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The factors supporting or inhibiting Teachers of Color to accept and stay in an international school in Southeast Asia

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The factors supporting or inhibiting Teachers of Color to accept and stay in an international school in Southeast Asia

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The Factors Supporting or Inhibiting Teachers of Color to Accept and Stay in an
International School in Southeast Asia

by
Christine Lynn Daly Henning

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Christine Henning 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Christine Henning certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. David Cash
Dr. Darline Robles
Dr. Lawrence Picus, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
Diversity in education recruitment may be described as moving away from a homogeneous
group of educators sharing a common race, background, or other attributes. This researcher
asserts that diversity in an educational context is merely a word without a receiving environment
and culture that welcomes uniquely individual educators, exercises equal, respectful and fair
practices, and empowers and appreciates individual identities and expressions, or what may be
defined as equity and inclusion. There is a growing concern about the diversity gap in education,
commonly referred to as the demographic difference between students and teachers. There is also
a large body of research that examines the factors that may influence the decisions of Teachers of
Color (TOC) to accept and stay in teaching roles in the United States. There are, however,
limited studies that examine these factors in an international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school
context. Some studies have focused on recruiting and retaining teachers in international schools.
However, research that explores the intersection of TOC and their perceptions of teaching in
international schools is limited. For this reason, this qualitative study sought to explore the lived
experiences of TOC in a P12 international school in Southeast Asia referred to as Innovative
American Academy (IAA). This study was guided by the following research question: (1) What
factors do TOC perceive as supporting or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in teaching
roles at IAA? Data from this study were gleaned from seventeen semi-structured interviews with
a sample of TOC who joined IAA between July 2017 and July 2021. By analyzing the data
collected through interviews, seven themes emerged that have been generally classed as (1)
induction/mentorship (2) organization conditions (3) leadership support (4) organization culture
(5) racial climate (6) other factors including location and (7) emerging themes including
culturally responsive practices.

v
Acknowledgments
As I began my career in the financial services industry, I certainly never imagined that an
unexpected pivot would find me working in the education industry and on the road to pursuing a
Doctorate of Educational Leadership. I remain grateful for my dissertation chair, Dr. Lawrence
Picus, who encouraged me to give the Doctorate of Education degree a try and for patiently and
thoughtfully guiding me through this study. I am also thankful for Dr. Darline Robles who
served as my second chair and who added to my confidence in this endeavor, alongside my third
chair, Dr. David Cash who was my first doctorate program professor who helped me to discover
ways to combine my former business background with my newfound education studies.
On a personal level, I could not have achieved this milestone without the ongoing
patience and understanding from my family. Bryan, you have been an amazing support and
encouragement as you continued to remind me that there was no better time to pursue a doctorate
than during a global pandemic when I certainly would not be balancing my summer studies with
competing family travel pleasures. I now look forward to celebrating this achievement together
once travel becomes a reality for us again, possibly in May of 2022 when I graduate! To my
beautiful and amazing daughter Caitlyn, my constant sounding board who is wise beyond your
years, I have you to thank for the constant reminder that I could do this! Thank you! Your
outstanding editing skills were truly appreciated. To my son Connor, for finding a way to accept
and support me despite me being preoccupied for the past few years. You are the strongest
person I know, and I look forward to spending more time with you in the very near future. To my
parents, Kathleen and Walter, for showing me my inner strength. To my siblings, especially
Mark who was “proud of my USC acceptance!” Finally, to Grandma Alice, I hope that you are
smiling down from heaven. Thank you for teaching me to believe in myself.

vi
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Introduction and Statement of the Problem ........................................................................ 1
Context of the Inquiry ......................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 4
Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 5
Importance of the Study .................................................................................................... 10
Summary of Methodology ................................................................................................ 10
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 12
Definitions......................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 16
Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 18
Structural Framework: Diversity ...................................................................................... 18
Human Resource Lens: Student-Teacher Matching: Why It Matters ............................... 24
International School Context ............................................................................................ 34
Applying a Political Frame: Preservice Training, Recruitment, and Retention Efforts ... 37
A Symbolic Perspective: Organization and Culture ......................................................... 58
Summary of the Literature ................................................................................................ 61

vii
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 64
Rationale for the Study Methods ...................................................................................... 64
Participants and Sampling................................................................................................. 65
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 69
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 69
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 72
Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 74
Positionality ...................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 78
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 79
Interviews .......................................................................................................................... 84
Induction Programs ........................................................................................................... 86
Organization Conditions ................................................................................................... 89
Leadership Support ........................................................................................................... 92
Organizational Culture ...................................................................................................... 96
Racial Climate ................................................................................................................. 100
Personal / Other Considerations...................................................................................... 104
Other Emerging Themes ................................................................................................. 106
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 112
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................... 113
Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................... 117
Study Limitations ............................................................................................................ 128

viii
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................. 129
Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 130
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 141
Future Research .............................................................................................................. 141
References ................................................................................................................................... 143
Appendix A: Participant Study Invitation................................................................................... 161
Appendix B: Study Information Sheet ........................................................................................ 163
Appendix C: Request for School Superintendent Study Approval ............................................. 165
Appendix D: Request for Division Principal Study Approval.................................................... 166
Appendix E: Interview Protocol Introduction............................................................................. 167
Appendix F: Interview Questions for Current IAA TOC ........................................................... 169
Appendix G: Interview Questions for TOC who have left IAA ................................................. 171
Appendix H: IAA’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Statement................................................ 173

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of International Recruitment and Retention Studies 58
Table 2: Summary of the Sample of Participants interviewed 81

Table 3: Summary of Participant Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity 82
Table 4: Summary of Years of International Teaching Experience 82

Table 5: Summary of Factors of Importance to TOC When Accepting a Role with IAA 109

Table 6: Summary of Factors Most Influential in a TOC’s Decision to Stay/Leave IAA 110

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Preliminary Conceptual Framework: Recruiting and Retaining TOC 9
Figure 2: Final Conceptual Framework: Recruiting and Retaining TOC 115

xi
List of Abbreviations
CRT Critical Race Theory

DEI Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

HR Human Resources

IAA Innovative American Academy

NCES National Center for Education Statistics

PLC Professional Learning Community

P12 Preschool to Grade 12

TOC Teachers of Color

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
The disproportionality between Teachers of Color (TOC) and white teachers is not a new
narrative in the U.S. (Ardley et al., 2020; Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Goldhaber et al., 2015;
Goldhaber et al., 2019). This discourse has been part of the fabric of educational history long
before school desegregation efforts and the supreme court case of Brown vs. Board of Education
in 1954. Legislation and policies including the Civil Rights Acts of 1964, Equal Employment
Opportunity laws, and Affirmative Action have not offered the long-overdue remediation of the
underrepresentation of TOC in education. Instead, this legislation has served as a compliance-
driven accountability structure that has failed to disrupt hiring practices that privilege whites
over People of Color (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
For several decades, scholars have described the need to diversify the teaching force, and
educational institutions have openly expressed a commitment to diversity. Nonetheless,
relatively few educational institutions have achieved the goal of increasing the racial diversity of
their faculty, despite research showing that students benefit from a diverse team of educators and
being assigned a demographically similar teacher (e.g. Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et al.,
2016; Putman et al., 2016). Scholars have suggested a range of benefits of matching students to
teachers that can be largely synthesized into improved student engagement and academic success
(e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015).
Data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) showed that up to 79% of
the 2017-18 U.S. Public School teaching force was white (National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], 2017). Waddell and Ukpokodu (2012) and Jackson and Kohli (2016) reported
zero TOC in 40% of U.S. public schools. Conversely, the population of Students of Color

2
continues to increase in U.S. educational institutions, underscoring the need to focus on what
some scholars refer to as “the diversity gap” (Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Putman et al., 2016;
Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012) or “the difference in the proportion of minority teachers to
minority students” (Putman et al., 2016, p. 1). The population of students in the U.S. is
increasingly diverse with Students of Color representing more than 50% of its total student
strength (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas, 2018).
While there is less research on the diversity gap in international schools, these institutions
are not immune to policies and structures that enable whiteness and inequity. Educational leaders
have the opportunity to collaboratively listen to the voices of TOC and use this information to
critically reflect upon current organization conditions and practices that may be supporting or
inhibiting TOC’s decisions to accept and stay in international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) teaching
roles. This critical reflection may begin to dismantle the harm to students that Oakes et al. (2018)
described as sharing the knowledge of one dominant white culture.
Context of the Inquiry
Innovative American Academy (IAA) is a pseudonym for a college preparatory
Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school that was founded in the 1950s, a unique historic time when its
host country was on the verge of gaining its independence and its government would soon make
key changes to the education system to drive economic development and modernization (Deng &
Gopinathan, 2016; Hairon & Dimmock, 2012). This resulted in the construction of policies
emphasizing an individualistic, meritocratic, high-stakes education system with a view to
producing graduates to contribute to this Southeast Asian country’s growing economy.
Today, IAA has grown to a P12 private school serving more than 4,000 diverse students
with 400 mostly white teachers. As the present-day multinational hub of Asia, the country’s

3
emphasis on high-stakes education prevails (Hogan & Gopinathan, 2008; Subramaniam & Lee,
2011). IAA mirrors the qualities of its host country with a results-driven academic culture.
Although far from America, and not beholden to U.S. educational legislation, IAA adopts
Common Core Standards, contributing to its uniformity through accountability and assessments.
Teachers specialize by subject with an outcome focus on student results, despite the value IAA
places on reciprocal, collaborative teaching and learning and Professional Learning Communities
(PLCs).
The country’s private school landscape is intense with schools competing for applicants,
creating a neoliberal approach (Oakes et al., 2018) driven by consumer choice. IAA’s parent
community pressures teachers for strong student academic results and these vocal stakeholders
influence teacher hiring and retention decisions. This is largely driven by parents’ intense focus
on their children gaining acceptance into competitive North American and international
universities. The school is governed by a board of parent volunteers and a mission to foster an
international education. The school’s long-standing admissions policies require 50% of IAA’s
students be U.S. citizens, sustaining American cultural dominance.
IAA’s heightened focus, beginning in 2020, on diversity, equity and inclusion has been a
welcome change. Historically, the school’s policies were relatively silent on equity, diversity,
and anti-racism, contributing to a leadership and teaching body that is more than 80% white.
This teaching body is culturally incongruent with its student body, from 60 different nations,
despite research suggesting that racial or demographic similarities between educators and
students can result in a culturally relevant student experience (Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Scott &
Alexander, 2019).

4
The school’s teacher recruitment efforts are largely managed through online international
recruitment platforms (e.g. International School Services (ISS), Schrole Advantage, and Search
Associates). Regardless of the channel, international school recruiting is an intensely competitive
and costly undertaking. IAA is fortunate to be in a country that is perceived to be stable, safe,
and progressive. Coupling this with the competitive teaching salaries that IAA offers has made
this school a positive landing place for those seeking international school assignments. The
ability of IAA to attract and retain TOC may depend on several factors including organizational
conditions, culture, and leadership.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to gain an understanding of the
factors influencing Teachers of Color (TOC) to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative
American Academy (IAA), a pseudonym for an international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school
with an American curriculum. This study aimed to seek an understanding of the perceptions of
current and prior IAA TOC in relation to their lived experience with the school. The study
sought to understand the perceptions of TOC of factors that support or inhibit them to accept and
stay in teaching roles at IAA. This research is intended to address the gap in the current body of
research on recruiting for diversity in an international P12 context. It is also important to gain
insights on the steps that teachers feel could be taken to improve the factors influencing TOC
recruitment and retention. The intended approach is one that invited exploration by using the
following question to guide this study:
1) What factors do TOC perceive as supporting or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in
teaching roles at IAA?

5
In employing a qualitative approach this research question evolved and was shaped by the
exploratory process undertaken rather than forming part of a rigid plan (Agee, 2009; Lochmiller
& Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Conceptual Framework
In this study, the conceptual framework was shaped by the proposed research question,
by the literature reviewed, and by the researcher’s experiential knowledge and assumptions
(Maxwell, 2013). This conceptual framework informed the systematic inquiry approach that was
applied to the qualitative descriptive research design in this study featuring the narratives and
voices of Teachers of Color (TOC). This conceptual framework aimed to illustrate the
relationship between the key ideas and concepts associated with the problem of practice of
recruiting and retaining racially and/or ethnically diverse teachers at Innovative American
Academy (IAA). The conceptual framework was guided by secondary and primary research and
at the same time, as Peshkin (1988) suggested, was influenced by the researcher’s subjectivities
and interpretations and as a result, it illuminated meaningful concepts, yet may also have
concealed others that have not been included (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is
recognized that the conceptual framework (Figure 1) evolved with this study (Maxwell, 2013), as
suggested in Chapter 5 (Figure 2).
In Figure 1, TOC perceptions inform the study design and have been placed in the center
of the circle to demonstrate the critical role that these perceptions can play in supporting or
inhibiting a TOC’s decision to accept a role and stay with IAA. The literature and the
researcher’s experiential knowledge have illuminated many factors that might influence TOC
perceptions and inform their choice to accept or stay with IAA. For the purposes of this study
and based on the literature, the following factors have been considered: (1) induction and

6
mentorship (2) leadership support (3) organization conditions (4) organization culture (5)
location, compensation, personal circumstances (6) critically reflective communities of practice
and (7) inviting multiple perspectives.
The grey boxes surrounding the circle of TOC perceptions have bi-direction arrows
extending to the TOC perceptions, signifying that the perceptions of TOC may influence these
factors just as these factors may influence TOC. For example, if a TOC declines an offer to join
IAA due to their perception that the school does not offer teacher mentorships and IAA seeks
feedback to understand this, IAA may choose to introduce a mentorship program. TOC
perceptions may continually evolve and be influenced by a variety of factors that might support
or inhibit their decision to join and/or stay with the school.
The choices TOC make to accept and stay at IAA influence the racial and ethnic diversity
of the school as indicated by the green and white arrows extending from the circle. The green
arrow depicts an increase in the teaching force diversity and may be influenced by TOC positive
perceptions of these factor(s). Conversely, the white arrow shows the negative impact that any
number of factors may have on the perceptions of TOC, thus influencing their choice to decline
to join or stay with IAA, resulting in a less racially diverse teaching force labeled as “whiteness.”
Next, each of the factors shown in dark-grey boxes that may support or inhibit TOC recruitment
and retention will be explained.
Induction and mentorship programs can be a tool for motivating TOC to stay (Barth et
al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Podolsky et al., 2019). U.S. teachers who received an induction
or mentoring program in their first year were found to be two times less likely to leave (Carver-
Thomas, 2018). Tkachyk (2017) reported similar positive findings on mentorships in
international schools.

7
When leaders support TOC (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll et al.,
2017) or enact transformational practices (Burns, 1978/2010; Northouse, 2019), they encourage
and empower goal achievement. This leadership support can positively influence teacher
recruitment and retention (Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011). Several studies of
international schools and of TOC in U.S. schools found leadership to be one of the most
influential factors in hiring and retaining teachers (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Ingersoll et al.,
2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Wilusz, 2018).
Based on the literature and the researcher’s experiential knowledge, organizational
conditions, such as classroom autonomy, having resources, input to decisions, or career
progression, can influence a teachers’ choice to accept and stay with a school (Cox, 2012;
Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009). The arrow
from the organizational conditions box to the circle suggests that attention to factors, such as
giving teachers a voice in decisions, may influence TOC to stay with a school.
Location and/or personal circumstances may influence teachers’ decisions to accept and
stay in international schools (Chandler, 2010; Cox, 2012; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al.,
2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017). While these factors may be important to a TOC
when accepting a role (Ingersoll et al., 2017), they are relatively fixed and will not be covered
extensively in this study.
The organizational culture of a school may support or inhibit a TOC’s decision to accept
and/or stay at IAA. Researchers have suggested that TOC may feel the pressure or burden
imposed by expectations that they be a source of knowledge on racism issues or be culturally
responsive specialists (Brown, 2014; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Kelly, 2007; Madsen, 2019).

8
Leaders who seek to address organizational culture issues may motivate TOC to accept and stay
while a negative climate may influence TOC turnover.
The dark-grey box entitled critically reflective communities of practice signals that
critical reflection (Brookfield, 2017; Merriam & Bierema, 2013; Rodgers, 2002) on factors
impacting the diversity of the teaching force may influence teacher perceptions and desire to
stay. Reflective professional communities (Cherry-McDaniel, 2019) and collaborative practices
(Cochran-Smith, 2001) may offer employees time and space to collectively name and challenge
practices that harm students and TOC.
Inviting multiple perspectives and deeply listening may allow for dialogue to challenge
structures and practices that privilege whites over TOC (Capper, 2015). One way to begin to
disrupt racism is to give voice to the narratives of those marginalized (Capper, 2015; Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 1995; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Creating an environment that openly seeks
diverse perspectives may influence TOC to accept positions and stay at IAA.
The large light grey box on the far right shows possible outcomes of attending to factors
in the dark-grey boxes. A positive focus on these factors, represented by the “+,” may result in
supportive outcomes including (1) student achievement (e.g. Egalite et al., 2015) (2) culturally
responsive practices (e.g. Khalifa, 2018; Paris & Alim, 2014) (3) narrowing the diversity gap
and/or (Putman et al., 2016) (4) unconscious bias awareness (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). These
outcomes may further support TOC and increase their acceptance and retention at IAA.
Outcomes that may inhibit TOC retention and job acceptance are represented by the “-” sign and
may occur if the dark-grey boxed factors are not attended to. These factors may include (1)
settler colonialism (e.g. Tuck & Yang, 2014) (2) assimilation (Cherry-McDaniel, 2019) (3) TOC
isolation (e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018) (4) Inherent cultural burdens on TOC (Cherry-McDaniel,

9
2019) and/or (5) cultural dominance/hegemonic ideology (Hill Collins, 2009). These outcomes
are important to support the focus of this study, yet the outcome box is placed outside of the
circle since the study will not extensively cover each outcome. Instead, these concepts may be
examined in a future review.

Figure 1
Preliminary Conceptual Framework on Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color

10
Importance of the Study
There is limited research on the recruitment and retention of Teachers of Color (TOC) in
international schools with most studies focusing on the broader population of all teachers (e.g.
Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010, Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009;
Tkachyk, 2017). Although the population of Students of Color continues to increase globally, the
teaching force in many international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) schools remains racially and
ethnically homogeneous. Coupling this with the global increase in racial tension following the
2016 U.S. election (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017) as well as the pre-2020 U.S. elections may
suggest an imperative need for all educational institutions to consider the importance of racial
and/or ethnic diversity when recruiting teachers.
As international schools continue to focus their attention on hiring diverse teachers,
findings from this study may be consulted to understand the perceptions of TOC on factors
influencing their willingness to accept and stay in international teaching roles. This
understanding may inform school hiring leaders of potential barriers to avoid or ways to leverage
findings from this study in their own efforts to recruit and retain diverse faculty.
Summary of Methodology
Qualitative research facilitates an inductive exploration of human experiences and
perceptions and may be used to gain an understanding of the impact of existing practices
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Locke et al., 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Understanding the
perceptions of Teachers of Color (TOC) on the working conditions, leadership support, culture,
practices, and other factors that may have supported or inhibited their decision to accept a
teaching role with and stay with Innovative American Academy (IAA) informed the purpose of
this study. For this reason, a qualitative constructivist approach seeking to use dialogue and

11
inquiry to conduct one-to-one interviews with TOC at IAA has been employed. This emergent
approach used interviews to construct meaning (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Malloy, 2011;
Saunders, 2019) by discovering TOC perceptions while aligning with the value that the
researcher placed on personal or social interactions (Agee, 2009). This study was supplemented
with literature on U.S. and international school recruitment/retention practices (e.g. Cox, 2012;
Tkachyk, 2017) and the teacher-student diversity gap (e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018).
An invitation to participate in an interview was sent to TOC who were hired between
2017-2021 and were teaching core subjects, electives, learning support, or providing school
counseling. The researcher purposefully and thoughtfully selected a diverse population of TOC
from different racial and/or ethnic backgrounds, including both TOC with five or less years of
teaching experience and those with five or more years of experience. The inclusion of this
tenure-based criteria was driven by research finding that teachers with five or less years of
teaching experience give greater consideration to personal factors including a desire to explore
new locations when accepting international roles while those with five or more years of
experience were found to be more career-focused (Cox, 2012). Earlier studies of international
schools also concluded that teachers with more years of teaching experience showed a greater
likelihood of leaving to seek a new international school setting (Mancuso et al., 2010). An email
invitation was sent to 35 of the 58 IAA TOC who were recruited between 2017 and 2021, along
with a detailed explanation of the study purpose, the expectations related to the proposed 60-
minute confidential in-person or Zoom interview, and a request for the invited TOC to consent to
participating in a 60-minute semi-structured interview.

12
Limitations and Delimitations
This study sought to understand the perceptions of Teachers of Color (TOC) of the
factors supporting or inhibiting their decisions to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative
American Academy (IAA), an international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school. It is
acknowledged that the study focused on the perceptions of TOC in a single international school,
IAA, based in Southeast Asia. It is recognized that the nuances and contextual factors associated
with this school itself and its location may have influenced the views and responses from
participants in this study. Moreover, the research may not be easily applied to other unique
international school settings. In addition, there is a possibility that the conclusions reached in this
study may be biased because the researcher is an employee and Human Resources leader at IAA,
and this may have resulted in some reservations from participants to express their views openly
and honestly regarding factors influencing their choice to accept and stay with the school.
Additionally, reliance on interviews alone rather than also considering other qualitative
approaches, such as observations and documentation reviews, may present a limitation on the
ability to triangulate or substantiate conclusions drawn (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, as
a qualitative study with the researcher as the primary instrument, the information shared will be
largely dependent on the interpretations of the interviewer (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton,
2002).
Definitions
International School: Schools founded in another country for the purpose of providing
Preschool through grade 12 education to a generally diverse group of students, often including
those who live outside of their country of citizenship. Some have defined these schools as private
schools that offer students a curriculum that may be international or may relate to the national

13
curriculum of another country (Cox, 2012). The first international school founded was Ecole
Internationale de Geneve in 1924, also known as the International School of Geneva, providing
an international education to children of those employed by the United Nations (Schippling,
2018), the World Health Organization, and a variety of other organizations. Since this time, ISC
Research (2019) reported the current number of international schools as 10,400 with a teaching
force of 540,000 and a student body of 5.8 million. This represented a sixfold increase in the
number of international teachers since 2000 when there were 2,548 international schools globally
with 988,600 students (International School Consultancy [ISC] Research, 2019).
Diversity Gap: Also referred to as the demographic gap (Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012),
demographic divide, or race gap (Cherng & Halpin, 2016). A term used to describe the
difference between the number of Students of Color and Teachers of Color (TOC) in an
educational institution or setting. The differences most often referenced are racial or ethnic
differences between students and teachers. Some scholars have suggested congruency or shared
attributes of the background of students and teachers have been shown to increase student
engagement and academic achievement (e.g. Cherng & Halpin, 2016; Dee, 2004; Egalite et al.,
2015; Plachowski, 2019).
Mentorship Programs: The introduction or pairing of a more experienced employee with
a less experienced employee as a means of knowledge sharing. Mentorship programs are often
associated with easing an employee’s transition to a new work environment. Mentorship
programs can be a tool for motivating TOC to stay in schools (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-
Thomas, 2018; Podolsky et al., 2019)

14
Teacher Retention: When teachers remain in the same school or in an international
setting when teachers sign a contract to continue working with the school that they are currently
employed by (Tkachyk, 2017).
Teacher Turnover: Turnover refers to a teacher leaving a school to join another school, to
seek a different form of employment, or for other reasons including to remain out of the
workforce, with a new teacher replacing the departing teacher (Mancuso et al., 2010; Tkachyk,
2017). Turnover typically excludes downsizing or restructuring efforts that result in a reduction
of teaching positions (Tkachyk, 2017).
Teacher Attrition: When teachers leave the teaching profession (Ingersoll, 2002). This
can include leaving for a number of reasons including obtaining a teaching job in another school,
retirement, or leaving the profession.
Settler Colonialism: Eliminating or dispossessing original inhabitants, settlers, or human
beings of their distinct culture, land, or ways to organize or claim ideological, economic, or other
forms of dominance. Often resulting in assimilation to western world ways by other cultures
(Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Patel, 2015; Tuck & Yang, 2014).
Pre-Service Training: Programs intended to prepare students pursuing a career as
educators to teach in preschool to grade 12 schools (Brown, 2014).
Whiteness: Frankenberg (1993, as cited in Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017) describes
whiteness as “a location of structural advantage, or race privilege” (p. 559).
Organization of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to understand the factors that may
support or inhibit the decisions of Teachers of Color (TOC) to accept and stay in teaching roles
at Innovative American Academy (IAA), a Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school in Southeast Asia.

15
Chapter 2 provides a summary of the literature reviewed on diversity, the teacher-student
diversity gap, recruitment and retention of TOC, and international school recruitment and
retention. Chapter 3 outlines the proposed research methods to be undertaken in this qualitative
descriptive study. Chapter 4 presents the study findings resulting from semi-structured interviews
with a sample of TOC from IAA. Finally, Chapter 5 will share a discussion highlighting the
implications of this study and recommendations for future research.

16
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The objective of this literature review is to synthesize and apply the body of knowledge
and research in the area of recruiting and retaining Teachers of Color (TOC) in international
schools with a specific focus on the factors supporting or inhibiting the decisions of TOC to
accept and stay in positions in schools outside of the United States. Recognizing that this is an
area where existing documented research is limited, this work was approached by reviewing
literature related to diversity and teacher-student demographic matching (e.g. Cherng & Halpin,
2016; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2018) to understand and
underscore why recruiting and retaining racially and ethnically diverse teachers is important.
Additionally, research on pre-service training, recruitment, and retention of TOC in U.S. settings
was consulted (e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018; Jackson & Kohli, 2016). Finally, literature on
recruiting and retaining teachers in international schools (e.g. Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017;
Tkachyk, 2017) was reviewed to understand the commonly cited factors that teachers often
consider in accepting positions in and continuing to work for international schools.
Recognizing that the amount of research specific to recruiting TOC to international
schools is relatively limited, the researcher integrated literature from a U.S. context as it related
to pre-service teacher training, recruitment, and retention, (e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018; Jackson &
Kohli, 2016) with accessible knowledge in an international school context (e.g. Cox, 2012;
Gomez, 2017; Tkachyk, 2017). Considering that many teachers recruited by international schools
come from North America, it may be implied that some of the U.S.-based recruitment trends and
knowledge can impact the pipeline and may be directly applicable to and may inform efforts to
recruit and retain TOC in an international context.

17
This literature review has been approached through the lens of the Bolman and Deal
(2017) four-frames model. Bolman and Deal’s (2017) model suggests the use of multiple lenses
or frames that may be considered when leading organizations and specifically when viewing
issues or concerns. Bolman and Deal’s (2017) four frames model places emphasis on the
following four focus areas:
(1) structural – this frame focuses on systems, policies, procedures, and the power of
authority;
(2) human resources – this leadership frame emphasizes care, relationships, ways of
motivating and building commitment;
(3) political – this frame emphasizes conflict, limited resources, power, and uncertainty
(4) symbolic – a frame that focuses on culture, meaning, and belief.
Beginning with the structural framework, the topic of hiring for diversity is introduced
with a focus on the literature related to strategies and legislation on fair employment practices
and the critical challenges to this compliance-driven approach to hiring suggested through
research on Critical Race Theory (CRT) (e.g. Capper, 2015; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995;
Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Next, in an effort to underscore the imperative need to focus on
recruiting TOC, a body of literature on the engagement and student achievement benefits of
teacher-student demographic matching is introduced (e.g. Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et
al., 2018), recognizing that much of this available and documented knowledge is related to a U.S.
education context. In this section, teacher-student match literature is captured under Bolman and
Deal’s (2017) human resources frame as studies demonstrated that student needs may be best
served through racial, ethnic, or cultural congruence advanced through relationships with

18
demographically similar teachers. (e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et al.,
2016).
In turning to solutions to address the underrepresentation of TOC in international schools,
a political frame (Bolman & Deal, 2017) is applied to examine research on teacher pre-service
training, recruitment and retention documented barriers, and initiatives to progress the hiring and
retention of TOC. This section has been classed under the political frame of Bolman and Deal’s
(2017) framework in consideration of the conflict or tension that inevitably results when there
are multiple views, stakeholders, and impediments present. In the context of recruiting TOC,
power dynamics remain at the center due to the noticeable imbalance or underrepresentation of
TOC and the pervasive white dominance in the teaching force. At the education leadership level,
many hiring decisions are made by white leaders, and the current teaching field can be both
challenging and contentious for TOC, thus influencing their decision on whether to remain in the
teaching field (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Jackson & Kohli, 2016). Finally, literature related to the
role of organizational culture and leadership in recruitment and retention is examined and classed
under Bolman and Deal’s (2017) symbolic framework. While much of the research is grounded
in the U.S. education system, there exists a body of knowledge on recruitment and retention as it
related to international schools that was also explored through this review (e.g. Cox, 2012;
Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk,
2017).
Literature Review
Structural Framework: Diversity
Although many educational institutions openly express a commitment to diversity, few of
these institutions have achieved the goal of increasing the racial diversity of their faculty. In

19
education, recruiting for diversity has been described as addressing the demographic difference
between students and teachers by seeking to hire teachers with shared racial, ethnic, or cultural
demographics to the students in a school (Cherng & Halpin, 2016; Egalite & Kisida, 2018).
Recruitment diversity is not a new topic in education, yet it is an increasingly important area for
consideration as the diversity of learners continues to increase (Darling-Hammond, 2014).
The term diversity is not always defined in one single consistent way; it can be generally
understood to represent heterogeneity, difference, or variation (Duchek et al., 2020). Diversity
may be used as a way of describing individual differences including cultural, ethnic, racial,
religious, gender, sexual orientation, abilities, talents, or a range of any unique characteristics of
ones’ identity (Shen et al., 2009). Shen et al. (2009, 2014) suggested that workplace diversity is
an acknowledgment that individuals differ in many ways, implying that key diversity issues may
vary by geography. For example, a focus on religious differences may be more commonly
associated with diversity in Middle Eastern countries (Shen et al., 2009). In China race, age,
gender, and household registration (i.e. urban/rural location) have been cited as key diversity
issues (Shen et al., 2014). Hakkola (2019) asserted that there are a multitude of vastly different
and often ambiguous discourses used to discuss diversity and this will inevitably shape and
influence an individual institution’s recruitment efforts. Nonetheless, enacting diversity to
disrupt racial inequity is a shared global imperative (Duchek et al., 2020; Sensoy & DiAngelo,
2017) and effective diversity management is a critical 21
st
century need (Shen et al., 2009).
Diversity Legislation

Long before the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s, an entrenched history of critical
social diversity movements was part of the global fabric. Many of these movements have
resulted from patterns of racial inequity and injustice toward People of Color, often labeled as

20
minority groups. More recently, these pervasive undertones of racial discrimination and harmful
notions of whiteness have been a catalyst for global Black Lives Matter Movements, student
protests (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017), and immigration (Nishina et al., 2019) related tensions.
Reflection upon the increase in racial tension and divide following the 2016 election in the U.S.
(Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017) and predating the U.S. 2020 elections offer further evidence of the
imperative need to consider the importance of diversity as one way to begin to disrupt racial
tensions over time.
Historically, organizations associated diversity recruitment efforts with a means of
compliance. For example, in the U.S., Equal Employment Opportunity laws and Affirmative
Action legislation were intended to increase the representation of different groups in the
workforce (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017; Shen et al., 2009). Similar compliance-driven hiring
regulations have been introduced in an effort to increase commitments toward recruitment
diversity in other countries. One example is in Canada, where educational institutions have been
obligated to confirm their adherence to the Employment Equity Act (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
The Equality Act prohibits discriminatory hiring practices in the United Kingdom (Beattie &
Johnson, 2012). In Southeast Asia, countries such as Singapore have applied the Tripartite
Guidelines on Fair Employment Practices, a legislative principle intended to promote diversity
and equal access to job opportunities (Singapore Government Ministry of Manpower, n.d.).
Despite these legislative measures, more work is needed to increase the racial diversity of the
teaching force in the U.S. and in international Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) schools.
Compliance-Driven Challenges
Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Capper, 2015; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solórzano &
Yosso, 2002) has been used to challenge compliance-driven accountability narratives, structures,

21
and practices that privilege whites over People of Color. One of the tenets of CRT suggests that
racism is permanent in society, and one way to begin to disrupt this is to give voice to the
narratives of marginalized People of Color (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solórzano & Yosso,
2002). Capper (2015) suggested that school leaders apply the counternarrative/majoritarian
narrative CRT tenet to invite the perspectives and stories of Community Members of Color to
begin to take proactive steps to eradicate pervasive racism in policies and practices. Inviting
these critical voices is one way to begin the needed dialogue to challenge structures and systems
that disadvantage Teachers of Color (TOC) (Brown, 2014; Plachowski, 2019). It is important to
demonstrate the benefits of a diverse workforce extending beyond legislative adherence to a
discourse that interrogates the barriers and practices that are getting in the way of enhancing
racial diversity (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
Carver-Thomas (2018) underscored that increasing the diversity of teachers may
positively contribute to teacher satisfaction, retention, and decreased feelings of isolation by
Teachers of Color. One challenge is an acknowledged lack of specific information and few
empirical studies regarding the factors that contribute to the lack of diversity in the teaching
force (Goldhaber et al., 2015; Goldhaber et al., 2019). One of the few empirical studies on
diversity, by Goldhaber et al. (2014), found that TOC were less likely to be hired in Washington
state public schools than equally qualified white candidates. Nonetheless, several competing
reasons for this difference could be considered, including TOC seeking jobs outside of education
(Goldhaber et al., 2014). Carver-Thomas (2018) reviewed a number of studies on recruiting and
retaining TOC and concluded that there is an imperative need for educational institutions to
carefully examine the barriers and reasons for the disproportionality of TOC to their white peers.
Addressing this disparity will require a deliberate focus on hiring TOC while ensuring ongoing

22
leadership support to promote TOC retention (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll
et al., 2017).
Historical Recruitment Inequities
One area of research related to diversity hiring practices stems from the growing concern
about the underrepresentation of TOC in U.S. Public education (e.g. Carter Andrews et al., 2019;
Carver-Thomas, 2018; Cherng & Halpin, 2016; Villegas & Davis, 2007). The education industry
has long professed a commitment to diversity, yet patterns of whiteness in teaching and
leadership positions prevail in U.S. Public education (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-
Thomas, 2018) and in North American universities (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). As early as
1954, following the Brown vs. Board of Education ruling promoting desegregation, more than
35,000 Black educators lost their jobs (Oakley et al., 2009). This was influenced by an
unfounded perception that Black teachers were less suited to teach white students in integrated
schools (Carter Andrews et al., 2019), thus devaluing TOC (Ardley et al., 2020). Despite state,
local, and national legislation proclaiming to increase equitable employment practices such as
the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the underrepresentation of TOC in education continues to be a
major concern well into the 21
st
century. To date, the population of Students of Color continues
to increase in the U.S., yet the teaching force remains racially or ethnically homogeneous and
largely white (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas, 2018). Similar trends of student to
teacher racial and ethnic incongruency can be found in some international schools with white-
dominated teaching forces (Scarlett, 2020).
Demographic Trends
Since 2010, the changing population trends in the U.S. have consistently shown increased
racial diversity with 40% of Americans identifying as a non-white racial group (U.S. Census

23
Bureau, n.d.). This is largely attributed to increased immigration (Nishina et al., 2019),
internationalization of businesses, and trends of globalization (Duchek et al., 2020). With this
dramatic shift in the racial distribution, Students of Color are increasingly becoming the largest
population of students enrolled in U.S. public schools (Egalite & Kisida, 2018). Students of
Color represent 50% of all students in U.S. public schools (Ardley, et al., 2020; Barth et al.,
2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Plachowski, 2019). Conversely, data from the National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES) showed that up to 79% of the 2017-18 U.S. public school teaching
force was white (NCES, 2017). Waddell and Ukpokodu (2012) and Jackson and Kohli (2016)
reported zero Teachers of Color in 40% of U.S. public schools, racially incongruent with the
student composition. Sensoy and DiAngelo (2017) cited similar patterns of student-teacher
demographic mismatch as the number of Students of Color attending North American
universities has continued to rise. Plachowski (2019) emphasized that a diverse teaching force is
essential for disrupting the impacts of racism on Students of Color by offering opportunities for
these students to build resilience when matched with demographically similar teachers who
model strategies for navigating racial encounters and tensions.
The Diversity Gap
As the population of Students of Color continues to grow, there is an imperative need to
focus on “the difference in the proportion of minority teachers to minority students” (Putman et
al., 2016, p. 6) or what is often referred to as the diversity gap (Cherng & Halpin, 2016; Egalite
& Kisida, 2018; Plachowski, 2019; Putman et al., 2016; Villegas & Davis, 2007; Waddell &
Ukpokodu, 2012). Other scholars described the diversity gap as, “a demographic gap creating a
teacher-learner disconnect that contributes to the too often dismal academic performance, high
dropout rates, low graduation rates of diverse urban students” (Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012, p.

24
2). Cherng and Halpin (2016) use the term “demographic divide” and cite the use of the term
“race gap” to describe this racial and ethnic incongruency between the teaching force and
students (p. 407). In this review, the terms minority teachers and Teachers of Color (TOC) are
used interchangeably to describe teachers identifying with a racial and/or ethnic group other than
white, while teacher-student matching or student-teacher matching are used largely to reference
racial matching and are used interchangeably with the term demographic matching. Student-
teacher matching refers to shared racial, ethnic, gender, or other demographic backgrounds
between learners and educators, yet this study focused largely on race and ethnicity.
While many educational institutions openly express a commitment to diversity, few have
achieved the goal of increasing the racial diversity of their faculty, despite research showing that
students benefit from a diverse team of educators and by being assigned a demographically
similar teacher (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Goldhaber et al., 2015; Jackson & Kohli, 2016; Villegas
& Irvine, 2010). The discrepancy between Students of Color and teachers is concerning, as
evidenced through a large body of research on the benefits that students receive when assigned to
a demographically similar teacher (e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015;
Gershenson et al., 2016; Kiryio et al., 2009; Lindsay & Hart, 2017; Putman et al., 2016; Waddell
& Ukpokodu, 2012). These benefits may be largely synthesized into increased engagement and
improved student outcomes (Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2016).
Human Resource Lens: Student-Teacher Matching: Why It Matters
Since the 1970s, there has been an increasing body of research on teacher-student
demographic similarity in North American education (e.g. Braun, 1976; Dee, 2004; Egalite &
Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015; Futrell, 1999; Gehlbach et al., 2016; Gershenson et al., 2018;
Gershenson et al., 2016; Goebes & Shore, 1975; Goldhaber et al., 2015; Plachowski, 2019;

25
Putman et al., 2016; Schmidt & Schneider, 2016; Scott & Alexander, 2019; Sensoy & DiAngelo,
2017; Villegas & Davis, 2007; Vinopal & Holt, 2019; Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012). Student-
teacher matching refers to shared racial, ethnic, gender, or other demographic backgrounds
between learners and educators. Cultural similarity between a student and teacher has been
shown to benefit students in several ways, including: (1) closer working relationships between
teachers and students (Gehlbach et al., 2016) (2) decreased student anxiety and stereotype threat
(Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Scott & Alexander, 2019) and (3) improved student outcomes (Dee,
2004; Goldhaber et al., 2015; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Jackson & Kohli, 2016; Putman et al.,
2016; Vinopal & Holt, 2019). Studies have shown that a Student of Color who had just one
racially matched teacher over the course of their educational experience had a greater possibility
of attending university (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2018).
Braun’s (1976) early work concluded that teacher racial and gender biases and
stereotypes influence their work with students, while Goebes and Shore (1975) found that
teacher expectancy of students influenced their academic achievements. One of the most cited
studies on this topic is the early landmark work of Dee (2004), which analyzed Tennessee Star
class size project data and found that elementary students assigned to similar race teachers
showed increased math and reading scores. Some have classed Dee’s (2004) work as the first
empirical evidence that student-teacher racial matching improved student academic
achievements. Prior to Dee’s (2004) work, there was limited evidence to support the rationale for
diversifying the teaching force, beyond a commonly posed suggestion that teacher-student
matching offered role model benefits for students to see someone with a shared background in a
teaching position that is perceived as a leadership role (Villegas & Irvine, 2010). Historically,
several studies in the 1980s and 1990s also theoretically concluded that Teachers of Color (TOC)

26
served as role models for Students of Color, resulting in increased student self-confidence,
identity development, and motivation (e.g. Cole, 1986; King, 1993; Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
While some scholars suggested that all students, including white students, benefit from
being taught by TOC (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Cherng & Halpin, 2016; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019;
King, 1993; Villegas & Irvine, 2010) most agree that Students of Color achieve the most
significant benefits (Dee, 2004; Goldhaber et al., 2015) in the form of improved math and
reading results, high school graduation rates, and college attendance (Carver-Thomas, 2018).
Since TOC may benefit all students, Brown (2014) suggested that it is in the interest of whites to
hire more TOC to provide diverse perspectives and opportunities to experience different cultures,
implying a CRT interest convergence concern (Bell, 1980; Milner et al., 2013). Interest
convergence raises the question of who is served or who benefits from hiring more TOC,
implying that these efforts will receive attention when there is a real or perceived benefit to white
community members.
Cherng and Halpin (2016) studied more than 50,000 grade 6–9 Tripod student reports to
measure their perceptions on 1,680 teachers concluding that all students generally feel more
positive about their experiences with Latinx or Black teachers than with white teachers. This
study along with Cherng and Davis’ (2019) later work suggest that TOC have greater
multicultural awareness and ability to establish rapport with all students. Students who were
exposed to teachers, childminders, peers, or neighbors of different racial backgrounds are less
likely to hold future harmful biases as an adult (Carver-Thomas, 2018) that may result in
stereotyping and discriminatory behaviors. Seeing racially diverse teachers in the classroom is
also an opportunity for all students to see TOC in leadership roles, to learn about different
cultures, and to inspire Students of Color to consider teaching as a future career (Rivera, 2019).

27
Combining these studies may suggest that diverse teaching forces better prepare all students for
participation in democratic societies by empowering and engaging students of all racial
backgrounds (Plachowski, 2019; Villegas & Davis, 2007; Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
Relationships Between Teachers and Students
Scholars have suggested that racial or demographic similarities between educators and
students can result in a positive and culturally relevant student education experience (Cherng &
Davis, 2019; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Scott & Alexander, 2019). Gehlbach et al. (2016) studied
315 ninth grade students and 25 teachers in a school in the Southwest U.S., finding that teachers
who perceived themselves as having shared attributes or similarities with their students viewed
their relationships with these students to be stronger and these students performed better in
school. Similarly, when students were informed that they shared attributes with their teachers,
they perceived their relationship with their teacher to be more positive (Gehlbach et al., 2016).
Building on the earlier work of Dee (2004), Gershenson et al. (2016) used 2002 NCES
data combined with subjective responses from 10
th
grade teachers on their expectations of
students, finding that teachers who were not racially matched to students generally had lower
expectations of students and perceived them to be less attentive and more disruptive. Consistent
with other scholars (Vinopal & Holt, 2019), Gershenson et al. (2016) found that non-Black
teachers often had lower expectations of Black students. While some may argue that a sample of
10
th
grade teachers’ perceptions is not representative of all students, other scholars, including,
Egalite and Kisida (2018) reached similar conclusions, finding students’ motivation for learning,
interest in class, and perceptions of communication with teachers were higher when matched.
Other reviews offered consistent findings, citing that when demographically matched,
teachers had a better understanding of student learning styles (Kiryio et al., 2009), students found

28
teacher role models (e.g. Barth et al., 2016; Putman et al., 2016), and improved academic
achievement (e.g. Dee, 2004; Putman et al., 2016; Scott & Alexander, 2019). Conversely,
Villegas and Irvine (2010) asserted that the “role model argument” has long been suggested as a
key reason for teacher-student matching (e.g. Cole, 1986; King, 1993), yet there is a lack of
empirical evidence to support this reason for diversifying the teaching force (p. 178). Goldhaber
et al. (2015) later agreed that the role model implications lacked formal testing, positing that role
model benefits are important in consideration of the possibility that teacher subjectivities for
unmatched students might negatively impact student recommendations, including those for
college applications.
Role Model Challenges
Other scholars have challenged the role model research as a notion of whiteness where
TOC are boxed into the position of a role model rather than being recognized for their teaching
and instructional merits (Brown, 2014; Kelly; 2007; Madsen, 2019; Sheets, 2004). Kelly (2007)
interviewed six TOC working in predominantly white schools, finding that there were increased
pressures to perform, tokenism, and a feeling of being expected to fulfill the role as the resident
minority expert. Madsen (2019) interviewed nine white teachers from mostly white schools on
their interactions with Black teachers, finding that it was common practice for TOC to be
overwhelmed with requests for support with racial issues, thus boxing them into the role of the
racial or multicultural expert, often limiting their time to contribute to other areas. In many cases,
the white teachers in this study relied on the Black teachers to be the school voice with Black
parents, lead multicultural events, or provide advice on discipline matters (Madsen, 2019).
Other parallel views (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Sensoy & DiAngelo,
2017) speak to the additional workload or burden that TOC may be expected to carry to represent

29
the voice of diversity, be the primary source of knowledge on issues of racism, or to be the
culturally responsive (Ladson-Billings, 2014) institution specialist responsible for leading all
efforts related to Paris and Alim’s (2014) culturally sustaining practices (Kelly, 2007; Cherry-
McDaniel, 2019). Some have referred to the act of placing such responsibilities or burden on
TOC as exploitation (Cherry-McDaniel, 2019), hegemonic domination (Hill Collins, 2009), or
settler colonialism (Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Patel, 2015; Tuck & Yang, 2014).
Cherry-McDaniel (2019) and Khalifa et al. (2016) suggested that matching Students of
Color with TOC who have not been trained in culturally responsive and sustaining practices can
be ineffective or harmful. This is specifically found in cases where these teachers bring what
Cherry-McDaniel (2019, p. 244) described as “settler teacher syndrome” or instructional
practices that maintain majoritarian, settler-colonial practices that portray the culture of Students
of Color as inferior. For example, when TOC themselves have accepted the dominant culture
over their own, often resulting from their feeling of a need to assimilate or conform to succeed
(Cherry-McDaniel, 2019). Khalifa et al. (2016) shared similar examples that exacerbated feelings
of racial inferiority by Students of Color after both TOC and white teachers alike ignored the
funds of knowledge and cultural values that Students of Color bring to the classroom. Excluding
conversations about culture and race in the classroom also fails to disrupt dominant, oppressive
practices that marginalize Students of Color (Khalifa et al., 2016).
Reflective Communities
For several decades, scholars have challenged claims that TOC are naturally or
automatically able to serve as role models to students on the basis of their shared cultural or
ethnic characteristics (Cochran-Smith, 1991), suggesting that racial congruency may be
beneficial, yet it is not an assurance of instructional effectiveness (Gay, 2002). Interest

30
convergence (Bell, 1980; Milner et al., 2013) may also be called into question for institutions
that offer TOC stipends or release time to act as the school-wide diversity champions within
systems of white domination. It is imperative for educational institutions to critically reflect upon
and examine the factors and realities that negatively impact efforts to diversify the teaching
force. The use of reflective professional communities (Cherry-McDaniel, 2019) and
collaborative practices (Cochran-Smith, 2001) may be one way to begin to disrupt these practices
by offering existing and new teachers the time and space to collectively name, examine,
interrogate, and challenge practices that are harmful to Students and Teachers of Color (Cherry-
McDaniel, 2019). Martinez (2017) suggested A People’s Education Model or inquiry group
offering a shared safe space for TOC who experienced the challenges and isolation of navigating
largely white institutions or teaching communities. Having critically reflective practices in place
may further support the recruitment and retention of TOC.
Student Stereotype Threat
There was a consensus among some scholars that matched students felt more advocated
for through a shared cultural understanding (Putman et al., 2016), and were less likely to feel
racial or gender-stereotyped (Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Scott & Alexander, 2019), further
supporting the need for continued efforts to disrupt whiteness in education hiring. Ingersoll et al.
(2017, p. 1) and Villegas and Irvine (2010, p. 178) referenced the term “cultural synchronicity”
to describe the shared life and cultural experiences between a teacher and student when racially
matched. Other scholars reported that such levels of cultural rapport reduced student
apprehension and stress from real or perceived biases by non-racially matched teachers (Carver-
Thomas, 2018; Goldhaber, et al., 2019). Williams et al. (2017) interviewed 76 Black parents of
first grade students to understand their perceptions of the role that race would play in their

31
children’s school experience, finding that 39% thought that race would be a key factor and
expressed concern of possible teacher stereotypes or biases impacting their child’s school
experience. One parent shared, “there is a stereotype that Black children are more
outgoing…more troublesome” (Williams, et al., 2017, p. 939). The early findings of Mercer and
Mercer (1986, as cited by Villegas & Irvine, 2010) expressed concern that Students of Color may
assume that positions of authority are reserved for those who are white because these students
have become accustomed to seeing fewer Teachers of Color in the classroom (p. 177).
Combined, early studies may appear to have foreshadowed a need for a critical focus on
disrupting the whiteness in hiring practices.
Improved Student Outcomes
As early as 1978, Vygotsky and Cole’s landmark cognitive work demonstrated the
importance of cultural context and experiences to a student’s learning construction, offering a
strong foundation for increasing the racial diversity of teachers (Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
Following Dee’s (2004) work, a number of other scholars have researched the impact of teacher-
student racial matching on student outcomes, largely in U.S. public schools sharing similar
trends of improved student achievement (e.g. Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015).
Egalite et al. (2015) reviewed administrative data for students in Florida and found favorable
achievement results for Black, white, and Asian American/Pacific Islander students in math
when they shared a racial background with an assigned teacher. In several related studies,
scholars asserted that student-teacher matching has a positive impact on student academic
achievement (e.g. Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2016; Kiryio et al., 2009; Lindsay
& Hart, 2017; Putman et al., 2016; Vinopal & Holt, 2019). One early study of 8
th
and 10
th
grade
students by Ehrenberg et al. (1995) found little relationship between improved student outcomes

32
when racially or gender matched with a teacher. Nonetheless, similar to Goldhaber et al. (2015),
this work did find that teachers’ subjective assessments of students were more positive when
matched (Ehrenberg et al., 1995).
Grounded in the experiences of Black students and disciplinary practices Lindsay and
Hart (2017) examined North Carolina public school student records between 2007–2013,
suggesting that Black students received less severe and frequent disciplinary consequences when
matched with Black teachers and harsher treatment by non-Black teachers, concluding that
teacher discretion or bias may influence student outcomes. Gershenson et al. (2016) also asserted
that bias toward minority students by non-minority teachers has an impact on teacher beliefs
about students’ academic potential, finding that non-Black teachers have lower expectations of
Black student achievement. Others reported a higher likelihood of Black students being
recommended for enrichment or gifted programs when taught by a minority teacher (Brown,
2016; Egalite & Kisida, 2018). Scholars have shown that student achievement and motivation is
directly related to teacher expectations of students (Parkay et al., 2014; Schunk 2020).
Student-Teacher Match Contradictions
While most scholars agree that there are benefits of matching teachers to students,
Vinopal and Holt (2019) reached similar conclusions, however, offered evidence that matching
students and teachers alone does not increase student outcomes and that the experience level of
the teacher has an impact. Similar to Gershenson et al. (2018), Vinopal and Holt (2019) found
the experience level of a non-Black teacher generally narrows the diversity gap when matched
with Black students, reporting a 31% increase in the likelihood that an experienced non-Black
teacher would see college potential in a Black student, over a non-experienced Black
teacher. Consideration should be given to the limitation of these samples to U.S. public schools,

33
with a strong reliance on the perspectives of 10
th
grade Math and English teachers. There may be
a difference in eliciting similar data from teachers in other subject areas and in considering
students of other ages and school grades and in international settings. Nonetheless, taken
together, multiple studies showed the benefits of student-teacher demographic matching. (e.g.
Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2016; Lindsay & Hart,
2017).
International School Teacher-Student Matching
While there is a plethora of research on the benefits of student-teacher matching in the
United States (e.g. Dee, 2004, 2005; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2016), one study
reviewed considered the impact of teacher matching in international schools (Cho, 2012). This
study considered the qualifications, class sizes, student socioeconomic indicators, and the
teacher’s subject matter expertise on student outcomes, yet this research was limited to matching
high school math and science teachers to students, and specifically focused on gender matching
(Cho, 2012). Unlike the studies of Dee (2004) and Egalite and Kisida (2018), Cho’s (2012)
empirical work found little evidence that student-teacher matching has an impact on student
achievement. By using the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study in 15 OECD
countries and student test scores, Cho (2012) suggested that teacher subject-matter knowledge
has a greater influence on student results than student matching. Cho’s (2012) work was specific
to gender matching, while the majority of research reviewed largely implied that as student
populations become increasingly multicultural racial matching is an important consideration (e.g.
Dee, 2004; Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2016; Lindsay & Hart, 2017). Cho’s (2012)
study is interesting in that it offers a view on student-teacher matching in international schools,
an area where little research was identified. Nevertheless, this work did not address racial

34
student-teacher matching impacts in international schools, suggesting a need for more research in
this area.
Collectively, multiple studies confirmed that it is a moral imperative to identify
solutions to disrupt the largely white-dominated teams of educators that are commonplace in
education settings (e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). While researchers
generally found that students’ engagement and achievement levels were positively impacted
when demographically matched with teachers (e.g. Gershenson et al., 2016; Lindsay & Hart,
2017; Putman et al., 2016), the research reviewed was largely based on U.S. public schools.
Many scholars focused on the impact of student-teacher matching on Black Americans and
Latinx participants, with some studies mentioning Asian Americans (Egalite et al., 2015) and
only one commented on an application to international schools (Cho, 2012). Thus, any
conclusions may not directly apply to international schools where the demographic composition
of the students may not be consistent with that of U.S. schools.
International School Context
There is a large body of research on student-teacher racial matching in U.S. schools
supporting the argument for increased hiring diversity in the teaching force to more closely align
with the dramatic shift in student demographics (e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite
et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2016; Lindsay & Hart, 2017). In contrast, the research on teacher-
student racial matching and recruiting for diversity in international P12 schools is scarce. This is
surprising considering the global trends showing an increase in the number of
international schools (ISC Research, 2019).
It was also noted that none of the research consulted considered the impact of intersecting
identity aspects, often referred to as intersectionality. Instead, most considered a single, general

35
classification of race/ethnic background. Cazden (1996) described the multiple layers of identity
that individuals have as “multiple lifeworlds” (p. 71) or memberships including career worlds,
interests, race, ethnicity, sexual identity, etc. Crenshaw (2019) describes these multiple forms of
identity as intersectionality. It may be interesting for a future study to consider the impact of
intersectionality on student-teacher matching in international schools.
International schools were largely established to educate the children of expatriates living
outside of their home countries and are reported to have started as early as 1922 (ISC Research,
2019). While the reported data on the total number of international schools globally is not
believed to be precise (Chandler, 2010), ISC Research (2019) reported the current number of
international schools as 10,400 with a teaching force of 540,000 and a student body of 5.8
million. This represents a six-fold increase in the number of international teachers since 2000
when there were 2,548 international schools globally with 988,600 students (ISC Research,
2019).
Alongside this increase in students attending international schools, trends have shown an
increasingly racially diverse student population (Carter Andrews et al., 2019). The number of
local students attending some international schools can be as high as 80%, a reversal of the
historic trends of expatriate, largely white student dominance (ISC Research, 2019; Mancuso et
al., 2011). On the other hand, in some countries, such as Singapore, there has been an increase in
students from the Asia Pacific region, rather than from Singapore itself. Much of this has been a
result of the Singapore government requirement that students who are citizens attend a Singapore
national school unless an exemption to attend an in-country international school is granted.
These exemptions are typically only offered to Singaporean students for special circumstances or
educational needs that may not be best served in a Singapore national school (Singapore

36
Government Ministry of Education, n.d.). Nonetheless, research on recruiting diverse faculty in
international schools is significantly low relative to the growing population of these schools
globally.
Despite the global trends showing an increase in international schools, the research on
recruiting for diversity in international schools is relatively limited. A few extensive studies on
international teacher recruitment and retention were found (e.g. Chandler, 2010; Cox, 2012;
Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk,
2017; Wilusz, 2018). In all cases, the research did not focus on diverse hiring practices or
recruiting Teachers of Color (TOC) in international schools. Chandler’s (2010) study examined
the impact of geographic location on international teacher recruitment and retention, suggesting
that geographic destination influenced a teachers’ decision to accept an international teaching
assignment. Cox’s (2012) quantitative study examined variables that were important to
candidates who accepted international teaching positions, finding that candidate perceptions
differed based on their years of teaching experience with less experienced teachers placing a
higher value on personal factors and more experienced international teachers focusing more on
career development. Tkachyk (2017) studied the perceptions of East Asia Regional Council of
Schools (EARCOS) international teachers on the reasons for high turnover in overseas schools
concluding that leadership support, effective school systems, and strong mentorship programs
may influence teachers to stay with their current school. Gomez (2017) studied the reasons that
teachers and administrators leave international positions positing that school leadership had a
strong influence on an educators’ decision to leave a teaching job. Odland and Ruzicka’s (2009)
early work studied the factors influencing teachers to leave international schools at the end of
their first contract concluding that leadership concerns, compensation and personal

37
circumstances influenced teachers’ decisions. Wilusz (2018) later added to this body of research
through a mixed-methods study of the strategies that international school leaders employed to
recruit teachers, finding significant differences among international schools in their hiring
approach and strategies. Despite the suggested importance of recruiting TOC to best support an
increasingly diverse population of students (e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018), there is also limited
research on the benefit of student-teacher matching in international schools or on how
recruitment or organization practices may influence the decisions of TOC to accept teaching
positions outside of their home country.
Applying a Political Frame: Preservice Training, Recruitment, and Retention Efforts
Many scholars offered solutions for narrowing the diversity gap that can be generally
summarized as improving preservice training programs, recruitment efforts, and retention
strategies (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll et al., 2017). The next
section brings together research on diversifying the teacher workforce by improving the pipeline
of Teachers of Color (TOC) through preservice training, recruitment, and retention practices. In
turning to solutions, multiple scholars suggested a stronger focus on preservice training,
recruiting, and/or retaining teachers to better serve populations of increasingly diverse students
(e.g. Carver-Thomas, 2018; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Futrell, 1999; Kiryio et al., 2009;
Plachowski, 2019; Podolsky et al., 2019; Putman et al., 2016; Scott & Alexander, 2019; Sensoy
& DiAngelo, 2017; Shipp, 1999; Villegas & Davis, 2007; Vinopal & Holt, 2019; Waddell &
Ukpokodu, 2012).
Despite the presence of a wide range of solutions for increasing the number of TOC, little
progress has been made to narrow the diversity gap (Jackson & Kohli, 2016; Plachowski, 2019;
Putman et al., 2016; Villegas & Davis, 2007). The next section brings together research on

38
diversifying the teacher workforce by improving the pipeline of TOC through (1) preservice
training, (2) recruitment, and (3) retention practices. This review further suggests other practices
including an increased awareness of unconscious bias (Beattie et al., 2013; Beattie & Johnson,
2012) to disrupt color blindness (Plachowski, 2019) and assumptions in hiring practices. Finally,
the role of organizational and cultural factors in recruiting and retaining a diverse teaching force
is touched on. Nonetheless, more work is needed to understand how these strategies might be
applicable to or adapted to narrow the diversity gap in international schools.
Preservice Teacher Training
Several researchers suggested that minority college graduation rates need to increase in
order to build a pipeline of eligible educators who are better matched to the increasing body of
students of color (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Futrell, 1999; Plachowski, 2019; Putman et al., 2016;
Villegas & Davis, 2007; Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012). Putman et al. (2016) cited the low
number of minority college graduates, with few choosing a teaching career, concluding that the
diversity gap will not achieve parity until at least 2060, assuming the same number of Black and
Latinx pursue a teaching career as whites. Plachowski (2019) attributed the insufficient pipeline
of TOC to several factors, including fewer Students of Color choosing to pursue teaching careers
due to the (1) a lack of support and community for Students of Color in preservice education
programs, (2) feelings of isolation, (3) stereotype threats, and (4) exposure to microaggressions.
Merriam Webster (microaggression definition) describes microaggressions as, “a comment or
action that subtly and often unconsciously or unintentionally expresses a prejudiced attitude
toward a member of a marginalized group (such as a racial minority).”
Carter Andrews et al. (2019) formed similar conclusions and described the experience of
preservice training for Students of Color as one that can be “toxic” by supporting a “pushout and

39
keepout” environment where students are constantly expected to demonstrate their worth (p. 8).
Increasing numbers of Students of Color have chosen to pursue careers in fields outside of
education (Barth et al., 2016; Ingersoll et al., 2017; Villegas & Davis, 2007) that may be
perceived to be more supportive or financially beneficial. Still others refer to the long-standing
teaching barriers to entry including the college education curriculum and certification exams
with TOC showing lower pass rates (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Jackson & Kohli, 2016; King,
1993). Nonetheless, Carver-Thomas (2018) suggested that there is limited evidence that teaching
licensure and certification examinations are correlated to or predict future teaching effectiveness.
Perceptions of Preservice Teachers
Brown (2014) used a CRT lens to examine the literature on minority students entering
preservice training programs, concluding that students not only felt a lack of support in their
academic college coursework but felt limitations in their ability to develop and apply the
culturally relevant skill set needed to teach an increasingly multicultural body of students
(Cherry-McDaniel, 2019). Further, Brown’s (2014) study suggested that preservice programs are
often perceived as normalizing a white culture that marginalizes and alienates TOC (Carter
Andrews et al., 2019; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019). Cherry-McDaniel (2019) later suggested that
preservice training was inadequate in training teachers to become culturally responsive. Cherry-
McDaniel (2019) offered that preservice training that simulated real teaching scenarios where
teaching candidates are coached, encouraged, and assessed on their intentional practice of
culturally responsive and sustaining approaches may be one way to address this gap. On the
other hand, Cherng and Davis (2019) studied 2,500 preservice teacher surveys reflecting
respondents’ multicultural beliefs together with student teacher performance observations
finding that TOC, particularly Black and Latinx, demonstrated higher multicultural awareness

40
than their white preservice peers. Plachowski (2019) interviewed eight preservice TOC to find
that their own racialized childhood K12 experiences, combined with deficit experiences in their
preservice teaching, shaped and impacted their perceptions of their preservice training and in
some cases influenced their pursuit of a teaching pathway.
Teaching Pathways
Much work is still needed to diversify the body of students pursuing a teaching pathway
(Carver-Thomas, 2018; Plachowski, 2019; Villegas & Davis, 2007). Several strategies to deepen
the pool of candidates of Color in the teaching force have been suggested. One possibility is to
leverage on the population of Students of Color pursuing undergraduate degrees with undeclared
majors in an effort to interest them early in a teaching career (Villegas & Davis, 2007). Other
suggestions include offering financial assistance in the form of loans or scholarships for Students
of Color who choose to pursue a teaching career (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Futrell, 1999; Ingersoll
et al., 2017; Scott & Alexander, 2019; Villegas & Davis, 2007; Waddell & Ukpokodu, 2012).
Some studies suggested that the TOC pipeline might be improved by targeting students in
paraprofessional courses or community members open to career changes (Carver-Thomas, 2018;
Podolsky et al., 2019; Villegas & Davis, 2007). Identifying ways to interest Students of Color in
teaching as early as middle or high school have also been experimented with (Ardley et al., 2020;
Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll et al., 2017; Podolsky et al., 2019; Villegas &
Davis, 2007). Texas Tech University rolled out Project FUTURE, a Grow Your Own program for
students as early as sixth grade (Stevens et al., 2007). This program was aimed at providing
students from underrepresented racial backgrounds, specifically Latinx and Black youth, with
exposure to role model teachers to develop their self-efficacy, skills, and belief in their ability to
become future teachers. One student described their experience: “I started this program in 6
th

41
grade and enjoyed coming to campus every day…inspired me to become a teacher…helped me
to overcome my fears about college” (Stevens et al., 2007, p. 104). Providing high school
Students of Color an opportunity to receive teaching credits through experiential summer
teaching programs is another way to increase the pipeline of TOC (Villegas & Davis, 2007).
Although well intended, initiatives to increase the population of TOC may have little
impact if the school where a teacher is employed lacks leadership support and has poor working
conditions that ultimately influence teachers to leave (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018;
Podolsky et al., 2019). Moreover, there is little evidence of similar preservice programs in an
international context, suggesting that there may be an opportunity to understand how
transportable these models might be to develop the pipeline of TOC in international schools. As
a result of a range of initiatives, the number of TOC entering the U.S. teaching force has reported
a growth rate from 12% to 20% over the past 30 years (Carver-Thomas, 2018).
Ingersoll et al. (2017) reported that the diversity gap is not a consequence of a failure to
hire TOC, citing that in the past two and a half decades the number of TOC has more than
doubled. Similarly, the proportion of white teachers in U.S. public schools has reduced from
90% in 1987 to 79% in 2018 (Carver-Thomas, 2018). Nonetheless, more work is needed to stop
the leak in this channel as TOC leave the teaching force at a higher annual rate than their white
counterparts (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll et al., 2017). Ingersoll et al.
(2017) studied recruitment, employment, and retention data from the National Center for
Education Statistics nationally representative Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) over a
quarter-century (1988-2013), finding significantly higher turnover rates for TOC over non-TOC
and suggested that this gap continued to widen year over year, from 18% in 2004-05 to 25% in
2012-2013. This continuous process of hiring teachers who later attrite has been referred to as

42
the “revolving door” (Carver-Thomas, 2018, p. 6; Ingersoll, 2001, p.4). As a solution, some
have suggested an urgent need for continued focus on culturally responsive practices and
supportive leadership relationships to retain preservice TOC (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Plachowski,
2019).
Recruitment
While a focus on preservice training is one step to narrowing the diversity gap, recruiting
and retaining Teachers of Color is equally important (Futrell, 1999; Gershenson et al., 2016;
Kiryio et al., 2009; Scott & Alexander, 2019; Shipp, 1999). Barth et al. (2016) contended that
focusing on preservice training does not guarantee that all trained students will ultimately pursue
teaching careers due to the burden of financial loans (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Podolsky et al.,
2019; Villegas & Davis, 2007), the pursuit of higher paying roles (Putman et al., 2016; Villegas
& Davis, 2007), licensure entrance requirements (Carver-Thomas, 2018), or a decreased desire to
be in the classroom post-training. While there is a large body of research on recruiting teachers
in the U.S., there is not a single hiring approach or template that can be easily and consistently
applied. Many hiring practices and approaches vary greatly by context and location (Podolsky et
al., 2019). Podolsky et al. (2019) asserted that there is not one single solution to hiring three
million teachers serving 50 million students in over 50 states in the U.S., and much of the
approach is driven by the local school context. Applying this logic to an international context
with a teaching force of 540,000 and a student body of 5.8 million students (ISC Research, 2019)
may result in a similar diverse mosaic of recruitment approaches.
Recruitment in International Schools
Although the research on recruitment in international schools is limited, Cox (2012)
offered that international education recruitment is influenced by U.S. teacher shortages. This is a

43
result of the large pipeline of teachers who come from North America to international schools. A
majority of teachers in international schools are hired from North America, the United Kingdom
(UK), South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia (Scarlett, 2020). This assertion is consistent
with the earlier work of Cox (2012) finding that the majority of respondents surveyed in his
study of 1,543 teachers seeking international positions were from the U.S., UK, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand. Similarly, Mancuso et al.’s (2010) earlier work suggested that an
overseas hired teacher has most often completed their certification in the U.S., Canada, UK, New
Zealand, or Australia. Considering the generally weak pipeline of TOC in the U.S. (Carver-
Thomas, 2018) and the heavy reliance on U.S. channels for teacher recruitment, this may impact
the number of TOC applying for positions with international schools. Scarlett (2020) suggested
that nearly all teachers hired in international schools are white. Even in South Africa, 90% of the
teachers hired by international schools are white, although the country is only 10% white
(Scarlett, 2020) and the student demographics in South Africa’s schools have been described as
culturally diverse (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], TALIS
2018).
Competitive Landscape
As the number of international schools increases, the competition for recruiting teachers
becomes more intense (Cox, 2012; Wilusz, 2018). To date, the research on recruiting teachers in
international schools has been limited (e.g. Chandler, 2010; Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso
et al., 2010; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz, 2018). Schippling (2018) suggested that there is a research
deficit in the area of empirical studies in international schools, despite the increasing number of
such institutions globally. Several studies suggested that there is limited research on the process

44
of recruiting and retaining teachers in international schools (Cox, 2012; Wilusz, 2018).
Moreover, studies with a focus on recruiting TOC in international schools were not found.
International Recruitment Channels
Traditionally, international schools have relied on recruitment fairs as a key channel for
hiring teachers (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017) and more recently many have moved to virtual
recruitment fairs, particularly with the presence of the ongoing global pandemic. Wilusz (2018)
used a mixed-methods approach to interview 20 international school leaders and surveyed 89
international school hiring leaders to understand their perceptions of strategies used to recruit
teachers in international schools, finding that the use of recruitment fairs for international hiring
has declined due to (a) the cost of attending a fair, (b) the limited time they allow for hiring
decisions, and (c) the increasing use of other online platforms to conduct interviews (i.e. Zoom).
Today, common international recruitment platforms include International School Services (ISS),
Schrole Advantage, and Search Associates, as well as a variety of other recent market entrants
(i.e. Teach Abroad). Regardless of the channel, international school recruiting is costly, with
contracts for teachers who are hired that often include a base salary plus expatriate benefits such
as shipping, housing, insurance, home leave, school fees, tuition for dependent children, and
relocation allowances.
Candidate Acceptance
Building on the earlier work of Ingersoll (2001), Mancuso et al. (2010) found that certain
organizational, teacher, and school variables influenced a candidate’s decision to accept a role.
Cox (2012) advanced this work by surveying 1,543 teaching candidates applying for
international teaching roles through ISS, Search Associates, and Council for International
Schools (CIS). Through this work, Cox (2012) aimed to understand factors that candidates

45
perceived as important at the start of the recruitment process and upon accepting an international
teaching position. Cox (2012) concluded that candidate perceptions differed based on their years
of teaching experience with less experienced teachers placing a higher value on personal factors
and more experienced international teachers ascribing the highest value to school leadership and
career development. Cox (2012) found that school leadership, compensation, and autonomy were
of high importance to more experienced teachers, while less experienced teachers valued
meaning of work, wanderlust, personal safety, and job conditions. Wanderlust was defined as
“the wish to travel far away and to many different places” (Cambridge Dictionary, wanderlust
definition). Hanks et al. (1986, as cited in Cox, 2012) originally defined this as “a great desire to
travel or roam about” (p. 18). Hardman’s (2001) early work referred to teachers who leave due to
a desire to explore new places as “mavericks” (p. 130).
Location
Cox (2012) emphasized the role that geographic location plays in influencing a teacher’s
decision to accept an international role. Chandler (2010) posited that geographic destination
influenced a teacher’s decision to accept an international teaching assignment and suggested that
locations such as the Middle East might enhance recruitment efforts by marketing the appeal of
their destination. Odland and Ruzicka (2009), Mancuso et al. (2011), and Cox (2012) considered
the factor of wanderlust in their studies, suggesting that a sense of travel or adventure could be a
key reason influencing a teacher’s decision to work internationally. Wilusz (2018) implied that
location may be a factor considered by teachers when accepting an international teaching role but
concluded that more information was needed to understand how influential this factor may be.
Nonetheless, the work of these researchers (e.g. Chandler, 2010; Cox, 2012; Wilusz, 2018) did
not consider the racial or ethnic diversity of the teachers surveyed, thus there is no evidence that

46
the factors examined in these studies remain constant across diverse racial backgrounds.
The Role of the Hiring Leader
Mancuso et al. (2010) suggested that the head of international schools generally played a
more active role in the recruitment process, similar to the role that a principal might play in U.S.
public schools. Cox (2012) later built upon this point by emphasizing that international school
leaders often make hiring decisions without clear guidance on recruitment practices. Cox’s
(2012) study underscored that a candidate’s perceived relationship with the school leaders was
one of the most important factors in the early stage of the recruitment process. This was
determined by the following variables: teacher autonomy, recognition and support from school
leaders, influence over workplace policies, and administrative respect for teachers (Cox, 2012, p
58). Cox’s (2012) quantitative study presented some limitations in that the voices and
interpretations of participants were not invited through interviews and instead a self-reported
survey was relied upon. It is also common in some large international schools for the role of the
principal to be more pronounced in the hiring process than that of the head of school, similar to a
large U.S. district. Nonetheless, the fundamental underpinning of Cox’s (2012) and Mancuso et
al.’s (2010) work implied that a school hiring leader who was perceived to be supportive and
willing to empower teachers may be beneficial to recruiting and retaining faculty. As a solution,
Mancuso et al. (2010) suggested that consideration be given to investment in leadership training
in transformational (Burns, 1978/2010; Northouse, 2019) and distributive leadership as a means
of influencing teachers to accept and stay in international teaching roles.
Wilusz’s (2018) study was the only one reviewed that examined the international teacher
hiring process from the perspective of school leaders, finding significant differences among
international schools in their hiring approach and strategies. By interviewing 20 school leaders

47
and surveying 89 school leaders on their recruitment strategies, Wilusz (2018) identified that
school leader recruitment approaches and strategies differed and were influenced and, in some
cases, limited by the location of the school and the recruiting season. By surveying 173 school
leaders and interviewing 20 school leaders, Wilusz’s (2018) study identified five key recruitment
themes that were of importance to school leaders as follows: (a) adaptation or adjusting hiring
practices, (b) a fit versus match approach to recruiting, (c) defined hiring success measures, and
(d) location, capabilities, and recruiting timelines.
Increasing the number of TOC in an international school may require intentional
recruitment efforts and ongoing onboarding, mentoring, and support programs. Putman et al.
(2016) shared that it will take considerable time to make significant progress on hiring teachers
who are as diverse as the student body and suggested that “changing hiring can barely nudge the
needle on teacher diversity’’ (p. 15). While this long-term issue may not be easily solved, it
demands an immediate call to action. Diversifying the teaching force in education necessitates a
critical examination of hiring practices that privilege white teachers and disadvantage TOC
(Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
Several possibilities for beginning to address this leaky recruitment pipeline have been
suggested, including (a) partnerships with educational institutions serving Students of Color to
recruit new teachers (Carver-Thomas, 2018), (b) introducing college loan forgiveness in
exchange for a commitment to teach (Barth, et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Futrell, 1999;
Scott & Alexander, 2019), and (c) including TOC on hiring panels to add diverse perspectives
and input (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Podolsky et al., 2019). Sensoy and DiAngelo (2017) cautioned
that, if not done well, adding a TOC to a hiring committee may create an impression of tokenism.

48
The Impact of Unconscious Bias on Hiring
Some researchers have suggested that the implicit worldviews or biases of hiring leaders
might impact a number of core recruitment processes such as the application screening, selection
process, interviews, and final hiring decision (Abawi, 2018; Beattie et al., 2013; Beattie &
Johnson, 2012; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Sensoy and DiAngelo (2017) refer to the outcome of
these biases as the creation of a culture of whiteness resulting from the continual impact of white
leaders reproducing largely white institutions through their hiring practices and mindsets. Many
hiring leaders unconsciously recruit to their own image (Beattie & Johnson, 2012), a possible
contributor to the common practices of white school leaders hiring mainly white teachers in
some educational institutions. Scholars have suggested that school leaders critically examine
their positionality and implicit biases to better prepare their institution to recruit for diversity
(Abawi, 2018; Beattie & Johnson, 2012). Ardley et al. (2020) further underscored the importance
of training all leaders and teachers to become aware of their biases to improve the pipeline of
TOC.
The Critical Role of Retention
Recruiting TOC is important and retaining them is equally critical to begin to address the
diversity gap. High rates of teacher turnover can not only disrupt student learning (Mancuso et
al., 2010; Podolsky et al., 2019) but may signal underlying organizational issues. The attrition
rates in education are high with as many as 33% of new teachers leaving within three years and
20-50% within five years (Futrell, 1999; Kiryio et al., 2009). Jackson and Kohli (2016)
suggested that a teacher’s initial five teaching years are critical in determining the likelihood that
a teacher will stay in the field. TOC are more likely to leave the teaching force or their current
school than their white peers (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018). This change can impact

49
all students, particularly Students of Color who may have been well supported by these teachers
(Carver-Thomas, 2018). In the U.S. the cost is more than US$20,000 for every new teacher
hired, and this investment does not pay a return if teachers leave before the end of their second
year (Learning Policy Institute, 2017).
Researchers generally suggest that some attrition is a healthy way to add flexibility and
move non-performers out of an organization (Ingersoll et al., 2017). Tkachyk (2017) added that
teacher turnover allows for a fresh perspective with the replacement of departing teachers with
new teachers. Ingersoll’s (2002) early work suggested that turnover can facilitate new ideas and
innovation. While there can be positive aspects associated with some attrition, most found that
the organizational disruption (Ingersoll, 2001, 2002; Mancuso et al., 2010) and costs (Barth et
al., 2016; Cox, 2012; Tkachyk, 2017) associated with high rates of attrition outweigh the
benefits. Attrition of TOC continues to widen the diversity gap and undermines the work of
initiatives intended to narrow this gap (Ingersoll et al., 2017). Ingersoll et al. (2017) used
Nationally representative data to show that the number of TOC increased to 666,000 from
325,000 from the 1980s to 2012, suggesting that TOC turnover is significantly impacting the
efforts to diversify the teaching force. Based on Ingersoll et al.’s (2017) work, TOC were
reported to be almost 50% more likely to leave their teaching roles than their white peers. Gomez
(2017) underscored that the more informed leaders are on the reasons for international teacher
turnover, the better positioned they will be in their recruitment efforts.
International School Retention
One of the earliest studies on international teacher attrition was conducted by Hardman
(2001). In this study, 30 teachers working in schools in Argentina, Egypt, Indonesia, and
Tanzania completed a questionnaire and five teachers from Buenos Aires participated in

50
interviews seeking to understand the factors influencing their decisions to accept and remain in
international teaching positions beyond the initial contract year (Hardman, 2001). Hardman
(2001) found that the most significant factor was career advancement, followed by a happy work
climate, compensation, and a sense of job challenge. Interestingly, the lowest ranking factor
influencing a teacher to stay in an international teaching role based on Hardman’s (2001) study
was a strong relationship between the teacher and school administration. However, Hardman’s
(2001) work affirmed that the multicultural appeal and the diversity of peer teachers in overseas
schools were positively perceived by teachers choosing to stay in international schools.
Nonetheless, Hardman’s (2001) study was limited to seeking the impressions of current
international teachers and did not include the voices of teachers who had left their overseas
teaching positions.
One of the more cited studies on teacher turnover in international schools was Odland
and Ruzicka (2009), who surveyed 281 international teachers who were part of the Council of
International Schools (CIS) recruitment database of 3,000 candidates. This study considered
teachers who had left an international teaching assignment at the end of their first contractual
year with a school, concluding that leadership concerns, compensation, and personal
circumstances influenced teachers’ decisions to leave. Odland and Ruzicka’s (2009) participant
data was self-reported through a survey instrument and did not suggest that efforts were made to
seek the voices of participants to validate interpretations of closed and open-ended questions.
Nonetheless, the importance of school leadership and organizational conditions, including factors
such as teacher autonomy, as influencers in a teacher’s decision to stay in a role in an
international school (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011;
Tkachyk, 2017) are similar to the earlier seminal findings of Ingersoll (2001) and later studies

51
(Ingersoll & May, 2011; Ingersoll et al., 2017) on factors influencing TOC to stay in U.S.
schools.
Mancuso et al. (2010) surveyed 248 overseas teachers and 22 heads of school from Near
East South Asia (NESA) international schools, a region ranging from Greece and the Middle
East to India, Nepal, and surrounding countries in Asia, finding an average turnover rate of 17%,
with some schools experiencing turnover rates up to 60%. In this study, Mancuso et al. (2010)
found that having supportive leaders was one of the most influential factors for employee
retention. Mancuso et al. (2010) added a layer of specificity as they qualified that
transformational and distributed leadership were often associated with supportive leadership.
Compensation and demographic factors such as an employee’s age were important, yet the
perception of school leadership was the most significant influencer (Mancuso et al., 2010).
Mancuso et al.’s (2010) study included 191 teachers who planned to continue their
contracts with their current international school and 57 teachers who were leaving, finding that
common reasons that a teacher might resign were: non-supportive school leadership,
dissatisfaction with compensation, and perceptions of their limited influence on decisions.
Similar findings were noted in 2011 when Mancuso et al. used the data from Mancuso et al.’s
2010 study to review descriptive open-ended survey responses to understand teachers’ reasons
for renewing their contracts or departing from their current overseas school. Through this work,
the strongest factor influencing a teacher’s decisions to remain at an overseas school and to leave
an international school was supportive leadership. For departing teachers, the organizational
condition of the perceived quality of the teaching assignment ranked highest. The significant
influential role of leadership support and organizational conditions were consistent with
Ingersoll’s work (2001, 2002) in the U.S. and specifically as it relates to TOC in Ingersoll et al.’s

52
(2017) study, finding that a focus on organizational conditions and giving teachers more voice in
decisions could positively influence teacher retention. Organizational conditions may include a
wide range of elements such as class size, influence over school decisions, levels of
empowerment, relationships with peers, physical work factors, or resources (Mancuso et al.,
2010). Mancuso et al. (2011) defined organizational conditions as being within the control of
school leaders or factors that could be adapted to influence teacher retention.
Transformational Leadership
Mancuso et al. (2011) described transformational leadership as the act of an educational
leader providing respect, care, encouragement, and support that is focused on the needs of
followers. Further, in a teaching context, transformational leadership may be perceived as a
leader who seeks multiple perspectives before making decisions and is respectful of teachers’
time by minimizing extraneous work that takes teachers away from their classroom and their
core purpose of teaching students (Mancuso et al., 2011). Inspiring a culture for teachers to
pursue professional development, work collaboratively, and contribute to decisions may be
perceived as transformational.
Northouse (2019) referenced the early work of Burns (1978/2010) to describe a
transformational leader as one who provides vision, is supportive of followers, charismatic,
empowering, and motivates others to achieve more than they thought possible. Transformational
leadership may include a vast range of leadership approaches that influence organizational
culture (Northouse, 2019). Mason et al.’s (2014) study of 56 leaders attending a year-long
transformational leadership training course found that leaders demonstrated enhanced self-
efficacy, positive affect, and an improved ability to take multiple perspectives into consideration
post-training. Effective leadership defines and characterizes a school and can attract and retain

53
strong teachers and leaders (Barth et al., 2016; Podolsky et al., 2019) and some may describe this
as transformational. Barth et al. (2016) suggested supportive and empowering leadership
approaches that might positively transform culture and contribute to teacher retention including
the following:
a. Providing coaching and feedback
b. Regular performance and development discussions
c. Public recognition of successes
d. Pathways to leadership opportunities
e. Empowering teachers to lead projects
f. Providing additional classroom resources
More recently, Gomez (2017) conducted a study to identify the reasons for international
teacher attrition with a similar finding that school leadership had a strong influence on an
educator’s decision to leave a teaching job. These findings are also consistent with those reported
in U.S. settings (Ingersoll et al., 2017), implying that school leadership and organizational
conditions were key factors influencing a teacher’s decision to leave a job. On the other hand,
demographic factors related to the school (i.e. poverty levels, number of Students of Color
enrolled, and school location) and compensation were found to be more important in a teacher’s
initial decision on whether to accept a role but ranked lower as influencers on teachers’ decisions
to stay or leave (Ingersoll et al., 2017).
While the research on retention rates and trends in international schools is beginning to
expand (Tkachyk, 2017; Winnard, 2017), it is believed to be difficult to precisely and accurately
obtain (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Wilusz, 2018). Tkachyk (2017) reported that teacher turnover
rates in East Asia Regional Council of Schools (EARCOS) were generally reported to span

54
between 20-50%, however, this data was based on a limited number of schools. The general
collective findings of these studies largely imply that hiring decisions, in particular as they relate
to organizational leadership and working conditions, might strongly influence a teacher’s
decision to stay. This is largely consistent with findings based on TOC in U.S. public schools
where the top reason for attrition was dissatisfaction with leadership (Ingersoll et al., 2017). TOC
turnover in schools with negative organization conditions is 21% percent higher than the attrition
rate in schools with positive organization conditions (Ingersoll et al., 2017).
Carver-Thomas’ (2018) review of literature on TOC retention found the top reasons for
teacher turnover were: compensation, poor leadership support, a lack of empowerment/influence,
working conditions, and to pursue a new career or opportunity. Barth et al. (2016) shared similar
findings with poor administrative support and isolated working conditions topping the list.
School conditions such as population size and poverty levels may be significant considerations
for U.S.-based schools (Mancuso et al., 2010). The playing field is slightly different for teachers
working in an international setting where students attending these private schools are most often
from expatriate families and the schools are typically well resourced by significant school fees
(Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011).
Professional Development
Barth et al. (2016) and Scott and Alexander (2019) advocated for professional
development and pathways to leadership roles to engage and retain teachers. On the other hand,
See et al. (2020) suggested that there is little evidence that professional development results in
increased teacher retention. The work of Ingersoll et al. (2017) suggested that while professional
development is important it is not typically a factor that significantly influenced a TOC’s
decision to stay with an organization. Increasing the number of TOC in schools may require

55
intentional recruitment efforts and ongoing onboarding, mentoring, and leadership support to
retain TOC (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Jackson & Kohli, 2016).
Induction and Mentoring
Induction and mentorship programs for recruited TOC can be successful tools for
motivating new teachers to stay (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Hardman, 2001;
Podolsky et al., 2019). Although referring to U.S. schools, Carver-Thomas (2018) suggested that
teachers who received an induction or mentoring program in their first year are two times less
likely to leave the school. Barth et al. (2016) proposed that one to two and a half hours per week
be dedicated to mentoring beginning teachers in their first two years in U.S. schools. See et al.
(2020) agreed that there is an increased interest in providing induction and mentoring programs
for new teachers, however, suggested that the wide range of levers within these programs make it
challenging to directly map specific induction and mentoring initiatives to improved retention
rates.
Brunsma et al., (2017) reviewed more than eighty studies published between 1980-2010
to understand the role that mentorship played in the experience of graduate Students of Color,
finding that mentees typically seek and benefit from mentors who share a similar identity aspect,
including racial or ethnic background. In this study, Students of Color who were mentored were
found to be more likely to complete their program and find post-program employment. McCoy et
al. (2015) conducted a similar study of graduate Student of Color mentorship programs finding
that white mentors often applied a color-blind approach in working with Student of Color
mentees. This included assumptions by white mentors that Students of Color had lower
aspirations than their white peers, suggesting that it is imperative for mentors to understand and
recognize the identity differences of mentees to enable all students to receive culturally

56
responsive mentorship support that might enable them to be successful. Ingersoll and Strong
(2011) studied data from Chicago and Texas school district new teacher induction programs,
concluding that such programs had a more significant impact on teacher retention with those who
attended an induction program demonstrating a greater ability to keep students on task, develop
strong lesson plans, use inquiry practices, and consider student interests. Ingersoll and Strong
(2011) considered large urban districts in the U.S. and these findings may not be specifically
transferable to an international setting.
In the international setting, Tkachyk (2017) conducted focus group interviews with eight
experienced teachers from EARCOS international schools to understand participants’
perceptions on the reasons for teacher turnover, concluding that in addition to leadership support
and effective school systems, strong mentorship programs may help to influence teachers to stay
with their current school. It has been noted that Tkachyk’s (2017) study was limited to eight
participants from EARCOS schools, thus the findings may not be representative of all
international settings. Further, there was not an indication of the racial or demographic identity
of participants in Tkachyk’s (2017) study, thus any conclusions may not directly apply to TOC in
international schools. Nonetheless, coupling this with information suggesting that leadership
support (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Tkachyk, 2017) is important to teachers in international
schools might suggest a need to consider the role of onboarding, induction, and mentoring for
TOC in international schools.
While strong leadership support has been cited as a common reason for teachers to stay in
their roles (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk,
2017; Winnard, 2017), it is important to note that there are a range of other reasons that may
contribute to teacher retention (Gomez, 2017; Tkachyk, 2017). Tkachyk (2017) used a

57
framework of classifying these reasons into push factors including leadership support,
empowerment, and interpersonal situations that influence a teacher’s decision to leave and pull
factors such as compensation, benefits, career progression, personal circumstances that may
influence teachers to stay in their roles. In summary, there is not always one particular factor that
can be isolated as influencing teacher retention, and there remains an opportunity to more deeply
understand teacher turnover and retention in international schools (Gomez, 2017; Tkachyk,
2017) with an emphasis on TOC. Table 1 summarizes key conclusions from some of the
international recruitment and retention studies discussed in this review.

58
Table 1
Summary of International Recruitment and Retention Studies
Study and Purpose Notable Conclusions
Odland and Ruzicka (2009)
The relationship of School, Teacher and
Organizational factors to teacher turnover

Organizational conditions (leadership)
Compensation and personal circumstances
influenced turnover
Mancuso et al., (2010)
Mancuso et al., (2011)
Reasons international teachers leave

Supportive leadership is the most important
factor; compensation and influence on
decisions was also valued

Cox (2012)
Factors influencings teachers at the start of
the recruitment process and upon acceptance
of teaching role

Supportive leadership, compensation,
teacher autonomy. For less experienced
teachers, personal factors were important;
more experienced were more career focused
Tkachyk (2017)
Factors influencing teacher turnover

Leadership, effective school systems,
mentorship, and benefits
Gomez (2017)
Factors effecting teacher and leader turnover
Working conditions, personal factors, and
administrative leadership

Note: the emphasis on leadership is a factor that was of importance to teachers in several
international studies (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011;
Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017)

A Symbolic Perspective: Organization and Culture
Organizational culture, conditions, and leadership may influence the recruitment of TOC
in U.S. public schools, with the level of empowerment and degree of collective decision-making
influencing retention decisions (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll & May, 2011). Rivera (2019)
applied a phenomenological approach through interviews and ethnographic journals to
understand the reasons that Puerto Rican teachers stayed in their U.S. teaching roles and found

59
that an environment that enabled collaborative opportunities and empowered teachers was a key
motivator. There is limited documented research on the factors that influence TOC to accept and
stay in positions in international schools. Jackson and Kohli’s (2016) extensive review of
literature on TOC concluded that more work is needed to understand the racialized, often white
context where TOC may feel marginalized and isolated. One common theme underscored that
there is a critical need for institutions to not only strive to increase the number of TOC, but to
begin to understand the unique and individual experiences and perspectives of current TOC to
identify ways to systematically improve training, recruitment, and retention (Carver-Thomas,
2018; Plachowski, 2019).
Cultural Relevancy
Some have suggested that supporting higher education pursuits and empowering teachers
to make the curriculum culturally relevant (Ardley et al., 2020; Ladson-Billings, 2014) as
possible levers to improving TOC retention. Additional researchers shared similar suggestions of
training all teachers to be culturally relevant as an interim measure in recognition of the long-
term goal of narrowing the diversity gap (Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Kiryio et al., 2009). Khalifa
(2018) challenges that most teachers have not been trained in culturally responsive practices
leaving current instructional practices white-centric, oppressive, and non-inclusive toward
Students of Color. Jackson and Kohli (2016) implied that this focus on training largely white
teachers in multicultural and social justice practices was a topic more widely covered than efforts
to understand the experiences of TOC to improve teacher preparation, recruitment, and retention.
More work is needed to listen and learn from perceptions of TOC (Villegas & Irvine, 2010).
Carver-Thomas (2018) illuminated Jefferson County Public Schools of Kentucky, a
district that launched teacher cultural relevancy professional development at the Equity and

60
Inclusion Institute. A later assessment of this program (Vanderhaar, 2014) showed that greater
than 90% of the 300 participants reported more ability to apply an equity view and culturally
relevant pedagogy toward Students of Color post attendance. Khalifa (2018) promoted the
benefit of teachers who embrace the lived experiences, culture, and community of their students
and embed these rich resources into their instructional practices to enhance the curriculum’s
relevancy for all students. Recruiting TOC may be one way to narrow the cultural gap between
white educators and Students of Color yet training all educators in culturally responsive practices
is equally important. Further, school-wide cultural competency efforts may be one way to begin
to mitigate feelings of isolation that TOC often experience in largely white settings (Carver-
Thomas, 2018; Plachowski, 2019).
Organizational Conditions
Ingersoll’s landmark work (2001, 2002) emphasized that employee turnover is largely
influenced by an organization’s conditions and character. Organizational and working conditions
were found to more strongly influence a TOC’s decision to stay in a teaching role (Ingersoll et
al., 2017). Teacher classroom autonomy and opportunity for collective decision making were
two of the top organizational factors influencing a TOC’s decision to leave a job, with factors
such as compensation, professional development, and resources ranking lower (Ingersoll et al.,
2017; Rivera, 2019). In the international education setting, Cox (2012) emphasized a similar
focus on the importance of the leadership culture and working conditions to positively influence
a school’s perceived value in recruiting teachers.
Other studies of international school recruiting and retention also suggested the key role
that school leadership plays in teachers’ retention decisions (Mancuso et al., 2010; Odland &
Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz, 2018; Winnard, 2017). The communication strategy and

61
messaging are important ways for a school to symbolize and share its values and culture in an
effort to attract diverse candidates. While organizational leadership was cited as playing a key
role in international recruitment (Cox, 2012; Wilusz, 2018) and on recruiting TOC in the U.S.
(Ingersoll et al., 2017) more work is needed to examine and understand the perception of TOC of
the conditions and factors that support and inhibit their decision to accept and stay in
international schools.
Summary of the Literature
In light of the research on teacher-student racial matching, it seems safe to conclude that
hiring racially diverse teachers may improve student engagement and outcomes (e.g. Dee, 2004;
Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2016). In the absence of research
on the impact of teacher-student matching in international schools, it is difficult to conclude that
similar benefits may be realized in this setting. Nonetheless, the body of evidence suggests that
there is a need to focus on the underrepresentation of Teachers of Color (TOC) in schools
through improved focus on the pipeline through preservice training, recruitment, and retention
efforts (e.g. Ardley et al., 2020; Barth et al., 2016; Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas,
2018; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Ingersoll et al., 2017). Researchers in the international setting
viewed recruitment and retention as largely unified with one influencing the other (Cox, 2012;
Wilusz, 2018).
A more recent study on recruitment in international schools, conducted by Wilusz (2018),
suggested that future studies consider limiting the sample to an individual country or region,
rather than attempting a global approach as each individual international country has a unique set
of laws, regulations, and needs. This is an important point for future recruitment studies on
international schools and has influenced the decision of this study to focus on one unique school

62
setting. Cox’s (2012) quantitative study, while well cited, did not invite the voices and unique
interpretations of participants beyond the survey itself, suggesting that qualitative interviews be
considered in future reviews to inquire and seek to understand the nuances, factors, and
conditions contributing to a candidate’s unique decision to accept an international teaching role.
Villegas and Irvine’s (2010) early work also suggested that the research on recruiting TOC
should consider interviewing the teachers themselves to understand their perceptions of the
factors and conditions contributing to the disproportionality of TOC to white teachers. Further,
Mancuso et al. (2010) and Mancuso et al. (2011) suggested that transformational and distributed
leadership that invites teachers into decision making (Podolsky et al., 2019) was an important
condition that might influence a teacher’s decision to stay with or leave an international role.
This is a consideration that may be worth examining in future studies. Preparing leaders to enact
transformational leadership practices may also be a key factor for school boards to consider
when recruiting international heads of school (Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011).
While organizational leadership was cited as playing a key role in international
recruitment (Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Tkachyk,
2017; Wilusz, 2018; Winnard, 2017) and on recruiting teachers in the U.S. (Ingersoll et al., 2017;
Podolsky et al., 2019) more work is needed to examine and understand the perceptions of TOC
of factors such as organizational conditions, culture, and leadership that may influence their
decision to accept and stay in international schools. Further, transformational leadership alone
will not address the racial climate or inequities in white-dominated educational institutions
(Khalifa, 2018). Instead, supplementing transformational leadership with a focus on culturally
responsive leadership practices should be considered (Khalifa, 2018). For international schools

63
that are serious about recruiting and retaining TOC, the influence of the leadership team in the
hiring, supporting, and on the overall organizational culture should be carefully considered.

64
Chapter Three: Methodology
A qualitative, descriptive approach was employed in this study designed to begin to
explore and understand ways to narrow the racial and ethnic diversity gap between teachers and
students at Innovative American Academy (IAA), a Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school in
Southeast Asia. This chapter sets out to describe the research methodology and the rationale for
this approach. Based on the literature, the influence of factors including leadership,
organizational conditions, and culture in supporting and inhibiting a teacher’s decisions to accept
and stay in international teaching roles should be carefully considered. Combining this with U.S.
studies concluding that leadership support and organizational conditions are influential to
Teachers of Color (TOC) retention decisions, suggested that it is important to understand the
factors that might support or inhibit the choices that TOC make to accept and stay in teaching
roles at IAA, an international school in Southeast Asia.
This chapter includes the rationale for the study methods and a description of the study
design. Next, the participant sampling technique and data collection approach to discover the
perceptions of TOC on the factors that support or inhibit their decision to accept and stay in
teaching roles at IAA is shared. The instrumentation and the approach to analyzing and
interpreting study findings are described. This chapter also includes a summary of the ethical
considerations of this study. Finally, the positionality of the researcher, as the primary instrument
in this qualitative study, is shared.
Rationale for the Study Methods
A qualitative research design allows for an inductive exploration (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to seek to understand IAA’s current working conditions,
leadership, culture, and practices that can impact the perceptions of TOC and may influence their

65
decision to accept a teaching role with and stay with IAA. Further, this design afforded the use of
interviews and narratives to construct meaning and understanding (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017;
Saunders, 2019), while aligning with the value that the researcher ascribed to personal or social
interactions (Agee, 2009). According to Saunders (2019), constructivism enables the creation of
meaning through social interactions. Malloy (2011) suggested that such inquiry-based
approaches may be used to discover the perceptions and feelings of stakeholders. Seeking to
understand the perceptions of TOC based on their experiences and impressions formed in this
defined school setting may best inform the purpose underlying this study of discovering the
factors influencing TOC to accept and stay in teaching positions at IAA.
Participants and Sampling
A sample of 17 TOC from IAA, an international P12 school in Southeast Asia, were
interviewed. This sample was purposefully selected on the basis of the access that the researcher
has to it for work purposes and resulting familiarity with the stakeholders and school leaders in
this setting. Further, this setting afforded the researcher the opportunity to obtain rich learning
that might result in tangible actions within the researcher’s work setting. An emergent research
design (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) was engaged where adaptability
and changes (Locke et al., 2010) were considered after the sampling and data collection began
and new information was learned.
Sampling Approach
This study aimed to invite a unique sample of IAA TOC, purposefully selected, as is
consistent with a qualitative research approach (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The intent of this study was to seek an understanding of the perceptions of TOC; therefore
the sample was purposeful and intentional by drawing from the population of IAA TOC who

66
joined the school between July 2017 and July 2021 to participate in an in-person interview.
Much of the current leadership and Human Resources (HR) team was in place since July 2017,
informing the selection of this timeframe and recognizing that organizational practices may have
differed prior to 2017. A nonprobability purposeful sample (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016) was chosen for its accessibility and proximity as the researcher’s work
environment.
A sample of TOC who were hired between 2017-2021 and were teaching core subjects,
electives, learning support, or providing school counseling were selected. The researcher sent 35
invitations to teachers that the researcher suspected might identify as People of Color. The
invitation and consent form provided participants with an option to indicate the racial/ethnic
background that they self-identified with while also providing an option to opt-out of sharing this
information. Nonetheless, all participants chose to indicate that they identified as at least one
non-white racial identity. Appendix A provides a sample of the invitation sent to participants.
Appendix B includes the follow-up Study Information Sheet that all consenting participants
received. The researcher also attempted to include both TOC with five years or more of
international teaching experience and those with less than five years of experience in
international settings in this sample. The inclusion of this tenure-based criteria is driven by
research finding that teachers with five or less years of teaching experience give greater
consideration of personal factors including a desire to explore new locations when accepting
international roles while those with five or more years of experience were found to be more
career-focused (Cox, 2012). Earlier studies of international schools also concluded that teachers
with more years of teaching experience showed a greater likelihood of leaving to seek a new
international school setting (Mancuso et al., 2010).

67
Unlike a quantitative survey that several scholars chose to apply in their studies of the
factors influencing the recruitment and/or retention of teachers in international schools (e.g. Cox,
2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009), this
study applied a qualitative approach seeking to understand the experiences, feelings, opinions,
beliefs, and backgrounds of TOC through in-depth interviews. The TOC purposefully selected
for this study were chosen on the basis of their background as current or prior teachers for IAA
who had lived experiences to draw from and contribute to this study. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
described good respondents as those who can share feelings, opinions, and thoughts on the topic
under study and this is the basis for purposefully selecting TOC who have worked at IAA as
participants for this study.
TOC meeting the established criteria were sent email invitations to participate in an in-
person interview. The email invitation was sent to 35 of the 58 (60%) IAA TOC who were
recruited between 2017 and 2021 along with a detailed explanation of the study purpose, the
expectations related to the proposed 60-minute confidential in-person interview, and a request
for the invited TOC to consent to participating in the interview that was later scheduled. This
invitation clearly indicated that participation in this study is voluntary and that participants may
withdraw from the study at any point in time. A desired sample size of 10 participants was the
researcher’s intended goal, with a minimum of five participants being interviewed. The
researcher found that 27 TOC expressed a desire to participate. As such, 17 TOC were
interviewed and 10 were reserved as back-ups in case participants left the study early. Of the 35
teachers invited to participate, eight were TOC who had accepted a role with IAA between 2017-
2021 and had since left IAA. For those who had departed IAA, they were invited to similar
interview sessions via Zoom with the goal of interviewing at least two TOC who have departed

68
IAA. The researcher included employees who had left IAA under the assumption that employees
who had departed IAA may be less inhibited in openly sharing their direct feedback on the
factors that influenced their decision to leave IAA.
Consistent with qualitative research, a small and purposeful sample was used to allow
time to interview all participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviewing the total population of
58 teachers for 60 minutes each was not practical considering that the faculty members and the
researcher were managing full-time teaching or work commitments. As this is a qualitative
descriptive study, the researcher allowed for the possibility that a point of redundancy or
saturation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) might have been reached with a number lower than or
higher than the original aspiration of interviewing 10-15 TOC.
Preliminary Approval
Once the research problem, questions, and approach were carefully framed, approval from
the Institutional Review Board was obtained in August 2021. Following this, the researcher
obtained final approval from the IAA superintendent and deputy superintendent to conduct the
study in this school setting (Appendix C). Concurrently, the researcher ensured that any
perceived conflicts of interests (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) due to the researcher’s HR
leadership role were discussed and examined to understand any potential risks that might exclude
the researcher from conducting this study or from interviewing IAA TOC. In alignment with the
American Education Research Association (AERA) ethical principle of respect for people’s
rights, dignity, and diversity (as cited in Lochmiller & Lester, 2017, p. 69), the researcher
critically and carefully reflected upon the study research questions, interview questions, and the
proposed design and approach to guard against perpetuating research that positions TOC as ‘at
risk’ or in need of intervention (Patel, 2015; Tuck & Yang, 2014). Once superintendent and

69
deputy superintendent approval were obtained on August 12, 2021, the researcher sent formal
email requests to all school division principals to conduct this study involving TOC who they
supervise (Appendix D). All division principals provided formal written approval for the
researcher to proceed with the planned interview process.
Instrumentation
Consistent with a qualitative research design, the researcher in this study was the primary
instrument as it relates to both the data collection and the resulting analysis (Lochmiller &
Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A semi-structured 60-minute interview was the chosen
instrument in this study due to the desire to seek the perceptions of TOC. Following the
recruitment of participants to this study, the interview protocol (Appendix E) was applied. A
semi-structured approach provided flexibility to adapt interview questions and allowed new
learnings to emerge (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition to taking
notes, interviews were recorded with participant consent for later transcription. To generate
useful responses and a balanced emic perspective, the focus was on single-barreled, clear,
answerable, open-ended interview questions (Agee, 2009; Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Appendix E includes the interview protocol. Appendix F outlines the interview
questions for current IAA TOC while Appendix G includes the questions for interviews IAA
TOC who have left the school.
Data Collection
Patton (2002) suggested that qualitative interviews offer an avenue for the researcher to
learn more about that which they are not able to directly observe including a respondent’s
feelings, opinions, beliefs, or past experiences. In this study, semi-structured interviews were the
primary means of collecting data to understand the perceptions of IAA TOC of the factors that

70
supported them in accepting a role with IAA or that may have inhibited or may inhibit them from
staying with the school. The procedures applied for conducting semi-structured interviews are
outlined below.
Semi-Structured Interviews
A general interview guide approach (Patton, 2002) using a prepared interview protocol
was relied upon to ensure that the researcher covered relevant concepts illuminated through the
study’s conceptual framework (Appendices E-G). This included, but was not limited to,
interview questions that focused on the concepts of leadership support, organization conditions,
onboarding/mentorship, and organization culture. Considering the study goal of interviewing
IAA TOC, the interview protocol enabled the researcher to come prepared with predetermined
questions. The semi-structured nature of this approach allowed the researcher to adapt the
wording or sequencing of the questions to build on the interview conversation and individual
needs of the respondent (Patton, 2002). The data collected were the interview transcripts and
notes.
Interviews with 15 diverse participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) of TOC who were
working at IAA at the time and were hired between July 2017 and July 2021, as well as two TOC
who were hired between 2017-2021 and have departed IAA were included in this study. In the
event that the interviews had suggested that the hiring and interviewing process was a key factor
influencing a TOC decision to accept or leave IAA, a decision might have been made to observe
a sample of interview panels, resulting in varied data sources or a combination of research-
generated data including interview notes and naturally occurring data in the form of observations
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Nonetheless, the data gleaned through the interview process did not

71
suggest that observing the interview process would be an additive step and, as such, interviews
and the researcher remained the primary instruments for this study.
Of the total of 17 interviews conducted, 13 semi-structured interviews with current IAA
TOC were conducted in a private office on the IAA campus with two current IAA teachers and
two prior teachers opting to participate through a Zoom interview. Considering the global
pandemic and COVID-19 safety precautions, all participants were offered the option of a Zoom
interview or an in-person interview. All in-person interviews required that both the researcher
and the participant wear a face mask as a COVID-19 safety measure. Zoom sessions allowed
participants the option of participating in the interview without a mask, yet on screen. Two of the
four participants who opted to participate on Zoom were employees who had departed IAA
between 2017 and 2021. For participants who have since left IAA, Zoom interview sessions were
arranged primarily due to the geographic differences of the researcher and the respondents and
COVID-19 related travel restrictions.
The researcher adopted Seidman’s (2013) suggestion of concentrating on the words of the
participant, listening for the respondent’s inner voice, and observing nonverbal as well as verbal
cues throughout the course of the interview. Considering the racial and ethnic differences
(Seidman, 2013) between the white researcher and the respondents of this study who are TOC, it
was essential for the researcher to establish rapport and maintain sensitivity to any cues
suggesting participant unease. Approaching the interview in a thoughtful and respectful manner
helped to bridge the racial/ethnic differences between the researcher and respondent with a goal
to enable more accurate and complete data collection.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reminded researchers that the completeness of the data
collected is influenced by how the data is captured during the interview. All in-person interviews

72
were recorded using the Voice Recorder application available on smartphones to allow the
researcher to be fully attentive to the interview. Patton’s (2002) suggestions for testing the
recording device in advance and keeping the microphone in close proximity to the participant
were adopted. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested that there are benefits to the researcher self-
transcribing all recordings and, for this purpose, the researcher transcribed all recorded
interviews shortly after the completion of the interview session. The researcher was open to
using external transcription services, however, found value in self-transcribing interviews in
conjunction with the use of the Otter.ai meeting note transcription application rather than seeking
the assistance of an external transcription service.
Following interviews with participants, interview notes and thick/rich descriptions (Agee,
2009; Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Locke et al., 2010) were maintained to illuminate the school
context, role of the teachers, their racial/ethnic background, and information on the experience of
collecting this data to provide contextualization to support the researcher’s interpretations (Locke
et al., 2010). Because the researcher-participant relationship and rapport can influence the data
collection, analysis, and interpretation (Locke et al., 2010) the researcher aspired to be present,
listen deeply, and respectfully inquire to create a comfortable environment for participants to
respond (Locke et al., 2010; Mertens, 2012).
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of bringing together and arranging the fieldwork and data
collected in a study to systematically identify themes or patterns to draw conclusions (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007). In this study, the researcher began semi-structured interviews on August 16, 2021
and completed this process by September 10, 2021. In this study, the key data was gleaned
through interviews with participants. This recorded data was transcribed and reviewed to identify

73
patterns emerging in the information shared by participants. Thematic coding was used to
identify emerging categories and to interpret data collected (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Interview quotes were used, as indicated in the study consent form and with participant
permission, to support findings.
In this study, the conceptual framework has been shaped by the proposed research
questions (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017), by the literature reviewed, and by the researcher’s
experiential knowledge and assumptions (Maxwell, 2013). The intent is for this conceptual
framework to inform the systematic inquiry approach that was applied to the qualitative
descriptive research design in this study. As a result, the interview questions in this study were
intended to draw on the relationship between the key ideas and concepts related to the problem
of practice of recruiting and retaining racially and/or ethnically diverse teachers at IAA. Based
on a review of the literature and the researcher’s experiential knowledge, factors that might
influence the perceptions of TOC and inform whether they accept or stay with IAA included, but
were not limited to: (1) induction/mentorship programs (2) organization conditions (3)
leadership support (4) organizational culture (5) racial climate and (6) other personal factors.
The data analysis attempted to identify key themes associated with these factors, and the
researcher remained open to other factors that were not considered in the conceptual framework
but were expressed through the participant interview process. This approach was guided by the
researcher’s own subjectivities and interpretations (Peshkin, 1988) and, as a result, the study data
analysis and interpretation of interview responses illuminated meaningful concepts yet may have
also served to unintentionally conceal others (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

74
Ethical Considerations
It is a researcher’s responsibility to protect participants from harm, regardless of whether
it is intentional harm (Glesne, 2011; Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). To accomplish this, the
researcher obtained direct participant consent and took steps to ensure that all conversations and
identification information remained private and confidential. Participants were informed of the
study rationale, their right to withdraw from the study, and that participation is voluntary.
Participant confidentiality was carefully considered as some participants worked for the same
institution and would likely know each other (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). It took careful
consideration to mitigate any perceived possibilities of teachers feeling that they could not
decline the researcher’s invitation to participate, and this was accomplished through continually
reiterating to participants that their participation was voluntary and they had the right to
withdraw from the study at any time. Additionally, all participants were clearly informed on the
email invitation, the study information sheet, and prior to the interview session that the
researcher’s role was not evaluative in nature.
The researcher has a responsibility for understanding participants and anticipating and
addressing the risk of sharing findings that could potentially negatively represent or impact
participants or the community (Agee, 2009; Glesne, 2011). To protect against this risk,
pseudonyms have been used to report research findings, participant identifiers have been
excluded, and applied research methods have been reported (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). It was
also essential to check that teacher perceptions obtained through this study were not
misinterpreted but were presented as genuine expressions of participants’ views. Collaborative
participatory approaches (Agee, 2009; Dei, 2005) were introduced in an effort to give teachers
interviewed the option to review all post-interview transcripts for accuracy. Engaging

75
participants as co-creators or transcript reviewers may reduce the researcher’s risk of
unintentionally appropriating or misinterpreting participants’ voices (Agee, 2009; Dei, 2005).
In this study, the researcher attempted to anticipate and guard against any harm that
sharing this subject matter may have on the community of TOC at IAA. Deeply listening and
inviting the voices of participants and their review of interview transcripts was intended to also
mitigate the risk of harm of the researcher misinterpreting data collected or conveying findings in
a manner that did not accurately reflect the voices and perceptions of study participants. Dei
(2005) described this as disrupting the single directional flow of information that positions the
researcher as the expert and appropriates the voices of the study participants. Involving the
research participants and seeking input on interview questions from critical Peers of Color in
advance of beginning the interview process were steps that the researcher took to further reduce
the risk of harm to study participants.
Positionality
Many scholars suggested that a researcher’s subjectivities can influence their interview
questions, data collection, design, analysis, conclusions, or interpretations (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017; Locke et al., 2010). In a qualitative study, with the researcher serving as the primary
source of data collection and analysis, if left unchecked, these subjectivities can result in an etic-
skewed perspective (Locke et al., 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Peshkin, 1988). To address
this, the researcher continued to reflect upon her biases and subjectivities and made an effort to
openly name and monitor them throughout the study. Peshkin (1988) equated this subjectivity to
“a garment that cannot be removed” (p. 17), suggesting that researchers record their biases as
they perceive them. For this reason, the researcher deeply reflected upon and openly shared
subjectivities that were grappled with during this study (Locke et al., 2010; Peshkin, 1988). The

76
researcher chose to speak with and seek guidance from a trusted Peer of Color throughout this
research process to regularly check her own subjectivities and biases with the aim to guard
against harm to participants and the community of Color.
Researcher: Personal Positionality
Five years ago, after consciously transferring from a large American corporate work
environment to a similar-sized American school in the same Southeast Asian country, this
researcher was surprised to have entered a largely white leadership team with a teaching force that
was 85% white. This education setting was less racially or ethnically diverse than the corporate
world she had left behind. She became another white American leader as she took on the role of
Human Resources (HR) director in a school with a student body from 60 different nations,
culturally incongruent (Howard & Milner, 2014) with its teaching force.
Understanding that she is responsible for an HR group that influences the school’s hiring
practices, this researcher is motivated to break this visible pattern of whiteness. Yet, she
recognizes that she too is a privileged white leader with her own affinity biases as she recruits to
her own image. This researcher professes to believe in equal access for all candidates while
acknowledging that her perspective as an HR leader may limit her interpretation throughout this
study. The researcher is motivated to learn and grow as she reviewed research suggesting that
teacher-student demographic similarities can result in culturally relevant student experiences (e.g.
Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018, Gershenson et al., 2016).
The researcher’s role as an HR leader offered the opportunity for her to critically
examine, inquire, and challenge practices and organization conditions that disadvantage TOC.
Nonetheless, she brought her own biases and comfort with “best practices” that she had
introduced such as competency-based interview questions seeking a “best fit” candidate through

77
a limited white lens. This researcher aspired to deeply listen to the narratives of TOC to
understand the conditions that may support or inhibit their choice to accept and remain in
teaching roles at IAA. This researcher aimed to use dialogue as a mediator (Marsh et al., 2015) to
make IAA’s organizational culture and practices objects of critical reflection, while recognizing
her own biases, and embracing learning through failure (Brookfield, 2010; Merriam & Bierema,
2013; Taylor, 2000). For this reason, the researcher attempted to capture her personal interest in
recruiting for diversity and worldviews through this positionality section or researcher identity
memo (Maxwell, 2013) or reflexivity section (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).

78
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to seek to understand the
perceptions of Teachers of Color (TOC) on the factors that supported or inhibited their decisions
to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative American Academy (IAA) of Southeast Asia.
This study was approached by interviewing a sample of TOC who are currently employed by
IAA and were hired between July 2017 and July 2021, as well as TOC who were hired during
this same timeframe but have since departed IAA. Through examining the data gathered through
semi-structured interviews the following key themes emerged:
Induction/Mentorship: Connections to peers from a similar racial/cultural background
are critical and influential on TOC retention.
Organization Conditions: A TOC’s perception of their ability to influence decisions may
be an influential factor on their retention. Compensation was an influential factor on a
TOC’s willingness to accept a role at IAA but less of an influential factor on their
willingness to stay at IAA, with the exception of cases where perceived compensation
inequities were present.
Leadership Support: A TOC’s perception of leadership support is an influential factor on
both their willingness to accept and stay in a role with IAA and a TOC’s perception of
their career progression at IAA is a strong influential factor on their choice to stay
Culture: The diversity or representation of Teachers and Leaders of Color at IAA is a
strong influential factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at the school. In addition, a
TOC’s sense of belonging is influenced by the diversity of the teaching force and can
influence a TOC’s choice to stay at IAA. At the same time, a TOC’s perception of
espoused values versus values in practice may support or inhibit their willingness to stay.

79
Racial Climate: A TOC’s perception of the racial climate at IAA as evidenced through
the prevalence of microaggressions, stereotypes, biases, color blindness, expectations for
assimilation, and feeling “boxed into” roles or responsibilities is a strong influential
factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at IAA.
Geographic Location: The geographic location is a strong factor supporting the choice of
a TOC to accept a role with IAA. It was also noted that societal pressures shown toward a
TOC may inhibit their choice to stay in teaching roles at IAA.
Other factors: IAA’s willingness to engage in Culturally Responsive practices and to
prioritize Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion may support a TOC’s choice to accept and stay
with the school. Culturally responsive leadership may be a strong influential factor on a
TOC’s choice to stay at IAA.
The first three chapters of this study set out to share the study introduction, the problem
of practice of recruiting and retaining TOC in international schools, a comprehensive literature
review on recruiting and retaining TOC, and a description of the planned methodology for
collecting and analyzing data collected. This chapter presents the findings illuminated and
analyzed through semi-structured interviews with a sample of 17 IAA teachers, comprised of 15
current IAA teachers and two past IAA teachers who self-identified as People of Color.
Participants
As part of this study, a total of 35 TOC were invited to participate in a 60-minute semi-
structured interview. An individual email invitation to participate in this study was sent to a
sample of the population of IAA TOC who joined the school between July 2017 and July 2021.
Much of the current leadership and Human Resources (HR) team has been in place since July
2017, informing the selection of this timeframe and recognizing that organizational practices

80
may have differed prior to 2017. TOC invited to participate were not only hired between 2017-
2021 but were also teaching core subjects, electives, learning support, or providing school
counseling while employed with IAA. The total population of 35 candidates who were sent
invitations was comprised of 27 current IAA teachers and eight teachers who had joined IAA
between 2017 and 2021 and had since left their job at IAA.
At the time of this study. IAA did not have a robust system of tracking the racial or ethnic
background that teachers self-identified with. Therefore, as part of the study recruitment process,
an email invitation was sent to 35 candidates who the researcher suspected might identify as
TOC with a request that they indicate the racial group that they self-identified with on the
invitation response consent form. As such, the self-identified racial and/or ethnic background
that participants indicated on their study invitation response and consent form was relied upon.
Asking participants to self-identify their racial and/or ethnic background was intended to
mitigate the risk that the researcher might make erroneous assumptions in relation to the racial or
ethnic background of participants. This was also added to guard against the risk of the researcher
boxing participants into one racial or ethnic group and allowing for the possibility of the
intersection of more than one race or ethnicity per participant.
A total of 27 of the 35 (77%) candidates who received invitations to participate in a 60-
minute semi-structured interview accepted the researcher’s invitation to participate. This
consisted of 25 current IAA teachers and two teachers who had departed IAA. Because the
response rate was higher than anticipated, the researcher selected a nonprobability purposeful
sample (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) of diverse TOC to participate in
the interview process. The two respondents who had accepted a role with IAA between 2017 and
2021 and had since departed IAA were purposefully included in the sample considering the

81
possibility that participants who were no longer employed by IAA might be less inhibited with
their feedback and responses. In addition to the two respondents who had left IAA, 15 of the 25
(60%) current IAA TOC who expressed an interest in participating were invited for a 60-minute
semi-structured interview.
Although the researcher was open to interviewing more than 17 of the 27 (63%)
candidates accepting the invitation to participate, the consistency in the themes evolving through
the 17 interviews conducted led the researcher to conclude that a saturation point had been
reached after 17 total interviews (15 current IAA TOC and two TOC who had since departed
IAA). All interviews were conducted between August 16, 2021 and September 10, 2021. Four of
the 17 (24%) interviews were conducted via Zoom while the remaining 13 of 17 (76%) were
conducted in person. All participants were offered the option to participate via Zoom as an
additional safety measure in consideration of the global pandemic. All participants who opted for
an in-person interview were required to wear face masks and to follow safe distancing
requirements. Refer to Table 2 for a list of study participants. To protect the participants from
harm and to maintain their confidentiality, pseudonyms have been assigned for each participant’s
name and efforts have been made to de-identify all participant data.
Participant Characteristics
The researcher used the self-identified racial and/or ethnic demographic information that
participants indicated on their study invitation response and consent form to select a
racially/ethnically diverse sample of teachers to participate in the interview process. The sample
of participants was thoughtfully and purposefully selected to include both teachers who had left
IAA and current teachers. Table 2 below provides a summary of the participants interviewed and
the date and mode of the interview. Table 3 provides a breakdown of the self-identified race and

82
ethnicity of participants and a summary of the gender distribution of participants interviewed.
Finally, Table 4 offers data to show the number of years of international teaching experience of
participants samples. The data has been shared in these tables with the use of pseudonyms as a
means of de-identifying individual participants.

Table 2
Summary of the Sample of Participants interviewed
Participant
Code/Name
Date Mode Role
1. Mark
2. Samantha
3. Daniel
4. Kara
5. Olivia
6. Melissa
7. Brian*
8. Constance
9. Kai
10. Celine
11. Lexi
12. Shawn
13. Gabriela*
14. Pamela
15. Mina
16. Sandy
17. Melody
Aug 16, 2021
Aug 17. 2021
Aug 19, 2021
Aug 20, 2021
Aug 20, 2021
Aug 20, 2021
Aug 21, 2021
Aug 21, 2021
Aug 23, 2021
Aug 23, 2021
Aug 24, 2021
Aug 27. 2021
Aug 31, 2021
Sept 1, 2021
Sept 2, 1021
Sept 10, 2021
Sept 10, 2021
In Person
In Person
In Person
In Person
In Person
Zoom
Zoom
Zoom
In Person
In Person
In Person
In Person
Zoom
In Person
In Person
In Person
In Person
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Counsellor
Teacher
Note: * represents that this is one of the two teachers interviewed who joined IAA
between July 2017 and July 2021 and have since left the school

83

Table 3
Summary of Participant Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity
Race Ethnicity Number of
Participants
Asian Chinese 4
Asian Filipino 1
Asian Japanese 2
Asian Korean 1
Asian South Asian 2
Black American 3
Latinx Hispanic 2
Mixed Race Asian/American 1
Native American American 1
Total 17
Gender 12 Females
(71%)
5 Males
(29%)
Note: 59% of participants identified as Asian, 18% as Black,
12% as Latinx, 5.5% as Mixed Race and 5.5% as Native American.

Table 4
Summary of Years of International Teaching Experience
Total Years of
International
Experience
Number of
Participants
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
22

2
4
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1

Note: The total number of years of international teaching
experience per participant ranged between 1 and 22 years.
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Interviews
This chapter will present findings that emerged from data collected through semi-
structured interviews with a sample of 17 TOC who had worked for IAA. In order to protect the
confidentiality and anonymity of participants, a code in the form of a number has been included
in Table 2 and an assigned pseudonym has been used to refer to each participant. Findings
related to the following study research question will be shared:
1. What factors do TOC perceive as supporting or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in
teaching roles at IAA?
The themes that were illuminated were synthesized into induction/mentorship,
organization conditions, leadership support, culture, racial climate, personal/other
considerations including geographic location, and other emerging themes. After each interview,
the researcher transcribed all interviews for accuracy with the voice-recorded transcript using the
Otter.ai meeting note transcription application. Collaborative participatory approaches (Agee,
2009; Dei, 2005) were introduced to give teachers interviewed the option to review the post-
interview transcripts for accuracy. As such, typed transcripts were optionally shared with
participants to ensure that the researcher had accurately captured the perceptions and narratives
of participants and to reduce the risk of erroneous capture or misinterpretation by the researcher.
Agee (2009) and Dei (2005) suggested that engaging participants as co-creators or reviewers
may reduce the risk of unintentionally appropriating or misinterpreting participants’ voices.
All transcripts were reviewed by the researcher to identify emerging themes, both those
consistent with the conceptual framework in Chapter 1 (Figure 1) and other emerging themes. In
this study, the conceptual framework was shaped by the proposed research question (Ravitch &
85

Riggan, 2017), the literature reviewed, and the researcher’s experiential knowledge and
assumptions (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher highlighted themes emerging through a review of
the study transcripts and captured them in a data spreadsheet. A careful analysis of the concepts
synthesized in the data spreadsheet illuminated the key findings shared in this chapter.
It is important to note that part of the 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 academic years were
affected by the impact of COVID-19, resulting in times when learning was virtual or when in-
person teaching occurred with mandatory face masks on. In addition, IAA educators were not
able to see their family members for extended durations of time due to country-level border
controls and measures. As such, there is a possibility that the morale, future plans, or willingness
of study participants to stay or leave IAA at the time of the study interviews may have been
influenced by this added factor that has been described as the impact of COVID-19. This is a
topic that may be of interest for a future study.
This section outlines key themes that emerged through the 60-minute semi-structured
interviews conducted with participants, beginning with induction programs and mentorship. Next
factors related to organization conditions will be shared. Following this, the researcher will share
factors that participants expressed to be important as they relate to leadership support. The
impact of organizational culture on a TOC’s choice to accept and stay at IAA will be explored.
Following this, factors illuminated that the researcher classed as racial climate will be described.
Further, personal/other considerations such as geographic location will be discussed. Each of
these factors were part of the researcher’s conceptional framework in Chapter 1 (Figure 1) of
factors from the literature identified as influential to teacher recruitment and retention decisions
in both the U.S. setting and in international schools. Finally, other emerging themes that were not
dominant parts of the original conceptual framework will be touched upon, including themes
86

related to safe spaces for TOC, culturally responsive practices, and culturally responsive
leadership.
Induction Programs
Carver-Thomas (2018) posited that teachers who received an induction or mentoring
program in their first year are two times less likely to leave the school. This section outlines the
themes illuminated by participants in relation to induction programs, community building, and
connections. Fourteen of the participants were not only moving to a new teaching role in a new
school but were also relocating to a new country when accepting their role with IAA. With this
comes the need to find a home, set up a bank account, and in some cases settle their families into
a new location. Three participants had been teaching in other schools nearby and had transitioned
to IAA without the added need to settle into a new country or geographic location.
While IAA did not differentiate the new hire induction experience for TOC, all
participants with the exception of those entering IAA during the global pandemic, described their
induction experience as organized, supportive, and welcoming. Melissa, an Asian teacher,
described her IAA experience as humanizing as it made her feel valued. Asian participants Brian
and Olivia and Latinx teachers Lexi and Melody shared similar sentiments of feeling respected
and cared for during their settling-in experience. On the other hand, four participants expressed
less favorable views of their IAA induction experience, suggesting that they felt disconnected.
Nonetheless, these four participants relocated to Southeast Asia during the global pandemic and
attended many of their induction sessions virtually while serving a mandated two-week
quarantine in a government-assigned hotel, an experience they described as stressful and
isolating. One teacher shared that she felt trapped as she compared it to “being on a reality show
and it’s like cut, I’m done, I want to leave.” These same participants perceived that it took them
87

longer to begin to feel a sense of belonging and establish connections post-quarantine. The
feedback from participants led the researcher to conclude that induction programs can have an
influence on a teacher’s experience as they enter a school and, as Ingersoll and Strong (2011)
concluded, may ultimately have an impact on teacher retention. Nonetheless, it is likely that
these feelings of isolation when onboarding during a global pandemic are not unique to TOC.
Community Building
One of the most dominant themes emerging was that making connections with peers with
shared cultural or identity aspects was an important factor for TOC to begin to feel a sense of
belonging as they entered IAA. Participant Melissa described her experience of arriving at IAA
and “trying to be visible when people are not really trying to see you.” For Samantha, connecting
with other teachers of Black heritage to begin to build community was essential. As a result, she
found ways to build a cultural community outside of IAA through International TOC groups or
in-country Black groups. It is difficult enough for most new teachers to enter a school as they
wonder whether they might fit in but, in Samantha’s case, she described the added layer of
unease, discomfort, and uncertainty when one does not see many peers with a similar racial or
ethnic background. Sandy also emphasized the importance of shared cultural connections when
you cannot easily look around and see racially similar peers within IAA.
Connections
Participant Mark recognized that there are a number of employees who shared a similar
ethnicity and heritage to his at IAA, yet he was not made aware of this before arriving. He
shared, “Asians get grouped into one and the diversity within the Asian group itself is heavy. I
do not feel celebrated.” Samantha and Celine thought their transition to Asia and IAA might
have been easier with the option to proactively connect with members of IAA’s Black
88

community in advance of their induction. This might have eased “the burden” they described of
forging vital relationships while trying to settle in. Samantha shared her personal example of the
stress of having “to cast a wide net” to get practical information, such as how to order hair oils in
Southeast Asia. She contrasted her experience to that of a white educator who can easily “find 15
people who can answer questions because the default tends to be whiteness in this space.” Celine
suggested that IAA establish shared housing communities or intentional spaces for TOC to
cultivate connections. The next section highlights the perceptions of participants on the impact of
mentorship programs on their choice to accept and stay at IAA.
Mentorship
Barth et al. (2016) proposed that one to two and a half hours per week be dedicated to
mentoring beginning teachers in their first two years. Several participants including Asian
teachers Melissa and Olivia and Black teacher Samantha expressed that, while they were not
assigned TOC mentors by their leaders upon entering IAA, they organically found peers with a
similar culture or racial background within the school to act as informal mentors. By the same
token, several TOC felt that one of the factors that contributed to their retention at IAA was the
social connections they organically forged with teachers with whom they shared identity aspects.
Several participants thought that they might have benefitted if a culturally similar mentor
was assigned in advance of their arrival to IAA. Nevertheless, Asian participants Kara, Mark,
Brian, Gabriela, and Mina would not have been comfortable with a differentiated induction of
mentorship program for TOC. Instead, they thought that a mentor was worth considering if all
new teachers, regardless of race, had equitable access to this program. Constance felt strongly
that she would prefer to keep her mentor-mentee relationships private rather than to be assigned
a mentor by IAA. Based on this variable response to being intentionally paired with a mentor, it
89

is difficult to conclude that such a program might influence IAA TOC to stay. Similarly, no
participant indicated that IAA’s mentorship program was an important factor that they
considered when accepting their role with the school.
Organization Conditions
Organization conditions may include a wide range of elements such as influence over
school decisions, levels of autonomy, physical work factors, or resources (Mancuso et al., 2010).
Mancuso et al. (2011) defined organization conditions as being within the control of school
leaders or factors that could be adapted to influence teacher retention. This section will share the
emerging themes related to the participants’ ability to influence decisions and compensation.
Ability to Influence Decisions
When asked to describe their ability to influence division or school-wide decisions, most
participants generally expressed that, although they had sufficient autonomy in their classroom,
they had limited influence on school decisions. Asian participants Kara and Melissa expressed
that they were gradually giving up hope that their voice might be heard and they perceived that
no one was listening to their input or views. Black educator Constance on the other hand felt that
she had an influence on decisions. Nonetheless, she expressed “but here’s the catch, I don’t get
credit for my thoughts.” South Asian participant Daniel did not feel that he would ever move
beyond giving input to visibly influencing decisions. Shawn expressed that IAA had recently
launched a Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) program, yet to his dismay, as a TOC who is
living with equity and inclusion challenges, his voice was not invited to DEI program decisions.
Chinese immersion teacher Olivia stated that she often felt neglected as an IAA Chinese
instructor. She described immersion program decisions as being made by leaders with limited
immersion or Chinese language experience rather than seeking input from those teaching the
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program. She and Melissa both described the Chinese immersion program as one that is
minoritized within the school. Olivia expressed that, if the voices of TOC continued to be
ignored in future program decisions, she might consider leaving IAA. Grade level teacher
Pamela shared similar sentiments, “it feels exhausting, it feels like I’m invisible, it feels like my
voice and my experiences aren’t valid.” Additionally, the participants who left IAA both
perceived that they had limited influence on most decisions.
Compensation
For more than half of the study participants, the compensation offered by IAA was
perceived to be an important initial consideration in their decision to join the school. On the
other hand, compensation was rarely cited as a factor that might influence a TOC to leave IAA,
with the exception of three participants. For these participants, compensation was found to be a
highly influential factor on their retention at IAA. These three TOC were hired on a local
contract without a rental allowance, flight allowance to travel, or a tuition benefit for their
children to attend IAA. In contrast, this full suite of benefits was offered to their foreign hired
teaching peers. This disparity in benefits was perceived as inequitable by the three locally hired
participants, causing them to question their longevity with IAA. Equity was described as an
important factor by several TOC. For example, most participants expressed that IAA’s recent
focus on DEI was an influential factor on their decision to stay with the school. Shawn and Mina
expressed that, if the institution stopped focusing on DEI, they might consider leaving.
Intersectionality and Other inequities
Locally hired participants shared that it was challenging to not receive a tuition benefit
for their children to attend IAA when the majority of their mostly white colleagues received a
tuition benefit. Kara described this as “the lack of equity in compensation is something that I
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cannot understand because it makes it worse that I am a Person of Color.” Kara’s described the
list of locally hired teachers as mostly Asian women whose nationality makes them ineligible for
benefits equal to their peers. The intersection of Kara’s local contract and her minoritized racial
identity made it challenging to distinguish which factor was the barrier. Hispanic teacher Lexi
shared similar views as she described her local contract as “a special limbo,” where she is not a
local citizen of IAA’s host country, and she is still excluded from receiving benefits that her
foreign hired peers enjoyed, making her wonder if she fit in. It is challenging for Lexi to work
beside colleagues of similar heritages who were offered overseas benefits including IAA tuition
for their children, while her child does not have access to a financially prohibitive IAA
education. Gabriela suggested that inequitable compensation was one of the main reasons she left
IAA.
Cazden (1996) described the multiple layers of identity that individuals have as “multiple
lifeworlds” (p. 71) or memberships including career worlds, interests, race, ethnicity, sexual
identity, etc. Crenshaw (2019) describes these multiple forms of identity as intersectionality.
Intersectionality can often make it difficult to determine if a single or multiple aspects of one’s
identity may be influencing inequitable treatment. Shawn and Sandy described multiple aspects
of their identity beyond race and ethnicity that made it difficult to determine exactly which
identity factor(s) most influenced the differences they experienced. Sandy emphasized that some
of this treatment may have been gender-driven rather than race. Mina believed that being a
female Asian-American added multiple layers to her identity, making it difficult to ascertain
which identity aspect made her feel more marginalized at IAA.
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Leadership Support
This section brings together the synthesized themes that participants shared on leadership
support, career progression, and the impact of espoused values versus values in practice. The
majority of participants did not feel that they received differentiated support from their leaders as
TOC, although most would have appreciated it if they had. Samantha could not recall receiving
any unique support as a Black woman at IAA. Samantha was clear that through this support she
hoped for equity, not favoritism. She thought that this might be accomplished if her leaders
purposefully provided additional check-ins and conversations with her. Nonetheless, she felt it
important for these conversations to be authentic rather than superficial “check the box” visits.
Samantha and Daniel believed that leaders should seek to understand TOC’s aspirations to help
them build the skills for growth and goal achievement at IAA. The majority of participants
implied that the effort that school leaders dedicate to personalized conversations and making
teachers feel valued and respected is a crucial factor influencing their engagement and retention.
Mark and several other participants suggested that leaders show more support for TOC
by visiting their classrooms and showing an interest in their work with students. Kara longed for
a relationship with her school leader that made her feel valued. Instead, she compared her limited
interactions with her leaders to the more “thriving relationships” she perceived between her
white peers and their leaders. Olivia suggested that leaders might make TOC feel safe by
establishing relationships with them rather than approaching interactions in transactional or
“administrative” ways.
Shawn shared that when he entered his teaching career at IAA as a teacher who was
coming from a non-American school, he would have appreciated leadership support to help him
to adapt to a different curriculum and expectations. Instead, he felt that it was “thrown back in
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his face that he was different” making him very aware of these differences that seemed to be
perceived as a deficit at IAA. Pamela thought she had not received any leadership support as a
TOC at IAA. Based on the school’s strong reputation, she assumed that she would be well
supported as a TOC at IAA. Nevertheless, Pamela expressed that she often felt overlooked and
invisible at IAA, and she attributed this largely to being a member of a minority race. Pamela
expressed deep concern that if she felt invisible as an adult at IAA, her Students of Color and her
own children might be similarly overlooked.
Mina hoped that her leaders would take the time to visibly know her both personally as a
TOC and professionally. Daniel longed to feel that his leader had an interest in understanding his
aspirations and what he hoped to accomplish. He felt that IAA TOC would benefit from
dedicated leadership coaches and professional development. Nevertheless, he stated that he
regularly felt an absence of leadership support as a TOC at IAA, and this would be a strong
factor influencing his decision to leave the school. He stated that he rated this factor as an eight
on a ten-point scale with ten being the highest. Mark echoed these sentiments as he said that
leadership support would be at least a ten on a similar scale. Both Mark and Daniel shared that
their perception of the leadership support that they envisioned they might receive at IAA was an
influential factor on their decision to join the school.
While leadership support was not a factor that all participants carefully considered when
accepting their role with IAA, most formed an impression of the leaders on their hiring
committee and on this basis made general assumptions that they would be supported at IAA.
Nonetheless, most participants agreed that they did not receive specific leadership support as
TOC at IAA, with some indicating that this gap in leadership support could potentially influence
their future retention with IAA.
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Career Progression
While there was a general sense that IAA’s leadership was distributed through a strong
focus on Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), most participants perceived there to be
limited opportunities for TOC to progress their careers at IAA. Several participants associated
this lack of visible career advancement with the whiteness of the school’s leadership team.
Nonetheless, the majority of participants agreed that their IAA experience would be beneficial in
their pursuit of external leadership positions, although most failed to see a career path within
IAA. Samantha, a Black teacher shared “I do not see myself progressing within IAA because
when I think about my short time of seeing people who have been promoted up, I wonder where
are the People of Color.” She questioned whether the DEI work she brought to her classroom
would be valued in a leadership role. Samantha described white female promotions as celebrated
at IAA “as if barriers are being broken,” yet the surface had yet to be scratched for female TOC.
Melissa perceived that IAA would offer her the opportunity to advance her career thus
influencing her to accept her role with the school. However, both she and Mina expressed
feelings of career stagnation at IAA or “of being stuck.” Melissa, Mina, Kai, Brian, and Pamela
cited examples of white educators who were considered for career progression earlier in their
careers, causing them to feel that their own expertise was not valued. Daniel also expected that
he would progress his career when joining IAA, yet this was not the case, leaving him to
question how long he might stay. Brian expressed frustration that a newly hired young, white
teacher with no leadership experience was chosen to lead his PLC while Brian’s decades of
teaching and leadership experience were not considered. Brian attributed this decision to the
young educator being “white, male, and American.” Brian and Melissa shared stories of being
told they were ineligible to apply for posted internal roles in their first year at IAA, however,
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they both cited examples of this tenure-based requirement being waived for white educators.
Brian and Pamela both suggested that transparency of policies and decision making were
organization conditions that might influence a TOC to stay at IAA.
Constance emphasized that she had tremendous autonomy at IAA, yet her knowledge
was not valued, she could not grow professionally, and she had reached a ceiling in her career.
She shared, “I have to decide whether or not this cap that’s been placed is where I want to live or
it’s time to leave.” Constance, Kai, Pamela, Kara, and Melissa all felt overqualified for their
roles at IAA, but at the same time, they failed to see a path to advance professionally. These
participants each felt undervalued with their experience and qualifications unrecognized at IAA.
Celine did not see visibility to career progression at IAA, a school without many other female
leaders of Color. Shawn, Mina, and Daniel suggested that IAA consider a leadership program to
develop IAA TOC. Shawn shared, “there’s so few TOC in international education in the world,
right, and so, okay, so now you’ve got us out here, so now what?” Pamela expressed frustration
that she was “kept in a box” after being rejected for IAA leadership opportunities. Pamela felt
that the only difference between her own qualifications and those of the successful candidate was
the whiteness of the other candidate. Based on these perceptions, career progression appears to
be a significant factor that might support a TOC’s choice to stay at IAA. Conversely, a
perception of limited career growth might inhibit a TOC from staying at IAA.
Espoused Values Versus Values in Practice
Some studies of international school recruiting and retention suggested the key role that
school leadership plays in teachers’ retention decisions (Mancuso et al., 2010; Odland &
Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz, 2018; Winnard, 2017). The communication strategy and
messaging are important ways for a school to symbolize and share its values and culture in an
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effort to attract diverse candidates. Brian shared his concern with the gap between the school’s
espoused value of focusing on multiculturalism and the values in practice. He described IAA as a
school with “huge diversity in the student body” and a predominantly white teaching force.
Shawn expressed that he saw some positive progress in IAA’s efforts to hire diverse teachers, but
he and several other participants noted that racial issues at IAA were not often challenged. Kai
and Pamela shared similar concerns that IAA leaders appeared to “brush racial issues under the
carpet” rather than actively addressing them. For Kai one of the factors that might influence him
to leave IAA is a perceived gap between the school’s value of cultural competence and its
climate. Pamela perceived that IAA’s DEI statement can “feel very performative, like people are
just checking the boxes.” She felt that seeing more Leaders and Teachers of Color at IAA would
signal that IAA’s “commitment is real versus performative,” recognizing that more than 80% of
IAA’s school leaders are white. To Kai, Pamela, Sandy, and Melissa more representation of
People of Color in leadership roles would positively influence their long-term outlook with IAA.
Pamela shared a story of her white male colleague demonstrating microaggressions toward peer
TOC and this same aggressor was vividly featured on the school’s website as a respected teacher.
Based on the themes emerging the researcher concluded that the difference between espoused
values and values in practice as demonstrated by the actions and decisions of school leaders may
influence TOC to leave IAA if left unattended to or unaddressed.
Organizational Culture
This section shares participants’ general impressions of IAA’s culture, the shared view
that IAA’s diversity gap, and the impact of IAA’s culture on a TOC’s sense of belonging. As
study participants described IAA’s culture, it became apparent that IAA was comprised of
numerous subcultures or working groups with IAA employees being part of a Professional
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Learning Community (PLC). With each PLC come differences that influenced individual
participants’ perceptions of the level of trust, openness, and climate of their workplace.
Nonetheless, the overarching theme of IAA being a dominant white American culture with high
expectations of performance for students and employees emerged. Brian described this culture as
“high flying” and intensely focused on student grades. Olivia described IAA’s culture as vibrant
and very fast-paced. Melissa also commented on the fast pace at IAA and added that image,
reputation, and “looking good from outside” were important. To the dismay of participants
Melissa, Daniel, and Kara, there was also a perceived or implied belief that English be the main
and only spoken language at IAA.
Student/Teacher Diversity Gap
Several participants described the dominant culture of IAA as white and culturally
incongruent with its racially and ethnically diverse student population. Kai emphasized that this
is not necessarily negative until this culture makes underrepresented employees feel unimportant,
ignored, or expected to blend in. For some participants, the lack of racial/ethnic diversity in
IAA’s teaching force was a factor that, if unchanged, might reduce their tenure with the school.
Several participants reflected on their decision to join IAA and, in hindsight, they might not have
accepted IAA’s offer had they researched the school’s diversity gap before accepting.
Several participants commented on the difference between the racial and ethnic diversity
of IAA’s teaching force relative to its large multicultural student body. After experiencing what
she described as a “color-blind interview” with an all-white panel of leaders who failed to inform
her of the breath of culturally diverse students at IAA, Samantha, who was coming to IAA from
a diverse U.S. public school, felt uneasy wondering if she might enter a classroom full of white
students who might not relate to her. Despite her unfounded apprehensions, Samantha soon
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discovered that she would quickly serve as a positive role model for her class of diverse students
at IAA. Daniel found meaning in his work at IAA through the cultural background that he shared
with students and their families. He stated, “my parents were very happy when I wanted to be a
doctor, but they were not happy when I wanted to become a teacher,” explaining that he felt
equipped to help students navigate similar conversations with their South Asian parents. Both
participants described the sense of purpose they experienced through shared cultural connections
with students and underscored that this might influence them to stay.
Recruit for Racial/Ethnic Diversity
Some participants perceived that IAA’s recruitment was led through a white-dominated
cultural lens, contributing to its white teaching and leadership team. Kara shared, “recruitment is
from the dominant culture, so, when you recruit, this would be a high chance of a white person
being recruited.” Olivia recounted her own experience of interviewing with a team of all white
leaders for a Chinese immersion role. For Melissa, if this diversity in the leadership team did not
change, she was prepared to leave IAA. Further, she now understands the importance of
previewing an institution’s racial demographics before accepting a role and, to her, seeing an
underrepresentation of TOC would raise a “red flag.” Pamela suggested that IAA proactively
share the demographic composition of their teachers and leaders more openly. Nonetheless,
Mina, Melody, and several other participants expressed that bringing in a diverse group of
educators is not a complete solution; in tandem, proactively breaking down barriers to TOC by
explicitly creating a culture founded on equity and inclusion is essential.
A common theme that evolved through interviews was the importance of recruiting
diverse educators. Shawn, Constance, Brian, Daniel, and Kai all indicated that this was an
important factor for their retention at IAA. Shawn noticed a gradual increase in the diversity of
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new hires over the course of the past five years. Nonetheless, he would not stay if he saw signs
of this trend regressing, suggesting that a diverse teaching force might be a positive influential
factor to keep him at IAA. Both Brian and Gabriela, teachers who had left IAA, suggested that a
multicultural teaching force that students and families can culturally identify with was important
and, in one case, IAA’s diversity gap contributed to the teacher’s decision to leave IAA.
Implicit Bias
Sensoy and DiAngelo (2017) refer to the outcome of implicit biases as the creation of a
culture of whiteness resulting from the continual impact of white leaders reproducing largely
white institutions through their hiring practices and mindsets. Many hiring leaders unconsciously
recruit to their own image (Beattie & Johnson, 2012), a possible contributor to the common
practices of white school leaders hiring mainly white teachers in some educational institutions.
Kara felt that at white-dominated institutions like IAA, they are judged based on how they speak
and as such, many of her Asian colleagues who are non-native English speakers were reluctant to
share their voices in IAA’s white-dominated community. She and Kai felt that at IAA judgments
are made about teachers based on how they speak and look. These implicit biases can influence
the outcome of job interviews and the climate of IAA for TOC.
Sense of Belonging
Several participants shared stories of their challenging experience of entering a
predominantly white organization. Kara described her shock of looking in the mirror to see her
own Asian features after spending most of her day seeing only white teachers and leaders. Kara
shared her narrative of questioning her adequacy and the impact on her confidence as the only
minority teacher from her home country at IAA as she perceived her white peers to be
celebrated. Brian felt that being of Chinese heritage kept him out of the loop or excluded.
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Melissa shared, “Asians are so easy to be neglected” at IAA. She expressed, “I can live in a place
in the U.S. where KKK originated, where white people were like 70% of it and I feel good about
it…but it’s different, you know after I started working here.” Mina expressed that at IAA, TOC
are sometimes made to feel as if they do not “fit into the mold.” Kara and Melissa commented on
noticeable racial segregation rather than integration in faculty meetings with whites on one side
and Asian teachers separately grouping together. Melody and Mina suggested that IAA focus on
creating a culture of inclusivity and equity.
Racial Climate
Plachowski (2019) attributed the insufficient pipeline of TOC to several factors,
including fewer Students of Color choosing to pursue teaching careers due to the (1) a lack of
support and community for Students of Color in preservice education programs, (2) feelings of
isolation, (3) stereotype threats, and (4) exposure to microaggressions. Through interviews with
IAA TOC, the racial climate at IAA was described in a similar fashion. 15 of 17 (88%)
participants shared that there was a lack of support and/or a limited community for TOC at IAA.
8 of 17 (47%) of the participants suggested that they had experienced feelings of isolation,
neglect, loneliness, or feeling invisible at IAA. Several shared narratives of their experience with
stereotype threats at IAA. And 9 of 17 (53%) shared that they had experienced microaggressions
at IAA. Although fewer participants suggested that there was explicit or overt racism, this was
not absent from the list. For example, Shawn suggested that sometimes students or employees
use the n-word on campus. This section will describe key themes that emerged when participants
described the racial climate at IAA. This will include microaggressions, stereotypes, color
blindness/assimilation expectations, and the feeling that some TOC have of being boxed into
certain roles or responsibilities at IAA.
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Microaggressions
Merriam Webster (microaggression definition) describes microaggressions as, “a
comment or action that subtly and often unconsciously or unintentionally expresses a
prejudiced attitude toward a member of a marginalized group (such as a racial minority).”
Daniel and Samantha expressed that their experiences with microaggressions at IAA weighs
them down and, if not addressed, they might consider leaving. Daniel shared that there was
clearly covert racism and “tons of microaggressions.” He shared that his co-teaching partner
refuses to say his surname in front of students rather than learning to pronounce it. Daniel and
Shawn explained that when colleagues choose to not try pronouncing their names it makes them
feel less valued. Kara and Mina felt that leaders and colleagues did not respond to their emails as
quickly as they might to their white peers. Melissa perceived her questions as being often
ignored by peers and leaders. Constance described the microaggressions she experienced as
“innocent questions;” for example about her hair texture or style. She explained, “it’s just a little
bite, but if you get that bite 500 times in one week, that’s infuriating.” Pamela shared that her
colleague had not only used the n-word but also made derogatory comments about Asian people
while stating that IAA is an American school where you must be a native English speaker.
Combined these narratives shared by multiple participants suggested that an accumulation of
microaggressions left unchecked might influence several participants to leave IAA.
Stereotypes
Two Asian teachers, both of shared ethnicity, spoke of their experience with stereotypes
at IAA. When Mina arrived at IAA, people assumed that she was a Chinese language teacher
because she is of Asian heritage and thus, they directed her to the Chinese department, even
though she is not a world language teacher. Gabriela said that racial stereotypes did not influence
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her to leave her role at IAA even though she did not feel that these issues were addressed. A
young South Asian participant shared his experience with numerous employees and community
members assuming that he was a student due to the low number of South Asian teachers at IAA
and the high number of South Asian students attending the school. Mina suggested that adding
diversity to the teaching force might also bring multiple perspectives and much-needed
discomfort to bring new ways of knowing to IAA.
Color Blindness/Assimilation Expectations
Constance, Kai, and Pamela shared their frustration that their voices were not valued at
IAA, suggesting that race-based value was implicitly applied with a higher premium placed on
whiteness. Kai perceived that if he shared the same ideas and contributions he makes today and
he were a white person, his ideas might be heard rather than dismissed or overlooked. Pamela
shared “People of Color are taught from a young age like white is the best way to be and so you
have all of this like a bias that you have in your own heart.” Samantha shared that she felt limited
in her ability to speak up or bring up conversations about race or discrimination, sharing that her
colleagues would overtly or covertly express, ‘it is like now we are reminded that you are Black.’
Samantha shared, “I don’t want to do the dance of whiteness to fit into these spaces and because
of that trade-off I feel super isolated…. It is very isolating if I refuse to deny who I am as a Black
person.” Constance shared that she is often not given credit for her ideas but if she speaks up
about this she might be perceived as “the angry Black woman,” based on her prior experience of
attempting to challenge structural, racial, or systemic issues as a Person of Color.
Burden of Proof
Carter Andrews et al. (2019) described the experience of preservice training for Students
of Color as one that can be “toxic” by supporting a “pushout and keepout” environment where
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students are constantly expected to demonstrate their worth (p. 8). Upon entering her role with
IAA, Samantha perceived that her peers’ constant probes about her background and
qualifications for her teaching role were a test for her to painfully prove that she was qualified
for her teaching role at IAA. In contrast, Samantha could not recall her white peers being asked
if they had the skills to have been hired for their roles. Constance shared her experience of being
questioned “is this your first time?” in an overseas role and she wondered why this was relevant
and why she received this question more than her white peers. She shared “it was
exhaustive…why is that the go-to question, because I’m Brown, right?” Celine, experienced
similar questions such as “why are you here? where did you come from?” She described this as
others needing to “figure out what the fit lines are” since such inquiries seemed to be a common
experience for a TOC. Shawn felt that TOC are often held to a higher standard at IAA, causing
him to doubt himself or feel like an imposter in a white space. Combined, these authentic voices
and stories suggest if racial climate concerns are not disrupted, TOC attrition is inevitable.
Feeling Boxed-In
Participant Samantha shared that she is interested in DEI work, albeit, it is not fair for her
Blackness to be the only qualification for her to engage in this work. Constance and Samantha
described their exhaustion from feeling that the burden is on them to educate their peers on
problematic microaggressions or DEI concerns. Constance used the words “feeling boxed in” to
describe how she felt as a TOC at IAA. She explained, “I don’t think it’s on the onus of the
Brown people to be the teacher.” Constance shared that she educates herself about Chinese or
Indian culture rather than requiring her colleagues to educate her. The exhaustion that Constance
described was echoed by Pamela who felt that she has to worry about offending her white peers
by speaking up when they have offended her.
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Scholars have challenged the role model research as a notion of whiteness where TOC
are boxed into the position of a role model rather than being recognized for their teaching and
instructional merits (Brown, 2014; Kelly, 2007; Madsen, 2019; Sheets, 2004). Constance also
shared that she has been asked for her opinion on cultural competence at IAA and she just
refuses to respond, suggesting “I’m not a culturally competent, culturally responsive teaching
expert.” Several participants perceived that they were expected to lead IAA DEI initiatives by
virtue of their race and often without compensation for this extra work. Celine suggested that the
school consider bringing in more external experts or consultants to relieve some of the pressure
on IAA’s community of Color. Shawn shared stories of attending DEI Zoom sessions where his
peers looked to him as an expert who might have the answer to any questions raised during the
session simply because he is a TOC. Multiple participants wondered how they could be expected
to guide others on their DEI journeys when they themselves were not DEI experts. Many
participants illuminated the exhausting impact that IAA’s racial climate can have on their
experience with several expressing that the racial climate might influence them to leave if not
addressed.
Personal/Other Considerations
The next section explores personal factors including geographic location and societal
pressures experienced by TOC at IAA. In most cases, the location of IAA was a factor
influencing a TOC’s job acceptance but had a lower impact on their retention. It is important to
note that the global pandemic might have influenced participant responses on personal
considerations and the geographic location of IAA in several ways. First, those entering IAA
were subject to the host country’s strict quarantine requirements. Second, teaching and learning
were changed by the need to monitor safe management measures including social distancing,
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limited gatherings, and wearing a mask when teaching. Third, at the time of this study, the host
country had introduced cautious border controls impacting participants’ ability to travel to visit
family and friends beyond the borders of IAA’s host country. As such, several participants were
contemplating leaving IAA to reconnect with their family and friends after two or more years
without travel. Societal pressures that TOC encountered in the local community of IAA’s host
country were also noted as a factor to be considered and, in some cases, this was believed to be a
factor worth monitoring but not one that was concerning enough to influence participants to
leave IAA with the exception of Daniel and possibly Celine and Constance.
Geographic Location
Cox (2012) emphasized the role that geographic location plays in influencing a teacher’s
decision to accept an international role. Chandler (2010) posited that geographic destination
influenced a teacher’s decision to accept an international teaching assignment. Other conditions
including a TOC sense of belonging in both the institution and the geographic location of their
teaching role appear to support or inhibit a TOC’s choice to stay in a school. For several
participants including Pamela, Kai, Celine, Olivia, Kara, and Shawn, the geographic location of
IAA was one of the top reasons that they chose to join the school. They perceived the host
country to be safe, diverse, efficient, and family-friendly.
Odland and Ruzicka (2009), Mancuso et al. (2011), and Cox (2012) considered the factor
of wanderlust in their studies, suggesting that a sense of travel or adventure could be a key
reason influencing a teachers’ decision to work internationally. On a related note, Sandy shared
that wanderlust was a key factor motivating her to accept her first international teaching role
with IAA because she viewed IAA’s host country as a convenient gateway to travel.
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Nevertheless, Sandy arrived at IAA during the global pandemic and COVID-19 border controls
disrupted her plans to travel and explore, and as such, she contemplated leaving IAA.
Societal Pressures
As a TOC, Constance felt that your ethnicity can shape your experience and the societal
pressures of living as a Black woman in an international setting. She perceived herself
surrounded by people who fail to see her as American as they constantly assume she is from
Africa. Constance expressed frustration as she explained, “you become this third cultured worker
because it’s like you don’t really have a home,” and “that’s another layer that shapes your
willingness to stay at IAA.” Constance shared her story of being asked for identification to prove
that she resided in her condominium unit each time a new doorman came on duty. She attributed
this to her racial/ethnic background because the same residence door was automatically opened
for any white or Asian residents without proof of residence. Celine experienced similar issues as
a Black woman in Asia. Daniel shared his narrative of being mistaken for a construction worker
or a student due to his South Asian heritage. He expressed his disappointment that he might
never fit in the way he had hoped to, and this factor might contribute to his decision to leave.
Other Emerging Themes
Safe Spaces for Teachers of Color
Several participants expressed the need for a safe space for TOC to come together to
share their lived experiences and to acknowledge the additional work that they have to do as they
navigate their teaching responsibilities in a white-dominated institution. Samantha ranked this as
a strong factor that might motivate more TOC to stay at IAA. She suggested monthly affinity
meet-up sessions for People of Color at IAA as a means of building community. Celine also
suggested that the school’s sanction and support of these dedicated spaces was important. Shawn
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also commented “there’s just no common space at IAA” to allow TOC to connect. Pamela shared
that affinity groups are important for marginalized groups who do not naturally have a space to
share their experiences.
Culturally Responsive Practices
Participant Daniel was encouraged by the positive reaction of IAA parents who were
pleased to see that their children were matched with a culturally similar South Asian teacher. He
expressed a desire to implement culturally responsive practices by engaging more with the
community of students and their parents, a concept well aligned with Khalifa’s (2018) culturally
responsive recommendations. Nevertheless, Daniel lacked the time to connect with the
community due to the time constraints of his IAA teaching timetable where release time to
engage with the community was not yet a consideration at IAA. Khalifa (2018) shares success
stories of schools that have provided release time to allow educators to connect with students and
their families to improve the overall student learning experience. To Kara, her bilingual abilities
enabled her to be more successful in connecting with Chinese students and families. Pamela
shared her continued efforts to bring diverse and inclusive books into the classroom libraries to
allow students to see their own identities and experiences represented. Albeit, as a TOC she
found it challenging to get more than 30 minutes on the PLC agenda to teach other educators
how to use these books to be responsive to student needs. Based on responses from participants,
a demonstration of schoolwide culturally responsive efforts and leadership may be one way to
reduce feelings of isolation and increase the sense of meaning and belonging for TOC at IAA
and this may positively contribute to IAA’s ability to retain TOC.
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Summary
The qualitative data that emerged from interviews with 17 TOC who had worked for IAA
for one or more years between 2017-2021 informed multiple key themes that may be
consolidated into seven different areas: Induction/Mentorship, Organization Conditions,
Leadership Support, Culture, Racial Climate, Geographic Location, and Other Factors that have
been described as Culturally Responsive Practices. These factors have been synthesized here and
will be discussed further in chapter 5.
Induction/Mentorship: Connections to peers from a similar racial/cultural background
are critical and influential on TOC retention.
Organization Conditions: A TOC’s perception of their ability to influence decisions may
be an influential factor on their retention. Compensation was an influential factor on a
TOC’s willingness to accept a role at IAA but less of an influential factor on their
willingness to stay at IAA, with the exception of cases where perceived compensation
inequities were present.
Leadership Support: A TOC’s perception of leadership support is an influential factor on
both their willingness to accept and stay in a role with IAA and a TOC’s perception of
their career progression at IAA is a strong influential factor on their choice to stay
Culture: The diversity or representation of teachers and leaders of color at IAA is a
strong influential factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at the school. In addition, a
TOC’s sense of belonging is influenced by the diversity of the teaching force and can
influence a TOC’s choice to stay at IAA. At the same time, a TOC’s perception of
espoused values versus values in practice may support or inhibit their willingness to stay.
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Racial Climate: A TOC’s perception of the racial climate at IAA as evidenced through
the prevalence of microaggressions, stereotypes, biases, color blindness, expectations for
assimilation, and feeling “boxed into” roles or responsibilities is a strong influential
factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at IAA.
Geographic Location: The geographic location is a strong factor supporting the choice of
a TOC to accept a role with IAA. It was also noted that societal pressures shown toward a
TOC may inhibit their choice to stay in teaching roles at IAA.
Other factors: IAA’s willingness to engage in Culturally Responsive practices and to
prioritize Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion may support a TOC’s choice to accept and stay
with the school. Culturally responsive leadership may be a strong influential factor on a
TOC’s choice to stay at IAA.
Through the interview process, the responses to questions seeking to understand the
factors that participants perceived to be the most influential on their decision to accept a role
with IAA have been summarized in Table 5. This qualitative data, based on volume of voices,
disclosed that organization conditions such as compensation were significantly influential in
supporting a participant’s decision to accept a role with IAA. The school’s reputation was also
found to be a significant consideration for most participants when deciding on whether to accept
a role with IAA. Nonetheless, the reputation of IAA was likely to have informed the perceptions
that candidates had of other organization conditions and IAA’s leadership, thus informing the
importance of professional development, autonomy, leadership support, and resources available
to TOC when accepting their role with IAA.

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Table 5
Summary of Factors of Importance to TOC When Accepting a Role with IAA
Influential Factors Factor Type
Compensation
Reputation of the School
Organization Conditions
Culture
Location
Professional Development
Autonomy, Curriculum (immersion, culturally responsive)
Leadership Support
Career Progression
Resources
Other/Personal
Organization Conditions
Organization Conditions
Leadership
Leadership
Organization Conditions

Note: A summary of key factors illuminated through interviews with 17 TOC. The factors
deemed to be most influential may be classed into organization conditions, culture, leadership,
and the geographic location of the school.

The factors that participants perceived that might support or inhibit their choice to stay in
roles with IAA were summarized based on commonly emerging themes through interviews with
17 TOC as consolidated in Table 6. Leadership Support, with an emphasis on career progression
and growth, was significant. By the same token IAA’s racial climate and concerns surrounding
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion were key factors for many participants, suggesting that if
microaggressions and other issues are not attended to, this would influence their decision to
leave IAA. The underrepresentation of TOC at IAA was a leading cultural factor that emerged as
important. Organization conditions such as transparency in school practices, protocols, and a
willingness to invite TOC voices into school decisions was also a commonly cited factor that
might influence a TOC’s willingness to stay. Other notable factors included a perception of
inequity in locally hired compensation structures and a perception of values in practice differing
from espoused values. Personal factors were largely influenced by the impact of the global
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pandemic on a participant’s ability to travel outside of IAA’s host country. The most significant
of these themes will be explored further in Chapter 5.

Table 6
Summary of Factors Most Influential in a TOC’s Decision to Stay/Leave IAA
Influential Factors Factor Type
Leadership Support
Career Progression, Growth
Microaggressions, DEI concerns
Diversity Gap, Connections
Transparency, Ability to Influence Decisions
Compensation Equity
Espoused Values vs Values in Practice
Personal (family, COVID Impact)

Leadership
Leadership
Racial Climate
Culture
Organization Conditions
Organization Conditions
Leadership
Other

Note: A summary of key factors consolidated based on interviews with 17 IAA TOC. Leadership
and Racial Climate were found to be the most influential factors on a TOC choice to stay with
IAA. The diversity of IAA’s teaching force and leadership team was a significant factor related
to IAA’s culture. The ability of a TOC to influence decisions was also of importance.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to seek to understand the
perceptions of Teachers of Color (TOC) of the factors supporting or inhibiting their choice to
accept and stay at Innovative American Academy (IAA), a pseudonym for an international
Preschool-Grade 12 (P12) school in Southeast Asia. In 2020, IAA began to intentionally focus
on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI), and this has since been added to the school’s strategic
goals. As such, employees have started to engage in professional development and dialogue on
topics related to DEI, including racism. Nonetheless, at this time of this study, the school was in
the early stages of introducing a DEI curriculum and culture to the IAA community. Appendix H
shares the school’s DEI commitment through the statement released at the time of this study.
This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews with TOC who are currently
employed by IAA or who had departed IAA in an effort to seek to understand their perceptions.
As such, a purposeful sample of 17 TOC, including 15 who were employed by IAA at the time
of the study and two who had departed IAA, was considered. All invited participants taught for
IAA sometime between the years of 2017 and 2021. The interviews were recorded, transcribed,
and shared with participants to ensure accuracy. The themes were considered through the lens of
the following categories:
• Induction/Mentorship
• Organization Conditions
• Leadership Support
• Culture
• Racial Climate
• Personal Considerations including Geographic Location
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• Other Emerging Factors (creating safe spaces, culturally responsive practices)
This chapter will include a summary of the findings with connections to the literature shared in
Chapter 2 and will provide recommendations related to the factors that support the recruitment
and retention of TOC in the IAA school context. In addition, implications for future research, as
well as other school leaders seeking to recruit and retain TOC will be explored.
Conceptual Framework
For the purposes of this study, the researcher developed a conceptual framework in
Chapter 1 (Figure 1) based on concepts illuminated through the literature that were associated
with the problem of practice of recruiting and retaining racially and/or ethnically diverse
teachers. This conceptual framework was based on secondary research and may have been
influenced by the researcher’s experiential knowledge through working in the area of Human
Resources. Several scholars suggested that conceptual frameworks are influenced by the
researcher’s subjectivities and interpretations and as such conceptual frameworks may illuminate
concepts and yet may also conceal others that may not be included (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Peshkin, 1988). As such, Figure 1 in Chapter 1 has evolved as the researcher
gathered additional data by conducting semi-structured interviews with participants.
The revised conceptual framework (Figure 2) shows that two of the factors previously
included in Chapter 1 (Figure 1), namely critically reflective communities of practice and inviting
multiple perspectives and deeply listening, could be considered solutions or ways of addressing
the factors that might support or inhibit TOC from choosing to accept a role with IAA and to stay
with the school rather than being featured as factors for the purposes of this study. In addition,
through interviews with study participants, the topic of racial climate was more of a significant
factor than the researcher anticipated when this was included as a sub-factor under
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organizational culture in Figure 1 in Chapter 1. As such, in the revised conceptual framework
(Figure 2) racial climate is considered a separate factor evidencing the need for a specific focus
on this area. Another change included considering compensation as an organization condition
rather than grouping this as one of the factors that is relatively fixed and would not be
extensively covered in this study such as geographic location. This change in categorization of
compensation was made after the interviews disclosed the perception that several TOC had of
compensation inequities that seemed to be disadvantaging some minority teachers who were not
offered the same benefits as their expatriate peers. In addition, compensation was found to be a
significant factor for most participants when deciding whether to accept a role with IAA. For
these reasons, compensation has moved to organization conditions that can be influenced and
changed by school leaders. The researcher believes that it is important to make this clear
distinction between organization conditions that are within the control of the school and factors
that cannot be easily changed such as location or a teacher’s personal considerations.
Despite these suggested revisions (Figure 2) to the pre-research conceptual framework in
Chapter 1 (Figure 1), the data collected in this study confirmed many of the factors related to
induction and mentorship, organization conditions, leadership support, and culture while
suggesting the inclusion of greater awareness and focus on racial climate and perception of
inequities in compensation. The importance of culturally responsive practices and leadership
was an emerging theme from the data collected through the interviews, however, in the initial
conceptual framework in Chapter 1 (Figure 1) this was captured as a possible outcome of
attending to the factors that may support or inhibit the decisions of TOC.
Through interviews conducted with participants in this study, culturally responsive
practice and leadership were featured as important to several participants. As such, this factor
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was included under other emerging factors in Chapters 4 and 5. The researcher concluded that
this factor was of importance to IAA teachers because, at the time that the study interviews were
conducted, IAA had increased their focus on Culturally Responsive practices with the inclusion
of this as one of the school’s strategic priorities. This convergence of motivation and interests by
leaders and followers in culturally responsive practices may increase IAA’s readiness for
transformation through what Slayton and Mathis (2010) refer to as second order change.
Therefore, the researcher has concluded that the prioritization of DEI focus and a heightened
interest in culturally responsive practices by participants in this study may indicate that IAA’s
grassroots employee DEI and culturally responsive movements represent strongly held dominant
values and beliefs and an institutional culture beginning to influence and “form leadership”
(Alvesson et al., 2019, p. 75). As such, culturally responsive practices and a focus on DEI and
creating safe spaces have been added as other emerging factors in this study.

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Figure 2
Final Conceptual Framework on Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color

Revised Conceptual Framework
The revised conceptual framework (Figure 2) continues to suggest that the perceptions of
Teachers of Color (TOC) be placed in the center to show the important role that these
perceptions can have in supporting or inhibiting a TOC’s decision to accept a role and stay with
IAA. For the purposes of this study and based on the literature (1) induction and mentorship (2)
organization conditions (3) leadership support (4) organization culture (5) racial climate and (6)
other factors, including geographic location and (7) culturally responsive practices are factors
with bi-directional arrows to the perceptions of TOC, signifying that the perceptions of TOC
may influence these factors just as these factors may influence TOC. Further, a TOC’s
perceptions are ever-evolving and may continually be influenced by a variety of factors that
might support or inhibit their decision to join and/or stay with IAA. By the same token, the
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choices TOC make to accept and stay at IAA influence the school’s racial/ethnic diversity as
indicated by the green and white arrows extending from the circle. The green arrow depicts an
increase or improvement in the diversity of the teaching force. Conversely, the white arrow
shows a negative impact that any number of factors can have on the perceptions of TOC, thus
influencing their choice to join or stay with IAA and negatively impacting the diversity of the
school’s teaching force, labeled here as “whiteness.” In the next section, the findings within the
current context of IAA will be discussed, limitations and implications for practice will be
explored, and recommendations for IAA will be shared.
Summary of Findings
Through an analysis of data collected through 17 semi-structured interviews with
participants seven different categories of factors were illuminated as influential on a TOC’s
choice to accept and stay with IAA. The factors in Chapter 4 (Tables 5 and 6) were found to be
the most significant influencers on a TOC decision to accept and stay with IAA. For discussion
purposes, findings related to the following seven categories will be summarized:
Induction/Mentorship: Connections to peers from a similar racial/cultural background
are critical and influential on TOC retention.
Organization Conditions: A TOC’s perception of their ability to influence decisions may
be an influential factor on their retention. Compensation was an influential factor on a
TOC’s willingness to accept a role at IAA but less of an influential factor on their
willingness to stay at IAA, with the exception of cases where perceived compensation
inequities were present.
Leadership Support: A TOC’s perception of leadership support is an influential factor on
both their willingness to accept and stay in a role with IAA and a TOC’s perception of
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their career progression at IAA is a strong influential factor on their choice to stay with
the school.
Organizational Culture: The diversity or representation of Teachers and Leaders of
Color at IAA is a strong influential factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at the school. In
addition, a TOC’s sense of belonging is influenced by the diversity of the teaching force
and can influence a TOC’s choice to stay at IAA. At the same time, a TOC’s perception
of espoused values versus values in practice may support or inhibit their willingness to
stay with IAA.
Racial Climate: A TOC’s perception of the racial climate at IAA as evidenced through
the prevalence of microaggressions, stereotypes, biases, color blindness, expectations for
assimilation, and feeling “boxed into” roles or responsibilities is a strong influential
factor on a TOC’s willingness to stay at IAA.
Geographic Location: The geographic location is a strong factor supporting the choice of
TOC to accept a role with IAA. It was also noted that societal pressures shown toward a
TOC may inhibit their choice to stay in teaching roles at IAA.
Other factors: IAA’s willingness to engage in Culturally Responsive practices can
support a TOC’s choice to accept and stay with the school. Culturally responsive
leadership may be a strong influential factor on a TOC’s choice to stay at IAA.
The below section provides a summary of key study findings synthesized with related points
illuminated through the literature review in Chapter 2, as applicable. Following this section, the
study limitations, implications for practice, recommendations, and suggestions for future
research will be shared.

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Induction and Mentorship
Induction and mentorship programs for recruited TOC can be successful tools for
motivating new teachers to stay (Barth et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Hardman, 2001;
Podolsky et al., 2019). Most study participants agreed that their induction experience was
important to setting the stage and making them feel safe and comfortable as a TOC entering a
white-dominated institution. Most participants did not expect the new hire induction experience
to be differentiated for TOC, however, some felt that having an option to be purposefully
connected with current IAA teacher(s) with a similar racial, ethnic, or cultural background in
advance of beginning their IAA teaching role and as they entered the school would have been
beneficial. Nonetheless, several TOC indicated that the connections that they informally made
with culturally similar peers were vital enough that, should these peers leave IAA, the
participants might also leave. Based on interviews with TOC, if one enters an institution well,
they are more likely to feel a sense of belonging and connection that may positively influence
their retention. This is consistent with findings of scholars indicating that induction and
mentorship programs can be successful tools for motivating new teachers to stay (Barth et al.,
2016; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Hardman, 2001; Podolsky et al., 2019).
Mentorship
Tkachyk’s (2017) study of East Asia Regional Council of Schools (EARCOS)
international schools found that in addition to leadership support and effective school systems,
strong mentorship programs may help to influence teachers to stay with their current school.
Through this study, most participants felt that they might have benefitted if connections to TOC
with shared racial backgrounds were intentionally assigned in advance of their arrival at the
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school. However, some participants were not comfortable with a mentorship program that was
differentiated for TOC. As such, it is inconclusive whether such a program might benefit the
retention of TOC at IAA. Further none of the participants viewed a mentorship program as a
factor that was important when they considered whether to accept a role with IAA. This is well-
aligned with the work of See et al. (2020) suggesting that the wide range of levers within
induction and mentorship programs make it challenging to directly map specific induction and
mentoring initiatives to improved retention rates or to contract acceptance.
Organization Conditions
Generally, all participants felt that they were given sufficient autonomy in their
classrooms and there was a consistent feeling of satisfaction with organization resources and
IAA’s physical work conditions. Nonetheless, the data collected through interviews showed an
opportunity for further focus on a TOC’s ability to influence decisions and on compensation
differences between locally hired and overseas or foreign hired TOC.
Ability to Influence Decisions
Ingersoll et al.’s (2017) study found that a focus on organizational conditions and giving
teachers more voice in decisions could positively influence teacher retention. When asked to
describe their ability to influence division or school-wide decisions, the majority of participants
felt that they had limited to no influence on school decisions. Interviews with IAA participants
showed that a TOC’s ability to influence school decisions can have an impact on retention.
Mancuso et al. (2011) and Podolsky et al. (2019) implied that transformational and distributed
leadership that invites teachers into decision making were important conditions that might
influence a teacher’s decision to stay with or leave an international role. Based on the feedback
received through interviews, IAA’s ability to invite and listen to the voices of TOC and offer
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opportunities for TOC to contribute to decisions may continue to be an influential factor in the
retention of a racially diverse teaching force.
Compensation
While compensation appeared to be an influential factor for a TOC to accept a role with
IAA, compensation was generally not cited as a key reason for a TOC to leave IAA. This is
consistent with the findings of (Ingersoll et al., 2017) suggesting that compensation ranked lower
as a factor influencing TOC retention decisions. Cox’s (2012) early work on the factors
influencing the recruitment and retention of teachers to international schools emphasized a
similar pattern and suggested that school leaders instead focus on the importance of the
leadership culture and working conditions to attract and retain teachers in international schools.
Several participants hired on local contracts perceived inequity between their contract
value that was absent benefits such as housing allowance, flight allowance, and IAA tuition
remuneration for their school-aged children and that of their foreign hired peers. Crenshaw
(2019) describes these multiple forms of identity as intersectionality. In this study, TOC on local
hire contracts found it challenging to determine if it was their racial identity or their local hire
status that made them feel less valued or respected at IAA. Nonetheless, these perceived
inequities were a factor that might negatively influence the retention of locally hired TOC.
Leadership Support
Organizational leadership was cited as playing a key role in international recruitment
(Cox, 2012; Gomez, 2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz,
2018; Winnard, 2017) and on recruiting teachers in the U.S. (Ingersoll et al., 2017; Podolsky et
al., 2019). Several studies of international schools suggested that the leadership support teachers
receive plays a critical role in their willingness to stay in international schools (Mancuso et al.,
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2010; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz, 2018; Winnard, 2017). Key themes
emerging through this study showed that leadership support can be an influential factor in TOC
retention at IAA. In some cases, the perception of the leadership support that study participants
thought that they might receive, based on their interviews with IAA leaders was a factor that
influenced a TOC’s choice to accept a role with the school. Career progression was a significant
theme that was perceived to have an influence on a TOC’s willingness to stay at IAA.
The majority of participants did not feel that they received differentiated support from their
leaders as TOC, although most would have appreciated this support. The majority of participants
suggested that the effort that school leaders dedicate to personalized conversations and making
teachers feel valued and respected is a crucial factor influencing their engagement and retention.
Career Progression
Most participants perceived leadership opportunities and career progression for TOC at
IAA to be limited. Many agreed that their experience at IAA would benefit them in pursuing
external leadership positions, although they could not see a visible career path within IAA. This
is consistent with the early work of Hardman (2001) finding that the most significant factor
influencing international school teacher retention was career advancement. Cox (2012) found
that leadership support and career progression were important factors to more experienced
teachers during the international school recruitment process. This is consistent with the findings
in this study where several experienced teachers thought that IAA might be a school where they
could advance their careers. Nonetheless, most found this challenging to achieve as TOC in IAA.
Espoused Values Versus Values in Practice
Some studies of international school recruiting and retention suggested the key role that
school leadership plays in teachers’ retention decisions (Mancuso et al., 2010; Odland &
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Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017; Wilusz, 2018). The communication strategy and messaging are
important ways for a school to symbolize and share its values and culture in an effort to attract
diverse candidates. Several participants expressed concern with a perceived misalignment
between espoused values and values in practice at IAA. Some participants emphasized the
importance of the school’s continued concerted and authentic efforts to focus on Diversity,
Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) beyond the espoused DEI commitment (Appendix H) by inculcating
DEI in IAA’s recruitment, hiring, and schoolwide culture.
Organizational Culture
Ingersoll’s landmark work (2001, 2002) emphasized that employee turnover is largely
influenced by an organization’s conditions and character. In the international education setting,
Cox (2012) emphasized a similar focus on the importance of the leadership culture and working
conditions to positively influence a school’s perceived value in recruiting teachers. One of the
cultural factors that was described by several teachers participating in this study referenced the
noticeable racial and demographic difference between the school’s teachers and students. The
discrepancy between Students of Color and teachers is concerning, as evidenced through a large
body of research on the benefits that students receive when assigned to a demographically
similar teacher (e.g. Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al.,
2016; Kiryio et al., 2009; Lindsay & Hart, 2017; Putman et al., 2016; Waddell & Ukpokodu,
2012). Alongside this, several participants described that being a racial minority at IAA made
them feel insecure or inadequate. Some felt that if IAA’s diversity gap between its leaders and
teachers and its students did not improve, they might leave IAA. Several participants expressed
that just bringing in a diverse team of educators is not the complete solution; instead, with this
initial step, IAA needs to consider proactively disrupting cultural barriers to TOC.
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Implicit Bias and Recruiting for Diversity
Many hiring leaders unconsciously recruit to their own image (Beattie & Johnson, 2012),
a possible contributor to the common practice of white school leaders hiring mainly white
teachers in some educational institutions. Several participants noted the largely white hiring
committees at IAA, even for Chinese or immersion roles. One participant referred to her
interview process as a color-blind one where her own race and that of the interview committee
were not named. Some participants felt judged for the way that they spoke or the differences that
they brought to IAA beyond the majoritarian white American teacher. Implicit biases and diverse
hiring committees can influence the outcome of job interviews and the climate of the work
environment for TOC.
Racial Climate
Plachowski (2019) attributed the insufficient pipeline of TOC to several factors,
including fewer Students of Color choosing to pursue teaching careers due to the (1) a lack of
support and community for Students of Color in preservice education programs, (2) feelings of
isolation, (3) stereotype threats, and (4) exposure to microaggressions. Through interviews with
IAA TOC, the racial climate at IAA was described in a similar fashion. 15 of 17 (88%)
participants shared that there was a lack of support and/or a limited community for TOC at IAA.
8 of 17 (47%) of the participants suggested that they had experienced feelings of isolation,
neglect, loneliness, or feeling invisible at IAA. Several shared narratives of their experience with
stereotype threats at IAA. And 9 of 17 (53%) shared that they had experienced microaggressions
at IAA. Although fewer participants suggested that there was explicit or overt racism, this was
not absent from the list.

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Microaggressions
The microaggressions that participants shared ranged from a perception of not being
responded to as quickly as their white peers to frequent seemingly innocent yet offensive and
exhausting questions to colleagues refusing to learn to pronounce participant’s surnames.
Multiple participants suggested that an accumulation of microaggressions left unchecked might
influence them to leave IAA In this study microaggressions were one of the significant factors
that might influence a TOC decision to leave IAA (Table 6).
Color-blindness/Assimilation Expectations
Cherry-McDaniel (2019, p. 244) described “settler teacher syndrome” or instructional
practices that maintain majoritarian, settler-colonial practices that portray the culture of students
of color as inferior. For example, when TOC themselves have accepted the dominant culture
over their own often resulting from their feeling of a need to assimilate or conform to succeed
(Cherry-McDaniel, 2019). Several study participants shared their perception that their
race/ethnicity often felt overlooked. For example, Samantha felt that if she didn’t acknowledge
her Blackness or experience as a TOC then white colleagues feel safe. Nonetheless, she
exclaimed, “I am happy to be Black and I do not want to ever be in a space where I am with
color blind people.” Excluding conversations about culture and race in the classroom and
community fails to disrupt dominant, oppressive marginalizing practices (Khalifa et al., 2016).
Burden of Proof
Based on feedback received from participants in this study, there was a perception that
TOC were held to a higher standard at IAA with several TOC sharing that they felt that they had
to justify or prove they were qualified for their roles as they entered IAA. This was contrary to
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the treatment that their white peers had received. Combined these authentic voices and stories
suggested that if racial climate concerns are not disrupted, TOC attrition is inevitable.
Feeling Boxed-In
Researchers have suggested that TOC may feel the pressure or burden imposed by
expectations that they be a source of knowledge on racism issues or be culturally responsive
specialists (Brown, 2014; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Kelly, 2007; Madsen, 2019). Leaders who
seek to address organizational culture issues may motivate TOC to accept and stay, while a
negative climate may influence TOC turnover. Several participants expressed feelings that they
were expected to lead IAA school-wide Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) initiatives, often
without compensation. Scholars have challenged the role model research as a notion of whiteness
where TOC are boxed into the position of a role model rather than being recognized for their
teaching and instructional merits (Brown, 2014; Kelly, 2007; Madsen, 2019; Sheets, 2004).
Multiple participants wondered how they could be expected to help their peers with DEI when
they were also on their own similar learning journey. Many participants described the exhausting
impact that IAA’s racial climate can have, with several sharing that this may influence them to
leave if not addressed.
DEI focus
Several participants implied that they were hopeful that IAA was on a positive path to
addressing some issues related to racial climate or at least beginning to acknowledge and talk
about them with the introduction of a DEI focus. Nevertheless, most participants shared the view
that IAA is just at the beginning of its DEI pathway, a continuous, evolving process well-
deserving of sustained focus and attention. As such, some shared that continued racial climate
concerns would be a reason for them to leave IAA.
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Other Considerations
Other factors including the geographic location of IAA and the societal pressures that
TOC experienced in navigating IAA’s host country were commonly cited as important factors to
the study participants. Cox (2012) emphasized the role that geographic location plays in
influencing a teacher’s decision to accept an international role. Chandler (2010) posited that
geographic destination influenced a teacher’s decision to accept an international teaching
assignment. For many participants, the location of IAA was important to their initial decision to
accept their role with IAA. Several participants chose to join the school because they perceived
the host country to be family-friendly, diverse, and progressive. One participant chose to join
IAA to fulfill their sense of travel or adventure, a factor that Odland and Ruzicka (2009),
Mancuso et al. (2011), and Cox (2012) referred to as wanderlust in their studies. Nevertheless,
the global pandemic brought unexpected travel restrictions and border controls that would later
disrupt travel plans for all participants. Although this factor was not unique to TOC or associated
with race, COVID-19 became a factor that caused some participants to contemplate leaving IAA.
Several participants suggested that the societal pressures they faced as TOC in IAA’s host
country including external microaggressions or other forms of discrimination might influence
their decision to leave IAA if they did not see signs of these pressures subsiding.
Other Emerging Factors
IAA’s willingness to create safe spaces for TOC and to engage in Culturally Responsive
practices and progress a focus on DEI can support a TOC’s choice to accept and stay with the
school. Culturally responsive leadership may be a strong influential factor on a TOC’s choice to
stay at IAA.

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Dedicated Safe Spaces
Several participants expressed the need for a safe space for TOC to come together to
share their lived experiences and to acknowledge the additional labor of navigating their teaching
responsibilities in a white-dominated institution. Some viewed community building through
dedicated spaces or affinity groups that are supported and sanctioned by IAA leadership as
essential to their retention. Martinez’s (2017) A People’s Education Model introduced a similar
concept referred to as an inquiry group for TOC who experienced the challenges and isolation of
navigating largely white institutions.
Culturally Responsive Leadership
School-wide cultural competency efforts may be one way to begin to mitigate feelings of
isolation that TOCs often experience in largely white settings (Carver-Thomas, 2018;
Plachowski, 2019). Conversations with participants further suggested that one might consider the
impact of culturally responsive leadership practices on TOC retention. Some participants
described the importance of making a teacher feel culturally respected. Others underscored the
importance of leaders who demonstrate an authentic, caring interest in TOC and recognize and
appreciate their unique and diverse identity aspects and rich cultural background. Some
participants described the sense of purpose and meaning that shared cultural connections with
students gave them with this being one of the factors that might influence them to stay.
Study Limitations
This qualitative study was designed to understand the perceptions of TOC of the factors
supporting or inhibiting their decisions to accept and stay in teaching roles in a single
international P12 school, known as Innovative American Academy (IAA). As such, it may not be
plausible to apply the conclusions based on this single school setting to other U.S.-based or
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international school settings. In addition, this study relied on interviews alone and did not
consider other qualitative approaches such as observations or documentation reviews. It may
therefore pose limitations to the ability to triangulate all conclusions drawn as suggested by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Moreover, as a qualitative study with the researcher as the primary
instrument the information shared may be dependent on the interpretations of the interviewer
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). The researcher’s role as a Human Resources leader at
IAA may have presented unintentional biases because it is in the researcher’s interest to identity
improvements toward diversifying the teaching force at IAA.
Implications for Practice
There is limited research on the recruitment and retention of TOC in international schools
with most studies focusing on the broader population of all teachers (e.g. Cox, 2012; Gomez,
2017; Mancuso et al., 2010; Mancuso et al., 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Tkachyk, 2017). As
such, the findings and implications from this study led to a number of recommendations that
could be useful for other schools seeking to recruit and retain diverse teachers. As the population
of Students of Color continues to increase globally and the teaching force in many international
P12 schools remains racially and ethnically homogeneous, the need to consider racial and/or
ethnic diversity when recruiting teachers becomes increasingly important. This study may inform
international school hiring leaders of potential barriers to avoid or ways to leverage findings
from this study in their own efforts to recruit and retain diverse faculty. The findings of this
study led to a number of recommendations for school leaders interested in hiring and retaining
TOC. The next section outlines the key recommendations that evolved through this study.

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Recommendations
The next section includes recommendations based on the findings outlined in this study.
Culturally Responsive Mentorship
See et al. (2020) agreed that there is an increased interest in providing induction and
mentoring programs for new teachers, however, they suggested that the wide range of levers
within these programs make it challenging to directly map specific induction and mentoring
initiatives to improved retention rates or to contract acceptance. Combining this with the
inconclusive responses from participants in this study on whether a differentiated mentorship
program might have been beneficial has led the researcher to conclude that an optional culturally
responsive mentorship program might be one way to positively impact the retention of TOC in
IAA’s context. Culturally responsive mentorship recognizes that a teacher’s cultural and social
identities can influence their lived experiences (Brunsma et al., 2017; McCoy et al., 2015). As
such, a culturally responsive mentorship program should aspire to ensure that mentors are
equipped to consider ways to acknowledge the social/cultural identities of TOC while assisting
them to navigate challenging, oppressive, or harmful situations that they may encounter in
predominantly white institutions. Validating a TOC identity, collectively refining professional
goals, and offering support with a view to connecting TOC to a network or affinity groups are
just some of the ways that a culturally responsive mentorship program may benefit IAA’s
community.
Navigating Cultural Challenges
As part of the new hire induction and on a regular basis, there is an opportunity for IAA
leaders to offer DEI sessions to provide tips and tools for TOC to navigate predominantly white
institutions. In addition, leaders should offer a session to prepare TOC for some of the societal
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challenges and settling-in differences that they might encounter in IAA’s host country. This
might also include an orientation to the host country etiquette, cultural norms, and expectations
as part of IAA’s new teacher induction experience. It is recognized that all newly hired educators
would certainly benefit from an introduction to the host country’s norms and etiquette.
Nonetheless, for the purposes of this study, this recommendation is intended to assist TOC to
navigate and anticipate some of the unique societal challenges including discrimination and
microaggressions that they may experience as they enter IAA’s host country.
Navigating the System
As part of the new hire induction program, the researcher recommends that IAA leaders
consider providing professional development to assist TOC to navigate a largely white
institution. This might include an introduction to anonymous reporting channels for employees to
know that they have a trusted avenue to share their experiences and seek support to address
microaggressions, stereotypes, and other harmful experiences that are misaligned with IAA’s
values. It is important that such issues be reported and addressed to signal that IAA does not
tolerate microaggressions or other racially harmful treatment. Over time, this unapologetic
statement of support from IAA leaders to all educators can be a catalyst for a positive climate
change.
Featuring Faculty Diversity
In order to ensure transparency and prepare new TOC in advance of arriving at IAA, the
school should consider publishing and proactively sharing the demographic (i.e. racial and
ethnic) composition of the teaching force and leadership team with all teaching candidates.
Adding a prominent page featuring the racial and ethnic diversity of IAA’s teaching force to the
school’s website may be one way to accomplish this. This webpage might include a summary of
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countries of citizenship, race, ethnicity, and other identity aspects of IAA teachers, while
emphasizing that, although the school’s teaching force and leadership team is largely white, IAA
is committed to DEI, culturally responsive practices, and continuing to diversify the teaching
force. In addition, featuring similar demographics on IAA’s multicultural student body should
also be considered.
Intentional Connections
The researcher recommends intentionally offering newly hired TOC the option to connect
with culturally similar current IAA teachers in advance of their IAA induction. Consideration
should also be given to matching new TOC who may not have experience teaching an American
curriculum with existing employees with similar backgrounds to ease their adaptation to a new
curriculum in addition to settling in. Further, IAA should proactively communicate to both the
parent and employee communities to introduce newly hired TOC before they arrive. This might
signal that IAA welcomes the rich experience of diverse educators and students while disrupting
community biases and stereotypes.
Building Social Networks
One of the most dominant themes emerging through discussions with participants on their
IAA induction experience was that making connections with peers with shared cultural or
identity aspects was perceived to be an important factor for TOC to begin to feel a sense of
belonging, in particular when settling into a white-dominated institution. As such, the researcher
recommends that IAA consider hosting a dedicated social community of Color event as part of
the induction experience. This may assist new teachers with shared cultural backgrounds to begin
to feel a sense of connectedness early on in their IAA teaching experience.

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Inviting Multiple Perspectives and Deeply Listening
Proactively establishing a council of IAA’s Community of Color and intentionally
inviting the voices of TOC to key decisions at IAA may be one way to allow for dialogue to
challenge harmful structures and practices and illuminate blind spots in decisions. Capper (2015)
suggested the use of dialogue to challenge structures and practices that privilege whites over
TOC. In a white-dominated institution such as IAA, one might suggest that this council of IAA’s
Community of Color would be an additive measure to respond to the feeling that TOC have
limited influence on IAA decisions. One way to begin to disrupt racism is to give voice to the
narratives of those marginalized (Capper, 2015; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solórzano &
Yosso, 2002). Creating an environment that openly seeks diverse perspectives may influence
TOC to accept and stay at IAA.
Compensation Inequities
Odland and Ruzicka’s (2009) early work studied the factors influencing teachers to leave
international schools at the end of their first contract concluding that leadership concerns,
compensation, and personal circumstances influenced teachers’ decisions. While this study did
not suggest that compensation was an influential factor in a TOC decision to stay at IAA, it did
show that perceived inequitable access to contractual benefits was an important factor to pay
attention to. As such, the researcher recommends that IAA’s leadership team benchmark their
treatment of foreign hired versus locally hired teachers against other international schools to
identify possibilities for greater benefits parity and whether there is even a need to continue to
differentiate local versus overseas hires. If there is a need to continue to differentiate employees
by in-country versus out-of-country hiring status, then the school should offer a local hire
stipend, local hire travel allowance, or tuition assistance options to locally hired teachers.
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Additionally, consider seeking and recruiting locally trained teachers rather than defaulting to
foreign hires as a first priority.
Considering Intersectionality
Several participants wondered which of their individual identity aspects (i.e. gender, race,
heritage language, sexual orientation, etc.) may have contributed to the barriers and challenges
that they faced at IAA. Educating and creating awareness of the importance of intersectional
identity aspects should be considered for a future DEI professional learning session and IAA
should begin by requiring this training for all school leaders to set the tone at the school.
Crenshaw (2019) has a number of resources that may be considered as an introductory starting
point. In addition, there is an opportunity for the school to showcase or communicate the rich
convergence of intersectional identities of the IAA teaching community.
Personalized Leadership
Northouse (2019) referenced the early work of Burns (1978/2010) to describe a
transformational leader as one who provides vision, is supportive of followers, charismatic,
empowering, and motivates others to achieve more than they thought possible. IAA should train
all school leaders in conducting thoughtful and open individual conversations with TOC. Once
leaders have been trained, it is recommended that IAA leaders dedicate a minimum of one hour
of time for each TOC they are supervising twice each school year. This dedicated time will offer
leaders the opportunity to begin to deeply listen and understand the feelings, concerns, and
priorities of TOC. The researcher believes that dedicated time in combination with more frequent
classroom check-ins will be an avenue for TOC to develop trust in their leaders to feel known,
respected, and valued. The researcher found that a 60-minute interview TOC in this study
strengthened her relationship with participants and illuminated matters she might have
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overlooked. As such, IAA leaders would benefit from intentional, authentic, and regular
connections with TOC. The researcher is open to sharing the interview questions from this study
with IAA leaders as a conversation starter.
Considering TOC Aspirations
Most participants felt that their work at IAA and in particular the strong professional
development that they received in combination with the school’s favorable reputation would
serve them well in obtaining leadership roles outside of IAA. However, most felt that their
opportunities to grow professionally at IAA were limited as TOC. It is recommended that IAA
leaders make time and space for intentional personalized conversations for all TOC. In
consideration of the inequitable white-dominated setting that TOC are entering at IAA, this layer
of support is essential. This time should be beyond the symbolic classroom check-in and should
move toward authentic personalized conversations and relationship building between the TOC
and their leader. It is recommended that leaders seek to understand the career aspirations and
goals of TOC and identify tangible ways to support and prepare TOC for career progression and
leadership development opportunities.
Leadership Program for Educators of Color
Based on interviews with TOC at IAA, career progression was identified as an
opportunity. Several teachers wondered if race was a barrier to their career advancement in a
white-dominated institution where white leaders made the hiring decisions. Offering a dedicated
leadership program for TOC may be a way for IAA leaders to begin to understand the goals,
aspirations, and contributions of TOC. This program might track TOC from the time they enter
IAA to identify ways to begin to develop them for PLC leads, instructional coaches, and/or
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future school administrators. This program should offer dedicated leadership professional
development and coaching to support TOC in their IAA career pursuits.
Narrowing the Diversity Gap
Several participants commented on the diversity gap between students and teachers at
IAA, suggesting that the student body was by far more racially, culturally, linguistically, and
ethnically diverse than IAA’s teaching force. Black educator Samantha shared how terrified she
felt as she entered her teaching role with IAA. After reviewing the school’s marketing materials
and website, she was sure that she would be entering a classroom full of white students, and she
wondered how she would relate to these young learners after teaching in a diverse U.S. public
school. More representation of teachers from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds at IAA may
be one way to begin to disrupt the stereotypes, microaggressions, and racial climate at IAA.
Anti-Bias Awareness and Diverse Hiring Committee
Implementing a purposeful practice of training all IAA leaders in anti-bias awareness
may be one way to being to establish a common understanding of the role that implicit or
unconscious bias can play in key decisions, including hiring, promotions, and other career
impacting or professional decisions. In addition, IAA would benefit from consciously examining
the recruitment committee composition to ensure that a diverse panel and committee members
are represented. White hiring leaders should also seek input from IAA’s community of Color on
the impact of interview questions. IAA leaders should have the courage to reject slates of
candidates that fail to include TOC. IAA might examine their diversity recruitment policies,
practices, communication, and messaging to ensure alignment with the school’s desire to attract
a diverse pool of candidates and create an inclusive culture. This should start with a review of
IAA job advertisements and postings for open positions to ensure that the school is clearly
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seeking candidates who have demonstrated evidence of successfully working with diverse
students and peers.
Diverse Recruitment Channels
It is recommended that IAA hiring leaders examine the current traditional recruitment
channels (i.e. Schrole, International School Services, and Search) and seek to build bridges to
pipelines that attract more racially diverse applicants. This might include an exploration and pilot
of channels such as Association for International Educators and Leaders of Color, Diversity
Collective, Nemnet, Stratgenius, International Teachers of Color Facebook sites as well as
identifying a minimum percentage of candidates of Color in IAA’s applicant pools.
IAA Alumni of Color Internships
IAA school leaders should consider IAA alumni of Color who have pursued education
degrees for IAA teaching internships with a view to becoming a future IAA teacher. Increasing
the diversity of IAA’s teaching pool will ultimately benefit the diverse body of students at IAA
who may be more likely to identify with culturally congruent teachers to inspire their learning
experience. Cultural similarity between a student and teacher has been shown to benefit students
in several ways, including: (1) closer relationships between teachers and students (Gehlbach et
al., 2016) (2) decreased student anxiety and stereotype threat (Egalite & Kisida, 2018; Scott &
Alexander, 2019) and (3) improved student outcomes (Dee, 2004; Egalite & Kisida, 2018;
Goldhaber et al., 2015; Jackson & Kohli, 2016; Putman et al., 2016; Vinopal & Holt, 2019).
Diverse External Consultants
As an institution, IAA engaged regular external consultants for professional development,
coaching, teaching and learning, and financial planning for educators. The researcher
recommends that IAA reflect upon their consultant appointment and hiring practices to ensure
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that racially and ethnically diverse consultants are employed. IAA TOC should be invited to the
selection committees for external consultant appointments. In addition, several participants felt
that they were often expected to lead IAA’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion initiatives and often
without compensation purely by virtue of their race. In an effort to relieve this pressure or burden
on educators of Color, IAA should compensate TOC for providing this training and leading DEI
work. In addition, the school should seek diverse external experts or consultants to lead some of
the institution’s DEI or culturally responsive initiatives and professional development.
Nonetheless, the voices of TOC should be invited to the decision on which sessions to outsource.
Affinity Groups
The researcher recommends that IAA leadership openly support grassroots affinity
groups for TOC. Creating space for IAA educators of Color to come together to engage in
dialogue around their shared social identities, lived experience, or cultural backgrounds may be
one way to disrupt the isolation and increase the sense of belonging that TOC feel at IAA.
Affinity groups may also play a part in supporting the choices that TOC make to accept roles
with IAA and to stay with the school. Affinity groups offer TOC space to engage in dialogue on
ways to collectively begin to dismantle some of the racial issues impacting TOC retention.
Creating Safe Spaces Beyond Campus
One of the most resounding themes was the need for a safe space for TOC to connect and
to share IAA survival tips and tools. It is recommended that IAA leaders prioritize a TOC-led
learning space to offer a safe place for community building and navigating IAA’s structures,
classrooms, and teaching profession with like-minded or culturally similar educators. This model
is based on Martinez’s (2017) A People’s Education Model, which introduced an inquiry group
for TOC who experienced the challenges and isolation of navigating largely white communities.
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This space might be best served outside of the largely white school campus spaces in a park,
hotel, or other school-funded and sponsored external venue.
Critically Reflective Communities
Critical reflection (Brookfield, 2017; Merriam & Bierema, 2013; Rodgers, 2002) on the
narratives shared by TOC in this study and continued practice of intentionally meeting with and
deeply listening to the perceptions of TOC is an important step for IAA leadership. It is equally
important for all school leaders to be trained to have these important conversations with TOC. In
addition, intentionally focusing on creating reflective professional communities. (Cherry-
McDaniel, 2019) and collaborative practices (Cochran-Smith, 2001) by empowering all IAA
employees with the time and space to collectively name and challenge practices that may be
harming students, teachers, and leaders of Color is recommended. This may be accomplished by
creating clear, transparent, and safe channels for employees to raise concerns without fear of
retaliation. IAA should consider appointing a confidential ombudsperson or advocate who
receives, investigates, and resolves TOC impacting issues timely, fairly, and transparently.
Restorative Practices
Several participants expressed confusion and a lack of trust in the system to address the
challenging issues that they encountered on a regular basis in the workplace. Introducing
restorative practices including healing circles to name and address harmful practices as they
occur is worth considering. The use of reflective professional communities (Cherry-McDaniel,
2019) and collaborative practices (Cochran-Smith, 2001) may be one way to begin to disrupt
these practices by offering existing and new teachers the time and space to collectively name,
examine, interrogate, and challenge practices that are harmful to Students and Teachers of Color
(Cherry-McDaniel, 2019). Having critically reflective practices in place may further support the
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recruitment and retention of TOC. In addition, there is opportunity to train all leaders to
understand the harm of minimization and/or discounting the voices and actions recommended for
TOC by suggesting that these actions be applied consistently for all educators and not uniquely
for TOC in an unequal playing field or environment where TOC are underrepresented.
Culturally Responsive Leadership
Khalifa (2018) promoted the benefit of teachers who embrace the lived experiences,
culture, and community of their students and embed these rich resources into their instructional
practices to enhance the curriculum’s relevancy for all students. Recruiting TOC may be one
way to narrow the cultural gap between white educators and Students of Color yet training all
educators in culturally responsive practices is equally important. Further, school-wide cultural
competency efforts may be one way to begin to mitigate feelings of isolation that TOCs often
experience in largely white settings (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Plachowski, 2019). IAA should
consider training all school leaders in the importance of humanizing, relationship-based practices
that are culturally responsive and that consider the unique interests and cultural backgrounds of
all employees and students. In conjunction, the school should conduct a school-wide equity audit
to address to understand any inherent bias present in the institution’s policies, procedures,
practices, and structures. The researcher’s hope is that an equity audit might offer all IAA
employees an opportunity to share their perceptions on the school’s recruitment, retention,
instructional, systemic barriers, and opportunities.
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Focus
There was a general consensus among participants that IAA’s recent heightened and
intentional focus on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) was a welcome and needed change.
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It is recommended that IAA continue to reinforce the importance of the school’s continued
concerted and authentic efforts to focus on DEI not only in committing to this through their
espoused values but in inculcating this in the practices across IAA’s recruitment, hiring, and
schoolwide culture. There is also an opportunity to consider regularly offering DEI sessions to
provide tips and tools for all TOC on navigating a white space. Additional training for white
teachers and leaders to begin to understand their important role in creating an inclusive school
climate is further recommended.
Future Research
This study explored the perceptions of TOC in a single school setting in Southeast Asia.
For future studies, it might be interesting to explore and compare the findings of this study to
similar studies in different international geographies in an effort to understand how location
might change or influence study results. It has been noted that this study occurred in the midst of
the global pandemic and, as such, a future study may be considered to understand the impact that
COVID-19 may have had on the morale and findings gleaned from study participants in relation
to their tolerance or willingness to stay with IAA. A future study may also consider reviewing
the impact of IAA’s concerted focus on DEI and the strategic focus on culturally responsive
practices on the recruitment and/or retention of TOC.
Conclusion
A body of evidence suggested that there is a need to focus on the underrepresentation of
TOC in schools through improved focus on recruitment and retention efforts (e.g. Barth et al.,
2016; Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas, 2018; Cherry-McDaniel, 2019; Ingersoll et
al., 2017). The findings in this study showed that there are several influential factors on the
choices that TOC make to accept roles with IAA. The most prominent factors may be classed as
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organization conditions and leadership. The specific organization conditions found to be most
influential on a TOC’s choice to accept a role included: compensation, professional development,
and autonomy. The key leadership factors related to leadership support, and career progression.
The geographic location of the school was important; however, this factor is relatively static and
not easily changed. Most influential factors were gleaned and assumed by TOC based on their
interview experience and their perception of IAA’s reputation.
Leadership Support was found to be the most influential factor informing TOC retention
with IAA. A TOC’s perception of career progression, the racial climate, employee diversity, and
their ability to influence decisions were also important influential factors. Perceptions of equity
related to compensation and the authenticity of the school’s espoused values were factors that
leaders should keep in mind as they work to create an inclusive climate. While the significant
impact of the global pandemic on the morale of employees cannot be understated, it is
recognized that this factor was not unique to IAA TOC. Finally, this study showed that a focus
on culturally responsive leadership practices (Khalifa, 2018) and creating an equitable and
inclusive environment is essential. For international schools that are serious about recruiting and
retaining TOC, the influence of the leadership team in the hiring, supporting, and overall
organizational culture and climate should be carefully considered.

143

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161

Appendix A
Participant Study Invitation

Dear Participant,
I am writing to request your participation in a research study that seeks to understand the factors
that Teachers of Color perceive as supporting or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in
teaching roles at Innovative American Academy (IAA). Your perceptions will inform my
dissertation research as a doctoral student for the University of Southern California who is
conducting this study under the guidance of Dr. Larry Picus at the University of Southern
California. I am particularly interested in the perceptions of educators, who self-identify as
people of color or non-white, of how onboarding, leadership support, organizational conditions,
culture, racial climate, or other factors might support or inhibit their decisions to accept roles
with IAA and to continue to stay with IAA. I hope to speak with multiple Teachers of Color who
are currently working for IAA and Teachers of Color who have departed IAA to learn more from
their experiences and shared perspectives. As such, the research question for this study is:

1. What factors do Teachers of Color perceive as supporting or inhibiting their choices to accept
and stay in teaching roles at IAA?

For the purposes of this research, I am seeking your participation in a 60-minute semi-structured
interview. I want to assure you that the interview questions will not be evaluative in nature and I
will not be making or sharing any judgments regarding you as an individual or your job
performance. My goal is to seek to understand and learn from your perspective. All
162

Appendix A: Participant Study Invitation (continued)

interviews will be confidential and you will remain anonymous. To elaborate, this means that
your name will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. The data for this study
will contribute to a report and while I do plan to use some of what you say as direct quotes, none
of the data will be directly attributed or associated with you in any way. I will use a pseudonym
to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data that I gather
from you. I will keep all data on a password-protected computer and all data will be destroyed
after three years. I would like to assure you that your participation is voluntary and although
there are no foreseeable risks in your participation and you may withdraw from the study at any
time during the study. All respondents may not be asked to participate in an interview. If you are
called upon to participate, an in-person or Zoom interview will be arranged at your convenience
between August 2021 and October 2021.

If you have any questions regarding this invitation or this study, please contact me
at chenning@usc.edu. You may also contact my committee chair, Dr. Larry Picus at
lpicus@rossier.usc.edu.

I would like to invite you to please respond by indicating your willingness and consent to
participating in this study through this form within one week, if possible. Thank you.

With my gratitude,
Christine Henning
163

Appendix B
Study Information Sheet
Study Title
Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color in an International School in Southeast Asia

Principal Researcher
Christine Henning
Faculty Advisor
Dr. Lawrence Picus, University of Southern California

Purpose
The purpose of this study is to seek to understand the factors that Teachers of Color perceive as supporting or
inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative American Academy (IAA). Through this
study, I am particularly interested in learning from the perceptions of educators who self-identify as People of Color
or non-white of how onboarding, leadership support, organizational culture, racial climate, or other factors might
influence their decisions to accept roles with IAA and to continue to stay with IAA. My hope is to deeply listen to
understand actions that might be taken to improve our current practices.
You are invited to participate as an educator who has worked for IAA, who may identify as a Person of Color and
who has valuable experiences that I believe will help to shape this research. As part of this research, I will talk with
multiple teachers, both those who are currently working for IAA and teachers who have departed IAA to learn more
from their perspectives.

Participant Information
For the purposes of this research, you will be asked to participate in a 60-minute semi-structured interview. I want to
assure you that the interview questions will not be evaluative in nature and I will not be making or sharing any
judgments regarding you as an individual or your job performance. My goal is to seek to understand and learn from

164

Appendix B: Study Information Sheet (continued)

your perspective. With your permission, a recording device may be used so that I can accurately capture what you
share with me in the interview. The recording will be solely for my purposes to capture your perspectives and will
not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. You may decline to be recorded and may still continue with
your participation. In such cases, I will take notes during our conversation to ensure that I accurately capture what
you share.
Payment/Compensation for Participation
You will not be compensated for your participation. My hope is that this research will serve to positively inform and
shape future practices at IAA and may contribute to the recruitment and retention of diverse educators.
Confidentiality
All interviews will be confidential and you will remain anonymous. To elaborate, this means that your name will not
be shared with anyone outside of the research team. The University of Southern California (USC) Institutional
Review Board (IRB), reviews and monitors the research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
participants. As such, the IRB may access the data from this study.
The data for this study will contribute to a report and while I do plan to use some of what you say as direct quotes,
none of the data will be directly attributed or associated with you in any way. I will use a pseudonym to protect your
confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data that I gather from you. I will keep all data on a
password-protected computer and all data will be destroyed after three years. If audio recordings are used, they will
be transcribed and destroyed once the dissertation has been conferred and my studies with USC have been
completed. I would like to assure you that your participation is voluntary. Although there are no foreseeable risks in
your participation you may withdraw from the study at any time during the study.
Investigator Contact Information
If you have any questions regarding this invitation or this study, please contact me at chenning@usc.edu. You may
also contact my committee chair, Dr. Larry Picus at lpicus@rossier.usc.edu.
IRB Contact Information
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board at irb@usc.edu or (323) 442-0114.
165

Appendix C
Request for School Superintendent Study Approval

Dear Innovative American Academy (IAA) Superintendent and Deputy Superintendent,
As part of my Doctoral program with the University of Southern California (USC), I aspire to
conduct research to seek to understand the factors that Teachers of Color perceive as supporting
or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in teaching roles at IAA.

I am pleased to share that I have now received authorization from The University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) to begin to conduct the research to advance this
study. As such, I am writing to seek your approval to invite a sample of IAA Teachers of Color
(current and those who have recently left the school) to participate in a 60-minute semi-
structured interview. To accomplish this, I plan to conduct interviews with IAA educators who
have self-identified as a Person of Color and have expressed interest in participating in this
study. I am writing to formally seek your approval to begin to invite IAA educators to
voluntarily participate in this study.

Thank you in advance for your attention and support. I remain happy to discuss this further with
you and to respond to any questions or comments that you might have.

With my gratitude,
Christine

166

Appendix D
Request for Division Principal Study Approval

As part of my Doctoral program with the University of Southern California (USC), I aspire to
conduct research to seek to understand the factors that Teachers of Color perceive as supporting
or inhibiting their choice to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative American Academy
(IAA).

I am pleased to share that I have now received authorization from The University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) to begin to conduct the research to advance this
study. I have separately received approval from the IAA Superintendent and Deputy
Superintendent to begin to invite IAA teachers who have self-identified as a Person of Color to
voluntarily participate in a 60-minute semi-structured interview to inform the research for my
study. As such, I am writing to seek your approval to work directly with a sample of teachers in
your division. I will arrange these interviews via Zoom or in person at a time that does not
conflict with the teaching obligations and work responsibilities of our colleagues. Please do let
me know if you have any concerns or questions and I am happy to arrange a time to discuss this
in greater detail.

With my gratitude,
Christine

167

Appendix E
Interview Protocol Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate you taking this time to
answer my questions. As I shared in our last communication, this interview should take about an
hour, does that still work okay for you?
Before we get started, I would like to remind you about this study and answer any
questions that you might have about participating in this interview. You may recall that the
overview was provided to you in the Study Information Sheet indicating that I am a student at
USC and I am conducting a study on the factors that support or inhibit Teachers of Color (TOC)
in their choice to accept and stay in teaching roles at Innovative American Academy (IAA). I am
particularly interested in the perceptions of TOC of how onboarding, leadership support,
organization conditions, culture, or other factors might support or inhibit their decision to accept
roles with IAA and to continue to stay with IAA. I am talking to multiple teachers, both those
like yourself who are currently working for IAA and teachers who have departed IAA, to learn
more from their perspectives.
I want to assure you that I am strictly here in my role of researcher today. What this
means is that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making or sharing any
judgments regarding you as an individual or your job performance. My goal is to understand
your perspective.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet that I provided to you previously, this interview
is confidential. To elaborate on this, it means that your name will not be shared with anyone
outside of the research team. I will not share this with other teachers, colleagues, principals, or
other IAA leaders. The data for this study will contribute to a report and while I do plan on using
168

Appendix E: Interview Protocol Introduction (continued)

some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to or
associated with you in any way. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will
try my best to de-identify any of the data that I gather from you. I am happy to provide you with
a copy of my final paper if you are interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data on a password protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after three years.
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? I have brought a
recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is
solely for my purposes to capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside
of the research team. May I have your permission to record our conversation? Thank you. I may
also take a few notes as we speak. Please allow me a moment to test the recording device. If at
any point in time you wish me to stop recording, please ask and I will turn off the recorder.

169

Appendix F
Interview Questions for Current IAA TOC
Are you okay to begin? Okay, let’s start with some background questions about you.
Background/Demographic Questions
1. How did you become interested in the field of education?
2. Please think back to when you started to work for IAA. Describe your IAA induction experience.
i) As someone who self identifies as a TOC, what, if anything, do you feel was different in your
own induction experience?
ii) How was your induction experience similar to that of other teachers at IAA?
iii) How might you describe your experience with an assigned mentor, if any, as a TOC at IAA?

Organization Conditions
Okay, now that we covered your induction to IAA, let’s move to some questions related to IAA’s
organization conditions. When we refer to Organization conditions, this may refer to any work or
contractual conditions that you deem important.

1. Please reflect back to a few years ago when you made a decision to accept a role with IAA.
Please tell me about the specific organization conditions that were most important to you as you
made a decision to join IAA, if any? (for the interviewer’s reference and if the candidates seeks
examples or clarification. The intent is not to lead. Organization conditions may include:
compensation, resources, autonomy, career development, input to decisions)
iv) In your opinion, what kinds of organization challenges (barriers), if any, do you experience as
a TOC at IAA?
v) Do you feel that you have opportunity to influence division decisions?
vi) Think about a time at IAA when you felt that you were able to influence Division/School
wide decisions, if at all. Tell me about it.

3. Some teachers have said that they thought that IAA would have a positive influence on their
career progression, but they were surprised to find that this was not the case, how might you
respond to this based on your experience?

4. Would you describe what the ideal organization conditions might be for a TOC to stay in a
teaching role at IAA?

5. If you have the power to change organization conditions at IAA that might encourage more TOCs
to accept roles with IAA what would you recommend that the school focuses on doing
differently?

6. What organization conditions, if any, do you feel might influence you to leave IAA?

Leadership Support
We’ve talked about organization conditions, now let’s move to some questions related to your
perceptions and experiences with IAA leadership.

7. Please describe the leadership support that you have received as a TOC at IAA
i) What leadership support have you not received but wish you had?

170

Appendix F: Interview Questions for Current IAA TOC (continued)

8. What role do you believe the principal should play in supporting TOC? Please describe what this
support should look like.
i) Think about a recent situation, if any, in which you felt supported as a TOC by your leader.
Describe that situation.
ii) What is your opinion of the importance of leadership support on a TOC’s choice to accept a
role with IAA?

9. How did your perception of IAA’s leadership support contribute to your decision to join IAA, if
at all?

10. What type of leadership would make you consider not signing your annual contract to continue to
work at IAA, if any.

Organization Culture
Transition: Thank you. You’ve shared your thoughts on leadership and organization conditions.
We are now about half-way through the interview and I feel that it is going smoothly. How are you
feeling? Next, I would like to ask you about your perceptions related to the larger IAA’s culture.
When I say “culture,” I am referring to the often-unstated beliefs, norms, values, relationships,
and written or unwritten rules that influence the general climate and how the school functions.
11. Tell me how you might describe the culture at IAA.
i) In reflecting back to when you signed your first contract to join IAA, what influence did your
perception of the school’s culture have on your decision, if any?

12. As someone who identifies as a TOC, in your opinion, what are some of the positive elements of
IAA’s culture?
i) What do you view as areas of improvement for IAA’s culture?

Racial Climate
For the purposes of this survey, racial climate may be defined as perceptions, attitudes,
expectations and demonstrated inclusivity and equity for people of all racial or ethnic backgrounds.

13. How might you describe the racial climate at IAA?
i) Some might say that the racial climate at IAA can have an influence on a teacher’s
experience at the school. How might you respond to this?
ii) Some people might say that IAA has addressed any issues related to
racial climate through the recent heightened focus on Diversity, Equity and Inclusion work.
How would you respond to this?
iii) What is the most significant factor related to IAA’s racial climate, if any, that if changed
might ensure that you stay with the school?

Follow-up
We have now covered onboarding, organization conditions, leadership support, culture and racial
climate. I would like to ask you two final questions.

14. In your opinion what factor might prevent you from signing a contract to stay at IAA?

15. What else would you like to share that I did not think to ask?
171

Appendix G
Interview Questions for TOC who have Left IAA

Are you okay to begin? Okay, let’s start with some background questions about you.
Background/Demographic Questions
2. How did you become interested in the field of education?
i) Tell me about your current role

3. Please think back to when you started to work for IAA. Describe your IAA induction experience.
i) As someone who self identifies as a TOC, what, if anything, do you feel was different in your
own induction experience?
ii) How was your induction experience similar to that of other teachers at IAA?
iii) How might you describe your experience with an assigned mentor, if any, as a TOC at IAA?

Organization Conditions
Okay, now that we covered your induction to IAA, let’s move to some questions related to IAA’s
organization conditions. When we refer to Organization conditions, this may refer to any work or
contractual conditions that you deem important.
4. Please reflect back to a few years ago when you made a decision to accept a role with IAA.
Please tell me about the specific organization conditions that were most important to you as you
made a decision to join IAA, if any? (for the interviewer’s reference and if the candidates seeks
examples or clarification. The intent is not to lead. Organization conditions may include:
compensation, resources, autonomy, career development, input to decisions)
i) In your opinion, what kinds of organization challenges (barriers), if any, do you experience as
a TOC at IAA?
ii) Think about a time at IAA when you felt that you were able to influence Division/School
wide decisions, if at all. Tell me about it.

5. Some teachers have said that they thought that IAA would have a positive influence on their
career progression, but they were surprised to find that this was not the case, how might you
respond to this based on your experience?

6. Would you describe what the ideal organization conditions might be for a TOC to stay in a
teaching role at IAA?

7. If you have the power to change organization conditions at IAA that might encourage more TOCs
to accept roles with the school, what would you recommend that the school focuses on doing
differently?

8. What organization conditions, if any, do you believe may have influenced you to leave IAA?

Leadership Support
We’ve talked about organization conditions, now let’s move to some questions related to your
perceptions and experiences with IAA leadership.

9. Please tell me about your interactions with your leader (Division Principal) at IAA
i) Please describe the leadership support that you received as a TOC at IAA, if any
ii) What leadership support did you not receive but wish you had?

172

Appendix G: Interview Questions for TOC who have Left IAA (continued)

10. What role do you believe the principal should play in supporting TOC? Please describe what this
support should look like.
i) Think about a situation, if any, in which you felt supported as a TOC at IAA by your leader.
Describe that situation.
i) What is your opinion of the importance of leadership support on a TOC’s choice to accept a
role with IAA?

11. How did your perception of IAA’s leadership support contribute to your decision to join IAA, if
at all?

12. How important of a factor, if at all, was IAA leadership support when you decided not to continue
to work for IAA?

13. What type of leadership, if any, might have made you re-consider your decision to leave IAA?

Organization Culture
Transition: Thank you. You’ve shared your thoughts on leadership and organization conditions.
We are now about half-way through the interview and I feel that it is going smoothly. How are you
feeling? Next, I would like to ask you about your perceptions related to the larger IAA’s culture.
When I say “culture,” I am referring to the often-unstated beliefs, norms, values, relationships,
and written or unwritten rules that influence the general climate and how the school functions.

14. Tell me how you might describe the culture at IAA.
15. In reflecting back to when you signed your first contract to join IAA, what influence did your
perception of the school’s culture have on your decision, if any?
i) As someone who identifies as a TOC, in your opinion, what are some of the positive elements
of IAA’s culture?
ii) What do you view as areas of improvement for IAA’s culture?

Racial Climate
For the purposes of this survey, racial climate may be defined as perceptions, attitudes,
expectations and demonstrated inclusivity and equity for people of all racial or ethnic backgrounds.

16. How might you describe the racial climate at IAA?
i) Some might say that the racial climate at IAA can have an influence on a teacher’s
experience at the school. How might you respond to this?
ii) Some people might say that IAA proactively addressed any issues related to racial climate.
How would you respond to this?
iii) What is the most significant factor related to IAA’s racial climate, if any, that if changed
might have influenced you to stay with the school?
Follow-up
We have now covered onboarding, organization conditions, leadership support, culture and racial
climate. I would like to ask you two final questions.

17. In your opinion what factor might bring you back to IAA?
18. What else would you like to share that I did not think to ask?

173

Appendix H
IAA’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Statement

As a school, the diversity of our community is one of our greatest strengths. That diversity offers
extraordinary learning opportunities for our students as well as opportunities to build lasting
friendships and relationships across cultures, nationalities, and other aspects of identity. For our
diversity to reach its full potential as a strength, it is important that our focus on equity and
inclusion for all members of our community be as strong as our diversity. Every student at IAA
should feel valued, cared for, and included. Differences in culture, background, ability, identity,
and perspective should be respected and celebrated; SAS has no place for prejudice and
racism. Students should learn about historic and present day practices of prejudice and racism
and how to fundamentally change those systems. Such learning is essential for our students to
thrive and succeed in the increasingly diverse, international world that they will work and live in.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Daly Henning, Christine Lynn (author)

Core Title The factors supporting or inhibiting Teachers of Color to accept and stay in an international school in Southeast Asia

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 02/22/2022

Defense Date 11/18/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag demographic gap,diversity gap,international school diversity,OAI-PMH Harvest,racial, ethnic diversity,student-teacher matching,teacher of color recruitment,teacher of color retention,teacher-student matching

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Robles, Darline P. (committee member)

Creator Email chenning@sas.edu,christineldaly@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC110760087

Unique identifier UC110760087

Legacy Identifier etd-DalyHennin-10398

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Daly Henning, Christine Lynn

Type texts

Source 20220223-usctheses-batch-913 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

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