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Untapped workforce: employer perceptions of people with intellectual disabilities

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Untapped workforce: employer perceptions of people with intellectual disabilities

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Untapped Workforce: Employer Perceptions of People With Intellectual Disabilities
by
Rebecca Lienhard

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Rebecca Lienhard 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Rebecca Lienhard certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Cathy Sloan Krop
Eugenia Mora-Flores
Kimberly Ferrario, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
High unemployment for people with developmental disabilities is a serious issue (Kulkarni &
Kote, 2014). Increasing employment among this population is critical to both filling the
projected 2035 labor gap as well as moving individuals from a life of poverty to a life of
contribution, identity, and relationships. This study used the underpinnings of the Social Role
Valorization (SRV) theory, which sets out to establish, enhance, and defend the social role of an
individual with disabilities to enrich the image and personal competencies needed to create
similar life patterns as their counterparts in the community (Wolfensberger, 2011). The intent of
this research was to conduct a mixed-methods study to identify barriers and benefits to hiring a
PWD, alignment of organizational mission and values with diverse hiring practices,
identification of unique culture characteristics that supported diverse hiring practices, and the
role opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, and/or volunteer work played when hiring
a PWD into the workforce. Data was collected through an online survey, semi-formal
interviewees, and a document review. The study’s findings validated employers, who have
actively recruited and hired individuals with cognitive disabilities, perceived a positive valued
social role. The findings also reinforced that positive lived experiences better equipped
employers to successfully hired and retain PWD within their work cultures (Zapella, 2015).
Conversely, the findings also reinforced negative preconceived employer perceptions for
individuals with intellectual disabilities as a barrier to employing them and prior to the hiring
process. Additionally, this project added to the literature that safety and the knowledge of how to
address the needs of workers with disability on the job were top concerns for the employers
studied. Using Burke-Litwin’s model of change, the recommendations advocated for (a)
leveraging existing employers’ partnerships to create a business council to increase business-to-

v
business story-telling and increased adoption of disability language in DEI strategies, (b)
establishing a marketing case for recruiting and hiring emphasizing key benefits to hiring, and
(c) leveraging disability organizations’ resources to increase job placements supports, paid
internships, and job retention supports to mitigate barriers to hiring.
Keywords: people with disabilities, unemployment, Social Role Valorization, employer
perceptions, business-to-business storytelling, marketing case, disability organizations

vi
Dedication
To my parents for always believing in my valued social role and for believing in my gifts as they
presented themselves over my lifetime.

To my husband for being my biggest cheerleader as well as a willing partner to read anything I
put in front of him, regardless of interest or understanding.

To my family, especially my daughters, for always having an encouraging word to say, a full
glass of wine at the ready, and thoughtful conversations that not only supported this work but
filled my well with unique and varied insights.

To all of the people with disabilities with whom I have had the honor to know. Each person has
uniquely demonstrated perseverance and determination in the face of life’s challenges. Each day,
each person has opened the eyes of the world to what it truly means to be a person of value and
worthy of an equal playing field.

vii
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my USC professors for cultivating ideas, growth, and the
continued desire to be a change-agent in the world. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge
my work family for tolerating my stress levels and for all of the words of love, hope, and
encouragement through every step of this process. Without the day-to-day commitment, of my
work family, to the value held by each person our organization serves, my life’s journey to have
the world see their community for who they truly are and the value of the citizens within their
communities would not be made possible. My hat is off to all of the change-agents and true
believers of this world.

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem .............................................................................2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ...................................................................4
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................6
Definitions............................................................................................................................8
Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................10
History of Employment for People With Developmental/Intellectual Disabilities ...........11
The Individual Dimension of the Social Role Valorization Model ...................................16
The Community Level of the Social Role Valorization Model .........................................22
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................30
Research Questions ............................................................................................................30
Overview of Design ...........................................................................................................30
Research Setting.................................................................................................................32
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ...............................................................................................45
Participants .........................................................................................................................45
Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................................48
Research Question 2, Theme 3: Proactive Recruitment Strategies Inconsistent for
People With Disabilities ....................................................................................................77

ix
Research Question 3, Theme 4: Unique Cultural and Leadership Traits Reinforce
Diverse Hiring Practices ....................................................................................................83
Research Question 4 ..........................................................................................................91
Summary ............................................................................................................................93
Chapter Five: Recommendations ...................................................................................................95
Discussion of Findings and Results ...................................................................................95
Implications........................................................................................................................97
Recommendations for Practice ..........................................................................................98
Limitations and Delimitations..........................................................................................106
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................107
References ........................................................................................................................108
Appendix A: Survey Protocol ......................................................................................................119
Appendix C: Qualtrics Version: USC Disability Employment Survey .......................................125
Appendix E: Interview Protocol: Sections 1–5 ............................................................................132
Appendix F: Document Analysis Protocol ..................................................................................136

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 32
Table 2: Survey Respondent Demographics 46
Table 3: Plans to Increase or Decrease Workforce by Type, Role, and Size of Organization 47
Table 4: Interviewee Demographics 48
Table 5: Sampling of Insights from Quantitative Survey Respondents 50
Table 6: Size of the Organization in Relation to Projecting a Positive Image of the
Organization 51
Table 7: Analysis of the Relationship Between Role in the Organization and Projecting A
Positive Image 52
Table 8: Relationship Between Business Type and Projecting a Positive Image of the
Company 53
Table 9: Relationship of Increased Company Morale to Size, Role, and Business Type of
Organization When Hiring an Individual With Disabilities 56
Table 10: Increases Pool of Qualified Candidates by Size of Organization, Business
Type, and Role of Respondent 60
Table 11: Overview of Interviewee Responses When Asked if Hiring People With
Disabilities Helped With Recruitment 61
Table 12: Concern Levels for Hiring People With Disabilities by Group 1 and 2 63
Table 13: Attitudes of Co-worker, Management, and Customers by Size, Role, and Type
of Business 65
Table 14: Perceived Concerns for Cost of Turnover, Workers Compensation, and
Absenteeism by Type of Role, Business, and Size of Organization 68
Table 15: Descriptive Analysis of Knowledge of How to Address the Needs of a Disabled
Worker by Category of Role, Business Type, and Size of Organization 69
Table 16: Safety Concerns from Qualitative Interviews 70
Table 17: Types of Disability Service Provider Supports and Services 76
Table 18: Recruitment Strategies for Hiring People With Disabilities by Size, Type, and
Role in Organization 78

xi
Table 19: Summary of Responses for Advice Provided to Other Employers Looking to
Hire PWD 82
Table 20: Examples of People-Oriented Culture That Supports Hiring of People With
Disabilities Within the Workplace 84
Table 21: Mission-Driven Leadership Examples by Role 88
Table 22: Logic Model Outlining Implementation Strategy 104
Appendix B: Survey Instrument in Qualtrics 121
Table E1: Rapport Building 132
Table E2: Barriers and Benefits to Hiring a Person with Disabilities 133
Table E3: Recruitment 134
Table E4: Resources 134
Table E5: Closing 135
Appendix G: Document Analysis Checklist 137

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Progress Made for Each State in Adopting Employment-First Policies ........................14
Figure 2: Pictorial Description of Conceptual Framework Used in This Study ............................28
Figure 3: Burke-Litwin Organizational Model of Change ............................................................99
Appendix D: Sample Email From Chamber of Commerce to Its Members ................................131

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Low employment rates among people with developmental disabilities are a perennial
issue (Kraus, 2017; Siperstein et al., 2013; Weathers & Wittenbury, 2009). In 2009, Weathers
and Wittenbury reported that only 39% of working-age adults with a disability were employed.
This study focused on intellectual disability, which is globally defined by Siperstein (2003) as
including “learning disability, developmental disability, intellectual handicaps, mental handicaps
and mental retardation” (p. 1). Siperstein et al. (2013) found that individuals with intellectual
disabilities were only 30% employed in 2013. In 2014, according to the Disability Statistics
Annual Report, only 24.2% of people living with a cognitive disability in the United States were
employed (Kraus, 2017). Most recently, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019) reported that
80% of people with disabilities were either not working or looking for work.
Kulkarni and Kote (2014) found that common barriers to employment for people with
disabilities included organizational barriers such as skewed job analysis and inaccessible
recruitment testing and assessments as well as unfavorable employer attitudes, such as
perceptions of a lack of competence and concerns regarding the cost of job accommodations and
additional training. Krahn et al. (2014) found that 34% of the disabled population had an annual
household income of less than $15,000 versus 15% for the non-disabled population.
Additionally, Krahn et al. found that people with disabilities managed much more poorly than
their non-disabled counterparts across both the social determinants of health and other health
indicators, such as cardiovascular disease, with some aspects of this poor performance
attributable a 2.5 times likelihood of either delaying or skipping needed health care due to cost.
Ultimately, the high unemployment for people with disabilities means that 21.2%, or one in five,
2

Americans with disabilities live in poverty (Kraus, 2017), undermining the social determinants of
health.
Context and Background of the Problem
The context of this study is the San Fernando Valley in Southern California. It is home to
a little over 1.8 million people (Census Reporter, 2021). The valley spans over 437 square miles,
with approximately 4.2 thousand people per square mile (Census Reporter, 2021). The median
age of the population is 37.9, with a median annual income of $71,543. Forty-seven percent of
this population was born in Latin America, which correlates with 42% being of Hispanic descent.
Of the remaining population, only 11% are Asian, and 4% are Black, meaning the remaining
40% are White (Census Reporter, 2021). In terms of academic achievement, 17.8% of the
population who did not graduate high school are working, with a little over 20% of those who
completed high school or its equivalent working in the labor force (Census Reporter, 2021). The
2017 National Health Interview Survey reported that the prevalence of children diagnosed with a
developmental disability was 6.99%, and 1.14% among them were diagnosed with an intellectual
disability (Zablotsky et al., 2017). Imposing that figure to the San Fernando Valley population,
there are currently approximately 15,000 children with intellectual disabilities. As adults, at the
current unemployment rate of 80%, 12,000 will be unemployed (BLS, 2019).
At the time of this study, over 150,000 active businesses in the San Fernando Valley were
registered with the city’s department of finance (Los Angeles Open Data, 2021). These included
multiple industries, such as hospitality services, janitorial services, home health care services,
legal services, physicians’ offices, and other management, scientific, and technical consulting
services (Los Angeles Open Data, 2021). These businesses were supported by various
membership organizations, such as chambers of commerce, valley industrial associations, and
3

economic alliances. Services provided by organizations such as the chamber of commerce
include promoting public policies at the local, state, and federal government levels that advance
its members goals of economic growth as well as networking opportunities between members,
legislative updates, and educational events aimed at improving the economic health and vitality
of the business community (Greater Manchester Chamber of Commerce, 2010; Greater San
Fernando Valley Chamber, 2021).
Historically, society has assigned various values to the perceived social roles of people
with developmental disabilities, and, based on these roles, these individuals have been
historically disadvantaged (Krahn et al., 2015). These values have included being seen as less
than human, leading to this population becoming human test subjects during WWII and
institutionalized or sterilized without consent (Dalton, 2017; Krahn et al., 2015, United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2021). To underscore this point, according to the U.S. Holocaust
Memorial Museum, Adolf Hitler permitted the program of mercy-death, otherwise known as
Operation T4, in the fall of 1939. By the end of the war, approximately 275,000 people with
disabilities had been killed, mostly through experimentation with large-scale poison gas testing
(United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2021).
California was not immune to the institutionalized care model; by 1968, 13,400 people
with developmental disabilities lived in four overcrowded developmental centers (Department of
Developmental Services, 2021). Federal legislation like Title V of the Social Security Act, as
well as efforts by disability advocates and grass-roots organizations, helped improve these
individuals’ rights and protections and create supports and services for them to live in their own
communities (Krahn et al., 2015). Although progress has been made, there remain common
misperceptions, such as these adults being at high risk of injury at work (Gasper et al., 2020). A
4

2020 study by Gasper et al. found that even though employment has improved slightly over the
past 10 years for people with disabilities, barriers to employment, such as attitudinal barriers of
employers, cost concerns for accommodations and safety, and stereotypical perceptions of
competence and job performance are still topics of discussion (Kulkarni & Kote, 2013).
Employment is an essential element for individuals with intellectual disabilities to feel
valued and develop work relationships, identity, and self-sufficiency (Hall, 2009). However,
continued negative public perception can be traced to a study commissioned by the Special
Olympics (Siperstein, 2003) on global attitudes regarding people with intellectual disabilities. In
10 countries, including the United States, using a sample of approximately 800 members of the
general public per country, Siperstein (2003) found that over one-third of respondents believed
these individuals should work in special workshops, and the vast majority believed they should
be educated in separate settings. To fully change perceptions and create full acceptance and
inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities, transformational leaders must believe all people,
regardless of the notion of disabilities, have a right to be part of their communities, and corporate
values should reflect policies that create a fairer and more just workforce (Northouse, 2019).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The intent of this research was to use the underpinnings of social role valorization to
identify positive experiences of employers of people with developmental/intellectual disabilities
within various corporate cultures. The goal then was to propose initial recommendations to
highlight these experiences as a positive influence in defining a more inclusive corporate culture
and, in turn, increase employment for people with disabilities (Baker et al., 2018). To have the
greatest impact, the findings will be presented to local champions of industry and businesses,
5

such as chambers, commerce associations, and economic alliances. Four research questions
guided this study:
1. What are the perceived barriers and benefits of hiring a person with a disability?
2. How do the organizational mission and values align with diverse hiring practices, if they
do?
3. For businesses that hire people with intellectual/developmental disabilities, what are the
unique cultural characteristics of the organization that support these diverse hiring
practices?
4. How do opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, and volunteer work within the
business, if they do, play a role in the hiring of people with intellectual disabilities?
Importance of the Study
San Fernando Valley is a large metropolitan area in Southern California with a
population of about 1.8 million (Census Reporter, 2021). The San Fernando Valley is part of Los
Angeles County, which has a population of a little over 9.8 million people, making it the largest
of all counties in Southern California (Southern California Association of Governments [SCAG],
2017). According to a 2017 SCAG report, the Southern California region is expected to grow by
4.2 million more residents and 1.7 million new jobs between 2012 and 2035. The SCAG (2017)
projected that Los Angeles County would hold over 50% of the share of regional employment
across that time. Pre-pandemic occupations in the county mirrored the trends in growth sectors,
including food service, community and social services, and transportation services
(Sedgwick et al., 2020). However, COVID-19 had a devastating impact on almost all of the
industries noted by Los Angeles County Department of Workforce Development, Aging, and
Community Services (WDACS); approximately 716,000 jobs were lost by April 2020, with food
6

services and drinking places being hit the worst (Sedgwick et al., 2020). Only 29.7% of overall
jobs had returned by September 2020, with food services and drinking places still seeing a loss
of over 100,000 (Sedgwick et al., 2020). Economic projections for 2022 showed increases in
health care and social assistance services; however, industries such as food service,
transportation, manufacturing, retail, and support services were projected to show a net decline
(Sedgwick et al., 2020). People with disabilities are more likely to work in service industries,
production, and transportation services, making the net decline in forecasted jobs a crisis for
these individuals’ employment prospects (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
The Survey of Employer Perspectives on the Employment of People with Disabilities
(2020), issued by the United States Department of Labor’s Office of Disability Employment
Policy (ODEP), found that 72% of U.S. employers studied cited that positive image of the
company, with both customers and future employees, was the greatest benefit of hiring someone
with an intellectual disability, alongside increasing the pool of applicants (Gasper et al., 2020).
Yet, only 13.5% of the employers studied actively recruited and hired employees with
disabilities (Gasper et al., 2020). Increasing employment among this population is critical to both
filling the projected 2035 labor gap and moving individuals from poverty to a life of
contribution, identity, and relationships.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The intent of this research was to conduct a mixed-methods study wherein, through the
lens of social role valorization (SRV), to identify positive experiences of employers who have
hired individuals with intellectual disabilities to propose recommendations to increase
employment for people with disabilities. Interviews with a sample of these employers were
utilized to understand more deeply the experiences that influenced their decision to hire
7

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Per Saunders (2019), it was important to develop interview questions
using language typically found in business models, leading to honest responses regarding
organizational knowledge and the values of the culture, such as mission-oriented recruitment
strategies, commitment to diversity, attitudes/barriers to hiring, morale, and productivity.
Social role valorization theory (SRV; Wolfensberger, 2011) grew out of Wolfensberger’s
principles of normalization of 1972. Based largely on social role theory, SRV extends that “if a
person’s social role were a societally valued one, then other desirable things would be accorded
to that person almost automatically, at least within the resources and norms of his/her society”
(Wolfensberger, 2011, p. 436). Using an asset-based approach, two strategies can be used to
increase the perceived value of the social role for the person with intellectual disabilities. The
first is to enhance the individual’s social image, and the other is to enhance the individual’s
competency (Osburn, 2006). These strategies create a feedback loop regarding social image in
the eyes of others as it relates to perceived competencies. The greater the perceived competency,
the greater the value of the social role is given to the individual (Osburn, 2006).
Actions to increase perceived value can occur in one or all of four dimensions of a
person’s social settings, and SRV identifies these social system dimensions to be the individual;
the individual’s immediate social system, such as the family; the community services the
individual receives, or neighborhood; and society as a whole (Osburn, 2006). The intent of this
research was to use the underpinnings of SRV to identify the positive experiences of employers
of people with developmental/intellectual disabilities within various corporate cultures. The
proposed recommendations highlight these experiences as a positive influence in defining a more
inclusive corporate culture and increasing employment for people with disabilities.
8

Definitions
For the purposes of this study, it is critical to understand the terms “intellectual and
developmental disability,” “employer perceptions,” and “employment.”
• Intellectual and Developmental Disability: The American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) describes intellectual disability as being
“characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and in adaptive
behavior as expressed in conceptual, social and practical adaptive skills” (Lysaght et al.,
2012, p. 25).
• Employer perceptions: the gap between the “assumed abilities and the actual capacities of
people with disabilities” (Baker et al., 2018, p. 658).
• Employment:
Employment is the ‘state of having a paid job.’ ‘Employment can also refer to the
act of employing people.’ ‘And in economics, employment is commonly used to
mean the total number of people employed.’ (Employment definition and
meaning, para. 7)
Organization of the Dissertation
This research project is organized in five chapters. Chapter One provided an overview of
the problem of practice, the organizational context for the project, and key concepts and
definitions needed to understand the problem of practice more clearly. Chapter Two provides an
overview of the literature surrounding the high unemployment rate for people with intellectual
disabilities as well as the importance of including this workforce within corporate cultures.
Chapter Three outlines the protocols be utilized during the surveys, document review, and
interview process including but not limited to interviewee/survey respondent selection, and the
9

data collection and analysis processes. Chapter Four includes the results of the analysis of the
survey, interview, document, and artifact analysis. Based on the results, Chapter Five offers
recommendations for increasing the employment rate for individuals with intellectual disabilities
in California’s San Fernando Valley.
10

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Since the early 1970s, much progress has been made to further the quality of life for
people with developmental disabilities across multiple world views of disability, including
sociocultural perspectives and justice perspectives (Schalock et al., 2021). According to
Schalock et al. (2021), the sociocultural perspective focuses on interventions and supports for
this population through a lens on risk factors associated with societal attitudes and environmental
conditions such as segregation. In contrast, through a lens on the risk factors associated with
social injustices and inequality, the justice perspective focuses interventions and supports on
person-centered planning, regulations, and rights affirmation. A pivotal moment for the justice
perspective was the passing of the United Nations Convention of the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities in 2006 (Schalock et al., 2021). Schalock et al. would argue that these perspectives,
combined with the biomedical perspective and psychoeducation perspective, moved the field to a
more holistic approach in creating policies, practices, and/or supports and services for people
with developmental disabilities to mitigate the risk associated with each factor to improve their
quality of life (Schalock et al., 2021). With progress in the field through improved person-
centered practices, equitable laws for inclusion across the lifespan, and a better understanding of
societal attitudes, individuals with intellectual disabilities are now more present and active in
their communities. However, employment is still an elusive life goal (AAIDD, 2015).
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature as a means to cull out
possible gaps in either the literature or services provided to individuals with developmental
disabilities in getting and retaining employment. Using the framework of SRV as a guide point
for the review, seven topic areas emerged regarding two of the four dimensions of the SRV
model: the individual and the community levels. The dimensions of the SRV model are the
11

individual; the individual’s immediate social system, such as the family; the community services
the individual receives, or neighborhood; and society (Osburn, 2006). At the individual level, the
topic areas discussed are the social model of disability, the impact of negative stigmas and public
attitudes, the role of social inclusion, and intersection of disabilities and other categories of
differences. At the community level, under the broader umbrella of work culture, the research
exposed employers’ perceptions of recruitment and wage subsidies in incentivizing the hiring of
people with intellectual disabilities. Although the literature presented here has been applied to a
variety of disabilities, this review focuses primarily on the literature’s application to the problem
of a high unemployment rate among people with developmental/intellectual disabilities.
History of Employment for People With Developmental/Intellectual Disabilities
Before launching into the comprehensive literature review, it is important to understand
the history of employment for people with disabilities in the United States. Even amidst the 2020
COVID-19 pandemic, Ipsos (2020) found that 92% of adults surveyed across 28 countries stated
that having a job is an important element of daily life. Additionally, the study highlighted the
global opinion that people are considered employable until the age of 49 (Ipsos, 2020). However,
the road for people with developmental disabilities to employment is less straightforward.
In 1973, the Rehabilitation Act prohibited discrimination against qualified candidates
with disabilities by employers holding federal contracts (Chamusco, 2017). Chamusco (2017)
suggested that the passing of this act highlighted the shift in public perception from one of
destitution towards one of integration, equal wages, and legal protections, even for those with the
most significant of disabilities (Hoffman, 2013). The author contended that the most important
language in the Act was
12

[The] 41 words of § 504 that would go on to form the backbone of the ADA: “No
otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States…shall, solely by reason
of his handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial
assistance. (Chamusco, 2017, p. 1292)
Despite difficulties in implementation, the legislation served as a symbol for anti-discrimination,
leading to the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 (Chamusco, 2017;
Hoffman, 2013). The ADA was designed as a complement to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and
should be read in conjunction to target discrimination, including segregation, by both private and
federal employers, ensuring “equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and
economic self-sufficiency” (pg. 1295) for individuals with disabilities (Chamusco, 2017;
Hoffman, 2013). Further clarifying the ADA’s intent to prevent discrimination, including
segregation, was the Supreme Court’s decision of Olmstead v L.C. (Hoffman, 2013). Through
Olmstead, the Court argued that institutionalization was contrary to the intent of the ADA for
two reasons. The first reason is that institutionalizing a person able to benefit from “community
settings perpetuates unwarranted assumptions that [they] are incapable or unworthy of
participating in community life” (Olmstead v. L.C. 527 U.S. at 600, 1999). The second reason is
that institutional care “severely diminishes the everyday life activities of individuals, including
family relations, social contacts, work options, economic independence, educational
advancement, and cultural enrichment” (Olmstead v. L.C., 527 U.S. 581, 601, 1999). Building on
the historical efforts of the ADA and the Olmstead decision, the ODEP, through the Employment
First framework under the U.S. Department of Labor, prioritizes investments leading to systems
change resulting in community-based, integrated employment for people with the most
13

significant disabilities. Employment First provides guiding principles and practices furthering
that all individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities
(a) are capable of performing work in typical integrated employment settings; (b) should
receive, as a matter of state policy, employment-related services and supports as a
priority over other facility-based and non-work day services; and (c) should be paid at
minimum or prevailing wage rates. (Butterworth et al., 2015, pp. 10–11)
Following the formation of this framework, California adopted its employment-first policy on
October 9, 2013. The statue reads,
It is the policy of the state that opportunities for integrated, competitive employment shall
be given the highest priority for working age individuals with developmental disabilities,
regardless of the severity of their disabilities (WIC Sect. 4869, a, 1). Explaining that “The
Employment First Policy was established “in furtherance of the purposes of this division
(the Lanterman Act) to make services and supports available to enable persons with
developmental disabilities to approximate the pattern of everyday living available to
people without disabilities of the same age, to support the integration of persons with
developmental disabilities into the mainstream life of the community, and to bring about
more independent, productive, and normal lives.” (Section 4869, a, 1)
Employment-first policies have been adopted in 40 States (APSE, 2020). Figure 1 provides a
visual of the progress made for each state as of 2020 (APSE, 2020).

14

Figure 1
Progress Made for Each State in Adopting Employment-First Policies

Even with advances in federal and state legislation, people with developmental
disabilities remain the largest group of unemployed and underemployed individuals across the
United States (Butterworth et al., 2015).
Models for segregated employment from the open labor market, such as workshops, for
people with disabilities in the United States, can be traced back 100 years to the establishment of
a sheltered workshop at the Perkins Institute for the Blind (Hoffman, 2013). While originally
intended for the blind, sheltered workshops are now places of employment specifically designed
and managed for individuals with disabilities (Legal Information Institute, 2021). These
15

workshop models expanded exponentially after World War II for disabled veterans returning
from the war, eventually expanding workshop services to include those with intellectual
disabilities as employees (Hoffman, 2013). From 1948 to 1976, the number of sheltered
workshops increased from 85 to approximately 3000, employing about 136,000 individuals with
disabilities in the U.S. (Hoffman, 2013). The premise behind these employment offerings was
based on the medical model of disability, believing it was the person who needed to change, not
the community. Supporting this, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938 offered sheltered
workshops mechanisms to pay employees with disabilities below the federal minimum wage
based on actual productivity. Under the amended FLSA of 1966 removed the wage floor for
productivity-based work (Hoffman, 2013), offering employers even more economic incentive to
keep workers with disabilities disadvantaged in sheltered employment (Chamusco, 2017;
Hoffman, 2013). However, positive advancements, such as Employment First, are being made to
this model to promote integrated employment options in the community. These advancements
include a phase-out of subminimum wages and better transitions from high school to adult
services to prevent placements in workshop models altogether (AAIDD, 2015). Yet, even with
these advancements, only 32.4% of working-age adults with disabilities are employed in
community settings (AAIDD, 2015).
Moving from the historical lens, it is important to explore existing literature, through the
lens of the SRV model, on the strengths and limitations of supports and services for people with
disabilities to obtain and retain inclusive employment in the community, specifically at the
individual and community dimensions of the SRV model.
16

The Individual Dimension of the Social Role Valorization Model
Creating systemic change across the four social dimensions of the SRV model requires
understanding the historical framework of the social model of disability, current attitudes and
perceptions of people with developmental disabilities, and the role of social inclusion in
combating negative attitudes and stigmas. Grounding knowledge in these focus areas at the
individual level helps to frame the importance of this study.
The Social Model of Disability
The social model of disability appeared during the advocacy movement of the 1970s,
slowly replacing the medical model of disability (Darcy et al., 2016). The medical model sees
what is inherently wrong with the person and attempts to fix it (Darcy et al., 2016; Disability
Nottinghamshire, 2019; Hogan, 2019). Conversely, the social model focuses on the constructs
that society creates, environmentally and attitudinally, to remove such barriers and create an
equal playing field. However, there is controversy even in the disability community regarding
the usefulness of the social model, as people with disabilities (PWD) have argued that their
impairment is part of their daily lives and should not be dismissed altogether (Whitney et al.,
2019). In 2001, the World Health Organization incorporated both perspectives into a new
international classification of functioning, disability, and health (ICF; Whitney et al., 2019).
However, they too have been critiqued for ignoring choice, subjectivity of the experience of
participation, and whether cultural, economic, or social contexts impact choice (Thurman et al.,
2019).
In the 1980s, another new approach, the capabilities approach, was offered by Amartya
Sen. This new approach embraced the concept of interdependence, recognizing that it is a human
life notion and not simply due to a disability. The authors recognized that “capabilities are
17

developed and exercised only in relationship with others - regardless of disability” (Thurman et
al., 2019, p. 646). No matter the model in use, researchers agree that disabilities still carry a level
of stigma and, as such, affect social determinants of health, including poverty and poor health
conditions (Scior & Werner, 2016; Thurman et al., 2019). According to Thurman et al. (2019),
people living on less than 200% of the federal poverty level income are at a greater health risk
than those who smoke or are obese. Additionally, these authors posited that education is another
social determinant of health, whereas those without a high school diploma are three times more
likely to die prior to the age of 65 (Thurman et al., 2019). They concluded that PWD are more
likely to be unemployed and lack a full high school education. Therefore, they are more likely to
live in poverty, meaning they are at high risk of not achieving optimal health (Thurman et al.,
2019). Intellectual disabilities are closely associated with a negative stigma, poor health
conditions, low employment rates, and low education rates, resulting in a lack of willingness to
embrace the disability identity and perpetuating the cycle of stigma and negative attitudes
towards this population (Scior & Werner, 2016).
Impact of Stigmas and Public Attitudes Towards People With Disabilities
Stigma towards individuals with intellectual disabilities negatively impacts full inclusion
in community life, including employment. Drawing on the theoretical framework for mental
illness to conceptualize stigma, Werner (2015) defined stigma as “a process consisting of
stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination” (p. 264). In 2015, Werner examined the association
between stigma and the perception of rights for individuals with intellectual disabilities (PWID)
compared with physically disabled people using data from a telephone survey of 605 people in
Israel. Werner found that the general population held more negative biases towards PWID than
those with physical disabilities. Negative stereotypes included the perception of low ability and
18

being dangerous, which led the general public to withdraw and create social distance from this
group of people (Werner, 2015).
Negative public perception can be traced to 2003 when Siperstein studied global attitudes
toward PWID. Siperstein (2003) found that across the 10 countries studied, over one-third of
respondents believed PWID should work in special workshops, and the vast majority believed
they should be educated in separate settings. Additionally, through a comprehensive review of
studies from 1990 to 2012, Ali et al. (2012) analyzed 37 papers examining the stigma PWID and
their caregivers experienced. The authors found that both PWID and caregivers experienced
stigma. Further, the authors found that this stigma harmed both parties’ well-being. Additionally,
students who attended segregated schools experienced less stigma than those who attended
mainstream educational environments. Yet, the study further revealed that both sets of students
experienced stigma in general public settings (Hassiotis et al., 2012).
Burgea et al. (2007) collected data from a stratified random sample of 680 adults living in
Canada and applied statistical analysis to the responses to determine the public’s perception of
types, barriers, and impact on co-workers of employment by PWID. The results revealed that
most people (43.7%) thought jobs requiring little to no skills in integrated settings were the best
matches for PWID. Conversely, the results also revealed that 34.1% of people surveyed thought
segregated settings, such as sheltered workshops with other PWID, were the best job match.
Among this minority, PWID were visualized as more severely disabled and having higher levels
of social distance, even though social contact proved to be about equal among both sets of
respondents (Burgea et al., 2007). Negative stigmas, such as being dangerous or unskilled,
impact PWD in many ways, including equal access to employment settings, increasing social
distance between the non-disabled and disabled communities.
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Role of Social Inclusion
Social inclusion plays an important role in fighting stigmas associated with intellectual
disabilities. Sheridan and Scior (2013) studied attitudes towards PWID using an analysis of
variance tests and data from a convenience sample of 737 participants, aged 16 to 19, who
completed a demographics questionnaire and the Community Living Attitudes Scale-ID version.
The researchers found that gender played a significant role in attitudes towards PWID. Females,
regardless of ethnicity or contact with the population, favored empowerment and social inclusion
of PWID. Unfortunately, the study also underscored that contact with the intellectually disabled
population was essential in developing more positive attitudes towards inclusion. Also, religion
played a significant role in the likelihood of contact. Eighty percent of Christians and 75% of
non-religious groups reported prior contact, whereas only 51% Muslims and Hindus reported
contact. Controlling for prior contact, Muslims scored lower on pro-inclusion attitudes regarding
empowerment and similarity and demonstrated higher scores regarding exclusion. The study
suggested that increased contact in school settings was an important positive influencer for
younger generations (Sheridan & Scior, 2013).
Like Sheridan and Scior, Hall (2009) also used meta-analysis and examined 15 reports
focused specifically on PWD and their social inclusion. The author found seven common
themes: acceptance as a unique individual, relationships with family and friends, involvement in
the larger community, type and location of living environments, work, and quality and quantity
of available supports. The study further underscored the importance of connection and belonging
in one’s community to achieve full inclusion in life. Employment was an essential element for
the individuals in this study to feel valued and create work relationships, identity, and self-
sufficiency (Hall, 2009). High unemployment has a detrimental impact on the quality of life for
20

PWD; thus, creating positive relationships through social contact and eliminating negative
stigmas will have a positive influence on the change needed for full inclusion in the community.

21

Intersection of Disabilities and Other Categories of Differences
In addition to the sole focus on persons with developmental disabilities, it would be
important to identify research that highlights the impact of employment outcomes at the
intersection of socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and race.
Socioeconomic Status Impact on Employment Outcomes
Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, Wagner et al. (2014)
sought to identify the extent to which SES predicted the employment and/or academic outcomes
for youth with disabilities. Wagner et al. found that the relationship between SES and
employment outcomes for students with disabilities from low SES backgrounds did not
predetermine poor results.
Parental Expectations Impact on Employment Outcomes
Rather, Wagner et al. (2014) found parents’ expectations and the severity of disabilities
were stronger mitigating factors than lower SES in completing high school and obtaining
competitive employment. Specifically, high parental expectations correlated positively to high
school completion. The severity of disability was negatively associated with three postsecondary
outcomes, including obtaining competitive employment (Wagner et al., 2014). Using the same
data, Doren et al. (2012) found that parents’ expectations were significantly associated with high
school graduation, working after high school, and enrolling in postsecondary education; for each
unit increase in parent expectations, the adolescent was 2.5 times more likely to graduate, 2.7
times more like to report having employment, and 2.5 times more like to enroll in postsecondary
education. However, Doren et al. did find that parents of daughters held higher expectations that
they would enroll in postsecondary education. Additionally, authors found that parents from
lower SES groups and minority groups held significantly lower expectations that their
22

adolescents would obtain competitive employment or earn a standard high school diploma
(Doren et al., 2012). As with the previous study, the level of disability had a significant impact
on parents’ expectations, including significantly lower expectations for competitive employment
after high school for parents with children with intellectual disabilities rather than children with
learning disabilities or emotional disabilities (Doren et al., 2012).
Self-Determination Scores and Employment Outcomes
Concluding the research on the intersection of disability, race, age, and SES is Shogren et
al.’s study (2018) on the effect of this intersection on students’ self-determination scores. The
authors explored the differences in patterns among students aged 13 to 22, with and without
disabilities, and from variable racial-ethnic backgrounds. In all, 20 groups were selected
comprising 4,165 students from rural, San Fernando, and urban areas across the United States.
(Shogren et al., 2018). Areas of self-determination included autonomy, self-initiation, pathways
thinking, self-direction, control-expectancy, psychological empowerment, and self-realization.
Shogren et al. found that Black and Hispanic students reported lower self-determination scores
than their White counterparts. However, across the entire sample, eligibility for free or reduced-
price lunch, an indicator of low SES, was shown to lower self-determination scores when
compared to counterparts with the same disability or ethnicity/race. Combining these two
significant findings, low-SES and Black/Latino self-determination scores, underscores the need
for more research on the intersectionality of disability and other differences to create systemic
change in the expected outcomes of students with disabilities.
The Community Level of the Social Role Valorization Model
For this study, the role of the employer in the employment, or lack thereof, of people with
developmental disabilities is an important topic area. Throughout this review, work culture
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became a recurring theme. Then, looking more closely at the literature, employers’ perspectives
on recruitment and the usage of wage subsidies as incentives to hire emerged as important
themes to provide further insight into workplace culture and this study’s problem of practice: the
high unemployment rate for people with developmental disabilities.
Work Culture
Work culture here is defined as acceptance of and openness to people of all types and the
barriers inhibiting the hiring of PWD. Using a phenomenological approach, Zappella (2015)
analyzed the attitudes of 30 Italian small- to medium-sized companies’ recruitment staff. The
author found that the main barrier to employment was the combination of understanding one’s
abilities and past experiences that either the specific recruitment person or the overall
organization had with hiring a person with a disability (Zappella, 2015). Further, Zappella found
that employers who had a positive experience were more prepared and more likely to hire
another person with a disability; conversely, employers with negative experiences created a more
reluctant hiring process. Regarding type of disability, Zappella (2015) found that employers were
more willing to hire people with physical disabilities than those with intellectual disabilities.
Supporting the work culture theme, Maini and Heera (2019) studied 108 responses to
derive factors on employment for individuals with disabilities within the workforce. Using a
factor analysis followed by logistic regression analysis, Maini and Heera found that companies
with an inclusive culture were 2.083 times more apt to hire PWD than those without such a
culture. Additionally, organizations with a strong human resource management arm focusing on
the fit between the person with a disability and the organization were 1.167 times more likely to
hire PWD (Maini & Heera, 2019).
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Using 2008 survey data from the ODEP, Jasper and Waldhart (2012) found that only
24.4% of respondents employed a person with a disability. Only two methods of hiring did not
depend on the size of the employer: clear dedication to create an inclusive workforce from top
management and tax credits (Jasper & Waldhart, 2012). Twenty-five percent of the retailers in
this study saw supervisors’ negative attitudes as a barrier to employment. Further underscoring
this point, 33.9% of those studied saw that the negative attitudes of co-workers were also a
barrier (Jasper & Waldhart, 2012).
Employers ’ Perspectives on Recruiting People With Disabilities
Across different industries and geographic locations, common concerns like costs of
accommodations and legal fears were highlighted, regardless of the size of the business.
Houtenville and Kalargyrou (2012) surveyed 320 organizations in the hospitality industry and
found common concerns, including costs for accommodations and the underlying inherent bias
of whether the person could actually be productive on the job. Larger companies were also more
likely to recruit PWD than smaller companies. “Tax credits and incentives, flexible work
schedules and disability awareness training” (pg. 40) were cited by employers as mechanisms
that would increase employment for PWD. Of the companies surveyed, 58.7% cited the concern
that employing a person with a disability would cost more, and of these, 61% did not have active
hiring strategies in place. Of the companies surveyed, 77% cited concerns that PWD would not
be able to meet work standards; among them, 66.3% still had active recruiting strategies in place
(Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012).
Like Houtenville and Kalargyrou (2012), Jasper and Waldhart (2012) utilized data from
the 2008 ODEP survey of employer perspectives on the employment of PWD. However, these
authors took Houtenville and Kalargyrou’s work further by statistically testing differences in
25

employer size and employer perceptions as these relate to the theory of planned behavior. Jasper
and Waldhart (2012) found that 73.8% of employers were concerned about the nature of the
work not being competitively performed. The second and third most prevalent concerns were the
cost of accommodations and fear of being sued (61.9% and 61.6%, respectively). Lastly, Kaye et
al. (2011) reinforced the findings of the two previous studies showing that the top three reasons
for not employing a person with a disability were the cost of accommodation, lack of ability to
handle performance on the job, and the fear of potential litigation. The authors surveyed
participants associated with disability and business technical assistance centers (Kaye et al.,
2011). It is critical to understand employers’ willingness to hire PWD and then look at initiatives
or policies, such as wage subsidies, to determine their impact on the unemployment rate for
PWD.
Wage Subsidies
At the policy level, wage subsidies have been a long-standing incentive for employers to
hire PWD, yet it is still undetermined if they increase the employment rate. Using data from the
Department of Social Services in Australia, researchers analyzed information from 4,516
participants who had started employment both with and without wage subsidies (Waghorn et al.,
2019). Waghorn et al. found wage subsidies effectively reduced the wait time between assisted
job search and job placement by an average of 17.8 days and a positive correlation to participants
reaching the 13-week and 26-week benchmark when compared to jobs not associated with wage
subsidies (2019).
Conversely, using data from the Continuous Sample of Working Lives in Spain, Jiminez-
Martin et al. (2017) studied the impact of wage subsidies on two targeted populations: those
moving from unemployment to temporary or permanent employment and those converting from
26

temporary employment to permanent employees. Applying multinomial logit models, Jiminez et
al. found that wage incentives had no statistical impact on transition rate for either type of
employment. In fact, the hiring rate for employees into permanent positions decreased with the
inclusion of wage subsidies by 1.58% (2017). Supporting Jiminez-Martin et al.’s findings, Gupta
et al. (2015) found that, in the governmental sector, there was a decrease in individuals hired
from outside of the sector into Flexjob employment. However, Mestres and Castello did show an
increase in the proportion of retained employees under this scheme (Gupta et al., 2015). These
results were found by obtaining data from the Danish longitudinal register, then studying those
involved in the Flexjob scheme from 1999 to 2005 (Gupta et al., 2015). The Flexjob scheme
included both wage subsidies and special working conditions, such as reduced hours and less
stressful tasks (Gupta et al., 2015). Wage subsidies and employers’ perceptions play a role in the
employment rate for PWD; in the end, these themes make up workplace culture, which appears
to play a significant role in the high unemployment rate for people with developmental
disabilities.
Benefits to Hiring
Much of the research in this literature review focuses on a negative aspect of
unemployment for PWD. However, with some progress made across business sectors, a rising
cadre of literature outlines the benefits of hiring individuals with disabilities from an employer
standpoint (Lindsay et al., 2018). Lindsay et al. (2018) conducted a comprehensive literature
review and found that the benefits of hiring individuals with disabilities included increased
economic gain (i.e., reduced turnover, and reliability, and punctuality), inclusive work cultures,
and competitive advantages such as diverse customers and innovation. Supporting Lindsay et
al.’s findings, Donoso (2008) offered reflections on hiring individuals with disabilities from
27

employers’ perspectives. Employers in Donoso’s (2008) qualitative study shared key benefits to
hiring that included low absenteeism and reduced turnover, loyal and reliable employees, and
workforce diversification, ultimately leading to a more positive place to work. Similarly, through
a meta-synthesis, Kalargyrou and Volis (2014) identified key benefits like increased innovation,
market competitiveness, improved customer satisfaction, positive company image, increasing the
talent pool, decreasing turnover, and positive effects on the general workforce. Although there
are clear benefits from an employer’s perspective, PWD are still a substantially untapped and
underutilized workforce.
Conceptual Framework
Social role valorization theory (SRV) extends that “if a person’s social role were a
societally valued one, then other desirable things would be accorded to that person almost
automatically, at least within the resources and norms of his/her society” (Wolfensberger, 2011,
p. 436). Through surveys and interviews of employers, I sought to better understand the value
San Fernando Valley employers place on a person with a disability in their own workforces at
two intervals: prior to hiring and after hire. Negative employer perceptions create barriers to
employment, which perpetuate high unemployment for PWD and, in the end, create a circular
relationship of low value equals low employment. Through the lens of social valorization
principles, I sought to determine whether seeing a person with a disability as a positive value
meant the employer would behave positively towards that person and, in turn, hire and retain this
valuable workforce. Figure 2 presents this study’s conceptual framework.

28

Figure 2
Pictorial Description of Conceptual Framework Used in This Study

Summary
Unemployment has a detrimental impact on the quality of life for people with
developmental disabilities. The literature review presented current perceptions on this population
at both the individual and community dimensions of the SRV model. Seven areas of interest
emerged: a social model of disability, the impact of negative stigmas and public attitudes on
PWD, the role of social inclusion, the intersection of disabilities and other categories of
differences, the role of employer culture in the hiring of PWID, employers’ perceptions in
29

recruitment, and wage subsidies as incentives for hiring. The research noted that positive
perceptions of PWD capabilities and positive and accepting work cultures help increase
employment for PWID. Further research needs to be completed to better, and more deeply,
understand the employer’s perspective of hiring PWD to provide recommendations for hiring
from a business-to-business perspective as a solution to this problem of practice.

30

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter discusses the overview of the study’s design, the participants, the interview
protocol, the data collection process, and the data’s credibility and trustworthiness. The chapter
ends with a discussion of the ethical considerations for completing this study within the San
Fernando Valley.
Research Questions
1. What are the perceived barriers and benefits of hiring a person with a disability?
2. How do the organizational mission and values align with diverse hiring practices, if they
do?
3. For businesses that hire people with intellectual/developmental disabilities, what are the
unique cultural characteristics of the organization that support these diverse hiring
practices?
4. How do opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, and volunteer work within the
business, if they do, play a role in the hiring of people with intellectual disabilities?
Overview of Design
This study utilized mixed methods. I combined a quantitative survey instrument with
semi-structured interviews and a review of public-facing documents as the primary sources of
qualitative data. Bowen (2009) asserted that triangulating data from surveys, interviews, and
documents enhances the study’s credibility. Bowen further suggested that a document review can
complement other methods used to uncover meaning and insight into the problem of practice.
Three sources were used for this study: a survey, interviews, and documents. The data
collection was not sequential. A 20-question survey was administered electronically through
Qualtrics to collect quantitative data. This 7- to 10-minute online survey tool was used to
31

examine the value employers in the San Fernando Valley perceive for PWD in their workforces.
Conversely, the COVID-19 pandemic altered how the qualitative data were collected,
specifically how in-person interviews and document reviews were completed. Instead of face-to-
face, interviews were conducted over a live web-based platform, Zoom. There were eight
primary questions with several probes identified throughout each section of the interview. The
interview was centralized on a primary question: What are the unique, if any, cultural
characteristics of this organization that support your diverse hiring practices? I conducted all
interviews. The interviews were designed to last no more than 45 minutes with a goal of 35 to 40
minutes. For the document review, the source material was found through online platforms, such
as Facebook, LinkedIn, Glass Door, and Instagram. Table 1 presents the sources of data and their
application to the research questions.

32

Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions
Quantitative
survey
Qualitative
interview
Document
review
What are the perceived barriers and benefits of
hiring a person with a disability?
X X
How do the organizational mission and values
align with diverse hiring practices, if they
do?
X X X
For businesses that hire people with
developmental disabilities, what are the
unique cultural characteristics of the
organization that support these diverse hiring
practices?
X X
How do opportunities such as internships,
apprenticeships, and volunteer work within
the business play a role, if they do, in the
hiring of people with intellectual
disabilities?
X X

Research Setting
At the time of the study, there were over 150,000 active businesses in the San Fernando
Valley registered with the city’s department of finance (Los Angeles Open Data, 2021). These
businesses were supported by various associations that advocated for their needs at the local,
state, and federal level, including 19 local chambers of commerce, one larger San Fernando
Valley industry commerce association, and one San Fernando Valley’s economic alliance.
Within these same geographical areas, there were at least 11 provider agencies serving people
with developmental disabilities in employment services (North Los Angeles County Regional
Center, 2021). These service provider organizations are contracted with the state to help job
33

seekers found to have a significance of disability obtain and maintain a job in integrated settings
(California Department of Rehabilitation, 2021b). Services within this area include job
development, job placement, and job coaching (California Department of Rehabilitation, 2021a).
The missions of these service provider organizations are to enhance the competencies and social
roles for PWD to increase each person’s perceived value within the larger community.
The focus of the quantitative survey portion of this study was on individuals with the
power to influence the hiring decisions of each organization and who were members of either the
chamber of commerce, industry commerce association, or economic alliance. These individuals
included human resources or personnel management, owners, and/or C-suite personnel.
The focus of the qualitative portion of this study was on six businesses and was divided
into two components. The first was an in-depth interview specifically to answer Research
Question 3 for businesses that hire people with developmental disabilities. Then, analysis of
public-facing materials was conducted to determine whether and how the business communicates
these hiring practices.
In 2008 and 2020, the U.S. Department of Labor, through the ODEP, conducted a study
of employers within various industries and at varying company sizes across the country. The aim
was to compare their perspectives, attitudes, and practices to inform policy and develop a
strategy for increasing employment for PWD (Domzal et al., 2008; Gasper et al., 2020). The
survey and the interview protocol for this study were adapted from the Survey of Employer
Policies on the Employment of People with Disabilities (Gasper et al., 2020). Additionally, for
the document review, I adapted Scambor’s (2008) checklist for document analysis. Using the
tools from ODEP and Scambor as the foundation of methods in this study, the intent was to
uncover barriers unique to employers in the San Fernando Valley that prevent the hiring of
34

individuals with developmental disabilities and to highlight unique cultural characteristics that
promote inclusive hiring practices.
Method 1: Quantitative Surveys
This section detailed the survey process for the quantitative portion of this study. Sections
included participating stakeholders, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis,
and validity and reliability of the data.
Participating Stakeholders
For the quantitative portion of this study, I worked with the executive leadership of three
organizations, San Fernando Valley’s chamber of commerce, industry commerce association,
and economic alliance, to use their unique listservs to query their members, creating a stratified
and single-staged sample (Weiss, 1994). According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), surveys
provide a methodology to better understand the “trends, attitudes, and opinions” (p. 147) of a
population of interest. In this case, that population consists of the hiring decision-makers at
private-sector employers. The gross sample size was over 500 private sector businesses. I relied
on the executive leaders to send the survey request to their members through emails and social
media posts, as each membership organization’s listserv was protected information. Each
executive created a follow-up post and/or email in 1-week intervals for 3 weeks to serve as
reminders to complete the survey.
Instrumentation
Pazzaglia et al. (2016) suggested using an already established survey, then adding or
deleting items as needed. Using this suggestion, I borrowed from the work of Gasper et al.
(2020) to create baseline questions for my survey. The authors focused on private-sector
employers and their hiring and retention practices related to PWD (Gasper et al., 2020). Their
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2020 survey added an update to the research conducted by the ODEP in 2008, which focused on
the same subject.
The survey was 20 questions in length and took about 7 to 10 minutes to complete.
Within the survey, 17 questions are closed-ended, and three are open-ended. Drawing from
Robinson and Firth Leonard’s (2019) work, these questions were aimed at eliciting information
the respondent would like to say and were not researcher-driven. The draft of the survey was
developed, peer-reviewed, and then entered into Qualtrics. Based on empirical evidence,
Qualtrics offers suggestions for refinement of questions, question logics, and improvements to
the survey design to increase response rates. Once all of these changes were made, the survey
was pre-tested (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019) to identify additional areas needing refinement.
The final version of the survey can be found in Appendix A.
The questions adopted from Gasper et al.’s (2020) work focused on four subject areas:
recruitment, attitudes, barriers, and benefits. These areas were selected based on this study’s
research questions, which focused on the barriers and benefits of hiring a person with a disability
and on recruitment and attitudes towards PWD. Essentially, these survey questions explore the
extent to which the organization’s mission and values embrace hiring PWD. Appendix B
provides the intended level of measurement (i.e., ordinal, nominal, etc.) and each question’s
intent (i.e., value, social role, etc.). Appendix C is the printout from the Qualtrics platform to
provide the survey’s layout.
Data Collection Procedures
The online survey’s timeframe was the fall of 2021. The executive leadership of the
chamber of commerce, the San Fernando Valley’s industrial association, and the San Fernando
Valley’s economic alliance delivered an email introducing respondents to the survey. Appendix
36

D provides a sample introduction to the survey from the chief executive officer of the chamber of
commerce to its membership. Robinson and Firth Leonard (2019) referred to designing
compelling invitations as a craft in itself. They recommended brevity, including only the most
important facts needed to make an informed decision, and noting the deadline for completion.
While the survey instrument was open, there were two encouraging email reminders, with the
last sent the day prior to the end date (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019).
Data Analysis
According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), surveys provide a methodology to better
understand the “trends, attitudes, and opinions” (p. 147) of a particular population of interest. In
this case, the San Fernando Valley’s employers were the population of interest. The results
obtained from the descriptive analysis of the quantitative data are presented for each research
question.
Validity and Reliability
The quantitative survey was borrowed from Gasper et al.’s (2020) work on the
employment of PWD. In developing the survey used in that work, the authors conducted an
exhaustive literature review and an internal technical team review. They also referred to
feedback provided from the 2008 ODEP survey (Gasper et al., 2020) as a means of
improvement. Next, they pretested the instrument with nine companies (Gasper et al., 2020). All
feedback was used to refine the survey instrument prior to larger distribution (Gasper et al.,
2020).
To establish face validity for this instrument, it underwent three reviews. First, it was
peer-reviewed. Then, it underwent an expert review conducted by Dr. Maccalla, a USC
professor. It was then pre-tested by fellow doctoral students to evaluate the ease of design, clarity
37

of questions, and length of the survey. Based on these reviews, changes were made to the types
of questions and the length of the survey. Of the remaining 20 questions, 12 questions are ordinal
in design. Salkind (2014) recommended that the higher up on the scale of measurement, the more
precise the information collected. For this survey, both nominal, lowest on the measurement
scale, and ordinal, next precise on the measurement scale, were used. Additionally, utilizing
Gasper et al.’s (2020) instrument as the baseline for the questions, the survey was developed
with a test-retest presumption, meaning that the scores should be consistent over time (Salkind,
2014).
Robinson and Firth Leonard (2019) reported that early rapport building, encouraging and
frequent reminders, and establishing a clear deadline are techniques used to create greater
response rates. The greater the response rate, the greater the study’s validity (Salkind, 2014).
However, to create construct validity, it was critical to correlate the survey responses with the
underlying theory of SRV (Salkind, 2014). According to Salkind (2014), this could have been
the most difficult part of creating the survey. Questions regarding recruitment, barriers, and
attitudes were designed to draw out preconceived values attached to the social role a hiring
manager and/or company places on a person with a disability prior to hiring. Questions regarding
the benefit of hiring a person with a disability correlated with the perceived value the employer
places on that person, focusing on both social role and competencies.
Method 2: Qualitative Study Interviews
This section detailed for the reader the interview process for the qualitative portion of this
study. Sections included participating stakeholders, instrumentation, data collection procedures,
data analysis, and maximizing credibility and trustworthiness of the data.

38

Participating Stakeholders
For the interview portion of this study, the employers chosen made up a purposeful, non-
random sample (Weiss, 1994): those who had an existing relationship with one of the
employment service provider organizations in the San Fernando Valley. Maxwell (2013) offered
that it is important to remember that qualitative research does not just sample the people
interviewed but also the settings, events, and processes in which the interviewees are engaged.
The narrow focus of this study allowed a closer examination of the influences, including benefits
and barriers, of hiring and retaining PWD. Drawing on Maxwell’s work, a purposeful sampling
process allows for the deliberate selection of relevant and informative interviewees who can
provide direct experiential data specific to employment for PWD. Unlike in quantitative data
collection, there was not an ideal number of interviewees needed to create the reliability of the
data collection process; therefore, I set a realistic number of interviewees based on time
constraints.
Instrumentation
For this study, a semi-structured interview was utilized with the purposeful sample
identified in the prior section. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested using questions that
correlate with one of Patton’s (2002) six types of questions. For this study, the responses
solicited related to experience and behavior, opinion and values, feelings, background, and
knowledge (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). All but one of the questions in the interview protocol are
open-ended, following a general interview guide approach (Patton, 2002). Following Patton’s
interviewing style, the structure of the interview protocol started with rapport building, then
moved into experience, opinions, and values through the following sections: barriers and
benefits, recruitment, and resources. The protocol closed with a final open-ended question
39

seeking an opinion statement that could be used during the study’s presentation phase and a
summary statement thanking the interviewee for their time and insights. A full outline of the
interview protocol can be found in Appendix E.
Data Collection Procedures
The timeframe for the interviews was the fall of 2021. The semi-structured interview
protocol consists of eight primary questions, beginning with rapport building and ending with a
closing summary. Each interview lasted no longer than 45 minutes with a goal of 35 to 40
minutes. Each interviewee received notice of the confidentiality of the information gathered and
an opportunity to grant permission to record the interview for accurate documentation. If
permission was granted, the researcher used Zoom to record the live session. I then uploaded
these recordings to Otter.ai, a transcribing software that can produce a voice-to-text transcript, to
complete a thorough check of the transcripts when playing back the recordings. Having both
types of data supports the accuracy of the data-recording process. I also had two backup
recording devices in case the Zoom software platform failed to record. Through these two
methods, I reviewed the transcription in detail to ensure accurate transcription.
Data Analysis
Ravitch and Carl (2021) offered a framework for an integrative approach to qualitative
data analysis. I used this three-pronged integrative approach which included data organization
and management, immersive engagement with data, and writing and representation (Ravitch &
Carl, 2021). This analysis method anticipated responses to the specific research questions, which
included unique cultural characteristics, and surfaced themes or assertions using a priori coding
that was congruent across the six interviews (Gibbs, 2018). I summarized findings in sufficient
40

detail to enable the reader to make judgments about the reliability of the conclusions (Gibbs,
2018).
Maximizing Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) underscored the importance of credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability as aspects of the research that allow the study to have the
greatest impact in the field of interest. This study’s validity rests on how the findings represent
the relationship between the purpose and circumstances of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
One way to increase the credibility of the data is the triangulation of the analysts, which requires
more than one person to analyze the original data independent of each other (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Secondarily, member-checking can enhance credibility as well (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). As a means of ruling-out interviewer bias, some of the interviewees were asked if the
interpretation of the results reflected the meaning with which they were provided (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). To enhance the study’s trustworthiness, the interviewees were from both large
and small companies and different industries to identify patterns across a range of employment
environments (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Method 3: Document Review
This section detailed the document review process for this study. Sections included
participating stakeholders, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis, and
maximizing credibility and trustworthiness of the data.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for the document review were the same stakeholders identified in the
qualitative portion of this study. Stakeholders identified for interviews were public sector
employers who have experience hiring and retaining individuals with disabilities within their
41

work settings. The final sample for both the interviews and the document review consisted of six
individuals.
Instrumentation
Relying on Pazzaglia et al.’s (2016) suggestion to use an already established survey, I
borrowed elements of Scambor’s (2008) checklist for document analysis to craft the checklist for
this document review. Availability of the source documents was also a factor guiding the
instrument development (Bowen, 2009). O’Leary (2020) recommended eight steps to the
document review planning process. These steps are creating a list of documents to be explored,
access to these documents, a plan for controlling biases, skills needed to finalize the document
review, strategies to ensure credibility, data being searched for, possible ethical issues, and
establishing a contingency plan (O’Leary, 2020).
Scambor’s (2008) checklist for document analysis provided an excellent starting point to
build on O’Leary’s (2020) recommendations to create a selective rather than comprehensive
review process (Bowen, 2009). The final checklist consisted of the following questions: type and
date of document (i.e., newsletter, blog post, marketing materials, recruitment brochure, etc.),
intended audience, document’s main topics, special focus on recruitment for diversity within the
workforce, who is represented in the written language, who is represented in the visual language,
whether the document specifically speaks to marginalized communities, and the main message
concerning the intersection of disability and other diverse communities. To navigate bias, a final
question was included: “What are my personal feelings relating to the content?”
Data Collection Procedures
The timeframe for the document review occurred in the fall of 2021. The final checklist
consisted of eight questions with a section for both written and visual content review. To ensure
42

consistency across organizations, all available public domains were reviewed. This included the
business’ website, LinkedIn profile, and other social media pages. Additionally, the mission
statement for each business was specifically reviewed. The document analysis protocol can be
found in Appendix F. As this was not the main data collection process for this study, the
researcher looked for quality rather than quantity of documents. Appendix G contains the
checklist used for collecting data in the document review process.
Data Analysis
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) offered that data analysis is the process of classifying and
interpreting the material obtained into assertions that make sense; essentially an inductive and
comparative process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I used themes identified in the qualitative
coding process, as well as a priori codes, to make assertions that were congruent across of the
documents reviewed (Gibbs, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I summarized findings in
sufficient detail to enable the reader to make judgments about the reliability of the conclusions
(Gibbs, 2018).
Maximizing Credibility and Trustworthiness
Triangulation of the data collected in this research project was an important part of
creating credibility and trustworthiness. A document review in itself is a non-reactive process
that can ‘counter the concern related to reflexivity’ that can occur in qualitative studies (Bowen,
2009, p. 31). Additionally, documents are considered a stable entity not altered by the
researcher’s presence. Heading to Bowen’s (2009) words of caution, the documents reviewed
were not treated as “precise, accurate, or complete recordings of events” (p. 33). Rather, I used a
critical eye in answering the eight questions on the checklist, making sure to note the relevance
of the document to the research questions addressed (Bowen, 2009). The intent of this review
43

was to evaluate the documents in a way that produced empirical evidence grounded in
“objectivity and sensitivity” (Bowen, 2009, p. 34).
Issues Related to Positionality and Power
It is interesting to answer the question of my positionality and salient identities that may
play a role in this study. I am a woman, a wife, a mother of six, a sister of two. I am white and
hold a middle to upper class socioeconomic status (SES). I am a daughter, a mother and a sister
of individuals on the autism spectrum. I am also a chief executive officer (CEO) of a non-profit
organization that provides supports and services to adults with developmental disabilities. I have
worked at my organization for 31 years; the individuals I serve in my organization are racially
diverse with varying levels of SES. I was a single mother of three for many years, and as such, I
was supported by non-profits with a variety of resources. As CEO, I have a decision-making
role; more importantly, I have an ability to influence not only the values, mission, and vision of
my own organizations, but also other thought leaders in the field. I relate to this field as a
professional, a family member, and as a person who holds a deep faith in a higher power; I
believe that I have been called to the work that I do and that God’s plan for my life is to be a
voice for those who are not able to speak for themselves. I do not think that early in my career, I
understood the depth of my conviction, but I knew that I found a place where I was a good
teacher, and in turn, I found a learning environment for myself as well. Over time, I have come
to believe that we are not genetic mistakes or medical complications; we are meant to be just
who we are. This belief is driven by my faith and my background in the sciences. But I think it is
these ideas that keep people with significant intellectual disabilities oppressed. They are not
typical, and somehow, we are. We immediately separate them based on the idea of who can and
who cannot. I am committed heart and soul to this work and to the injustices and the levels of
44

discrimination that I still see and hear today. However, I still hold major blind spots. First and
foremost, I do not know what it is to truly live a life with a pervasive developmental disability. I
also do not know what it is like to compound this challenge with one’s race or ethnic diversity.
However, even with this said, my belief in the capabilities of those I work with is so profound
that I can’t understand at all why society holds such deep discriminative beliefs about PWD to
the point of choosing to only serve this population and no other. Therefore, it is critical that the
researcher conducts herself in an ethical manner ensuring that personal bias does not lead the
interviewee one direction or another; using a semi-structured approach to each interview will
increase the ethicality of this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Creswell (2018) provides detailed steps to designing a research study including the
ethical collection, analysis, sharing, and storing of confidential data. All study participants, both
qualitative and quantitative, were advised that participation was voluntary. Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approval was obtained prior to the collection of any data. IRB Study number is UP-
21-00502. Although IP addresses were collected for the quantitative data, these were used only
to remove duplications of results. Once duplications were removed, IP addresses were
disregarded. For the qualitative data, all identifying personal information, other than gender, was
either not collected or disregarded. Survey participants were informed that the answers would be
collected the purpose of this study. Each survey participant could stop at any time during the
completion of the full survey. Each interviewee for this study was informed that the interview
would be recorded prior to the start of the recording. Each interviewee agreed to the recording of
the data and the use of the information for the purposes of this study. All data collected was held
in secure websites such as Qualtrics, Atlas.ti, and Otter.ai.
45

Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter provides a descriptive analysis of the quantitative data, qualitative
information, and document review. A thorough review of each research question provided the
framework for this chapter. Four questions guided this research:
1. What are the perceived barriers and benefits of hiring a person with a disability?
2. How do the organizational mission and values align with diverse hiring practices, if they
do?
3. For businesses that hire PWIDD, what are the unique culture characteristics of the
organization that support these diverse hiring practices?
4. How do opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, and volunteer work within the
business, if they do, play a role in the hiring of people with intellectual disabilities?
From the 84 survey respondents’ answers and six interviews, four themes emerged as
findings. These themes were that participants found benefit to hiring PWD, they perceive
barriers to hiring PWD, their proactive recruitment strategies are inconsistent for PWD, and
unique cultural and leadership traits reinforce diverse hiring practices.
Participants
Survey Participants Demographics
In total, 84 employers responded to the survey. Among them, 73 responded to the
questions regarding type of business, role within organizations, and size of organizations. Table
2 provides a more detailed description of these responses.

46

Table 2
Survey Respondent Demographics
Personnel/Human resources Owner President/C-suite
Small Med. Large
Very
large Small Med. Small Med. Large
Total
count
Service-
providing
4.0 8.0 4.0 1.0 25.0 0.0 6.0 7.0 2.0 57.0
Goods-
producing
0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 12.0
Public
administration
1.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0
Total 5.0 11.0 4.0 1.0 34.0 1.0 7.0 8.0 2.0 73.0

Note. Small refers to 14 or fewer employees, Medium refers to 15–249 employees, Large refers
to 250–999 employees, and Very Large refers to 1000 or more employees.

The survey respondents were asked about their companies’ plans for their workforces
over the next 12 months. Thirty-four of them indicated that they had no plans to increase or
decrease, 43 indicated they plan to increase, and only two indicated that they plan to reduce their
workforces. Of the 43 respondents who plan to increase their workforce, 33 were service-
producing, four were goods-producing, and two were public administration. Additionally, Table
3 provides a further breakdown of the roles and size of the organizations planning to increase
their workforce in the next 12 months.

47

Table 3
Plans to Increase or Decrease Workforce by Type, Role, and Size of Organization
Plans to increase No plans to increase or decrease Plans to reduce
Type of business
Service-providing 33 22 2
Goods-producing 4 8 0
Public
administration
2 2 0
Role
Personnel/human
resources
17 5 0
Owner 14 21 0
President/C-suite 9 6 2
Size
Small 18 29 0
Medium 15 3 2
Large 6 0 0
Very large 4 1 0

Interviewee Participant Demographics
Three of interviewees were male, and three were female. Each held different roles within
their organizations, yet all of them were in decision-making positions. Table 4 further describes
the individual interviewees’ demographics.

48

Table 4
Interviewee Demographics
Role
Tenure in
industry Industry
1 (Male) CEO 25 Non-profit health and wellness
2 (Male) Owner 20 Grocery retail
3 (Female)
Corporate level training
specialist
26 Gas/Fuel
4 (Male) General manager 40 Car dealership
5 (Female) Director 10 Children museum
6 (Female)
Corporate level lead training
specialist
21 Gas/Fuel

Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What are the perceived barriers and benefits of hiring
a person with a disability?” This section is organized into four themes to provide an overview of
these findings. These themes are (a) key findings in benefits to hiring PWD and (b) key findings
in the perceived barriers to hiring PWD. The section on Theme 1 is presented in subsections: (a)
projects a positive image, (b) increases company morale, and (c) increases pool of qualified
candidates. Under Theme 2, subsections pertain to the attitudes of co-workers, management, and
customers, and the costs of hiring and retention. Each section discusses survey results and
interview findings to support the key findings for each theme. When relevant, results from
document analysis support these themes.
Theme 1: Employers Found Benefit to Hiring People With Disabilities
When queried and interviewed, employers found benefit in hiring PWD into their
workforces. In total, 71 survey respondents and six interviewees answered the questions focused
49

on the benefits of hiring PWD. Respondents agreed that hiring PWD provides a positive benefit
to the company across all three categories: (a) projects a positive image of your company (a)
increases the pool of qualified candidates, and (c) increases morale.
When asked if there are any other benefits to hiring PWD, responses varied by size of
organization. Out of very large (1000 employees or more) and large (250–999 employees), two
large organizations offered additional comments: “They make the world a better place and prove
anything is possible. When employees see that, it boosts morale x10!” Another stated, “Like
hiring any diverse workforce, hiring individuals with disabilities makes the workplace richer,
more inclusive, and tends to highlight the similarities of employees rather than just what makes
them different.” In addition to these comments, interview Participant 3, a lead training specialist,
added that her organization received an award from the city’s mayor for being an “employer that
hires PWD and makes an impact in the community,” which further validated the importance of
hiring PWD into their work culture. Several additional insights into the benefits of hiring
individuals with disabilities were offered by the small (14 and fewer employees) and medium
(15–249 employees) organizations surveyed. Table 5 offers a sampling of the insights from the
quantitative surveys.

50

Table 5
Sampling of Insights from Quantitative Survey Respondents
Organization size Insight
Medium Ability to provide the person with a disability the opportunity to
help them further develop a skill, to feel included and
respected.
Creating an inclusive community that hopefully trickles into the
rest of the world to want to hire individuals with disabilities.
To demonstrate that people with disabilities can perform at a job
when matched with their skills; to lessen stigma.
All parties learn to adapt in communication in the office as well
in the community. People learn about access and how to
change it
Small Loyalty. If an individual discloses that they have a disability in
the interview and they are hired, they may feel a sense of
loyalty to the company; thereby reducing turnover.
My impression is that they strive to be reliable and consistent, as
opposed to taking the position for granted.
The tax write offs

Employers who have already hired PWD into their workforces also found many benefits
to having done so. Findings from both qualitative and quantitative data analysis are discussed in
the following subsections: project a positive image of the company, increase company morale,
and increase the pool of qualified candidates.
Projects a Positive Image
Both the quantitative and qualitative results support the assertion that hiring PWD
projects a positive image of the company. Further analysis of the data is provided in the
following two sections: survey and interview findings.

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Survey Results
A closed-ended question with a 5-point rating scale was used to measure the level of
agreement either positively or negatively when asked, “Would you say that hiring people with
disabilities projects a positive image of your company?” Fifty-four, or 75%, of the respondents
either agreed or strongly agreed that hiring PWD projects a positive image of the company.
Fourteen, or 19.7%, held no opinion one way or the other, and only 5.6%, or 4, either disagreed
or strongly disagreed. There was no statistical relationship among size of organization, role in the
organization, and type of industry. However, to better understand the data, the researcher
provided a table for each of these factors in relation to projecting a positive image of the
organization when hiring a PWD. Across all size organizations, a majority of the respondents
either somewhat or strongly agree that hiring a PWD projects a positive image of the company.
Table 6 provides a detailed chart of the size of organization in relation to projecting a positive
image of the organization.

Table 6
Size of the Organization in Relation to Projecting a Positive Image of the Organization
Agreement Value Small Medium Large Very large Total
Strongly agree 15 21.1% 9 12.7% 3 4.2% 1 1.4% 28 39.4%
Somewhat agree 16 22.5% 8 11.3% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 25 35.2%
Neither agree nor
disagree
12 16.9% 1 1.4% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 14 19.7%
Somewhat disagree 1 1.4% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 2.8%
Strongly disagree 1 1.4% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 2.8%

52

There was not a statistically significant relationship between role in the organization and
projecting a positive image. Fifty-three survey respondents across all role types indicated an
agreement or strong agreement that hiring PWD projected a positive image of the company.
Table 7 shows the analysis of this relationship, bucketing those who responded strongly agree
and somewhat agree into Group 1, and those who responded somewhat disagree and strongly
disagree into Group 3. There was not a statistically significant relationship between type of
business and projecting a positive image of the company. Table 8 groups who responded
somewhat agree and strongly agree into Group 1 and those who responded somewhat disagree
and strongly disagree into Group 3, leaving those who selected neither agree or disagree as
Group 2. Table 8 also shows a detailed analysis of the relationship between type of business and
projecting a positive image of the company.

Table 7
Analysis of the Relationship Between Role in the Organization and Projecting A Positive Image

Personnel/Human
resources Owner President/C-suite Total
Group n % n % n % n %
Group 1
16 22.5% 23 32.4% 14 19.7% 53 74.6%
Group 2
3 4.2% 9 12.7% 2 2.8% 14 19.7%
Group 3
2 2.8% 2 2.8% 0 0.0% 4 5.6%

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Table 8
Relationship Between Business Type and Projecting a Positive Image of the Company
Type of Industry Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Total
n % n % n % n %
Service-providing 41 57.7% 11 15.5% 3 4.2% 56 77.5%
Goods-producing 9 12.7% 2 2.8% 1 1.4% 12 16.9%
Public administration 3 4.2% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 4 5.6%

Interview Findings
Although no statistical relationship was found among size, role, and type of business, the
majority of respondents indicated that there was benefit of hiring PWD within the organization.
However, the data is interesting in that regardless of size of organization, role in the
organization, or business type, a similar percentage of respondents, 74.7%, 74.6%, 77.5%,
respectively, reported that hiring a PWD projected a positive image of the company. Interview
findings asserted the same finding. Five of the six interviewees who have hired PWD identified
an increased positive image of their companies through positive customer input. Participant 6
simply stated, “And then the [neurodiverse employees] kind of help keep the store clean and
fresh. That inviting experience, and we’re getting a lot of positive reaction.” Participant 2, who
own a grocery retail store, described how hiring PWD increased business and projected a
positive image of the company:
I really believe we appeal to all people. So, I think when people shop our store, they see
that, … I really believe that it creates repeat business. Is there a way to measure it? I can’t
say. But I will say I get a lot of good feedback from customers. And people say they shop
54

by store because of this. … I really do believe it believes repeat business. I really believe
that you’d be surprised who shops your store and the reasons why they do.
Increasing business as well as projecting a positive image of his company was a key takeaway
from the interview with Participant 2. Participant 4, who is a general manager of a large car
dealership, also discussed having received positive customer feedback:
I’ve had customers pull me aside, and, you know, tell me that they have a similar
experience and how great it is [that] we have these employees here. So, I think all in all,
it’s been overwhelmingly positive. I haven’t had a negative experience at all with it.
Positive customer feedback reinforces the positive image companies express when hiring
PWD. Participant 1, a CEO of health and wellness organization, suggested that hiring PWD
helps the organization to actively live their mission. He says,
I think on the human capital side, because of our mission statement, and who we believe
we are, there’s so much value to be able to say [diversity is] represented here. And this is
where it’s represented. … We’re living the mission, … it demonstrates on a daily basis
that our organization is inclusive, and not just inclusive for inclusive sake. No, [PWD]
has earned an opportunity to work for our organization because he knows what he’s
doing. He just happens to have a disability.
Living the mission of the organization is a positive benefit to hiring PWD within organizations.
In addition to an increased positive company image, survey respondents and interviewees
reported that hiring PWD increased company morale.
Increases Company Morale
Survey respondents and interviewees reported that hiring PWD increased morale within
their organizations. This section explores the statistical relationship between size and type of
55

organization and role of the respondent in relation to the effects on increased morale when a
person with disabilities is hired. This section also explores the impact on the companies that
hired PWD, surfacing a few key effects, including creating a culture of inclusiveness and
providing hope to family members and customers.
Survey Results
Seventy-one survey respondents answered the closed-ended, 5-point rating scale question
“Would you say that hiring people with disabilities increases morale at your company?” Of
these, 36 respondents, or 50.7%, indicated strong agreement or agreement with this statement.
Thirty-one respondents, or 43.7%, responded with neither agree nor disagree, and only four, or
5.6%, answered with a strongly or somewhat disagreement response. This study provided little
evidence to the reasoning of the large data gap for the neither agree nor disagree subset. Further
study is needed to ascertain whether a specific organizational factor or characteristic played a
role in these findings. Although the overall summary of responses for the question regarding
morale shows no statistical significance, there are some significant values identified when
separated into smaller relationship subsets: (a) the role of the respondent, (b) the business type,
and (c) the size of organization by employee count. Table 9 shows the relationship of each
variable to agreement value with data in both percentages and number of respondents for each
statement.

Table 9
Relationship of Increased Company Morale to Size, Role, and Business Type of Organization When Hiring an Individual With
Disabilities
Increases Company Morale
Variable
Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree

Total
% n % n % n % n % n % n
Role
Personnel/Human resources¹ ∧ 14.1 10 5.6 4 ∨ 7.0 5 1.4 1 1.4 1 29.6 21
Owner 9.9 7 9.9 7 25.4 18 2.8 2 0.0 0 47.9 34
President/C-suite 4.2 3 7.0 5 11.3 8 0.0 0 0.0 0 22.5 16
Business Type
Service-providing 22.5 16 16.9 12 33.8 24 2.8 2 1.4 1 77.5 55
Goods-producing 2.8 2 4.2 3 8.5 6 1.4 1 0.0 0 16.9 12
Public administration 2.8 2 1.4 1 1.4 1 0.0 0 0.0 0 5.6 4
Size of organization
Small² 14.1 10 12.7 9 ∧ 33.8 24 2.8 2 0.0 0 63.4 45
Medium³ 8.5 6 9.9 7 ∨ 7.0 5 1.4 1 1.4 1 28.2 20
Large 4.2 3 0.0 0 2.8 2 0.0 0 0.0 0 7.0 5
Very large 1.4 1 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 1.4 1

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Note. ¹ Of the strongly agree group, 14.1% of all data points are in the Personnel/Human resources group. This cell has a statistically
higher value than typical. Of the neither agree nor disagree group, 7.0% of all data points are in the Personnel/human Resources
group, which is a statistically lower value than typical. ² Of the neither agree nor disagree group, 33.8% of all the data points are in
the Small (14 and under) group which is a statistically higher value than typical. ³ Of the neither agree nor disagree group, 7.0% of all
of the data points are in the Medium Size organization group, which is a statistically significant lower value than typical.

57
58

Although there is no statistically significant relationship between the variables,
organizational characteristics such as service-producing or public administration organizations
are qualities to look for when hiring for a person with disabilities. Uniquely, 36 respondents out
of 71 respondents for each variable reported strong agreement or somewhat agreement that
hiring a person with disabilities increased company morale. Employers who have already hired
PWD also agreed that having PWD increased the morale of their employees.
Interview Findings
Six of the organizations that have hired PWD have had positive experiences. When asked
about their experience, the CEO of a non-profit health and wellness organization stated that he
had “both heard and experienced” positive experiences with PWD. He further stated,
I’ve always heard the positive aspect of bringing on any type of employee or volunteer
that may have a disability. And we’ve done it. We’ve done it multiple times; we’ve
demonstrated we can do it both on the volunteer end and on the employment end.
The corporate level lead training specialist in the fuel industry, Participant 6, described how
hiring individuals with disabilities creates hope for a better future for family members and can
increase recognition in the community. She gave an example:
We’re very proud of our program. Our vice president just touted it all over. He actually
thanked us because his son is autistic. [He said that] it’s employers like us and
organizations like [us] that allow his family to have faith that his son will lead a 100%
normal life. And, again, I just want a place for my niece to go, so she can make her
money and she can feel like she’s a contributing part of the community, and that she feels
the worth of being able to put in a good day’s solid work. And again, she’s only four. So,
it really brings me great joy to be coordinators for this program.
59

Providing hope for employee’s family members is one way morale is lifted within the
corporate culture. Interviewee five, Director of children’s museum, added that the benefits of
hiring a person with a disability are about creating a culture of inclusiveness. She went on to say:
It’s a culture, whether it’s based off of an ability or just on who that person identifies as,
but just really being open to just kind of accepting people for who they are, right, because
I think that it’s really hard when we put people in boxes to really see what they can do
and what gifts they have. …, you never know what that person can do for your
organization or how that person is going to benefit the organization.
For the majority of employers surveyed and interviewed hiring PWD increased morale within
their organizations; 36 of 71 survey respondents, regardless of size, role or type of industry, and
all six interviewees agreed. In addition to morale, the data show that employers agreed that
hiring PWD increased the pool of qualified candidates.
Increases Pool of Qualified Candidates
Employers agreed that hiring PWD increases the pool of qualified candidates. Sixty-three
percent, or 45 out of the 71 employers surveyed, either strongly or somewhat agreed with this
statement. Thirty-one percent neither agreed or disagreed, and only 5.6% somewhat disagreed or
strongly disagreed. Table 10 presents the answers to the question “Would you say that hiring
PWD increases the pool of qualified candidates?” The table is organized by subsets of size, role
and business type when bucketing the responses into three groups. Group 1 gathers those who
responded somewhat agree and strongly agree together, Group 3 gathers those who selected
somewhat disagree and strongly disagree together, and Group 2 consists of those who answered
neither agree nor disagree.
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Table 10
Increases Pool of Qualified Candidates by Size of Organization, Business Type, and Role of
Respondent

Group 1
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Group 2
Neither agree
nor disagree
Group 3
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree Total
Type of industry n % n % n % n %
Service-providing 37 52.1% 16 22.5% 2 2.8% 55 77.5%
Goods-producing 6 8.5% 4 5.6% 2 2.8% 12 16.9%
Public administration 2 2.8% 2 2.8% 0 0.0% 4 5.6%
Role
personnel/human
resources 15 21.1% 4 5.6% 2 2.8% 21 29.6%
Owner 18 25.4% 14 19.7% 2 2.8% 34 47.9%
President/C-suite 12 16.9% 4 5.6% 0 0.0% 16 22.5%
Size
Small 26 36.6% 17 23.9% 2 2.8% 45 63.4%
Medium 14 19.7% 4 5.6% 2 2.8% 20 28.2%
Large 4 5.6% 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 5 7.0%
Very large 1 1.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.4%

Interview Findings
Service-providing businesses were more likely to agree that hiring a person with a
disability increases the pool of candidates. Human resources roles and medium-sized companies
were more likely to agree that hiring a person with a disability increased the pool of qualified
candidates. Based on these findings, organizational traits such as medium-sized, service-
producing, or those with a human resource department are qualities to look for when hiring a
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person with a disability. Five of the six interviewees also agreed that hiring PWD has helped
with the recruitment of open positions within their companies. Table 11 provides an overview of
the interviews answers about recruitment and hiring PWD.

Table 11
Overview of Interviewee Responses When Asked if Hiring People With Disabilities Helped With
Recruitment
Role Increased pool of candidates
Lead training
specialist
A great high-quality pool of folks that are dedicated and focused. It
helped our recruitment crunch.

We actually have more regional supervisors, more managers raising
their hands. I have a role and I need help. We don’t have as many
cashiers available, but we love to fill the role with the station support
rep, to keep my customers happy, the stores clean.
Owner It’s difficult to recruit. And especially right now, the job market is really
challenging right now, I’m a little bit understaffed, and it really is hard
to find people right now.
I really believe we can learn from anybody and everybody. I believe
everyone adds value...when you appeal to all people, and not just
certain groups, I think it makes it more, for one, an interesting place
because you’re engaging with all walks of life.
Director We like to hire within the kind of our demographic in which we serve
and so we find that those who work for [museum] are very reflective
of the guests also visiting, and I think that’s very beneficial whether
you’re a small child or whether you’re another adult interacting with
another adult. I think that having people who are from the
neighborhood and who can relate to the guests coming in add a certain
understanding and empathy … I like the fact that we have a very
diverse group of people.

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Hiring PWD helps find qualified candidates in a tight job market and demonstrates
representation from all corners of the diverse community. The lead training specialist, Participant
6, further supported the assertion that hiring PWD increased the hiring pool by encouraging other
hiring managers within their corporation to expand their own neuro-diversity program. She
stated that they are “actually going to be showcasing [this program] at a global summit within
our own company just so we can show what we’re doing here in California and that we’re going
to expand it to the other states we operate.”
Theme 2: Employers Hold Perceived Barriers to Hiring People with Disabilities
Employers have concerns about hiring individuals with disabilities, specifically in the
areas of knowing how to address their needs and the potential costs of workers’ compensation,
turnover, and absenteeism. The following sections present the concerns in the following
subsections: (a) attitudes of co-workers, management, and customers and (b) cost of hire and
retention.
Survey Results
In total, 72 survey respondents answered the questions centered on seven concerns, found
in the literature, that employers have had regarding hiring PWD. At first glance, it would appear
that most respondents communicated that none of these were a major concern. The data was then
bucketed into the categories of (a) not a concern (Group1) and (b) a combination of somewhat of
a concern and major concern (Group 2). At that point, the data reflected each concern as a factor
in the hiring decision, with knowing how to address the needs of workers with disabilities being
the greatest concern. Table 12 shows the comparison of these two bucketed groups. In the next
three subsections, the researcher has broken these concerns into subsets of attitudes, cost
associated with hiring and retention, and knowing how to address the needs of workers with
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disabilities. Having looked at these factors in relation to business types, size of organization, and
role in organization, the data offered additional insights into these concerns across both the
quantitative and qualitative dimensions.

Table 12
Concern Levels for Hiring People With Disabilities by Group 1 and 2
Group 1
(not a concern)
Group 2
(somewhat a concern
and major concern
Knowing how to
address the needs
of workers with
disabilities
43.6% 56.4%

Attitudes Co-workers 67.9% 32.1%
Management 76.9% 23.1%
Customers 62.8% 37.2%

Costs Worker
compensation
premiums
57.7% 42.3%
Turnover 53.8% 46.2%
Absenteeism 52.8% 47.2%

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Attitudes of Co-workers, Management, and Customers
Although there was no significant statistical relationship between attitudes toward hiring
PWD and role, size, or type of organization, attitudes varied across each category. The researcher
explored these attitudinal groups for both survey respondents and interviewees. The next section
provides a deeper analysis of the data.
Survey Results
Type of business, role in the organization, and size of organization play a role in the level
of concern employers hold for the attitudes of co-workers, management, and customers. For
public administration, customers’ attitude was a top concern, whereas a majority of the owner
and president/C-suite respondents reported no concern regarding attitudes across all three sub-
categories. Personnel/Human resources reported no concern higher than the combined
somewhat/major levels of concerns for both co-workers’ and management’s attitudes and an
even distribution between the two groups when asked about customers’ attitudes. For very large
organizations, the attitudes of co-workers, management, and customers were a concern.
However, for the remainder of the organizational sizes, the majority reported no concerns
regarding attitudes at any of the three sub-categories. Table 13 displays the respondent count
across all three attitudinal groups in relation to role, business type, and size of organization.

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Table 13
Attitudes of Co-worker, Management, and Customers by Size, Role, and Type of Business
Attitudes of co-
workers
Attitudes of
management
Attitude of
customers
G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2
Role
Personnel/Human
resources
14 8 15 7 11 11
Owner 24 10 27 7 22 12
President/C-suite 14 3 16 1 15 2
Business type
Public administration 2 2 2 2 1 3
Goods-producing 9 3 11 1 9 3
Service-producing 41 15 45 11 38 18
Size of organization
Small 34 12 37 9 28 18
Medium 13 7 16 4 14 6
Large 4 2 4 2 5 1
Very large 2 3 2 3 2 3

Interview Findings
All six of the employers who have hired PWD into their workforces experienced both
positive and negative attitudes of co-workers, management, or customers. The corporate training
specialist, Participant 3, reported that managers were “a little nervous” about the new neuro-
diversity program and that the initial disability awareness training helped to alleviate this
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nervousness. Participant 5 reported that in the second county in which she hired employees with
disabilities, she encountered some lower acceptance levels from co-workers in the form of
complaining about job assignments and asking, “Why do they get to do that?” She alluded to the
affluence level of the community as a possible explanation for this experience. Conversely,
Participant 1 said of their hires, “members love them,” and he reported that both his personal
experience as well as the experiences he has heard from his employees are “always positive.”
Participant 2 added
[I talk] to my customers a lot when I’m on the floor. And I get a lot of feedback from
that. [The customers say,] ‘Hey, I noticed the people you hire here’ and not just with
those with disabilities, but other individuals as well. I think that’s a benefit.”
Participant 2 offered this example:
I’ve one [an employee with disabilities]. She’s so bubbly and so friendly. A lot of people
have reservations, right? She doesn’t have reservations. [She] is very excited. I love that.
She lights me up when I see her. It’s all her. No holding back. I think people see that, and
it makes the experience different when they shop the store.
Friendly service to the company and to customers was of importance to the grocery owner.
Additionally, the general manager, Participant 4, offered,
Some of the employees here have family members that are in that spectrum. So, they
think it’s great. I’ve had customers pull me aside and tell me that they have a similar
experience and how great it is that we have these employees here. So, I think, all in all,
it’s been overwhelmingly positive. I haven’t had a negative experience at all with it.
The majority of employers who have hired PWD into their workforces have had a positive
experience in doing so.
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Cost of Hire and Retention
Employers expressed some concern about the perceived cost of hiring and retaining PWD
within their workforces. Perceived concerns for hiring and retention included cost of turnover,
workers compensation, and absenteeism. Concerns also included the perceived knowledge of
how to address the needs of PWD.
Survey Results
Table 14 provides a description of the perceived concerns for cost of turnover, workers
compensation, and absenteeism by type of role, business, and size of organization.

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Table 14
Perceived Concerns for Cost of Turnover, Workers Compensation, and Absenteeism by Type of
Role, Business, and Size of Organization
Cost
of turnover
Cost of
workers
compensation
Cost of
absenteeism
G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2
Role
Personnel/Human
resources
9 13 12 10 9 12
Owner 23 11 21 13 20 14
President/C-suite 8 9 9 8 9 8
Business type
Public administration 2 2 2 2 1 3
Goods-producing 9 3 11 1 9 3
Service-producing 41 15 45 11 38 18
Size of organization
Small 30 16 28 18 26 19
Medium 6 14 8 12 8 12
Large 3 3 5 1 3 3
Very large 3 2 3 2 1 0

Additionally, employers cited knowledge of how to address the needs of a disabled
worker as a concern. Grouping the quantitative data into the two categories of Group 1 (not a
concern) and Group 2 (somewhat a concern/major concern), the majority of survey respondents
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reported concerns across all three descriptive categories: role, business type, and size of
organization. Table 15 provides a descriptive analysis of this concern.

Table 15
Descriptive Analysis of Knowledge of How to Address the Needs of a Disabled Worker by
Category of Role, Business Type, and Size of Organization
Knowledge of how to address the needs of a disabled
worker
G1 G2
Role
Personnel/Human resources 10 12
Owner 15 19
President/C-suite 7 10
Business type
Public administration 2 2
Goods-producing 5 7
Service-producing 25 31
Size of organization
Small 20 26
Medium 6 14
Large 5 1
Very large 2 3

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Interview Findings
Safety was the primary concern, cited by the four of the six interviewees, in both hiring
and retention of an employee with a disability. Table 16 offers clear examples of their concerns
for employees with disabilities in their workforces.

Table 16
Safety Concerns from Qualitative Interviews
Interviewee Concern
4 I think out of all of those, the one issue would be the safety concerns.
Being a dealership, we move a lot of cars. … So, that’s the one area of
concern I have, not just for those groups of folks, but for everybody, is
safety.
1 So, my concern for all of our staff is that [safety]. So, putting somebody
with a specific disability, we would have to be extremely cautious about
that interaction with the 10% of our membership base. … That’s
probably that would be my largest concern presently.
2 My concern is always around people being hurt. And then, two, the cost
associated with that. That’d be my only concern
5 It’s not stopping [us] from hiring, but once they’re here just make sure
that’s never something that’s compromised. Because obviously
sometimes somebody with a disability or has a different nature, injuries
affect them differently.

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The interviewees were provided a list of research-based employment concerns, which
included cost of accommodation, cost of turnover, cost of workers compensation, cost of health
care, absenteeism, turnover, and safety on the job. For the majority of the interviewees, although
safety was identified as a concern, they reported that it was a strong consideration but not a
barrier to hiring or retaining employees with disabilities. In addition to safety, by two
interviewees reported training and acceptance as concerns when hiring PWD. Participant 3
noted,
[The managers were] concerned with “how are we going to have the time to train these
people? Or how are they going to adapt into our environment and things like that.” So
that’s why doing all the work prior helped alleviate that.
She then offered that the disability agency provided support for the first 3 months of the job for
each employee and that if she, or her managers, could call and “they’ll come right down.”
Participant 5 noted,
I sometimes feel that I’ve seen situations here where you don’t have that bond, and we
have some staff members who have disabilities, and obviously, staff members who don’t,
and that there tends to be this “Why do they get to do that?” And, so, I think that that’s
just very interesting from a cultural [perspective]; whether or not they were raised to
appreciate or just their tolerance or acceptance level. And so, you know, we’ve had to
have a couple of conversations with some staff members about meeting people where
they’re at and what their abilities are.
Both participants noted that with the right level of support “on the front end” made the
difference. Participant 5 noted that the relationship with the disability-related service
organization “made it really easy for that assimilation to happen,” and when Participant 3 asked
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one of her managers, she stated, “I could see right away that it was something that was going to
work.”
Despite preconceived concerns for hiring and retaining an individual with disabilities,
employers who have hired PWD liken their experiences as similar to those they have with
employees without disabilities. The CEO from the non-profit health and wellness organizations
discussed similarities in the hiring process for people with and without disabilities:
There’s a fear factor when you’re hiring anyone, at any point, right? You just don’t know
what you’re going to get. You just don’t. You go through three rounds of interviews and
application and reference calls and all this stuff, and you think you’ve hired the right
person. And as you know, they can turn out to be a complete nightmare. So, when we
look at the demographic that you specifically work with, as an employment/employee
pool that we can pull from, the same concerns are there for us. Is this person the right fit?
Are we going to put them in a position to succeed? It’s almost like I don’t know if we
feel worthy to have the clients at times transition to a position of employment because we
want to make sure we’re doing right by them. And we’re putting them in a position to
succeed, not just earn a paycheck, but succeed in the career, right? There’s a lot of
pressure on us to help fill that. Whether it’s a client from [disability service organization],
that pressure I feel it as the leader of the organization is that I want everyone to fall in
love with the [organization]. I want all of our employees to feel like this is something
that’s meaningful work for them. So, as we learn more of the interactive, the educational
piece, calming our nerves about [the fact] this is no different than any other process that
you’re going to go through. I think that part’s helpful, as we’re kind of taking the steps
along the way.
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The hiring process is similar in this health and wellness organization for people with and without
disabilities. In reflecting on the same question, the children’s museum director reported,
I think it was really important for us also to make sure that they were included in
everything that we did, from staff parties to just everything. They were part of our
morning huddle. We did huddles every single morning, and they were a part of that, and
they were held to the same expectations and accountabilities that our staff members were
to most extent. I will say that the experiences are probably the same. I think inherently we
all have, you know, our rough moments and our great days. So, I think the experiences
were the same. I will say that there was very little complaining [from employees with
disabilities], and I appreciated that. I think the communication was a little bit more
straightforward [with employees with disabilities] than I sometimes get with regular
employees. They tend to skirt around an issue really quickly [for employees with
disabilities] there’s very little excuses, and you kind of take things for face value. And
it’s really important for us that our guests see themselves in the staff members that are
helping them, right. And that little kids come into the building and say, hey, that guy’s
just like me. And he’s doing science.
Although communication by PWD may be different, guests with disabilities seeing themselves in
the workforce was key for the children’s museum. From a corporate training specialist
standpoint, the interviewee reported that working with people with and without disabilities is
similar. She explained,
They [experiences] are similar. Talking with the station managers [and asking,] “What is
the challenge? One [example] might be that one of our SSRs loves our customers and
love to talk to our customers. That would be the same kind of a challenge where, as far as
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job performance, you would have to go over and say, “Go back and focus on your task at
hand and maybe not talk so much to the customers,” or [for another employee] a friend
that came in the station or they might want to be on their phone [too much] or something
like that. So, I wouldn’t say it’s much different because, like I said, they’re trained on
their tasks at hand, and the manager may just have to spend some, maybe a little bit
additional time, training but the job coach helps. We have these great resources, these
kinds of cards that have the station operating procedures, step by step, on how to clean
the restroom. So, we’re handing that over to the job coach, and they’re [job coaches]
helping us get them started in that training process. So, yeah, I don’t think it’s much. I
don’t think it’s different. They’re not absent. There’s not much turnover. They’re safe on
the job. They’re all similar within the organization. We treat all employees the same with
high-quality training, leadership, behaviors. So, it’s all based on the same.
Treating all employees with the same training and expectations was key for Participant 3.
Participant 3 added,
Feedback I have from everybody in this program is that they are never late to work, and
they rarely call off, which is a complete opposite from the [station reps]. [They are] our
most dependable employees. Probably, if you look at the retention ratio, even though it’s
a small number compared to another small number, it’s a higher retention rate than our
[station reps].
In addition to similarities in hiring for employees with and without disabilities, employers cited
that resources from disability-related organizations were key.
All six employers interviewed cited key resources from disability service organizations
that mitigate risk and increase benefits when hiring a person with disabilities. Drawing from the
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experiences of employers who have hired PWD, supports and services such as job matching,
staff training, and onsite coaches were key components of the services provided by services
agencies. Table 17 highlights positive examples available to business leaders from disability
services providers.

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Table 17
Types of Disability Service Provider Supports and Services
Type of
resource
Role Impact
Job
matching
Owner,
grocery
retail
They assess readiness. So, do background on the students and
young adults that are [ready] for the work environment. They
do a good job of assessing. What will they be working on?
What will they be doing? And they say, “they definitely can
do that.”
Lead
corporate
level
training
specialist
Department of rehab because they give us some wonderful
candidates that have really strong backgrounds in customer
service, janitorial, merchandising, and inventory, safety. So,
they really match us up with some great people.
Coaches General
manager,
car
dealership
The job coaches have all been really good. As far as integrating
in with what we do here and, and helping the team to be so
successful, job coaches essential for that. I think the job coach
makes it all possible. Coaches have been amazing.
Director,
children’s
museum
We like to have the job coaches on the floor with them because
certain things can come up in a moment’s notice … It brings
a lot of comfort to the employee as well as for us just
knowing that somebody else is kind of watching them
personally.
Owner,
grocery
retail
The partnership, which is great. We try to find ways to give
instruction because the goal is to have the job done. So, that’s
helpful [for] those that require a lot of direction, detail, or big,
big assignment. It is supportive to have another lead in the
store helping with that.
Training Training
specialist
Even more in-depth training with the managers on
understanding neuro-diversity, autism and things like that. So,
that was such great support from [disability service agency].
They not only spoke with all of us prior to launching the
program, explained exactly what it is, what they do, how they
provide employment to people with neurodiverse disabilities,
but also had meeting with the managers, [who] were then
explained and shown exactly how/what their [service
provider] role is, what our role will be, things to expect, how
to communicate what you know, things to say, maybe some
things not to say. It’s like sensitivity and awareness training.
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Disability-related service agencies provide benefit to companies who hired PWD. All six
of the interviewees had a relationship with a disability-related provider. Assessing readiness,
supplying quality candidates for interviews, in-depth disability awareness training for the
worksite, and on the job coaching that provided even more training and support for the person
with disability were key aspects of the advantages of disability-related service providers.
Research Question 2, Theme 3: Proactive Recruitment Strategies Inconsistent for People
With Disabilities
The second research question asked,” How do the organizational mission and values
align with diverse hiring practices, if they do?” This section focused on the use, if any, of
proactive recruitment strategies to hire PWD. Deeper analysis of the relationship between the
size, type, and role in organization and to the use of mentorship programs or partnerships with
disability organizations was conducted. Additionally, interviewees offered advice to employers
hesitant to hire PWD.
Overall, employers did not consistently employ proactive recruitment strategies, such as
internships and mentoring programs or partnerships with disability-related organizations. The
researcher will provide further insight into this theme through both survey results, document
analysis, and interview findings.
Survey Results
Large and very large organizations were more likely than small to medium-sized
organizations to utilize these recruitment strategies. The data showed that those in president/C-
suite roles were more likely to create partnerships with disability-related organizations yet not as
likely to establish mentorship or internship programs. Across all three types of business, none
was likely to have created a partnership with a disability-related organization or having
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established an internship or mentoring program. Table 18 provides further detail of the
relationship of the size and type of business and the role in the organization in relation to the use
of recruitment strategies of creating partnerships with disability-related organizations and
mentorship/internship programs targeted at PWD.

Table 18
Recruitment Strategies for Hiring People With Disabilities by Size, Type, and Role in
Organization

Create partnerships with
disability-related advocacy
organizations?
Establish internship and
mentoring programs targeted at
individuals with disabilities?
Size of organization Yes No Yes No
Small 14 33 9 38
Medium 7 13 6 14
Large 6 0 5 1
Very large 3 2 2 3
Business type
Service-producing 23 34 17 40
Goods-producing 2 10 2 10
Public administration 2 2 1 3
Role in organization
Personnel/Human
resources 9 13 8 14
Owner 8 27 4 31
President/C-suite 10 7 8 9

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Quantitative survey respondents also expanded on the question “Are there any other ways
your company is proactive in trying to recruit job applicants with disabilities?” Examples of
comments ranging from positive to more unfavorable positions are listed below:
“When we do look to hire, we view applicants with disabilities favorably”
“All are welcome as it is an equal opportunity success-based company”
“We do not care if the person has a disability, as long as it will not result in injury to
themselves or others”
“We serve students with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, anxiety, ADHD, and other
related learning challenges”
“Our company is not making strides to recruit applicants with disabilities”
“Our workspace is too small to accommodate ADA requirements”
Developing relationships with disability-service organizations was a key takeaway for C-Suite
personnel when surveyed about proactive recruitment strategies for PWD. However, other than
the range of survey comments collected, little evidence was identified for this study in the
consistent use of proactive recruitment strategies for the quantitative research participants.
Document Analysis and Interview Findings
Written diverse hiring practices were also not easily identified on websites or social
media or during the interviews. Through the document analysis, only 50% of the organizations
stated their hiring practices. One organization stated,
The [organization] is made up of people of all ages and from every walk of life working
side by side to strengthen communities. Together, we work to ensure that everyone,
regardless of ability, age, cultural background, ethnicity, faith, gender, gender identity,
ideology, income, national origin, race or sexual orientation, has the opportunity to reach
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their full potential with dignity. Our core values are caring, honesty, respect and
responsibility. They guide everything we do.
Another’s statement read, “[The organization] is committed to being an Equal Opportunity
employer, and we encourage applications from individuals from diverse backgrounds.” A third
statement said, “For over 35 years, [the organization] has been a non-profit organization
impacting the lives of children through hands-on science education. [The organization] is an
equal opportunity employer and is committed to diversity in its workforce.”
And during the interviews, even though the question was specifically asked, only two
employers provided specific responses. One was the director of the children’s museum:
We’re very cognizant of making sure that we’re serving our community. And, so, we do
have diverse programs at different campuses. ... We know that the communities have
their own kind of different culture at each individual campus. We’ll reach out to the
community to make sure that even down to vendors. We are definitely embedded in the
community. So, we’re always looking for different ways to make sure that we’re serving
that community.
When asked the same question, the non-profit CEO responded,
I looked at our employee manual. I looked at our hiring practices. I looked at all the legal
stuff in the compliance. I said, “Wow, there’s some stuff here that we’re doing really
well.” But there’s some real opportunity to kind of strengthen what we’re doing or really
reevaluate and just enhance what we’re doing. ... And a side piece of that work is looking
at the question, “how are you evaluating and putting on paper you’re hiring strategies to
be more diverse?” To be more accepting? To be more inclusionary? … We’re actively
having those conversations on a monthly basis with our HR vendor.
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Although proactive recruitment strategies to hire PWD were inconsistent, each of the six
qualitative interviews offered comments when asked, “What advice would you give employers
who are hesitant to hire an individual with a disability into their workforce.” Table 19 provides a
summary of the responses.

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Table 19
Summary of Responses for Advice Provided to Other Employers Looking to Hire PWD
Role Key message of storytelling
Owner Talk about the benefits. Share stories of these people. One thing I
love is when I see my team succeed. When I give them a
challenge and they blow my socks off. I was just so proud of
them…So, celebrate those wins. Those are the kind of stories I
like. The progress and successes, you want to celebrate those. So,
I would highlight stories like that and the benefits to it. There’s a
need out there. And if there’s a way to make it work in your
business, I’d explain it’s working for me. There’s really no cost to
me.
Training specialist I would say that don’t pass on such a great opportunity to give back
to the community. Provide an opportunity for people to work and
be part of [a company]. Don’t take that opportunity from your
employees. Because to me, that’s so big for us to be able to be
involved in [this program]. Don’t say no because you’re going to
take that opportunity away from your employees because [being]
a part of something that great or something that big is pretty
amazing.
GM Go look. Go see. Get out and go to some of the other areas where
folks are already doing these jobs. Just go watch them interact.
Once you see how they interact, and how they’ve integrated and
everything else. Just go look and see what they do. It’s amazing
how much and how well they integrate into the community that
they’re in. And it’s a two-way street, the community is integrating
with them as much as they’re integrating with the community. So,
I would just advise them [other employers] to go out and observe
some of these other interactions, and then that’ll take a lot of your
fears away right away.
Director I think we have a responsibility to make sure that our guests are
reflected in our staff members. We have guests of all ages and all
abilities, and we have staff members that are 18 and we have staff
members that are 75 and, so, I would just encourage any employer
to take a chance on anybody and that goes for somebody [who]
doesn’t have a college degree. That goes for [everyone] You
never know what people are going to come at you with and who
that person is until you open your doors to them.

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Employers who have hired PWD offered advice to employers unsure of the benefits to
hiring PWD. Six of six interviewees provided business-to-business advice. Key takeaways were
to open employment doors to all, see what people are doing, celebrate successes, and give other
company employees an opportunity to witness the positive effects of a diverse workforce.
Research Question 3, Theme 4: Unique Cultural and Leadership Traits Reinforce Diverse
Hiring Practices
The third research question asked, “For businesses that hire people with
intellectual/developmental disabilities (PWIDD), what are the unique cultural characteristics of
the organization that support these diverse hiring practices?” The data for this research question
was divided into one theme with two subsections. The theme is that unique cultural and
leadership traits reinforce diverse hiring practices. Only qualitative data were used to support
each of these subsections.
Unique cultural characteristics were offered by all of the qualitative organizations
studied. The two subthemes offered for this theme are that people and team-oriented cultures
reinforce diverse hiring practices and that mission-driven leadership and unique personal
character traits reinforces diverse hiring practices for people with developmental disabilities.
Interviewees offered important insights into hiring PWD.
Interview Findings
The unique culture characteristic identified in the interviews was having a people- and
team-oriented culture. This section explores detailed examples of each. Key takeaways are
offered at the close of the section.

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People and Team-Oriented Culture
Some of the key culture characteristics of people oriented cultures include being
representative of all, appealing to all people, and treating people with respect. All six
interviewees offered unique people-oriented culture characteristics. Table 20 offers an insight
into each of the six employers’ unique people-oriented culture that supported their diverse hiring
practices.

Table 20
Examples of People-Oriented Culture That Supports Hiring of People With Disabilities Within
the Workplace
Participant role Key culture characteristics Quote
Non-profit health and
wellness
Representative of all I think we tuck it under our hiring
practices. We want to be
representative of all and that should
not stop at the workplace, and it
does not stop at the workplace for
us.
Grocery retail Appeal to all people I think that’s what makes a store
unique when you have the
opportunity to bring all that
together. And in one goal, one roof,
because the idea behind a business
is obviously you want to be in
business and make money. But
really, I think what people connect
with is people. When you appeal to
all people, and not just certain
groups, I think it makes it more of
an interesting place because you’re
engaging with all walks of life,
background, each group, all that.
And it can make it fun and different
from what you see from a cookie
cutter approach in a corporate
environment where they’re looking
for one type of individual.
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Participant role Key culture characteristics Quote
Gas/Fuel People first, excellent in all People first. Excellence in all. Safety,
high performance, integrity, trust,
and a diverse and inclusive
environment [are] so embedded in
our culture that all the way down to
our, you know, from someone who
works in a refinery to somebody
who works as a cashier at our
stations same exact messaging and
vision. So, I think that’s why it’s
been so easily adapted with our
stations because we’re already built
on that principle. They all believe in
our culture and our vision.
Car dealership Treating people RIGHT I think that in hiring folks with
disabilities, it all comes under all of
that about treating people right. Our
core value is respect. And that’s
respect for everybody, regardless of
you know, race, their sexual
orientation, or religion or disability.
Respect is our number one core
value. And I think that’s what
guides those decisions. These
values, which come from the
family, which you know runs this
company, it’s all governed by that.
If you’re always thinking about the
dollar, then it’s probably not going
to be, [and] you won’t end up
making those decisions that treat
people right. Treat people right, and
then repeat. RIGHT breaks down to
respect, integrity, growth, humility,
and teamwork—principles we
follow every day.
Children’s museum Really see people for
unique gifts and abilities
I think it’s just really important to see
people for where they’re at and to
just be open to whatever gifts and
abilities that God has blessed them
with, and I would hope that
employers get beyond the money
part of it. I would just encourage
any employer to take a chance on
anybody. You never know what
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Participant role Key culture characteristics Quote
people are going to come at you
with and who that person is until
you open your doors to them. we
have so many people here who work
at the [organization] that started off
in one area and just flourished and
went to another area and based off
of their passions and their abilities
and kind of where they were at in
life. Just really being open to just
kind of accepting people for who
they are because I think that it’s
really hard when we put people in
boxes to really see kind of what
they can do and what gifts they
have.
Gas/Fuel All humans treated the
same
protecting people in the
environment, integrity,
and trust
I feel everyone should have the same
opportunities. All humans should be
treated the same, regardless of your
title. [The organization] is all about
a people-oriented culture. People
first. Excellence always. The
characteristics that help support
diverse hiring. We all speak
different languages come from
different backgrounds have different
cultures, and we celebrate all of
that.

Several of the interviewees identified unique team characteristics that supported the
hiring and retention of PWD at their organizations. Participant 1 offered that his organization
works in a “matrix type model where we’re teammates support each other.” Participant 3 further
underscored the importance of a team environment:
The team environment is great that the employees actually feel proud to be part of it
because they know it’s something that’s really important that they’re working with giving
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somebody with a different [ability]. They may be different, but they’re the same to them.
They’re part of their team.
Participant 1 looked for unique qualities in his team members, including effort: “I always tell my
people that I’m always looking for effort with everybody. I like some degree of effort. I’m
always trying to push our lead to effort.”
Participant 5 added that having a “diversified staff” helped to build a team capable of
sharing both science and education with customers. And finally, Participant 6 offered that “high
performance, building diversity, working together [and] being a team” are qualities that benefit
customers, “employees, and [themselves] personally and individually.”
Key takeaways for unique characteristics of work cultures that hire and support PWD
include being representative of all, a desire to create a culture that appeals to all people, leading
with values such as people first, excellent in all, or treating people RIGHT (respect, integrity,
growth, humility, teamwork) and creating a hiring process and work culture that really sees
people for their unique gifts and abilities. In this type of work culture, all humans are treated the
same, as work cultures protect the people in the environment with integrity and trust.
Mission-Driven Leadership and Unique Personal Character Traits Reinforces Diverse
Hiring Practices for People With Developmental Disabilities
Several key mission-driven elements of leadership exist for employers who hire PWD.
Each of the six interviewees offered examples, which included service to all, contributing to the
local community, being good for the whole workforce, and family-oriented values like respect.
Table 21 presents role, unique mission-driven characteristic, and the example given by each
interviewee.

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Table 21
Mission-Driven Leadership Examples by Role
Role Unique mission-
driven characteristic
Quote
CEO Serve all Our mission statement calls us to serve all. And
boiling it down, it’s enriching the lives of all
people spiritually, mentally, physically and
socially. And, as a CEO, I apply that across our
membership, our volunteers, our staff, how we’re
perceived in the community. Who we serve within
the community…we tuck it under our hiring
practices, and truly we want to be representative of
all.
Corp. training
specialist
Something that’s
going to work for
everybody
I had two stores that became part of the [pilot]
program, so I actually got to be part of the initial
rollout. This program meant so much to me
because of what I experienced, what I got to see,
… I want to continue this, and I made it well
known. We’re looking into to see how we can
expand the inclusion of people, whether it’s
neurodiverse or any sort of disabilities that could
come and work with us work for us. We’re always
looking to how we can expand it..
Owner Contribute and really
helped my local
community
I really developed a love for people outside of work,
just getting involved, wanting to contribute, and
help my neighbors. That desire to help others and
just contribute more to the community I was
involved in it grew more and more. Well, about 3
years ago, I came across [this organization]. And
what was unique about the company is that it’s a
partnership business. They were looking for
partners like myself that wanted to give back to
their community. So, what I found in [current
organization] was the opportunity to combine my
business background and retail with my desire to
help people… I strive for diversity in every
business I’ve always ran from age group to ethnic
background to whether we quote unquote, see
disabled or abled, I’ve always wanted a diverse
background. And I really believe we can learn
from anybody and everybody. And I believe
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Role Unique mission-
driven characteristic
Quote
everyone adds value. And I think that’s what
makes a store unique when you have the
opportunity to bring all that together.
General
manager
Treat people RIGHT
and then repeat.
(RIGHT) they
break down to
respect, integrity,
growth, humility,
and teamwork -
principles we
follow every day.
it was actually run by an actual family … They
brought a lot of those ethics and culture forward
into their business. We have a set of internal
guidelines that we follow: treat people RIGHT,
and then repeat. They break down to respect,
integrity, growth, humility, and teamwork. [These
are] principles we follow every day. And I think
that in hiring folks with disabilities, it all comes
under all of that RIGHT, about treating people,
right. Our core value is respect. And that’s respect
for everybody, regardless of you know, race, their
sexual orientation, or religion or our disability.
Respect is our number one core value. These
values, which come from the family, which you
know, which runs this company, it’s all governed
by that.

Unique leadership styles focused on the mission of the organization are important keys to
success for hiring PWD. Additionally, several interviewees articulated unique personal character
traits in either themselves or their staff that support the hiring and retention of individuals with
disabilities. Interviewee 2 shared that he looks for certain personal characteristics that cannot be
learned on the job. He shared,
There are certain things you can’t teach people. One of the things you get to teach people
to care. There certain things have to come from the individual. And the things that come
from individual that you can’t teach, those are usually the things I value most.
The general manager of a large car dealership shares that his company looks more to character
than skill set. He provided this example:
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We’re really looking more towards character than we are towards skill set. We can get an
idea of what the person’s like. But that’s really just to get to know them. We know that
some people will have certain traits and be better at certain jobs, like a guy who works in
the parks department, or a guy who works on cars will have certain traits. That will just
mean that he has those traits. He’ll be happier in that job. And so, we take a look at that,
but we’re really interviewing for personality and character.
The director of a children’s museum shared, “That communication and that trust. That’s
something that we want our staff members to be proud to say that, ‘hey, I work for them, and
they’re helping our community and they’re here.’” Finally, the lead training specialist for a major
gas/fuel company talks about the culture created through putting people first and excellence
always. Her example exemplified a company that embraces all of its members for their
uniqueness:
We all speak different languages, come from different backgrounds, have different
cultures. We celebrate all of that. We all focus on a people first, excellence always type
of situation. I’ve learned so much about the different people we work with, together, the
cultures and the environments and the communities that we work in stations. But just
globally, [company] really does a really good job of making sure that no matter what
facet of the company you work in, and what country you work in, that your cultural
beliefs are recognized. They support us with that type of verbiage that you have safety,
when you come to work, safety, to be yourself, safety to be true to oneself and one’s
culture and ethnicity. And that all ideas are celebrated. So, it’s really a fun place to work
and a very culturally rich place to work.
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In addition to key leadership styles, personal character counts when looking at unique
characteristics of environments that support PWD in their workforces.
Research Question 4
The fourth research question asked, “How do opportunities such as internships,
apprenticeships, and volunteer work within the business, if they do, play a role in the hiring of
people with intellectual disabilities?” Using unique pathways to employment through internships
and mentoring programs were inconsistent across both the quantitative and qualitative data. The
following sections present results from the survey and interviews regarding the various ways
respondents used internships, mentoring, partnerships with disability-related advocacy
organizations, and volunteer work in hiring and retaining PWD.
Survey Responses
The majority of survey respondents did not use internships or mentoring programs as a
pathway to employment for PWD. However, five of the six large employers reported that they
did use these programs to target PWD within their workforce. Forty percent of very large
employers also reported using internships and mentoring programs as part of their recruitment
plan for PWD within the workplace. Looking closer at the employers who indicated a plan to
increase their workforces in the next 12 months, 18 established internship and mentoring
programs targeted at individuals with disabilities and 19 reported creating partnerships with
disability-related advocacy organizations.
Interview Findings
Employers noted specific hiring practices for people with developmental disabilities in
their workforces. Two employers, Participants 1 and 5, utilized volunteerism into paid
employment strategies and worked closely with a single disability service agency for job
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placement and coaching support. Participant 2 worked with several different disability service
agencies to find viable candidates for open job positions as well as job coaching support from
multiple different disability service delivery agencies to train and retain these employees.
Participant 4 worked with one specific disability service organization, adopting a formal
agreement to hire a small group enclave of five employees into the maintenance department. The
CEO of the non-profit health and wellness organization indicated,
We’ve tried to enhance a couple of our practices and one of them actually was looking at
[disability service organization] as well. And at the end of the volunteer onboarding, with
[disability service organization] clients [we ask] what can we do to actively stick our flag
in the ground and say we are going to be an organization that hires clients or members of
our community with specific different needs in the workplace.
When answering the question of the benefit from a mentoring program, the director from the
children’s museum noted,
I think that there’s a lot of mutual trust and respect and just understanding where the
volunteers were in their strengths and where we can really put them in a role that they
would succeed at… I think that helps in transitioning somebody from a volunteer because
they already feel like they’re part of the staff … And then we also know that we’re
getting a quality staff member because we’ve already trained them. They already know
our expectations. They know our culture. They already know the staff. It was a very easy
transition to turn them into employees because we already knew them so well.
The grocery retail owner uses a variety of strategies to employ PWD. From his local community,
he partners with a variety of disabilities service organizations, including a local high school
transition center, and a youth placement institute. He notes,
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There’s a lot of organizations committed to finding work for people that can’t find work,
and it’s difficult. So, my heart’s desire was if I can have some space in terms of my staff
count, if I can find space then, I definitely want to do that. That’s kind of what’s always
been my approach. And then I’m thankful that some of the organizations I’ve come
across in my background, youth placement programs, different organizations. And I’ve
been able to connect with some of them when I opened my own business. And now, some
students, and then some young adults have a place here, which is pretty cool.
Additionally, employers noted other unique hiring practices aided in the hiring process for PWD.
Participant 3, who is in the gas/fuel industry, articulated that her company adopted a formal
program specifically designed to hire neurodiverse individuals. The program included a specific
job description created for their neurodiverse employees. Initially centralized in one geographic
area, the pilot program launched in 2019 with “15 neurodiverse employees” hired at 15 different
stations. After 2 years, the pilot program was adopted as a formal hiring process for neurodiverse
people and is set to be expanded to other locations. Further, Participant 3 stated the corporate
goal is to match “1% of SSRS [neurodiverse employees] compared to our CSI [general
employees] population, which is [about] 3000, so we made it a goal that’s obtainable to 25 SSRS
by the end of the year.” When used, internships and mentorship programs as well as targeted
hiring programs are successful pathways to employment within various work cultures.
Summary
The findings were that over half of the employers were looking to expand their
workforces in the next 12 months. Data showed that service-providing, medium-sized business
employers were more likely to expand their workforce, with the human resource department
being the most likely to state future plans for an increase in their workforces. Using social role
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valorization theory as the underpinnings of the study, the quantitative and qualitative data
validated research-driven perceived barriers and benefits to hiring PWD. Benefits to employing
PWD included projecting a positive image of the company, increasing company morale, and
increasing pool of qualified candidates. The barriers included perceived concerns surrounding
cost of hiring and retention; attitudes of co-workers, management, and customers; and
knowledge of how to address the needs of a PWD in the workforce. The qualitative research
demonstrated that services provided by disability service organizations helped to minimize
perceived barriers. Qualitative data also demonstrated that unique programs such as internships,
mentorships, and specialized hiring programs supported the hiring and retention of individuals
with disabilities.
Lastly, the findings generated unique cultural and leadership characteristics that
supported the successful hiring and retention of PWD within the general workforce. People-
oriented cultures, mission-driven leadership, and team environments were all identified as key
characteristics that supported the successful hiring and retention of PWD. Using the Burke-
Litwin model of change, areas of opportunity for change or strengthening were identified in
leadership via mission and strategy, management practices via systems, and work unit climate
via skills/job match.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This chapter is divided into four sections: a discussion of the findings and results,
suggested recommendations for change, limitations of the study, and a conclusion. The
recommendations section is further divided into four sections. Three of the subsections are
recommendations, and the final section is a suggested integrated implementation plan. The
chapter ends with a discussion of the limitations of the study and a short conclusion highlighting
possible areas for future research.
Discussion of Findings and Results
High unemployment for people with developmental disabilities is a serious issue
(Kulkarni & Kote, 2014). This section addresses recommendations regarding both employer
perceptions of the value and abilities of individuals with developmental disabilities within the
workforce and opportunities to enhance personal competencies at the individual level and in the
eyes of the employer. This study used the underpinnings of the SRV theory, which sets out to
establish, enhance, and defend the social role of an individual with disabilities to enrich the
image and personal competencies needed to create similar life patterns as their counterparts in
the community (Wolfensberger, 2011). Four research questions guided this project.
1. What are the perceived barriers and benefits of hiring a person with a disability?
2. How do the organizational mission and values align with diverse hiring practices, if they
do?
3. For businesses that hire PWIDD, what are the unique culture characteristics of the
organization that support these diverse hiring practices?
4. How do opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, and volunteer work within the
business, if they do, play a role in the hiring of people with intellectual disabilities?
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The study’s findings validated employers who have actively recruited and hired
individuals with cognitive disabilities perceive a positive valued social role. In the research
supporting this project, the Department of Labor’s Office of Disability Employment Policy
(ODEP) offered supports several strategies to assist employers with the hiring of people with
disabilities into the workforce; included in these strategies were examples of success stories
similar to the ones identified in the findings of this project (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.).
These strategies included but were not limited unique hiring campaigns, use of
apprenticeship/internship models, and partnerships with disability-focused organizations.
ODEP’s Employer Assistance and Resource Network on Disability Inclusion (EARN) website
highlights unique employer practices as well as the voice of the employers themselves (EARN,
n.d.); all of which were validated in this study. The findings in the study also reinforced
Zappella’s (2015) research on employer’s attitudes towards hiring PWD in the workforce which
underscored that positive lived experiences better equipped employers to successfully hired and
retain PWD within their work cultures.
Conversely, despite the positive roles PWD played for the employers studied in this
project, the findings also reinforced previous research regarding negative preconceived employer
perceptions for individuals with intellectual disabilities as a barrier to employing them and prior
to the hiring process. Common concerns found in the literature, such as cost of hire and retention
and attitudes of co-workers, were validated in the findings of this project. Jasper and Waldhart
(2012) identified in the research that 61.9% of the employers studied were concerned about the
costs of accommodations. The findings in this study reinforced that employers surveyed and
interviewed were concerned for the cost of turnover, cost of workers compensation, and the cost
of absenteeism. However, this project adds to the literature that safety and the knowledge of how
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to address the needs of workers with disability on the job were top concerns for the employers
studied. Initiatives that address these specific challenges for employers in the San Fernando
Valley is imperative in increasing employment for PWD living there.
Implications
Creating employer-focused strategies to the hiring and retention of PWD within the
workforce is a critical step in reducing the unemployment rate for people with disabilities. There
is a growing body of literature focused on demand side employer initiatives (DSEI). Chan et al.
(2020) defined the demand-side approach to be a focus on employer cultures and employment
practices for hiring as predictors for employment for PWD. Further supporting these efforts is
the passing of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014. This federal legislation
requires that states wanting to be eligible for monetary allocations must have a written and
approved strategic plan that includes employer engagement and local labor market analysis as
key elements. Recognizing the importance of DSEI, the Governor of California included a one-
time $20 million dollar appropriation in the 2021-2022 state budget to implement unique and
innovative DSEI across the state. Examples of projects potentially funded by this allocation
included partnerships with employers to create Earn and Learn opportunities, trainings for
Human Resource personnel, and business incentives for small and medium sized organizations.
With emerging evidence of the benefits of DSEI and small pockets of funding for pilot programs,
this researcher advocates that now is the time to advance the field using a DSEI focused
approach to create an immediate and lasting impact on the high unemployment rate for people
with disabilities.
Using Burke-Litwin’s model of change, the recommendations advocate for (a) leveraging
existing employers’ partnerships to create a business council to increase business-to-business
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story-telling and increased adoption of disability language in DEI strategies, (b) establishing a
marketing case for recruiting and hiring emphasizing key benefits to hiring, and (c) leveraging
disability organizations’ resources to increase job placements supports, paid internships, and job
retention supports to mitigate barriers to hiring. The recommendations outlined intend to change
employers’ mis-aligned perceptions of people with disabilities and create partnerships for
internships and mentorships that enrich disabled people’s personal competencies. Following the
recommendations, the researcher presents an integrated implementation and evaluation plan
using a logic model approach.
Recommendations for Practice
Addressing this study’s recommendations requires both transformational and
transactional action. Burke and Litwin (1992) offer a change model to achieve both the
transformational and transactional goals outlined in this chapter. Burke-Litwin’s model of
change (Figure 3) presents all organizational factors as interrelated. Therefore, changes in one
factor will ultimately lead to change in all (Burke & Litwin, 1992). The Burke-Litwin model
integrates organizational development change theory with implementation and change process
theory (Burke & Litwin, 1992). Organizational change theory focuses on activities needed to
effect change, while implementation or change process theory focuses on the specific changes
needed within the organizational environment to implement the desired change (Burke & Litwin,
1992). Additionally, Burke and Litwin (1992) assert a distinction in the model between climate
and culture. The authors defined climate as the “perceptions that individuals have of how their
local work unit is managed and how effectively they and their day-to-day colleagues work
together on the job,” whereas culture is defined as the “relatively enduring set of values and
norms that underlie a social system” (Burke & Litwin, 1992, p. 526). By distinguishing these two
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variables, Burke and Litwin (1992) offer two sets of organizational variables that can affect
change: transactional and transformational. Further, Burke and Litwin (1992) argue that mission,
leadership and ultimately culture hold more weight in achieving a complete organizational
transformation than transactional aspects, such as management systems and practices. There is
one recommendation for each of the levers in Burke-Litwin’s change model, strategic,
operational, and people, to address the key findings of this study.

Figure 3
Burke-Litwin Organizational Model of Change

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Recommendation 1: Leverage Existing Employer Partnerships to Create Business Council
Despite an average of 71% of employers studied finding benefits to hiring PWD like
projecting a positive company image and increasing the candidate pool, a majority of the
employers in this study did not have a written DEI strategy that included PWD. Additionally,
participants validated negative preconceptions of the barriers to hiring PWD, with the greatest
concern being knowledge of how to address their needs. Additional concerns were attitudes of
co-workers, management, and customers as well as the cost of hiring and retaining employees
with disabilities.
Rather than addressing these barriers at the traditional supply-side, which is at the
candidate and/or disability service system level of the supply chain, it is recommended to address
these barriers at the demand-side, or the employer level of the supply chain, by creating a
business council. Chan et al. (2010) assert that increasing employment outcomes for PWD
requires taking employers’ needs, behaviors, and labor market into consideration (p. 408).
Raynor et al. (2018) suggested creating employer-to-employer outreach programs where
employers can share positive stories of hiring and retention practices with other employers as a
means to increase employment opportunities for PWD.
McMahon (2009) asserts that employers who actively recruit and retain employees with
disabilities are among the 3% to 5 % of employers who include disabilities in their DEI
recruitment strategies (p. 122). Further, Chan et al. (2010) concluded that commitment to hire
PWD was significantly associated with the company’s understanding of job accommodations,
and the inclusion of disability in DEI strategies (p. 409). Creating a business council of local
employers is recommended as one effort to foster employer-to-employer communication needed
to enhance positive and effective hiring practices.
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Recommendation 2: Establish a Marketing Case for Hire to Increase Access to and Use of
Untapped Labor Pool
In this study, 54.4% of employers surveyed indicated that they planned to increase the
size of their workforce in the next 12 months. However, 15.4% expressed a concern on how to
address the needs of disabled employees, and 12.8% expressed a concern with costs associated
with workers compensation and turnover. The Department of Labor’s Office of Disability
Employment Policy (ODEP, 2020) recommends that instead of creating a business case for
hiring PWD, efforts should be directed to a marketing case to change negative perceptions of
PWD prior to hiring. The ODEP (2020) recommends using pointed communications and
behavioral intuitions to eliminate barriers in the hiring cycle that create a roadblock to full
employment for people with intellectual disabilities.
Marketing case presentations should include the top three benefits cited by employers for
hiring an individual with disabilities within the workforce (ODEP, 2020). They are (a) projecting
a positive image of the organization and (b) with future employees as well as (c) increasing the
available labor pool (ODEP, 2020). Additionally, the marketing case presentation can include
examples from local employers on the benefits seen within their organizations as well as national
data related to increased workforce morale and productivity (ODEP, 2020). Marketing case
presentations could be aimed at the human resource arm, or operational lever of the Burke-
Litwin model of change, effecting positive transformation change. Shen et al. (2009) assert that
effective human resource management (HRM) is essential in abating individual or group level
workplace challenges, all the while increasing the bottom line of profits for the organization.
Shen et al. (2009) further assert that effective HRM strategies increase “organizational learning,
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flexibility, knowledge creation and the development of a work environment which is conducive
to diversity management” (p. 237).
Marketing case presentations aimed at the human resource function can be achieved in
two ways. One is to create an easy-to-read marketing brochure that outlines key benefits to hiring
PWD, and the second is creating a presentation with expanded yet similar content that can be
delivered both remotely and in person to target employer audiences. McGee (2010) states that
when developing written material for either the brochure or the presentation, several guidelines
that should be considered in the areas of content development, the organization or sequencing of
the material, the style of writing, and engaging and motivating the audience (pp. 7–11). The
author also recommends obtaining feedback from the intended audiences to refine the messaging
content and maximize impact on the audience’s desired behavior (McGee, 2010, p. 6). Once
created, working with the employer council to disseminate the brochure and the schedule for the
presentations is key. Some examples of dissemination points are human resource conferences,
employment fairs, and industry-centric conferences. Driving transformation at this level
influences the operational lever of the Burke-Litwin model of change.
Recommendation 3: Leverage Available Resources to Increase Job Placement Supports,
Paid Internships, and Retention Supports
The six interviewees in this study noted the benefits of disability-related resources prior
to, during, and after the hiring process. However, 71.8% of survey respondents indicated they did
not establish internships or mentoring programs targeted at individuals with disabilities, and
61.5% indicated that they did not create partnerships with disability-related organizations to
support them through the hiring and retention process. Hanif et al. (2017) offer that vocational
interventions help youth with disabilities gain valuable experience, develop viable employment
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skills, and transition from unemployed to employed successfully. Kulkarni and Kote (2014)
suggest that leveraging resources, via community disabilities organizations, is one key to
increasing employment for people with disabilities, yet studies show that employers continue to
be unaware of such resources.
Resources can be leveraged by creating an easy-to-read pamphlet outlining key resources
available to employers at all three stages of the employment cycle: recruitment, hiring, and
retention. The CDC recommends using communication that is simple and clear. The CDC’s
guide, Simply Put, asserts that one-third of adults in the United States struggle with basic
reading. Simply Put offers a variety of steps to communicate complex information into user-
friendly visuals and written language. Building on these principles, McGee (2010) further states
that when the communication pamphlet is complete, obtaining feedback from the intended
audience is critical in refining the quality and content of the material to maximize impact on the
audience’s desired behavior (p. 6). Once created, these pamphlets can be disseminated at local
chambers, job fairs, community colleges, job boards, and recruitment and placement agencies.
Impacting behaviors at this level encourages changes at the people lever of the Burke-Litwin
model of change (Burke & Litwin, 1992).
Integrated Recommendations
Grounded recommendations are only one part of a transformation strategy. An
implementation and evaluation plan is as important. A logic model was used to display the
implementation strategies for the recommendations. The logic model included the following
components: Burke-Litwin Lever, target audience, resources, activities, outputs, and short and
long-term outcomes. Table 22 presents a complete outline of the steps to implement the
recommendations.

Table 22
Logic Model Outlining Implementation Strategy
Burke-
Litwin
Lever
Target
audience
Resources Activities Outputs Short- & long-term
outcomes
Leadership:
Strategic lever
C-suite Disability
service
providers
business
associations
partnerships
Funding for
Awareness/Dis
ability
Diversity
Training
Establish ad hoc
business council
roadshow of disability
diversity training
Decrease stereotypical
notions of PWIDD as
employees through
business-to-business
communication plan
Ad Hoc business
advisory council
Increased positive and
active story-telling
among business leaders
Track number of
employers that included
formal language in DEI
strategies

Track number of
employers who created
benchmarks for increase
PWD in their workforces
Management
practice:
Tactical lever
Decision
maker
Funding for
collateral &
Incentives for
hiring
Marketing brochure –
business-focused
Increase written DEI
Strategies to include
PWIDD
Specific hiring goals
for PWIDD within
targeted employer
group
inclusion of PWIDD in
DEI strategy
increased positive
story-telling among
gatekeepers
Create and track case for
hire awareness across
gatekeepers
104

Burke-
Litwin
Lever
Target
audience
Resources Activities Outputs Short- & long-term
outcomes
Work unit
climate:
Operational
lever
Co-
worker,
customer
Co-workers
Job
assessment,
placement, and
job coaching
supports
Create key resource
pamphlet to:
Increase knowledge of
supports and services
from disability service
providers
Increase paid
internships
Increase positive lived
experience
Increase paid
internships
Increase in number of
businesses hiring
PWIDD
Track on-the-job
placement assessments
Track internship –
employment opportunities
Track employment
placements

105
106

Limitations and Delimitations
To understand this study, the limitations and delimitations of the research should be
considered. One primary limitation was that this study was conducted during the COVID-19
pandemic, specifically in its 18th month. Survey participants were still managing the large delta
of job vacancies and disruptions in business operations due to the prolonged crisis. Managing
their businesses in such unprecedented times could explain the lower than expected survey
participant count. Additionally, the survey questions were carefully crafted to discover both the
barriers and benefits employers face when hiring PWD. However, a possible limitation to this
study could be social desirability bias, specifically for the question “Would you say that hiring
people with disabilities increases morale at your company?” As explained by Tourangeau and
Yan (2007), survey respondents may have avoided reporting negative attitudes to avoid personal
embarrassment. Conversely, platforms such as Zoom provided a safe, open, and convenient
method to conduct the interviews. Interviews were conducted in a semi-structured manner, which
allowed interviewees to provide rich detail and lived experiences to the questions asked. For this
study, there was enough data to draw key findings for the employers in the San Fernando Valley;
however, more data would be necessary to articulate key findings for the entire Southern
California region.
Recommendations for Future Research
Jesse Bridges, senior vice president at EVERFI, asserts that even in the midst of the
sustained pandemic, leaders should continue to focus on DEI strategies. Leading up to the
pandemic, Los Angeles County recorded 10 years of economic growth with hospitality, health
care, and retail employing the largest numbers of workers (Segwick et al., 2020). However,
Segwick et al. (2020) report that even in the face of this economic growth, race, gender, and
107

class inequities existed. Furthering this struggle for equality in 2020, the pandemic
disproportionally impacted communities of color and other marginalized individuals, including
those with disabilities (Bridges, 2020). As businesses emerge from the pandemic, Segwick et al.
project there will be almost 140,000 new jobs added to the workforce by 2024 in Los Angeles
County. Future research is needed to further understand the motivations and barriers that
confront employers when employing PWD as part of their DEI strategies.
Conclusion
This study provided a critical view from the employer’s perspective when hiring
individuals with disabilities. The COVID-19 pandemic and the resounding civil unrest that
occurred in 2020 revealed disparities in equality for people of color, of different ethnic
backgrounds, and with disabilities (Bridges, 2020; Segwick et al., 2020). When looking deeper at
employment, the data for this study exposed commonly held barriers to full PWD workplace
inclusion in the San Fernando Valley. The data brought to light the benefits of hiring PWD. The
recommendations are specifically aimed at the employer as the target audience. Creating
employer-to-employer collaboration through the business council, building diversity awareness
by including PWD in DEI strategies, and increasing knowledge of resources and lived
experiences at both the operational level and individual level of the organizational structure are
all critical steps to building back a stronger, more diverse workforce in 2022 and beyond.

108

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119

Appendix A: Survey Protocol
Email Introduction:
I know how busy you are, so I am thrilled that you are willing to participate in this online
survey. It should not take any more than 15–20 minutes of your time. I am Rebecca Lienhard,
and I have worked at Tierra del Sol for 30 years. Many of you are aware that Tierra is invested in
supporting adults with disabilities to create and sustain productive and meaningful lives, which
for us, includes employment within the local communities. I am doing a research project as part
of my doctoral studies at USC to identify ways in which employers put into practice their
policies on disability employment. Part of this study is to look at the unique cultural
characteristics of businesses that hire people with disabilities, looking at not only the potential
barriers to employment for a person with a disability within the work culture but also the benefits
experienced by the employer from having employed a person with a disability.
Under the Americans with Disabilities Act, an individual with a disability is defined as a
person who (a) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major
life activities, (b) has a record of such an impairment, or (c) is regarded as having such an
impairment.
I am surveying the decision-makers in hiring for the overall company, such as human
resource managers, owners, and/or C-suite-level individuals throughout the San Fernando
Valley. Your responses are confidential. However, your email will be collected so that
duplications can be removed during the data analysis process. I will not share your place of
employment with anyone else in this study or in its findings. I will be presenting my final report
to several business associations such as chambers of commerce and other types of business
120

member associations. I may use a quote from this survey. However, you will be assigned a
number, such as Employer 1 or 2, as a means of identification within the study.
If you have any questions about this survey or would like more information about hiring a person
with a disability, do not hesitate to contact me at (number).
Please click on “advance” to start the survey

121

Appendix B: Survey Instrument in Qualtrics
Question O
or
C?
Level of
measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal,
interval, ratio)
Response options
(if close-ended)
RQ Concept being
measured
(from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Characteristics of the COMPANY

Before we begin, I would like to know a little more identifying information about your
company?

What type of business is
it?

O Goods-producing
Service-providing
Public
administration
Background
info
What is your role at the
organization?
O Personnel/Human
resource
Owner
President/C-suite

How many employees,
full-time or part-time,
does your company
have?

C Ordinal Small (14 &
under)
Medium (15-249)
Large (250 or
999)
Very Large (1000
or more)
Background
info
Which of the following
best describes your
company’s plans for
your workforce over the
next 12 months?

C Nominal We plan to
increase the
size of our
workforce
We have no plans
to increase or
decrease the
size of our
workforce
We plan to reduce
the size of our
workforce
Background
info
Just to refresh you on the definition of a person with a disability, under the Americans with
Disabilities Act, is as a person who, a) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially
limits one or more major life activities; b) has a record of such an impairment; or c) is
regarded as having such an impairment.

122

Question
O
or
C?
Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal,
interval, ratio)
Response options
(if close-ended) RQ
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Recruitment

The next portion of this survey is focused on how your company is proactive in recruiting job
applicants with disabilities. You will answer the questions in this section with a simple yes or
no. Each question will begin with ‘Does your company.’ The final question is there in case I
may have missed something you would like to share.
Does your company…
Create partnerships with
disability-related
advocacy
organizations?
C Nominal Yes
No
Don’t know

2 Social Role
Does your company…
Establish internship and
mentoring programs
targeted at individuals
with disabilities?
C Nominal Yes
No
Don’t know

3 Social Role
Are there any other ways
your company is
proactive in trying to
recruit job applicants
with disabilities?
O Answer:
____________
__

2 Social Role
Attitudes
Research has found that many employers have concerns about hiring people with disabilities,
such as costs of accommodation or absenteeism. This next section is focused on how much of
a concern the following factors are to your company in hiring people with disabilities? In this
section, I would like you to answer with a) whether it is not a concern, b) somewhat a concern,
or c) a major concern. And once again, I have left an opportunity at the end of this section to
include anything that you feel I might have missed. Thank you.
Knowing how to address
the needs of workers
with disabilities. Is that
not a concern,
somewhat a concern, or
a major concern to your
company in hiring
people with disabilities?
C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern

2 Competence
Attitudes of co-workers C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
2 Competence

123

Question
O
or
C?
Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal,
interval, ratio)
Response options
(if close-ended) RQ
Concept being
measured (from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Attitudes of management

C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
2 Competence
Attitudes of customers

C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
2 Competence
Cost of workers
compensation premiums
C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
Competence
Absenteeism

C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
2 Competence
Turnover

C Ordinal Not a concern
Somewhat a
concern
Major concern
2 Competence
Does your company have
any other concerns
about hiring people with
disabilities?
O Nominal Yes
No
2 Competence
Benefits
Would you say that hiring
people with
disabilities…Increases
morale at your
company?
C Ordinal Strongly agree
Somewhat agree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly disagree
1 Culture and
Social Role
Would you say that hiring
people with
disabilities…Projects a
positive image of your
company?
C Ordinal Strongly agree
Somewhat agree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly disagree
1 Culture and
Social Role

124

Question
O
or
C?
Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal,
interval, ratio)
Response
options (if close-
ended) RQ
Concept being
measured
(from
emerging
conceptual
framework)
Would you say that hiring
people with
disabilities…Increases
the pool of qualified
candidates?
C Ordinal Strongly agree
Somewhat agree
Neither agree
nor disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
1 Culture and
Competence
Are there any other
benefits to hiring people
with disabilities?
O Answer:
____________

1
Conclusion
As I mentioned in the introduction to this survey, I will be presenting my findings of this
research project to various business associations throughout the San Fernando Valley. If you
would like me to include a recommendation to improve the hiring of a person with a
disability to your fellow employers, please include that here.
If you could make one
recommendation to
improve the hiring of
people with disabilities,
what would it be?
O Answer:
____________

1

Again, thank you for your valuable time and more importantly, your valuable insights. People
with disabilities are one of the largest untapped workforce in the San Fernando Valley. It is my
hope that with these findings, we will find a way to increase the benefits and decrease the
barriers of employment for this population.

125

Appendix C: Qualtrics Version: USC Disability Employment Survey
I know how busy you are, so I am thrilled that you are willing to participate in this online
survey. It should not take any more than 15–20 minutes of your time. I am Rebecca Lienhard and
I have worked at Tierra del Sol for more than 30 years. Many of you are aware that Tierra is
invested in supporting adults with disabilities to create and sustain productive and meaningful
lives, which for us, includes employment within the local communities. For the purposes of this
study, I will be wearing my USC hat as well as my USC email address. I am doing a research
project as part of my doctoral studies at USC to identify ways in which employers put into
practice their policies on disability employment. Part of this study is to look at the unique
cultural characteristics of businesses that hire people with disabilities, looking at not only the
potential barriers to employment for a person with a disability within the work culture but also
the benefits experienced by the employer from having employed a person with a disability.
Under the Americans with Disabilities Act, an individual with a disability is defined as a
person who (a) has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major
life activities, (b) has a record of such an impairment, or (c) is regarded as having such an
impairment.
I am surveying the decision-makers in hiring for the overall company, such as human
resource managers, owners, and/or C-suite-level individuals throughout the San Fernando
Valley. Your responses are confidential. However, your email will be collected so that
duplications can be removed during the data analysis process. I will not share your place of
employment with anyone else in this study or in its findings. I will be presenting my final report
to several business associations, such as TVEA, VICA, chambers of commerce, and other types
126

of business member associations. I may use a quote from this survey. However, you will be
assigned a number, such as Employer 1 or 2, as a means of identification within the study.
This study has been approved by the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board. The study ID is UP-21-00502. Please complete the survey by Friday, September
10, 2021.
If you should have any questions about this survey, or would like more information about
hiring a person with a disability, do not hesitate to contact me at (number). Please click on
“advance” to start the survey.
o Advance

Before we begin with questions about disability employment, I would like to know a little
more identifying information about your company.
Q1 Which of the following business type most closely matches the one in which you are
employed?
o Service-Providing
o Goods-Producing
o Public Administration

Q2 What is your role in the organization?
o Personnel/Human Resources
o Owner
o President/C-suite

127

Q3 How many employees work in your establishment?
o Small (14 and under)
o Medium (15-249)
o Large (250-999)
o Very Large (1000 or more)

Q4 Which of the following best describes your company’s plans for your workforce over the
next 12 months?
o We plan to increase the size of our workforce
o We have no plans to increase or decrease the size of our workforce
o We plan to reduce the size of our workforce

The next portion of this survey is focused on how your company is proactive in recruiting
job applicants with disabilities. You will answer the questions in this section with a simple yes or
no. Each question will begin with ‘Does your company.’ The final question is there in case I may
have missed something you would like to share.
Just to refresh you on the definition of a person with a disability, under the Americans
with Disabilities Act, is as a person who (a) has a physical or mental impairment that
substantially limits one or more major life activities,(b) has a record of such an impairment, or
(c) is regarded as having such an impairment.

128

Q5–6 Does your company…

Yes No
Create partnerships with
disability-related advocacy
organizations?
o o
Establish internship and
mentoring programs
targeted at individuals
with disabilities?
o o

Q7 Are there any other ways your company is proactive in trying to recruit job applicants with
disabilities?
________________________________________________________________

Research has found that many employers have concerns about hiring people with
disabilities, such as costs of accommodation or absenteeism. This next section is focused on how
much of a concern the following factors are to your company in hiring people with disabilities?
In this section, I would like you to answer with whether it is not a concern, somewhat of a
concern, or a major concern. Once again, I have left an opportunity at the end of this section to
include anything that you feel I might have missed. Thank you.

Q8–14 How much of a concern are the following factors to your company?

Not a Concern Somewhat of a
Concern
Major Concern
Knowing how to
address the needs of
workers with
disability.
o o o
Attitudes of co-
workers o o o
129

Attitudes of
Management o o o
Attitudes of
Customers o o o
Cost of workers
compensation
premiums
o o o
Cost of Turnover
o o o
Cost of Absenteeism
o o o

Q15 Any other concerns about hiring people with disabilities?
o Yes. If yes, please describe here: ________________________________________________
o No

The final set of questions are about ways in which hiring people with disabilities might
impact your company. You will go back to a yes or no response to each. Each question starts
with ‘Would you say that hiring people with disabilities….’ And as you may guess, I have
included an area at the end where you can include any benefits that I may have missed.

130

Q16-18 Would you say that hiring people with disabilities…

Strongly
agree
Somewhat
agree
Neither
agree nor
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Strongly
disagree
Increases
morale at
your
company?
o o o o o
Projects a
positive
image of your
company?
o o o o o
Increases the
pool of
qualified
candidates?
o o o o o

Q19 Are there any other benefits to hiring people with disabilities?
________________________________________________________________

As I mentioned in the introduction to this survey, I will be presenting my findings of this
research project to various business associations throughout the Valley.

Q20 Would you like to make one recommendation that could improve the hiring of people with
disabilities?
o Yes. If yes, what would you like to say?
________________________________________________
o No

131

Appendix D: Sample Email From Chamber of Commerce to Its Members

132

Appendix E: Interview Protocol: Sections 1–5
Table E1
Rapport Building
Interview questions Potential
probes
RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
I would like to begin by
asking you how long
you have worked
here and what your
responsibilities are.
Title? 2 Culture Knowledge

133

Table E2
Barriers and Benefits to Hiring a Person with Disabilities
Interview questions Potential Probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
What are the unique, if
any, culture
characteristics of
this organization
that support your
diverse hiring
practices?
3 Culture Knowledge/
Experience
Feelings and
opinions/
values
What kind of
experiences,
positive or negative,
have you personally
experienced or have
heard from other
employees at your
company about your
employees with
disabilities, if any?
How are these
experiences similar or
different, if at all, from
the challenges you
experience for all of
your employees?
1, 2, & 3 Competency
& Culture
Feelings and
opinions/
values
Prior to hiring a
person with a
disability, what
concerns, if any
existed, for you?
Accommodation?
Health Care?
Workers Compensation
Absenteeism?
Turnover?
Safety on the job?
Are these similar or
different to ones that
you hold for all of your
employees?
1 Competency Feelings and
opinions/
values

134

Table E3
Recruitment
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ
addressed
Key
concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
Please take a minute to
describe the strategies
your company has
used or uses to recruit
people with diverse
backgrounds?
Disabilities?
Internships?
Mentoring Programs?
What has worked?
How would you expand
or improve the
process?
How might these be
more accessible to the
business community?
2 culture Knowledge
and
opinions/
values

Table E4
Resources
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
What types of resources
were available to you
during the hiring, and
retention process for the
employee you hired
with a disability?
Which of these was
most helpful?
What types of
resources did you
wish you had?
4 Competency Experiences
and
opinions/
values
If you could give advice
to another employer,
particularly the hiring
manager, what would
you say?
4 Value Experiences
and
opinions/
values

135

Table E5
Closing
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key
concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
Is there anything you
think might be
important for me to
know about
disability
employment at your
company
If yes, please describe. ALL Knowledge

136

Appendix F: Document Analysis Protocol
For each organization identified, the following documents will be reviewed:
1) Mission Statement, if available
2) Public-facing Social Media Pages (i.e. Facebook, LinkedIn, Glassdoor, Instagram)
3) Public-facing Organizational Website
4) Published Recruitment Materials
For each document and/or website reviewed, the following questions will be answered.
1. Type and date of document (i.e. newsletter, blog post, marketing materials, recruitment
brochure, etc.)?
2. Intended audience?
3. Main topics of the document?
4. Is there a special focus on diversity? (RQ 1 & 2)
5. Who is represented - written and visually? (RQ 1, 2 & 3)
6. Does the document specifically speak to marginalized communities? (RQ 1, 2 & 3)
7. What is the main message concerning the intersection between disability and other
diverse communities? (RQ 1, 2 & 3)
8. What are my personal feelings relating to the content?

For ease of data collection, a checklist will be used to gather this information for each document.

137

Appendix G: Document Analysis Checklist
Written materials Visual content (pictures,
photos)
Type and date of document (i.e.
newsletter, blog post,
marketing materials,
recruitment brochure, etc.)?

Intended audience?
Main topics of the document?
Is there a special focus on
diversity? (RQ 1 & 2)

Who is represented - written and
visually? (RQ 1, 2 & 3)

Does the document specifically
speak to marginalized
communities? (RQ 1, 2 & 3)

What is the main message
concerning the intersection
between disability and other
diverse communities? (RQ 1, 2
& 3)

What are my personal feelings
relating to the content?

Comments:

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lienhard, Rebecca Lucile (author)

Core Title Untapped workforce: employer perceptions of people with intellectual disabilities

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 02/16/2022

Defense Date 02/16/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag business-to-business storytelling,disability organizations,employer perceptions,marketing case,OAI-PMH Harvest,People with disabilities,Social Role Valorization,Unemployment

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ferrario, Kimberly (committee chair), Krop, Cathy Sloan (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email rlienhar@usc.edu,rlienhard@tierradelsol.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC110760032

Unique identifier UC110760032

Legacy Identifier etd-LienhardRe-10396

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lienhard, Rebecca Lucile

Type texts

Source 20220223-usctheses-batch-913 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu