order to move forward with transformation toward 21
st
century skills
implementation, urban superintendents can work with their boards and other
stakeholders to define their vision clearly, determine their goals for success, establish
guidelines and trainings to promote district objectives, and determine measurable and
realistic outcomes to determine whether advancement is occurring. They must create
a strong partnership with stakeholders that extend beyond the school environment so
that support, resources, and the vision can be connected. Urban superintendents have
the ability and responsibility to develop an improvement process that is appropriate
for a district-wide transformation. They need to define the strategy to increase
student achievement, advance the development of 21
st
century skills and
globalization, and improve teaching methodologies and delivery in order to move
forward in addressing their goals. The largest obstacle for an urban superintendent is
to get all of the stakeholders involved in moving the institution in the same direction
as a team. They need to assign the proper people to designated spots, ensure that
they are effectively trained, monitor their implementation, and develop a sense of
accountability, as they pursue those undertakings that may be monumental in scope
(Hall, 2008). Because of the sheer difficulty inherent in transforming teaching
methodologies and teacher beliefs, the urban superintendent needs to have a well-
articulated plan for accomplishing an educational delivery that provides all students
with the necessary skills needed for them to be successful in postsecondary
education or the global workforce.
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Urban superintendents need to be forward-thinkers who are prepared to deal
with the global, technological, and academic trends that will surely be evident in the
21
st
century (Buchen, 2004). This research study sought to discover those strategies
that urban superintendents have effectively implemented to define 21
st
century skills,
train teachers to adjust their methodologies, and monitor the effectiveness of that
implementation. While the superintendents shared a substantial amount of valuable
information regarding educational strategies of increasing 21
st
century skill
development, the process of visioning, and how to deal with the political pressures
and employee resistance, there was a limited amount of information elicited
regarding new assessment models, teaching methodologies in practice, and the role
of partnerships in relation to globalization and the changes that are imminent because
of the interconnected nature of today’s world.
Recommendations for Future Research Questions
The research completed in this study theorizes that educational leaders in
large, urban school districts are engaged in the transformational process of
implementing 21
st
century skill development. This process includes superintendents
who are working to combine the core academic content, as defined by state
standards, with a globalized skill-set that demands that students be able to think
critically, creatively, and be effective problem solvers. The superintendents who
participated in this study were involved in conversations about improving student
achievement, while at the same time, understanding that the current educational
scope needs to change to address the needs of the 21
st
century. While the initial steps
107
for educational reform are outlined and 21
st
century professional development and
the accountability that comes with transforming a culture are discussed, there are
areas that require further research. Future research studies may include the
following:
• What teaching methodologies, derived from professional development,
have been proven to be effective in increasing student achievement and
their attainment of 21
st
century skills?
• What strategies do superintendents use to create and maintain
partnerships with businesses and postsecondary institutions to increase
student readiness and relevant curriculum?
• What are the effects of classroom partnerships with classrooms outside of
the country on student engagement and achievement?
• What kinds of current or possible assessment tools are available to
effectively measure student achievement related to 21
st
century skills
attainment?
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REFERENCES
Achieve Inc., (2008). Retrieved from www.achieve.org.

Anderson, S.E. (2003). The school district role in educational change: A review of
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APPENDIX A
DISTRICT LEADERSHIP INTERVIEW GUIDE
RQ1: How do school
districts in California
define 21
st
century
skills?
• In your district, what is the skill set that your
students need to be successful in the 21
st
century?
• How did you establish your vision of what a
school/district should be in the 21
st
century?
• What strategies did the district utilize to determine
the skills that students need?
• How do you define academic rigor in this globalized
world?
RQ2: What staff
development programs
do districts provide to
support those skills?
• How has district leadership supported the
advancement of 21
st
century skills through
professional development?
• How does the district’s professional development
plan emphasize 21
st
century skills?
• Have you utilized any outside groups to provide
professional development, or is most of it done in
house? How do you decide the efficient way to
provide that staff development?
RQ3: What does
professional
development of 21
st

century skills look like?
• What is different about the professional
development provided to stakeholders since the
implementation of 21
st
century skills?
• What are some key elements to effective
professional development?
• How is the professional development of 21
st
century
skills structured (is it broken up by skills or themes,
etc.)?
• What have you found to be the most effective
professional development regarding 21
st
century
skills?
RQ4: What is the role of
district leadership in
providing effective 21
st

century professional
development?
• Does the district provide direct professional
development to all school administrators and
teachers, or are sites expected to carry out the vision
in the way it deems best?
• To what extent does the district provide professional
development on 21
st
skills to stakeholders?
• What district organizational structures exist to
support students’ acquisition of 21
st
century skills?
• How do you get your stakeholders to buy in to the
need for 21
st
century skill implementation?
114
RQ5: How do districts
evaluate those
programs?

• How does district leadership evaluate professional
development on 21
st
century skills?
• How are teachers held accountable for implementing
21
st
century teaching into their classrooms?
• How has the district done on statewide testing
programs? Have you seen improvements on those
tests since you have implemented a focus on 21
st

century skills?
• Are district-aligned benchmarks and classroom
assessments more aligned to the outcome goals of
21
st
century skills?
• How do organizational structures and policies
ensure the evaluation and monitoring of professional
development of 21
st
century skills?
• Is there anything I haven’t asked you related to your
school district and 21
st
century skills that you would
like to share?
115
APPENDIX B
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR URBAN SUPERINTENDENTS OR
OTHER DISTRICT LEADERS
Thank you for taking a few moments to complete this survey. In order to frame the
dialogue and thus help you answer the questions, the working definitions/list of
essential 21
st
century skills (Wagner, 2008) are as follows:

• critical thinking and problem solving
• collaboration across networks and leading by influence
• agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism
• effective oral and written communication
• accessing and analyzing information
• curiosity and imagination

1. I have been a superintendent for:
!1- 5 years
!5-10 years
!10-15 years
!15-20 years
!20-25 years

2. I have been a superintendent in my current district for:
!1-5 years
!5-10 years
!10-15 years
!15-20 years
!20-25 years
116

3. My district is responsible for educating:
!20-25,000 students
!25-30,000 students
!30-35,000 students
!35-40,000 students
!More than 40,000 students

4. My district is an urban district that educates an ethnically diverse student
population:

!Yes !No
5. My district has engaged in conversations of how to improve student
achievement:

!Yes !No
6. I am of the opinion that today’s educational system must change to address the
needs of the 21
st
century:

!Yes !No
7. My district is actively seeking teaching methodologies and strategies to help
students access essential skills required by postsecondary educational
institutions:

!Yes !No
8. My district is working toward preparing students for the labor force in the 21
st

century by implicitly teaching job/career skills:

!Yes !No
9. My district has begun the process of researching the necessary skill set students
must acquire to become proficient learners in the 21
st
century:

!Yes !No
10. I am familiar with the essential 21
st
century skills students should possess:
!Yes !No
117

11. The staff can articulate the essential 21
st
century skills students should acquire
during their academic careers:

Yes ! No
12. My district has a coherent, well-articulated vision and strategic plan for
implementing 21
st
century skills:

!Yes No
13. My district engages in professional development related to 21
st
century skills:
!Yes No
14. Professional development for 21
st
century skills is regular:
!Yes !No
15. Professional development for 21
st
century skills is site-based:
!Yes !No
16. My district has begun to focus on issues related to globalization and
internationalism as they relate to education:

!Yes !No
17. My school community has begun to discuss educating students in a competitive
global environment:
!Yes !No
18. My Board of Trustees has directed me to research curriculum that addresses
issues of internationalism, globalization, and job preparedness:

!Yes !No
19. Without a concerted effort to address specific 21
st
century skills for students, the
United States will fall behind its global competitors:

!Yes !No
118

20. My district has a successful Career and Technical Education program:
!Yes !No
21. My district offers the International Baccalaureate Program:
!Yes !No
22. My district has state of the art technology in a majority of the classrooms:

!Yes !No
23. I feel pressure politically to make sure students can perform proficiently on high
stakes testing, and deviating from test preparation strategies and the state
standards is not sanctioned by the Board of Trustees:

!Yes !No
24. A number of schools in my district are in Program Improvement (PI) status:
!Yes !No
25. The current economic climate is restricting my district from implementing or
attempting to implement changes to the curriculum:

!Yes !No
26. Despite state and federal mandates that hold students accountable for the mastery
of state standards and high stakes testing, my district is in the process of
introducing innovative techniques for engaging students in the classroom:

!Yes !No
27. I have been successful in working with the Board of Trustees, the staff, and the
community to bring about educational reform that addresses 21
st
century skills:

!Yes !No
119

28. I am willing to participate in a 45-minute interview to discuss the implementation
of 21
st
century skill development. Please feel free to contact me and schedule an
interview.

!Yes !No

Thank you for completing this survey. All of your answers are completely
confidential. Please return the survey in the enclosed stamped envelope. This
survey was adapted from Julie Synard and used with her permission.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand the effective practices used by urban superintendents as it pertains to implementing professional development relevant to the acquisition of 21st century skills. This study focused on urban school districts in the state of California, using a mix of both surveys and interviews to collect data from superintendents and an expert in the field of education. The data gathered was meant to provide insights into effective professional development practices and the monitoring and evaluation of those programs. The study also sought to determine what skill set is used by districts in California to prepare students to be 21st century citizens and what tools district leaders used to acquire their definitions and vision for those skills.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Niemann, Sarah Elizabeth (author)

Core Title The role of district leadership and the implementation of 21st century skills through professional development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/01/2011

Defense Date 02/28/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Globalization,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development

Place Name California (states), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy M. (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Hinman, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email segarner@usc.edu,segarner01@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3821

Unique identifier UC1175744

Identifier etd-Garner-4395 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-459179 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3821 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Garner-4395.pdf

Dmrecord 459179

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Niemann, Sarah Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu