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The nature of K-12 education news in the United States

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The nature of K-12 education news in the United States

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The Nature of K-12 Education News in the United States
by
Jenai Ali Emmel

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Jeani Ali Emmel 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jenai Ali Emmel certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Courtney Malloy
Douglas Lynch
Kimberly Hirabayashi, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

v
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore the nature of K-12 education news coverage broadcast
on ABC, CBS, CNN, FOX News, and NBC evening news. Two research questions guided this
study including the exploration of the frequency, content, and framing of the news and the
degree to which equity was a focus. The study also occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic
and as a result benefited from the opportunity to compare coverage in pre- and post- contexts.
The study utilized the Vanderbilt Television News Archive to examine abstracts of the evening
news from August 1-October 31 in both 2019 and 2020. An array of educational search terms
generated 2,712 abstracts of which 169 included K-12 educational content that fit within the
bounds of my study. Using content analysis and thematic coding, I employed an educational
typology to disaggregate news content into the categories of teaching and learning; the structure
of schooling; climate, health, and safety; and racial equity, diversity, and inclusion. Fifteen
findings emerged including that K-12 education news was minimal, often focused on conflict or
bad news, and provided surface-level information about work in public education. Despite the
importance that U.S. citizens place on public education, the public school system receives very
little attention from televised media. Given the mounting influence of the evening news during
the Covid-19 pandemic, the lack of coverage signals that education is not a meaningful part of
the U.S. news media agenda. Implications for practice are discussed for K-12 educators and
news networks including continued monitoring of K-12 education news; refreshing the chief
communications officer and press secretary roles; empowering students to tell their own stories;
promoting and expanding media initiatives dedicated to K-12 education; developing complex
stories that balance success and failure; and training K-12 journalists on key issues in public
education.

vi
Acknowledgements
I would first like to acknowledge the Organizational Change and Leadership Program
faculty and staff and the Rossier Graduate School of Education at the University of Southern
California. My coursework and original research helped raise the standard of reflection and
research in my practice, encouraged innovation, creativity, and diversity of thought, and amplified
my conviction, ability, and self-efficacy to impact the K-12 public education system in the United
States.
I would also like to honor the effort and impact of my dissertation chair Doctor Kimberly
Hirabayashi who was my guiding light throughout the research process. Her acute research savvy,
warm coaching style, and careful balance of direction and inquiry generated the perfect learning
lab. Committee members Doctor Courtney Malloy and Doctor Douglas Lynch, also my professors
for Inquiry II and Creativity and Innovation courses respectively, provided mission critical
encouragement and feedback during the proposal and final defense process.
My dissertation is the gestalt of persistence in the form of sustained effort, focus, and
passion over time. It was a rigorous and extensive process made possible by family and friends
who propelled me through the most difficult moments. I relied most on my mom Shelley Susan
Emmel, my dad Dr. Alfred Cortland Emmel, my uncle John Walser, my mentor Dr. Nanette
Reynolds, and countless friends and colleagues. The Soka Gakkai International, Noble and
Greenough School, the University of Virginia, the Harvard Graduate School of Education, Alpha
Kappa Alpha Sorority, and Teach for America are equally important to my formative education
and the sense of responsibility I feel for lifelong learning, national service, and for generating
candid and inclusive dialogue with everyone who cares about public education.

I had the fortune to apply my studies to my work at my organizational design firm, School
Architects, and to use anecdotal experiences in the field as foundation for coursework. The
symbiotic relationship between theory and practice proved invaluable to the personal and
professional growth I experienced during the program. However, it is the universities, school
systems, schools, leaders, teachers, and students that I support who are my NorthStar and allies in
the pursuit of a free and transformative education for all children across the nation. My partnerships
with the University of Virginia Partnership for Leaders in Education, the University of
Washingtonssssss Center for Educational Leadership, DeliverEd and the Networks of School
Improvement Initiative at the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Diverse Charter School
Coalition, Aurora Public Schools, Southwest Independent School District, and Boston Public
Schools formed a constellation of experiences that remind me how many bright and dedicated
people are working to address the crises unfolding in and around schools - and, the number of
creative solutions emerging to advance change. These organizations made it possible for me to
care for high needs students and communities, to inspire leaders driving improvement at-scale and
with integrity, and to encourage the design of lean, student-centered, diverse, and literacy-focused
school systems.
In closing, I dedicate this body of work to my mom and dad whose undying commitment
to my success reminds me how important it is to be loved and to love. And, to my dog, Luca who
was with me every moment.

Table of Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .......................................................................... 2
Importance of the Study .............................................................................................................. 3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ............................................................ 5
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 7
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 8
Prior Studies on K-12 Education News ...................................................................................... 8
The U.S. News Media ............................................................................................................... 10
Agenda-Setting in the News ..................................................................................................... 11
Cable News Audience Profile ................................................................................................... 18
Equity in the U.S. ...................................................................................................................... 21
Equity in K-12 Education ......................................................................................................... 22
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 23

Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 26
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 26
Overview of Design .................................................................................................................. 26
The Researcher .......................................................................................................................... 27
Data Sources ............................................................................................................................. 29
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 34
Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................. 37
Ethics ......................................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 39
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter Five: Implications and Recommendations ...................................................................... 71
Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 71
Implications for Future Practice ................................................................................................ 81
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 86
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 87
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 89
References ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Appendix A: Updated Typology ................................................................................................... 12
Appendix B: Protocols .................................................................................................................. 16

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Error! Bookmark not defined.4
Table 2: Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Table 3: Evening News Shows Recordings Included in Present Study 37
Table 4: Compilation of Revisions and Additions to the Educational Typology 40
Table 5: Total Yield and Selected Abstracts Per Search Term 42
Table 6: Comparison of 2019 and 2020 Education News Coverage 47
Table 7: Frequency of Coverage by Date, Network, Reporter, State, and Day of Week 50
Table 8: Comparison of Coverage in 2019 and 2020 in Order of Typology 51
Table 9: Comparison of Stakeholder Engagement in 2019 and 2020 Education News 56
Table 10: States and Students Absent from Education News Coverage in 2019 and 2020 65
Table 11: School Demographics Snapshot for Education News in 2020 71

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Comparison of State Coverage in 2019 and 2020 64
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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2020), 48.1 million children
enrolled in public schools across the United States in fall 2020 (National Center for Educational
Statistics [NCES], 2020). Except for the military, each year more resources are devoted to
elementary and secondary education than any other public good in the United States; Americans
depend heavily on public schools to narrow social and economic inequalities in society
(Rothstein, 2008). The scale, investment, and utility of the United States Public School System
runs parallel to compulsory education laws that require children ages 6 -16 to attend. Given the
link between education and liberation (Plato, 375 BCE), public interest about the quality of
education is unsurprising. According to the Pew Research Center (2017), U.S. citizens define
education as the third most important issue facing the nation. A 2019 Gallup poll ranked
education as the 12th most important non-economic issue facing the nation, just behind climate
change and gun control. While education is a leading issue for many U.S. citizens, there is a
dearth of education news broadcast to the public. Notwithstanding episodic peaks in coverage
(Coe & Kuttner, 2018), prior studies on K-12 education news coverage found that education was
covered in the news between 1.9% (West et al., 2009) and 2.3% (Campanella, 2014) of the time.
Since the U.S. news media function primarily to alert the public to salient issues (Lee & Reeves,
2012), the absence of education news signals a disconnect between the news media agenda and
public interest. News remains one of the most vital sources for information in the United States
(Pew Research Center, 2018) and, during the midst of the pandemic, more than 5.8 million
people turned into evening news coverage on Fox News (3.6m) and MSNBC (2.2m) (Poynter
Institute, 2020). The lack of coverage therefore reflects a missed opportunity to maintain national
awareness about public education and to shape public opinion (Lee & Reeves, 2012) by exposing
audiences to industry successes and challenges. Research on how television media influence
2

people and behavior is robust (Bandura, 1989). News matters and what is and is not covered has
significant implications for society. As a result, this study explored the nature of K-12 education
news in pre- and post-Covid-19 contexts to deepen understanding about contemporary narratives
presented to ever growing evening news audiences.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This study tracked K-12 education news broadcast during the evening news, compared
content reported in pre- and post-Covid-19 environments, and investigated the degree to which
coverage spotlighted issues pertinent to racial equity, diversity, and inclusion. Fortunately, this
study benefited from prior research conducted on K-12 education news, chiefly Kevin Coe and
Paul J. Kuttner’s quantitative content analysis of national education (Pre-K-12) news stories in
the United States. To extend research on the U.S. news media’s portrayals of education, they
investigated 35- years of evening news coverage (Coe & Kuttner, 2018). Their work not only
represents the most extensive study of education news, but also the only that covers notable
educational policy shifts from the 1983 publication of A Nation at Risk through the
reauthorization of Every Student Succeeds Act under the Obama administration (Coe & Kuttner,
2018). Finally, Coe and Kuttner are the only researchers to develop a common typology of
education content representing “prominent education discourses, policy debates, and the findings
of past research on news coverage of education” (Coe & Kuttner, 2018, p.3). The present study
replicated, revised, and built upon some of the design features of their landmark study while also
introducing new elements of the typology in response to the most recent themes in the evening
news.
Consistent with the purpose of qualitative research, this study aimed to deepen
understanding of the nature of education news broadcast during the evening, when viewership is
3

at its highest. The present study was designed to assess the frequency, content, and framing of K-
12 education news and to compare education news coverage in pre- and post-Covid-19
environments while paying special attention to equity-focused issues. The study focused on K-12
education news broadcast nationally on ABC, CBS, CNN, FOX, and NBC in alignment with the
following research questions:
1. What is the nature of national K-12 education news broadcast on cable television in the
United States in pre- and post-Covid-19 environments (i.e., frequency, content, and
framing)?
2. To what degree is equity a focus of the education news broadcast on cable television in the
United States in pre- and post-Covid-19 environments?
Importance of the Study
Research on how television media influences people and society is robust. Studies
abound on how media, and the structure of news, impact social aggression (Martins & Wilson,
2012); national literacy rates (Bandura, 1989; Desmon, 2018); health education and prevention
(Chang, 2012; Marijke & Bulk, 2011; Smith et al., 2007;); moral learning and attitudes
(Cushman et al., 2017; Shen, 2004); public opinion (Iyengar, 1989, 1990, 1996; Park &
Jennings, 2015); emotion (Peng et al., 2017); and, the promotion of industry stereotypes (Weaver
et al., 2013), to name a few. These studies serve as proof points for the interplay between
television media, individual behavior, and our collective social context (Bandura, 1982).
Framing theory has also been commonly employed to explain how news influences
people and behavior. This study privileged Shanto Iyengar’s scholarship (2011, 2018) on how
mass media shapes democratic society, public opinion, and political strategy alongside Robert
4

Entman (1993) whose investigation into agenda-setting and framing theory stands as leading
communication theory today.
This study aimed to understand the nature of K-12 education news from the perspective
of frequency, content, and framing. The study also intended to compare coverage in pre- and
post-Covid -19 environments paying special attention to equity-centered education news in both
contexts. From a research perspective, the study carried import as a qualitative study;
specifically, in its pursuit of knowledge and its desire to contribute to existing bodies of research
and scholarly dialogue. The study also held value in its evolution from a focus on diversity,
arguably a measure of composition (of people and ideas), to equity, arguably a measure of
human rights and equality (United Nations, 1948, art. 8). Advancing research that examined the
degree to which the experience of marginalized communities was captured in education news
aligns with the mission of the Rossier School of Education (USC Rossier School of Education,
2020) and the pursuit of equity in policy and practice.
The study was also important from a historical perspective. The first amendment made a
free press inherent to a modern democracy and extended lawful power to the media to balance
and curtail unchecked power in government and in society (U.S. Const. amend. I.). Abraham
Lincoln proclaimed the power of the press when he said, “with public sentiment nothing can fail;
without it, nothing can succeed” (Holzer, 2014, p. XXIX,). Walter Williams cemented the
media’s professional responsibility to educate the public through the Journalist’s Creed in 1908
(Farrar, 1999). Countless researchers spanning the fields of educational psychology, political
science, and communication have confirmed the influence that media has on people, public
opinion, and behavior. The media and their role in shaping public opinion are interwoven into
the fabric of U.S. democracy and acknowledged as a tool to shape public opinion by U.S.
5

Presidents and researchers alike. As the power of the media continues to crystallize as does the
importance of continued media studies.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework for this study was largely informed by the educational
typology presented in Coe and Kuttner’s 2018 study. Using leading themes in education
research, they present a typology organized by topics related to teaching and learning; the
structure of schooling; climate, health, and safety; and diversity and equity. The typology
provided an organizing framework for the data collection and analysis process and a pathway to
assess educational news content, including equity-focused coverage. The typology is less useful
when unpacking the framing of the news. As a result, the researcher drew from
agenda-setting and framing analysis theory to better understand linguistic choices and tenor.
Framing analysis theory is multidisciplinary in nature and is often grounded in
communication studies and social science. Framing, also referred to as second-level agenda-
setting, describes how issues are defined and how the audience should think about these issues
(Goffman, 1974). The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore national news coverage
about K-12 education in the United States. Of particular interest was coverage that occurred on
ABC, CBS, CNN, Fox News, and NBC during the evening news block. Using content analysis
methods, the study examined abstracts of the evening news in pre- and post-Covid-19 pandemic
environments. An educational typology was utilized to organize and interpret trends and to focus
on equity-centered news. Data was collected through the Vanderbilt Television News Archive,
the only publicly accessible database of the evening news in the world.
6

Definition of Terms
The following terms emerged throughout this study and reflected commonly used words
within the media industry. Given their specificity, definitions have been provided to explain and
clarify their meaning relative to this study. Words and terms connected to the educational
typology are explained in detail in Chapter 3.
Agenda-setting: The act of directing the public’s attention to a particular social issue (McCombs,
2003)
Attention: Defined by ratings, length of programs, and degree of focus provided by networks.
Broadcast: To communicate or transmit (a signal, a message, or content, such as audio or video
programming) to numerous recipients simultaneously over a communication network
(Free Dictionary, 2021).
Equity-focused news: News that exposes personal and social circumstances that prevent students
from achieving their academic potential or when a basic minimum standard for education
is not provided to all students regardless of background, personal characteristics, or
location (OECD, 2020).
Frame: A central organizing idea or storyline that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of
events, weaving a connection among them (Gamson, 1989).
Frame-building: The factors that influence the structural qualities of news frames (Shoemaker,
1996).
Frame-setting: The interaction between media frames and individuals’ prior knowledge and
predispositions and affect learning, interpretation, and evaluation of issues and events
(Shoemaker, 1996).
Mass media: Representing the most economical way of getting the story over a new and
7

wider market in the least time (Praigg, 1923).
Minority: Individuals identified in the U.S. Census as anything other than “White” Americans
(Noguera, 2017).
News: Recently discovered, publicized instantly, and relevant to human concern (Roshco, 1975).
Newsworthiness: Factors that determine the value of events or ideas including timeliness,
conflict, related to human interest, and relevant (PBS, 2020).
Evening News: The time at which the audience peaks, and in the United States usually takes
place between 6 pm and 7 pm (Vanderbilt Television News Archives, 2021).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation is organized into five chapters aligned to the design of the study and to
the core content presented within the problem of practice. Chapter 1 introduces the problem of
practice, the purpose, and importance of the study, and concludes with the theoretical
framework, methodology, and key definitions. Chapter 2 includes a review of the literature
pertaining to prior research methodology and findings on K-12 education news; describes typical
viewers for evening news; and summarizes agenda-setting and framing theories. Chapter 3
outlines the research design and methodology and includes existing and revised typologies for
coding. Chapter 4 discusses evidence gathered through the research process and findings for the
study. Chapter 5 discusses the importance of the findings and recommendations for future action
and research.

8

Chapter Two: Literature Review
The presentation of content in Chapter 2 aligns to the research questions guiding this
study including (1) the frequency, content, and framing of education news and (2) the degree to
which equity is a focus of K-12 educational news. Part 1 of the literature review begins with a
review of prior studies on K-12 education news. Next context is provided about the current state
of the U.S. news media followed by a synthesis of agenda-setting and framing theories.
Newsworthiness definitions are then presented and compared across time. News viewers are then
compared to better understand differences in audiences. In part 2, equity is discussed from a
historical perspective in the United States including demographics, diversity, and educational
outcomes. Finally, a conceptual framework is presented.
Prior Studies on K-12 Education News
Prior studies of K-12 education news provide a historical landscape of coverage over
time. In the past decade, three studies were conducted on the frequency and content of K-12
education news. West, Whitehall, and Dionne (2009, 2011) commissioned studies on K-12
education news through the Brookings Institute. Andrew Campanella followed with a study of
K-12 education news coverage from a 25-year span of local, regional, and state-level news
outlets (2015). Finally, Coe and Kuttner (2018) authored the first peer-reviewed, longitudinal,
and empirical study on K-12 education news. While Coe and Kuttner focused their work on
network news coverage (ABC, CBS, NBC), their study provided a foundation for measuring the
frequency and content of K-12 education news.
The Coe and Kuttner Study
A suite of notable findings emerges from Coe and Kuttner’s (2018) research on K-12
educational news coverage. First, they found that K-12 news coverage was infrequent. During a
35-year period, a total of 66 stories on K-12 education news were covered. Those stories totaled
9

194 minutes of broadcast time, lasted between 30-seconds and 14-minutes, and accounted for
under 1% of total content (Coe & Kuttner, 2018). These findings are supported by earlier studies
indicating that national news outlets covered education news between .7% and 1.4% of the time
(West et al, 2009, 2011).
Second, they found that five topics lead K-12 education news coverage. In a 35-year
span, school violence (11%), school quality (10%), school funding (7%), race and ethnicity
(7%), workforce (7%), and standards (5%) received the most attention (Coe & Kuttner, 2018).
Previous studies found that funding issues, school crime, and the H1N1 flu outbreak followed by
education reform (4.7%), curriculum (3.4%), education research (1.6%), technology (1.3%), and
teacher training (.5%) make up the bulk of national educational news coverage (West et al,
2009). At the local level, sports, events at schools, or education funding dominated the news
(Campanella, 2015).
The next set of findings begin to describe the nature of education news beyond frequency
and content. They found that education news coverage was shaped by events and federal policy
agendas. Highly publicized reports, presidential elections and local ballots, court cases, and
legislation, and major events including school shootings and teacher strikes (Coe & Kuttner,
2018; Livingston, 2003) were all news drivers. Issue coverage was also found to parallel
educational policy agendas. When No Child Left Behind was signed into law, news coverage on
curricular standards increased and the discourse on failure became more prevalent. Conversely,
coverage on equity and diversity declined during the Obama administration. Only 31 minutes
dedicated to discussions on segregation, desegregation, and integration; five times less coverage
than ten years prior.
Finally, Coe and Kuttner present hypotheses for the lack of educational news coverage.
10

They argue that networks align programming with audience demographics which skew older and
are without school-aged children (Pew Research Center, 2016). They also posit that education
lacks the drama necessary to drive year-round coverage in alignment with definitions of
newsworthiness (Bennet, 2016; Coe & Kuttner, 2018). Their study portrayed coverage that was
infrequent, sporadic, and driven by demographics that do not mirror the nation, nor the broad
level of interest in education.
The U.S. News Media
While the U.S. public media system includes radio, print, and digital newspapers,
podcasts, and network news (Pew Research Center, 2018), this study focused on the cable news
segment of the U.S. news media. CNN, FOX News, and MSNBC comprise the top 3 cable news
networks; this study compared primetime news coverage on FOX News and MSNBC. Audiences
for primetime cable news at CNN, MSNBC, and FOX News increased by 8% with an average
combined audience of 1.25 million. According to Pew Research Center for the People & the
Press, the average American consumes 70 minutes of daily news and prefers to access the news
on television (Pew Research Center, 2019). Research on new consumption indicates that most
viewers watch the news to gain information (Lee & Reeves, 2012). The U.S. news media
function primarily to alert the public to salient issues and to shape public opinion (Lee & Reeves,
2012). The news media’s role in maintaining an informed and engaged citizenry has special
implications for the K-12 education industry particularly as it relates to equity, industry
perception, and education policy.
News coverage on Fox News and MSNBC is far-reaching. In August 2020, more than 5.8
million people turned into primetime news coverage on Fox News (3.6m) and MSNBC (2.2m)
(Fox News, 2020). More than 4.7 million people watched “Hannity” making August the show its
11

historical best. “Tucker Carlson Tonight” came in second with 4.4 million. Rachel Maddow’s
show came in 5th place. According to Fox News, “the RNC was the highest-rated primetime
convention coverage in the history of cable news” (Fox News, 2020, p.1). More viewers also
watched Fox News for coverage of the Democratic National Convention (Fox News, 2020). An
average of 3 million total day viewers watched Fox News (1.8 million) and MSNBC (1.2
million) in August (Fox News, 2020). On election night, more than 14.158 people watched Fox
News and 7.661 million turned into MSNBC (LA Times, 2020). An increasing number of
viewers turn to the U.S. news media for current information and for insights into the national
agenda.
Agenda-Setting in the News
Prior studies on K-12 education news confirmed that public education has been covered
infrequently in the past 35-years. This is significant when examined through the U.S. news
media’s influence over the public agenda. On August 21, 1858, Abraham Lincoln stated, “He
who moulds public sentiment, goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions”
(Holzer, 2014, p. XIII,). Shaw and McCombs (1968, 1977), who pioneered much of the research
on agenda-setting, confirmed this sentiment when saying the public agenda “is influenced by a
pattern of coverage” (McCombs, 2009, p. 3,). Their studies revealed that coverage on the Iraq
War aligned with public perception on the importance of the war during the 2008 presidential
election (McCombs, 2009).
However, research on agenda-setting expands beyond voter behavior to include general
studies on the public agenda. One study compared 2.5 years of news coverage to 13 Gallup polls
and concluded that public opinion was influenced by television, news, and magazines for 91% of
issues covered (Eaton, 1989). The salience of issues like pollution, arms control, and
12

unemployment were tested in laboratory experiments that also confirmed changes in perception
after watching televised news (Iyengar et al, 1987). And a meta-analysis of 90 studies yielded a
correlation of +.53 when examining the agenda-setting effect of U.S. news (Wanta, 2000).
However, while prior studies confirm the relationship between news media coverage and the
public agenda, the correlation between public opinion trends and reality has not been established
(Funkhauser, 1973), particularly when examining “major issues of the 1960s, drug use in the
1980s, crime in the 1990s, and the economy in the 2000s” (McCombs, 2009, p.4). In other
words, the U.S. news media create a pseudo-environment that may be disconnected from a
robust representation of issues occurring in the lives of U.S. citizens. Therefore, journalists' role
in setting the public agenda is clear (McCombs et al., 1972, 2004, 2009). Through routine
decision-making processes at the individual and organizational level, journalists define issue
salience and influence issue perception (McCombs, 2009). This power is best characterized as
the agenda-setting function of the U.S. news media (McCombs, 2009).
Framing the News
The U.S. news media set the agenda not only by establishing issue salience but also by
defining issue attributes for the public (McCombs, 2009). Attributes are relevant at the cognitive
and affective level according to McCombs (2009) and are considered a second level of agenda-
setting. News media shape cognition in the ways they characterize the main features of the issues
and color the tenor of the discussion through positive, neutral, or negative framing (McCombs,
2009). While first-level agenda-setting captures issue salience, framing describes the US news
media’s capacity to influence how people think and feel about issues.
The U.S. news media and national television networks make several decisions when
describing the environment. For example, they select language and pictures that can affect how
13

the viewer understands issues, policies, or events (Tewksbery et al, 2009). This complex process
is described at varying levels of scrutiny in the research (Scheufele, 1999). On the disciplinary
side of the analysis, scholars present macro-level (sociological) and micro-level (psychological)
underpinnings to explain their approaches. In both camps, researchers investigate the link
between cause and effect to assign responsibility (Tewksbery, 2009). While research illuminates
an important distinction between societal or individual attribution (Goffman, 1974; Heider, 1959;
Iyengar, 1991), framing research globally contends that framing provides a cognitive model for
how the environment can or should be understood. The agenda-setting and framing function
within news media “exert a substantial influence on citizens’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors”
(Bryant, 2009; Tewksbery, p. 19, 2009).
Investigations into framing theory present a robust set of techniques utilized to create
news frames and audience reactions. For example, framing that includes warnings about
potential threats may effectively induce worry while framing that includes messages of efficacy
may effectively help the audience manage fears (Chang, 2012). Effective framing techniques
include strategies like metaphor, storytelling, ritual, slogan, artifacts, and spin, according to
deVreese’s recounting of Fairhurst and Sarr’s 1996 work. Entman further identified five traits
that have a salient impact on information processing including issue gravity; personal agency;
identification with potential victims; categorization, and generalizations to a broader national
context (Scheufele, 1999). Ultimately, framing decisions are impacted by a robust set of factors
including the level of attention paid by audience members and the degree of episodic versus
thematic coverage (Iyengar, 1989, 1990, 1996).
Frame-building
14

According to deVreese (2005), frame-building refers to the internal and external factors
that influence the structural qualities of news frames. Internal and external contributions to the
frame-building process represent a reciprocal conversation between journalists, academics, and
social movements. Frame-building also refers to the interaction between frames and audience
members’ prior knowledge and dispositions. deVreese further asserts that news frames may
impact cognition, analysis, and assessment of issues and events including individual attitudes and
collective decision making and action. While researchers suggest the profundity of framing, the
concept itself is defined in several ways (Scheufele,1999). Ervin Goffman (1974) articulates the
value of primary versus natural frameworks in his pioneering work. deVreese (2005) categorizes
issue-specific versus generic frames. Scheufele (1999) attempts to present framing as a process
inclusive of frame building, frame setting, individual framing processes, and feedback loops.
Framing in Education News. Given the profundity associated with the news media’s
power to frame how content is presented and to dictate how viewers think and feel about public
education, it becomes increasingly important to understand how K-12 education news is framed
today. In 1983, the U.S. National Commission on Excellence in Education released A Nation at
Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform; a report that arguably catalyzed the modern
education reform era (West et al., 2011). The report not only led to a series of widespread federal
and local educational policies but also set precedent for how schools would be characterized for
more than 25 years. The report described a failing school system undermining national economic
strength and vitality on a global stage (Tyack & Cuban, 1995). The framing of schools-in-crisis,
in the media, is well documented (e.g., J. L. Cohen, 2010; Gerstl-Pepin, 2002; O’Neil, 2012) as a
discourse of disparagement and blame (Parker, 2011; Wallace, 1993). According to West et al.,
(2011), teachers described as compassionate and incompetent (J. L. Cohen, 2010) and teachers
15

unions portrayed as a barricade to quality reform (Goldstein, 2011) galvanized educational
policy focused on accountability and school choice. Some researchers argue that these claims
attempt to dissolve a broader ecosystem that undermines success in schools and ignores systemic
issues facing teachers (Goldstein & Beutel, 2009; Thomas, 2006).
Newsworthiness
Standards of newsworthiness greatly influence how news is framed for viewers. Hall
(1978) and Shoemaker (1991) agree that newsworthiness is an obscure, opaque, elusive concept.
While often represented as a neutral set of standards, the news selection processes are imbued by
values, organizational structures, and cultural beliefs (Hall et al.,1978). Johan Galtung and Marie
Holmboe Ruge (1965) analyzed international news stories to identify common attributes and to
explain the factors that lead to worldwide coverage. Their work is considered a landmark study
of news values and the categorization across three domains: impact, audience identification, and
media pragmatics. Their system attempts to provide rationale for what is and is not selected.
These discussions led to generation and iteration of systems designed to define categories of
newsworthiness beginning with Galtung et al. in 1965. In response, Weaver (2001, 2007)
introduced revised sets of news values building on Galtung’s work and applying it to a
contemporary context.
Table 1 reflects the ways in which researchers have defined newsworthiness over time.
Galtung (1965), Shoemaker (1991), Weaver (2001, 2007) and Harcup (2017) present concepts of
newsworthiness that align to the overarching categories of time, notoriety, power and influence,
and tension. Notably, Harcup zeroes into ‘conflict’ as the only definition of newsworthiness.
Each of these researchers contribute to dynamic and nuanced concepts of newsworthiness.
However, the emergence of conflict as a central frame for news dovetails with K-12 education
16

news coverage and the dominance of bad news stories in the evening news. Table 1 displays the
definitions of newsworthiness identified through research conducted from 1965 to 2017.

17

Table 1
Compilation of Newsworthiness Categories from 1965-2017
Galtung
(1965)

Shoemaker
(1991)
Weaver
(2001)
Weaver
(2007)
Harcup
(2017)
Frequency Timeliness Magnitude Magnitude Conflict
Threshold Impact Relevance Relevance
Unambiguity Importance Surprise Surprise
Meaningfulness Interest Follow up Follow up
Consonance Novelty The power elite The power elite
Unexpectedness Prominence Celebrity Celebrity
Continuity Bad news Bad news
Composition Good news Good news
Reference to
elite nations
The network
agenda
The network
agenda

Reference to
elite people
Entertainment Entertainment
Reference to
persons
Conflict
Reference to
something negative
Drama
Shareability

Note: From Galtung et al (1965), Shoemaker (1995), Weaver (2001, 2007), and Harcup (2017)
18

Cable News Audience Profile
Who Watches the News
The U.S. news media’s influence over the public agenda includes defining what issues
are deemed important and how they are framed for viewers. But the degree of influence is
informed totally by the viewers who tune into the news. When unpacking viewer demographics,
clear trends emerge. For example, in 2019, Public Opinion Strategies compared viewers who
watch FOX News versus those that watch MSNBC. Viewers that watch FOX News and MSNBC
represent equally across age bands. However, small differences begin to emerge when
disaggregating race. MSNBC harnesses 9% more black viewers than FOX News, although each
network attracts similar percentages of white and Hispanic viewers. Moderate differences exist
when comparing education-levels. Twelve percent more viewers with high school degrees or less
watch FOX and 11% more viewers with college degrees watch MSNBC. Viewers with some
college and post-graduate degrees were similar in 2019. Small to significant differences emerged
when comparing workforce demographics. FOX News viewers are more likely to be employed
and to be white- and blue-collar workers. MSNBC viewers are more likely to be retired and
professional workers. Differences between professional and blue-collar workers are the most
pronounced with 9% more professionals watching MSNBC and 10% more blue-collar workers
watching Fox News.
Ultimately, the most pronounced differences arose when analyzing political affiliation.
MSNBC captures 25% more of the liberal and 39% more of the democratic audience while Fox
News attracts 36% more of the republican and 33% more of the conservative viewership. There
is also a 10% difference in the moderate vote skewing positively towards MSNBC. Viewer
demographics explain who the U.S. news television media may consider when making agenda-
19

setting and framing decisions. Table 2 compares the 2019 viewer demographics at Fox News and
MSNBC. Data on age, race, education level, profession, and political affiliation are included.

Table 2
Comparison of Fox News and MSNBC Demographics in 2019

FOX NEWS MSNBC Difference

AGE

18-34 25% 25% 0
35-49 25% 25% 0
50-64 24% 24% 0
65+ 19% 19% 0
RACE
Black 10% 19% 9
White 74% 70% 4
Hispanic 9% 8% 1
EDUCATION
High school or less 35% 23% 12
20

Some college 35% 34% 1
College graduate 17% 28% 11
Post-graduate degree 12% 15% 3
PROFESSION
Total employed 64% 58% 6
Professional 18% 27% 9
White collar 21% 16% 5
Blue collar 24% 14% 10
Retired 27% 30% 3
POLITICAL AFFILIATION
Republican 53% 17% 36
Democratic 23% 62% 39
Independent 18% 17% 1
Conservative 55% 22% 33
Moderate 30% 40% 10
Liberal 12% 37% 25

Note: Compiled from “Who’s Watching? A Look At The Demographics Of Cable News
21

Channel Watchers,” by Public Opinion Strategies, 2019, (https://pos.org/whos-watching-a-look-
at-the-demographics-of-cable-news-channel-watchers/).

The first portion of this literature review corresponds to research question 1 on the
frequency, content, and framing of the news. The following section explores equity as a
backdrop to research question 2 on the degree to which equity is a focus of K-12 education news
coverage. This section explores equity in the United States from a historical and K-12 education
vantage point.
Equity in the U.S.
While Coe and Kuttner’s study spotlighted the decline in the education news coverage on
equity and diversity over time, inequity is ever-present in our environment, particularly in
education. Understanding the U.S. experience as it relates to diversity and equity brings merit to
exploration of equity in our schools and to the portrait of an environment enveloped in
discussions on fairness and justice (Rawls, 1985; 2001). In Rawls (1985) essay Justice as
Fairness, he describes two principles: a) “each person participating in a practice, or affected by it,
has an equal right to the most extensive liberty compatible with a like liberty for all” and b)
“inequalities are arbitrary unless it is reasonable to expect that they will work out for everyone’s
advantage, and provided the positions and offices to which they attach, or from which they may
be gained, are open to all” (Rawls, 1985, p. 578). This study sought to better understand the
degree to which the concepts of justice and fairness are covered in education news. To this end,
the following section explores our historical and current environment as it pertains to equity.
Diversity in the U.S.
22

The story about equity in the United States follows the story about racial demographics,
in society and in schools. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, 90% of newcomers were
European. Europeans comprise just 12% of the immigrant population today (Noguera, 2017).
Demographers predict that by the year 2043, the U.S. will become a minority-majority nation
where racial minorities become most of the populace (Noguera, 2017; Taylor, 2014). This trend
has already manifested in our U.S. public school system where minority children have outpaced
white children since 2014 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016; Noguera, 2017).
Disparities in income and wealth are also growing rapidly (Noguera, 2017). According to
Nobel Prize–winning economist Joseph Stiglitz, “the United States has become the most unequal
country among the advanced industrial countries ... and the life chances of an individual are more
dependent on the income and education of [their] parent than in all other industrialized countries
for which there is data” (Noguera, 2017, p. 1). The disparity that Stiglitz describes is also well-
documented in U.S. schools. Approximately 52% of all students come from low-income
homes—the highest percentage ever reported by the National Center for Education Statistics
(Noguera 2017; Southern Education Foundation, 2015). The gap in median household income
between Whites and African Americans is now the widest it has been since 1989; in 2020, the
median household net worth for Blacks was $11,000, as compared to $141,900 for non-Hispanic
Whites (Kochhar & Fry, 2014).
Equity in K-12 Education
Disparities in Achievement
Increased poverty and income disparity are having an impact on children and their quality
of education. Robert Putnam argues that “poor kids, through no fault of their own, are less
prepared by their families, their schools, and their communities to develop their God-given
23

talents as fully as rich kids” (Putnam, 2015, p. 260) These disparities are reflected clearly in
educational outcomes. The Nation’s Report Card publicizes student achievement results from
academic assessments taken in the 4
th
-, 8
th
-, and 12th-grade every two years across all 50 states.
In 2017, 35% of fourth grade students scored at or above proficient in reading. When compared
to 2015 performance, roughly two-thirds of all students demonstrated no improvement in their
reading ability. Alongside stagnating achievement, sub-group performance data reveals an
achievement gap between white and minority students that is even more arresting when students
live in poverty. In fact, when measuring children from high- and low-income families, the
achievement gap is 30%-40% larger now than in 1976 (Reardon, 2011). Students who are not
reading at grade level by the third grade are less likely to graduate high school and more likely to
be incarcerated (Annie E. Casey Foundation, Kids Count Report, 2010). Inequity has grown
alongside demographic shifts in our nation and the pursuit of equitable outcomes has come to
define the closure of an achievement gap defined by race and class.
Brown v. Board of Education defined racially segregated schools as “inherently unequal”
and created a foundation for an equitable education system (Jordan, 2010). Despite this landmark
legislation, U.S. schools are increasingly segregated by race and class (Jordan, 2010; Roscigno,
2000). Student achievement results, often the largest measure of school quality (Gamoran, 2007;
Lee, 2007; Lee & Wong, 2004; Smith & Garrison, 2005; Wolf, 2007; Wong & Rutledge, 2006;
Yeh, 2006), portray a persistent gap between students of color and white students and begin to
define the debate about educational equity (Gold, 2007).
Summary
This study explored the frequency, content, and framing of K-12 education news and the
degree to which equity is a focus of education news coverage. In the past decade, three studies
24

were conducted on the frequency and content of K-12 education news. While Coe and Kuttner
focused their work on network news coverage (ABC, CBS, NBC), their study provided a
foundation for measuring the frequency and content of K-12 education news. A suite of notable
findings emerges from Coe and Kuttners’ (2018) research on K-12 educational news coverage.
First, they found that K-12 news coverage was infrequent. Second, they found that school
violence (11%), school quality (10%), school funding (7%), race and ethnicity (7%), workforce
(7%), and standards (5%) dominate education news coverage. They also found that education
news coverage was shaped by events and federal policy agendas. Finally, they argue that
audience demographics, definitions of newsworthiness (Bennet, 2016), and coverage that is
infrequent and sporadic limit K-12 education news that is broadcast nationally on cable
television (Coe & Kuttner, 2018.
According to Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, the average American
consumes 70 minutes of daily news and prefers to access the news on television (Pew Research
Center, 2019). Research on new consumption indicates that most viewers watch the news to gain
information (Lee & Reeves, 2012). The U.S. news media function primarily to alert the public to
salient issues and to shape public opinion (Lee & Reeves, 2012). The news media’s role in
maintaining an informed and engaged citizenry is influenced by the agenda that emerges from
the news and how it is framed from audiences. Newsworthiness standards, while evolving over
time, are often anchored by conflict, tension, and bad news. The impact of the news depends on
who tunes in.
Clear demographic trends emerge when tracking audience profiles. Viewers that watch
FOX News and MSNBC represent equally across age bands and similarly across race. Moderate
25

differences emerge when comparing education-levels and workforce demographics. The most
pronounced differences arise when analyzing political affiliation.
The story about equity in the United States follows the story about racial demographics,
in society and in schools. In our U.S. public school system, minority children have outpaced
white children since 2014 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016; Noguera, 2017).
Disparities in income and wealth are also growing rapidly (Noguera, 2017). According to Nobel
Prize–winning economist Joseph Stiglitz, “the United States has become the most unequal
country among the advanced industrial countries. ... and the life chances of an individual are
more dependent on the income and education of [their] parent than in all other industrialized
countries for which there is data” (Noguera, 2017, p.1).
U.S. schools are also increasingly segregated by race and class (Jordan, 2010; Roscigno,
2000). Student achievement results, often the largest measure of school quality (Gamoran, 2007;
Lee, 2007; Lee & Wong, 2004; Smith & Garrison, 2005; Wolf, 2007; Wong & Rutledge, 2006;
Yeh, 2006), portray a persistent gap between students of color and white students and begin to
define the debate about educational equity (Gold, 2007).
26

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore national news coverage about K-12
education in the United States. Of particular interest was coverage that occurred on ABC, CBS,
CNN, Fox News, and NBC during the evening news block. Using content analysis methods, the
study examined abstracts of the evening news in pre- and post-Covid-19 pandemic
environments. An educational typology was utilized to organize and interpret trends and to focus
the study on equity-focused news. Data was collected through the Vanderbilt Television News
Archive, the only publicly accessible database of the evening news in the world. The following
chapter provides insight into the research design including the research questions, data collection
methods, and analysis process that guided this study. Researcher reflexives are included in
chapter three for greater insight into the background and biases that shaped the research design.
The chapter concludes with discussions on the reliability, validity, and ethical considerations for
this study.
Research Questions
1. What is the nature of K-12 education news broadcast on national networks during the
evening block from September 1 - October 31 in 2019 and 2020?
2. To what degree is equity a focus of the education news broadcast on national networks
during the evening block from September 1 - October 31 in 2019 and 2020?
Overview of Design
This study employed qualitative research methods to induce knowledge about K-12
education news coverage. In the qualitative tradition, this study views knowledge through a
constructivist worldview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) whereby meaning is formed through the
synergy of multiple interpretations and realities (Hinga, 2019). As opposed to the pursuit of
knowledge that is static and fixed, this study engaged in the authentic discovery of new
27

knowledge (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The use of content analysis and narrative inquiry
methods proved foundational to the research design (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and established
consistency with prior studies (Coe & Kuttner, 2018). Markedly, the reliance on document
review and the exclusion of human subjects made this study non-phenomenological in nature and
therefore does not examine the lived experiences of the viewers (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Instead, this study deduced the frequency, content, and framing of education news coverage and
used a research-based typology to define patterns in the news. While the typology, described in
detail later, was invaluable to the authenticity and accuracy of the study, the researcher’s
background and biases also shaped the course of study.
The Researcher
In their discussion on the characteristics of qualitative research, Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
posit the researcher as the “primary instrument for data collection” (Merriam, 2016, p.16).
The research process demands the researcher disentangle the tension between their background
and bias and the validity of the study by recognizing how identity influences both aim and
interpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through that lens, the following reflexives attempt to
illuminate the experiences that influenced the selection of this study, the qualification of the
importance of K-12 education news, and the methods applied to counterbalance the impact of
bias in this study. My professional background was influential in shaping the focus and purpose
of this study. Like John Dewey (1916) believe that education is at the heart of social change and
that high quality, public education is vital to American democracy.
After teaching for 3 years in a high school with a 3% graduation rate, I had the
opportunity to redesign the human resources division in the nation’s largest school system. The
polarity in those experiences cemented many of the convictions I hold today. The two most
28

important being that many schools are unable to guarantee a sound education for all students and
that we are fully empowered as educators to do something about it. The values of acting with
urgency on behalf of children and bringing unlimited belief in our ability to tackle the status quo
fueled the rest of my 21-year career in public education and my actions and values as a
practitioner and researcher. Unfortunately, today I continue to work within schools and school
systems where student outcomes underperform the potential and ambitions that students have.
Meeting droves of high school students reading at 1
st
-3
rd
grade reading levels are disheartening
beacons of persistent failure in the public education industry and as rationale for my interest in
education news. The logic that school quality in the U.S. is fundamentally important and that it
deserves attention in the news is a bias worth noting. This logic is paramount to the selection of
this problem of practice and the belief in the importance of the study and necessitated ongoing
metacognition in the data collection, analysis, and discussion components of the study. For
example, the desire to improve education and education news coverage could lead one to
perceive evidentiary value when there was none (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Confirmation bias
could influence the researcher to inadvertently interpret data in ways that confirm pre-existing
beliefs (Wason, 1960). The researcher could also gravitate towards themes that are positive,
negative, or minor to support desirable conclusions (Creswell, 2018).
Fortunately, aspects of the research design helped to mitigate the potential for bias. First,
the qualitative nature of the study was critical in maintaining an inductive inquiry stance
anchored in discovery. This contrasts with a quantitative study aimed at proving or disproving
hypotheses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Secondly, reflexive practices including daily journals
were utilized to inculcate “a state of being and set of actions” that disaggregated the reciprocal
influence between researcher and research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 64). Also, protocols
29

were developed to ensure data collection processes were consistent and reliable. Most
importantly, an educational typology was used to establish research-based a priori codes and to
limit the designation of en vivo codes to emergent patterns in the data, in contrast to what may be
deemed relevant anecdotally (Creswell, 2018). While it is impossible to separate the researcher
from the research design and the interpretation of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), these
measures expanded the researchers’ capacity to examine and reflect on biases and to safeguard
the reliability and validity of this study.
Data Sources
The Vanderbilt Television News Archive is the only archive of evening news in the
world. The archive has compiled abstracts and 30-minute recordings of ABC, CBS, and NBC’s
evening news since 1968 and 60-minutes of coverage on CNN since 1994 and Fox News since
2004. Table 2 details the networks, shows, and show duration for all news archived and included
within this study.

30

Table 3
Evening News Shows Recordings Included in Present Study (Vanderbilt News Archive, 2021)

Network Show Recording Dates Recording Range
ABC ABC World News Tonight August 5, 1968 - Present 6:29 pm-7:01 pm EST
CBS CBS Evening News August 5, 1968 - Present 6:29 pm-7:01 pm EST
NBC NBC Nightly News August 5, 1968 - Present 6:29 pm-7:01 pm EST
CNN Anderson Cooper 360 November 7, 2001- Present 7:59 pm-9:01 pm EST
Fox News Channel
(FNC)
Special Report with Various
Anchors
October 13, 2004 - Present 6:59 pm-8:01 pm EST

The researcher selected this database because of its dominance in prior studies of the
news (Coe & Kuttner, 2018) and because it is both free and publicly accessible. A searchable
database is accessible using search terms and date ranges and yields relevant abstracts, specials,
commercials, and introductions. Data can be sequenced by least or most recent content. Abstracts
can be selected and scanned for relevance. Abstracts include roughly 3-5 sentences of narrative
with occasional information about reporters and scenes. The network, reporter, date, title, day of
week, and duration are also included (Vanderbilt Television News Archive, 2021).
Instrumentation
31

In their 35-year study of K-12 education news, Coe and Kuttner (2018) developed a
typology of education topics to capture patterns in coverage (refer to Appendix A). The typology
classifies educational news content into two tiers: categories and subtopics. The four categories
of teaching and learning; the structure of schooling; climate, health, and safety; and equity and
diversity disaggregate into 30 subtopics. The typology represents distinct concepts and themes in
news, policy, and research and provides a mechanism for balanced reporting. As such, this
typology provided the structural and conceptual underpinnings for the instrumentation within
this study. The 2018 typology offered an a priori coding framework to define, track, and interpret
educational news content.
While the typology was created less than 5 years ago, it did not reflect the totality of
emergent themes in this study. As a result, all the categories were revised and expanded in
alignment with significant data patterns (refer to Appendix B). Content that was relocated from
one category to another is italicized and content that was added was bolded; nothing was
deleted. In the teaching and learning category (1), the definition was expanded to describe
content related to what, why, and how the curriculum is taught and assessed. Health and sex
education were redefined as teaching and learning subtopics rather than as diversity, equity, and
outcomes subtopics and were therefore moved from category 4 to category 1. Quality was
redefined as an issue of diversity, equity, and outcomes rather than as a theme related to teaching
and learning and was relocated from category 1 to category 4. In the structure of schooling
category, the subtopics of creativity and innovation, international education, and remote
learning were added based on patterns in the research. Climate, health, and safety (category 3)
was expanded to include stories about teachers and staff. Facilities was added to capture stories
about infrastructure and building quality; socioemotional was added to capture stories about
32

responses to the social, emotional, and wellness needs of students and staff; safety and security
was added to describe stories about physical, emotional, and psychological safety including
stories including the Covid-19 response; and, safe passage was added as subtopic to capture
stories about students traveling to and from school including incidents on buses and crosswalks.
The term ‘walkouts’ was added to the definition for unions based on its frequency in the
abstracts and ‘operational’ was added to capture stories about non-instructional workforce.
Finally, category 4 was renamed from equity and diversity to race, equity, diversity, and
inclusion in this study. Community was added to capture stories about efforts to address
inequities in schools including donations, acts of service, philanthropy from students, teachers,
and community members. Inequity was added as a subtopic to describe stories about gaps in
resources, opportunity, or outcomes including the achievement gap, segregated schools, and the
digital divide. The race and ethnicity subtopic were redefined to include stories about bias and
prejudice and anti-Semitism. Table 3 documents all the changes made to the original typology
(Coe & Kuttner, 2018).

33

Table 4
Compilation of Revisions and Additions to the Educational Typology (Coe, 2018)
Typology Category Revisions
(2021)
Additions
(2021)
Teaching and learning ● Health and sex education
subtopics were relocated from
category 4: diversity, equity,
and outcomes to category 1:
teaching and learning.

● Quality was moved from
category 1: teaching and
learning to category 4:
diversity, equity, and
outcomes.
● The category definition was
revised to include “what, why,
and how the curriculum is
taught and assessed in
schools.”
Structure of schooling ● Creativity and innovation,
international, and remote
learning subtopics were
added based on patterns in
the research.
● ‘Walkouts’ were added to the
union subtopic to capture
themes in the data.
● ‘Operational’ was added to
the workforce subtopic to
capture stories about non-
instructional roles.
Climate, health, and safety ● ‘Teachers’ were added to the
category definition
● Facilities, socioemotional
supports, safety and security,
and safe passage subtopics
were added
● ‘Drug abuse’, ‘vaping’ and
‘staff’ were added to the
definition for drugs
34

Racial equity, diversity, and
inclusion
● This category was renamed as
Diversity, Equity, and
Outcomes
● Health and sex education
subtopics were relocated from
category 4: diversity, equity,
and outcomes to category 1:
teaching and learning
● Quality was moved from
category 1: teaching and
learning to category 4:
diversity, equity, and
outcomes.
● Community, and equity
subtopics were added
● Anti-Semitism was added to
the definition of race and
ethnicity

Data Collection Procedures
To generate a broad sample of artifacts, the researcher queried the database using the 9
search terms including education, teacher*, student*, school*, school district, public school,
equity, poverty, and student achievement. To maximize the precision of the collection process,
the researcher manually culled abstracts to ensure that only content related to K-12 education
was included in the analysis process. Stories about higher education (post K-12), international
education (outside of comparative stories), and those that featured an educator as a human-
interest story were excluded. However, to maximize the data sample, this study included news
coverage with a duration of 18 seconds and above (refer to Appendix B).
A research database was formulated to capture abstracts by search term and
corresponding date, network, reporter, day of the week, location, and title. At the conclusion of
each day, the researcher composed reflexive journals to document evolving perceptions and
inquiry, procedures, methodological decision-points, personal introspection, and emergent
hypotheses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A data analysis protocol was also developed to detail the
8 major actions the researcher should take to gather and organize data necessary to answer the
research questions framing this study (refer to Appendix B).
35

Nine search terms drew 2,712 pieces of data including commercials, program
introductions, good night segments, specials, and evening news. The researcher found that 6% of
the total yield presented a storyline whereby K-12 public education was the main topic.
Coverage related to colleges and universities and to international (minus comparative stories)
and private education was excluded. The present study examines 4 months of coverage and given
this level of focus utilized 9 search terms to maximize the bounds of the search. At the time of
this study, the terms school* and public school* were most successful in capturing education
news coverage while equity, education, teacher, and students drew the least effective (refer to
Table 5).

36

Table 5
Total Yield and Selected Abstracts Per Search Term
Search Term 2019 Yield
(Number)
2020 Yield
(Number)
Total Yield
(Number)
Selected Abstracts
(Number per Term)
Education 20 40 60 0
Teacher* 20 40 60 21
Student* 60 66 126 28
School* 39 144 183 50
School District* 221 268 489 0
Public School* 285 348 633 67
Equity 54 0 54 0
Poverty 3 1 4 0
Student Achievement 61 68 129 0
Total Yield
1737 975 2712 169

Note: * Including the plural form

Search terms, dates, network, reporter, day of the week, location, title, and abstract were
included in a database. I then coded abstracts based on the a priori (Coe &Kuttner, 2018) an en
vivo coding structure and disaggregated by year and by theme.
Data Analysis
37

The study employed content analysis methods to organize, analyze, and interpret written
abstracts of education news (Hsieh, 2005). To define patterns in the evening news broadcast on
ABC, CBS, CNN, Fox News, and NBC, the researcher adopted the thematic coding structure
from Coe and Kuttners’ (2018) educational news typology and applied them as definitions for a
priori codes in this study. En vivo codes were identified and defined in response to emerging
themes that were not captured in the original typology. In some cases, the definitions for a priori
codes were expanded to better capture the evidence as an alternative to proposing an en vivo
code. Revisions made to definitions and to the coding structure are further discussed later in this
chapter. With an updated typology in place, a priori and en vivo codes were assigned to each
abstract. In line with traditional content analysis methods used in both quantitative and
qualitative studies, the coding structure provided a pathway for the “quantitative analysis of
qualitative data'' (Hsieh, 2005, p.3).
Validity and Reliability
Several research designs influenced the validity and reliability of the study. First, the
interpretive nature of the study mentioned earlier posed a threat to the internal validity. The
researcher used subjective judgment to assign meaning to abstracts and to assign codes in
alignment with the typology (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To mitigate this dynamic further, the
researcher engaged in several rounds of analysis to ensure that the coding assignments and
definitions were based in fact, not opinion and to account for the absence of member checking
(Creswell, 2018).
Most important to the process of safeguarding the internal validity of this study, was the
effort to ensure consistency in instrumentation (Creswell, 2018). The coding structure
established by the Coe and Kuttner 2018 typology and vetted by inter-coder agreements, offered
38

a level of validity to this study through the consistency and accountability of the typology
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The educational typology mitigated the risk of bias by providing
bounds by which to identify and interpret the news. The development and implementation of
research protocols mentioned earlier in this chapter safeguard the reliability of the study.
However, reliability is further strengthened using a single data source and data analysis process
and through a pre-established coding structure.
Ethics
Because the research plan does not include the use of human subjects and the data was
publicly available, prior approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) was not required
(Creswell, 2018). During data analysis, the researcher maintained the integrity of the data by
using transparent research databases, cross-checking coding assignments multiple times, and
employing reflexive practices to monitor and mitigate the impact of personal bias. The researcher
also triangulated data by manually calculating frequencies and comparing those to analytics
generated through Microsoft Excel. To prevent unethical analysis and reporting, the researcher
cross-checked data from this study with pre-existing research on education news coverage
documented in previous studies (Creswell, 2018). The researcher also attended to the
development of narrative and findings that are jargon-free and unequivocal (Creswell, 2018).
However, the most important ethical consideration is the commitment to present a holistic
picture of the data so that conclusions dovetail with emergent patterns and not with researcher
preferences. While this dovetails with measures of reliability and validity, they are worth stating
here. Finally, the results from this study will be disseminated to the dissertation committee and to
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education.

39

Chapter Four: Findings
Chapter four presents the analysis of the evening news when K-12 education was the
primary topic. After sifting through 2, 712 pieces of news-related data (i.e., commercials, news
segments, “good night” segments, specials, and abstracts of the evening news) from the
Vanderbilt Television News Archive, the researcher found 169 abstracts that fit within the
bounds of this study. Using content analysis methods, the researcher applied a priori codes from
a research-based educational typology (Coe & Kuttner, 2018) and en Vivo codes formulated
from patterns in the data. A revised typology with four categories (teaching and learning;
structure of schooling; climate, health, and safety; and racial equity, diversity, and inclusion)
and 39 subtopics emerged (refer to Appendix B). Pursuant to research question 1, the researcher
crafted 8 findings to describe the nature of the education news with regards to frequency of
coverage, topics covered, and framing of the issues. Next, an additional 6 findings illuminate the
degree to which racial equity, diversity, and inclusion were a focus of K-12 education news
coverage. Using descriptive statistics, the researcher captures and compares trends in the evening
news in pre-Covid-19 (August - October 2019) and Covid-19 (August - October 2020) contexts
in the United States public school system.
Research Question 1: What is the nature (frequency, content and agenda-setting, and
framing) of K-12 education news coverage on national networks during the evening
broadcast for U.S. audiences in pre-and post-Covid-19 environments?
Frequency Findings
Finding 1: K-12 education news was minimal in 2019 and 2020 coverage.
K-12 education evening news was limited at ABC, CBS, CNN, Fox News, and NBC. In
a 4-month interval between August and October 2019, networks broadcast a total of 67 stories
about public education. Sum coverage amounted to 107 minutes or 1 hour and 47 minutes of
40

airtime. The mean story duration was 1:39 minutes with the shortest story lasting for 20 seconds
and the longest story for 3:02 minutes (refer to Table 6). Four months of the evening news
equates to 322 hours of potential airtime. K-12 education consumed .005% of that time in 2019.
To put this in perspective, Donald Trump averaged 112 minutes of airtime per day (171 hours
over 4 months) in 2019 (al-Gharbi, 2020).
In 2020, coverage increased (refer to finding 5). There were 102 stories about K-12
education that comprised 270:25 minutes or 4.5 hours of coverage. The average story ran for
2:45 minutes with the shortest story at 18 seconds and the longest story at 12:50 minutes (refer to
Table 6). Using the same calculation of 3.5 hours per day of the evening news multiplied by 92
possible days of coverage (August through October 2020), K-12 education was covered .014%
of the time. While coverage nearly tripled in 2020, the rate of coverage falls below the threshold
for statistical significance.

41

Table 6
Comparison of 2019 and 2020 Education News Coverage

Calculation 2019 2020 Change
Sum (Minutes) 107:28 270:25

162.97

Sum (Hours) 1:47 4.5 +3:03
Mean 1:39 2:45 + 1:06
Median 1:35 2:20 + :85
Minimum :20 :18 - :2
Maximum 3:02 12:50 +9:48
Total Stories
(Number)
67 102 +35

Finding 2: The Covid-19 pandemic led to a spike in K-12 education news coverage in 2020.
First, there were small, yet noticeable spikes in K-12 education news coverage when
compared to 2019 (refer to Table 7). Networks reported more and longer stories about the
nation’s public schools. For example, the number of stories grew from 67 to 102 (+35). Most of
the measures for story duration also increased when compared to 2019. This includes the mean
number of minutes for each story (+1:06), the maximum story length (+9:48), and the sum
coverage (+162.97). However, the length of the shortest story fell by 2 seconds, making it the
only measure to exhibit a decrease. Because education news historically comprises 2.3% of all
news coverage, ultimately the 2-hour and 46-second increase and 152% increase in coverage
were notable (Coe & Kuttner, 2018).
42

Alongside the number and length of education news stories, themes in coverage also
changed in 2020 (refer to Table 6). When calculating both primary and secondary storylines,
safety and security was the most covered topic (n=53) followed by remote learning (n=33),
unions (n=13), politics (11), and community (n=10). While the gamut of stories reported covered
50% of topics within the typology, storylines responded entirely to the Covid-19 pandemic.
Stories were rich with concerns about school openings and closings, health precautions for
students and teachers in schools, pivots to virtual learning, teacher strikes and walkouts, political
guidance for school opening and criticism about the response, and efforts from the community-
at-large to address resource gaps. Some storylines gained more attention in 2020 than in the prior
year. For example, coverage of unions grew from 3 to 11 stories and stories about politics grew
from 0 to 11 in 2020. The complete shift from a focus on violence in 2019 to a focus on the
Covid-19 pandemic is notable. Prior studies describe news coverage as episodic. This dynamic
makes it difficult to ascertain longitudinal trends on issues like violence in schools. One might
wonder whether violence disappeared in schools since there were no stories about it or whether
those actions were shadowed by Covid-19 coverage in 2020.
Finding 3: The frequency of K-12 education news varies by network, reporter, and region.
While K-12 education news was minimal and unbalanced in the evening news, the
frequency of reporting varied by network, reporter, and state. When looking for patterns at the
network level, NBC covered the bulk of education news stories (n=105) followed by CBS
(n=54), ABC (n=41), and CNN (n=14). Fox News was the only network that did not cover K-12
education news. However, frequencies at the network level did not wholly translate to
frequencies at the anchor or reporter level. For example, David Muir from ABC reported the
most stories (n=30) followed by Kate Snow (n=19) Jose Balart Diaz (n=14), and Tom Llamas
43

(n=10) from NBC, Anderson Cooper from CNN (n=10), and Rehema Ellis from NBC (n=6).
Temporal patterns also emerged. Networks broadcast education news every evening of the week
except for on Fridays. Most education coverage occurred on Tuesdays (n=47) followed by
Sunday (n=33), and Wednesday (n=30). Finally, regional trends emerged at the state level. First,
most educational stories covered similar occurrences happening in multiple states. For example,
as discussed earlier in this chapter, the stories of gun violence traverse multiple states including
Florida, Oregon, and Washington. While the topic changes, multi-state reporting (n=62) made
up 37% of the total news examined in this study (n=169). However, there were also significant
single-state storylines. California (n=16), Florida (n=16), Georgia (n=11), New York (n=11),
and Texas (n=6) all emerged as leaders in the news space (refer to Table 7).
Table 7

Frequency of Coverage by Date, Network, Reporter, State, and Day of Week

Network Reporter State Day of
Week

NBC 105 David Muir (ABC) 30 Multi-state 62 Tuesday 47
CBS 54 Kate Snow (NBC) 19 California 16 Sunday 33
ABC 41 Jose Balart Diaz (NBC) 14 Florida 16 Wednesday 30
CNN 14 Anderson Cooper
(CNN)
10 Georgia 11 Monday 26
FOX 0 Tom Llamas (NBC) 10 New York 11 Thursday 26
Rehema Ellis (NBC) 6 Texas 6 Saturday 21
*Indicates 1 story each

Content and Agenda-setting Findings
Finding 4: K-12 education news coverage did not cover the range of typology content and
44

shifted over time.
When K-12 education was included in the news, coverage skewed towards climate,
health, and safety topics. For example, in 2019, 54% of coverage focused on climate, health, and
safety in schools followed by racial equity, diversity and inclusion (28%), the structure of
schooling (9%), and teaching and learning (5%). While coverage spans all four categories of the
typology, it skews heavily to issues pertaining to climate, health, and safety while barely
covering topics related to the structure of schooling or teaching and learning. Education news in
2020 presented similar patterns. Forty-seven percent of coverage focused on climate, health, and
safety followed by the structure of schooling (39%), racial equity, diversity, and inclusion
(13%), and teaching and learning (<1%). Ultimately, roughly half of the education news
coverage examined in this study fell in the category of climate, health, and safety. The remaining
three categories of content were covered, although with less and declining levels of frequency.
K-12 education news coverage did not include the full range of educational typology
content. Just 46% of the total subtopics (n=39) were covered in 2019. There was a slight decline
in 2020, whereby just 44% of educational subtopics were covered in the evening news (refer to
Table 6). While the overall typology categories were covered, stories about violence in schools
comprised one-third of the total coverage in 2019 (refer to finding 4). In 2020, stories about the
Covid-19 pandemic dominated 52% of the coverage. Coverage of other subtopics pales in
comparison.
Finally, coverage shifted over time. As noted above, coverage shifted dramatically from
2019 to 2020. Most of the 2019 news tracked gun violence, threats of gun violence, and response
to gun violence in public schools around the country. In 2020, the news tracked Covid-19
including school opening and closing, health risks in schools, faculty protests over decisions to
45

open or close etc. Sporadic coverage perhaps highlights the nature of the news i.e., new topics,
but it also highlights challenges in tracking the public-school experience over time. Ultimately,
for viewers turning in to watch the evening news, the portrait of K-12 public education was
uneven, incomplete, and sporadic.

Table 8
Comparison of Coverage in 2019 and 2020 in Order of Typology
Category 1: Teaching and learning (sum = 4)
Subtopic 2019 Stories
(number)
2019 Coverage
(percent)
2020 Stories
(number)
2020 Coverage
(percent)
Civic education
College and career
Pre-k
Elective and extracurricular 2 3 1 1
Health
Religion
Sex
Standards
Technology 1 1
Textbooks and curriculum
Category 2: Structures of schooling (sum = 64)
Creativity and innovation 1 1 2 2
Families 1 1 2 2
Funding 2 3 3
International 2 2
46

Homeschool
Hours
Politics 8 8
Private
Remote learning 1 1 22 22
School choice
Union 3 4 13 13
Workforce 1 1 3 3
Category 3: Climate, health, and safety (sum = 93)
Subtopic 2019 Stories
(number)
2019 Coverage
(percent)
2020 Stories
(number)
2020 Coverage
(percent)
Abuse
Discipline and rights 5 7

Drugs 1 1

Facilities` 1 1
Violence 20 30 1 1
Socioemotional 6 9 2 2
Safety and security 8 12 44 52
Safe passage 5 7
Category 4: Racial equity, diversity, and inclusion (sum = 35)
Community giving 5 7 9 9
Gender 1 1
Immigration
LGBTQIA+
Race and ethnicity 6 9 2 2
47

School quality
Socioeconomics 2 3 1 1
Special education 8 12 1 1

Finding 5: No stories about teaching and learning were covered in K-12 education news.
The teaching and learning category of the educational typology was the least reported
category of news in this study. In 2019, there were 3 stories related to the category of teaching
and learning including the subtopics of electives and extracurricular (n=2) including “the first
high school footgame after…[a] deadly Camp Fire” and “Archer Larry Brown teaching...in the
public schools of New York City” and technology (n=1) and “worry about kids spending too
much time on their phones”. Themes related to civic education, pre-k, health and sex education,
standards, and textbooks and curriculum were excluded from coverage (refer to Table 7). In
2020, there is just one teaching and learning story about “... 90 middle and high school
students...part of the All-City Orchestra Summer Academy, who are not going to let a pandemic
stop the music”. Stories about college and career, civic education, college and career, pre-k,
health and sex education, standards, and textbooks and curriculum were excluded from
coverage.
Instead, abstracts reveal that the structure of schooling and subtopics related to remote
learning (n=22) were leading themes in 2020 education news coverage. The move to virtual
learning as a service delivery option for schools during the Covid-19 pandemic dominated the
coverage. This is as opposed to discussing virtual learning from the perspective of teaching and
learning (i.e., what, why, and how the curriculum is taught and assessed in schools) or diversity,
48

equity, and outcomes (i.e., issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion or access,
opportunity, and outcomes in schools). Stories about unions (n=13) and teacher walkouts over
Covid related concerns and politics (n=11) and the political response from President Trump,
state governors and city mayors about school openings and closing (n=11) were also frequent
subtopics in the news (refer to Table 6).
Finding 6: Stories about violence dominated K-12 education news coverage in 2019.
In September and October 2019, violence was the leading topic in education news
coverage. Violence was covered 15 times and represented 22% of coverage and was a secondary
topic in another 5 stories. Noticeably, 93% of stories about violence and weapons in schools
involved gun violence and mass shootings in 2019. Second, stories about incidents and accidents
on buses or in crosswalks as students traveled to and from school were a lead topic in this study
and represented 7% of coverage in this study. Third, another emergent theme in the data and
absent from the education typology are stories about safety and security. These stories describe
measures to keep students physically, emotionally, or psychologically safe at school and
represented 12% of total coverage. Stories often described responses to violence including
measures to keep students safe in schools e.g., arming teachers or protecting students in schools.
Stories about violence, safety and security, and safe passage collectively account for 41% of total
education news coverage. In a pre-Covid-19 environment, violence was the single-most reported
issue in public schools in the United States. This pattern changes significantly with the onslaught
of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.
Framing Findings
Finding 7: Educator, student, and political voice was amplified in 2020 news coverage.
49

Stakeholder voice and commentary shifted in 2020. For example, there were 67 stories
about K-12 education news in September - October 2019. A total of 9 people were interviewed
including teachers (3), parents (2), and a superintendent, a retired teacher, a bus driver, and an
athletic coach. School-based practitioners, support personnel, and parents provided 100% of the
commentary in 2019; no students participated. However, stakeholder engagement changed
dramatically in 2020. First, the number of people included in education news more than
quadrupled. Commentary from 38 people was included across the stakeholder categories of k-12
practitioners, support staff, and board members (n=33); students and families (n=25); politicians
and advocates (n=25); medical doctors and academics (n=3); international educators (n=3), a
local “builder” (n=1); and media correspondent (n=1). The people who lead schools, teach in
classrooms, and attend schools provided the most input.
When disaggregating individual stakeholder contributions, students participated the most
(n=12) followed by teachers (n=11), parents (n=11), superintendents (n=10), and principals
(n=6). Politicians and medical doctors were also prominent in the abstracts including
commentary provided from governors (5), President Donald J. Trump (4), city mayors (3), and
Dr. Anthony Fauci (3). Ultimately, educational news coverage suggested that networks
maintained a balance of student, practitioner, and political voice to capture the lived experiences
of those who attended and worked in as well as those advocating a position on school opening
and closures. Ultimately, just 3% of stories included stakeholder voice and perspective in 2019.
The influx of K-12 education news sparked by the Covid-19 pandemic, school closures, remote
learning, and unions also generated a spike in overall engagement. In 2020, 85% of stories
included stakeholder voice and perspective in the evening news.

50

Table 9

Comparison of Stakeholder Engagement in 2019 and 2020 Education News Coverage

Stakeholder Group 2019

2020
K-12 Practitioners, Support Staff, And Board (33)
Teacher 4 11
Superintendent 1 10
Principal 0 6
Bus Driver 1 2
Athletic Coach 1 1
Custodian 1
School Nurse 1
School Trustee 1
Students And Families (25)
Student 12
Parent 2 11
Special Needs Parent 1
Other Family Member 1
Politicians And Advocates (25)
Governors 5
51

President Trump 4
Dr. Anthony Fauci 3
City Mayor 3
Center For Disease Control 2
Arne Duncan, Former Secretary of Education 1
American Academy of Pediatrics (Report) 1
Council of School Supervisors 1
Dr. Deborah Brix, White House Task Force 1
Health Commissioner 1
Parent Advocate 1
Representative Clyburn 1
United Educators President 1
Medical Doctors and Academics (3)
Medical Doctor 3
Massachusetts General Hospital, Rachelle Walensky 1
Colleges And Universities (3)
Harvard Chan School of Public Health 2
Stanford Graduate School of Education 1
Local Community (1)
52

Santa Fe Builder 1
International Educators (3, 1 Story)
Instructor 1
Principal 1
Teacher 1
Media (1)
Medical Correspondent 1

Finding 8: K-12 education stories were framed by bad news and conflict.

While newsworthiness standards have evolved over time (refer to Table 1), there are
mainstay concepts that have historically defined the news stories considered consequential,
momentous, and worth sharing. Weaver (2001, 2007) identified the dimensions of magnitude,
surprise, bad news, good news, follow up, power elite, entertainment, and conflict as effective
frames for delivering the news. Harcup (2017) presented a revised perspective with conflict as
the only news frame in contemporary news.
News trends captured earlier in this chapter indicate that network decisions continued to
parallel newsworthiness standards in journalism. Violence was the second-most-covered topic
between 1980-2014 (Coe, 2018) and the leading topic in 2019. In 2020, stories about the Covid-
19 pandemic including school opening, closing, and teacher strikes led coverage in 2020. This
news pattern followed suit with the newsworthiness frames of conflict, bad news, magnitude, the
power elite, and surprise.
53

Unsurprisingly, the stories that fell within the racial equity, diversity, and inclusion
category were often framed by newsworthiness standards of conflict and bad news. Stories used
terms that communicated consequences like “withdrawing”, “suspended”, “disqualified” and
“disciplined”. Stories also used charged words to describe incidents that were “racist”, “biased”,
or “problems”. Notably, several storylines presented mixed interactions between students and
school police. In some stories, police were linked with support for students as noted below. In
others, they were cited with the episodes of violence and bias mentioned earlier. Ultimately, the
abstracts in this study revealed data about networks and schools. Networks and reporters used
language that was negative and charged. In equal measure, the abstracts represent real-time
incidents in K-12 schools. In this context, a portrait of school communities grappling with issues
of race, class, gender, and power emerged.
However, education news coverage within this study was also framed as good news. For
example, stories pertaining to socio-emotional supports appeared in coverage including attempts
to address student trauma in schools. Stories about community and efforts to address gaps in
resources also materialized with students leading acts of kindness in their local communities. The
network agenda was the only newsworthiness standard unapparent in the abstracts.
Newsworthiness frames that are evident within this study not only illuminated how education
news was packaged for viewers. Ultimately, the skew in coverage towards bad news and conflict
aligns with findings in prior research and may signal how networks define the K-12 education
agenda.
Research Question 2: To what degree is racial equity, diversity, and inclusion a focus of the
education news broadcast on cable television in the United States in pre-and post-Covid-19
environments?
54

Racial Equity Findings
Finding 9: Equity-focused coverage was minimal and cursory in 2019 and 2020.
K-12 education news coverage rarely includes topics related to equity. In fact, equity-
focused stories (n=35) are the second least covered topics in this study, just behind teaching and
learning (n=4). There was no coverage of subtopics related to immigration, LGBTQIA+, or
school quality at the time of this study. There were single stories about gender in 2019 and
socioeconomics and special education in 2020. There were 9 less equity-focused stories in 2020
(n=13) than in 2019 (n=22). The content of the stories also shifted. In 2019, the most covered
equity issues were the subtopics of special education (n=8), race and ethnicity (n=6), and
community giving (n=5). In 2020, the most covered topic was community (n=9) making it the
most covered subtopic within the racial equity, diversity, and inclusion category overall (refer to
finding 11). In 2019, those represented news about efforts to respond to violence and mass
shootings and were led by students. In 2020, the stories focused on responding to Covid-19 and
included the efforts of students, teachers, and local community members. Analysis of the patterns
in education news coverage related to race and ethnicity (refer to finding 11) and special
education (refer to finding 13) are covered elsewhere in this chapter.
While these stories illuminated inequities based on race, class, and gender (refer to
finding 11), it was markedly different from the coverage of equity issues outside of the public-
school setting. For example, George Floyd was the most dominant storyline followed by
reporting on disproportionality in the impact of Covid-19 in communities of color and low-
income communities. Eleven major topics emerged as cross-cutting themes including 1)
misconduct or bullying at work 2) the death of George Floyd and police brutality 3) racial
55

inequalities experienced by the black community (i.e. food deserts, homeownership, lower
quality schooling, disproportionate impact from Covid-19, systemic racism in the criminal
justice system 4) generational poverty including eviction protection 5) racist symbols (i.e. the
confederate flag, politicians in blackface) 6) inequality experienced by the Hispanic community
(i.e. disproportionality in Covid-19 impact, police shootings) 7) black, female representation (i.e.
the lack of black female physicians, the first black female navy pilot) 8) solutions for obesity in
the black, female community (i.e. Black Girls Run) 9) inequities experienced by native American
communities during Covid-19 10) industrial pollution in minority neighborhoods and 11)
disinformation targeted black and Latino voters. These stories pinpoint inequities by naming
them directly and by using unequivocal language to describe historical and systemic challenges.
Finding 10: Equity storylines focused on the Black community and privileged White reporters.
Coverage also focused on the plights of the black community more than any other
demographic. Out of 31 total stories related to equity outside of schools, most stories examine
inequities in the black community (n=27) and provide very little coverage on issues in the
Hispanic (n=3) and Native American communities (n=1). No equity issues were covered in
Asian or white communities and focused most on race and ethnicity as opposed to
socioeconomics.
This study also zooms into the diversity of the team with regards to exposure to
education content, gender, and race. To start, 84 reporters delivered169 educational news stories
during the time of the study. As noted above, the bulk of that reporting happens through the top
6 reporters whose collective coverage accounted for 53% of the total stories examined in this
study. The remaining 76 reporters delivered 47% of the stories. Forty-nine percent of the
56

reporters covered multiple education stories; between 2 and 30. The other 51% of reporters
covered 1 educational story each. Ultimately, education stories are covered by reporters with a
range of exposure to the K-12 stories. That said, more than half of the education stories
presented in this study were delivered by reporters who infrequently covered education at this
time.
The top 20 reporters with regards to frequency of education reporting, all of whom
covered between 4 and 30 education stories, displayed varying levels of diversity. When
examining gender, numbers fell just shy of an even split - 55% were male and 43% were
women. However, there was much less racial diversity present in the top 20 reporters: 43% of
the top 14 reporters were white, 29% were Hispanic, and 14% were black. When examining the
intersectionality of race and gender, significant gaps in representation emerge. White men and
white women are the most heavily represented group comprising 60% of the top 20 education
reporters. The remaining groups account for 40% of the top 20 reporters combined. Hispanic
males account for 20% followed by black women (10%), black men (5%), and Hispanic women
(5%). There were no Asian men or women in the top 20 and just one Indian reporter delivered
education news out of the total 84 reporters who participated. In conclusion, people of color
appear to be underrepresented in education reporting with minimal presence from black women,
black men, Hispanic women, and Asian people overall. It should also be noted that the
demographic information was not self-reported by journalists and may not account for individual
preferences in ethnicity or gender.
Diversity Findings
Finding 11: News coverage does not provide a national perspective on K-12 education.
57

While 68% of states in the United States appear in K-12 education news coverage, nearly
one-third do not. The states absent from the news represent every major region of the country
(national geographic society, 2020). Parts of the western region of the U.S. - Colorado, Idaho,
Montana, Utah, and Wyoming - were not included in education news coverage. Parts of the
Midwest were not represented including North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Parts of the
Southeast were also not covered including Arkansas, Delaware, South Carolina, West Virginia,
and Washington D.C., the nation’s capital. The northeastern states of Maine, New Hampshire,
and Vermont were not included in the news. Ultimately, all the nation’s geographic regions
were present in the news, although not all states. Viewers that tune in to watch the evening news,
see coverage that presents only a partial view of K-12 education as it relates to national coverage
(refer to Figure 1).

58

Figure 1
Comparison of State Coverage In 2019 And 2020

Note: This data was compiled through the data collection and analysis process in this study
including the assessment of states included in education news in 2019 and 2020.

While not all states were included in education news coverage, it is not for lack of
school-aged children. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 50,634,000
million children attended public schools in 2019. In 2020, that number grew to 50, 654,200
million. The 15 states absent from education news coverage amount to just under 5 million
students in the aggregate. By region, between 2.14 million attended schools in the northeastern
states absent from the news followed by the southeast (1.78m), the Midwest (581,800), and the
northeast (441,000). Although student populations both decreased and increased in size in 2020,
59

the overall student population grew by 16, 508 students (NCES, 2020). The demographics of
students enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools absent from the news is notable.
The distribution of enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools in the U.S. skewed
heavily towards white students in 2018. In the Midwest, 64.3% of students identified as white
followed by the northeast (52.9%), the southeast (42%), and the west (40%). The population of
students of color is growing in all regions and several states represent minority-majority
populations now (NCES, 2018). However, the significant number of white students enrolled in
public schools signals an absence of education news coverage for all students irrespective of
their race.

Table 10
States and Students Absent from Education News Coverage in 2019 and 2020

State Enrollment (2019)
(Thousands)
Enrollment (2020)
(Thousands)
Upward
Downward Trend
Colorado 915,000 917,008
↑
Idaho 305,900 308,100
↑
Montana 151,500 152,400
↑
Utah 681,700 687,800
↓
Wyoming 93,400 93,200
↓
Western Student Enrollment
2,147,500 2,158,508 ↑
North Dakota 113,000 115,100
↑
South Dakota 140,500 142,000
↑
60

Nebraska 328,300 330,400
↑
Midwestern Student Enrollment
581,800 587,500 ↑
Maine 178,100 177,300
↓
New Hampshire 176,400 174,600
↓
Vermont 86,500 85,900
↓
Northeastern Student Enrollment
441,000 437,800 ↓
Arkansas 496,300 496,000
↓
Delaware 137,500 138,000
↑
District of Columbia 89,700 91,800
↑
South Carolina 783,800 787,900
↑
West Virginia 265,900 262,500 ↓
Southeastern Student Enrollment 1,773,200 1,776,200 ↑
Total student population
enrolled in schools in states
absent from education news 4,943,500 4,960,008
↑

Finding 12: K-12 education news included students from a diverse array of schools; often
segregated by race and class.
A total of 15 school districts and schools are mentioned in K-12 education news coverage
examined in this study. Those included represent a range of grade bands including elementary
(5), middle (1), K-8 (1), and high schools (2). They also represent small (1,646), mid-sized
(11,063), and large (483,284) school districts and schools with enrollment ranging from 266 to
3,124. Schools represent both urban (Atlanta, Dallas, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Portland),
suburban (Naples, Wayne, and Montgomery Counties), towns (Blount County, Radford City),
and rural locales (Bapchule). They also represent states from all regions including the west,
61

Midwest, southwest, southeast, and northeast. Schools and school districts represented in
education news display dimensions of difference as it relates to grade-level (K-12), enrollment
(small, mid-size, and large), geography (west, Midwest, southwest, southwest, northeast), and
locale types (urban, suburban, towns, and rural) (NCES, 2021). Ultimately, a relatively diverse
array of schools and districts are represented in the news, although elementary schools are
featured the most.
There is less diversity present when examining the structure of schools. While 10% of
students attend charter schools nationally (NACSA, 2021), just one story includes students who
attend a charter school. There is also just one story that interviews students from an exam school.
Students, teachers, parents, or administrators from magnet schools, home schools, learning pods,
or online schools are also not included in the news.
A diverse array of student populations enrolled in schools are presented in education
news coverage. For example, from the standpoint of socio economics, the percent of students
who qualify for free and reduced lunch ranges from 13% to 100%. Fifty-three percent of the
schools have student populations where less than half of students qualify for free and reduced
lunch and more than half of students qualify for free and reduced lunch at the other 47% of
schools included in this study. Notably, just one school presents a student population with an
even split of students who do and do not qualify for free and reduced lunch. From the standpoint
of school quality or performance, average reading scores range from 13% to 85% with the
majority performing in the 40th percentile. Average math scores range from 13% to 88% with
most schools performing in the 30th and 40th percentiles. Assessing racial diversity is more
nuanced. One-third of schools have a majority white student population and two-thirds have
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majority-minority populations. Most of the schools represent the experience of students of color.
When examining the degree of segregation present in schools, 80% students attend schools with
other ethnically similar students. Just 20% of schools represent racially diverse student
populations whereby demographics split virtually evenly between white students and students of
color. Just 1 story represents the experiences of native American students in tribally controlled
schools. In conclusion, schools represented in education news coverage display a range of
socioeconomic and racial composition. However, students often attend schools that are
segregated by both race and class (refer to Table 11).
Inclusion Findings
Finding 13: Stories spotlighted race-, class-, and gender-based discrimination in schools.
News stories about diversity, equity, and outcomes related themes of race and ethnicity,
inequity, socioeconomics, and gender. Race and ethnicity were the most reported storyline and
included narratives about racism and bias. For example, “the suspension of a Pennsylvania
middle school teacher after her racist rant”; “schools withdrawing resource officers due to claims
on racial bias” [abstract]; and “details given of how the students who gave the Nazi salute were
disciplined” [abstract] were reported. Inequity was the second most reported theme and included
storylines about the digital divide and achievement gaps. Sample storylines included “the
problems in virtual schooling among Native American students'‘, “[the] wide achievement gap
between African-American and white students'', and “the divide in education since school
desegregation as seen by the "Little Rock Nine'' 70 years later”. Stories about race and ethnicity
and inequity surfaced themes of racial prejudice, racial bias and gaps in access, resources, and
outcomes.
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Stories also emerged about socioeconomics, gender, and acts of exclusion. Several
networks reported stories about lunch money including “students get no lunch shift if their
family owes money” and students whose lunch was confiscated when “he didn’t have enough
money”. Another storyline reported the experience of a student who “proudly tended to his t-
shirt, but once at school, was teased”. A story about “a 17-year-old female swimmer disqualified
after winning big in Alaska, all because the referee said her bathing suit was too revealing” was
also reported. Stories about socioeconomics and gender illuminated students who have been
excluded by peers and adults based on gender and class.
Inclusion Findings
Finding 14: Stories about special education students prioritized inspiration over
accountability.
Stories about special education students are categorized as a topic related to racial equity,
diversity, and inclusion. As noted in finding 8, equity related issues were rarely covered in the
education news examined in this study. However, when special education students were included
in the news, they were often presented as inspirational, human-interest stories. Storylines
included coverage of “ student Ryan who is paralyzed from the waist down by spina bifida and
the teacher who went the extra mile to ensure he could join a hiking field trip”, and “wheelchair
bound young student Roman de Leon walking through a device made for him by the resource
officer to help him walk”, and “the story of two eight year old boys, one with autism, who set out
for their first day of school with no idea they'd be teaching the world a lesson about
compassion”, and “a high school star whose winning spirit has wowed millions as the freshmen
place kicker at Chicago's Proviso West High School who does it all despite being born without
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arms.” Networks frequently capture efforts to include, to provide accommodations, to reflect on
the compassion or persistence of educators. There are no stories about gifted students, or students
who are English language learners, or stories that represent the conversation surrounding special
education happening in schools i.e., individual education plans (IEPs), overidentification of
students of color in special education pipeline, response to intervention (RTI), or ensuring the
least restrictive environment (LRE). Stories about special education students present inspiring
stories and acts of kindness rather than their experiences learning in schools.
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Table 11
School Demographics Snapshot for Education News in 2020
School Grades City State Enrollme
nt
Free and
Reduced
Lunch
Reading
Proficien
cy
Math
Proficien
cy
White Minority
Parkrose
School
Pk-12 Portland Oregon 3,124 27% 46% 27% 59% 41%
North
Paulding High
School
9-12 Dallas Georgia 2,570 14% 55% 36% 65% 35%
Casa Blanca
Community
School
K-4 Bapchule Arizona 266 100% 14% 19% - 100%
Los Angeles
Unified School
District
K-12 Los
Angeles
California 483,234 72% 42% 32% 10% 90%
Fulton County
Schools
K-12 Atlanta Georgia 93, 500 47% 53% 51% 28% 62%
Radford City
Schools
Pk-12 Radford Virginia 1,646 33% 83%

88% 83% 17%
Nevada
Somerset
Academy
K-8 Las Vegas Nevada 957 19% 46% 33% 48% 52%
Arcola
Elementary
School
Pk-5 Montgom
ery
County
Maryland 748 61% 28% 26% 1% 99%
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David G
Burnet
Elementary
School
Pk-5 Dallas Texas 623 97% 56% 47% 1.4% 98.5
Alcoa City
Schools
Pk-12 Blount
County
Tennessee 2,134 31% 37% 41% 76% 24%
Northside
Independent
School District
Pk-12 San
Antonio
Texas 107,817 17% 49% 49% 29% 81%
Golden Gate
High School
9-12 Naples Florida 1,778 64% 40% 45% 10% 80%
Mike Davis
Elementary
School
Pk-5 Naples Florida 613 91% 44% 55% 6.7% 93%
New Bridges
Elementary
School
Pk-5 Brooklyn New York 422 83% 44% 36% 1% 99%
Wayne-
Westland
Community
School District
Pk-12 Wayne
County
Michigan 11,063 31% 21% 14% 52% 48%
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Finding 15: K-12 education news captured student-led efforts to support peers impacted by
violence (2019) and Covid-19 (2020).
In addition to inspirational stories about belonging and inclusion, some K-12 education
news referenced efforts to rectify inequitable policy and resources. Stories about race and
ethnicity, referenced earlier, included commentary on consequences applied for prejudiced,
racist, and biased actions in schools. Another story cited “scrutiny over a controversial policy”
that denies lunch to students whose parents owe money to the school district. Other stories
responded directly to the pandemic in 2020. One anchor noted, “one thing that's been laid bare
by the closing of schools is the gaping inequities still exist in public education”. Other stories
described “efforts to remove roadblocks to learning for students who do not have WIFI”.
However, many of the stories displayed student-led efforts to address inequities. One
story illuminated “the Austin Harvest Market, set up and run by high school students on
Chicago's West Side to address food deserts in Chicago”, “the high school student who gives
puppet shows to homeless children in Maryland”, and “two Texas high schools known
nationwide for their storied rivalry working together to help the victims of Saturday's shooting.”
Other efforts were led by community members including “Brittany Cleckley who collected
laptops to repair and give to students in Houston”, “Jess Berrellez who donated desks to
underprivileged kids who don't have a desk to study on”, and “Danielle Macchi doubling as a bus
driver and a tech guru using her bus to deliver Wi-Fi on wheels to thousands of students.”
Storylines related to diversity, equity, and outcomes often included stories about students and
community members tackling local equity concerns in their schools. While unions are not a
theme within the equity category, stories emerged about protests and walkouts staged by teachers
advocating for policies that maintained their health and safety during the pandemic. In concert,
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the stories reflected multi-level actions from school districts who examined policy and addressed
resource gaps, students who gave directly to peers in need, and community members who
solicited technology and furniture to help equip marginalized students.
Summary
The Vanderbilt Television News Archive has conserved 30-minutes of the evening news
on ABC, CBS, and NBC since 1968 and 60-minutes of coverage on CNN since 1995 and Fox
News since 2004 (Vanderbilt Television News Archive, 2021). The study examined abstracts of
the evening news from August 1 - October 31 in 2019 and 2020 to compare coverage about
schools in pre- and post-Covid-19 pandemic contexts. Ultimately, 169 abstracts were relevant to
K-12 education and fit without the bounds of this study. The findings discussed above address
two research questions. First, the nature of the news as it pertained to the frequency, content, and
agenda, and framing of education coverage. Second, the degree to which racial equity, diversity,
and inclusion was a focus of education news.
The coding and analysis process confirmed 15 themes in the evening news where K-12
education was a focus. The first set of findings address the nature of the news with regards to
frequency, content, and framing. The initial themes speak to the frequency of the news. First,
there was limited coverage of K-12 education in the evening news, and this was true for 2019
and 2020. In a four-month period, there were 322 potential hours of airtime. K-12 education
consumed .005% of that time in 2019 and .014% of the time in 2020. While coverage nearly
tripled in 2020, the rate of coverage remained meager. The next set of findings address the
content and the agenda of the news. When K-12 education was in the evening news, it often
covered topics disproportionately. Topics related to the structure of schooling; teaching and
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learning; and racial equity and diversity were covered infrequently or not at all. However, issues
related to climate, health, and safety were covered often. Education news was also
comprehensive with many aspects of education not included in coverage at all or covered
sporadically. Overall, the violence-dominated-news in 2019 became Covid-19-dominated-news
in 2020.Finally, the framing of the news changed in pre- and post-Covid contexts. In 2019, very
few stakeholders provided commentary in the news. However, in 2020, educator, student, and
political voices were amplified. K-12 education stories were also framed by bad news and
conflict.
The second research question examined the degree to which racial equity, diversity, and
inclusion were a focus of the education news broadcast on cable television in the United States in
pre-and post-Covid-19 environments. The racial equity findings illuminated the absence of
equity-focused coverage in general. This category of education news was the second-least
reported category behind teaching and learning. When equity was in the news, it was often
superficial when compared to the explicit equity coverage happening in non-education stories.
Equity storylines also focused on the black community and privileged white reporters. Issues
pertaining to the Hispanic community were covered infrequently and issues about the Asian
community were not covered at all.
Issues pertaining to diversity were also addressed in the findings. First, news coverage
does not provide a national perspective on K-12 education. One-third of states are not
represented in the news. K-12 education news included students from a diverse array of schools,
although just one charter school was covered in the news. Students often attended schools
segregated by race and class. Last, themes about inclusion were discussed. Many of the stories in
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this category spotlighted race-, class-, and gender-based discrimination in schools. When there
was good news about education, it was often about generating inclusion and efforts to tackle
inequity in schools. Stories about special education students prioritized inspiration (not
accountability) and captured student efforts to support peers impacted by violence in 2019 and
Covid-19 in 2020.

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Chapter Five: Implications and Recommendations
The study explores the nature of K-12 education news and the degree to which issues
related to racial equity, diversity, and inclusion were a focus of the evening news in pre-Covid-
19 (August - October 2019) and Covid-19 (August - October 2020) contexts. Chapter five begins
with a description of the parallels between the findings in this study and the literature review, the
conceptual framework, and the problem of practice. Next, I present implications for future
practice and research as well as considerations for the U.S. news media and educators. Chapter
five concludes with a description of the delimitations and limitations of the study and final
reflections on why the content of this study matters to the K-12 public education school system
in the United States.
Discussion of Findings
Does educational news coverage matter to viewers?
Between 2009 and 2018, multiple studies were conducted on the degree of K-12
educational coverage in the United States. They found that the national news focused on K-12
education between .07% and 2.3% of the time (West, 2009; Campanella, 2014; Coe & Kuttner,
2018). While studies vary in the quantity and type of media coverage assessed, they collectively
describe coverage as insufficient. While these results dovetail with findings presented in chapter
four of my study (refer to Finding 1) where coverage fell between .005% and .014%, this study
captures a snapshot in time. The focus on critical race theory in 2021 coverage would likely
change the data in some way. The 6-month period of analysis is more abbreviated than other
studies and may account for what is an apparent decline in coverage.
The degree of national education news coverage appears to be at odds with perceptions of
the most significant issues facing the United States. For example, in Pew Research Center’s
January 2018 State of the Union survey, 72% of U.S. citizens ranked education as the second
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most important public policy priority for the president and congress to address. In the April 2021
survey, concerns about the quality of public education dropped from 2nd to the 11th most
important issue facing the U.S. (Pew Research Center, 2018, 2021). Despite the dip in public
opinion on the importance of education, it remains a top issue in the U.S.
The value of the evening news increased during the Covid-19 pandemic – audiences
expanded to 30 million in 2020 (Fox News, 2020). However, it is unclear the degree to which
ABC, CBS, CNN, Fox News, and NBC viewers care about education or whether they even have
school-aged children who attend public schools, it is also unclear therefore the degree to which
an absence of education on national televised news matters. For those who value an increase in
K-12 education news coverage, there are outlets available to them including podcasts,
newspapers, social media, and online magazines and journals none of which have the scale of
viewership of cable television (Pew Research Center, 2020),
Most U.S. citizens access news through local news sources (Pew Research Center, 2020)
and as such the value of nationally televised news is not obvious. However, access to news and
information is becoming more difficult for many according to a recent report entitled “News
Deserts and Ghost Newspapers: Will Local News Survive?” by Peggy Abernathy at the Center
for Innovation and Sustainability in Local Media at the University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill (2020). The U.S. has lost one-fourth of its newspapers since 2004. The loss in daily and
weekly new coverage means that “over 200 counties do not have access to credible and
comprehensive information on critical issues” (Abernathy, 2020, p. 11,). Additionally, the
communities most impacted tend to be the most marginalized by poverty, to be older, and less
educated. The portrait of communities without accurate and reliable news are also food insecure
and without broadband access (Abernathy, 2020). Abernathy further asserts that these dynamics
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fuel “cultural, economic and political divides...between media-rich communities and news-
deprived regions” in the South, where the most impoverished states are located (Abernathy,
2020, p.19). Notably, the southeastern states without coverage (Alabama, Arkansas, and South
Carolina) were also ranked as states with the poorest educational outcomes with regards to
preschool enrollment, 8th grade outcomes in math and reading, graduation rates, and college
readiness (USA Today, 2020). The absence of educational news in states where populations are
marginalized and performing within a fraction of their potential paints an information crisis in
communities that may rely on news sources for accurate knowledge about the quality of their
schools.
Is an absence of educational news unethical?
Walter Williams crafted The Journalist’s Creed in 1914 at the Missouri School of
Journalism as Dean of the School. The creed states in part:
● I believe that the public journal is a public trust; that all connected with it are, to the
full measure of their responsibility, trustees for the public; that acceptance of a lesser
service than the public service is betrayal of this trust.
● I believe that suppression of the news, for any consideration other than the welfare of
society, is indefensible.
● I believe that advertising, news, and editorial columns should alike serve the best
interests of readers; that a single standard of helpful truth and cleanness should
prevail for all; that the supreme test of good journalism is the measure of its public
service.
● I believe that the journalism which succeeds best — and best deserves success —
fears God and honors Man; is stoutly independent, unmoved by pride of opinion or
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greed of power, constructive, tolerant but never careless, self-controlled, patient,
always respectful of its readers but always unafraid, is quickly indignant at injustice;
is unswayed by the appeal of privilege or the clamor of the mob; seeks to give every
man a chance and, as far as law and honest wage and recognition of human
brotherhood can make it so, an equal chance; is profoundly patriotic while sincerely
promoting international good will and cementing world-comradeship; is a journalism
of humanity, of and for today’s world.
Education stands as a common good to the public and through compulsory education laws 48.1
million children (one million less than for 10 years prior) attended public school in 2019 (NCES,
2020). Average reading scores declined in fourth grade for one-third of states and in eight-grade
for more than half of the states when comparing 2019 and 2017 achievement. Students who are
not reading at grade level by the third grade are less likely to graduate high school and are more
likely to be incarcerated (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2012). Given the link between literacy
and lifelong success, the decline in reading achievement and our overall literacy standing in the
world casts doubt on the vitality of our populous. The values of the U.S. news media are unclear
and not a focus of this study. It is therefore unclear whether the journalist’s creed holds merit or
whether national news networks are responsible for broadcasting news about the nation’s public
school system. Or whether the disconnect between public interest and national news coverage
qualifies as unethical. However, based on newsworthiness standards, it is certainly bad news.
Is the right content covered in the evening news?
While education news coverage is limited and often simplistic, over 200 stories were
included in the evening news during the timeline for this study. K-12 education news coverage
presents a largely simplistic view of public education. Coverage skews towards health and safety
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and excludes topics related to teaching and learning and racial equity, inclusion, or diversity
(refer to findings 9 and 11 in Chapter 4). Major issues were also excluded including coverage
about immigration. This is particularly conspicuous given the focus on Deferred Action for
Childhood Arrivals (DACA) established in 2012 through executive order by the Obama
administration and which the Trump administration rescinded in 2017 (Anti-Defamation League,
2021). According to the Center for American Progress, over 650,000 youth aged 11 and older
qualify for the program and 98,400 individuals’ DACA were set to expire by the end of 2019.
While 68% of the DREAMers had applied for renewal, 32% had not (Center for American
Progress, 2019). The risk of deportation reinserted DACA back into the public discourse;
however, this issue was not covered in education news analyzed within this study.
However, the lack of complexity and depth in the news is unique to news covered within
television media. In print news, DACA was covered extensively by education news outlets like
Chalkbeat, the 74 Million, and the Hechinger Report. Why then was DACA, which was
evidently newsworthy, not captured in K-12 education news during evening broadcasts?
While the education coverage in the evening news seems to miss opportunities to provide
comprehensive coverage on federal policy or to track equity-related issues, it is unclear whether
these storylines are considered newsworthy for the U.S. news media or their viewers.
Should education news include more equity-focused stories?
The lack of equity-focused reporting may not correlate with the degree to which
education journalists deem equity important to cover. The State of the Education Beat Report by
the Education Writers Association and EdWeek Research (2021) administered a survey of 419
education journalists and phone interviews with 24 respondents. With more than 20 topics to
choose from, 61% of education journalists identified equity, poverty, and inequality as one of the
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three most important education stories of the next two years (Education Writers Association,
2021). While journalists deem equity-focused education coverage essential, they say it is
currently “under-covered, poorly-covered, or covered too infrequently relative to its importance
and magnitude” (Education Writers Association, p. 2021). When exploring the lack of equity
coverage in education, respondents cited a mismatch between the identities and experiences of
education journalists and the districts and students they cover. For example, 63% of journalists
included in the study cited the fact that 82% of journalists are white and uncomfortable with the
demographics in the communities they cover as a major barrier to equity-focused coverage.
Socio-economic differences were also cited as a barrier to equity-focused coverage - only 18% of
journalists in the study were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch during their K-12
experience. Also, differences in education level surfaced as a barrier when 33% of the public is
college educated as opposed to an industry whereby nearly 100% have a bachelor's degree. Many
journalists also cited the education journalism’s affinity for prestigious college degrees as
another distancing factor between reporters and the education communities they cover. The
profile of the typical education journalist further illuminates rationale for the lack of diverse
coverage. In addition to being white, unlikely to have experienced poverty, and college educated,
they are also likely to be heterosexual, and to live in the South or a major urban center like New
York and Washington D.C. Their beat is likely to focus on state or local level and to cover both
K-12 and higher education (Education Writers Association, 2021). The lack of diversity, the
skew towards large, urban centers, and the lack of K-12 specialization in education journalism
mirror findings within the present study.
Additional barriers to equity-focused coverage map to the affinity for simplistic data
analysis (i.e., property taxes, disparities in graduation rates by ethnicity or location) versus a
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more systemic exploration into the structure and institutions within public education. Journalists
cite the need to hold systems accountable rather than solely leaders. The report also surfaces
daily news cycles and funding deficiencies as a barrier to complex reporting, particularly when
media outlets are not education specific. Gaps in perception also emerged as a barrier to equity
reporting including editors and audiences seeing persistence and individual effort as a remedy for
inequalities rather than systemic policies or practices (Education Writers Association, 2021).
Also, the gap in pay between reporters who focus on post-secondary topics versus those
who focus on K-12 issues is $11, 512 per year. The disparity in pay not only aligns to gender as
more than double the number of males than females cover higher education, but also to an
institutionalized preference for college-level reporting over (Education Writers Association,
2021). While the present study did not cover higher education, the amount of attention paid to
the college admissions scandal explains why it emerged as one of the most covered topics in
2019 (Washington Post, 2019).
While many of the barriers to equity-focused education coverage lie within the education
journalism industry, others lie within the education industry itself. According to the education
writer’s association, 61% of education journalists have been verbally or physically threatened or
harassed by their audiences and/or sources and more than one-third have had problems with
hostile or uncooperative education leaders (Education Writers Association, 2021). Another 39%
report trouble gaining access to campuses even in pre-pandemic contexts. Education journalists
described public education’s proclivity for press releases that celebrate success rather than deep
investigative work that highlights negative impacts on students (Education Writers Association,
2021). Educational institutions also rely on public relations personnel or firms that fail to
produce timely or accurate information. Almost one-third of journalists cite a lack of confidence
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in public relations stories. Only confidence in the U.S. The Department of Education and
education companies ranked lower (Education Writers Association, 2021). That said, a lack of
confidence does not stop education journalists from using content multiple times per month.
Journalists worry this fuels bias, inaccurate agenda-setting, repetitive storytelling, and a
proclivity to highlight institutions and leaders over student and family experiences (Education
Writers Association, 2021).
Is there an impact to negative news?
As noted in chapter four, education news analyzed within this study was often focused on
bad news and conflict (refer to finding 8). A working paper entitled “Why is All Covid News
Bad News” was developed by the National Bureau of Economic Research in response to the
analysis of Covid-19 related news beginning in January of 2020 (Sacerdote, 2020). The most
salient findings in the working paper reveal significant differences in narratives generated from
U.S. media outlets when compared to non-U.S. stories. In fact, 90% of school reopening articles
were negative including the most popular stories from the New York Times; 34% higher than
non-U.S. stories. Interestingly, they also found that “the affinity for negativity was unrelated to
the political leanings of the newspapers or network’s audience” (Sacerdote, 2020, p.1) and that
“stories about President Trump not wearing a mask were more common than stories about
prevention” (Sacerdote, 2020, p.1) even when positive narratives about the .14% student
transmission rate were available to support plans for school reopening. Sacerdote et al (2020)
further asserted a link between negative news coverage, health and attitudes, and preventative
measures including vaccination, mask wearing and social distancing. While negative news
stories are linked with increased mental health concerns, negative images may also play a role. A
study on the visual messaging of the first 100 days of coronavirus news stories (Head et al.,
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2020), illuminated visual themes of fear, hope, loneliness, and grief. These findings dovetail
with information shared within the literature review for this study that link news agendas and the
framing of stories with audience perceptions and behavior (refer to Chapter two).
Overwhelmingly negative news cycles not only influence the degree to which readers
take preventative measures, they also impact mental health. As an example, the Center for
Disease Control discouraged excessive news consumption in response to growing numbers of
depressed U.S. citizens, which tripled after the onset of Covid-19 (Sacerdote, 2020).
International studies conducted on the impact of Covid-19 in China, Bangladesh, Spain, and Italy
revealed higher rates of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and sleep disorders among adolescent
children who were quarantined or isolated during the pandemic (Wagner, 2020). While these
studies explore the impact of Covid-related solitude and not the impact of Covid-19 related
news, they confirm a rise in mental health issues in youth. With this data in mind, negative news
cycles become even more dangerous when considering increases in youth audiences during
evening news cycles.
A 2019 study by University of Southern California Professor and lead author Brendesha
Tynes entitled “Race-related Traumatic Events Online and Mental Health Among Adolescents of
Color” found a link between ongoing exposure to violent media online and mental health in
adolescents of color. Participants reported increased levels of depression and PTSD when
African American and Hispanic youth were exposed to videos of police brutality and immigrant
detainees. Interestingly, rates of mental health issues were more significant in Hispanic youth
than African American youth and in girls than boys. While prior studies illuminate the impact of
viewing violence when racial identities between victims and viewers are shared, Tynes et al
(2019) assert the impact of violence on viewers irrespective of race. However, researchers
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further assert heightened emotional and psychological impact when viewers are in close
geographic proximity to videos shared online and on television. Threats are gleaned from racial
similarity and from proximity that emphasize a lack of control or that reinforce low social
standing (Tynes, 2019). Excessive rumination about these events is particularly alarming given
that 45% of youth report continual online consumption (Pew Research Center, 2018).
Conflict has increasingly come to define the newsworthiness of stories covered by the
U.S. media (refer to chapter two). However, the way stories are framed have serious
consequences for citizens, particularly youth who are developing coping mechanisms and
forming identities. While the U.S. news media is not responsible for violent actions or the spread
of pandemics, they are responsible for spreading negative news. The data may further position
negative news stories about conflict and violence in schools as consequential for audience
perceptions about public education and the students who attend.
Is the absence of education news a missed opportunity?
Albert Bandura’s (1989) research on the power of media to influence behavior is a
landmark study often used to design nationally televised programming. For example, Miguel
Sabido, often considered the father of entertainment saw enrollment in adult literacy classes
increased in Mexico after one-year of the Ven Conmigo broadcasts (Smith, 2002), Bandura’s
social cognitive theory and the key concept that observational learning is possible when viewers
watch television consistently affirms the power of television to influence behavioral change.
The evening news audiences grew during the Covid-19 pandemic and expanded the U.S.
news media’s sphere of influence (Poynter Institute, 2020). According to Poynter’s April 16,
2021, report, “ABC’s World News Tonight was the most-watched show on television” with 12
million viewers followed by NBC Nightly News (11 million viewers) and CBS Evening News (8
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million viewers) (Poynter Institute, 2020, p.1). Cable news networks all reported major gains
including CNN (+169%), Fox News (+45%), and MSNBC (+24%). Thirty-one million viewers
tuned into “one of three national network evening news broadcasts” (Poynter Institute, 2020,
p.1). These gains sustained through July 2021 where “World News Tonight” and NBC’s
“Nightly News” with Holt both averaged more viewers than any single program in prime-time
television (Poynter Institute, 2020). And viewers are increasingly younger. According to Nielsen,
“there has been a 67% jump in viewers ages 25-54” (Poynter Institute, 2020, p.1). This data
illuminates the influence that the dissemination of facts related to K-12 education could have.
Failing to include education in the evening news agenda may be a missed opportunity, but
without education news included in the news agenda, the loss of influence may not resonate with
the U.S. news media.
Implications for Future Practice
My study found that K-12 education news represented .005% of evening news coverage
from August – October of 2019 and .014% in 2020. With sum coverage less than 1%, it would
be hard to claim education as part of the evening news agenda at all. On the other hand, .014% is
not nothing. Through that lens, 30 million people tuned into the evening news and those viewers
typically heard news about violence or Covid-19 and little about school quality, teaching and
learning, or the range of equity-focused challenges in schools. Education journalists
acknowledged progress in the number and quality of equity-focused education coverage from
their respective media outlets, but also ranked equity-focused issues as the most important to
cover moving forward. The television news media have an opportunity to spotlight public
education for large swaths of the public and to help keep them informed. Any upticks would be
significant given how little was covered. However, it may also be that the evening news is not
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the best vehicle to cover K-12 education and that alternate mediums are more effective. That
said, there are actions that the U.S. news media and educators can take to increase the quantity
and quality of education news coverage and to make it a meaningful part of the news agenda.
The following implications for practice provide a roadmap for how to amplify education news
nationally that is complex, inclusive, balanced, and consistent.
Implications for Educators
Continue monitoring the news for education coverage
Educators and all stakeholders interested in spotlighting issues in K-12 education can
pressure networks to increase coverage. Creating communication tools like public scorecards to
track and report on K-12 education coverage may be helpful in raising awareness on the value of
and dearth of coverage. Scorecards or dashboards may also help celebrate K-12 education
coverage when it occurs and hold networks accountable when it does not. Researchers who have
conducted studies on K-12 education news have begun to track the content and frequency of the
news and some have reported broadly on their findings i.e., West et al. (2009). However,
creating a mechanism to track education news consistently and for public consumption may
bring more and much needed attention and a structure to connect data to advocacy, goal setting,
motivation, and accountability measures. The implications of a public and transparent data
dashboard could be an increase in network awareness, issue salience, and ongoing education-
focused reporting.
Refresh chief communications officer and press secretary roles in school systems
School systems with communications officers or press secretaries should consider
reprising roles with the goals of creating comprehensive, balanced, and complex news for local
communities. The access that communications-focused positions have to internal stakeholders
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and to the issues that central office and school-based personnel value is potentially vast. Auditing
job descriptions to better understand how roles are currently utilized and revising roles to ensure
that news is generated consistently and intentionally. Ensuring internal and external stakeholders
can access news from schools could help dismantle barriers to collecting education news and
would begin to tackle the limited quantity of news available to the public. Making data visible is
not always comfortable, particularly in high stakes environments. However, importance of
tackling isolated and segregated school systems and of connecting communities to schools they
attend is monumental. Providing information to families and to local education writers has the
power to improve information access, trust-building between schools, communities, and media,
and, an opportunity for improved accountability and supervision for 48.1 million students in
public schools.
Empower students to author their own stories
Abstracts in this study show student voice increased in post-Covid-19 coverage from zero
to 12 quotes in a total of 169 stories. If education news coverage is minimal then student voice is
virtually non-existent. Students represent the largest stakeholder in the public school system and
are their opinions about school are overshadowed by an adult-focused industry. The implications
are that students and associated per pupil allotments remain central to the funding model, while
their opinions about the schools they attend are marginalized. Fortunately, there are
organizations (e.g., Californians for Justice) surveys (e.g., Insight, Youth Truth), and a range of
quantitative and qualitative school data (attendance, graduation rates, free and reduced lunch
numbers) available to begin to shape our understanding about student experience. However, first-
person accounts unfiltered by adults or subjective data analysis have the potential to alter the
narrative in unknown ways. One mechanism to increase student voice in K-12 education news is
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to reinvigorate school newspapers. Student newspapers are often cost-effective and helpful
in capturing student opinion, increasing information and data from students to the adults
that support them, and a vehicle to dramatically increase the number of students and
schools in local news cycles. While this effort may not generate nationally televised news
coverage, it may engage students in school-based activities that support critical thinking,
language development, a sense of empowerment, and amplified college and career
pathways.
Implications for the U.S. News Media
Promote and expand existing initiatives dedicated to K-12 education
In addition to monitoring K-12 education news and holding networks accountable for
coverage, it is also worth celebrating networks who maintain ongoing investments in education.
For example, Rehema Ellis of NBC news has been the Chief Education Correspondent since
2010 and a primary contributor to the Education Nation Initiative (NBC News, 2014). According
to NBC news, Education Nation:
...seeks to create a thoughtful, well-informed dialogue with policymakers, thought-
leaders, educators, parents, and the public, in pursuit of the shared goal of providing
every American with an opportunity to achieve the best education in the world. These
discussions cover the challenges, potential solutions and innovations spanning the
education landscape. By providing quality information to the public, NBC News hopes to
provide information to Americans so they can make decisions about how best to improve
our education system both in the near and long term, and to shine a spotlight on one of
the most urgent national issues of our time (NBC News, 2014, Paragraph 1).
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Since 2010, Education Nation has sponsored an annual tour to promote dialogue about education
in local communities and launched Learning Curve in 2014, an award-winning blog designed to
provide academic resources to parents (NBC News, 2014). While NBCs initiative appears to be
the most robust, there are other news groups with education-focused programming including
NPR and PBS, who have online sections and blogs geared towards education. Television
network efforts to support teaching and learning and to generate education news are worth
applauding and expanding beyond their online reach. One way to do this is to attend and
publicize existing initiatives, create new ones based on local needs and national trends, and to
sponsor townhalls and other structures to encourage dialogue, focus, and collective action.
Ensure k-12 coverage balances success and failures and promotes a complex view of public
education
Communications and monitoring tools may also be useful in helping to encourage
balanced coverage of K-12 education news. As discussed earlier in this chapter, education news
is often negative and focused on crisis. While news coverage aligns to contemporary standards of
newsworthiness, it also negatively impacts the mental health of viewers and students. Finding
ways to educate K-12 journalists about the framing of news and its impact on viewers is one
important step. Another important step is to source balanced news to networks and journalists
who are consuming and disseminating content daily. Education journalists presented issues
related to trust, access, and limited prior experience and knowledge about education as barriers to
covering public education (Education Writers Association, 2021). Education Nation presents a
model for trust-building across diverse stakeholder groups; for uplifting the narratives of
education professionals who can present the complexity of issues facing public education today;
and, for creating pathways for information sharing for parents and community members invested
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in the quality of public education. However, we need more opportunities for a diverse range of
stakeholders interested in public education to convene. Hosting opportunities to investigate
patterns across the nation and to share divergent opinions may help to generate complex news
that is research-based and reflective of our national education context.
Provide training to education journalists and create a dedicated education correspondent role
To create educator journalists equipped to cover the complexity of the public education
industry, news networks should offer industry-specific training. The Education Writer’s
Association reported (2021) that journalists often do not share the life experiences of the students
they cove. No matter their background, journalists should have the opportunity to learn about
school communities, key issues in public education, and levers for school improvement.
Reporters should continue reporting the facts while also being mindful of the issues that make
the most difference to school quality, teachers, and students. Employing education researchers
and industry experts to provide training may also be critical to ensuring training illuminates
evidence-based information. In addition to training, the U.S. news media should expand the
number of reporters dedicated to K-12 education news. Assigning education correspondents to
networks will help journalists develop knowledge over time and ideally a more nuanced
depiction of schools will emerge. An alternative is to create a pathway for industry experts to
join the newsroom in the same fashion as lawyers, doctors, and politicians all of whom have
dedicated roles as legal, medical, and political analysts in the evening news.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research related to education news could include investigating how primetime
news intersects or differs from daytime coverage. Future research should also explore the
growing audiences of social media and online news outlets including social media, such as
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Facebook and Twitter, and audio news distributed through podcasts. Determining how K-12
education is covered and the frequency of news across sources will help us understand how
coverage shifts depending on the source. That information may help expand the typology of
education topics generated by Coe and Kuttner (2018) and expanded within this study. Future
researchers should also maintain focus on local newspapers and local news in general. The loss
of information about current events, including education, is even more dire when considering the
communities without newspapers, broadband, and cable are often food insecure and
marginalized by poverty or age. Future research should maintain focus on news and information
access no matter the medium, but particularly in communities with limited access to resources.
Future research could also explore the intersection of politics and education news and the degree
to which viewers care about federal educational policy, mayoral elections where education is on
the ballot or in the political news commentary, and how viewers continue to evolve based on
expanding popularity of the evening news broadcast. This study did not include human subjects
and did not explore the impact of news on viewers. It would also be helpful to gauge the
relationship between education news content and its influence on audience beliefs and behaviors.
Lastly, research may also benefit from a deeper understanding of education journalists including
their background, prior knowledge, views about the school and student communities they report
about, and the degree to which they have received training about K-12 education and the
multitude of factors that contribute to educational outcomes.
Limitations and Delimitations
The timeframe of the study is a limitation of my study. Research did not include news
that occurred during the day and does not capture trends in current news cycles. Given the
tendency of news to shift episodically, it is likely that a study conducted one year later would
88

reveal different trends and patterns. There are also several delimitations to this study worth
noting. First, the bounds of this study pertain to the analysis of the evening news. Therefore, the
findings presented within are not applicable to daytime news coverage or news covered in print
or online. Secondly, the Vanderbilt Television News Archive compiles 30-60-minute snapshots
of the evening news coverage, not entire episodes. This means that the abstracts may or may not
capture the full story or all the education news captured that evening. Third, the analysis of
abstracts indicate that the study was built upon document review, as opposed to the perspective
of human subjects. The study therefore explores the content, frequency, and framing of the news
and not how viewers perceive the news itself. Fourth, the Vanderbilt Television News Archive
captures evening news content from all major stations other than MSNBC. Therefore, the
findings within are limited to ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN, and Fox News. Fifth, this study expanded
upon the education typology presented in Coe and Kuttners’ 2018 study. While those categories
seem to capture the broad themes within education, they may not be all encompassing. The study
and the typology are therefore limited by the content covered in the news. Finally, this study
captures coverage in a three-month period in 2019 and 2020, not year-round. It is unclear what
stories were covered outside of the August-October 2019 and 2020 period.
The limitations of this study are also important to capture. First, while several hundred
abstracts were analyzed as part of this study, they represent a relatively small sample size. That
sample size was driven by the word search features that generate abstracts based on search terms.
There were more search terms used to capture education news than in prior studies, but the
results are limited by the terms themselves. Another limitation in the study relates to the changes
that I made to the educational typology. Those changes represent content present in the news but
89

make it hard to compare the typology used in this study to prior studies because it is no longer
the same typology.
Finally, researcher bias is a limitation of this study. This study benefits the researcher
most in that it represents an area of self-interest motivated by the aims of constructivism and
critical transformation (Hinga, 2019). It also reflects a level of researcher bias in the belief that
news and television are instruments of change and influence (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
However, the study benefits from its inductive design and from an intention to discover the
emergence of grounded theory (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Bias was carefully monitored through
reflexive practices that capture researcher decision-making and reflections to institute a level of
metacognition about the research process.
Conclusion
Fifty-four percent of students who attended public schools identify as people of color,
although white students make up the single largest ethnic category at 22.2 million (NCES, 2021).
In 2019, 14.1% of those students received federally supported special education services and
10.2% were English language learners. Education news that covers the dimensions of difference
related to ethnicity, region, gender, socio-economic status, school structure, and performance
outcomes is news that has greater potential to be equitable in coverage and to be inclusive of
equity-focused issues. Education coverage that accounts for the stories of all students, has the
potential to illuminate the differences between focusing on disproportionality and on meeting the
needs of all students. Black students were covered the most frequently in this study which aligns
with the ever-important focus on exposing narratives for communities that have been
marginalized.
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The diversity of the student population is notable, as are the disparities between them. For
example, 24% of students attended high-poverty schools of which the majority were black and
Hispanic, while Asian and white students typically attended low-poverty schools (NCES, 2021).
The NCES Condition of Education report (2021) examined the impact of Covid-19 on students
and found that children’s access to internet at home during the Covid-19 pandemic, revealed that
the levels of internet access varied by socioeconomic status - children who live in homes that are
lower income have lower access to the internet.
Disparities are also visible when analyzing academic achievement. The Nation’s Report
Card publicizes student achievement results from academic assessments taken in the 4th-, 8th-,
and 12th-grade every two years across all 50 states. In 2017, 35% of fourth grade students scored
at or above proficient in reading. When compared to 2015 performance, roughly two-thirds of all
students demonstrated no improvement in their reading ability (The Nation’s Report Card, 2021).
Alongside stagnating achievement, sub-group performance data reveals an achievement gap
between white and minority students that is even more arresting when students live in poverty. In
fact, when measuring children from high- and low-income families, the achievement gap is 30%-
40% larger now than in 1976 (Reardon, 2011). Yet in the past 35 years, education was covered in
nationally televised news between .07% and 2.3% of the time (West, 2009; Campanella, 2014;
Coe, 2018). The degree of national education news coverage is at odds with perceptions of the
most significant issues facing the United States. According to Pew Research Center’s January
2018 State of the Union survey, 72% of U.S. citizens ranked education as the second most
important public policy priority for the president and congress to address. The latest report on
academic outcomes from the national assessment of education progress (NAEP) presents a
91

rationale for why education continues to be a top priority. Average reading scores declined in
fourth grade for one-third of states and in eight-grade for more than half of the states when
comparing 2019 and 2017 achievement. Students who are not reading at grade level by the third
grade are less likely to graduate high school and are more likely to be incarcerated (The Annie E.
Casey Foundation, 2012). Given the link between literacy and lifelong success, the decline in
reading achievement is particularly newsworthy and makes the absence of educational news and
academic outcomes even more striking.
More than 48 million children attend public schools in the United States in 2020. This
figure represents the decline of 1.1 million children across grades K-12 when compared to 2019
and when compared to every year prior through 2010 (NCES, 2021). Spotlighting our public
schools is not only critical to sustaining the public’s attention, but also to holding our school
system and our nation accountable. Where are students going and why are they leaving public
schools? Children are required to attend school. Asking questions about their experience and
using evidence to pose answers and solutions in the public domain is our collective
responsibility. Television media is a tool to help maintain focus on our most valuable resource
and the future of our nation – children.

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12

Appendix A: Updated Typology
Category 1: Teaching and learning. The ten topics in Category 1 (C1) focus on what, why,
and how the curriculum is taught and assessed in schools.
C1.1 Civic education Stories about civic education and engagement, including
character education, financial literacy, and the ways that
students support one another and connect with the “real world
C1.2 College and career Stories about the need for, or efforts to promote, college and
career readiness
C1.3 Pre-k Stories about schooling prior to Kindergarten
C1.4 Elective and
extracurricular
Stories about extracurricular activities and areas of study
outside the “core” subjects (e.g., sports, music, visual art),
including after school programming and arts integration into
core subjects
C1.5 Health Stories about health in schools or programs that promote
health, including physical education
C1.6 Religion Stories about religious issues in public schools (e.g., school
prayer, evolution, pledge of allegiance)
C1.7 Sex Stories about sex education
C1.8 Standards Stories about standards, testing, and accountability as
approaches to school reform
C1.9 Technology Stories about the use of educational technologies, whether old
(e.g., slide rules) or new (e.g., tablets, smartboards)
C1.10 Textbooks and
curriculum
Stories about textbooks and curriculum, including non-
religious debates about what should be included
Category 2: Structures of schooling. The twelve topics in Category 2 (C2) focus on how
schools are funded, staffed, structured, and run.

C2.1 Creativity and
innovation
Stories about attempts to create something new or to
improve the impact and efficiencies of services delivered
13

to students including (e.g., pods, classrooms in garages,
mobile labs etc.)
C2.2 Families Stories about the family’s role in education as well as efforts
to engage families in schools
C2.3 Funding Stories about school funding, including enrollment, budget
cuts, school closings, and efforts by schools to find additional
funding sources
C2.4 International Stories that compare education in the U.S. to education in
other countries including comparisons on structure and
strategy including pandemic response
C2.5 Homeschool Stories about homeschooling
C2.6 Hours Stories about the length of the school day and year, including
summer school
C2.7 Politics Stories about institutional politics, policy, and politicians
(e.g., the president, the Department of Education)
C2.8 Private Stories about private and parochial schools
C2.9 Remote learning Stories about virtual and remote learning environments
including online schools and cyberattacks
C2.10 School choice Stories about education reforms related to school choice and
privatization, including charter schools, vouchers, and magnet
schools
C2.11 Union Stories about educators’ unions and their efforts, including
strikes and walkouts
C2.12 Workforce Stories about the teacher, administrator, and operational
workforce (i.e., nurses, bus drivers), including qualifications,
training, and shortages
Category 3: Climate, health, and safety. The eight topics in Category 3 (C3) focus on the
social, emotional, physical, and spiritual needs of students and teachers.

14

C3.1 Abuse Stories about teacher abuse of students, sexual and otherwise.
C3.2 Discipline and
rights
Stories about school discipline (including bullying and
cheating) as well as student rights in school
C3.3 Drugs Stories about the influence and abuse of drugs, alcohol, or
tobacco (including vaping) among students and staff as well
as risk prevention efforts in schools
C3.4 Facilities Stories about school facilities including building quality
and infrastructure
C3.5 Violence Stories about violence and weapons in schools
C3.6 Socioemotional Stories about efforts to address the social, emotional, and
wellness needs of students and staff
C3.7 Safety and
security

Stories about physical, emotional, and psychological safety
including stories about Covid-19 response
C3.8 Safe passage Stories about students traveling to and from school
including incidents on buses and crosswalks
Category 4: Racial equity, diversity, and inclusion. The nine topics in Category 4 (C4) focus
on issues related to access, opportunity, or outcomes in schools and efforts to promote
diversity, equity, and inclusion in schools including supports for students with special needs
C4.1 Community Stories about efforts to address inequities in schools
including donations, acts of service, philanthropy from
students, teachers, and community members
C4.2 Gender Stories about traditional binary gender questions, such as
male/female learning differences
C4.3 Immigration Stories about immigration and immigrant status among
students
15

C4.4 Inequity Stories about gaps in resources, opportunity, or outcomes
including the achievement gap, segregated schools, and
the digital divide
C4.5 LGBTQIA+ Stories about LGBTQIA+ students, their experiences, and
efforts to support them in school
C4.6 Race and ethnicity Stories about bias or prejudice related to race and ethnicity,
including anti-Semitism
C4.7 School quality Stories about the overall quality of U.S. public schools and
their outcomes as well as stories about specific schools or
districts as examples of low- or high-quality education
C4.8 Socioeconomics Stories about socioeconomic disparities and the experiences
of students living in poverty
C4.9 Special needs Stories about special and “gifted” education
*Bold text indicates content that has been added and italicized text indicates a revision was made
to the typology based on the abstracts collected in this study.

16

Appendix B: Protocols
1. Access the Vanderbilt Television News Archive at Vanderbilt Television News Archive
2. Using the advanced search function, follow this retrieval process:
Search Terms Date Range in 2019 and 2020 Selection Criteria
Education

August 1- October 31

❏ Evening news
❏ K-12 focus
❏ U.S. focus
❏ Global comparisons
❏ 18+ seconds in duration
❏ Human interest
Teacher*
Student*
School*
School District*
Public School*
Equity
Poverty
Student Achievement
*Including the plural form
3. List the abstracts that satisfy the search parameters in order of retrieval in Excel
Spreadsheet K-12 News 2021 Research.
4. Calculate total abstracts for each query and enter totals.
17

5. Assign A Priori codes using the 2018 typology:
a. Teaching and learning (C1.1- C1.10)
b. Structures of schooling (C2.1- C2.12)
c. Climate, health, and safety (C3.1- C3.8)
d. Racial equity, diversity, and inclusion (C4.1- C4.9)
6. Track the following data for each abstract
a. date
b. network
c. location
d. duration
e. title
f. hyperlinks to each abstract
g. reporter
h. day of week
i. expert
7. Update the reflexive journal with impressions and insights about the process, researcher,
and data collection and analysis process.

18

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Asset Metadata

Creator Emmel, Jenai Ali (author)

Core Title The nature of K-12 education news in the United States

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 01/27/2022

Defense Date 11/10/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education news,News,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Lynch, Douglas (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email jemmel@usc.edu,jenaiemmel@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC110575647

Unique identifier UC110575647

Legacy Identifier etd-EmmelJenai-10358

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

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