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The paucity of women of color in senior leadership roles in higher education administration

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The paucity of women of color in senior leadership roles in higher education administration

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The Paucity of Women of Color in Senior Leadership Roles in Higher Education
Administration
by
Shalonda Faye Martin

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Shalonda Faye Martin 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Shalonda Faye Martin certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Darline Robles
Renee Smith-Maddox
Kim Ferrario, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
When diversity is lacking, organizations and employees suffer; research shows that diversity in
leadership promotes employee retention, enhanced ability to service constituents, employee
satisfaction, and improved performance for nonprofits (Buse et al., 2016; Kim & Mason, 2018).
Further, a dearth of diversity in senior leadership results in a higher likelihood that an
organization will experience more cultural incompetence, which subsequently results in
discrimination against minoritized staff and ultimately adversely impacts the well-being of
minoritized staff (Hall, 2011; Montas-Hunter, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2017; Shorter-Gooden, 2017).
Through a qualitative approach, this field study examines the paucity of women of color (WOC)
in senior leadership roles within higher education administration. Underpinning the study is
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Findings indicated that both aspects of the micro
and macrosystem have adverse impacts for WOC. As higher education institutions work to
ensure they are equitable workplaces, they can engage strategies to advance WOC into senior
leadership roles. The study recommendations include aspects of a comprehensive equity
initiative: structured mentorship programs, democratized professional development, and
succession planning leveraging an equity lens. Implementation of the recommendations can be
executed with the use of an adaptation of the design for equity in higher education model
(DEHE).

v
Dedication
To my grandparents: Peter, Agnes, Odessa, John, and Andrea. Thank you for your love and
encouragement. You were and are examples of the power of giving and how to be a creator of
love. The work of advancing equity is just that: giving and love. I hope that my efforts advance
equity and contribute to a more giving and loving world. I am honored to be your granddaughter
and hope that my work is an honor to you and your legacy.

vi
Acknowledgments
I am deeply grateful for the outpouring of encouragement from family and friends. This
was a task that I was both eager and apprehensive to undertake, and having a community of
champions was critical in achieving this feat. To my parents, thank you for your love and for
being my biggest supporters. To my siblings, thank you for providing support, moments of
laughter, and the joy and inspiration of my amazing nephews and niece!
To my friends, thank you for providing both support and moments of levity to help me
move through this experience. To my Pepperdine squad, you have been my best friends for
years; thank you for being my confidants, inspirations, and listening to my stories, rants, and
amazing jokes. To my Worldwide Sound and Theatre District family, you came into my life at a
time where I didn’t even realize how much I needed you. Thank you for providing breaks from
writing with movie and game nights, and for being incredibly supportive.
To Chandra and Rodger, you both stepped in and encouraged me in such a hugely
impactful way. You provided accountability, guidance, sanity checks, clarity, and friendship.
Thank you both for mentoring me and helping me cross the finish line.
To my dissertation committee, Dr. Ferrario, Dr. Smith-Maddox, and Dr. Robles, thank you
so much for your guidance and expertise. It was more than a treat to work with you. I learned so
much from you during this process.
Finally, to all of the women of color in higher education, especially those who participated
in this study, thank you for all that you do. Your persistence in the face of inequity inspires me,
and I am hopeful that we will experience meaningful change and find organizations that see our
value and honor it accordingly.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 2
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 3
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 4
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 5
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 6
Historical Context ............................................................................................................... 6
Employee Satisfaction ...................................................................................................... 16
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 26
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 30
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 30
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 30
Research Setting ................................................................................................................ 30
The Researcher .................................................................................................................. 31
Data Source: Interviews .................................................................................................... 31

viii
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 35
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 36
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 36
Findings ............................................................................................................................ 38
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 85
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion ......................................................................... 87
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 87
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 90
Integrated Recommendations ............................................................................................ 96
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 109
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 110
Connection to the Rossier Mission ................................................................................. 111
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 111
References ................................................................................................................................... 113
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 128

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Details 38
Table 2: Barriers for Minoritized Women Attaining a Senior Leadership Role Themes 52
Table 3: Power Structures and Self-Efficacy Themes 70
Table 4: Macrosystem Influence Theme: Sub-Categories 82
Table 5: Example of the Design for Equity in Higher Education Application for an Equity
Initiative 106

Appendix A: Interview Protocol 128

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Model 29
Figure 2: Equality Cost Determinants Model 65
Figure 3: Equality Attainment Debt Model 66
Figure 4: Adapted Design for Equity in Higher Education Model 97
1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
All of us in the academy and in the culture as a whole are called to renew our minds if we
are to transform educational institutions—and society—so that the way we live, teach,
and work can reflect our joy in cultural diversity, our passion for justice, and our love of
freedom.
—bell hooks, Teaching To Transgress
There is a notable paucity of racial diversity in senior leadership roles, and this study
seeks to explore this issue as it relates to women of color (WOC) in higher education
administration (Bradshaw & Fredette 2013; Buse et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2013). Literature in this
area shows that nonprofits exist in a world of expanding racial diversity, yet the leaders in the
nonprofit sector do not reflect that growth (Cook & Glass, 2013; Harris, 2014). Recent data
shows that only 18% of leadership positions are held by minorities, even though the U.S. Census
reflects that over 40% of people in the United States are minorities (Bradshaw & Fredette 2013;
Buse et al., 2016). A national survey of cultural and arts nonprofits revealed that only 3.8% of
the leadership positions were held by African-Americans, while 84% were Caucasian (Kim &
Mason, 2018). Additionally, a 12-year study of professors and leadership in higher education
revealed that Whites accounted for 85% to 95% of leadership roles, while minorities in
leadership ranged from 0% to 5% (Yu et al., 2013). Furthermore, multiple studies have shown
that this disparity in representation continues to be pervasive, as there is a common view in the
United States wherein White people are perceived as leaders more than minorities (Gündemir et
al., 2014; Roberts et al., 2020).
2

Context and Background of the Problem
This paper seeks to examine the problem across a range of higher education institutions.
Further, the study will narrow to specifically examine the experiences of women of color who
have not attained senior leadership roles in their institutions. Examining this problem across
multiple institutions aims to investigate barriers that may be specific to WOC across the industry.
Prior studies indicate that WOC experience more barriers than other groups due to their
intersectionality, and research does not completely investigate their unique discrimination
(Ngunjiri et al., 2017; Roberts et al., 2020).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to examine the paucity of WOC in senior leadership roles in
the higher education industry. This field study will seek to gain insight into the experiences of
WOC in higher education institutions and the perceptions of role gatekeepers within the industry.
In examining both the experiences of WOC and the perceptions of role gatekeepers, the study
seeks to identify barriers to advancement, potential solutions, and implications for future
research. The study will focus on the following research questions:
1. What are the barriers for minoritized women in attaining senior leadership roles within
higher education administration?
2. How do power structures influence the self-efficacy of minoritized women currently in
managerial roles as it relates to career advancement?
3. What is the organizational culture and how does it contribute to the paucity of
minoritized women in leadership roles?
3

Importance of the Study
When diversity is lacking, organizations and employees suffer; research shows that
diversity in leadership promotes employee retention, enhanced ability to service constituents,
employee satisfaction, and improved performance for nonprofits (Buse et al., 2016; Kim &
Mason, 2018). Existing literature also shows that exiguous racial diversity in leadership roles
impacts the self-efficacy and motivation of employees of color (Corneille et al., 2018; Montas-
Hunter, 2012; Sheaffer et al., 2018). Elevated employee engagement results in better
organizational performance and increases an organization’s ability to achieve organizational
capacity. Further, a dearth of diversity in senior leadership results in a higher likelihood that an
organization will experience more cultural incompetence, which subsequently results in
discrimination against minoritized staff and ultimately adversely impacts the well-being of
minoritized staff (Hall, 2011; Montas-Hunter, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2017; Shorter-Gooden, 2017). The
issues highlighted through the problem of practice are all deterrents of employee engagement. In
addition to organizations wanting to increase their outcomes in service of their constituents, there
is also an ethical imperative to ensure a positive and equitable climate for all employees (Pless &
Maak, 2011). If the problem is not addressed, nonprofits will experience attrition of WOC
leaders, reduced organizational performance, and a non-engaged workforce (Hall, 2011; Montas-
Hunter, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2017). The problems that result in not addressing this underlying issue
are costly and have adverse stakeholder impacts.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study will leverage Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. Bronfenbrenner’s theory
seeks to understand human development as it relates to the systems that impact the individual
(1981). Utilizing five different layers of systems, the theory explores how an individual exists in
4

an ecosystem and how that system impacts her development (Bronfenbrenner, 1981). The five
systems identified in the theory are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem. The microsystem refers to the immediate environment in which the individual
exists. The mesosystem refers to the individual’s connections. The exosystem examines the
indirect environment. The macrosystem explores social and cultural values. Finally, the
chronosystem refers to changes over time. This theory aligns with my study as I will focus on the
impacts from the micro and macrosystem and how they impact employees’ self-efficacy, ability,
and likelihood to advance into senior leadership roles.
This study will utilize a qualitative approach to derive rich data from interview
participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This method aligns with my study as it will provide
the opportunity to explore the impact of the problem, as well as the opportunity to further
identify the extent of the problem within the high education sector. This method is also ideal for
the study because it adds to the base of data that contributes to highlighting the issue identified
while also exploring the perceptions of affected parties. The study will provide credibility as it
will engage in member-checking to validate that participants' responses were accurately captured
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Definition of Terms
The following terms will be utilized throughout the dissertation, and the provided
definitions provide clarity to how they are used in this paper:
BIPOC refers to Black, Indigenous, People of Color—An acronym utilized to identify
minoritized individuals in the context of the United States (McDaniels, 2019).
Intersectionality refers to the unique discrimination experienced by individuals who share
identities in more than one marginalized group (Crenshaw, 1989).
5

Minoritized or Racially Minoritized denotes those individuals whose racial identity is
underrepresented in numbers and social capital (Spafford et al., 2006).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized in a five-chapter format. The remaining chapters will cover
the literature review, methodology, findings, and recommendations. In Chapter Two, the
literature review will examine existing empirical studies that provide further exposition on the
problem of practice. Chapter Two will also introduce the conceptual framework that the study is
viewed under. Chapter Three will provide detail on the methodology included in the study. The
methodology will state the research questions being addressed, research design, research setting,
positionality and epistemology of the researcher, data sources, participant pool and process, data
collection procedures, instrumentation utilized, ethics, and limitations and delimitations.

6

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review examines the historical context of the problem, the importance of
diverse racial representation, the impacts of a lack of diversity, and some known barriers to
diverse leadership in the nonprofit sector. The barriers revealed by the literature are historical
determinants, educational inequity, a pro-White leadership bias, network exclusion and visibility,
and a lack of mentorship programs for minorities. The literature presented provides
substantiation to the problem identified, illustrates the need for further research, and identifies
the impacts on the employee and organization.
Historical Context
Slavery and Labor Force
The United States holds a history of discrimination, oppression, and segregation at its
roots (Bonilla, 2015; Morabia, 2019; Tomaskovic-Devey et al., 2016). The history of the United
States helps to frame some of the issues surrounding the lack of diversity in leadership roles. At
its inception, the labor force in America was largely that of a slave owner and slave, initiating a
dynamic of inequality that would prove to have a lasting systemic impact (Morabia, 2019;
Tomaskovic-Devey et al., 2016). The beginnings of the American workforce were also steeped
in the ideals of White supremacy: a group of mostly European immigrants hoping to build a
better democracy while holding the belief that people of color and women were inferior (Bonilla,
2015; Tomaskovic-Devey et al., 2016). This ideology produced systems, policies, and laws that
further promoted White supremacy and entrenched it into American society (Bonilla, 2015;
Richmond, 2018). An example of how White supremacy presented itself systemically is the
concept of voluntary re-enslavement (Richmond, 2018). In the state of Virginia, a freed slave
was required to leave the state within a year’s time and receive the support of a White person
7

vouching for their character and need to stay in the area, or they could choose re-enslavement
(Richmond, 2018). The options presented made a clear distinction of which race was deemed
superior; the law also acted as a means to further oppress the former slave (Richmond, 2018).
Hundreds of years passed before changes at the federal level were implemented that began to
challenge the ideology of White supremacy (Bonilla, 2015; Morabia, 2019; Tomaskovic-Devey
et al., 2016).
Legislation and Labor Force
In 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation was signed, which dictated that slaves be freed
(United States Senate, 2020). It wasn’t until the end of the Civil War in 1865, when the 13
th

Amendment was passed and ratified by the states, that slaves were freed, marking the beginning
of a journey towards racial equity (Morabia, 2019; United States Senate, 2020). Discrimination
persisted in the United States, even after this initial legislation (Bonilla, 2015; Morabia, 2019;
Tomaskovic-Devey et al., 2016). Further laws were passed that afforded more rights to African-
Americans and also women, another group that experienced oppression in the United States.
Legislation concerning civil rights, equal pay, and voting are among some of the most notable
and impactful changes made in the 20th century (US News & World Report, 2017; United States
Senate, 2020). However, these laws did not result in equality for marginalized groups, and
discrimination in the workforce still persisted (Bonilla, 2015).
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action is a set of policies aimed at providing equity of opportunity in
employment and education for marginalized communities. Affirmative action began in the 1960s
as a part of the civil rights movement; it was born from the ‘Operation Breadbasket’ initiative
that was led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Oppenheimer, 2016). Operation Breadbasket sought
8

for proportional employment of African-Americans by White companies; this was achieved
through boycotting companies that would not hire Black employees (Oppenheimer, 2016). The
desire for occupational desegregation continued into the civil rights bill, resulting in a
compromise that privately-owned companies could voluntarily utilize affirmative action, while
federal contractors were required to utilize affirmative action to improve organizational diversity
and decrease discrimination and inequality in hiring practices (Kravitz, 2008; Oppenheimer,
2016). In addition to affirmative action, employment discrimination was made illegal through
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Kravitz, 2008; Oppenheimer, 2016). These measures
increased the likelihood of the hiring of African-Americans and women but did not provide
absolute assurance as to what their workplace experience would be, how far they may advance
within an organization, or the continuity of policy impact (Kurtulus, 2016; Oppenheimer, 2016).
Through about 1980, there was a noted rise in the employment of both African-
Americans and women, as well as the quality of jobs obtained by these groups (Kurtulus, 2016;
Oppenheimer, 2016). The impact of affirmative action and the equal employment opportunity
legislation produced quantifiable results initially, but over time, the increase in employment
decreased and policy effectiveness was questioned. Some attribute the stagnation to the Reagan
Administration’s defunding of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
(Button, 2003; Oppenheimer, 2016). As industries grew, organizations relocated, neighborhood
demographics changed, and companies engaged in large-scale restructuring as some areas saw an
increase in the employment of African-Americans and women; with so many mediating
variables, researchers questioned if the growth could truly be attributed to affirmative action
(Button, 2003; Kurtulus, 2016; Oppenheimer, 2016). Eventually, companies began to move away
from formal affirmative action programs (Kelly, 1998; Kurtulus, 2016; Oppenheimer, 2016).
9

Diversity Management
As affirmative action programs were politically controversial, especially with the
defunding and denial of enforcement that came from the Reagan administration, organizations
began to shift from affirmative action programs to diversity management (Kelly, 1998; Kurtulus,
2016; Oppenheimer, 2016). Some saw diversity management as a reimagining or repackaging of
affirmative action; it maintained many of the equal opportunity and affirmative action practices
but under a new name (Kelly, 1998; Oppenheimer, 2016). Organizations focused on a broader
strategy that viewed diversity as an organizational benefit; this resulted in the function shifting
more towards human resources, expanding the definition of diversity in the process (Kelly, 1998;
Oppenheimer, 2016). Diversity management programs had less of a focus on ensuring that
organizations met hiring quotas and more of a focus on the diversity of the organization,
considering a variety of differences beyond protected classes (Kelly, 1998; Oppenheimer, 2016).
This shift proved to adversely impact African-Americans and women, as there was decreased
accountability for hiring them under the newly adopted diversity management programs (Kelly,
1998; Oppenheimer, 2016). While affirmative action programs did not drastically impact the
representation of minorities in leadership roles, the shift to diversity management further diluted
opportunities and attention to the issue (Kelly, 1998; Oppenheimer, 2016).
Discrimination and Racism
Education
Education is often thought to be the great equalizer, the tool that will help
disenfranchised groups achieve parity (Torche, 2011). Most senior leaders have some level of
higher education, touting education as a factor that increases the likelihood of attaining a senior
leadership role (U.S. News & World Report, 2020). Further, 86% of leadership roles require
10

some level of post-secondary education, about half of which are stated to be a need for a
bachelor’s degree (Carnevale et al., 2018). While education does report significant impacts on
opportunity and wealth, it has not proven to be an equalizer of opportunity, as there are inequities
within the education system (Rossinger et al., 2021; Torche, 2011). Minorities experience
inequities and discrimination in terms of access to higher education and opportunities within the
higher education context (Rossinger et al., 2021).
Higher education institutions utilize ambiguous admission standards. Some of the
standards utilized by higher education institutions take standardized test scores, academics,
extracurricular activities, characteristics, traits, talents, and background into consideration
(Rossinger et al., 2021). While some measures are instituted to help produce more diverse
student bodies, researchers found that the typical admission process still resulted in an inequity
of opportunity for minority students (Rossinger et al., 2021). A study of 398 not-for-profit
competitive American colleges revealed that when institutions base admission criteria on
ambiguous factors like interviews, essays, and recommendations, there were significantly fewer
marginalized students admitted (Rossinger et al., 2021). This initial issue of access acts as a
barrier to upward mobility for minorities who aspire to attain senior leadership roles (Rossinger
et al., 2021; Torche, 2011). Some institutions place more emphasis on factors that they consider
to be less ambiguous, but that are also biased.
Higher education institutions often promote the concept of meritocracy, the idea of
leaning on the merits of one’s effort as a determinant for entrance and success. Further,
American society promotes and defends the belief of meritocracy (Ledgerwoord et al., 2011). A
study found that, even when presented with the knowledge that success in a given task was based
on luck, participants exerted more effort and still believed that their merits were a factor towards
11

success (Ledgerwood et al., 2011). This ingrained belief of meritocracy serves to further
maintain the status quo and does not account for the discrimination that minorities face nor the
fact that our systems are not meritocratic by design (Ledgerwood et al, 2011).
The system of depending on standardized test scores such as the ACT and SAT are
proven to be biased against minorities, and these scores are also not a valid predictor of college
success (Toldson & McGee, 2014). A study of over 100,000 students found that high school
GPA was a better predictor of college success than standardized test scores (Toldson & McGee,
2014). Additionally, studies found that there is a disparity in access to test preparation, which
results in White students gaining higher scores (Gayles, 2009). Most recently, the idea of
meritocracy in college admissions was proven to be flawed when a wide-scale college admission
scandal, Varsity Blues, found that wealthy applicants paid for test scores to increase their
likelihood of admittance into elite universities (Gaski, 2019). The bias in this system of
admittance further impacts the long-term prospects of minoritized students, as they do not have
equitable access to higher education due to the myth of meritocracy (Gayles, 2009; Toldson &
McGee, 2014).
Further complicating the journey to achieving a senior leadership role is the
discrimination minority students experience in attaining internships. Internships are shown to
have a positive effect on attaining employment (Silva, 2016; Nunley et al., 2016). A quantitative
study of resumes revealed that candidates with relevant internships had a 14% higher instance of
employment (Nunley et al., 2016). Internships are also highly valued at nonprofit organizations,
as they have limited resources and depend on unpaid internship labor to achieve organizational
goals (Pryjmak, 2017). Internships provide students with an opportunity to apply learning in the
workplace, gain leadership capacity, build their resumes, demonstrate competency in the given
12

role, and gain an edge in the job market, which is why equitable access to internships is valuable
(Nunley et al., 2016; Pryjmak, 2017; Silva, 2016).
Internships present inequity as they are often unpaid, placing students in the position of
deciding if they are able to work without payment or if the experience outweighs the need to earn
money; this decision is one that minority students face more than their White peers (Boulton,
2015). Frequently, White students attaining internships have less limiting financial constraints
than their minority peers, making internships naturally more accessible to them (Boulton, 2015).
In addition to the socioeconomic inequities of internships, several internship programs have
“must-hire” programs (Boulton, 2015). Must-hire programs are unofficial instances where an
incoming intern has a relationship with someone senior at the organization and the intern is then
able to forgo the interview process and is given the internship, keeping other applicants from
having an opportunity (Boulton, 2015). A study across multiple organizations found that must-
hire programs disproportionately adversely impact applicants of color; most organizations had
only White students or mostly White students in their must-hire groupings (Boulton, 2015).
Whether intentional or not, these programs disadvantage minorities from attaining the experience
and leverage in the job market which internships provide (Boulton, 2015).
Workplace
In addition to the discrimination that minorities experience in their educational journey,
they also continue to experience discrimination in the workplace. Workplace discrimination
persisted even with the landmark legislation against it, further impacting the number of
minorities in leadership roles (Dovidio, 2016). Researchers found that discrimination began to
present itself in less overt ways as time progressed and evolved into aversive racism (Dovidio,
2016). In a 10-year study of racial prejudice in hiring, researchers discovered that there was a
13

bias against Black candidates and a preference towards White candidates (Dovidio, 2016).
Another study examining resume screening and race found that minorities experienced more
opportunity when they removed racial cues from their resumes, a process called resume
whitening (Kang, 2016). The study found that even organizations that purport to support
diversity displayed discrimination when presented with an unwhitened resume (Kang, 2016).
These acts of racism during the screening and hiring processes limit access for minority
candidates, resulting in smaller numbers of minoritized staff members in organizations (Dovidio,
2016; Kang, 2016).
Another less overt form of discrimination in the workplace is workplace incivility, which
is deviant or rude behavior that displays ambiguous intent to harm the other (Cortina, 2013). A
study across industries found race and gender to be a mediating variable for workplace incivility;
more specifically, that being a Black woman was a predictor that one would experience higher
levels of workplace incivility (Cortina, 2013). The study also noted that such experiences are
predictors of employee turnover (Cortina, 2013). When workplace incivility persists against
minoritized staff, it decreases the amount of minoritized staff, as they are likely to leave the
organization (Cortina, 2013).
Downsizing
A further cause of the scarcity of diverse leadership is organizational downsizing. The
United States has experienced multiple moments of economic downturn, which leads
organizations to the decision of downsizing their staff headcount in order to remain solvent
(Kalev, 2014; Maum, 2012). While the process of downsizing may offer benefits to the
continuity of the organization, it is proven to have adverse effects on minoritized staff (Kalev,
2014; Maum, 2012). Downsizing often reduces the amount of minoritized staff in an
14

organization, as well as access to advocates and social capital for minoritized staff (Kalev, 2014;
Maum, 2012; Parks-Yancy, 2011).
In an evaluation of 327 organizations that engaged in downsizing, researchers found that
downsizing resulted in diminished managerial diversity (Kalev, 2014). The study also found that
varying contextual features may negatively or positively impact how downsizing affects
minoritized managers (Kalev, 2014). When organizational leaders embrace antidiscrimination
accountability systems, an awareness of legal structures, and personal bias that impacts racial
inequality, then they are more apt to override formal downsizing rules in favor of more equitable
practices (Kalev, 2014).
Diversity Resistance
When organizations are formed, the structure is generally formal and the culture is
informal, wherein behaviors evolve over time as a result of the inhabitants of the organization
and those behaviors evolve into the organizational norms, whether they be toxic or positive
(Tomaskovic-Devey, 2007; Wiggins-Romesburg et al., 2018). In the United States, the cultures
that develop in organizations often center Whiteness and treat minorities as others (Nkomo &
Ariss, 2013; Palumbo & Manna, 2020). Those in the dominant group do not have an incentive to
change the culture or makeup of the organization, as it is the very structure that insulates them
(Nkomo & Ariss, 2013; Palumbo & Manna, 2020). Additionally, many in the dominant group
may not acknowledge that racial disparities exist or that they benefit from the centrality of
Whiteness (Nkomo & Ariss, 2013; Palumbo & Manna, 2020). These beliefs often result in
diversity resistance and impede efforts to advance the presence of WOC in senior leadership
roles (Wiggins-Romesburg et al., 2018). Diversity resistance refers to the overt and covert ways
15

in which individuals or organizations act against pro-diversity initiatives (Wiggins-Romesburg et
al., 2018).
Importance of Representation
The lack of diversity in leadership in higher education institutions is an important
problem to solve, since diversity continues to grow throughout the United States and the world
(Bradshaw & Fredette, 2013; Harris, 2014). Since the world will have more diversity, it is
important that there be representation in leadership. Studies show that representation impacts
minorities in multiple ways: it can enhance self-value, reduce stereotypes, and provide needed
role models (Gundemir et al., 2014; Martin-Alcazar et al., 2012). Having a workforce that
provides a positive experience and a positive sense of self affects their job performance,
something that is impacted by representation (Ferris et al., 2015). In addition to the positive
impact on minority groups, diversity at the leadership level also has a positive influence on
organizational performance (Dobbin & Jung, 2011; Harris, 2014). Further, higher education
institutions have an increasing population of minoritized students, outpacing the rate of diversity
for faculty and staff (Espinosa et al., 2020). With a growing population of diverse primary
stakeholders, it is important that the staff, specifically senior leadership, have mirrored
representation (Gundemir et al., 2014; Martin-Alcazar et al., 2012). In summary, higher
education institutions should investigate enhancing diversity at the leadership level if they aim to
advance, retain employees, experience positive financial performance, build positive
relationships with stakeholders, and attract talent (Bradshaw & Fredette, 2013; Buse et al., 2016;
Gazley et al., 2010).
16

Employee Satisfaction
Importance of Employee Satisfaction and Engagement
An organization’s success is largely dependent on the workforce’s satisfaction; because
diversity contributes to employee satisfaction, organizations would benefit from increased
diversity (Choi, 2013; Pitts, 2009). When companies have effective diversity management,
people of color have higher job satisfaction. In a large survey conducted across federal agencies,
job dissatisfaction was shown to be reduced and workgroup performance increased by over 40%
when improvements to diversity management were completed (Pitts, 2009). Additionally,
employee satisfaction is higher in organizations that have higher levels of racio-ethnic diversity
within management. In a multilevel modeling study, researchers found that the higher the
proportions of racial/ethnic minorities, the higher the job satisfaction for employees by over 60%
(Choi, 2013). Furthermore, higher levels of diversity improve feelings of inclusion.
An experiment conducted at Rice University showed that larger ratios of diversity
improved feelings of unification and inclusivity; those with higher levels of diversity reported
higher rates of team identification than those with lower levels (Salazar et al., 2017). If
nonprofits hope to have a satisfied workforce, the research shows that it is important that they
address the issue of the lack of diversity at the leadership level. Further, organizations should
note that this has impacts on employee retention and attraction.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy describes the degree to which an individual believes they can execute
actions in order to achieve specific outcomes (Bandura, 1977). This personal judgment measure
was introduced by Albert Bandura as a construct within social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1989;
Bandura, 1991). Social cognitive theory states that an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be
17

moderated by their experiences, social interactions, and outside influences (Bandura, 1989;
Bandura, 1991). The theory posits that an individual has a higher likelihood of attaining
knowledge if she has a close identification to the model of the behavior and if she has high self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1989; Bandura, 1991). This theory further highlights the importance of racial
representation as well as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is advanced through performance
accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal (Bandura,
1977) in the following ways:
1. Performance acomplishments: Personal mastery acts as a mediating factor for self-
efficacy. If an individual succeeds in a task, their mastery expectation will elevate,
resulting in higher self-efficacy.
2. Vicarious experience: An individual gains self-efficacy by watching others engage in
perceived threatening tasks and succeeding. The observation of success in these instances
will cause the individual to believe that they too will be successful in the same task.
3. Verbal persuasion: An intervention wherein an individual is provided encouragement and
suggestion that they are capable of achieving outcomes. This tactic is influential but does
not have as great an effect on self-efficacy as personal or observed experience.
4. Emotional arousal: An assessment of one’s level of stress and anxiety that dictates their
perceived self-efficacy. If an individual possesses higher levels of stress and anxiety
towards a task, then they will have lower self-efficacy and may be deterred from
attempting said task.
When the discrimination WOC experience is viewed through the lens of self-efficacy, it
is apparent that discrimination is not only a barrier to career advancement but also to the self-
efficacy of WOC (Bandura, 1977; Rollins & Valdez, 2006). A study of African-American
18

adolescents found that those who perceived higher rates of racism had lower career task self-
efficacy (Rollins & Valdez, 2006). Low levels of self-efficacy result in the avoidance of tasks
that are perceived as a danger (Bandura, 1977). WOC who experience low self-efficacy as a
result of discrimination, lack of representation, microaggressions, and denial of opportunity are
less likely to attempt to attain senior leadership roles, expanding the problem of diverse
leadership further (Bandura, 1977; Rollins & Valdez, 2006).
Additionally, researchers have identified that higher levels of self-efficacy contribute to
task performance and career commitment (Ballout, 2009). When individuals possess increased
career commitment and task performance, they are more likely to succeed. Conversely, there is
an attenuation of career-advancing tasks when self-efficacy is low. These studies demonstrate
how self-efficacy is a mediating variable for career advancement (Ballout, 2009; Rolins &
Valdez, 2006).
Employee Retention and Attraction
Organizations need to address the problem of diversity in leadership if they desire to
attract and retain talent. When organizations do not have diversity, diverse staff are more likely
to seek alternate employment. In a survey of nonprofit organizations, researchers found that,
even if staff liked their institution, only 22% of diverse staff expressed a desire to remain at their
organizations as a result of not feeling a sense of inclusiveness due to the lack of diversity
(Nonprofit Business Advisor, 2018). Moreover, organizations with diverse leadership are more
attractive to potential employees. In a wide-scale survey of job desirability, organizations with
more diverse leadership were shown to be more desirable to about 80% of respondents (Olsen &
Martins, 2016). Additionally, employees are attracted to companies that display their value of
diversity. A survey concluded that over 70% of respondents found employers more desirable if
19

they perceived that their institution valued diversity (Yap et al., 2010). Sustaining a workforce is
important for the stability of an organization. The research further conveys why it is important
for nonprofits to address the issue of the lack of diversity in leadership positions if they hope to
retain and attract employees; this will also have an impact on organizational performance.
Organizational Performance
If companies seek to improve their performance, including better decision-making,
creativity, and innovation, then it would behoove them to improve their diversity within
leadership. Organizations with diverse leadership experience better governance and decision-
making (Gazley, Chang & Bingham, 2010). In a study of diversity within mediation centers,
researchers found that there was a positive correlation between a center’s ability to perform
effectively and the diversity within the organization (Gazley et al., 2010). Furthermore, when
organizations invest in diversity efforts, they experience a higher quality of decision-making. A
multivariate study revealed that there is a statistically significant finding indicating that when
organizations are diverse, they are better equipped to handle complex decision-making (Martin-
Alcazar et al., 2012). Additionally, employees also feel there is a positive correlation between the
level of diversity at their organizations and how well the organization performs. A study found
that over 65% of employees perceived there to be a positive correlation between diversity and
organizational performance (Sabharwal, 2014). If nonprofits focus on increasing diversity in
leadership, the research shows that they stand to improve their overall performance, but in order
to do so, they must gain awareness of the barriers to achieving diversity.
Career Readiness
The talent pipeline is sometimes attributed as a cause for the paucity of ethnic diversity in
leadership roles. Career readiness is closely tied with one’s education and can trace to their high
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school years, which prepare them for college (ACT, 2019; Davis & Maldonado, 2015). WOC are
found to be less prepared for college than their White counterparts, and college success is an
indicator of career readiness (ACT, 2019; Davis & Maldonado, 2015). Although WOC are found
to be less prepared for college than their White counterparts, Black women are found to be the
group of college graduates earning the most degrees.
A phenomenological study of Black women in higher education leadership showed that
the ability to persist beyond the statistics is attributed to some of their microsystem influences
such as their family, which serves to enhance their self-efficacy (Davis & Maldonado, 2015).
Career readiness also extends to learning that occurs within the work context. Davis and
Maldonado’s (2015) study, along with the study of Gamble and Turner (2015), shows that WOC
are not provided the same learning opportunities as their White counterparts while on the job,
which results in a gap in leadership development. The pipeline problem is rooted in systemic
racism (Gamble & Turner, 2015). There are additional discriminatory barriers that result in
WOC not attaining senior leadership roles, such as a pro-White bias.
White Supremacy Culture
White supremacy culture also serves as a mechanism that furthers the inequities WOC
experience (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). White supremacy culture is explored in
critical Whiteness theory (CWS) (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). CWS is an offshoot
of CRT and posits that the lack of critical focus on Whiteness problematizes racism (Bohonos,
2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). CWS focuses on racializing White experiences in an effort to
decenter Whiteness as being normal (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). CWS
researchers explored the history of White racial formation and traced its roots back to European
migrants’ shared anti-Blackness that served to position them as the dominant group (Bohonos,
21

2019). Over time, Whiteness became so normalized that there was no longer a focus on race as it
related to White people (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). The establishment of White
as the dominant group allowed White people to slowly define what was deemed normal behavior
in society, also referred to as White supremacy culture (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll,
2009). This definition of normal extended to grammar, dress, hair, expression, and societal
values (Bohonos, 2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). The standard of Whiteness also was used to
indicate that the failure of other racial groups to advance was the result of their race, resulting in
racialized stereotypes (Bohonos, 2019; Dawson et al., 2019; Dickens & Chavez, 2018; Hartmann
& Croll, 2009; Wingfield, 2010)).
The concept of Whiteness became harder to identify in contemporary society as Whites
frequently conceptualize themselves as raceless and invoke a color-blind narrative (Bohonos,
2019; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). Though not acknowledged by the dominant group, Whiteness is
still pervasive and sets the standard for things like professionalism (Bohonos, 2019; Dickens &
Chavez, 2018; Hartmann & Croll, 2009). Those who speak a different vernacular of English,
embrace non-White hairstyles, and emote in ways deemed unacceptable according to the White
dominant culture are categorized as unprofessional (Bohonos, 2019; Dawson et al., 2019;
Dickens & Chavez, 2018; Wingfield, 2010). Researchers found that the judgment of being less
professional is a barrier to career advancement (Bohonos, 2019; Dickens & Chavez, 2018; Opie
& Phillips, 2015; Wingfield, 2010).
Dawson et al. conducted research on Black hair bias in the workplace and found that
Black women experience bias, the need to conform to White culture, and identity challenges as it
relates to their hair in the workplace (2019). Further research shows that White dominant culture
appears in the workplace as it relates to emotional labor (Wingfield, 2010). Workplace emotion
22

norms are dictated by White norms and do not account for racialized experiences (Wingfield,
2010). A study found that expressions of congeniality, likeability, and pleasantness were
expected in the workplace, emotions that were easier for White employees to achieve as they did
not experience the emotional labor of racism (Wingfield, 2010). As WOC experience judgments
of not being professional when they do not adhere to White dominant culture norms, they have a
decreased likelihood of career advancement (Bohonos, 2019; Dickens & Chavez, 2018; Opie &
Phillips, 2015; Wingfield, 2010).
Pro-White Bias
CRT’s claim that White supremacy exists and manifests in power structures is a barrier
for career advancement; research categorizes this as the pro-White leadership bias (Gundemire et
al., 2014; Martinez, 2014). A pro-White leadership bias means that in western society, there is an
implicit expectation that leaders are White, thus leading to White individuals being placed in
leadership roles in disproportionate numbers as compared to their minority counterparts
(Gundemire et al., 2014). Gundemire et al. (2014) evaluated four studies aimed at determining
implicit bias. The studies included implicit association tests, leadership characteristic
attributions, name and role correlation, and race and decision-making. Researchers found that a
pro-White bias existed and that western society aligns leadership traits with the White-majority
group members over other ethnic minorities (Gundemire et al., 2014).
Another study revealed that organizations possess a pro-White bias concerning
addressing ethical failures (Marquardt et al., 2015). 206 graduate and undergraduate students
were presented with multiple examples of leaders engaged in ethical scandals and also those with
ethical awards; a picture of a White or Black individual accompanied the scenarios (Marquardt et
al., 2015). Researchers asked participants questions about the leaders’ ethics; upon analysis of
23

the responses, they determined that Black leaders faced more negative feedback than their White
counterparts (Marquardt et al., 2015). The findings further highlight the pro-White bias and
discrimination to which minorities are subject. If there is a perception of discrimination or bias in
the workplace, then the chance of promotion is lower, and overcoming this barrier necessitates
that minorities develop high levels of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation (Marquardt et al.,
2015; Sheaffer et al., 2018).
In a collaborative autoethnography study, researchers examined the experiences of
immigrant WOC at predominately White institutions (Ngunjiri & Hernandez, 2017). The study
found that stereotypes frequently act as a lens for the actions of WOC, and there is an
expectation that they modify their style to that of their White counterparts in order to advance
(Ngunjiri & Hernandez, 2017). Both researchers identified themes of the difficulty of being an
authentic leader in a culture that demands they assimilate if they are to progress (Ngunjiri &
Hernandez, 2017). Many institutions hold minorities to stereotypes, which places them in a state
of continually proving their competency in ways that their White counterparts do not endure;
existing in this type of environment impacts their productivity and is demotivating (Ngunjiri &
Hernandez, 2017). All of these studies highlight the environmental factors and the organizational
beliefs that act as a barrier to attaining and retaining minorities in leadership positions within the
nonprofit industry.
Network Exclusion and Visibility
Beyond the scrutiny and bias that minorities experience, literature also shows that
minorities are subject to network exclusion. Network access in an organization is essential to
career promotion; exclusion from these networks limits visibility and subsequently the
opportunity for racial minorities to advance into leadership roles (Wyatt & Silvester, 2015). A
24

qualitative study of 30 Black women working in various nonprofit organizations evaluated their
experiences and perceptions of leadership in the nonprofit sector (Adesaogun et al., 2015). The
ethnographic approach revealed that Black women in the nonprofit sector experienced social
stratification based on race, which subsequently excluded them from leadership networks
(Adesaogun et al., 2015). The study also indicated that the exclusion they experienced impacted
their belief that they could advance in their organizations (Adesaogun et al., 2015).
Research by Wyatt and Silvester (2015) sought to observe the experiences of Black and
minority ethnic (BME) employees against that of their White counterparts. Researchers
employed semi-structured interviews and attribution theory to evaluate 20 Black senior managers
and 20 White senior managers; researchers asked participants to respond to questions that
identified what they attributed as a barrier or positive factor towards their leadership journey
(Wyatt & Silvester, 2015). The results of the study revealed that access to networks was essential
to both groups for career advancement (Wyatt & Silvester, 2015). However, BME employees
experienced access to networks significantly less than their White counterparts (Wyatt &
Silvester, 2015). BME employees attributed this disparity as a hurdle and felt that it prolonged
the amount of time it took to reach parity with their White counterparts (Wyatt & Silvester,
2015).
A multivariate study of White women and BME women in the workforce found that over
eight years, 55% of White women would move into leadership roles while only 26% of Black
women would move into leadership roles (Wilson, 2012). The study concluded that this statistic
changes when there are racially integrated networks within organizations (Wilson, 2012). These
studies highlight that the environment for BME employees in an organization places them at a
promotional disadvantage when compared to their White counterparts.
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Mentorship
Mentorship provides a less experienced individual access to the knowledge and guidance
of a more experienced individual. (Montas-Hunter, 2012, Olson & Jackson, 2009). Studies show
that those who engage in mentorship have higher leadership self-efficacy, which is why
minorities must gain access to mentors if they are to advance into leadership positions (Montas-
Hunter, 2012, Olson & Jackson, 2009). Researchers conducted a multivariate study to evaluate
the effectiveness of a formal mentorship program for people of color (POC); it determined that
mentorship had a statistically significant impact on career advancement for POC. Upon the
conclusion of two 18-month cycles of a mentorship program, the study found that the presence of
POC in senior leadership rose by 11% (Olson & Jackson, 2009). The study also found that the
cultural competency of the mentors was perceived to be higher upon the conclusion of the
mentorship program (Olson & Jackson, 2009). Mentorship was proven to have a positive impact
on the organization for both mentors and mentees, as well as addressing the paucity of minorities
in leadership roles (Olson & Jackson, 2009).
A qualitative meta-analysis of the barriers for WOC into faculty leadership positions in
STEM fields revealed that the lack of mentorship was a barrier to WOC gaining parity in
leadership positions (Corneille et al., 2018). Researchers evaluated the findings in several peer-
reviewed articles and synthesized them to determine themes that revealed common barriers
(Corneille et al., 2018). The findings revealed that there was a need for mentorship to aid in
career advancement, professional learning, and self-efficacy of WOC, as well as a need for
thoughtful and culturally sensitive mentorship programs (Corneille et al., 2018). These studies
show that mentorship is key to career advancement, learning, and self-efficacy for minorities in
the nonprofit sector (Corneille et al., 2018; Olson & Jackson, 2009).
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Succession Planning
As institutions grow in complexity, the need for strong leadership is further highlighted
(Mckee & Froelich, 2016; Peterson, 2019). Researchers project that there will be limited
availability of skilled executives who are equipped to assume senior leadership roles in the
coming years (Mckee & Froelich, 2016). This scarcity of talent further highlights the need for
advancing WOC into senior leadership roles (Mckee & Froelich, 2016). Succession planning is a
process that engages in an intentional assessment of potential leaders within an institution
(Kumaran, 2014; Mckee & Froelich, 2016; Webster & Brown, 2019). Currently, organizations
fail to engage in adequate succession planning and often do not engage in succession planning
through an equity lens (Kumaran, 2014; Mckee & Froelich, 2016; Webster & Brown, 2019).
Succession planning with an equity lens includes the evaluation of not just those who are second
in command in an institution, but evaluates multiple levels, focuses on closing skill gaps, and
evaluates what groups are not represented in the candidates for succession. In identifying who is
excluded, leaders also ensure that they determine why groups are lacking representation and
what actions would contribute to correcting the dearth of representation. Webster and Brown
(2019) found that organizations stand to enhance diversity if they engage in a thorough
succession planning process that incorporates leadership development.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory. The conceptual framework also draws on key concepts drawn from the literature review,
such as the impact of White supremacy/social construct of Whiteness, self-efficacy, systemic
barriers, social exclusion, employee engagement, career readiness, and mentorship. As depicted
in Figure 1, the conceptual framework for this study dictates that employees of color who exist in
27

an organizational system with diverse leadership will have higher self-efficacy, employee
engagement, and opportunity (Cook & Glass, 2013). This results in the organization
experiencing higher levels of performance because the employee’s perceptions of inclusion will
be higher (Sabharwal, 2014). The framework seeks to modify the environment to optimize the
success of individuals and, in turn, the organization as a whole. This model draws on the key
concepts by holding the individual as the focal point and examining the systems that impact the
individual. If the systems are approached through an equity lens and diverse leadership exists as
a component of the system, then employee engagement, self-efficacy, and opportunity will
increase (Cook & Glass, 2013).
The microsystem comprises those influences in the employee’s immediate surroundings
(Bronfenbrenner, 1981). An employee’s microsystem could include influences like her
supervisor, colleagues, family, friends, and employees. The core concepts at play in the
microsystem are mentorship, self-efficacy, social exclusion, and career readiness. All of these
concepts can be directly tied to the influences within an employee’s microsystem.
The conceptual framework seeks to identify how these factors impact the employee’s
self-efficacy, ability, and the likelihood of advancement. The framework also posits that if there
are positive relationships with these influences paired with an acknowledgment of and opposition
to White supremacy, then there is a higher likelihood that WOC will advance into a senior
leadership role (Chapman et al., 2014; Jean-Marie et al., 2009). Conversely, if there is a lack of
acknowledgment of the existence of White supremacy’s influence and no effort to mitigate
against it within the influences in the microsystem, then the employee will likely not advance
into a senior leadership role (Jean-Marie et al., 2009).
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The macrosystem comprises cultural values and political norms (Bronfenbrenner, 1981).
The belief systems that surround the employee, organizational culture, and laws that impact the
employee are influences that the employee may not have direct control over, but they have an
influence on the employee and their likelihood for advancement into senior roles. The core
concepts at play in the macrosystem are White supremacy/social construct of Whiteness and
systemic barriers. The framework dictates that if there are no mitigating factors to work against
the social construct of Whiteness and remove systemic barriers, then there is a higher likelihood
that the employee will not attain a senior leadership role.
Examining the conceptual framework model in Figure 1 provides a further exposition of
how the concepts intersect. The outer layer, which represents the macrosystem in
Bronfenbrenner’s model, shows ‘diverse leadership’ to be a mitigating factor to the cultural
belief of White supremacy. If the organization’s belief system is adjusted towards an anti-racist
orientation by increasing the diversity in the leadership level, then they stand to impact the
individual in a positive way, while also elevating the self-efficacy of employees of color and
overall organizational performance.
The layer that lists ‘immediate environment’ speaks to the influences that are closest to
the individual like family, friends, colleagues, direct supervisor, and employees. If the employee
also receives positive reinforcements from these influences, they have a higher likelihood to
attain a senior leadership role as they will have higher self-efficacy and contribute towards
enhanced organizational performance.

29

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Model

Summary
There is a deficiency in the representation of WOC in leadership roles. Literature shows
that there are many possible causes. Some of the identified causes are a pro-White leadership
bias, career readiness, lack of mentorship, and network exclusion (Adesaogun et al., 2015; Davis
& Maldonado, 2015; Gundemire et al., 2014; Montas-Hunter, 2012). This issue has several
impacts on individuals and organizations; these include organizational performance, employee
retention and attraction, and employee satisfaction (Choi, 2013; Olsen & Martins, 2016; Gazley
et al., 2010). Through the use of examining this issue through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s
theory, this study aims to gain further insights in order to identify additional barriers and
potential solutions for organizations struggling to address the problem efficiently.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter provides detail on the overall research design and methodology for the
study, as well as exposition on how participants were selected and how data was identified,
collected, and analyzed. The chapter also shows how the research design provides the best
method of addressing the outlined research questions. Additionally, the chapter contains
information regarding the ethical considerations, credibility, trustworthiness, and instrumentation
of the study.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study are as follows:
1. What are the barriers for minoritized women in attaining a leadership role?
2. How do power structures influence the self-efficacy of minoritized women currently in
managerial roles as it relates to career advancement?
3. What is the organizational culture and how does it contribute to the paucity of
minoritized women in leadership roles?
Overview of Design
This study utilizes a qualitative approach to gain deeper insights into the participants’
lived experiences. This method aligns with my study as it provides the opportunity to explore the
impact, barriers, and potential solutions of the problem from the perspective of WOC. The first-
hand detail from the impacted group will provide rich data that further informs the problem of
practice.
Research Setting
All interviews were conducted virtually utilizing the Zoom conferencing platform. This
option was necessary to assist in reaching participants from various locations in the United States
31

and also to accommodate current health and safety protocols. Due to the current COVID-19
pandemic, in-person meetings were not permissible. This method is also appropriate as it
provided mechanisms to capture interview transcripts, which provided the researcher further
insight into nonverbal responses due to the video component of the session.
The Researcher
In considering positionality and power issues, I am aware that I am also a member of the
target population that I am studying. Being a member of the target population, I have many
perceptions that are based on my own experience. My personal experiences may impact my
question selection and interpretation of participants’ responses. Between researcher and
participant, I acknowledge that there is a power dynamic wherein I will have control of
interpreting and telling the stories that the subjects share. It is important that I implement
validation methods to ensure that I accurately represent their stories. Since the research does
require the participant to provide opinions on their leadership, this may be perceived as a power
issue. Mitigating these issues can be achieved through the strategy of reflexivity, wherein the
researcher shares her positionality with the participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Another
strategy that can assist in mitigating the power issues is memo writing, wherein the researcher
documents observations in the interview and also details assumptions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Source: Interviews
This qualitative field study engages the use of interviews, which are qualitative inquiry
processes designed to explore a topic through the perspective of the participants (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interviews focus on identifying details on the lived experiences of WOC who
are not in senior leadership roles in the higher education industry. This study utilizes semi-
structured interviews to gain further insight on the problem of practice through the lens of WOC
32

who aspire to have senior leadership roles in the nonprofit industry. For the purposes of this
study, the term WOC refers to Black and Asian-American women primarily, as these groups
were the majority of those represented in the participant pool.
Participating Stakeholders
The interview participants were selected through purposeful sampling. The participants in
this study are WOC at higher education institutions who are not currently in and have not ever
held a senior leadership position and are located in the United States. A non-senior level
management position is defined as a role that is three or more positions removed from the most
senior role at the institution. Further, the participants cannot be in entry-level positions and must
have three or more years of experience in the higher education field. The study engaged 11 WOC
in interviews.
The sampling type utilized reflects that of purposeful sampling, specifically typical
purposeful sampling as the participants reflect the typical type of respondent that the study is
aiming to gain insight on (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Purposeful sampling is ideal for this study,
as I am hoping to gain insight into the experiences of this specific group of individuals.
Those chosen for the interviews were selected based on their identity as a WOC, years of
experience within the higher education field, and expressed desire for upward mobility. This
intentional sampling of the qualitative group made for more meaningful and focused interviews
around the problem of practice and added to the overall credibility of the study (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Recruitment was managed through existing networks with these groups of
individuals.
33

Instrumentation
The interviews follow a semi-structured interview approach. Semi-structured interviews
provide interviewees with many of the same questions but also permit flexibility for the
interviewer to incorporate additional probing questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
approach is preferable for the interviews as it permits for clearly comparable questions between
participants, but also leaves room for additional and specific insights that may arise in various
interviews. The interview contains 15 questions in the hope of gaining sufficient insight while
staying within a reasonable time span. The questions utilized in the interview are open-ended and
align with both the research questions and key concepts identified in the conceptual framework.
The interview questions are also structured based on the six types of qualitative research
questions identified by sociologist Michael Patton (2002). Patton (2002) states that questions
should aim to reveal answers that detail experience, feelings, beliefs, knowledge, sensory
aspects, and demographics. The interview questions utilized primarily focus on experience,
belief, and feelings; this typology of questions will address the research questions most
effectively. See Appendix A.
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews were conducted over a one-month span with an allotted time of 60 minutes per
interview. This schedule allowed the necessary time to complete all 11 interviews and document
the findings and observations in each. The interviews were conducted synchronously online
using the Zoom platform to accommodate current physical distancing requirements imposed by
the current pandemic. Remote interviews also add the benefit of ease of recording and
transcription (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016). Both the recordings and transcripts are collected for
synthesis post-interview with the consent of the interviewees. Interviewees’ identifiable
34

information is removed from all documented findings and they are referenced through the usage
of aliases to ensure their anonymity (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Analysis
Interviews were analyzed through the examination of researcher notes of observation
during the interviews and themes revealed through reviewing the transcripts. The transcripts of
each interview were open-coded twice, which ensures that the themes revealed have higher
credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The codes were further grouped and refined, a process
called axial coding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The transcripts were reviewed again under the
lens of the identified categories in order to reveal further findings and organize the interview data
into the finalized categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The findings from the interview analysis
are presented in tables and narrative form.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility is achieved through member-checking to validate that interview participants’
responses were accurately captured (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The study provided credibility
by engaging in member-checking to validate that participants’ responses were accurately
captured (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To ensure trustworthiness, triangulation, respondent
validation, and peer examination were utilized (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation of the
data occurs through the comparison of data collected through differing targets. Gaining insight
from people in a shared population who may have differing experiences added to the overall
trustworthiness of the study and ensured that it does not appear to only intentionally include
answers from those who may align with the hypotheses set forth. Further, I engaged in
respondent validation, a technique that calls for the interviewer to ensure a proper understanding
of the interviewee’s response (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016). This strategy clarified any terminology
35

used by respondents and also assisted in eliminating any incorrect inferences. Lastly, I engaged
in peer examination to leverage the insight of my peers in order to ensure the interview questions
were clear and effective in addressing the research question.
Ethics
The Institutional Research Board (IRB) process is designed to ensure that research and
data collection adheres to ethical guidelines (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In order to obtain IRB
approval, it is important to be mindful of and demonstrate a commitment to and understanding of
ethical implications in one’s research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The study required informed
consent from participants prior to engaging in interviews. Further, the interview was preceded by
an information sheet that detailed the interview logistics, requested informed consent, and
confirmed that participation is voluntary. Additionally, there was verbal confirmation before the
interviews began; once recording began, the verbal consent was captured. The interview findings
were reported in a way that maintains the participants' anonymity by leveraging aliases in the
coding and reporting process. The interviewees were also advised that the recordings were stored
securely and destroyed upon completion of data analysis.

36

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to understand the paucity of WOC in senior leadership
positions in higher education from the perspective of WOC who aspire to hold senior leadership
roles. The study sought to gain insight into barriers to career advancement and potential solutions
through the examination of the lived experiences of WOC. Literature posits that common
barriers are historical factors, systemic oppression, lack of network access, and the absence of
mentorship and sponsorship for WOC. To gain an understanding of these barriers, this field
study engaged WOC in various higher education administration roles across the United States
through interviews. The interviews contained 15 questions, and some follow-up or probing
questions were also utilized. The interviews were based on the study research questions, which
are as follows:
1. What are the barriers for minoritized women in attaining a senior leadership role in
higher education administration?
2. How do power structures influence the self-efficacy of minoritized women currently in
managerial roles as it relates to career advancement?
3. What is the organizational culture and how does it contribute to the paucity of
minoritized women in leadership roles?
Participants
The participants for this study were derived from purposeful sampling. The study required
that participants be WOC at higher education institutions who are not in and have not ever held a
senior leadership position, and who are located in the United States. A non-senior level
management position is defined as a role that is three or more positions removed from the most
senior role at the institution. Further, the participants cannot be in entry-level positions and must
37

have three or more years of experience in the higher education field. To validate that participants
met the criteria for the study, they completed a short demographic questionnaire.
11 WOC were interviewed, all meeting the criteria of the study. The interviewees came
from multiple higher education institutions across the United States and held varying ethnic
identities; the primary racio-ethnic groups were Black/African-American and Asian/Asian-
American. The WOC were employed at various types of higher education institutions, including
community colleges, R1 research institutions, R2 research instituions, public universities, and
private universities. The distribution of public and private instituions represented was about
even, with six participants working for private institutions and seven working for public
institutions. All participants held leadership roles, but not senior leadership roles. Within the
institutions that the participants worked, senior leadership roles held the following titles: vice
president, senior vice president, chancellor, president, associate chancellor, and
assistant/associate vice president. The participants in the study held titles of associate director,
assistant director, director, and senior director. The interviewees also managed staff and/or
programs in their work. The participants have occupied their current positions for one to six
years, while the range of their total years within higher education was three to 21+ years; over
half of the participants have worked in higher education for over 15 years. Table 1 provides
additional detail on the participants in the study.

38

Table 1:
Participant Details
Participant
pseudonym
Racio-ethnic category
Years in higher
education
Years in
current role
Role
Ellie Black/African-American 7–10 3–6
Associate
director
Shonti Asian/Asian-American 3–6 1–2
Assistant
director
Marvanne Black/African-American 16–20 1–2 Director
Brianna Asian/Asian-American 11–15 1–2 Sr. director
Regina Latinx 21+ 3–6 Director
Renee Asian/Asian-American 3–6 3–6
Assistant
director
Victoria Asian/Asian-American 7–10 1–2 Director
Creshawn Black/African-American 7–10 3–6 Sr. director
Diane Black/African-American 21+ 3–6 Director
Rin Asian/Asian-American 16–20 1–2 Director
Chelly Black/African-American 16–20 3–6 Director

Findings
This section examines the themes that were found based on the interview responses and is
organized by research question.
Research Question 1: What Are the Barriers for Minoritized Women in Attaining a
Leadership Role?
Gaining clarity into what obstacles exist for WOC in attaining senior leadership roles is
core to the study. The literature in this field of study reports a myriad of potential barriers as
derived from varying perspectives. Some barriers based on existing literature are lack of
39

mentorship, access to opportunities, networking, and racism. Participants highlighted some of the
same themes that the literature revealed and also offered some additional barriers and nuance that
provided deeper insight into the existing barriers.
The main themes that the participants highlighted as barriers were microsystem
influences, social capital, aversive racism, and the lack of mentorship/sponsorship. The
participants shared rich details that resulted in various codes revealing the aforementioned
themes. The participants highlighted how the presence or absence of the highlighted themes has
proven to limit their career advancement or move their careers forward. The following section
will examine the themes in more depth and provide examples from the participants.
Theme 1: Influences Within the Microsystem Function As Barriers for WOC Attaining Senior
Leadership Roles in Higher Education
All 11 participants highlighted microsystem influences that they perceived as barriers to
career advancement. The microsystem consists of interpersonal relationships that impact an
individual's development (Bronfenbrenner, 1981). These could include peer relationships,
familial relationships, and managerial relationships. When examining their interpersonal
relationships and how they have impacted their career trajectory, participants shared that a
significant component is that they did not have relationships within their microsystems that they
would need in order to demonstrate the unspoken rules of the workplace. Chelly stated that,
“There are absolutely unspoken rules to getting ahead here, and if you know those rules, you can
play the game, and it’s like you know you then have that level of savvy, it’s a complete
differentiator.” Interviewees shared that they feel their White peers often have the luxury of
having several family members and friends of the family who have been in leadership roles for
years, and as a result, they have the benefit of observing the unspoken rules of the game that
40

allow them to be viewed as a fit for senior roles. Rin shared, “I’ve learned a lot about how to
navigate this, uh like, space of politics, and it’s complex, but I’ve had to learn it in real-time,
where my White colleagues had an example or early mentorship.” The interviewees shared that
they were often the first in their family to reach this level of education and job, so the models
that would have been helpful in their microsystem did not exist and they had to navigate the
workplace in the absence of this helpful feature. Renee reflected on her family and shared:
A lot of the navigating of the professional environment and knowing what strategic
moves to make is not something that we come in here knowing, right? So unless you had
a parent who was also in some kind of leadership role, administrative role, I don't know if
you would necessarily have seen it or modeled it. My father was in the U.S. Army. He
was an infantry man like, you know, he ran next to tanks and people shot at him, right?
Like that. That was the thing in my mother was a homemaker. All her life; she doesn't
even speak English now. So I think just not knowing like, oh no, I need these things to
advance, right? And if I were to think the only thing I needed to do was to work hard, that
just wouldn’t be true, but it's hard to know that if you don’t have it modeled.
Marvanne further reflected on the absence of models for professional senior leadership. Her
interpersonal relationships in the workplace did not include leadership that represented her, and
the lack of representation communicated that the likelihood of her being considered for a senior-
level position was unlikely. Additionally, she shared that she doesn’t feel like the reason there
are no WOC in senior roles is because there are no qualified WOC; she shared that she is aware
of WOC who could be successful in the roles but have not been given the opportunity. Seeing the
denial of opportunities for those in one’s microsystem that look like them further serves as a
barrier, as it communicates that the opportunity is unlikely for people who share that identity.
41

Marvanne shared that, in addition to this functioning as a barrier, it also acts as an incentive to
consider leaving the organization, stating:
I think that representation would help in general, like, there is no one that looks like me
in leadership. I feel like I am capable of doing more, but it’s hard to believe I'll ever get
the chance when I see the leadership team and there is no one similar to me at all, and
that’s just how it’s been my whole career. So what’s the incentive to stay? Ya know?
Like the barrier is that it appears there isn’t a desire to have people that look like me at
that level, and me not seeing it makes me feel like my prospects for advancement are so
bleak. I know so many brilliant women of color that are more than deserving of senior
roles, but they are tokenized and limited. There is one woman who has gotten advanced
degrees, and she is celebrated, but I know, and I believe she does too, she won’t ever
move beyond the role she is in; it’s sad and wrong. But yeah, to your question, I think
that having a model, some representation is what’s needed.
Another element of the way relationships function in the microsystem is levels of support. Seven
interviewees shared that they did not feel supported by their managers. This important figure in
their microsystem failing to provide meaningful support also served as a barrier. Brianna
reported, “My supervisor, I don’t think she’s intentionally racist or mean, but there is definitely a
lack of support; I don’t believe she ever works to help me move forward.” Managers are in a
gatekeeper position, and their failure to amplify staff impacts career trajectory. Victoria stated, “I
learned that my manager actively worked to keep me from better opportunities. How am I
supposed to advance when there is literally someone telling people not to hire me, and not
because I was a bad employee, but because they didn’t want to lose me?”
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In addition to not feeling supported, participants communicated that they feel their
managers sometimes act to intentionally limit the ability of WOC to thrive in their areas of
expertise. They shared that when they have negative relationships or perceive a lack of support
from their managers, they are discouraged and feel limited in what they will be permitted to do in
their roles. They also distinguished between the types of support, in that some support is not
meaningful in regards to their success, but more self-serving to their supervisor. Chelly detailed
her relationship with her manager and how it has impacted her career, stating:
I don't feel supported by my manager. … So here's the thing, I feel supported in ways that
are ultimately insignificant, right? They don't move the needle, so there may be a
particular challenge, maybe a people management issue or working with some of our
partners where someone may be less reasonable than they should be; I can get support
around that. But when it comes whenever I fully show up, whenever I demonstrate the
value that I was hired to bring is when I don't feel supported and when I feel kind of like
this pull of where I'm just, I'm just out there by myself is how I feel.
The interpersonal influences one has throughout their life impact their development.
When the rules, stated or implied, of industry require knowledge that is typically disseminated
through interpersonal relationships, it serves as a barrier for advancement when one does not
have the necessary influence in her life. This was evidenced by the lack of leadership
representation throughout the lives of the WOC in the study. The cyclical nature of the issue
serves as a perpetuating factor; without interaction with leaders, it is difficult to understand the
nuances required to attain a senior leadership role. Further, not having relationships that provide
adequate support is an additional microsystem barrier. The likelihood of WOC advancing into
senior leadership roles is diminished if they are not afforded the support of their managers.
43

Theme 2: Social Capital and Access to Networks With Gatekeepers Are Necessary for
Advancement Into Senior Leadership Roles
All 11 interviewees shared that social capital has a significant impact on career
advancement. Social capital refers to the benefits and the ability to develop that is afforded
individuals based on their membership and value in a specific group (Hassan et al., 2017).
Participants shared that those who are able to attain higher levels of social capital stand to
advance quicker and further in their institutions. Diane explained that, “Who you know is very
important. … I was able to oversee [a group of influential external stakeholders] and that made a
big difference for me, gave me more agency.” Participants also stated that social capital was
mediated through informal social networks, level of managerial support/advocacy, and the
degree to which one assimilated to those in power. Rin described how she feels the attainment of
social capital impacts her career trajectory, stating:
I feel like I put in a lot of work, I put in a lot of effort to really build a network. Like, I
feel like I have to be very cautious about how I come off and fairly calculated with who I
create relationships with and outward appearances, probably more so than I would
anywhere else, even in previous employers that I've had. Since my manager doesn’t
support me advancing, I feel like my growth is very dependent on how I can navigate and
get others in like these um, these gatekeeping-type roles to perceive me. Like, I know that
if I am going to advance at all, it will be because they give me the green light, so I
definitely find myself trying to do what I can to get in that in-group. It’d be so much
easier if my manager supported me.
Participants shared that access to the social networks that provide social capital is often mediated
through a sponsor. Literature also shows that sponsors and mentors have a positive impact on
44

social capital, which in turn positively impacts career advancement (Hassan et al., 2017). Shonti
shared how having a sponsor who was intentional about inviting her into spaces and
opportunities that would provide social capital positively impacted her career advancement,
revealing:
I would say having sponsors or mentors in the organization [is the thing that helps most,
and not having them results in less opportunity]. I think for me at my last institution, I
had a female VP, not a woman of color, but she really gave me permission to participate
in more leadership roles, and then she advocated for me. She included me in meetings
with leadership, so I think it was really her sponsorship that helped me to advance.
When asked about the commonalities of those individuals who make it into senior roles,
participants shared that the social networks that the senior leaders exist in prior to gaining their
roles is a commonality. Additionally, participants shared that some activities that afford social
capital are gendered and designed to exclude women as well as people of color. One such
activity that participants reflected on as an example of a social capital space that proved to be
exclusionary was golf. Ellie indicated that:
In fact, they do have a certain social-economic status in common because they meet on
the golf course, they meet at these events that I would not pay money to go to. You know,
the $500 tickets, you know, those type of things … yeah, but the common thing is,
they’re in spaces with people that can make decisions.
Ellie’s example describes how many in senior roles were born into socioeconomic statuses that
afforded them membership into certain influential and advantageous social circles. WOC
experience more difficulty breaking into these social groups than their White male counterparts,
as many did not have the benefit of access to activities like golf growing up. Not having
45

equitable access to this form of social capital serves as an additional barrier to career
advancement.
Social capital contributes to the development of valuable relationships within an
institution. If WOC are denied the same levels of social capital that their majority peers
experience, then they are less likely to advance in their careers. This deficit of social capital that
the participants shared further highlights how the exclusionary nature of institutions serves to
keep WOC from advancing into senior leadership roles. Social capital can be mediated through
mentorship/sponsorship, inclusive cultures, and managerial support. The study participants
shared that their organizations generally failed to provide the needed mediating factors that
would provide WOC with the appropriate amount of social capital to make career advancement
into a senior leadership role appear feasible. The participants also reflected on the times in their
careers when they saw the power of social capital work in their favor or the favor of their
majority peers. The perception shared was that the benefit was inconsistent for WOC in higher
education administration.
Theme 3: Organizational Acceptance of and Failure to Address Aversive Racism Serves as a
Barrier for the Career Advancement of WOC
Another theme highlighted as a barrier to advancement into senior-level roles was the
presence of aversive racism in organizations. Aversive racism refers to the unconscious negative
beliefs that the dominant group has attributed to those in the minority group, resulting in
disparate treatment of and avoidance of the minority group (Murrell, 2020; Sanchez-Hucles et
al., 2010). The primary ways that participants highlighted aversive racism were the presence of
microaggressions in the workplace, the unspoken rule of assimilation, and intersectional
stereotypes.
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All participants shared that they have experienced some degree of aversive racism in their
careers. Interviewees described these phenomena as persistent and pervasive, having a negative
impact on their ability to advance. Chelly shared that, “Well, that is just what [racism] is
supposed to do, right, exhaust you so you can’t do anything else. I frequently find myself too
tired to work on things that would bring meaning for me.” Her experience describes how her
encounters with racism have kept her from working on efforts that may positively impact her
career advancement. Further detailing experiences with aversive racism, Shonti conveyed that
microaggressions adversely impacted her relationship with her manager, someone who is in a
role that could help advance her career. The mistrust that developed resulted in avoidance as a
coping mechanism. If WOC are not in spaces where they can safely interact with those in
decision-making roles, the likelihood of career advancement is lowered. Shonti stated:
Because of the microaggressions I endured from a past supervisor, I would say that
caused me to have a lack of trust in that supervisor. So that impacted my relationship
with her and the way I viewed her and that I just didn't see her as someone trustworthy.
… I think it definitely created a toxic environment, because I had people that I was
managing, and I found myself trying to protect them and trying to limit their interactions
with the supervisor.
Another way that aversive racism functions as a career barrier is in the time it consumes from the
impacted party. Existing in a culture that is prone to microaggressions causes WOC to revert to a
state of protection. Instead of expending energy, time, and resources on things that would
provide paths for career advancement, they are instead using those resources to protect
themselves from the inevitable trauma caused by the aversive racism they encounter. Ellie
detailed how dealing with microaggressions impacts her and shared:
47

[Dealing with microaggressions in the workplace] laid the groundwork of how I bring
myself into spaces. I make sure I'm like, trying to protect myself as much as I can. … It
made a mark on my whole trajectory in higher education, I would say.
Aversive racism also appeared in the form of insisting that WOC assimilate if they desire to
advance. Professionalism is dictated by the majority, which then deems non-White
characteristics as less professional. WOC endure stereotypes in everything from their appearance
to their personalities. Rin shared that, “Once I was told that I should be more docile like another
Asian woman who was in a role more senior to me, like that was the way to get to the top.” This
pervasive stereotype of Asian women is often weaponized and is also used as a form of
tokenizing them. Creshawn explained that she also experienced microaggressions around
assimilation, sharing:
The biggest career-limiting microaggression I've experienced is the notion of ‘culture fit.’
I think people are finally beginning to understand how problematic that is, but I've
definitely been discouraged from seeking positions or denied a role because I was seen as
not being a cultural fit. Usually, the person who was a fit was a White man or woman. I
asked for more feedback on that too, because you know, telling someone they aren’t a
culture fit is just random and nebulous, like what do you actually mean. … Once I was
told that I should actually work on trying to mirror my superiors more, specifically in
terms of my appearance. I was floored, this was really someone’s professional advice to
me for career advancement, that I should ditch my bright dresses, tame my hair, and get a
Brooke’s brother suit, girl bye. I was so done, it just made it feel like a farce if that is
what makes someone a fit. So stuff like that and then I guess putting two and two
together when people make comments about how they are glad I don’t wear my hair in
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braids, because they are ghetto. Ummm … sorry sir but I do, I just haven’t yet. … But
you know, knowing that I work with people who think like that, people who sit in seats of
power, people who hold influence, it really makes me feel like I have to code-switch
beyond just language, like I have to totally switch things up if I want any measure of
consideration. But yeah, I’d say that is one I’ve experienced in the workplace.
The microaggression of culture fit that Creshawn shared highlights the concept of a pro-White
bias, wherein there is a perception that leaders are White (Gundemire et al., 2014; Martinez,
2014). This microaggression actively limits the presence of WOC from senior leadership roles
and communicates to them that, in order to attain a senior leadership position, they need to
present themselves in a way that is White normative. Organizations do not always realize that
their concept of culture fit is exclusionary and a type of aversive racism.
Aversive racism is a feature of structural racism that serves to perpetuate harm to WOC
and act as a barrier to career advancement. Aversive racism is difficult to dismantle as it appears
in ways that are often subtle, but over time proves to be damaging and have an eroding effect on
the wellbeing of WOC. The participants detailed the various microaggressions, stereotypes, and
calls for assimilation that they experienced in their workplaces. Interviewees shared that they
invoke various coping mechanisms to deal with aversive racism, but acknowledged that the
experiences take a toll on them and adversely affect their work experience. Some ways that
aversive racism was shown to impact the career trajectory of the WOC in the study was by
limiting key relationships with decision-makers in their organizations, draining their time and
energy that could be used as a means of dealing with the aversive racism, and introducing bias
that kept them from being considered for more senior roles.
49

Theme 4: A Lack of Mentorship and Sponsorship Adversely Impacts WOC’s Career
Advancement
Lastly, all interviewees highlighted the importance of mentorship and sponsorship as it
relates to the ability to ascend into senior-level roles. Mentorship occurs when a more senior staff
member provides guidance to a more junior staff member. Research shows that mentorship
relationships provide psychosocial functions like friendship and support, as well as career-related
functions like knowledge sharing and sponsorship (Randel, 2021). Sponsorship is the specific
action of a mentor amplifying a mentee; this is achieved by involving a mentee in decision-
making processes, introducing and advocating for the mentee to those in power positions in the
organization, and suggesting the mentee be considered for specific roles that would result in
career advancement (Randel, 2021). All of the participants highlighted that mentorship and
sponsorship are key barriers for career advancement and the addition of mentorship would be
valuable in advancing the careers of WOC. When asked her opinion of what thing would have
the most impact on improving career advancement for WOC, Victoria drew on successful
examples from corporate America that she felt would be equally successful if implemented in
higher education administration, detailing that in corporate America, “There is some
intentionality of senior leadership working with individuals that have aspiring goals to move up
in the pipeline. So if it's a mentorship program, I think that's something that could really be
impactful.”
Some participants shared that in instances where they have had mentors or sponsors in
their careers, they have experienced positive career impacts. Shonti explained how having a
sponsor provided a certain degree of agency and amplification for her career, stating:
50

I've had mentors who, you know, who I became friends with, and they were more
mentoring me through the bureaucracy and the politics, and you know, and I think also
guiding me through just kind of my interests, you know, just different interests that I had.
And then this other person, I would say she was a mentor and a sponsor. But I think, I
think the difference between a sponsor is the mentorship and the way that I've
experienced it; a mentorship can just be personal and people don't really know. I think for
the sponsorship, it's this person that is including me in the emails and actually saying my
team will take the lead on this project or please make time to see Shonti about xyz. It was
her kind of giving me the stamp of approval so that allowed other people to know that,
you know, to, I guess, to gain their respect and trust and to start working with me.
Having a sponsor that is close to your work, like your supervisor, is also helpful for career
advancement. A supervisor generally has deep insight into your work and can speak with
confidence of your ability to perform. Additionally, she is also positioned to share her firsthand
knowledge of your expertise and excellence with those more senior to you, which provides the
visibility necessary to advance in an organization. Diane shared that, “When you have a
supervisor who takes time to mentor you, that makes a huge difference. The rest of the
organization sees that, and it can give you what you need to get noticed for that next
opportunity.” Lacking this level of support from one’s immediate supervisor serves as a barrier
to advancement. Brianna shared her thoughts on the importance of support from one’s immediate
supervisor, stating:
I think the most important thing is having a supportive supervisor in your immediate
office. Being able to have that type of mentorship relationship, sitting in on meetings,
being able to pick up the lingo right, and just being comfortable in those types of settings,
51

I think is probably the most important thing, having someone champion for you in your
actual office.
Brianna’s perspective highlights the agency one attains when they have support in the form of
mentorship from a supervisor. In these instances, the supervisor has more understanding and
insight into the work that the employee is doing and is also directly positioned to provide
additional opportunities and advocacy in a unique way. As described by Brianna and other
interviewees, mentorship and sponsorship serve as leadership development that results in more
tangible career advancement.
Both the literature and the participants in the study highlighted the importance of
mentorship and sponsorship to career advancement. Many higher education senior leaders have
been through dedicated mentorship programs that have contributed to their advancement. WOC
are not always provided a mentor or are left to seek out their own. Mentors are sometimes prone
to seek out mentees who remind them of themselves. With a dearth of WOC in senior leadership,
this leaves aspiring WOC leaders in the position of not having someone who is seeking them out
as a mentee. Mentors and sponsors provide access to both knowledge and gatekeepers that serve
as differentiating factors for those who excel in their careers and those who do not.
Research Question 1 Summary
The following table summarizes the themes identified for Research Question 1. The
themes are reflected by the codes used to generate them, followed by a corresponding description
and evidence from the interviews. See Table 2.

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Table 2

Barriers for Minoritized Women Attaining a Senior Leadership Role Themes

Code Description Examples of responses
Microsystem
influences
Interpersonal relationships that impact an
individual's development
So unless you had a parent who
was also in some kind of
leadership role,
administrative role, I don't
know if you would
necessarily have seen [how
to attain and navigate a
senior role modeled].

I don't feel supported by my
manager.

My peer relationships have
become very important,
mostly as my only real
support system, because I
don't have that kind of
supportive relationship with
my manager at all. My peers
really help me cope and
navigate more than anything.
53

Code Description Examples of responses
Social capital The benefits and ability to develop that
are afforded individuals based on their
membership and value in a specific
group
I feel like my growth is very
dependent on how I can
navigate and get others in
like these um, these
gatekeeping type roles to
perceive me.

I think it's the people who are
sort of the professional social
butterflies that are aware of
more opportunities.

[People who attain senior
leadership roles] meet on the
golf course, they meet at
these events that I would not
pay money to go to. You
know, the $500 ticket, you
know, those types of things
… yeah, but the common
thing is they’re in spaces with
people that can make
decisions.
54

Code Description Examples of responses
Aversive
racism
The unconscious negative beliefs that the
dominant group has attributed to those
in the minority group, resulting in
disparate treatment to and avoidance of
the minority group
[The microaggressions I
endured], I think they
definitely created a toxic
environment.

A lot of unconscious and some
conscious racism, and it's
exhausting. But that’s how
racism and White supremacy
function: it works to take
your energy and beat you
down to limit you from
thriving. How am I supposed
to advance in my career when
I'm spending all of my time
coping with the harms of
White supremacy?

A complete denial of racialized
and gendered harm happens
way too often. Like
colleagues who engage in
subtle disrespectful acts, but
only to the Black woman …
if I say my race and gender
have anything to do with it,
people get very defensive.
55

Code Description Examples of responses
Mentorship/
sponsorship
Mentorship occurs when a more senior
staff member provides guidance to a
more junior staff member. Sponsorship
is the specific action of a mentor
amplifying a mentee to advance the
mentee’s career.
I think for the sponsorship, it's
this person that is including
me in the emails and actually
saying my team will take the
lead on this project or please
make time to see Shonti
about xyz. It was her kind of
giving me the stamp of
approval, so that allowed
other people to know that,
you know, to, I guess, to gain
their respect and trust and to
start working with me.

I think the most important thing
is having a supportive
supervisor in your immediate
office. Being able to have
that type of mentorship
relationship, sitting in on
meetings, being able to pick
up the lingo right and just
being comfortable in those
types of settings.

[In order to advance], definitely
having a variety of mentors,
professional mentors, and
academic mentors is
necessary.

The themes that evolved from Research Question 1 mirror much of what the literature
states as obstacles to career advancement for WOC. The collection of themes further highlights
the complexity of the problem. One aspect that is made clearer when reviewing the collection of
themes is the impact and importance of the chronosystem. The chronosystem is a later addition
56

to Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model that highlights the dynamic nature of development
when one considers time (Bronfenbrenner, 1981). As one develops, they experience various
meaningful life events at different times that serve to have a lasting impact or imprint on the
individual. As the women described the barriers they encountered, it was not one event that
occurred only in their adulthood, but rather a collection of events and systems that they
experienced over time. Many of the ways that participants described various barriers included an
aspect wherein there was a cumulation of harm, discrimination, or exclusion over a period of
time that resulted in their exclusion or additional difficulty of attaining a senior-level role. This is
also evidenced when examining the existing data on how many years of experience are held by
the small percentage of WOC who attain senior roles as compared to their peers: research shows
that in multiple industries, WOC expend more time attaining work and educational experience to
reach the same roles. This additional time is another barrier that layers across those presented as
primary themes.
Research Question 2: How Do Power Structures Influence the Self-Efficacy of Minoritized
Women Currently in Managerial Roles As it Relates to Career Advancement?
Nine out of 11 participants did not indicate a significant impact on their self-efficacy as a
result of power structures. This finding was unexpected as literature details the interrelation of
self-efficacy, support mechanisms, and success (Bandura, 1977; Ballout, 2009; Lin et al., 2021).
All participants expressed experiencing some degree of negative power structure experiences at
some point in their career, many sharing it was at their current employer, but they did not ascribe
these experiences as having an impact on their self-efficacy. Two participants shared instances
when they felt power structures did impact their self-efficacy. Participants who did indicate an
57

impact to their self-efficacy described that it was the result of enduring prolonged inequitable
and oppressive power structures. Chelly shared:
There was a time where I really questioned if I was capable, my self-efficacy was gutted
because I had a horrible manager, and the organization was deferential to her because of
her position … then, once she was gone, the next manager was bad too and I was really
wondering if maybe I’m just not capable. When your expertise is constantly ignored, it
takes a toll on you.
While the majority of participants did not report that power structures impacted their self-
efficacy, they did indicate other impacts of power structures. All participants shared that power
structures influenced their career advancement opportunities in some way. The most salient
themes that emerged in relation to power structures were organizational justice, resilience, and
equality attainment debt.
Theme 5: Power Structures Impact the Perception of Organizational Justice
Organizational justice refers to the degree to which individuals perceive that fairness
exists in an organization (Jehanzeb et al., 2020). Nine out of 11 participants shared that the
power structures in their organizations, some hierarchical and others the result of informal
networks, resulted in a diminished sense of organizational justice for the interviewees. They
shared that the power structures often systematically acted as barriers to advancement, as
membership in the structures was largely the result of biases.
One participant shared specifically how the hierarchical top-down structure, composed of
a majority of White men, resulted in decision-making that impacted the presence of WOC in the
organization, as well as the perception of organizational justice from those who remained in the
organization, stating:
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Earlier this year, our senior leadership decided they were going to restructure our
organization. In doing so, they repurposed nine roles, and out of the nine roles, six of
them were women of color and older women of color. … We [Black women] were really
hurt, because these were women that have been around doing their job and been around
for a while that we looked up to. And you all just repurpose them? They had a choice to
find another job within the system or retire.
This is a common theme in organizational downsizing, where minoritized staff are impacted
disproportionately; this is a direct result of the organizational structure that also diminishes the
perceived level of organizational justice that minoritized staff feel (Kalev, 2014; Maum, 2012;
Parks-Yancy, 2011).
Another participant reported that the power structure of informal networks and in-groups
resulted in affinity bias in the distribution of senior-level opportunities, sharing:
There is this unspoken, or actually it is kind of spoken, group of loyalists. And not like a
positive, loyal, and supportive of the organization type of loyalty, it’s this gross toxic
loyalty, the kind that is bound to produce negative outcomes and scandals, ya know. So
yeah, they align themselves with those in power, and by proxy are given power. They
have this obvious influence and whenever there is, you know, um, any kind of, like an
opportunity of sorts, they get it. Actually, it isn’t even that they just receive notification
of opportunities or are sponsored, opportunities are created for them. I’ve seen
nonsensical positions and department formations occur in an effort to elevate these
loyalists, and if you aren’t in that group, the expectation of advancing just isn’t there. I’m
not one of them, and I think I'll be in this same position for another seven years if I don’t
leave the organization.
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In detailing the power structures designed for the election of the most senior roles, Renee
described the following about her institution:
They are supposed to have equitable policies and succession planning and all, but it
doesn’t always seem that is the case. I’ve definitely seen them go through the motions,
even when the person who would ultimately fill the job was basically picked before the
job description was even finished. So it’s like, yeah, you posted the position, yeah, you
announced you were doing a quote-unquote search, but I mean, you just picked who you
wanted, so was the search equitable if the candidate was predetermined? Do I have a
chance to advance if that’s how the game goes? Or I guess I just have to figure out how
to become a player.
In addition to opportunities for advancement, seven of the 11 participants shared a feeling of
inequity for opportunities for professional development. Rin stated that, “At [my organization] it
is a bit fuzzy on who gets to go to conferences, well wait—no, it's just not fair. It is a select
group who get those opportunities.” Professional development opportunities were highlighted by
participants as a necessity for advancement. Marvanne shared that, “In my institution, they seem
to value certifications and degrees; I definitely feel like I’ll have to get more of those to
advance.” Regina stated, “I definitely think I’ll need my doctorate to get to that next level.”
Professional development opportunities are costly, and in the absence of organizational support
to engage in them, participants shared that it was a barrier that they experience that their majority
peers did not. Chelly detailed inequities in the professional development she experienced,
expressing:
I mean, there was a situation where my manager actually suggested that I didn't
participate in an opportunity where I've been selected to attend an enrichment training so
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that they could do it. And I couldn't believe that … I had to advocate for myself and write
a case for why I should go, and when I compiled this three-page case and presented it,
then they were embarrassed by that and they were like, Oh, you didn't have to do this?
And I was like, well, I did, because you weren't supportive of me going until I did this.
And even when I did that, there were no, you know, I had to pay for things on my own
and kind of continue to bring up like is, is it OK for me to register? Has this been
approved like? So yeah, no, not supported in any meaningful way.
Chelly’s experience highlights the way WOC sometimes experience disparate treatment in the
workplace. The suggested denial of her participation in a program she was invited to be a part of
proved to be taxing on her by requiring her to spend additional time justifying her participation
and engaging in follow-up and uncertainty in regards to the payment for the professional
development opportunity. This experience diminished her sense of organizational justice, as she
also revealed that the actions she engaged in and the initial discouragement she received was not
the case for her peers.
Theme 6: The Impact of Power Structures Requires WOC to Be Resilient
Resilience is the ability to recover to a homeostatic level and persist when confronted
with difficult situations (Mejia-Downs, 2017). Researchers also classify resilience as one’s
ability to maintain equilibrium and adapt to persistent and pervasive adversity (Mejia-Downs,
2017). Eight of the 11 participants in the study shared various instances where they invoked
resilience or resilience strategies in the face of inequitable and biased power structures. Victoria
described that:
You know, they’ll say that I do a great job and I know that I do, but what I don’t always
get is the chance to show I can do that next level of responsibility that I know I am
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capable of, so I keep trying to demonstrate that I am capable, but it's hard to show what
you don’t get the chance to show. Steady getting “she does great at this,” but actually
having that opportunity where they see and actually take heed to the things that I'm doing
and they can see that I can go to the next step, I think that is, that's where, that's what I
need to get to the next step.
Victoria’s experience highlights how she leverages resilience to persist in scenarios where her
expertise and quality of work are appreciated but not recognized in a meaningful way. While the
lack of substantive recognition is discouraging, she continues to persist and excel in her work.
Participants recounted how power structures serve to perpetuate inequities, requiring that
they invoke resilience. An element of the resiliency participants demonstrated was the constant
need for them to adapt, which in some cases proved successful, while in others they shared it was
necessary for them to adapt in order for them to maintain their role, but not necessarily
something that resulted in any advancement. Regina shared “I have to constantly fluctuate and be
flexible [if I want to be successful].” Three participants shared that sometimes for WOC,
maintaining their position in their organizations is akin to success. Diane described that, while
she did find the need to adapt, she also recognized that her ability to sustain is not always the
case for WOC, detailing that, “I guess I also have to be thankful that I’ve been here for so long; I
know a lot of other WOC who haven’t had that experience.” In Diane’s explanation of
understanding success in her organization, resilience was a necessity of sustaining in her current
role. Her example highlights how motivation serves as a mediating attribute for resilience.
Interviewees indicated that another motivator for resiliency was their responsibility to
their families. Diane continued to share that, “I need to provide for my family. That’s something
that women today have to think about. As much as I would love to push them to change things,
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thinking about stability is a big thing for me.” Women’s existence in the labor market has
evolved, with more women taking on jobs as the decades progressed; WOC have historically had
a greater presence in the labor market than their White peers (Branch & Hanley, 2013; Kurtulus,
2016). The study participants’ observation that they must be resilient in the workplace aligns
with existing literature and highlights how attributes of the organizational power structure
interplay with the interviewees’ intersectionality—subsequently requiring that they leverage
resilience to navigate the inequitable power structures.
While enduring inequitable power structures, participants displayed their resilience in
detailing how they persist, even in knowing the low likelihood of their efforts resulting in career
advancement or deserved recognition. While describing how power structures reinforce
inequities, Marvanne shared:
It isn’t a meritocracy really. I wish I could just do an exemplary job and be recognized
accordingly, but I work really hard to be especially innovative in the ways that I can have
visible success, even when I know it likely won’t amount to anything tangible or
meaningful.
Performance is a determinant for career advancement, and American society perpetuates the idea
of being a meritocracy wherein it is enough to just perform well and you will be rewarded
accordingly. Research and the participants’ experiences exhibit that the idea of a meritocracy is a
fallacy (Choi, 2011; Cook & Glass, 2015; Davis, 2015). In the wake of a failed system of
fairness, WOC engage in resilience strategies as a means of sustaining. Power structures
contribute to the need for WOC to engage in resilience, since biases are embedded in the
hierarchical systems in which WOC exist.
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The participants described the power structures in their organizations as hierarchical, self-
serving, self-insulating, and bureaucratic. Creshawn shared, “The leadership is all White, and I
don’t think they notice it. They have no incentive to change it, the way it is works for them, and
they are making ridiculous salaries, so however much I try, it feels unattainable.” When asked to
describe how she is able to continuing working in a system where the senior leadership roles
appear to be unattainable, Creshawn explained further that:
I do what I need to do to get my job done; I think understanding the realism is one of the
most helpful things. Maybe I’m jaded, but I think my realism allows me to not get
disappointed; at this point I expect all of this.
The expectation of inequity was a resilience strategy that many participants shared. Ellie shared,
“Nothing surprises me, I expect [this to be unfair]” when describing equitable opportunities in
her organization and the structure of senior leadership.
Interviewees also described the bias that existed within the power structures that
necessitated they engage in resilience to cope and sustain. Chelly explained that:
My organization is very top-down and the top is very White. That is where the rules and
rewards are set, and it is clear that it is all dripping with White supremacy. I do my best,
it’s exhausting, but I’m very clear on the kind of place I work in and while my best hasn’t
proven to advance me, it is all I can do.
Chelly’s experience further elucidates how bias infiltrates the power structure and the subsequent
impact it has on WOC.
In systems where there is racial and gendered bias within the power structures, WOC
engage in resilience as a coping mechanism. The resilience strategies described by the
participants were rooted in an acceptance of their circumstances. The interviewees described a
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clear understanding of their contexts and the likelihood for change or career advancement. They
also communicated that they possessed varied motivations beyond the need to ascend in their
careers. Their ability to be resilient was also rooted in the necessity to maintain an income for
their support or that of their family. So, while they were not always happy with the
circumstances, they also were aware of the need to sustain. Further, some participants engaged in
resilience with a modicum of hope that it may one day result in career advancement.
Theme 7: WOC Accumulate Equality Attainment Debt, Which Hinders Their Advancement
Into Senior Leadership Positions
Equality attainment debt, a term derived from the findings in this study, refers to the
collective additional cost incurred by the minority group as they seek to gain equality in the
workforce. Equality attainment debt relates to concepts from racial opportunity cost (ROC)
(Schmalzbauer & Andrés, 2019; Venzant Chambers, 2019). The ROC framework loosely
borrows from the traditional definition of opportunity cost, which stipulates that a cost is
incurred in terms of forfeited physical quantity or value when one chooses one opportunity over
another (Schmalzbauer & Andrés, 2019; Venzant Chambers, 2019). ROC more specifically is
applied to the evaluation of minoritized students and describes the unique, and sometimes
seemingly invisible, costs they encounter as they seek to excel in White-normed spaces. Equality
attainment debt is similar in that WOC experience costs that are unique to their intersectionality,
and the costs are often invisible to those not impacted. Equality attainment differs from ROC in
that it includes additional forms of cost and specifically looks at how these costs impact the
career advancement for WOC. Equality attainment debt dictates that, as a result of how structural
discrimination manifests in the workplace culture, societal context, and interpersonal context,
WOC experience equity costs that accumulate into debt over time that results in an equity gap
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between them and their White majority peers when WOC try to excel in White-normed spaces.
The equity cost is comprised of the following types of costs: psychosocial, health, opportunity,
and time costs. These costs may be slightly mediated by influences and factors like support,
socioeconomic status, or coping mechanisms. Though WOC may benefit from some level of
mediating factors, these factors do not serve to eliminate the debt they encounter. Figure 2 and
Figure 3 detail the determinants for equity cost and how equality attainment debt serves to render
an equity gap.

Figure 2
Equity Cost Determinants Model

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Figure 3
Equality Attainment Debt Model

The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that WOC have more degrees than
their White majority peers; many WOC have advanced degrees (2019). Participants detailed that
attaining additional education was a necessity for career advancement. Regina stated, “I know
I’ll have to eventually get my doctorate.” Brianna shared that, while all of the members of the
senior leadership team do not have advanced degrees and additional certifications, it is what has
been communicated as necessary in order for her to advance further. Requiring degrees of some
employees and not others for the same role is an inequitable system that places a higher cost on
WOC. Brianna described that:
In order to get to the next step, I think I'll have to go back to school definitely, and also
do some additional professional development. I’m already doing the work, but I think it
will help. Maybe get a certification in something. … All of the people in senior roles
don’t have additional degrees, but I think that will help give me the extra push, you
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know, highlight that a prestigious institution thinks I know what I’m doing to the point
they gave me this title, you know. I would expect that if I got that next level of education
and maybe some other credentials that I would definitely be in line to get a more senior
role.
Brianna’s account describes the disparate treatment WOC encounter when trying to advance.
Engaging in attaining additional education, whether a formal degree or professional development
webinar, is an additional time cost at a minimum, and in many cases WOC assume the financial
cost of the program. Degree programs cost WOC years of time and thousands of dollars. When
WOC are required to attain additional credentials that their White majority peers are not, it puts
them at a disadvantage and drives up equality attainment debt.
Creshawn explained how the existing power structures insulate those who perpetrate
harm while holding the harmed captive. She also shared how the toll of enduring additional
stressors at the hands of those in power is draining to the point of her needing to take time off of
work to seek respite:
In the aftermath of George Floyd’s murder, I had to endure several tone-deaf comments
and conversations. It was painful without the added labor of the racism of my peers and
management, whether they intended it to be that way or not. With leadership, it was even
harder, because I had some space with peers to address their um, missteps if you will.
When it comes to leadership, there is just no psychological safety, so I'm sitting through
their harmful rhetoric and feeling like there’s nothing I can do about it. I can’t leave, I
don’t feel safe speaking up, but this is the culture they’ve designed. It’s a hierarchy and if
you don’t sit at a certain spot on it, you don’t have the safety or agency to share your
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truth, well, unless your truth aligns with those at the top. It was horrible. I just felt so
exhausted by it all, I eventually took a couple of days off to just address the mental strain.
Creshawn’s account highlights forms of cost that serve to expand the equity gap for WOC.
Enduring the mental strain of racism in the workplace is a psychosocial cost, and it distracts from
engaging in career advancing tasks. In Creshawn’s example, it not only presented mental cost,
but also time costs as she needed to take time off of work to address the strain she encountered.
Presence in the workplace provides opportunities for visibility, and when WOC are put
into situations that require them to not be present, it can adversely impact their ability to advance
in their career. They may miss key meetings or opportunities to engage with decision-makers. By
comparison, their White majority peers do not require the same need to disengage with the
workplace as a result of racial and gendered discrimination and trauma as described by
participants.
When Ellie explained how her intersectionality operates within the established power
structures, she described how she feels targeted due to her intersectionality. While she did not
express this as having an impact on her self-efficacy, she did indicate that it was career-limiting
because the harassment she endured put her in a position of self-preservation, which required her
exclusion from career-advancing spaces:
Reflecting on my intersectionality of being a woman of color, there have definitely been
instances where I have endured sexual harassment that feels more severe due to me being
a woman of color. There was one guy, it was creepy, but I feel like he only said slick
things to younger women of color. Like he knew this group was unlikely to say
something or maybe he thought he could get somewhere. I wasn’t with it at all, but it kept
me out of spaces that could have helped my career because I found myself trying to avoid
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him and preserve my reputation, and I hadn't done anything wrong. Eventually, I told him
he was making me uncomfortable and he went straight to gaslighting and tried to laugh it
off, but the discrimination, microaggressions, all feel limitless and come at varying
degrees. But you know, I also was angered by it all, and continue to be whenever I think
about it because my organization provided an environment where he could safely act that
way; they were complicit in his harassing behavior. I don’t buy this one bad actor mess.
Ellie’s account further explains how equality attainment debt manifests. In her experience, she
was positioned to focus her efforts on protecting herself and her reputation. The gendered and
racial harassment she experienced also served to keep her from opportunities in her organization.
Due to the harassment she endured, which she attributes to her intersectionality, she experienced
an opportunity cost as she felt she had to actively avoid spaces that could have provided avenues
for career advancement.
The bias within the power structures nurtures a culture that is harmful to the career
advancement of WOC. The racial and gendered trauma that they encounter from these structures
results in a collective cost that increases inequity and serves as a greater barrier to career
advancement. The study participants highlighted various costs that they incur, like emotional,
financial, time, health, and opportunity. The equality attainment debt experienced by WOC is
even greater when time is considered. The debt makes career advancement harder over time as
finding methods to close the gaps introduced by the debt is difficult and some of the costs are
finite resources that cannot be restored, like time.
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Research Question 2 Summary
Table 3 details the themes revealed in relation to Research Question 2. The table provides
the code related to each theme and an associated description of the code and evidence from the
interviews.

Table 3
Power Structures and Self-Efficacy Themes
Code Description Examples of responses
Organizational
justice

The degree to which
individuals perceive
fairness exists in an
organization
It felt like Black women weren’t valued at our
organization … the perception is that you got
rid of Black women and we are not valued.”

I’ve seen nonsensical positions and department
formations occur in an effort to elevate these
loyalists, and if you aren’t in that group, the
expectation of advancing just isn’t there.

They are supposed to have equitable policies and
succession planning and all, but it doesn’t
always seem that is the case. I’ve definitely
seen them go through the motions, even when
the person who would ultimately fill the job
was basically picked before the job description
was even finished.
Resilience Interpersonal
relationships that
impact an individual's
development
So I keep trying to demonstrate that I am capable,
but it's hard to show what you don’t get the
chance to show—or better yet, when no one
ever looks at what you do.

It isn’t a meritocracy really. I wish I could just do
an exemplary job and be recognized
accordingly, but I work really hard to be
especially innovative in the ways that I can
have visible success, even when I know it likely
won’t amount to anything tangible or
meaningful.

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Code Description Examples of responses
Equality
attainment
debt
The collective
additional cost
incurred by the
minority group as
they seek to gain
equality in the
workforce
In order to get to the next step, I think I'll have to
go back to school definitely, and also do some
additional professional development. I’m
already doing the work, but I think it will help.

It’s a hierarchy, and if you don’t sit at a certain
spot on it, you don’t have the safety or agency
to share your truth, well, unless your truth
aligns with those at the top. It was horrible. I
just felt so exhausted by it all, I eventually took
a couple of days off to just address the mental
strain.

Contrary to the data in the literature review, the majority of participants did not
experience a decline in their self-efficacy when experiencing adversity as a result of existing
power structures. Participants collectively shared a high level of self-efficacy in spite of
discrimination, inequities, lack of models, and lack of support. Interviewees shared that they do
not feel less capable of performing the requisite tasks of a more senior role, but they do have
doubts about being given the opportunity to do so. This finding turns more to the concept of
equity and that the issue of the paucity of WOC in senior leadership positions is not intertwined
with how capable WOC feel in terms of performing the requisite tasks. Literature shows that the
perception of a lack of organizational justice is tied to organizational commitment, which is also
reflected in the study. Most participants shared that, due to the lack of fairness, equitable
practices, and the likelihood of being given an opportunity that they would likely move to a new
job in order to ascend to a higher position.
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The concept of equality attainment debt appeared as a significant contributing factor to
the problem of practice. The interviewees’ responses revealed several quantifiable costs that their
majority peers do not have to assume. Research shows that there is additional financial debt
related to microsystem influences like familial wealth, but there is a dearth of research on the
relationship between all of the debt and how it functions collectively as a limitation. This concept
reveals a significant gap experienced by WOC: if they consistently have to expend more than
their majority peers, the likelihood of their advancement towards equality in senior roles is
significantly diminished. Additionally, equality attainment debt impacts self-efficacy when the
collection of debt necessary to achieve equality appears to be insurmountable.
While participants displayed high levels of resiliency and did not explicitly state that they
felt an impact on their self-efficacy, they did communicate a sense of defeat in certain spaces.
They were apt to move to a new organization if they felt the cost of staying at their current
organization would not prove fruitful. Creshawn shared, “I actually was working in a different
area of higher ed, but it was emotionally exhausting because of the constant defending me being
a Black woman in that space. I couldn’t sustain it, so I left.” Chelly shared that, “I think my only
real option to advance is to leave.” The data suggests that organizations are positioning
themselves for further issues of employee attrition as a result of this problem. Attrition is costly,
both in terms of performance and in overall solvency for an institution.
Research Question 3: What Is the Organizational Culture and How Does It Contribute to
the Paucity of Minoritized Women in Senior Leadership Roles?
The organizational culture was proven to be one of the barriers to advancement. All
participants indicated elements of the culture that impacted their career trajectory. As described
by participants, culture is a mediating factor for equity. If the culture was intentionally inclusive,
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then the likelihood for equitable outcomes was higher. Conversely, if the culture was not
inclusive and embraced negative ideologies like racism and sexism, then the likelihood for
equitable outcomes for WOC was diminished. Interviewees shared that they found their
organizational cultures to be insufficiently supportive environments for WOC. Some expressed
that their organizations have begun the work of establishing support mechanisms, but that work
is still in its infancy and has not produced any positive results to date. Others shared that they do
not feel their organizations are blatantly against WOC, but that they also do not engage in any
behaviors that would demonstrate an intentional effort to support the advancement of WOC.
Theme 8: Adverse Macrosystem Influences Act As Barriers for WOC Attaining Senior
Leadership Roles
The manner that the organizational culture impacted the WOC in the study can be
understood through examining the macrosystem. The macrosystem describes the values,
ideologies, and attitudes of the culture and the social context that impacts an individual
(Bronfenbrenner, 1981). All study participants shared ways that the macrosystem has served as a
barrier to career advancement. The macrosystem influences that participants described as barriers
included cultural systems that perpetuate harm to WOC, a pro-White bias, microaggressions,
gaslighting and offender protection, and inequitable practices.
Cultural Systems That Perpetuate Harm to WOC. Nine out of 11 participants detailed
how their current organizational cultures perpetuate harm to the career advancement of WOC.
They indicated that this is demonstrated in the culture by attributes like the denial of racialized or
gendered disparities, fostering an attitude of anti-Blackness, withholding of autonomy, placing a
high value on sameness, and equating politeness with the existence of equity. The collection of
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these cultural features resulted in WOC experiencing trauma, having to code-switch, assimilate,
and accept problematic behavior from their superiors and White majority peers.
In describing how the organizational culture has served as a barrier to advancement,
Chelly detailed how her institution has a culture that denies WOC the autonomy necessary to
engage in key leadership tasks. When autonomy is a feature of organizational culture, employees
are likely to be more engaged and feel they have more agency (Alok et al., 2021; Dysvik et al.,
2013). Engagement and a sense of agency are drivers for career advancement; thus, a culture that
limits these factors is detrimental to upward mobility (Alok et al., 2021; Dysvik et al., 2013).
This aspect of the culture was perceived to disproportionately impact WOC compared to their
majority peers, as Chelly stated:
I think there are some cultural factors that I think impact me as a Black professional in
this kind of almost liminal space where in my organization, I'm elevated to a certain
extent because I have direct reports. But in the broader kind of organization, there's not a
lot of, I don't have a lot of autonomy, and I do not have, I don't feel as respected as I
would be, I think if I held different identities … I think again, there are these kind of
systemic issues and structural issues that haven't been addressed. You know, they're kind
of endemic to the experience of Black women professionally.
The endemic experience that Chelly described is a product of the organizational culture. If the
organization demonstrates a belief that WOC should be relegated to certain spaces, it is to be
expected that they will not ascend into senior leadership roles. This belief is demonstrated
through the disparate treatment experienced by WOC.
Pro-White Bias. A pro-White bias also appeared as a component of the organizational
cultures throughout the interviews. A pro-White bias is a type of affinity bias wherein there is a
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conscious or unconscious belief that leaders are White (Marquardt et al., 2015). When reflecting
on the composition of senior leadership, 10 of the 11 participants noted that a commonality was
that senior leaders were all White or predominately White. Victoria stated, “All of the leaders are
White,” highlighting the common trait among leaders in her organizations. Affinity biases serve
to ensure that similarity is preserved and reinforced. If one does not mirror those who hold these
biases, then the likelihood of their selection for senior roles is significantly diminished, which
was the experience for many study participants. In addition to the likelihood of promotion being
limited by this cultural feature, affinity biases also limit access to other career-advancing
opportunities and networking spaces. When reflecting on her work culture and what the
organization values in senior leadership, Shonti shared:
It may be unconscious, but in reflecting on how all of our leadership is, well, they are just
all White, it seems at least from my perspective that the organization values Whiteness to
some extent. I know many non-White people in the organization that are brilliant,
ambitious, yet overlooked for these opportunities. I would deign to say that some even
outpace those who are in the roles. The success some of the White leaders have is
because of the brilliance of their non-White staff in a lot of instances. I doubt they reflect
on it at all, the lack of representation, but that really is an undeniable fact, they are all
White.
The lack of representation adversely affects women of color and serves as a reminder that the
feasibility of advancement is unlikely for them. As participants reflected on their organizational
values and identified that Whiteness and the assimilation to Whiteness was a demonstrated value,
they also linked this to how the cultural feature impacted them. Marvanne stated that, “I see how
they are, the similarity isn’t lost on me you know, but I have no plans on assimilating or trying to
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be more White in any way just to advance. If they don’t recognize my skill, I will have to just
head somewhere else.” Her reflection details how the lack of representation adversely impacts
WOC and often presents leaving the institution as the only means of career advancement.
Microaggressions. Microaggressions are another component of the organizational
cultures experienced by the participants. Microaggressions refer to the subtle, often unintentional
slights directed at a minoritized individual that communicates a harmful and/or problematic
stereotype (Rimmer, 2020). All study participants shared that they have experienced
microaggressions in the workplace, resulting in varying levels of impact on their career
advancement. Participants described their cultures as not only engaging in microaggressions but
also fostering an environment that provided a safe space for offenders. When participants
encountered microaggressions, the organizational response was typically nonexistent. Rin shared
that, “The organization has no response for microaggressions; you just have to find a way to
cope or shut it down yourself. But you might be labeled as sensitive if you mention anything, so I
usually just ignore it.” Existing within a system that is prone to cause harm places an individual
in a guarded state (DeCuir-Gunby et al., 2016; Rimmer, 2020). The perpetual guarded state that
WOC find themselves in and the trauma from cultures that embrace microaggressions erodes
their wellbeing; diminished wellbeing impacts career advancement adversely (DeCuir-Gunby et
al., 2016; Rimmer, 2020). Regina shared evidence of this experience in her organization, stating
that:
No, there's no organizational response to microaggressions. The response is typically
justification for the action. In other words, not just, not justification, sorry, not
justification—explanation. [The existence of microaggressions in the workplace and lack
of organizational response impacts me because I feel I am always forced into a
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juxtaposition]. And it's something that for me, how it's affected me is I'm constantly like,
every time I show up to work, I'm constantly in a situation. When I'm in a situation, I'm
constantly asking myself if in the way I choose to deal with it, if I am perpetuating it or
am I trying to change it? Like, does it make sense to speak up in the moment or what.
Regina’s account shows how deep the impact of organizations’ failure to address
microaggressions is for WOC. Not only did she have to endure the harm of the microaggression,
but also the harm of knowing her organization will not address the issue. In these instances,
WOC do not feel cared for by their institutions. Additionally, they are burdened with the
decision to still address the issue or not, feeling that their failure to say something may further
the actions of the offender and the culture of ignoring microaggressions. As Regina shared the
feelings she experiences when dealing with these scenarios she expressed frustration, exhaustion,
and disappointment.
Gaslighting and Victim-Blaming. Eight of the 11 participants shared various examples
of how their organizational cultures were safe havens for offenders, where gaslighting and
victim-blaming were often used. Gaslighting is a term from the field of psychology where an
offender manipulates the offended or victim into doubting their lived experience (Johnson et al.,
2021). Victim blaming is when the victim in a scenario is blamed for the actions of the offender
(Johnson et al., 2021). Chelly shared that when she experiences offenses in her organization,
“The onus is on me to deal with it, because the organization doesn’t recognize it as a problem;
it’s a problem they see with my level of sensitivity.” This type of response is an example of
victim-blaming and gaslighting: Chelly experienced microaggressions and instead of addressing
the offender, the organization advised her that there isn’t a problem except for her perception of
events.
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Gaslighting and victim-blaming were further explicated by Diane, who shared how her
organization also fails to address the offenders. Diane detailed that:
When [microaggressions] happen, you go to HR and they help you by telling you how
you can change to better deal with the situation instead of addressing the offender, like let
me help you overcome this. Let me change you. They didn't mean it that way. You know,
that type of thing. So it's always redirecting the employee. It's almost really just, suck it
up and you know, it'll be fine, you know? They act like, because Joe is obviously a nice
person, nothing is wrong.
The participants’ examples highlight the organizational hesitancy to address racial and gendered
harm when it is not blatant and egregious. When WOC experience subtle or aversive forms of
racism and sexism, they are put in a situation where they wonder if they will be believed or if the
organization will instead opt to rewrite history.
Inequitable Practices. Beyond the harmful cultures that embrace microaggressions,
eight of the 11 interviewees also shared that their organizational cultures were largely
inequitable. Inequitable practices are those that disproportionately advantage the dominant group
and disadvantage the minoritized group. The participants explained how they perceived a
different set of rules for success between them and their majority party colleagues. Creshawn
shared that she has inquired in her organization about how she could succeed and was advised
that she needed to gain more degrees and credentials, which she shared differs from the
expectations for her White colleagues. She detailed:
Well at my organization, I feel like I have to do considerably more than some of my
White and definitely White male colleagues if I want to succeed or gain recognition.
Like, I have a male colleague who is smart, but also kind of does the bare minimum. This
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man is lauded. If I want even a fraction of that recognition, I have to do something truly
exemplary and put in an inordinate amount of hours. It is wild to me! Also, in thinking
about what my organization recognizes, values and promotes; I have been denied
promotions in my organization and told that I should gain more degrees and certificates,
mind you I have a master’s degree. It is weird. I asked if there was a feeling that I wasn’t
capable of the tasks, or maybe I haven’t demonstrated that; they tell me that they love me
and think I am definitely capable, it is just one of those technicalities that they are
looking for specific credentials. But I recently learned that at least two colleagues with
less years of work experience, not even a bachelor's degree, have quickly ascended into
higher roles than I have been able to. One is an AVP, and they never post those roles
without saying at a minimum a bachelor’s is required. The only difference I am seeing is
that these people are White or White adjacent … meaning that they really seem to go out
of their way to uplift the idea of Whiteness and assimilate to ensure their place in the in-
group, and I guess that’s the ticket. It works for them and here I am.
Further expounding on how organizational cultures are inequitable, participants shared that their
organizations fail to adopt equitable practices. Interviewees shared how they felt the lack of
equitable practices at their organizations has adversely impacted their careers. When asked about
the presence of equitable promotion and hiring practices Regina stated, “Sad to say, we don’t
have any.” Victoria shared, “No, we don’t have anything like that. It seems like you have to
know someone or be liked. I’d love to figure that out though, but no, no official policy that I
recall.”
One example of inequitable practices that participants shared was centered around
promotions in their organizations, sharing that at times, organizational politics and
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discriminatory actions impacted the promotions in their organizations. Diane indicated, “Well,
they can’t just outright promote someone … they have to post the role … but that doesn’t stop
them from still just hiring who they already had in mind. I’ve wasted time applying when the
applicant was predetermined; I never had a chance.” Interviewees also shared that their
organizations lacked clarity in the determination of promotions. Chelly described how the lack of
inequitable practices resulted in her career stagnation, sharing that:
At my current organization, I would say, I mean, not to be you know, overly dramatic,
but I would say it's to some extent I felt that it has ruined my career in some aspects,
because I have never been in an organization where I have not been promoted or
recognized in as, you know, I've been in my role for six years and actually the role has
been diminished kind of systematically over a period of years. And most of it has been
because of organization politics, you know? So that instead of growing in a role, I'm in a
situation where I earn more money than I used to earn, but I actually have a less fulfilling
role, less responsibility, less learning. I'm leveraging just a fraction of my skills. So, it's
derailed my career in many ways because I'm now, I think, not in as strong a position to
elevate externally and to go to that next level.
Brianna described the inequity in her organization as resulting in frustration and limited
opportunities, illustrating that the road to promotion was nebulous and often resulted in the need
to leave the organization, a recurring theme for several study participants. Brianna shared that:
I spent years trying to figure out how people got promoted because there was no
transparency and there were no clear-cut answers from supervisor level, from people in,
even from other departments, or from colleagues. Peers, they would all have different
strategies that they would use to get promoted, many of which consisted of leaving the
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institution and coming back—like, that's a really strange way to get promoted …. um,
and even in finally going to an HR representative, they would often kick it back to your
department heads and then, depending on the dynamics of the leadership in the
department, there would also be kind of, you know, it felt like hitting a brick wall when it
comes to just getting answers … so I found it incredibly frustrating.
When organizations fail to implement clear policies, WOC are more likely to experience
inequitable outcomes based on the accounts of the study participants. The lack of policy in the
example Brianna shared exhibits the additional effort she had to expend in trying to find a path to
career advancement and the increased likelihood of her leaving the institution as a means of
advancing. This aspect of the culture is another that demonstrates the increased attrition
institutions will encounter if they do not interrogate the organizational practices that contribute to
the overall culture.
Research Question 3 Summary
Table 4 details the sub-categories for the theme identified in Research Question 3. The
overarching theme was that adverse macrosystem influences act as a barrier for WOC attaining
senior leadership roles. The table organizes the sub-categories by code, followed by a description
of the code and example responses from the interviews.
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Table 4
Macrosystem Influence Theme: Sub-Categories
Code Description Examples of responses
Cultural systems
that perpetuate
harm against
WOC

Cultural systems that are
characterized by attributes like
the denial of racialized or
gendered disparities, fostering
an attitude of anti-Blackness,
withholding of autonomy,
placing a high value on
sameness, and equating
politeness with the existence
of equity
The culture is not one that is made
for me, it is made for me to fit into,
but it still lets me know that I
never will.

I feel like there is no point calling out
racism or sexism; I have seen
people do it a few times and there
is never a positive outcome.
Usually it seems to backfire on the
person who complained.

They don’t see anything wrong with
the culture, which is odd because
our whole organization has this
huge push to fix the culture right
now. My leadership’s response is
one that feels like the problems are
everywhere else in the institution,
but not our group. So, it is hard to
believe there will be positive
change when the ‘change makers’
don’t see the problems.
Pro-White bias A type of affinity bias wherein
there is a conscious or
unconscious belief that leaders
are White
All of the leaders are White, and
even in this past year with more
emphasis and supposed care about
diversity, every time they have had
an opportunity to add a new
member to the senior leadership
team, they have chosen another
White person.

There is an obvious correlation: the
leaders are all White. I can’t say
that that is why they were chosen,
but at the same time, you can’t
ignore that and that it is the way it
has always been.

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Code Description Examples of responses
Microaggressions The subtle, often unintentional
slights directed at a
minoritized individual that
communicates a harmful
and/or problematic stereotype
I’ve experienced microaggressions,
like being told I’m articulate,
which is offensive because it is
never said to my White
counterparts who are articulate, but
it is almost like there is a surprise
that a Black woman would be
articulate.

I’m younger and Asian, sometimes
people will do things like assume
that I am the admin, or even when
they know what my role is, I’ll
consistently be the one asked to
take notes in meetings, and these
are spaces where I am there to
contribute my expertise. But they
just expect me to be meager and
cooperative, if I decline suddenly
I’m in the wrong.
Gaslighting and
offender
protection
When an offender manipulates
the offended or victim into
doubting their lived
experience
I had a horribly toxic manager and
would vent to my colleagues and
even other leaders in the
organization. They agreed the
person was bad, but also felt that it
wasn’t as bad as I presented it
because they hadn’t experienced
the same thing and didn’t believe
there was malintent.

I shared that I felt like I was the only
one who was cut-off consistently
when I was presenting my points.
As soon as I brought in that I felt
like it was because I was a woman
of color, I was told I was
misinterpreting things and that
what happened to me happens to
everyone. It didn’t, but god forbid
we call out racism and sexism.
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Code Description Examples of responses
Inequitable
practices
Unfair practices or practices that
disproportionately advantage
the dominant group and
disadvantage the minoritized
group
I could never get clarity on the
promotion process … hard to
advance if the process and rules
aren’t shared.

There are written processes, what is
supposed to happen. So, bonuses
are a rarity in higher education,
and I've been told they require a lot
of paperwork and justification, but
then I hear about it happening very
easily for people in the in-group. It
appears that it’s this hard process
when I ask about it, but others
don’t have to go through that same
process.

The macrosystem highlights barriers to career advancement for WOC in the study. The
study participants shared how various core elements of their organizational cultures, or
macrosystems, impacted their career advancement prospects. Most shared that there were toxic
elements of their organizational cultures that worked as barriers to advancement, like
organizational tolerance of discriminatory behavior. Conversely, participants shared that when
organizations embraced inclusive and equitable cultural features, WOC experienced more
success in career advancement and an enhanced sense of organizational justice. The elements of
the organizational culture that negatively impacted the presence of WOC in senior leadership
roles the most were the acceptance of microaggressions, denial of racialized or gendered
offenses, catering to the comfort of the majority party over the treatment of marginalized staff, a
pro-White bias, and inequitable practices. The primary outcome for WOC who encountered
cultures that hindered their advancement was to leave and join a new organization.
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Conclusion
The women in the study displayed high levels of self-efficacy in terms of their ability to
successfully perform in a senior role despite experiencing aspects that research shows can
negatively impact one’s self-efficacy (Corneille et al., 2018; Montas-Hunter, 2012; Rollins et al.,
2006). They also collectively had a significant amount of experience and education, items that
are generally required for senior roles. The barriers to advancement are not the result of
deficiencies within WOC, but rather the result of systemic and cultural elements. A common
thread throughout all of the themes was the concept of equality attainment debt; WOC
experience various costs that serve as barriers and/or mechanisms that extend the timeline for
attaining equality in the workplace.
The microsystem influences highlighted by the participants emphasized the overall
systemic and cyclical nature of the issue. The lack of models within their immediate circles
serves as both a limitation and a debt element. Where their White peers may have exposure to a
family member or mentor in a senior leadership role, because there is an existing paucity of
WOC in senior leadership roles, there is a decreased likelihood that WOC will have access to
this important microsystem influence (Gundemir et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2018; Martin-Alcazar et
al., 2012). The lack of adequate models appears to prolong the amount of time and knowledge of
opportunities for advancement. This element of equality attainment debt shows up in the
additional time that it will take WOC to learn the unspoken rules and politics in the workplace
that afford advancement opportunities. The gaps experienced by WOC are also evidenced in the
macrosystem influences.
The interviewees shared various details about their organizational cultures and values, both
those espoused and the actual observed behaviors. While not all of the women expressed that
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their organizational cultures were innately toxic, a common thread was that there was not an
intentional effort to support the advancement of WOC into senior leadership roles. This lack of
intentionality provided space for toxic cultural elements to thrive, like inequitable practices and a
pro-White bias. While the cultural aspects that caused harm and furthered the equality attainment
debt for WOC was not done maliciously in all cases, the lack of attention to organizational
culture through an equity lens proved to have inequitable outcomes for WOC.
Additionally, socio-cultural elements of the macrosystem served as barriers for WOC based
on participants’ responses. These include societal beliefs on the treatment of WOC and a culture
that is rooted in elements of structural racism. Interviewees shared that they exist in a culture that
does not demonstrate it values WOC; this shows up through beliefs like the color-blind narrative
and an ‘all lives matter’ approach to addressing career advancement, which ultimately serves to
perpetuate inequities experienced by WOC in the workforce. These influences serve as a barrier
as they also further the equality attainment debt experienced by WOC as they endeavor to reach
senior leadership positions.
The primary method expressed by WOC as a means of gaining access into more senior
roles was to institute equity and accountability into organizations. While their self-efficacy was
high, their belief that there would be an equitable means of attaining a senior role in their current
organizations was low. They shared that this belief is based on the lack of succession planning,
inequitable methods of promotion and hiring practices, lack of notification of opportunities, and
those in gatekeeping roles not envisioning WOC as capable in the roles. Many participants
expressed that the perception others have of them and their skillset serves as a barrier because
they are not provided the same opportunities to influence said perception. The key findings
provide insight into potential solutions to addressing the problem of practice.
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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion
This chapter reviews and summarizes the findings and provides additional detail on how
they relate to existing literature. Additionally, the chapter will provide detail on
recommendations related to the study findings, the limitations and delimitations of the study, and
implications for equity.
Discussion of Findings
Much like the concept of intersectionality which impacts all study participants, the
barriers to attaining senior leadership roles are also complex and, at times, nebulous. The
participants expounded on various systemic and structural issues that impact their ability to
ascend in their careers. They perceived that their identities and intersectionality specifically
affected their experience, resulting in disparate treatment of some form. While the study
provided many themes that elucidated causes for the problem of practice, the overarching
concepts that evolved were how the microsystem, macrosystem, and Equality Attainment Debt
act as barriers to career advancement for WOC.
Microsystem Influences
The aspects of the microsystem that participants communicated were most impactful to
their career trajectory were the presence or absence of a mentor/sponsor, access to a model in
their lives, and level of support from their direct supervisor. These components of the
microsystem serve multiple purposes: they provide knowledge, amplification, and access. When
considering the ways that individuals learn, the context that they exist in is also a component.
Bandura’s social cognitive theory details the value of having a model and the benefit of
observation in order to learn (1977). Access into senior-level roles requires an understanding of
both specific job skills and the unwritten rules of leadership and office politics, a concept that
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was communicated in the study and also reflected in other comparable studies (Airini et al.,
2011; Schulz et al., 2014). Frequently, the learning of unwritten rules is achieved through the
observation of models or the longer route of trial and error; WOC who lack a model are relegated
to the latter modality of learning these unspoken rules (Airini et al., 2011; Schulz et al., 2014).
Mentors and sponsors provide mentees access to those in gatekeeping roles. Mentors and
sponsors also amplify mentees to those with decision-making power by speaking positively
about mentees even when they are not physically present.
While WOC may possess the requisite skills to be considered for a position, the lack of
visibility that their majority peers experience serves to limit WOC’s advancement. Literature
shows that many in senior-level roles had the benefit of advocacy from a mentor or sponsor,
ostensibly providing the necessary competitive advantage of visibility. This concept was also
highlighted in this study as participants recounted that they perceived additional visibility would
be a necessity for career advancement, based on their observations of how it has benefited those
currently in senior leadership roles. If higher education institutions aim to increase the
representation of WOC in senior leadership roles, attention to the presence of mentorship and
sponsorship for WOC must be addressed.
Macrosystem Influences
A large component of career advancement barriers experienced by WOC was revealed to
be the macrosystem. The macrosystem, consisting of the culture, values, and beliefs within the
socio-cultural context in which WOC exist proved to be a feature that perpetuated harm against
WOC. The adverse impacts experienced by WOC as a result of the macrosystem manifested in
institutional cultures that embrace microaggressions, deny racialized or gendered offenses, cater
to the comfort of the majority party over the treatment of marginalized staff, expect WOC to
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display resilience, and engage in a pro-White bias. The impact of these toxic cultures is the
erosion of the well-being of WOC; when one’s well-being is adversely affected, then the
likelihood of success and advancement is diminished. Existing literature supports this finding
and multiple studies reveal the impact that organizational culture has on individuals and their
career trajectory (Coker et al., 2018; DeCuir-Gunby et al., 2016; Rimmer, 2020).
When examining the macrosystem impacts on WOC, participants shared that they did not
experience diminished levels of self-efficacy, even in the face of navigating toxic cultures. This
finding differed from comparable studies. There is literature that expounds upon Bandura’s
social cognitive theory, which details how self-efficacy can impact one’s ability to learn and
perform, that indicates that adverse sociocultural factors can diminish self-efficacy (1977).
Ostensibly, lowered self-efficacy then serves as a barrier to performance and career
advancement. Participants did not share evidence of this phenomenon; this variance from
existing literature might be explained by the level of resilience that interviewees communicated.
Reinforced resilience appears to function as a mediating factor for the impacts of a toxic culture
on one’s self-efficacy.
Equality Attainment Debt
Participants described a gap that developed over time and served to limit their career
advancement, especially as compared to their majority group peers. When all elements of the gap
are combined, equality attainment debt is revealed. Equality attainment debt, a grounded
theoretical concept derived from this study, refers to the collective cost incurred by WOC which
results in a debt that increases the equity gap over time. Equality attainment debt also elucidates
how structural racism functions as compounded harm over time, resulting in a structural deficit
for WOC, wherein finding a means to cover the debt proves unlikely or impossible (Beckwith et
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al., 2016; Schmalzbauer & Andrews, 2019; Venzant Chambers, 2019). The types of costs that
were expressed include psychosocial, health, opportunity, and time costs. Some examples of
equality attainment debt expressed by participants included enduring mental strain as the result
of racism within the workplace, missing opportunities due to sexism and sexual harassment, and
incurring financial debt that their White majority peers did not have to as the result of needing
additional education to qualify for senior roles. Additionally, when considering the time
component of equality attainment debt, the timeline does not begin only when WOC enter the
workforce but is rather spanning over the course of the individual’s life and prior. There are
structural detrimants that are embedded in society that precede the existence of some individual
WOC, but that still impact them. Examples of this include generational trauma, societal norms
entrenched in White supremacy and misogyny, redlining, and gerrymandering (Rodgers, 2021).
Recommendations for Practice
Through examination of the existing literature, the prime interventions that organizational
leaders must engage to help remedy the problem of practice are structured mentorship programs,
democratized professional development, and succession planning with an equity lens. The
collection of interventions amounts to a equity initiative. As the study revealed that WOC
experience an equity gap due to a variety of impacts, it is imperative that the solutions
organizations utilize are equity-minded. Organizations often turn to a diversity management
program, which is the collection of policies and practices employed by an organization to
effectively manage a diverse workforce; I instead propose an expansion and redefining of
diversity management—organizations should instead develop a comprehensive equity initiative
(Dennissen et al., 2020). The core components of the inaugural institutional equity initiatives
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include the implementation of a structured mentorship program, democratized professional
development, and implementation of succession planning with an equity lens.
Implementing an equity initiative would serve to mitigate several of the barriers to career
advancement for WOC as detailed in the literature. A mentorship program would serve as a
means to advance network inclusivity, increase feelings of belonging, and advance skills.
Democratizing professional development offerings would serve as a mechanism to enhance
career readiness and elevate employee engagement. Lastly, instituting a succession planning
structure that considers diversity, equity, and inclusion will increase the likelihood that WOC
perceive there is organizational justice within the institution and establish a more equitable
means of advancement; lack of opportunity was a determinant for attrition per the existing
research.
Recommendation 1: Structured Mentorship Program to Address Negative Micro and
Macrosystem Influences
Nine out of the 11 participants indicated that mentorship would be necessary for WOC to
advance into senior leadership roles. Mentorship provides a less experienced individual access to
the knowledge of a more experienced individual, as well as their guidance. This recommendation
serves to better position WOC to gain both visibility, access, and necessary knowledge to
advance into more senior roles (Montas-Hunter, 2012; Olson & Jackson, 2009). In addition to
providing direct value to WOC through knowledge gained, mentorship is also a means of
addressing negative micro and macrosystem influences (Olson & Jackson, 2009). Researchers
found evidence that structured mentorship programs also serve to enhance the cultural
competence of mentors (Behar et al., 2019; Corneille et al., 2018). If leaders enhance their
cultural competency, they stand to improve the organizational culture and also function as better
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support mechanisms for WOC as components of the micro and macrosystem (Behar et al., 2019;
Corneille et al., 2018).
Conversely, studies have identified the lack of mentorship as a barrier for WOC, further
strengthening the recommendation of developing a structured mentorship program to assist the
career advancement of WOC (Behar et al., 2019; Corneille et al., 2018). Structured mentorship
programs are found to have outcomes wherein both mentors and mentees receive professional
development, resulting in a symbiotic relationship that provides mutual value (Behar et al., 2019;
Corneille et al., 2018). The dual benefit provides further incentive for organizations to adopt the
implementation of structured mentoring programs as an element of the solution.
It is crucial that organizations develop a structured mentorship program and not an
informal program (Behar et al., 2019; Corneille et al., 2018). There are a variety of modalities of
mentorship programs; structured mentorship programs are shown to have more success in
advancing equity. A structured mentorship program provides training for mentors to ensure
consistency and quality of mentorship efforts, established program goals, application processes,
financial support for program development, evaluation and accountability systems, facilitated
group meetings with mentor and mentee cohort participants, and defined timelines.
Recommendation 2: Establish Democratized Professional Development to Enhance
Equitable Opportunities for Career Advancement for WOC and Improve Feelings of
Organizational Justice
Nine out of the 11 participants highlighted that they experienced a diminished sense of
organizational justice. Seven of the 11 participants further expounded that a cause of their
diminished sense of organizational justice was the result of the inequitable distribution of
professional development opportunities. It is recommended that institutions adopt a
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democratized model of professional development, with an emphasis on justice and fairness.
Professional development opportunities provide knowledge to the employee as well as skill
credibility that can lead to career advancement (Luo et al., 2020; Stewart, 2016). If these
programs are built with a justice and fairness framework, the perception of organizational justice
increases (Choi, 2011; Choi & Rainey, 2014). Further, incorporating a democratized model of
professional development within the overall equity initiative will specifically provide WOC with
an increased sense of organizational justice (Kim & Park, 2015). Professional development is
also an investment for the organization as it assists in building and strengthening the pool of
leaders within the organization.
Research indicates the growing need for qualified senior leaders in organizations; this is
especially true in higher education (Peterson, 2019). If organizations hope to fill these senior-
level roles, it is imperative that professional development is not limited to only the most senior
roles, but instead distributed to those in other levels of the organization (Stewart, 2016). This
method of distribution expands the breadth of expertise, whereas current models that cater only
to the most senior levels, furthering the homogeneity of the most senior roles, limit the
organization’s capacity for growth (Stewart, 2016). If organizations fail to expand who has
access to professional development opportunities, they will further the equity gap and encounter
attrition of WOC (Choi, 2011; Choi & Rainey, 2014; Kim & Park, 2015).
Those who are able to obtain credentials often are able to leverage their additional skill
and knowledge to attain more senior roles (Luo et al., 2020; Olcott, 2021). Many senior roles are
posted with indications of required credentials. WOC in the study shared that they do not have
access to these opportunities at the same rate as their White majority peers. In some instances,
they shared that they were required to assume the cost of the training themselves, denied the
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opportunity, deferred to engaging in the opportunity until a later time, or made to advocate for
their participation in a way that their White majority peers were not. Implementing a model of
democratized professional development will also serve to reduce the equality attainment debt
experienced by WOC.
Multiple participants described a need to obtain specific certificates or degrees, with
prices ranging from $3,000 to greater than $70,000. Providing more opportunities for
professional development may mitigate the need or perception that attaining pricey degrees is
necessary. Many of the same skills provided in the costly programs described by participants can
be attained through professional development programs that are also highly regarded (Olcott,
2021). Additionally, many of the professional development programs allow employees the
opportunity to display knowledge of their new skill more directly than a degreed program may,
as they sometimes engage in these programs with peers at their institutions.
Democratizing professional development entails developing an equitable process for the
distribution of opportunities; when organizations embrace an approach rooted in justice and
fairness, they stand to see sustained success (Choi, 2011; Dahanayake et al., 2018; Ko et al.,
2014). This can be achieved through establishing protocols for applying for opportunities,
ensuring that there is a dedicated budget for professional development, developing training
programs within the ecosystem of the organization, identifying external learning opportunities,
providing access to digital learning sources, and working with employees to determine which
opportunities would be most appropriate to grow their skills and contribute to organizational
development. Further, to ensure that the democratized model contributes to equity, leaders must
provide release time for staff to engage in professional development activities within the work
day. If WOC are made to engage in professional development on their own time, this furthers the
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equity gap and fails to meet the need. Ensuring that WOC have equitable access to these
opportunities may enhance their ability to ascend into senior-level roles and will further
contribute to career readiness.
Recommendation 3: Succession Planning with a DEI Lens to Address Perceptions of
Organizational Justice and Improve Power Structures for the Benefit of WOC
Eight of the 11 participants shared that their organizations had inequitable hiring and
promotion practices. Organizations should develop succession planning protocols with an equity
lens as a component of their equity initiative. Succession planning is the intentional strategic
planning organizations utilize to identify potential leaders in the institution (Kumaran, 2014;
Mckee & Froelich, 2016; Webster & Brown, 2019.) Succession planning ensures that
organizations have agility to quickly respond to potential leadership needs, maintain confidence
with stakeholders, identify vulnerabilities, and promote knowledge transfer and training.
Programs that approach diversity with intentionality have a higher likelihood of producing the
desired results (Kumaran, 2014; Webster & Brown, 2019). If higher education institutions hope
to remain competitive and solvent, developing a strong pipeline of leaders is vital. Further,
ensuring that there is diversity in leadership roles will add additional benefit to the organization,
as diversity is shown to improve organizational performance and enhance employee engagement
(Dobbin & Jung, 2011; Ferris et al., 2015; Harris, 2014).
Succession planning processes are also a means of adding transparency to the
organization. Providing more transparency to the promotion process will allow WOC the
opportunity to showcase their capabilities as they directly relate to the senior level roles and will
also provide benefit to the organization to ensure more agility (Kumaran, 2014; Mckee &
Froelich, 2016; Webster & Brown, 2019). Succession planning with an equity lens necessitates a
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rethinking of the traditional succession planning process (Fuentes, 2020; Kumaran, 2014; Mckee
& Froelich, 2016; Webster & Brown, 2019). Recent research suggests that organizations expand
their succession planning protocol to include all leadership roles and not only senior leadership
roles (Fuentes, D., 2020; Webster & Brown, 2019). Engaging in a broader succession planning
approach provides organizations with a more strategic means of talent management and
strengthens the pipeline (Fuentes, D., 2020; Webster & Brown, 2019). This will benefit WOC by
providing more equitable opportunities, as well as the visibility within the organization that study
participants indicated was lacking.
Integrated Recommendations
The proposed solutions can be successfully integrated into a more comprehensive equity
initiative. Implementing the suggested recommendations is a large-scale change initiative.
Ensuring the success of the equity program requires organizational leaders to engage an
evidence-based change theory model. Further, as this study examined the experiences of WOC
from various institutions across the United States, there may be variances to how individual
institutions choose to implement the proposed recommendations. Leveraging an adaptation of the
design for equity in higher education model (DEHE), pictured in Figure 4, institution leaders can
successfully implement the recommendations in a way that best fits with their individual
institutional needs (Culver et al., 2021). The DEHE model serves as a mechanism for ensuring
the solutions are appropriately developed with equity in mind and with consideration to the
context of the institution. The model also provides guidance on the evaluation of the
implementation, considering stakeholder engagement.

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Figure 4
Adapted Design for Equity in Higher Education Model

The DEHE model was adapted from liberatory thinking design. The creators of the model
noted that liberatory thinking design was effective, but at times did not work in more hierarchical
and policy-driven structures like higher education institutions (Culver et al., 2021). The DEHE
model first requires solution architects to account for equity by evaluating issues of identity,
power, and values. The development team is called upon to reflect on their biases and build
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collective trust to enhance their ability to develop an equity-minded solution. They are also
required to evaluate the context, reflecting on the political and bureaucratic landscape, who the
key stakeholders are, and what the organizational priorities are that may be leveraged to the
benefit of the solution. The various points of reflection are underlying mechanisms that span
throughout the development process to ensure that an equity-minded solution is developed.
Beyond the underlying mechanisms, there are eight steps in the process. The steps are (a)
organize (b) empathize, (c) define, (d) ideate, (e) choose, (f) prototype, (g) get buy-in, and (h)
test. Upon completion of the eight steps, solution architects are directed to evaluate their solution
and refine it as necessary, which may require the repetition of some steps (Culver et al., 2021).
The core steps of this model are leveraged in the recommended implementation
methodology for the identified solutions. This model is slightly adapted to specifically detail how
it interrelates with the study solutions and findings. Further, it is imperative that organizations
account for the organizational culture before engaging in the implementation process. The
adapted model includes a pre-process assessment stage wherein organizations must engage
leadership and conduct an evaluation of organizational readiness for change. If the organizational
leaders are not engaged in the effort or functioning as sponsors and champions of the work, the
success of the implementation is significantly diminished. Additionally, if the organization has
not addressed organizational readiness factors like core resources and climate, the equity
initiative will be compromised and less likely to succeed. The implementation model works
under the assumption that there is leadership engagement and an organizational climate that
possesses sufficient psychological safety for all to interact in the equity initiative. Organizations
can assess the climate through quantitative and qualitative measures like surveys and focus
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groups. The data from these efforts can also contribute to the overall equity initiative and later
contribute to the evaluation phase of the model.
An element of ensuring organizational readiness and a climate that is conducive for the
equity initiative is the presence of transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is a
style wherein the leader seeks to move followers beyond self-interest towards a commitment for
the change, leveraging the leader’s influence to help followers recognize and utilize their full
spectrum of capabilities towards advancing the collective effort (Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015;
Kearney et al., 2009). Leaders achieve transformational leadership by performing the four I’s:
inspirational motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration. Transformational leadership also takes follower attitudes, identities, and
motivations into consideration; the DEHE model also highlights these considerations to ensure
equity-mindedness occurs. The leader of the initiative will take on the role of establishing a clear
vision, serving as a role model, and inspiring staff to fully engage with the equity initiative,
further advancing the likelihood of success.
The following explicates how institutions can leverage the adapted DEHE model to
implement the three proposed solutions effectively. Each section details the actions associated
with the corresponding step as indicated in Figure 4.
Organize Stakeholders and Establish Equity Objectives
During the organize phase, organization leaders must first form a design team that guides
the effort of developing the program (Culver et al., 2021). Traditionally, these roles are within
the diversity equity and inclusion office of a university or within human resources. It is important
that leaders have dedicated resources for the work to ensure it is sustained. A consideration for
resources that is an imperative is a sufficient budget to guarantee the needed dedicated resources.
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Organization leaders should not only identify the team members but also provide financial
resources at the offset of the equity initiative. As the project is further collaboratively defined,
refinements to the original budget may be required; leaders should anticipate this and provide
and overestimate to ensure sustainability of the equity initiative.
Once the design team is identified, leaders partner with the design team to define the
objectives. The overarching objective for the change initiative is to engage equitable measures as
a means to improve the representation of WOC in senior leadership roles. In seeking to address
this objective, leaders must also be explicit in stating that a component of the objective is
addressing the system-level influences that adversely impact the career advancement of WOC
and that a corresponding objective is to improve equity within the systems of the institution.
Embedding these concepts into the objective is important as both literature and the study
revealed that systemic issues are core to the problem of practice (Airini et al., 2011; Cook &
Glass, 2013; Webster & Brown, 2019). Institutions may identify sub-objectives that are rooted in
the benefits of achieving the overarching goal. Establishing the objectives will also be beneficial
for later steps in the process, like evaluation.
The design team will also need to identify key stakeholders at this point in the process.
Key stakeholders for this initiative typically include WOC, senior leadership, human resources,
the chief diversity officer, talent management, and all university staff. Initiatives that advance
equity are organization-wide and seek to change both policies and culture (Corneille et al, 2019;
Dennissen et al., 2020). The broad span of desired change necessitates organization-wide
involvement, which is why the staff base is included in the stakeholder group. Stakeholders are
also identified based on who is impacted and who has influence.
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Empathize: Gain Additional Insight Into the Lived Experiences of WOC Within the
Institution
During the empathize stage, solution architects engage in data collection to gain a better
understanding of the experiences and perspectives of the stakeholders (Culver et al., 2021). This
stage includes surveys that ask additional questions about WOC experiences with professional
development, interviews with WOC about mentorship, and/or focus groups with WOC about
their perceptions of succession planning at the organization. While this study and existing
literature detail specifics for each recommendation, there may be additional nuance within each
institution that needs to be accounted for, and this step is designed to provide that insight.
(Re)Define: Establish Additional Clarity for the Problem Based on Evidence From the
Institution
In the define stage, solution architects synthesize their findings and identify the most
relevant contexts and stakeholders. This step is necessary as equity initiatives are complex,
especially within the higher education context (Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver et al.,
2021; Leonard et al., 2016). Developing and defining a narrative for the problem that is rooted in
evidence will assist with the communication of the implementation as well as the constant need
to establish urgency and obtain buy-in. Upon completion of the data synthesis, they will develop
a narrative that captures the complexities of the problem. Having a strong narrative rooted in
evidence helps with future steps like gaining buy-in, a necessary component for equity
initiatives.
Ideate: Develop Specific Programmatic Interventions Within the Identified Solutions
During the ideate phase, the existing solutions are further developed. Solution architects
brainstorm a variety of creative options that can enhance the three solutions. While research and
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this study highlight the high-level program needs, each institution will need to identify the
specific programmatic interventions within the identified solutions that best fit their program
(Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver et al., 2021; Leonard et al., 2016). This could include
deciding to build out the succession planning program with a staggered approach over a period
of time, identifying external consultancies that would be ideal to lead a mentor training program,
developing an in-house “train the trainer” program to enable democratized professional
development, or deciding to pilot the programs with a single unit and leverage the success story
to gain additional buy-in and build the program to scale.
Choose the Appropriate Solutions Based on Feasibility
Once solution architects have a variety of ideas, they engage in a feasibility exercise to
determine which ideas are prime for further development (Culver et al., 2021). Feasibility
considerations include resources, time, the likelihood of success, and the impact on equity. When
change initiatives fail to properly assess the feasibility, the likelihood of failure increases
(Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver et al., 2021; Leonard et al., 2016). Feasibility can be
determined by engaging in a benefit-cost analysis (Levin et al., 2018). A benefit-cost analysis
calculates the benefit of a solution by comparing the cost of the solution against the cost of not
implementing the solution. For the equity initiative, organizations could calculate the cost of the
components of the solution against the cost of attrition of minoritized staff, as literature and this
study highlight that a lack of representation results in increased turnover (Hall, 2011; Montas-
Hunter, 2012; Ngunjiri, 2017). It is important for leaders to identify the solutions and methods
that have a higher probability of success. During this phase, architects should re-evaluate the
budget against the solution to ensure all needs are met; this consideration also contributes to the
overall feasibility of the effort. The ideal solution is resource dependent; ensuring that the
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financial resources that are guaranteed actually exist is imperative. If the budget does not meet
the needs, architects and leaders should reassess the project budget to determine if it can be
increased to meet the need, or if the solution will need to be scaled differently to ensure long-
term success.
Prototype the Solutions for the Benefit of Stakeholders
During the prototype stage, specifics about the elements of each recommendation are
developed (Culver et al., 2021). A prototype for the suggested solutions includes specific details
on the timeline, budget, resources, methods, and impact of the solution. Incorporating all of these
elements will provide stakeholders with a tangible vision for the initiative. Prototyping is an
important step within higher education institutions, as they are traditionally risk-averse.
Engaging in prototyping will provide stakeholders with transparency and further reduce the
perceived risk the solution may present. The detail of the prototype is shared with the key
stakeholders to obtain their feedback. Incorporating the feedback from the key stakeholders,
solution architects are able to develop a solution narrative. Providing vision contributes to the
overall communication strategy of the implementation. When stakeholders can envision how a
solution will be implemented and the corresponding benefit of the solution, their engagement
increases (Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver et al., 2021; Leonard et al., 2016).
Get Buy-In From Stakeholders
Upon completion of the solution narrative, the design team will engage in getting
additional buy-in by sharing both the problem narrative and solution narrative with stakeholders
in an effort to build a coalition of support (Culver et al., 2021). This step of attaining buy-in may
include negotiating with stakeholders. Points of negotiation may include additional budget
considerations, timeline, or specific components of the solution. For example, there may be
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concerns about the time commitment by mentors; in this instance, solution architects could
negotiate more specific parameters for the time commitment from mentors and incorporate the
additional detail into the implementation plan for the solution. The coalition of support serves to
communicate the plan throughout the organization and act as champions for the change initiative.
It is important that stakeholders at various leadership levels are engaged to ensure the solutions
expand throughout the organization and are fully adopted (Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver
et al., 2021; Leonard et al., 2016).
Test the Solution Through Implementation
Once buy-in is established and final changes are made to the solution based on any
necessary negotiations, the solution is ready to be implemented and tested (Culver et al., 2021).
During the test phase, the plan is implemented. It is important that all resources are in place
before moving into the implementation or testing phase of the model. Resources for the
mentorship program may include identified mentors, training for the mentors, stipends, trained
staff for matching mentors with mentees, application procedures, and administrative staff for the
mentorship program. Resources for the democratized training program may include multi-
channel training resources, dedicated budget per department or employee for training, staff
training, and curated programming based on job level. Resources for succession planning may
include training on inclusive succession planning for hiring managers, succession planning
template, tracking and evaluation system to support succession planning accountability, and skill
gap solution mapping to help managers further develop their staff. As testing of the solutions
continues, architects will gain more insight into the sufficiency of the resources and plan.
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Evaluation and Refinement
Finally, solution architects will evaluate and refine the solution (Culver et al., 2021).
Since culture change can take a significant amount of time to implement and see results,
evaluation should occur in stages. It is recommended that organizations engage in various
methods of assessment across varying time points. Engaging in this type of evaluation model
permits for more agility and stronger evidence to support the continuation of the integrated
solutions. While equity initiatives such as the proposed share commonalities, institutions may
find that some solutions prove to have more benefit than others or present more immediate needs
than others (Ashikali & Groeneveld, 2015; Culver et al., 2021; Leonard et al., 2016). Sometimes
organizations realize the variation in needs earlier in the design process, but the observation may
also occur during the evaluation phase, which is also designed to provide higher education
leaders with the space to refine the solution as needed to best meet their institution's needs. As
architects evaluate the quality of the solutions, they should reference the initial objectives,
especially noting the impact of the solutions to advancing equity and improving the overarching
problem. The narrative from the evaluation can be leveraged as a tool to reinforce the ongoing
necessity of the solution.
Summary
The following table summarizes the aforementioned implementation integration steps
from the DEHE model. It provides the step name, description, stakeholders involved, estimated
timeline, and samples that correspond to each step to provide further context and clarity. The
estimates were developed based on case studies of the model. It is important to note that the table
provides overall samples, but variations may exist for varying institutions. For example, an
institution that has a dedicated equity initiative team with research expertise may be able to
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navigate through the steps faster than a team whose solution architects are members of a
diversity council and also have other full-time jobs. Another example is that a larger organization
may require more time to conduct data collection. See Table 5 for additional information.

Table 5
Example of the Design for Equity in Higher Education Application for a Equity Initiative
Step Description Resources and
stakeholders
involved
Time
estimate
Sample
Organize Objective is
determined and
solution design
team is
identified

Leadership
Solution
architects
1 week–1
month
Action: Design team evaluates
matters of equity within the
context of the team and the
institution in order to
develop the objective.

Objective: Develop a
comprehensive equity
initiative, inclusive of a
mentorship program,
democratized professional
development, and succession
planning program with a
DEI lens. The goal of the
initiative is to increase the
representation of WOC in
senior leadership roles and
advance equity within the
organization.

Key stakeholders: WOC,
senior leadership, human
resources, chief diversity
officer, talent management,
and all university staff
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Step Description Resources and
stakeholders
involved
Time
estimate
Sample
Empathize Solution architects
will engage in
data collection
to gain a better
understanding
of the
experiences and
perspectives of
the stakeholders
Leadership
Solution
architects
WOC
Staff
3–6
months
Action: Solution architects
leverage quantitative and
qualitative data collection to
attain institution-specific
data to contribute to the
development of the
identified solutions.

(Re)Define Solution architects
synthesize their
findings and
identify the
most relevant
contexts and
stakeholders
Solution
architects
Key
stakeholders
2–4
months
Sample findings: Evidence
from a survey shows that
97% of staff desire clarity on
the promotion process and
40% desire more structure in
the mentoring process.
Though 80% of WOC
indicated a desire for a more
structured mentoring
process, 60% of staff
reported that they strongly
agree that professional
development is equitably
distributed; there was no
statistically significant
difference in this finding
when disaggregated by race
and gender.
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Step Description Resources and
stakeholders
involved
Time
estimate
Sample
Ideate Solution architects
brainstorm a
variety of
creative options
that can enhance
the three
solutions
Solution
architects
Key
stakeholders
3–6
months
Sample brainstorming
activities: Studying
implementations at other
institutions, formal
benchmarking exercise,
examining extant research

Sample programmatic
interventions: Mentorship -
choosing a single unit within
the institution to pilot the
program with or deciding to
develop a cross-
departmental mentorship
program.
Choose Solution architects
engage in a
feasibility
exercise to
determine which
ideas are best to
develop further
Leadership
Solution
architects
Key
stakeholders
1–2
months
Action: Utilize a benefit-cost
analysis to determine the
feasibility of solutions and
methodology. Select the
solutions and methods that
will produce the most
benefit and advance equity.
Prototype Specifics about the
elements of each
recommendation
are developed
into a tangible
vision
Solution
architects
Key
stakeholders
1–3
months
Action: Operational plan
detailing resources, timeline,
and impact is produced for
key stakeholders. Key
stakeholders provide
feedback.
Get buy-in Solution architects
share both the
problem
narrative and
solution
narrative with
stakeholders in
an effort to
build a coalition
of support
Solution
architects
Stakeholders
1–4
months
Action: Share the problem,
evidence, and proposed
detailed solution with all
stakeholders. Establish
urgency and develop a
coalition of support. Make
any additional changes to the
implementation plan based
on feedback from
stakeholders.
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Step Description Resources and
stakeholders
involved
Time
estimate
Sample
Test Implement the
solution to
determine the
effectiveness
Solution
architects
Stakeholders
6–24
months
Action: Ensure all resources
are in place and implement
the solution based on the
established implementation
plan.
Evaluate
and refine
Solution architects
evaluate and
refine the
solution
Solution
architects
Key
stakeholders
Monthly,
quarterly,
annually
Action: Engage in multi-
channel evaluation methods
at varying points in time.

The DEHE model allows institutions to clearly navigate through the change initiative
while always keeping equity at front of mind throughout the development and implementation of
the solutions (Culver et al., 2021). While the combined solutions create the elements of the
equity initiative, organizations may not always have the resources to implement them all
concurrently. The timing of the rollout is determined during the choose and prototype stages. The
model is also effective as it incorporates refinement within the evaluation stage, allowing
institutions the ability to pivot based on the presence of new data that may emerge after the
initial implementation.
Limitations and Delimitations
Though this was a field study, the scope of interviews was limited to a purposeful sample
of 11 interviewees. This intentional delimitation permitted for a deeper dive into the rich data
provided by the lived experiences of the participants. The delimitation was also a design of the
study resources, as there was only one researcher to accomplish the data collection and synthesis.
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A limitation of the study that was realized during data collection was the grouping of
WOC into one study. The study did not have an equal representation of each minoritized group
of WOC, and it also did not account for variances of experience that may occur between
different racio-ethnic groups. There were some instances where it seemed one racio-ethnic group
likely had a different experience than another, but there was a dearth of data to support that
claim.
Another limitation of the study was the COVID-19 pandemic. Study participants did
share some instances where they felt the pandemic has added to their workplace experience in an
adverse manner. The stress of enduring both a pandemic and gendered and racial trauma likely
impacted the responses of the participants, but without the opportunity to engage in longitudinal
data, the claim cannot be substantiated.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings suggest an opportunity for additional research into the collective debt
assumed by WOC as they work to achieve equality in the workplace. Future research could
expound on the intersection of the costs and potential mediating factors that were not identified
in this study. Additionally, there may be an extent of economic analysis that could be attributed
to this concept, though it may be hard to define due to the breadth of factors that contribute to the
problem.
Future studies could also focus on a more diverse distribution of WOC as this study
primarily included Black and Asian American women and did not include broader representation
of other racio-ethnic groups. Additional research could also focus on the comparison of different
racio-ethnic groups of women as it relates to their career advancement. The study revealed some
111

variation between races, but there was not enough variation within the sample to derive a
conclusion on what the differences in experience are and the reasons why they exist.
Connection to the Rossier Mission
The USC Rossier mission is focused on advancing equity in education and supporting
marginalized communities. This study relates to and supports the mission by leveraging aspects
of equity in education within the workplace. The findings detail how organizations can
interrogate systems that impact employees, which will allow organizations to derive equitable
outcomes that serve to increase the amount of WOC in senior leadership roles. The study
provides insight into the existing issue and highlights the impacts of various oppressive
behaviors over time. Providing WOC representation and the opportunity to obtain senior
leadership roles in higher education administration will result in strengthened and more
innovative institutions with greater organizational capacity.
Conclusion
Utilizing a qualitative approach, this study examined the paucity of WOC in senior
leadership roles within higher education administration. As higher education institutions, along
with the world, experience higher levels of diversity, it is important that representation exists at
the top levels of higher education institutions. The value of representation is highlighted broadly
in research, indicating that it can have positive effects on both the individual and the
organization. Understanding the changes in the higher education landscape and the importance of
diverse representation in leadership, this study contributes to the body of knowledge by
examining specifically how this issue impacts WOC and how organizations can work to advance
WOC into senior leadership roles.
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As organizations work to interrogate their ecosystem and how it may serve to perpetuate
inequities, they will be better equipped to integrate the recommended solutions of mentorship,
democratized professional development, and succession planning. The development of a
comprehensive equity initiative that is inclusive of the aforementioned recommendations is a
means for institutions to advance equity and position both their staff and organizations to thrive.

113

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128

Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Q type (Patton)
1. What factors do you
think would most help
you advance in your
career?
Do you feel there
are any
barriers?
1 Self-efficacy,
power
structures
Background
2. What equitable hiring
and promotion policies
have you observed at
your organization, if
any?
How has this
influenced
your personal
career
journey?
1 and 3 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Knowledge
3. Describe your
understanding of how
promotions are decided
at your organization.
1 and 3 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Knowledge
4. How supported do you
feel by your manager?
Can you give me
an example of
a time you felt
particularly
supported by
your manager?
1 and 3 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Feeling
5. How would you
describe your feelings
of how capable you are
in advancing your
career?
What makes you
feel that way?
1 and 3 Self-efficacy Feeling
6. What career
advancement
expectations do you
have at your
organization, if any?
Why or why not? 2 Self-efficacy Feeling
7. How do you think
access to social
networks in the
workplace impact
upward mobility?
How does one
gain access?
2 and 3 Power
structures
Opinion
129

Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Q type (Patton)
8. Describe the attributes
you notice about those
in your organization
who are promoted to
senior leadership roles.
What do you
think those
examples say
about what
your
organizations
values?
2 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Opinion/
knowledge
9. In your opinion, what
factors are considered
undesirable for a leader
at your organization?
How do you feel
about these?
1 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Opinion
10. Describe a time you
have succeeded at your
organization
How did you
perceive others
reacted?
3 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Feeling
11. How does your
organization recognize
success?
How equitable
do you find
this to be?
1 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Knowledge/
opinion
12. If you had the power
to change one thing in
your workplace, what
would it be?
1 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Knowledge/
feeling
13. Describe a time you
have experienced
microaggressions in the
workplace, if any.
How does your
organization
respond to
these?
How do these
impact your
experience at
work?
2 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Feeling/
experience
14. How do you feel your
race/ethnicity has
impacted your ability
to advance in your
organization, if at all?
2 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Feeling/
experience

130

Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Q type (Patton)
15. If the leadership
asked for your advice
about how to improve
the workplace culture
to better support
minority employees,
what advice would you
give them?
1 and 3 Power
structures,
organizational
culture
Opinion

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Asset Metadata

Creator Martin, Shalonda Faye (author)

Core Title The paucity of women of color in senior leadership roles in higher education administration

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 02/01/2022

Defense Date 01/13/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career advancement,diversity,equity,Higher education,Inequality,inequity,intersectionality,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,women of color,workplace equality

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Advisor Ferrario, Kim (committee chair), Robles, Darline (committee member), Smith-Maddox, Renee (committee member)

Creator Email shalonda.martin@gmail.com,shalondm@usc.edu

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