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The contribution of family members to first-generation college student success: a narrative approach

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF FAMILY MEMBERS TO FIRST-GENERATION

COLLEGE STUDENT SUCCESS: A NARRATIVE APPROACH

by

Anne Elisabeth Lamkin Ziemniak

____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2010

Copyright 2010 Anne Elisabeth Lamkin Ziemniak

ii

Dedication

I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Michael and Kathy Lamkin, who
have taught me first-hand just how valuable support and encouragement from parents
is to student success.

iii

Acknowledgements

I am immensely grateful to the 11 students, nine family members and two
administrators who participated in this study for trusting me to tell their stories and
for allowing us all as practitioners to learn from their experiences.
I would like to thank my dissertation advisor, Dr. Kristan Venegas, for
helping me to think through this project, and for her guidance, feedback and support.
Thank you to my two additional committee members, Dr. Tracy Tambascia and Dr.
Lynette Merriman, whose careful reading and suggestions were enormously helpful.
Thank you to my fellow students in the Ed.D. cohort of 2007, especially Kate
Baxter. Kate, I can’t imagine taking this journey without you. Your constant
encouragement, sympathetic ear and your ability to act as the voice of reason have
pulled me through the tough times during the last three years. Thanks for being such
a good friend.
I would like to acknowledge my colleagues at work, especially Beth Saul,
Tina Orkin and Debbie Wong, for supporting me in my attempt to juggle multiple
professional, student and life responsibilities all at once, and for being flexible and
patient with me when those responsibilities pulled me in what often felt like a
thousand different directions. I am hugely appreciative of the support of my
colleagues at USC, including Tisha Armatys, Ray Carlos, Felipe Martinez, Kelly
Nelson, Sumi Pendakur, Elizabeth Peterson, Cecila Pulido, Michelle Sare and
Christina Yokoyama.
Thank you to all of the friends and family members who believed in me and
cheered me on, especially my parents, Drs. Michael and Kathy Lamkin, who have

iv

inspired and supported me throughout my education and were first to introduce me to
the concept of “life-long learning.” I am blessed to have such great examples to
emulate. Thank you for your unconditional love and support. To my sisters, Lauren
Lamkin and Lisa Lamkin, your cheerleading has been vital to sustaining my energy
during this process. Thank you for being there for me.
Thank you to “Baby” Ziemniak. The excitement your dad and I have for
your upcoming arrival has helped me to find the motivation I needed these last few
months to finish this manuscript. We can’t wait to meet you!
Finally, I share this work with my husband, Steve Ziemniak. Thank you for
giving me the confidence to begin the Ed.D. program and for encouraging me every
day to stick with it. Thank you for your never-ending patience and understanding,
and for making even the smallest milestones a celebration. Thank you for believing
in me, especially when I doubted myself. Hearing you say “I know you can do it,”
particularly on the days when I was ready to give up, has given me the strength I
needed to achieve this goal. I love you.

v

Table of Contents

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables vi

Abstract vii

Chapter I: Introduction 1

Chapter II: Review of the Literature 22

Chapter III: Methodology 77

Chapter IV: Findings 103

Chapter V: Discussion and Conclusions 176

Bibliography 207

Appendix A: Student Interview Protocol 214

Appendix B: Family Interview Protocol 217

Appendix C: Administrator Interview Protocol 220

vi

List of Tables

Table 2.1: Summary of First-Generation College Student 39
Characteristics

Table 2.2: Three Categories in the Family Capital 70
Framework

Table 3.1: Student Participants 86

Table 3.2: Family Member Participants 88

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Abstract
Research has shown that first-generation college students are educationally
disadvantaged in a number of ways. While a variety of interventions have been
recommended to increase the success of this population of students in higher
education, little attention has been placed on the role that families can play in
supporting these students, specifically during the college years. This dissertation
approached the role of family in first-generation college student lives from a non-
deficit perspective. Utilizing Gofen’s (2009) family capital framework, ways that
families support first-generation student persistence in college were identified
through the family’s attitude toward education, relationships between family
members and the values families have instilled in students.
This study used a narrative approach. Data was collected through interviews
with 11 students, nine family members and two college administrators. Findings
suggest that: 1) family matters to first-generation college student persistence; 2)
family support manifests itself differently for first-generation students than for their
non-first-generation peers; 3) conflicts between successful students’ responsibilities
at college and their roles within the family were minimal; and 4) a disconnect
between the families of these students and the institution exists. A better
appreciation of the role families play in successful first-generation student lives and
a reconceptualization of family support for college students will allow higher
education institutions to recognize the efforts put forward by the families of these
students and work more effectively with this parent and family population to
increase student success.

1

Chapter I: Introduction
Higher education, long seen as the pathway to greater professional
opportunity, social mobility and financial stability, has become increasingly
accessible to diverse students in recent decades (Lucas, 2006). Despite improved
access, many students remain educationally disadvantaged and are less likely to
succeed in higher education. One of these populations is first-generation college
students (Choy, 2001; Ishitani, 2003; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Pascarella,
Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). The number of first-generation college
students at institutions of higher education has grown rapidly and can be expected to
continue to grow in proportion to the overall population of undergraduate students in
the United States (Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). Though a
large portion of students in higher education are now first-generation, huge gaps
exist in a wide range of educational outcomes between first-generation college
students and their non-first-generation peers (Pike & Kuh, 2005). One of these
major gaps is the likelihood of persistence to degree attainment.
Research has shown that first-generation status is negatively related to
persistence (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). As a college degree becomes the
minimum requirement for obtaining high paying jobs, first-generation students are at
a distinct disadvantage due to their lower rate of persistence (Ishitani, 2003). For
first-generation students to compete in the labor market, they must persist to degree
attainment. Increasing first-generation student persistence in higher education has
tremendous implications for society as well, through the development of citizens

2

who contribute in positive ways to our communities and the economy (Riehl, 1994).
As such, this dissertation study examined ways in which first-generation college
student persistence is affected. Specifically, the influence of family on first-
generation college student persistence was explored.
Common recommendations to address the issue of persistence among first-
generation college students have included early interventions prior to college
(Hossler & Stage, 1992), “bridge” programs linking support in high school to
resources in college (Herndon & Hirt, 2004), curricular interventions such as
offering remedial and night courses (Inman & Mayes, 1999), and finding ways to
keep students on campus, engaged and integrated into the campus community (Tinto,
1993). Less attention has been placed on the role that families can play in supporting
these students, specifically during the college years. If colleges and universities are
interested in closing the gap in persistence between first-generation students and
their non-first-generation peers, greater attention must be given to this issue and new
interventions must be designed (Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora,
1996). Researchers agree that in order to better serve first-generation college
students, we must better understand the backgrounds and experiences of this
population (London, 1989; Riehl, 1994).
First-generation College Students
First-generation college students, also referred to as first-generation students,
have been defined as “those whose parents’ highest level of education is a high
school diploma or less. In cases where parents have different levels of education, the

3

maximum education level of either parent determines how the student is
categorized,” (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998, p. 7). First-generation students, as a
group, are comprised of some of the most educationally disadvantaged students in
higher education (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). They are less likely to enroll in
college (Choy, 2001), and when they do, they are more likely to attend two-year
colleges (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998) and less selective four-year institutions
(Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). The demographic and
background characteristics of first-generation students differ considerably from non-
first-generation students. First-generation students are more likely to be ethnic
minorities, tend to come from low-income families, are more frequently non-
traditional age students and are more likely to have families and dependents of their
own (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998).
First-generation students face an array of specific challenges once they arrive
at college. A consistent finding in the literature is that these students tend to have
lower educational aspirations than their counterparts whose parents attended college
(Ishitani, 2006; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004; Pike & Kuh, 2005).
First-generation students view themselves as less prepared for higher education when
compared to their non-first-generation peers and are more likely to report the
completion of a two-year degree or vocational training as their final educational goal
(Inman & Mayes, 1999). These findings speak to the lack of information first-
generation students have regarding the benefits of obtaining a bachelors degree, as
well as the beliefs they may hold about what is educationally achievable. First-

4

generation students tend to work more during college, are less likely to live on
campus, participate in fewer college sponsored volunteer and other extracurricular
activities, are more apt to attend college on a part time basis and complete fewer
credits (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). They tend to have lower
grade point averages than their non-first-generation peers (Riehl, 1994) and are less
likely to graduate within a five year period (Ishitani, 2006).
Taking these factors into account, it is not surprising that first-generation
students are more likely to depart from college prior to degree attainment than their
non-first-generation peers. Differences in background characteristics, academic
preparation, self-efficacy, college aspirations and academic performance at college
are all challenges that contribute to the disadvantaged position first-generation
students find themselves in at college. The differences in persistence rates are
striking when comparing first-generation students to students with two parents who
completed a bachelors degree. First-generation students are 130% more likely to
leave college prior to degree completion (Ishitani, 2006). Clearly, new approaches
are needed to address the needs of first-generation college students and aid in their
persistence efforts.
Whereas students whose parents attended college benefit from the knowledge
and experiences parents can share about the college going process, first-generation
students do not benefit from the same type of procedural knowledge from parents
(Riehl, 1994). When information about college procedures is unavailable from
parents, these students may benefit from this type of knowledge held by brothers,

5

sisters, aunts, uncles, cousins or extended family members (Herndon & Hirt, 2004).
However, there are other ways in which families of first-generation students can be
involved and support their students, which can have a positive influence on student
persistence. In general, a growing body of research suggests that parent and family
involvement can be helpful for students, during the elementary and secondary years,
as well as throughout their college experiences (Adams, Ryan & Keating, 2000;
Cutrona, Cole, Assouline & Russell, 1994; Epstein, 1995; Henderson & Berla, 1994;
Herndon & Hirt, 2004; Schultheiss & Blustein, 1994; Wintre & Yaffe, 2000).
Parent and Family Involvement
In recent years, colleges and universities have begun to establish offices and
staff positions dedicated to services, communication and programs for parents and
families of undergraduates (Scott & Daniel, 2001). Parent and family offices have
emerged as a response to the growing involvement of parents on these campuses and
in recognition of the role that families can play in student success. Research has
found that the bond between students and parents can remain strong during the
college years (Kenny, 1990). Data from the National Survey of Student Engagement
(2007) found that during the academic year, 70% of students communicated “very
often” with a parent or guardian, and students who perceived their parents to be
involved with their education reported greater levels of satisfaction with their college
experience. Data from an ongoing study sponsored by the National Association of
Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) has illustrated that an overwhelming
majority of parents, 88.1%, are either somewhat or very involved with their student’s

6

college process during the student’s first semester (King, Watson & Mullendore,
2009).
Increased parent involvement in college student lives has come to be viewed
as a problem by many on campus. Anecdotes from faculty and administrators, and
coverage from the media have painted a picture of parents as intrusive and ready to
intervene as soon as the student is faced with the smallest of problems (Wartman &
Savage, 2008). College personnel fear this type of parental involvement comes at
the detriment of student personal growth and development. Wartman and Savage
(2008) pointed out that these “helicopter parents,” as they have come to be known,
represent only a small and extreme minority. The authors concluded that parents of
today’s undergraduates are as varied and diverse as the undergraduates themselves.
Additionally, the body of research signaling the benefits of parent and family
involvement continues to grow.
As parents and families seem to play a larger role than ever in the lives of
undergraduate students, it is imperative that colleges and universities think
strategically about the relationships they build with this constituency (Daniel, Evans
& Scott, 2001). One way higher education institutions have chosen to address this
increase in involvement is through the establishment of parent and family offices.
Though a handful of parent and family programs have been in existence since as
early as the 1920’s, the majority of these offices on college campuses across the
nation have been established within the last 15 years (Wartman & Savage, 2008).
Staff members within these offices are charged with communication and

7

programming that helps parents understand how they can best support their student
while in college.
While opinions among faculty and university administrators are often mixed
with regard to the benefits of parent involvement, literature has illustrated that
support and involvement from parents and family members can have a positive
influence on student success and persistence (Carney-Hall, 2008). Similarly, college
administrators and faculty are sometimes puzzled by the recent increase in parent
involvement in undergraduate education. The rise in parent involvement on
campuses has been attributed to the emotional and financial investments families
make to ensure their students can attend college (Carney-Hall, 2008). Merriman
(2007) stated that for families, this increased financial investment creates a
“consumer” mentality in which parents have high expectations of colleges and
contact campus administrators when they perceive these expectations have not been
met. The current trend of parent and family involvement on college campuses can be
traced back to parents’ and families’ increased involvement in students’ lives during
elementary and secondary school. Since children were young, parents have been
accustomed to taking care of issues on their behalf. Other reasons for increased
parent involvement include parent concerns for student safety, gains in technology,
frequent communication and changing campus and family environments (Merriman,
2007).
Though increased parent involvement during the college years may be seen
by some as unfavorable, faculty and administrators on university campuses should

8

consider that parents have been encouraged to be active in their children’s education
prior to entering higher education. The positive influence of parenting behaviors on
children’s school achievement begins during students’ pre-school and elementary
school years and continues through high school (Henderson & Berla, 1994). Parents
are encouraged at the elementary and secondary school levels to be active
participants in their students’ learning. Research has shown that the efforts of
teachers and school administrators are much more successful when the family is
actively involved and invested in the student’s educational outcomes (Henderson &
Berla, 1994). Parents willingly take an active role in the academic and psychosocial
development of their children. Annette Lareau (2003) has termed this phenomenon
“concerted cultivation,” as middle class parents work to ensure their children’s skills
and talents are properly developed.
Middle class families are not the only families interested in seeing their
children succeed in school. Though often invisible to school administrators, working
class and poor families have been found to make contributions to children’s
educational aspirations through interactions that take place in the home. This
process has been documented by Knight, Norton, Bentley and Dixon (2004) through
counterstories told by African American and Latino/a working class families.
Counterstories documented ways families created “entry points” within the context
of home life, through which the topic of higher education was discussed and its
importance emphasized. This type of family involvement and support usually goes
unrecognized by school administrators, since it takes place in nontraditional settings

9

rather than on school sites at events such as Parent Teacher Association (PTA)
meetings (Knight, Norton, Bentley & Dixon, 2004). Lareau (2003) reported similar
findings from the poor and working class White and African American families she
studied.
As parents are increasingly expected to be active supporters of their
children’s education at the elementary and secondary school levels, it is no wonder
that these parents continue to feel invested in their students’ postsecondary
education. A growing body of research speaks to the many positive student
outcomes that result from parent and family involvement at the college level.
Parents can have an impact on students’ transition and adjustment to college
(Mounts, Valentiner, Anderson & Boswell, 2006). By showing interest in students’
progress, parents can boost student academic achievement (Cutrona, Cole,
Colangelo, Assouline & Russell, 1994; Fass & Tubman, 2002). Other research has
shown that positive parent involvement and support has resulted in greater
psychosocial and identity development for students (Schultheiss & Blustein, 1994;
Winter & Yaffe, 2000), as well as better health and physical wellness (Abar &
Turrisi, 2008). Parents and family members can offer the social and emotional
support students need when facing new social settings, which occur frequently in
college (Cutrona, Cole, Colangelo, Assouline & Russell, 1994) and can provide
much needed social support and validation for ethnic minority students who may
perceive the campus environment as uninviting or unsupportive (Rendon, 1994).

10

Most importantly, parent involvement and support has been shown to increase the
likelihood of persistence to degree attainment (Herndon & Hirt, 2004).
The concepts of parent and family support and involvement have taken on
several meanings throughout the research. Families can provide many different
types of support, including emotional support, validation and encouragement, social
support, attachment, positive relationships and financial support, including making
financial sacrifices (Barnett, 2004; Fass & Tubman, 2002; Kenny, 1990; Rendon,
1994). Family involvement within the literature has included student-family
communication (Barnett, 2004), family expectations and demands for students’
educational attainment (Strage & Brandt, 1999), motivating factors presented by
families for student academic achievement (Herndon & Hirt, 2004) and attendance at
campus events designed for parents and families such as family orientation or family
weekends (Scott & Daniel, 2001). The benefits of parent and family support and
involvement will be explored in depth in chapter two of this dissertation.
Additionally, the concepts of parents and family members have been defined
in many ways within the literature. The term parent has referred to biological
parents, single parents, step-parents and guardians. Family members have referred to
parents, siblings, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins, extended family members or
other relatives, as well as family friends, neighbors and other members of kinship
networks (Herndon & Hirt, 2004). In this study the term parent will be used to refer
to parents, guardians and step-parents. Family will be used to refer to any person the
student views or defines as a family member.

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Statement of the Problem
One population that has been largely left out of the parent and family
involvement literature is first-generation college students. The contributions of
parents to the persistence of first-generation college students can be overlooked.
Parents of first-generation students often lack information about the college going
process and other social capital needed to assist students in gaining access to and
persisting in college (Coleman, 1988). Additionally, family obligations and
expectations are priorities that have been found to compete with first-generation
college students’ academic success and are additional stressors in these students’
lives (Phinney & Haas, 2003). Yet, as has been shown, literature has examined the
benefits of parental support and involvement in college student lives (Adams, Ryan
& Keating, 2000; Cutrona, Cole, Assouline & Russell, 1994; Herndon & Hirt, 2004;
Schultheiss & Blustein, 1994; Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). How families may assist in
the college going process of first-generation college students specifically, and what
role they might play in these students’ persistence to graduation is not as well
known.
While first-generation college students are often at an educational
disadvantage when compared to their peers whose parents attended college, the
benefits of parent and family involvement to the success and persistence of students
has been documented. Though parents of first-generation students are unable to
provide the traditional types of involvement and support needed to navigate a higher
education system that is unfamiliar to them, they can still contribute to student

12

persistence in meaningful ways. Encouraging students to achieve academically,
having high academic expectations and providing emotional support and guidance
are all ways in which parents can support students that do not require parents to have
attended college. Additionally, research has shown that the abovementioned
strategies can assist first-generation students in their persistence behaviors
(McCarron & Inkelas, 2006; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger,
Pascarella & Nora, 1996).
In order to address the low persistence rate of first-generation students, it is
necessary to understand how parents and families impact student success. A better
appreciation of the role parents and family members play in successful first-
generation students’ lives will help colleges and universities recognize the support
these families provide and understand how their involvement can have a positive
impact. Family members of successful first-generation students may place a high
priority on academic achievement, have high academic expectations for their
students, provide emotional support or demonstrate a number of other strategies that
have been shown to have a positive impact on student persistence. Understanding
the ways in which family members assist in the persistence of successful first-
generation students, meaning those who complete college degrees, will help
administrators in higher education identify strategies to improve persistence within
this student population by working with parents and families. This understanding
will also emphasize the value of family relationships for students while in college,
thus challenging the idea of parents as overly involved in their students’ lives. By

13

leveraging the benefits of student-family relationships for first-generation students,
colleges and universities will aid students in persisting to degree attainment.
Purpose of the Study
It is critical to recognize first-generation students’ relationships with their
families in order to better serve these students (London, 1989). The purpose of this
study was to understand ways in which parents and family members assist in the
persistence of successful first-generation college students. Little research exists on
the impact of parents and family members on first-generation students and tends to
view parents’ low level of education as a background variable that hinders student
access to and persistence in higher education (Pike & Kuh, 2005). This approach
suggests that parents and families of first-generation students make few, if any, valid
contributions to the academic success of their students due to their lack of
understanding of the benefits of college or the processes through which students
access higher education. As the number of first-generation students on college
campuses continues to rise, it will be imperative to take a different approach to
understanding the family dynamics for these students. A new approach must move
away from the deficit framework through which parents have been viewed and
emphasize the ways in which parents and families support first-generation students
(Knight, Norton, Bentley & Dixon, 2004). A better understanding of the family
dynamics at play in the lives of first-generation students will allow family support
and involvement to be seen as a supplement to university services designed to keep
students in college and earning degrees, rather than a hindrance to this process.

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Research Questions
The main research question for this study is:
• How does family support contribute to first-generation college student
persistence?
One sub-question will also be explored:
• How do student perceptions of their parents and families influence their
motivation to persist in higher education?
Overview of the Theoretical Framework
The majority of the literature on first-generation students has framed the issue
of family around the idea that parents and family members act as barriers to student
persistence (London, 1989; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004; Phinney
& Haas, 2003; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). In this
dissertation, I took a different approach by looking for ways in which families
contribute to the persistence of first-generation students. As such, this study used
“family capital,” as conceptualized by Gofen (2009), as a theoretical framework.
Gofen (2009) defined family capital as, “the ensemble of means, strategies and
resources embodied in the family’s way of life that influences the future of their
children. Family capital is implicitly and explicitly reflected through behavior,
emotional processes and core values,” (p. 115). Family capital places a focus on the
contributions of the family to assisting children, who are the first in their families to
go to college, with their higher educational attainment. Unlike deficit views of
parents and families in relation to first-generation student success, the family capital

15

model recognizes the important and even critical role families play in the success of
these students.
Gofen’s (2009) research began as a means of identifying reasons for first-
generation student success in college in order to better understand how these students
were able to break through the intergenerational barrier to higher education. While
the author did not set out specifically to identify ways in which families contributed
to first-generation student success, the results of her research highlighted the positive
and central role families played in student educational attainment. Gofen’s findings
led her to develop a theoretical framework by modifying and expanding on the
concept of family capital. Gofen’s (2009) framework identified three categories
through which parents and families help students break through the intergenerational
barrier to higher education. The three categories are attitude toward education,
interpersonal relationships and family values. Each category contains subcategories,
as well as themes found in each subcategory.
Overall, successful first-generation students had parents who placed a high
value on education and communicated that attitude to their student frequently.
Parents expressed wanting something better for their students than what they had
achieved due to lack of education and consistently reaffirmed their beliefs in their
children’s abilities. Children, in turn, were more motivated to achieve in school due
to the respect they held for parents and their interest in meeting parents’
expectations. The sacrifices families made, both personal and financial, were
noticed by children and served as additional motivation and recognition of the

16

opportunities they were given. While much of Gofen’s (2009) model of family
capital is based on support and involvement children received in their elementary
and secondary school years, this framework can also be applied to students in higher
education. The students in Gofen’s (2009) study commented that their families
remained supportive through their college years. Additionally, attitude toward
education, interpersonal relationships, and family values, the categories within the
framework, have been shown in the research literature to remain important to
students during their college years (Bank, Slavings & Biddle, 1990; Kenny, 1990;
Strage & Brandt, 1999).
Much has been made in the literature of the lack of social and cultural capital
parents of first-generation college students are able to offer their students. It is
important to make the distinction between family capital, social capital and cultural
capital, particularly with regard to how each of these concepts works to impact
educational attainment. Social capital emphasizes the power of relationships in
helping people make gains in education (Coleman, 1988). Parents who are
connected to other parents and institutions within the community often possess
higher levels of social capital. Benefits to families with large amounts of social
capital accrue based on the information sharing that occurs within established
networks. Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, practices and discourses used by
the middle and upper classes that are accepted as the standard by which institutions
are navigated and thereby act as tools for cultural reproduction in a hierarchical
society (Yosso, 2005). Cultural capital is often viewed as a gatekeeper to higher

17

education for underrepresented students, especially first-generation students, as these
students often do not possess the cultural knowledge needed to effectively navigate
such institutions (Yosso, 2005).
Family capital contains elements of both social and cultural capital, yet it
encompasses more than either of these concepts (Gofen, 2009). Family capital
recognizes the importance of relationships and knowledge within its framework, but
also acknowledges the significance of parents’ values and priorities on education as
major influences on student educational attainment. Moreover, family capital, as a
framework, takes the perspective that first-generation students persist in higher
education as a result of their parents’ influence, not in spite of their parents’ lack of
cultural knowledge and beneficial relationships (Gofen, 2009). Looking at the issue
of family impact on first-generation student persistence through the family capital
framework creates the opportunity to identify benefits to first-generation students in
higher education as a result of the positive influence of parents and family members.
Overview of the Research Design and Method
This study used a narrative approach to gain a greater understanding of the
life experiences of first-generation students, specifically with regard to the impact
parents and family members have made on their success in higher education.
Creswell (2007) described narrative research as an approach that focuses on a small
number of individuals, while data is gathered “through the collection of their
stories,” (p. 54). Data for this study was collected through interviews with students,
family members and university administrators, as well as reflexive field notes. Data

18

collected from the various constituencies allowed the researcher to triangulate
findings and confirm data from one source with data from another. This approach
also reduced potential error in analyzing data collected from any one source and
added “credibility to the research by strengthening confidence in whatever
conclusions are drawn,” (Patton, 2002, p. 556).
The main participants for this study included 11 first-generation college
juniors and seniors at a large, private, academically competitive, urban research
university in the west. Juniors and seniors were selected because this study focused
on understanding the role of parents and family members in student success and
persistence. Drawing from research by Herndon and Hirt (2004), success in this
study was defined as attaining junior or senior status, which demonstrates significant
academic accomplishment, while the likelihood of completing the bachelor’s degree
is high. All of the student participants belonged to ethnic minorities. One student
identified herself as part White and part Native American. As will be discussed
further in chapter three, the selection criteria for this study was not limited to
students of color, yet the resulting ethnic make up of student participants was
somewhat expected. Research has shown that first-generation students are more
likely to be students of color (Choy, 2001; Pike & Kuh, 2005).
While first-generation students are more frequently of non-traditional age,
this study focused on traditional aged college students since parents may play a
stronger role in their lives. The study site was chosen because of the lower numbers
of first-generation students typically found at private, academically competitive,

19

research institutions. First-generation students may feel especially alienated at these
institutions, where the majority of students have more experience with the academy
and greater access to resources that can assist them. Additionally, understanding the
reasons for first-generation students’ success at this type of institution can provide
clues to elite universities as to how to increase numbers of first-generation students
on campus and ensure their persistence to graduation.
Following the methodology of Herndon and Hirt (2004), each student was
asked to identify one family member viewed as having made significant
contributions to the student’s persistence in higher education. Family members, in
turn, were contacted to participate in the study, as were university administrators
identified in student interviews as having had an impact on student success in
college. The study results provide critical data from the student, family member and
college administrator perspectives.
Significance of the Study
This study is beneficial to university administrators and student affairs
practitioners, particularly those who work with parents and families or first-
generation college students, for a number of reasons. First, it provides greater
insight into the lives and experiences of first-generation college students.
Specifically, I illustrate the ways in which parents and families influence student
success. Second, the findings provide implications for institutions to improve first-
generation student persistence through working with parents and families. A major
goal of this study was to identify ways in which academically selective universities

20

can better support first-generation students on their campuses by understanding the
experiences of these students and their relationships with their families. The findings
also give parent and family offices, as well as all university staff and faculty, a
broader context through which to reach out and provide resources to this population
of parents and families. Finally, this study adds to the growing body of literature that
points to the positive impact that parents and families can have on college student
success. I challenge two common perceptions; that parents are intrusive in their
college students’ lives and that parents and families of first-generation students are
uninvolved and lack interest in their students’ success.
Conclusion
As parents and family members are increasingly recognized as having a
positive impact on college student academic and personal success, it is critical for
institutions of higher education to gain a greater understanding of the most effective
ways to incorporate the student-family relationship into overall strategies that
promote student success. The impact of the role of family in first-generation student
persistence is an area that is still widely unexplored. Through this study, I sought to
better understand the impact of parents and families on first-generation student
persistence, recognizing that families contribute to student persistence in ways that
have not traditionally been identified in the literature. It is hoped that university
staff, faculty and administrative leaders will take note of the implications that have
been drawn from the findings of this study.

21

Chapter two is comprised of a review of the relevant literature, presented in
three sections. The chapter concludes with a detailed discussion of family capital,
the theoretical framework used in this study. Chapter three consists of an in depth
discussion of the study’s narrative research design and approach. Data and findings
are presented in chapter four, along with four major themes that emerged from the
findings. These themes, as well as implications and conclusions drawn from the
findings, are discussed in chapter five.

22

Chapter II: Review of the Literature
The previous chapter illustrated the need for this study on first-generation
college students and the support they receive from family members in aiding their
persistence behaviors. As a group, first-generation students are educationally
disadvantaged before arriving at college and once they enroll. Though parent
involvement and support can be beneficial to student persistence, the ways in which
family members impact first-generation student persistence are still largely
unknown. This chapter will review the relevant literature for this study topic. The
first section will include research on first-generation students. Much is known about
first-generation students including overall differences in background characteristics,
academic preparation in high school, educational aspirations, academic performance
once enrolled in college and out of classroom experiences in college.
The second section will review the relevant literature on the impact of parent
and family involvement on student academic success and persistence. Prior to
college, parent support and involvement can influence the academic performance of
elementary and secondary school children and can play an important role in
preparing students for higher education. Once students are enrolled in college,
parent and family support has been shown to have a positive impact on students with
regard to the transition and adjustment to college, psychosocial and identity
development, academic performance, health and well-being, and a number of other
positive educational outcomes (Cutrona, Cole, Colangelo, Assouline & Russell,
1994; Fass & Tubman, 2002; Lehr, DiIorio, Dudley & Lipana, 2000; Mounts,

23

Valentiner, Anderson & Boswell, 2006). Most importantly, parent and family
involvement has been shown to have a positive impact on student persistence and
degree attainment. The final section within the literature review will consider what
is known about parent and family influence on first-generation student success by
examining the few studies that have explored the relationship between first-
generation students and their families. This chapter concludes with a detailed
discussion of family capital, the theoretical framework that will be used for this
study, how it connects to previous literature and why it is useful for the purposes of
this research.
First-generation College Students
As a group, first-generation students are different from their non-first-
generation peers. There is a significant body of literature that summarizes the
specific background characteristics of first-generation students and the differences
between the college experiences of these students and their non-first-generation
counterparts (Choy, 2001; Hahs-Vaughn, 2004; Ishitani, 2003; Ishitani 2006; Nunez
& Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Pike & Kuh, 2005). First-generation students are often
academically less prepared for higher education, tend to have lower educational
goals and expectations, and report that the quality of their academic and out of
classroom experiences in college are lower (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak &
Terenzini, 2004; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez, 2001). The
differences between first-generation students and their peers create multiple
disadvantages within the process of degree attainment for these students. The

24

following section is a discussion of the literature outlining the ways in which first-
generation college students have been found to differ from their non-first generation
peers, including demographic and background characteristics, academic preparation
before college, educational aspirations, academic performance, out of the classroom
experiences and persistence to graduation.
Demographic and Background Characteristics
Although first-generation students are not made up of a single race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status or age, as a group, these students are likely to demonstrate
several demographic commonalities. First, they are more likely to come from low
socioeconomic backgrounds (Inman & Mayes, 1999; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin,
1998). In a large, nationally representative sample that included students from 23
diverse higher education institutions across the United States, Terenzini, Springer,
Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora (1996) found that the largest difference between first-
generation students and their non-first-generation peers was total family income. In
another large, representative sample of first-generation and non-first-generation
students, McCarron and Inkelas (2006) discovered that first-generation students
made up only a small fraction of the students within the highest socioeconomic status
quartile, with 21.4% of the non-first-generation group in this quartile compared to
just 2.8% of first-generation group. First-generation students were
disproportionately represented in the lowest socioeconomic quartile, with 38.7% of
the first-generation group in this quartile compared to 27.6% of the non-first
generation group. Low socioeconomic status is one background variable that has

25

been shown to predict non-persisting behaviors in first-generation students (Ishitani,
2006).
Other demographic differences between first-generation students and other
students exist. First-generation students are more likely to be ethnic minorities (Pike
& Kuh, 2005; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). They are more
likely to be older or returning students and are more likely to have dependents or
families of their own (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger,
Pascarella & Nora, 1996; Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez, 2001).
The types of institutions first-generation students attend differ as well. First-
generation students are more likely to attend community colleges, public universities
and comprehensive institutions than private and research institutions (Inman &
Mayes, 1999; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez,
2001). These students are more likely to select their institutions based on the
financial aid packages they receive, the proximity of the college to their home and
their ability to complete the required coursework quickly (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin,
1998). Inman and Mayes (1999) observed that the ability to take courses at night
was an important factor in first-generation student college selection. Choy (2001)
reported that first-generation students and their families were less likely to have a
good sense of the actual cost of attending college, which may play a role in their
decision regarding which institution to attend. First-generation students enrolling in
public and non-selective colleges are less likely to persist (Ishitani, 2006), which is
troubling when one considers that first-generation students enroll in much higher

26

numbers at these types of institutions (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini,
2004).
A common perspective in the literature points to the detrimental impact
having parents who did not attend college has on first-generation students. By the
very nature of being the first in their family to go to college, first-generation students
do not benefit from the experiences of their parents in guiding them through the
college going process (Riehl, 1994). Some literature has focused on the ways in
which first-generation students have persisted and succeeded, despite having parents
who did not attend college (London, 1989). London (1989) examined the ways in
which family obligations created a conflicting set of priorities for first-generation
students. The author discovered that students often found themselves at odds with
their feelings of loyalty to their families on one hand and their interest in succeeding
in higher education on the other. Other studies have found that first-generation
students reported receiving less encouragement from their families to attend college
(Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996), were more likely to have
greater stressors in their lives as a result of the family’s unfamiliarity with the
demands of college and perceived fewer resources and support systems, such as
family members, available to help them (Phinney and Haas, 2003).
Academic Preparation Before College
In addition to the wide range of differing demographic and background
characteristics, first-generation students are less likely to have quality academic
preparation before college, putting them at a disadvantage when compared to their

27

non-first-generation peers, even before they begin their higher education careers.
High school grade point averages of first-generation students tend to be lower than
their non-first-generation peers (Hossler & Stage, 1992; Riehl, 1994). Within the
same entering class at a university with low selectivity, Riehl (1994) observed that
first-generation students had a lower mean grade point average than the mean grade
point average of other students. First-generation students tend to have lower scores
on college entrance exams, such as the SAT (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004, Riehl, 1994).
Choy (2001) reported first-generation students were less likely to enroll in advanced
math courses in high school and less likely to receive the academic preparation in
high school necessary for enrollment at a four-year institution
Studies have indicated that lower quality academic preparation before college
and rigor of high school puts students at a greater risk of encountering academic
problems while at higher education institutions (Ishitani, 2006; Terenzini, Springer,
Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996; Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez, 2001). For
example, first-generation students have been found to have lower critical thinking
skills upon entry to college (Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996).
Warburton, Bugarin and Nunez (2001) concluded that the academic rigor of
students’ high school curriculum was significant in predicting persistence in higher
education. The authors observed that first-generation students who had taken a
rigorous course curriculum in high school were just as likely to persist in higher
education as their non-first-generation peers. The more rigorous students’
coursework, the more likely, in general, they were to persist in higher education.

28

However, first-generation students were much less likely to take rigorous courses in
high school, such as calculus or advanced placement (AP) courses, than other
students. In the study by Warburton and colleagues, parents’ level of education had
a negative impact on students’ high school preparation and therefore persistence in
higher education.
Such a difference in academic preparation between first-generation and other
students can sometimes result in lower class ranks for first-generation students
(Ishitani, 2006). Ishitani (2006) noted that lower class ranks of first-generation
students were related to later academic challenges in higher education. However,
Riehl (1994) found no difference between the class ranks of first-generation students
and others, despite the lower mean high school grade point average of entering first-
generation students. This finding may be the result of first-generation students’
attendance at less rigorous high schools. A lower grade point average at a high
school where academic competition is not as intense could lead to a similar class
rank as a higher grade point average at a more academically focused high school
would.
The lower academic preparation first-generation students receive before
college is affected by their out of class experiences. First-generation students were
shown to be less likely to socialize with peers or talk with teachers outside of class
while in high school (Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). A
different study concluded that this population of students was less likely to be
involved in school sponsored activities (Hossler & Stage, 1992). Lower quality

29

experiences outside of the classroom in high school can have a negative impact on
the academic experiences, engagement and preparation of these students.
Educational Aspirations
First-generation students tend to have lower educational aspirations and
expectations than their non-first-generation counterparts (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004;
Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak and Terenzini, 2004; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Terenzini,
Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). Hahs-Vaughn (2004) discovered that
some of the biggest differences between first-generation and non-first generation
students in her study were the students’ expected highest level of education and
educational aspirations. First-generation students had significantly lower educational
aspirations. Lower educational aspirations begin early in children’s schooling and
can impact every step of first-generation students’ college going process. First-
generation students are about half as likely to aspire to the goal of bachelors degree
completion (Choy, 2001).
Lower academic aspirations for first-generation students begin before
college. Data has shown differences in higher education aspirations between first-
generation students and their non-first-generation peers as early as eighth grade
(Choy, 2001). In a study of ninth grade students, Hossler and Stage (1992) reported
that parents’ combined education played a significant role in both parents’
expectations for students and students’ educational aspirations. Parents who had not
attended college had lower educational expectations for their children. Similarly,
high school students whose parents had not attended college had lower expectations

30

of themselves. Knight, Norton, Bentley and Dixon (2004) came to a different
conclusion with regard to parents’ educational expectations for their children. The
authors found that working class African American and Latino families had high
educational expectations for their children and provided valuable emotional support.
Once in college, lower academic aspirations appear to impact students’
overall academic goals, as well as their beliefs in their abilities and their actual
academic outcomes each semester. In addition to finding that first-generation
students had lower overall degree attainment aspirations, Riehl (1994) confirmed that
the entering first-generation students in his study predicted significantly lower grades
for their first semester compared to other entering students. In the same study, first-
generation students’ views of their academic abilities appeared to come true, as their
actual first semester grades were lower than their peers’. These findings indicate that
first-generation students’ educational aspirations may be related to their actual
educational attainment. Similarly, Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora
(1996) concluded that the first-generation students in their nationally representative
study felt that they would need a longer amount of time than the traditional eight
semesters to complete their degrees. The predictions of first-generation students in
needing more time to complete their degrees may arise from factors such as students’
lower self-efficacy and the pressures of other priorities such as working, taking care
of children or other family members and other obligations. Nonetheless, as this
literature has demonstrated, when students have lower educational aspirations, their
actual educational attainment is likely to be lower.

31

In a study of the comparison between first-generation students’ educational
aspirations and their actual educational attainment, McCarron and Inkelas (2006)
found that 62.1percent of first-generation students, regardless of their socioeconomic
status, did not attain the level of education they aspired to by the time they were
eight years out of high school. The authors noted that 69 percent of the first-
generation sample had not completed a bachelors degree. This study indicates that
first-generation students are likely to be highly interested in obtaining degrees in
higher education and emphasizes the many challenges these students face in their
pursuit of this goal. Such obstacles, including financial challenges and personal and
family obligations can impact a student’s need to begin college at a later date, leave
college either temporarily or permanently, or take fewer courses each semester.
Each of these challenges has an impact on a student’s academic performance and
thus, their attainment of the higher education degrees they aspire to. Inman and
Mayes (1999) reported that although first-generation students’ educational goals
were lower than their non-first-generation peers, their commitment to achieving
those goals was stronger. This finding reinforces the commitment and interest first-
generation students demonstrate in achieving their educational goals.
Academic Performance
Once first-generation students arrive at college, they appear to have very
different experiences on campus than their non-first-generation peers (Pascarella,
Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). First-generation students are more likely to
attend higher education on a part time basis and less likely to be continuously

32

enrolled in college through degree completion (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998;
Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez, 2001). They are more likely to take remedial
coursework during the first year of college (Warburton, Bugarin & Nunez, 2001), are
more likely to attain a vocational degree and are less likely to go to graduate school
(Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). First-generation students at four-year institutions
have reported lower levels of academic engagement on college campuses and fewer
positive learning outcomes (Pike & Kuh, 2005). Pike and Kuh (2005) concluded that
although first-generation status did have a direct impact on student academic
engagement on campus, academic engagement was indirectly influenced by lower
educational aspirations. The authors suggested that one reason for lower academic
engagement among first-generation students could be that these students may not
realize the benefits of engagement in terms of boosting their levels of social and
cultural capital, if this importance has not been emphasized at home or in their
secondary schools.
First-generation students tend to complete fewer credit hours per semester
than their non-first-generation peers (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini,
2004; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). There are several
possible reasons for this finding, including the necessity for students to work at one
or more jobs, financial constraints or family and personal obligations. Terenzini,
Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora (1996) found that first-generation students
tended to study fewer hours per week than other students, even though they appeared

33

to benefit from studying more. The authors observed that first-generation students
were less likely to participate in honors programs.
Major selection is another area where first-generation students and their non-
first-generation peers differ. Warburton, Bugarin and Nunez (2001) noticed that
first-generation students were more likely to select business administration and other
professional degree programs and less likely to pursue coursework in the social and
life sciences. This finding may reflect the tendency of first-generation students to
focus on higher education as a way to increase financial stability. In a different
study, Inman and Mayes (1999) also encountered differences in the academic areas
of study for first-generation students and other students at community college. First-
generation students were more likely to select courses that focused on vocational or
career specific training.
Classroom experiences and academic activities were shown to have a greater
positive effect on first-generation students than their non-first-generation peers
(Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). Academic benefits associated
with classroom experiences for these students included increased critical thinking,
better writing skills, increased openness to diversity and a mastery learning
orientation. However, first-generation students have been shown to view faculty as
uninterested in teaching and inconsiderate of student learning and development
(Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). While these students
benefit more from being actively engaged in the classroom, their participation may
be less likely, based on their perceptions of the classroom environment.

34

There have been a few positive findings in the research with regard to the
academic performance of first-generation students in college. Inman and Mayes
(1999) concluded that first-generation students were just as likely to succeed at
community colleges as other students. This success was largely based on students’
commitment to achieving their educational goals, which were more likely to
culminate with an associate’s degree. The authors uncovered no significant
differences between grade point averages and number of hours completed each
semester for first-generation community college students and other community
college students. Typically characterized by low selectivity and less competition,
community colleges may provide a more supportive environment for first-generation
students, which may be a reason for the overall success of the students found in this
study. Dennis, Phinney and Chuateco (2005) reported that academic performance
and adjustment of first-generation students was more likely to be enhanced when
students were motivated by personal factors and career ambitions, including an
interest in achieving a higher level of education than their parents did. The findings
from this study emphasize the role that motivation can play in student success, even
when faced with an array of disadvantages.
Out of Classroom Experiences
First-generation students have been shown to have a less positive view of the
environment on college campuses than other students and demonstrate less social
engagement on these campuses (Pike & Kuh, 2005). This student population has
reported experiencing greater discrimination compared to other students (Terenzini,

35

Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). Hahs-Vaughn (2004) discovered that
while out of the classroom college experiences had a greater impact on educational
outcomes for first-generation students compared to their non-first-generation
counterparts, the overall quality of their non-academic experiences on campus was
not as strong. First-generation students benefited from extracurricular activities
more than their peers, as these activities likely provided some of the social and
cultural capital students lacked upon arrival to campus. Connections to faculty,
administrators and other students can provide information students need to navigate
the institution and prepare for graduate school, yet first-generation students were
either unaware of such activities or chose not to participate. The author
recommended colleges and universities find better ways to connect students to
campus through non-academic activities and organizations.
Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak and Terenzini (2004), reported similar findings
in that first-generation students were less likely to participate in extracurricular
activities and volunteer events organized by the institution. Yet when first-
generation students did participate, the benefits these students experienced were
greater than the benefits for non-first-generation students. Benefits included higher
levels of academic aspirations such as graduate school, development of greater
critical thinking skills, ability to process higher order cognitive tasks and belief and
ownership of one’s academic abilities.
Additional evidence of the lower quality of out of classroom experiences of
first-generation students on college campuses exists. Several studies have reported

36

that first-generation students worked significantly more than their non-first-
generation peers and were more likely to work away from campus, which poses a
competing priority with academics (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004;
Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora 1996; Warburton, Bugarin &
Nunez, 2001). Working had a larger negative impact on first-generation students
than on other students who worked, perhaps because of the length of time students
dedicated to their jobs and the time this took away from the campus and course
related activities. Additionally, first-generation students are less likely to live in the
residence halls or spend as much time interacting with their peers on campus
compared to other students (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Pascarella, Pierson,
Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004; Pike & Kuh, 2005). These findings are not surprising
since living on campus significantly increases the likelihood of students interacting
with their peers. Like Hahs-Vaughn, Pike and Kuh recognized the need for students
to interact with peers on campus to increase their level of engagement with the
campus community, while Pascarella, et al noted that the attainment of social and
cultural capital through on campus activities and peer interactions appeared to play a
role in first-generation student persistence, or lack of persistence.
Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora (1996) concluded that first-
generation students were less likely to receive encouragement to persist in higher
education from their friends. This finding may be explained by the large amount of
time these students spend away from campus, with social networks not connected to
the college or university, as well as the lack of connections these students make with

37

their peers on campus. First-generation students must often navigate the different
cultures they encounter at college and at home, which can present another layer of
challenge and can have a potentially detrimental impact on academic success (Nunez
& Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). What is known from the literature about the role of
family in first-generation student college success will be discussed in an upcoming
section.
Persistence
The previous sections within this chapter have touched on factors that can
impact first-generation student persistence in higher education. First-generation
students, as a group, differ from their non-first-generation counterparts in a variety of
ways, usually placing them at an educational disadvantage. Thus, it is not surprising
that first-generation students are less likely to persist and more likely to leave
college. Several research studies have reported that first-generation status is
negatively related to persistence and degree attainment, even after controlling for a
variety of background variables (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). Ishitani (2006)
examined some of the pre-college characteristics that were predictive of leaving
college for first-generation students at public and private four-year universities
throughout the United States. First, their status as first-generation meant that
students were 130 percent more likely to leave college before completing a bachelors
degree. Though not meeting the federal definition of first-generation status, students
who had at least one parent who had completed some college coursework were 99
percent more likely to leave college than their peers whose parents had obtained a

38

bachelors degree. First-generation students were discovered to complete their
degrees within a longer time frame. They were half as likely as their non-first-
generation peers to complete a bachelors degree in four years, and one third as likely
to complete a bachelors degree in five years.
First-generation students are more likely to leave college in their first
semester than their non-first-generation counterparts and are less likely to return for
their second year (Riehl, 1994). This finding is not surprising considering these
students tend to have lower educational aspirations and expect to achieve at lower
levels academically (Riehl, 1994). Warburton, Bugarin and Nunez (2001) found that
first-generation students were less likely than other students to still be enrolled in
higher education after three years. In a longitudinal study with data collection at the
end of each semester over a period of nine semesters, Ishitani (2003) reported that
first-generation students were more likely to depart from campus than others over
time. First-generation students left the university in larger numbers than other
students in each of the nine semesters and were found to have a 29 percent greater
departure rate overall. The results of the study suggest that the risk of attrition for
first-generation students was greatest during the first year of college when these
students were 71 percent more likely to leave, even after controlling for a wide range
of background variables and first year grade point average. Among first-generation
students, those from low-income families had even greater risk of leaving college.
Table 2.1 provides a summary of first-generation college student characteristics that
have been discussed in this section.

39

Table 2.1: Summary of First-Generation College Student Characteristics
First-generation college students are
more likely to…
First-generation college students are
less likely to…
Come from low socioeconomic
backgrounds
Receive encouragement to go to college
Belong to an ethnic minority group

Attend academically rigorous high
schools
Select a college based on the financial
aid package, proximity to home and
ability to complete coursework quickly
Have an idea of the actual cost of
attending college
Have lower high school GPAs and lower
scores on college entrance exams
Talk with high school teachers outside of
the classroom or be involved in school
sponsored activities
Persist in college if they enroll in a
rigorous high school curriculum
Gain quality academic preparation before
college or take rigorous high school
courses
Have lower educational aspirations Attain the level of education they aspire
to

Attend community colleges and less
selective institutions
Persist at less selective institutions
Attend higher education on a part time
basis and complete fewer credits per
semester
Be continuously enrolled in college
through degree completion or participate
in honors programs
Select majors in business and other
professional degree programs
Select majors in the social and life
sciences
Benefit from college academic activities
and classroom experiences
Be academically engaged in college
Do well at community colleges
compared to other higher education
institutions
Go to graduate school
Benefit from out of classroom
experiences with other students and
professors
Participate in extracurricular activities or
have quality out of class experiences
Work off campus Live in campus housing

Leave college after their first semester Receive encouragement from their
friends to persist in college
Leave college over time

Persist to graduation

40

As has been illustrated above, first-generation students enter colleges and
universities less prepared, and with a number of background characteristics that
place them at a disadvantage as they begin to navigate higher education institutions.
These students are disadvantaged in almost every area that has been shown to
increase the likelihood of persistence and degree attainment (Terenzini, Springer,
Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). New approaches must be developed in order to
assist first-generation students in their higher educational pursuits and ensure they
persist to graduation. One area, not yet widely researched, is the role parents and
families may play in the persistence and success of first-generation students.
Parent and Family Involvement and Support
Research has shown that parent support and involvement can have a positive
influence on a wide range of factors that aid in students’ educational success
(Henderson & Berla, 1994; Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). This section will first address
the ways in which parents and family members impact student achievement before
college, when students are at the elementary and secondary levels. The focus will be
on parents’ influence on student academic achievement and preparation for college.
Following, a review of the literature about the influence of parents and families on
undergraduate student persistence will be presented. The impact of parents and
families on students will be discussed in terms of the transition to college,
psychosocial and identity development, academic performance, emotional and social
support, and out of classroom experiences.

41

Parent and Family Involvement at the Elementary and Secondary School Level
The benefits of parent and family involvement and support at the elementary
and secondary school levels have been sufficiently documented (Epstein, 1995;
Henderson & Berla, 1994). Parent involvement should start early in order to have
the maximum benefit to children’s academic success and college going goals (Jun &
Colyar, 2002). This section will illustrate the important role parents play in the
academic success of children in their elementary and high school years and examine
the parent’s role in the formation of college going aspirations.
The academic benefits to children when parents are involved are great.
Parents who emphasize the value of education and express their beliefs in children’s
academic abilities can create the desire in children to do well academically (Gofen,
2009). Epstein (1995) emphasized the necessity for partnerships between schools,
families and communities. The author reported that frequent interactions between
these three institutions would result in more students receiving common messages
about the importance of education, studying, trying one’s hardest and staying in
school. Student academic performance can be indirectly impacted by parent
involvement as well. Such involvement can create motivating factors for students
(Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). Parents who are perceived as involved and
supportive by their children can increase students’ feelings of competence and
confidence in the classroom.
In a study on an ethnically diverse sample of high school students that
incorporated Baumrind’s typology of parenting styles, Dornbusch, Ritter,

42

Leiderman, Roberts and Fraleigh (1987) concluded that authoritarian and permissive
parenting styles were significantly related to lower grade point averages for students
while authoritative parenting was related to higher grade point averages. The model
was found to be moderately accurate in predicting grade point averages across
ethnicities, with greatest applicability to white students and least applicability to
Asian students. Across ethnicities, permissive and authoritarian parenting were
related to lower grade point averages, yet authoritative parenting was not always
related to higher grade point averages. The findings suggest that parents who
demonstrate characteristics of either permissive or authoritarian parenting styles are
more likely to have a negative impact on their children’s academic performance in
school. Additionally, cultural differences must be considered when applying the
findings to families of various racial and ethnic backgrounds.
Parents from all backgrounds, races, and classes care about their children’s
success and want their children to succeed academically (Epstein, 1995; Lareau,
2003; Jun & Colyar, 2002). However, some types of parent involvement are valued
by schools and institutions more than others (Lareau, 2003). Epstein (1996) reported
that wealthier communities tended to have more positive parent involvement.
However, a comparison of the involvement of more affluent and less affluent
families should be made with caution. Lareau (2003) reported that parents of poor
and working class children were just as interested as middle class parents in seeing
their children succeed in school. The difference was that these parents relied more
heavily on the opinions and suggestions of teachers and administrators since they

43

often felt unequipped with the knowledge to make the best decisions for their
children’s education. In contrast, Lareau (2003) observed that teachers preferred a
much more outwardly involved type of parent who showed initiative, asked
questions and made suggestions to teachers. Teachers took the approach of working
class and poor parents as a sign of disinterest or apathy toward their child’s
educational success, when in actuality these parents cared very much for their
children and wanted to do what was necessary to promote their children’s
achievement. This research indicates the need for schools and institutions to
recognize different types of parental involvement as equally valid and understand the
contributions made by parents from all racial and class backgrounds. Lareau’s
(2003) argument was based on parents with students in elementary school, but the
same argument could apply to parents of high school and college students, with
implications for how parents of these students are viewed by school and college
administrators.
Parents have been found to play a significant role in students’ preparation for
higher education. Several studies have reported that encouragement from parents, as
well as parents’ expectations that the student will attend college, can greatly increase
a child’s likelihood of going to college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001; Gofen, 2009;
Herndon & Hirt 2004). Families that are characterized by open communication,
warmth and support have been shown to have a positive impact on child ego
development, which can then have a positive influence on development once the
student is in college (Adams, Ryan & Keating, 2000). In a longitudinal study

44

designed to examine the school and family variables that played a role in preparing
eighth graders for college, Cabrera and La Nasa (2001) noted that students with high
socioeconomic status reported more parental involvement and were more likely to
learn about the college process from their parents’ college experiences. However,
the authors found that regardless of student socioeconomic status or academic
abilities, having involved parents was significantly related to the tasks the authors
deemed critical to attending college, including taking a college preparatory
curriculum in high school, graduating from high school and applying to college.
Parent involvement was shown to increase the likelihood of completing a college
preparatory curriculum by 18 percent. Though students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds were less likely to report involvement or high academic expectations
from parents, they were just as likely to benefit when parent involvement and high
expectations were present. The authors pointed out that the impact of low
socioeconomic status on a child’s likelihood of attending college is greatly
minimized if the parents are involved in the process.
Just as Lareau (2003) identified ways in which working class and poor
parents demonstrated their interest in helping their children succeed academically,
Knight, Norton, Bentley and Dixon (2004) identified family involvement strategies
that encouraged children to prepare for college that went unrecognized by school
officials. In their qualitative study of 27 working class African American and Latino
high school students, the authors found that parents and family members encouraged
their students to attend college in ways that were invisible to school administrators.

45

Encouragement took place primarily at home and through extended family networks.
Families were observed to have high educational expectations for their children.
Support included physical, mental and emotional support from both parents and
extended relatives. Students attributed much of their college going ambition to the
support they received from their families.
Herndon and Hirt (2004) concluded that families of African American
students had a major impact on their preparation for college. The authors recognized
three areas through which families helped prepare children prior to their college
enrollment. These areas were family influence, encouragement and support; macro
perspectives on race; and factors of motivation. In families where no parent went to
college, additional information on the college going process was obtained through
the extended kinship network. The findings from this and other studies discussed
above illustrate the influence families can have on children in supporting and
motivating them to achieve in higher education. By placing a priority on education
and communicating its benefits, parents can instill the importance of achieving
higher education in their children (Gofen, 2009).
Parent and Family Involvement at the Postsecondary Level
The benefits of parent and family involvement and support in the college
preparation process have been documented in the previous section. Research has
demonstrated that parents and family members can have a great deal of influence on
students’ decisions to stay in college once they are there as well (Bank, Slavings &
Biddle, 1990; Barnett, 2004; Ratelle, Larose, Guay & Senecal, 2005; Strage &

46

Brandt, 1999; Wintre & Sugar, 2000). For parents to have the most positive
influence on their college students, the relationship between student and parent must
be redefined. Yet redefining a healthy relationship between students and parents is
much different than expecting complete separation between parents and students as
students enter college.
Transition to College
The role of parents in students’ college lives has been found to significantly
help students with many aspects of adjustment to college (Holahan, Valentiner and
Moos, 1994; Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). Wintre and Yaffe (2000) reported that parents
had a small but significant impact on students’ adjustment to college. Students who
perceived positive, supportive relationships with parents were less likely to be
depressed or stressed during the transition to college and reported greater
psychological well-being. Holahan, Valentiner and Moos (1994) observed that
social support from parents, as well as less conflict between parents, were significant
factors for students in making a successful transition and healthy adjustment to
college. Parents played an indirect role in student’s adjustment to college through
their influence on students’ sociability, or their ability to make new friends at
college. The authors concluded that supportive parents can help ease the transition
to college for students by reassuring them of their abilities and recognizing that such
changes and transitions are a healthy component of life.
In a study conducted a few months after the start of students’ first semester,
Mounts, Valentiner, Anderson and Boswell (2006) discovered that students’

47

perceived parental support was significantly negatively related to loneliness during
the transition to college and positively related to students’ reported friendship
quality. Parental support had an indirect, negative correlation to depression and
anxiety in students. These findings suggest that students who perceive their parents
as supportive are less lonely, connect with peers more easily and deeply, and as a
result, are less likely to be anxious or depressed as they make the transition and
adjustment to college. One interesting finding from this study occurred when the
authors analyzed the data disaggregated by race. Although the Asian and Latino
sample sizes were too small for analysis, the authors were able to analyze the data
for African Americans. They found that African American students who reported
low parental support and high sociability had higher levels of anxiety. These
students, the authors speculated, probably valued social relationships but were not
finding the support they needed either on campus or from their parents.
Wintre and Sugar (2000) found that parents had a direct positive impact on
student adjustment to college when students described parent relationships as open
and supportive. Parents had an indirect impact on college student adjustment
through parents’ influence on student personality development. Students in this
study were 419 unmarried first-year students at a four-year institution. Of
significance is that almost 74 percent of the students in the sample lived at home
with their parents, which could explain why parents had such a large impact on
student adjustment to college. Although the adjustment process for students who
live at home with their parents during college is likely different than the adjustment

48

process for students who live away from their parents on campus, the authors noted
that the majority of college students in North America now live at home with their
parents and commute. Therefore, the results of this study are significant because
they illustrate the relationship between parents and students for a population that has
been relatively ignored in this area of research.
Though parents and family members are important to student adjustment,
studies have shown that a degree of separation between students and parents must
occur in order for students to fully adjust to college life (Hoffman, 1984; Rice, Cole
& Lapsley, 1990). Hoffman (1984) examined students’ separation from their parents
while at college and discovered that conflictual and emotional independence were
correlated with healthy adjustment for the student. These findings suggest that a
relationship between parents and students must contain a level of separation in order
to promote optimal student development. Too much connection may lead to guilt,
resentment and lack of independence for the student, meaning slower adjustment to
college and delayed development. Schultheiss and Blustein (1994) found that parent
attachment impacted identity formation in college students, particularly in the area of
promoting a healthy level of separation. The authors concluded that complete
separation from family is not required for students to demonstrate independence and
can even negatively impact students’ development, yet some separation from family
is needed. Rice, Cole & Lapsley (1990) concluded that full disengagement from
parents and family might actually be detrimental to students and their development.
It should be noted that much of the research on separation and attachment between

49

college students and their parents is now relatively outdated. Since less current
research exists in this area, it is difficult to know with certainty how student-parent
relationships are impacted by the current environment on college campuses, in which
parents appear to be more involved in students’ lives than they were 20 years ago.
During College
There is evidence that parental relationships are not only significant during
students’ adjustment period, but remain important to student persistence and
development throughout college. Parent support and healthy parent relationships
have been shown to be related to lower anxiety (Cutrona, Cole, Colangelo, Assouline
& Russell, 1994), less depression (Wintre & Yaffe, 2000) and greater optimism in
college students, as well as greater self-esteem, self-worth and responsibility for
one’s actions (Fass & Tubman, 2002). Students who reported greater reciprocity and
mutual respect in their relationships with parents made larger strides in developing
mature interpersonal relationships, a key component of college student development
(Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). Kenny and Stryker (1996) observed that positive
relationships with parents and families were related to a greater sense of self worth in
college students.
Adams, Ryan and Keating (2000) found that students who reported family
relational systems characterized by open communication and support developed
greater ego strength and a stronger sense of purpose. The authors identified benefits
to college students that were predicted by students’ relationships with their families
prior to college as well as their relationships with families while attending college.

50

Open and supportive relationships with parents, the authors concluded, could
potentially aid students in approaching and building relationships with faculty on
campus. In a longitudinal study comparing data collected from a group of college
students, first as freshmen and then three years later as seniors, parental relationships
were observed to be just as strong and meaningful for the students when they were
seniors as they had been when they were freshmen (Kenny, 1990). Lapsley, Rice
and FitzGerald (1990) came to a similar conclusion in their study that included
freshmen and upperclassmen. The authors recognized several aspects of identity
development that were related to positive parental relationships for both freshmen
and upperclassmen.
Parents can have a positive influence on student career planning and life
goals. Students who discussed career issues with parents were more likely to
develop a greater sense of purpose (Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). Bank, Slavings and
Biddle (1990) reported that parents had a greater influence on students’ career
choices, through modeling, than peers or faculty. Though first-generation students
were more likely to aspire to careers that required less education, the authors found
that parent modeling benefited both first-generation and non-first-generation
students. Strage and Brandt (1999) observed that students’ perceptions of
relationships with parents did not change as they moved into their third and fourth
years of college, but parent influence became less powerful as students moved
toward degree completion. Nevertheless, students continued to value positive
relationships with parents as they got older.

51

Student Development and Attachment
Several studies have concluded that parents can help students with identity
formation and psychosocial development throughout the college years (Cutrona,
Cole, Colangelo, Assouline & Russell, 1994; Kenny, 1987; Winter & Yaffe, 2000).
Personal and social identity development has been shown to be significantly
correlated to student relationships with parents (Lapsley, Rice & FitzGerald, 1990).
Other studies have identified a relationship between parent support and involvement
and student ego development (Ratelle, Larose, Guay & Senecal, 2005). Student ego
development then, has a positive influence on student academic outcomes, indicating
an indirect, yet significant relationship between parent support and academic
performance.
Some research has viewed college student relationships with parents in terms
of attachment theory (Kenny, 1987; Lapsley, Rice and FitzGerald, 1990).
Attachment theory postulates that human beings are more likely to be
psychologically healthy if they know they have trusted people in their lives who they
can turn to for support. Parents can serve as part of the support network and
sounding board college students need for healthy psychosocial development. To test
the attachment theory conceptualization, Kenny (1987) examined the connection of
students to their parents while in college. Overall students described their
relationships with parents as positive. Students often reached out to parents during
times of stress and reported that parents were generally supportive of their
independence. Positive relationships with parents were correlated with dating

52

competence and assertion, leading the author to conclude that complete separation
from parents was not necessary for college students to continue healthy psychosocial
development.
Armsden and Greenberg (1987) found that parental attachment for late
adolescents was highly correlated to self-esteem and life satisfaction. Positive
parental attachment was found to be predictive of lower levels of depression,
anxiety, resentment and feelings of alienation. The authors used the results of the
study as evidence of the validity and reliability of the Inventory of Parent and Peer
Attachment (IPPA), which they developed. The fact that the students in the sample
were 75 percent white and predominantly middle class is problematic, particularly
since the IPPA has been used in multiple studies on college students’ relationships
with parents since its creation. Later research has called in to question the validity
and reliability of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment for students of color
(Lopez, Melendez & Rice, 2000). Further, as was previously mentioned, because the
bulk of the research examining the impact of student-parent relationships on student
development is no longer current, we cannot be sure of the exact circumstances
under which the student-parent relationship aids in student development, given the
present phenomenon of greater parent involvement on campuses, as well as under
which circumstances this relationship may impede student development.
Academic Achievement
Parent social support has been found to be a significant predictor of college
grade point average, with even more significance than peer support (Cutrona, Cole,

53

Colangelo, Assouline & Russell, 1994). In a sample of over 350 students, those with
the highest levels of attachment to parents were observed to have the highest
academic records (Fass & Tubman, 2002). Wintre and Yaffe (2000) discovered that
student relationships with parents were shown to have a small but positive influence
on student academic performance. Bank, Slavings and Biddle (1990) reported that
for the students in their study, parents had a significant influence on students’ choice
of major.
Parent expectations, which have been shown to have a significant effect on
children’s higher education aspirations before college, play an important role in
student intentions once they arrive at college (Bank, Slavings & Biddle, 1990).
Bank, Slavings and Biddle (1990), noted that parent norms and expectations had an
impact on students’ behavioral intentions to do well in college and persist to
graduation. In their study connecting Baumrind’s typology of parenting styles to
student academic achievement in college, Strage and Brandt (1999), concluded that
students’ perceptions of their relationships with parents predicted the level of
mastery orientation learning they applied to academics. Students who reported
having parents who followed a more authoritative style of parenting, characterized
by support and demand for students to achieve academically, displayed greater
confidence in their academic ability and greater mastery orientation toward learning,
and were more likely to persist. The authors found that first-generation status,
ethnicity and socioeconomic status had no significant impact on parenting style,
leading them to conclude that the benefits of authoritative parenting are applicable

54

across different populations of students. This finding is in slight conflict with the
findings of Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts and Fraleigh (1987) who
concluded that while moderately applicable across ethnicities, Baumrind’s typology
of parenting styles was most appropriate for White families.
Parents can influence student persistence in challenging academic
curriculums (Ratelle, Larose, Guay and Senecal, 2005). Ratelle, Larose, Guay and
Senecal (2005) observed that perceived parental support had a positive indirect
impact on students’ persistence in a challenging science curriculum by promoting
student autonomy. The findings from this study suggest that by helping to fulfill
students’ psychological needs, such as feelings of connectedness and autonomy,
parents can influence student persistence in an academically challenging curriculum.
Though often indirect, parents can contribute in meaningful ways to student
academic success.
Social Support for Students of Color
Another consideration within the research on student-parent relationships and
parental support is the impact of these relationships on the development and
persistence of students of color. Research shows that parents and family members
are essential support networks for African American students at Predominantly
White Institutions (PWIs) (Barnett, 2004; Gloria, Kurpius, Hamilton & Willson,
1999; Kenny & Stryker, 1996). In their study examining the importance of social
networks in the adjustment of first-year students, Kenny and Stryker (1996) observed
that satisfaction with support that students of color received from family was

55

significantly related to their successful adjustment to college in the first-year,
whereas satisfaction with peer support was found to be more significant for White
students. Overall, satisfaction with support from social networks was more
significant for ethnic minority students than White students with regard to their first-
year adjustment at a PWI.
Barnett (2004) hypothesized that support from African American families
would be related to lower amounts of stress, greater competence and greater
involvement for African American students at PWIs. The author studied 50 Black
undergraduate students through qualitative interviews. She observed that the
students in her study attributed much of their persistence in college to parent and
family support and felt that parents understood their experiences better than peers.
Students acknowledged the financial sacrifices parents had made for their higher
education as well.
Findings from a study by Gloria, Kurpius Hamilton and Willson (1999)
confirm that parents are one important piece of African American students’ social
support system that influences their decisions to persist toward graduation. In
addition to the benefits African American students received from their relationships
with their families before college, Herndon and Hirt (2004) concluded that families
remained an important piece of students’ social networks once they entered college.
Families supported students in dealing with their minority status on campus, assisted
students with finding a spiritual outlet while away from home and familiarized
themselves with campus resources in order to better advise their students. The

56

connection to family continued for students in their third and fourth year of college,
who were then often seen as role models for younger family members.
Family support is not just important for African American students, but can
provide much needed support to other students of color as well. In her study of 132
first-year culturally diverse students, Rendon (1994) observed that validation was a
key factor in the persistence of these students and others she called “non-traditional
students.” The author cited the importance of validation from campus
representatives and external agents, such as parents and family members. Many of
the students she interviewed referred to the validation they received from parents and
family members, which was often more important than the support, or lack of
support, they gathered from university faculty and staff. Students who received little
or no validation from campus officials relied heavily on encouragement from
external sources such as parents and family members. Parents and family members
were critical to student persistence in their first year of college.
Gender Differences and Social Support for Women
Gender differences were addressed in some of the literature on parent
involvement and student-parent relationships. Most of the research in this area
suggests that parent relationships play a larger role in female student development.
Schultheiss & Blustein (1994) found that parent attachment was more significant for
women’s identity development than men’s. This finding makes sense when
examined in the context of Gilligan’s (Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988) and Josselson’s
(1996) work on the importance of relationships and connectedness for women in

57

identity achievement. Females have been found to be more likely to seek out help
from parents (Kenny, 1987) and rely on parents for more emotional support than
males do (Kenny, 1987; 1990). However, Lapsley, Rice and FitzGerald (1990)
found no significant differences between genders with regard to aspects of identity
formation and parental attachment. The authors concluded that males benefit just as
much as females from parental support and positive relationships. The literature
suggests that student-parent relationships appear to be important to developmental
aspects of both females and males.
Health and Wellness
Parents can influence their college students with regard to the choices
students make about risky behavior (Abar & Turrisi, 2008; Lehr, DiIorio, Dudley
and Lipana 2002). Abar and Turrisi (2008) found that parental characteristics were
shown to have direct and indirect influences on student alcohol drinking behaviors.
The authors observed that students who drank less alcohol tended to have parents
who monitored their behaviors more. Students who drank alcohol excessively
reported higher instances of parents who gave signals of approval of such behavior.
Parents were shown to have an indirect impact on alcohol consumption through their
influence on who their students chose to be friends with in their first year of college.
In a study that explored the relationship between communication with parents
and college student sexual activity, Lehr, DiIorio, Dudley and Lipana (2002) found
that White and African American students who communicated a great deal with their
parents about sexual activity were most likely and least likely to have sex at an early

58

age. One explanation for this finding is that some students may interpret
conversations with parents who are open about sexual activity as granting permission
to engage in this activity. As was the case in the research of Abar and Turrisi (2008),
students who participated in high-risk behavior often had parents who give signals of
approval of this behavior. Additionally, the authors concluded that African
American students who were open with their mothers about sexual activity were
more likely to use condoms. This study emphasizes the role parents can play in
helping students make smart choices about their sexual activity, while underscoring
the importance of parents communicating clearly with their students to send the right
messages about high-risk behavior.
Potential Problems Resulting From Parent Involvement
Although parents often have a positive impact on college student persistence
and development as the previous research has shown, it is possible that parent
involvement and parent relationships with college students can have negative
consequences for the student. The student-parent relationship can be detrimental to
the student if he or she is too strongly attached to the parent, the relationship is not
healthy, or there are problems within the family unit (Hoffman and Weiss, 1987;
Lopez, Melendez & Rice, 2002; Rice, Cole & Lapsley, 1990). Students who have
negative feelings about their separation from parents can have a harder time
adjusting emotionally to college (Rice, Cole & Lapsley, 1990). Oppositely, students
who have strained relationships with their parents or come from divorced families
may have more difficulty establishing peer relationships in college (Lopez, Melendez

59

& Rice, 2002). Hoffman and Weiss (1987) found that students with guilt or
resentment toward parents had a greater likelihood of psychological problems in
college.
Though parents and family members played a critical role in validating
culturally diverse students’ abilities in the study conducted by Rendon (1994), the
author identified areas in which parents and families sometimes had a negative
impact on student persistence. Such areas included a lack of familiarity with college
processes, college life and academic demands of college coursework, discouraging
students from attending college and placing pressure on students to get good grades.
First-generation students may view their families as unsupportive of their college
pursuits (Phinney & Haas, 2003). This can be particularly true if families expect
students to hold a job in order to contribute to the family financially or provide care
for younger siblings or other members of the family. Nevertheless, the research that
has been outlined above clearly illustrates the important role parents can play in
college student persistence and success.
First-generation College Students and Their Families
Though limited research about the impact of parents and family members on
first-generation student persistence exists, a few studies have been conducted that
examine the influence parents can have on the college going efforts of this
population of students. McCarron and Inkelas (2006) concluded that parent
involvement, defined as how much parents and children discussed the option of
going to college, explained 5.9 percent of the variance in first-generation student

60

educational aspirations. Though parent involvement only explained a small
percentage of the variance in this study, the finding illustrates that parents of first-
generation students can have a positive impact on their students’ higher educational
aspirations. The finding supports the idea that colleges and universities must work to
better understand the relationships first-generation students have with their families,
including the difficulties students may have in incorporating their family life into
their educational life. Parents and families should be recognized as a source of
support and encouragement for students and can play a role in lessening the “culture
shock” first-generation students may feel upon entering college.
In a study of 15 working-class first-generation college students attending
Boston area colleges and universities, London (1989) indicated that parents took one
of three approaches, or a combination of two of the approaches, to their student’s
choice to attend college. Parents who bound their student to the family attempted to
persuade the student to stay near home, attend a local college or university and
generally live by the cultural norms and values of the household. Parents who saw
their students as delegates supported students’ college attendance and viewed the
students’ college going process as fulfilling an opportunity they never had. While
students felt good about the pride their parents had for them, they felt pressure to
succeed. Delegate students were seen as exemplars for younger siblings and family
members. Finally, parents who expelled their children from the family unit viewed
their student as not fitting in with the norms of the family, did not see the value in the
student’s education and chose not to support the student in his or her educational

61

pursuits. This study illustrated some of the cultural environments first-generation
students must navigate while attending college. It emphasized the role parents can
play in supporting their students throughout the college going process, particularly
when parents viewed their students as delegates for the family.
In their qualitative study on first-generation Appalachian college students,
Bryan and Simmons (2009) examined the role family and other levels of influence
played in the higher education attainment of these students. The authors identified
seven main influences on participant achievement. The first was close knit families
and communities. The second was separate identities, meaning students often felt
they were leading different lives when at college and at home. The third theme was
knowledge of college procedures, causing students to feel disconnected from their
families, as families knew little about students’ daily lives on campus. Pressure to
succeed, the fourth theme, was evidenced by students’ interest in making their
families and communities back home proud. The fifth theme, returning home, was
marked by some students’ desire to return home after graduation, while other
students indicated they would probably return home at some point and still others
never intended to return home. The last two themes were the pervasiveness of
poverty and the importance of early intervention programming. While students were
often torn between their college and family lives, the authors concluded that these
students’ relationships with their families “have proven to be of the utmost
importance in creating an atmosphere conducive to postsecondary educational

62

success,” (p. 404). For these students, family support and involvement had a big
impact on their achievement in higher education.
Dennis, Phinney and Chuateco (2005) found no relationship between family
expectations and first-generation student adjustment to college or academic
achievement, though the authors did find a connection between students’ personal
and career motivation and their adjustment and achievement. While at first this
finding appears to negate the influence of family expectations on first-generation
student persistence, the authors point out that one explanation for this finding may be
the interconnectedness of family expectations and personal and career motivation.
First-generation students may derive a certain level of personal and career motivation
from the expectations families have for them to do well in college. Additional
caution should be used when interpreting the results of this study as the sample size
of 100 minority first-generation students is relatively small for quantitative analyses
such as multiple regression.
Phinney and Haas (2003) studied the coping strategies of first-generation
students in dealing with daily challenges and issues that arose as they pursued their
academic goals. The authors reported that students who perceived their families as
unsupportive and not understanding of the academic demands placed on them tended
to apply less healthy coping strategies to the stressful situations in their lives, such as
avoidance or neglecting their studies. In these cases, first-generation students might
benefit from their parents’ understanding of the value of higher education and the
academic pressures students are faced with on a daily basis. Like the parents who

63

expelled their students from the home in London’s (1989) study, a better
understanding of the purposes and goals of higher education might make these
families more supportive. Nevertheless, the research specifically examining first-
generation students and the support and involvement of their families clearly
indicates that parents and family members can support these students in positive
ways.
The literature reviewed in this chapter makes clear that first-generation
college students are some of the most at risk students in terms of persisting to
graduation. These students are in great need of support. Devising new approaches
to improve their persistence is critical. At the same time, parents and families have
been shown to provide support to college students in many different ways. A better
understanding of the impact of families on successful first-generation student
persistence will help universities better understand how to reach out to families and
partner in supporting student success. This study aimed to find new approaches to
helping first-generation students persist to degree attainment through identifying
aspects of student relationships with families that influence student persistence.
Connection Between Research and Theoretical Framework
Parents have a lot to offer students in terms of emotional support, social
support, encouragement, and guidance in making smart choices during college. This
involvement and support goes far beyond the social capital, including knowledge and
information about the college process, that parents who went to college are able to
offer their students. Thus, even though parents and families of first-generation

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students do not possess extensive knowledge about college, these families should
still be able to have a positive impact on their students’ success in higher education.
Family involvement in students’ education begins early, when children are
elementary school age or earlier, and the benefits of this involvement continue in
higher education through to graduation. Family capital, as a conceptual framework,
allows us to recognize the multiple ways in which parents and families help students
persist to graduation, particularly families of first-generation college students, who
do not possess extensive knowledge about the college going process.
Family Capital as a Theoretical Framework
This study will view the support and involvement first-generation students
receive from their parents and family members through the conceptual framework of
family capital (Gofen, 2009). Other frameworks, such as social capital and cultural
capital, have been previously used to study this issue, yet many of the contributions
family members make toward student educational achievement, such as nurturing
students’ interest in education or providing an environment where education is
valued, go unrecognized within these models (Gofen, 2009; Villalpando &
Solorzano, 2005; Yosso, 2005). While social and cultural capital can provide insight
into certain aspects of family influence on first-generation student persistence, these
theories do not provide the whole picture. Moreover, social and cultural capital in
higher education research have frequently been used to explain the reasons for the
underachievement of disadvantaged students from a deficit perspective (Villalpando
& Solorzano, 2005; Yosso 2005).

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Social Capital
The focus of social capital is on relationships and social networks (Coleman,
1988). Coleman (1988) viewed relationships as having several properties that allow
people to live, work and make gains within society. First, social structures that
include obligations to others, expectations of reciprocation and trustworthiness
among relationships provide the social capital needed for those within the structure
to get ahead. A person can trust that the obligations of others will at some point be
paid back. Second, critical information is shared within a social network. People
who build relationships that reach throughout the community are able to gather
information from a variety of sources, and thus increase their social capital. Third,
norms within the community encourage individuals to act in the best interest of the
collective, rather than for individual gain. These concepts can apply not only to the
community, but to the family unit as well.
Coleman (1988) emphasized that an important component of social capital is
“its effect on the creation of human capital in the next generation,” (p. 109). Parents
pass social capital to their children through practices such as reading to children and
expressing expectations that children will go to college (Coleman, 1988). Social
capital’s focus on the transfer of information from one person to the next and its use
as a factor in the creation of human capital have been emphasized in its application
within higher education research. Yet when using the this framework, a common
conclusion is that disadvantaged students must rely on the social capital they receive
at school, college or through community organizations since the family unit lacks

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such capital (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004). Social capital, in this
context, acknowledges the value of information and social networks shared by the
dominant, White, middle class, while framing the minority, lower class family as
deficient.
Cultural Capital
Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, values and language used by the
dominant group within society, which act as a means of cultural reproduction
(Yosso, 2005). Cultural capital was conceptualized as an explanation of class
differences, yet this framework has been applied to people of color and other
marginalized groups in education research (Villalpando & Solorzano, 2005).
Although cultural capital was originally intended as an explanation for the cultural
reproduction that takes place in hierarchical societies, by judging oppressed groups
against the White, middle class standard, this theory has been used to view these
groups from a deficit perspective (Yosso, 2005). People of color and those who
come from low socioeconomic backgrounds are considered to lack the culture that is
valued within society, or necessary to achieve in education. Research literature that
uses cultural capital as a framework frequently perpetuates the misconception that
students of color do poorly in school because the culture of their families is
characterized by apathy toward education (Villalpando & Solorzano, 2005).
Villalpando and Solorzano (2005) argued that the deficit view of
marginalized families, derived from the framework of cultural capital, is misguided.
As evidence, the authors pointed to a body of research asserting that these families

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care deeply about the success of their children in education. Cultural capital, the
authors suggested, should be reframed as cultural wealth. Cultural wealth is based
on the assumption that families and communities of color value education and care
about their children’s success (Villalpando & Solorzano, 2005). Yosso (2005)
explained cultural wealth as a tool for empowering oppressed families and
communities by acknowledging the many assets these families possess, which can
aid students in their educational pursuits. Cultural wealth recognizes family
contributions to student success that remain invisible when using the traditional
model of cultural capital, such as the hard work of parents, sacrifices parents make
on students’ behalf, and the value parents place on education (Villalpando &
Solorzano, 2005). Villalpando and Solorzano (2005) called for research on students
of color that includes theoretical frameworks that do not view these students as
culturally deficient.
Family Capital
Family capital, as a framework, incorporates the idea of cultural wealth by
identifying ways in which families of first-generation students contribute to the
achievement of their children in higher education through culture, values and
knowledge, which can go unrecognized when utilizing a traditional social or cultural
capital perspective. Thus, the use of family capital as a framework for the present
study allows the issue to be explored in a manner that does not automatically view
first-generation students and their families as culturally deficient. Seen through the
family capital lens, families are understood as having culture and values that help

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students to be successful in higher education (Gofen, 2009). Though families may
not be familiar with the intricacies involved in transactions such as applying to
college, filling out financial aid forms and paying tuition bills, an overarching belief
in the value of education, supportive interpersonal relationships, and an emphasis on
achievement all benefit the student.
Family capital emphasizes the values and priorities parents and family
members place on education in general, and higher education specifically. The focus
of family capital is on the nonmaterial resources that families can use to encourage
student success (Gofen, 2009). Gofen (2009) stated that, “family capital emphasizes
the context or the setting in which capital resides,” (p. 107). Thus, the context of the
family, the home, and ways in which the family contributes on a daily basis to
children’s educational success, are central to the theory. Although family capital
borrows concepts from other types of capital, the context of the family unit,
including the recognition that the family possesses capital, is a central, defining
characteristic of the framework.
Like social capital, relationships are significant in family capital, particularly
relationships between family members. Family capital places an emphasis on
cultural values, similar to the concept of cultural capital. Yet values in family capital
are not viewed from a middle and upper class dominant perspective like they are
within the cultural capital framework. While family capital incorporates the
importance of relationships found in the social capital framework and the values
central to cultural capital, it also encompasses the sum total of all the ways in which

69

parents and families make investments to ensure their students succeed in higher
education. Most of the investments families make are nonmaterial and include the
habits, behaviors, beliefs and priorities families establish that encourage students to
do well academically and succeed (Gofen, 2009).
Family capital, as a framework, was recently conceptualized by Gofen (2009)
and is based on her study of first-generation students. The purpose of Gofen’s
(2009) research was to find ways in which first-generation students were able to
break the intergenerational barrier and succeed in college. The author found that
among the 50 first-generation higher education students she interviewed, each of
them consistently attributed their academic success to their families. Families
provided multiple means of encouragement and involvement through which students
derived an interest in learning, a belief in the value of education and confidence in
their abilities (Gofen, 2009). The focus of the study was on ways in which families
had influenced students prior to their enrollment in college. Families emerged not
merely as an important factor in student success, but as the most important factor.
Participants in the study rarely mentioned teachers, counselors or other school
officials with regard to influencing their success in higher education. From this
study, Gofen (2009) developed the family capital framework, which contains three
categories, each with subcategories and themes. Table 2.2 outlines each category,
subcategory and theme. Following is a detailed discussion of the three categories
within the family capital framework.

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Table 2.2: Three categories in the Family Capital Framework (Gofen, 2009)
Category Subcategory Theme
Attitude Toward
Education
Parents’ objective in
children’s education
Making their dream come
true
A path out of poverty
Education for the purpose
of education*
Parents’ attitude toward
their own education
Role model
Do not become like me
Daily expressions of
prioritizing education
Parental involvement in
education
Education as a first
priority
Treatment of children who
do not study
Interpersonal
Relationships
Parent-child relationships Child in the center
Belief in child’s abilities
Need to please parents
Respect for parents*
Sibling relationships Older siblings role models
for younger siblings*
Family Values Family solidarity Related to child in the
center*
Respect for parents Related to need to please
parents*
Achievement and
ambition
Self-responsibility*
Parents set examples*
*Theme not included in Gofen’s (2009) table, but discussed in text as a finding
within the subcategory listed above.

Gofen (2009) grouped the behaviors, beliefs and day-to-day occurrences that
led families to have such a profound impact on student success into three categories:
“attitude toward education,” “interpersonal relationships” and “family values.” The

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first category, attitude toward education, contains three subcategories. The first
subcategory, “parents’ objective in children’s education,” focuses on student
perceptions of the reasons their families placed such a strong emphasis on higher
education. This subcategory includes three themes, “making parents’ dream come
true,” “a path out of poverty” and “education for the purpose of education.” The
theme of making parents’ dream come true included comments from students that
highlighted parents’ regret at not having the opportunity to attend higher education
themselves, not having as many opportunities in general or wanting a better life for
their children. Other parents saw their students’ higher education pursuits as a path
out of poverty. Students mentioned the third theme, education for the purpose of
education, less frequently.
The second subcategory within the attitude toward education category is
“parents’ attitude toward their own education,” illustrated by two themes, “role
model” and “do not become me.” The role model theme highlights the ways in
which students look up to their parents’ hard work, self-education through books and
newspapers, determination, and even moderate financial success, in spite of parents
receiving little formal education. The theme of do not become me focuses on
parents’ interest in encouraging their children to do well in school in order to have
better, easier, more stable lives than parents had. The final subcategory within the
category of attitude toward education is “daily expressions of prioritizing education,”
which included three themes. The first theme, “parental involvement in education,”
includes ways in which parents stayed informed about course assignments, ensured

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students completed their homework and even occasionally intervened at school on
the student’s behalf. The second theme within this subcategory is “education as a
first priority.” Parents and families demonstrated this theme by explicitly
communicating the importance of education to their children and implicitly
emphasizing it through financial sacrifices to buy supplies such as books, and
expressing their pride in students’ accomplishments to friends and neighbors. The
third theme, “treatment of children who do not study,” focuses on the ways in which
parents negotiate with, argue with and punish students who do not complete their
schoolwork or get good grades.
The second category in Gofen’s (2009) framework is interpersonal
relationships, which focuses on putting the student first and making sacrifices to
ensure students have educational opportunities. There are two subcategories in this
category, “parent-child relationships” and “sibling relationships.” Parent-child
relationships are noted both in the ways parents view their children and how children
view their parents. The ways in which parents view their children are addressed in
two themes, “child in the center” and “belief in child’s abilities.” Child in the center
refers to the amount of love and care parents show toward their children. Parents
often put children first, making sacrifices such as working more than one job and
borrowing money in order to give children every opportunity available. Belief in
child’s abilities refers to constant reinforcement parents provide in ensuring students
that they can achieve whatever they set out to.

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Two themes are present with regard to attitudes students have toward their
parents. These themes are “need to please parents,” incorporating students’ feelings
of wanting to achieve academically in response to the sacrifices parents make for
them, and “respect for parents” which is also included as a subcategory in the family
values category. The final subcategory within the interpersonal relationships
category is sibling relationships. Older siblings who are successful in school often
act as role models for younger siblings. Parents encourage older siblings to act as
guides for younger siblings in navigating the college process.
The third category within the framework, family values, incorporates the
values on which students are raised that continue to be present during their college
years. Three values, or subcategories, are emphasized in this category including
“family solidarity,” “respect for parents,” and “achievement and ambition.” Gofen
(2009) noted that family solidarity is related to the “child in the center” concept, in
that children within the family are the focus and receive a great deal of attention and
love. Additionally, family members look out for each other and help each other in
tough times. The second value, respect for parents, is related to the “need to please
parents” theme and indicates the impact respect has on student motivation to succeed
academically. Though the family unit is often child centered, children ultimately
respect parents for the sacrifices they make and want to reciprocate this sacrifice by
doing well in school. The final subcategory within the family values category is
achievement and ambition, which includes the concepts of “self-responsibility” and
“parents set examples.” This subcategory includes students’ recognition of personal

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responsibility for their own success. Additionally, parents set examples for students
by waking up early each day, working long hours and demonstrating repeated
resilience in the face of adversity, which provides motivation for students to achieve.
A few of the themes included in Table 2.2 were discussed by Gofen (2009)
within the findings section of her article, but were not included in the tables outlining
the framework that accompanied the article. There may have been a few reasons for
the author to omit these themes from the tables in the article. Some of the themes,
such as “education for the purpose of education,” the author noted appeared very
rarely within the study’s findings. Other themes, such as “respect for parents,”
“child in the center” and “need to please parents” were located and discussed in
multiple subcategories, but were listed in the tables only once. Still other themes,
such as “older siblings act as role models for younger siblings” and “parents set
examples” were discussed as concepts within their respective subcategories, but were
not explicitly identified as themes by the author.
For the present study, I decided to include these themes in the table outlining
the framework for three reasons. First, each of these themes was discussed within
the text of Gofen’s (2009) article at length, giving the impression that they would be
likely to reemerge in future research. Therefore it seemed appropriate to look for
these themes when analyzing the data for the present study. Second, each theme
adds depth to the subcategory it belongs to, even if it appears in another subcategory
as well. For the sake of organization, themes that are discussed in more than one
subcategory within the text of Gofen’s (2009) article are noted in multiple places in

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the framework table above. Finally, themes that were not explicitly identified as
themes by the author were noted as themes on the table because they were discussed
at length within the text and provide clarity in conceptualizing their corresponding
subcategories.
Conclusion
Families where one or both parents have at least a bachelors degree have
traditionally been seen as providing the social and cultural capital needed for
students to gain admission and be successful in higher education (Coleman, 1988;
Villalpando & Solorzano, 2005). The literature reviewed in this chapter has
illustrated that parents and family can provide much more support for students than
is included in the social or cultural capital frameworks. The family capital
framework allowed me to examine the sum total of family investments in first-
generation student success in higher education. including emotional support,
academic expectations, financial sacrifices, encouragement, role modeling and other
support and involvement (Gofen, 2009). Though Gofen’s (2009) framework was
constructed primarily from the ways parents and family members helped and
encouraged students prior to college, for the purposes of this study, the framework
was applied to the support parents and family members provided prior to college, as
well as once students were enrolled in higher education. I felt it was not only
important to identify family support before college, but also critical to focus on
parent and family support during the college years. By viewing family involvement
through the family capital lens, this study uncovers meaningful, positive ways in

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which parents and families of first-generation college students contribute to student
persistence in higher education. The next chapter will provide a detailed explanation
of the study’s methodology.

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Chapter III: Methodology
The previous chapters discussed the rationale for gaining a better
understanding of how parents and family members contribute to first-generation
student success, and provided background information on first-generation students
and parent involvement through a review of the research literature. This chapter will
outline the methodology of the current study. First, the framework related to the
method will be reviewed. Next, the site selection, participant selection and
instrumentation will be discussed. The processes of data collection and data analysis
will then be presented. Finally, limitations of the study are examined. The method
for this study was designed to elicit data that is relevant to the research questions
outlined in chapter one. As a review, following are the research questions for the
current study.
The main research question for this study is:
• How does family support contribute to first-generation college student
persistence?
The sub-question is:
• How do student perceptions of their parents and families influence their
motivation to persist in higher education?
This study was qualitative by design and took a naturalistic inquiry approach.
The naturalistic approach “minimizes investigator manipulation of the study setting
and places no prior constraints on what the outcomes of the research will be,”
(Patton, 2002, p. 39). The researcher must keep an open mind and allow findings to

78

emerge in whatever fashion becomes clear from the research. By studying people in
their natural settings, the researcher endeavors to make sense of the meanings people
place on language, behavior and events that occur in these settings (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2003). This inductive approach is one of the key characteristics of
qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). Additionally, a narrative research method was
implemented. A primary focus of narrative research is to gain a greater
understanding of lived experience (Patton, 2002). This study examined students’
college and family experiences through their stories, or narratives. Creswell (2007)
suggested that it is appropriate to utilize narrative research when individuals can
“illuminate a specific issue,” (p. 94). The goal of the present study was to gain
insight into the issue of how parents and family members influence persistence
among first-generation students in higher education. Collecting the stories of
students and their family members provides a greater understanding of the impact of
family on first-generation student success.
Framework Related to Method
Gofen’s (2009) family capital framework was discussed in chapter two. The
grounded theory article in which Gofen (2009) presented her framework was the
main influence on the methodology for this study. By emphasizing the overall
contributions and investments families make to ensure their students have
opportunities in higher education, the family capital framework moves away from
the deficit approaches that are common in the research and recognizes the significant
impact families of first-generation students can have on student success. Data

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collection and analysis for this study was based on the categories, subcategories and
themes found in Gofen’s (2009) framework.
Participant Selection
Site selection
Deane University (all names in this study are pseudonyms) is a large, private,
academically competitive, research university located in the western United States.
The university is made up of 18 colleges and professional schools and has
approximately 35,000 students, 17,000 of which are undergraduates. Over 150
majors and 120 minors are offered at the undergraduate level. Undergraduate
admission is highly selective. For fall 2009, the university admitted 24 percent of its
applicant pool and the average unweighted high school grade point average for those
admitted was 3.7 (Deane University website, 2009).
Students attend Deane University from all over the United States and the
world. Nearly half of the undergraduate student body is from out of state. Women
make up 50.2 percent of the undergraduate student population and 49.8 percent are
men. DU is a Predominantly White University (PWI). In fall 2009, the
undergraduate population was 5.5 percent Black/African American, 13.4 percent
Hispanic/Latino/Chicano, 0.9 percent American Indian/Alaskan Native, 23.5 percent
Asian/Pacific Islander, 44.3 percent White/Caucasian, 10.6 percent International
(student visa holders) and 1.8 percent Unknown/Other (Deane University website,
2009). According to the university’s registrar’s office, first-generation college
students made up 11 percent of freshmen, 14 percent of sophomores, 16 percent of

80

juniors and 15 percent of seniors. In total, first-generation college students were 14
percent of the undergraduate population during the 2009-2010 academic year. It
should be noted that these first-generation student statistics are based on student self-
reported data. Deane University’s admission application includes a box students can
check to indicate if they are first-generation. However a definition of first-
generation college student status is not provided on the application or defined by the
institution. It is therefore probable that not all students included in these statistics
meet Nunez and Cuccaro-Alamin’s (1998) definition of a first-generation student,
which was offered in chapter one.
Deane University was selected as the site for this study because it is an elite
university with a relatively low number of first-generation students. According to
the Carnegie Foundation website, DU is one of 52 large, residential, full-time, four-
year, highly selective research institutions in the United States, and one of 20 private
institutions within that group. Elite, selective universities tend to provide graduates
with the greatest economic and social benefits (Tsui, 2003). At the same time,
nationally, first-generation students enroll at community colleges and less selective
institutions in much greater numbers than at private, research universities
(Warburton, Bugarin and Nunez, 2001). The concentration of first-generation
students in community colleges and less selective institutions perpetuates the cycle
of cultural reproduction. In general, students who come from privileged
backgrounds gain additional advantages by earning degrees at elite institutions,
thereby securing their places of privilege in society. At the same time, students from

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less privileged backgrounds, including many first-generation students, attend
colleges and universities that provide fewer long-term social and economic benefits.
Thus, the majority of first-generation students do not receive the added benefits,
including increased potential for social mobility, that accompany a degree from an
elite, selective university. To break the cycle of cultural reproduction, then, it is
critical for first-generation students to be successful at elite universities. By
understanding the experiences of first-generation students at an elite university such
as DU, it is hoped that the institution, and others like it, will be able to better serve
this population of students.
Selection Criteria
Eleven students from Deane University participated in this study. Prior to
participant selection, several criteria were laid out for prospective student
participants. First, students had to be first-generation college students, meaning
neither parent attended college. Ten of the students in the study had parents with no
college coursework. One student’s mother and father had completed two semesters
of community college, meaning that the student was technically not a first-generation
college student according to Nunez and Cuccaro-Alamin (1998). I made the decision
to include this student, Sara, in the study even though she did not meet Nunez and
Cuccaro-Alamin’s (1998) definition of first-generation for two reasons. First, Sara
self identified as a first-generation college student. Second, soon after our interview
began it was clear that although Sara’s story was unique, many of her experiences
with her family were similar to the other students I had spoken with. I felt that

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Sara’s parents having had two semesters of community college did not provide her
with significant benefits in her higher education pursuits over the other students who
participated in this study. Choy’s (2001) research confirms that students whose
parents completed some college do not have major advantages in higher education
over first-generation students. Ultimately, including Sara’s story adds depth to this
research.
A second criteria that was laid out prior to selecting student participants was
that students had to have completed enough course credits to be considered seniors
and be in good academic standing, as this demonstrates a level of success that
students have already achieved. Since I was interested in understanding the
contributions of parents and family members to student persistence, it was important
to study students who have been successful in persisting to senior year. As
participant recruitment unfolded, recruiting a student participant group of all seniors
turned out to be more challenging than expected. Additionally, a few juniors were
recommended to me as excellent potential participants for the study, causing me to
reconsider the senior status restriction. The final group of student participants
consisted of nine seniors and two juniors. The original focus on including only
seniors in the study was based on the assumption that students who have achieved
senior status are likely to persist to graduation (Herndon & Hirt, 2004). However,
the two juniors included in this study had two of the highest grade point averages of
the group. Having overcome tremendous obstacles and having still persisted to
junior year, I felt it was safe to assume that these two students would also complete

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their degrees in a timely manner. In the end, success, in this study, was defined as
having achieved junior or senior status, while remaining in good academic standing.
There was no restriction on participant race or ethnicity for this study.
However, each of the student participants belonged to an ethnic minority group.
This result was not terribly surprising given that first-generation college students are
more likely to be students of color (Choy, 2001; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Terenzini,
Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). Three of the students self identified as
multiethnic. There was no gender restriction on student participants. Income level
was not a specifically stated criteria to participate, but all 11 student participants
appeared to come from low, to moderate income backgrounds. This assumption is
based on conversations I had with each of the students in which they indicated that
they received both need and merit based financial aid, a factor that weighed heavily
in their decision to attend Deane University. Again, this demographic commonality
was somewhat expected since first-generation students are more likely to come from
low income families (Inman & Mayes, 1999; Ishitani, 2006)
Participant Selection
Participants were selected through critical case sampling, which results in
data and findings that may be generalizable to other cases and students (Creswell,
2007). Critical cases provide rich information and are maximally beneficial in
achieving a greater understanding of students’ experiences. I was interested in
interviewing students who would provide the most substantial data to help address
the problem of first-generation student persistence in higher education. Critical case

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sampling made this possible. Several key university administrators assisted in the
process of identifying possible student participants, including the director and
assistant director of a scholarship fund that targets primarily first-generation
students, the director of one of the cultural centers, the advisor to the multicultural
greek organizations, a few student affairs colleagues working in academic units
across campus and a staff member in the residential education program who assisted
in providing information about this study to the university’s resident advisors. I
approached these administrators to help in identifying students for this study for two
reasons. First, they work closely with students on a daily basis and had a sense of
which students would make good participants. Second, some of the administrators
work with groups in which significant numbers of first-generation students are
affiliated and were willing to utilize their student email distribution lists to request
participants. Partnering with these staff members was a crucial step in identifying
student participants.
Student participants were identified throughout the first half of the fall 2009
semester. Participant recruitment happened in two primary ways. The first
recruitment approach was to contact specific students directly. Some administrators
provided me with names of students they felt would be good candidates to inform
this study. These administrators were able to provide specific student names because
they knew which of the students they worked with were first-generation college
students. Students were contacted individually by email and invited to participate.

85

Several follow up contacts were made to students who did not initially respond to the
participation request.
While contacting individual students directly to participate in the study
confirmed the participation of some, it did not yield enough student participants to
complete the study. Therefore, a second approach to student participant recruitment
was implemented. This approach involved sending out a request for participation to
groups of students through student affairs administrators’ email distribution lists and
email newsletters, such as Cultural Center and Resident Advisor e-newsletters.
University administrators were critical to the success of this recruitment approach by
endorsing this study with their students and encouraging students who met the
selection criteria to participate. Snowball sampling, a process of identifying critical
participants by asking current participants to recommend others who can provide
valuable contributions to the study (Patton, 2002), was used to a lesser extent.
Utilizing these approaches to participant selection in combination, I was able to
finalize the group of students for this study.
The final group of student participants consisted of six women and five men.
Their ages ranged from 20 years old to 23 years old, with a mean age of 20.91 years
old. Ten of the students were single and one student, Albert, the oldest of the group,
was married. None of the students had children of their own. One student lived on
campus, two lived off campus in university owned housing, seven students lived off
campus in private, non-university housing, and one student lived at home with his
parents. All seven of the students living off campus in private, non-university

86

housing lived within two miles of the university. The majority of the students’
families lived relatively close to the university. Nine of the students’ parents lived
within 30 miles of the institution. The other two students’ parents lived over 300
miles away. With regard to race and ethnicity, seven of the students self-identified
as Latino/a, one as Chinese, and three as multiethnic or multiracial. Of these three
students, one self-identified as part Vietnamese and part Chinese, one as Filipino,
Chinese and Spanish, and the third self-identified as White, Spanish and Native
American (Apache).
As mentioned above, nine of the students were seniors and two were juniors
during the 2009-2010 academic year. They represented a wide range of academic
majors, including Accounting, American Studies, Biology, Film Production, Fine
Art, Health Sciences, International Relations, Journalism, Literature, Political
Science, Psychology, Public Policy and Spanish. Four of the students were working
on double majors and one student had three majors. Their self-reported grade point
averages ranged from 2.85 to 3.85 with a mean grade point average of 3.327. Table
3.1 is a summary of the student participants.
Table 3.1 Student Participants
Student
Name*
Gender Age Self-Identified
Ethnicity
Class
Standing
Major GPA

Albert

Male

23
Filipino,
Chinese,
Spanish

Senior
Political Science,
Public Policy

3.74

Alejandra

Female

21

Latina

Senior

Health Sciences

2.85

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Table 3.1 Student Participants, Continued
Student
Name*
Gender Age Self-Identified
Ethnicity
Class
Standing
Major GPA

Ana

Female

21

Mexican

Senior
International
Relations,
Spanish

3.2

Daniel

Male

21

Latin

Senior

Journalism

3.1

Esteban

Male

21

Latino

Senior
Film Production,
Literature,
Spanish

3.5

Isabel

Female

20
Mexican-
American

Junior

Health Sciences

3.4

Julio

Male

20

Latino

Senior
American
Studies, Political
Science

3.31

Kim

Female

20
Vietnamese,
Chinese

Senior

Biology

3.25

Mike

Male

22

Hispanic

Senior

Accounting

3.2

Sara

Female

20
White, Spanish,
Apache

Junior
Fine Art,
Psychology

3.85

Trisha

Female

21

Chinese

Senior

Psychology

3.2
*all names are pseudonyms
Family members were the next group of participants to be identified. Few
studies have been conducted on the role of family members in college student
persistence. Even fewer studies have incorporated the perspectives of family
members in this process (Herndon & Hirt, 2004). This study includes data collected
from parents and other family members. Once student participants were identified,
each student was asked to identify one family member who the student felt has been

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influential to his or her persistence in higher education. Family member participants
were not required to be parents. Herndon and Hirt (2004) used this sampling
strategy in a study that examined the role of family members in African American
college student success.
Five of the students in this study identified their mothers to participate.
Three students identified their fathers, two identified brothers and one identified a
sister. Of the identified family members, four of the mothers, two of the fathers,
both brothers and the sister agreed to participate. The level of education among
family members ranged from elementary school to a few semesters at community
college. Three of the family member interviews required a Spanish translator and
one required a Vietnamese translator. Table 3.2 provides a summary of family
member participants.
Table 3.2 Family Member Participants
Student
Name
Family
Member
Marital
Status
Number
of
Children
Highest Level of
Education
Language
of
Interview

Albert

Sister

Single

0
Three semesters
of Community
College

English

Alejandra

Mother

Married

4
Elementary
school

English

Ana

Father

Divorced

3

High School

Spanish

Daniel

Brother

Engaged

3
A few
Community
College Courses

English

Esteban

Father

Married

3

Ninth Grade

Spanish

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Table 3.2 Family Member Participants, Continued
Student
Name
Family
Member
Marital
Status
Number
of
Children
Highest Level of
Education
Language
of
Interview

Julio

Mother

Widowed

3
Elementary
School

Spanish

Kim

Mother

Married

1
Elementary
School

Vietnamese

Sara

Mother

Married

3
Two semesters
of Community
College

English

Trisha

Brother

Single

0
A few semesters
of Community
College

English

Finally, two student affairs administrators were asked to participate in the
study through individual interviews. First-generation students turn to administrators
on campus for help that parents and family members cannot provide. As interviews
with students got underway, two administrators emerged in four of the conversations
as playing a role in student success on campus. These two administrators were thus
invited to participate. Both administrators work on a daily basis with first-generation
college students at Deane University and their perspectives enriched the data.
Sampling Issues
A few sampling issues arose throughout the course of data collection.
Sampling issues included concerns regarding students’ self-selection to participate in
the study, difficulties in getting family members to participate once students were
selected and language barriers in interviews with family members. Concerns about
getting students to participate in the study were eased fairly quickly once the two-

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pronged approach to student recruitment, described earlier, was implemented.
Incentives to motivate students to participate were considered, but ultimately not
used. The focus of student participant recruitment was on encouraging students to
participate in the study for the sake of contributing to our knowledge base and
allowing us to understand their experiences better.
Since many students were invited to participate in the study, yet only some
agreed to participate, there was some concern about the students who self-selected to
participate. Upon learning about the general topic of the study, students who have a
positive relationship with their families may have been more inclined to share their
experiences than students who have poor family connections. However, if students
on good terms with their family members were more inclined to participate, this may
have actually helped to achieve the critical case sampling I set out to accomplish,
since the goal was to examine ways that families influence student persistence.
These students may receive more encouragement to persist in higher education from
their families.
The second sampling issue had to do with getting family members to
participate once student participants were confirmed. While it was my hope that all
family members identified would agree to participate, practical limitations kept this
from happening. Nine of the 11 identified family members participated in the study
(see Table 3.2). Two family members declined to participate. One of these family
members was seriously ill. The other felt she did not have the time to participate due

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to her seven day a week work schedule in combination with her role as primary care
giver to younger children at home.
The third issue involved encountering a language barrier when interviewing
family members. Five students identified family members who spoke Spanish, three
of whom participated in the study, and one student identified a family member who
spoke only Vietnamese. In these cases, a translator was hired and trained to help
with conducting the family member interviews in either Spanish or Vietnamese. In
an effort to ensure accuracy in the data collection, I conducted a thorough debrief
with the translator at the conclusion of each of these interviews. Transcriptions of
the interviews were completed in the original language and translations of the
transcriptions were required. While incorporating these family members’ stories
strengthens the study, the fact that the interviews were conducted primarily in a
language I did not speak was somewhat restricting. As the primary researcher for
this study, I was limited in my ability to ask follow up questions during these
interviews and had to rely on translations of transcriptions during data analysis. I
can assume that to an unknown extent, data from these interviews was filtered
through the translator. If I spoke the family members’ native languages and was able
to interview them myself, I would have had greater access to the raw data from these
interviews, which would have enhanced the data analysis.
Instrumentation
Three interview protocols were developed for the purposes of this study, each
of which followed the standardized open-ended interview design as suggested by

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Patton (2002). The use of standardized open-ended interviews ensures that each
participant is asked the same questions, in the same order, so that information about
the same topics is gathered from all participants (Patton, 2002). The opening
question from Gofen’s (2009) study was adapted and used as the opening question in
the current study. Additionally, the interview protocols from Herndon and Hirt’s
(2004) research were used as a guide for a few of the interview questions in the
protocols for the current study. The first interview protocol that was developed was
for student participants (see appendix A). Questions in this protocol were grouped
into five sections. The first section was made up of one opening question, which
inquired broadly about what the student felt were the reasons for his or her success in
college. Sections two, three and four were made up of questions designed to elicit
information that pertains to the three categories within Gofen’s (2009) family capital
framework. These categories are attitude toward education, interpersonal
relationships and family values. Section five consisted of one concluding question.
The second interview protocol was for family members (see appendix B).
The format of the family member interview protocol was the same as the student
interview protocol, with questions grouped into five sections. The question in the
first section asked generally about the family member’s rationale for their college
student’s success. Questions in the second, third and fourth sections were designed
to gather information that illustrates family support within the family capital
framework. Section five was made up of one concluding question. The third
interview protocol was for university administrators (see appendix C).

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Administrators that were identified to participate in this study have significant
experience working with first-generation students and in many cases, their families,
and were therefore familiar with the issues these students face in college. Questions
in the administrator interview protocol sought to elicit information about how
administrators view family members’ support for students. As in the student and
family member interview protocols, questions were designed to incorporate the
categories of the family capital framework.
Each of the three interview protocols elicited data that addresses the research
questions for this study. Questions in the first four sections of the student, family
member and administrator protocols sought to address the main research question,
about the ways in which family support contributes to first-generation college
student persistence. Data relevant to the sub-question, which seeks to understand
how student perceptions of their parents and families influence their motivation to
persist in higher education, is specifically addressed in sections two and three of the
student and family member interview protocols, but all sections of the three
protocols provided insight into the sub-question.
Data Collection
The first step in data collection was to pilot the interview protocols to get a
sense of how well they aligned with the research questions of this study. Two pilot
interviews were conducted for each of the three protocols with persons with similar
backgrounds to those required by the selection criteria. I piloted the student
interview protocol with two first-generation students who had completed their

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degrees. The family member interview protocol was piloted with two parents of
first-generation students and the administrator protocol was piloted with two
administrators who work with first-generation students. The pilot interviews assisted
in streamlining these data collection tools.
The next step in the process was to obtain approval from the university’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the protection of human subjects. Once IRB
approval was granted, potential student participants were identified with the help of
key administrators at Deane University. All identified students were contacted by
email to explain the purpose of the study and request participation. A second email
contact and phone calls were made to students who did not initially respond. Once I
had attempted to recruit individually identified students, a second approach to
recruiting students was implemented as described earlier in this chapter. After
contacting individually identified students, targeting groups in which first-generation
students might be affiliated through email blasts and e-newsletters, and utilizing a
snowball sampling technique (Patton, 2002) in some of the earlier interviews, the
student participant group was finalized. Two students contacted me and expressed
interest in participating, however, since one of them was a sophomore and the other
had a parent with an Associates degree, it was determined that these students did not
meet the study criteria and were therefore ineligible to participate.
Initially, I set out to include ten students in the study because I felt that this
number of student participants would provide a rich set of data, while at the same
time be manageable to complete within the timeframe of this study. Since

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qualitative research tends to be based on a small and purposeful sample (Patton,
2002), including ten students in the study seemed like a good balance between the
ability to dig deeply into the students’ experiences while staying focused on the
purpose of the research. Once student participant recruitment concluded, and 11
students had been identified to participate, I felt it was important to include all 11
students’ stories in this research. Each student’s individual story provides a unique
perspective, and together they support the findings of this research. Data collection
started at the beginning of September 2009 and concluded in early November 2009.
Interviews
Once participation of each student was confirmed, I set up a time to conduct
an interview. Individual in depth interviews were conducted with 11 student
participants. All interviews were conducted on campus, in a conference room,
vacant office, or a study room in a library. In the interest of making students feel as
comfortable as possible, I gave them the option of meeting at an interview location
of their choice, but found that most students were willing to meet me anywhere on
campus and preferred that I arrange the location. I set up interview meeting rooms
for ten of the student participants, while one meeting location was determined by the
student. When arranging meeting locations, I selected rooms in buildings that were
familiar to students, such as libraries and student meeting areas, which were centrally
located on campus. Additionally, my experience was that students were more
willing to share the details of their stories if they felt reassured that the conversation
was private and confidential, so a room with a door that could be closed worked best.

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At the beginning of each interview, I reviewed the informed consent information
sheet, which I had previously sent the student in an email reminder about our
interview, and asked the student if he or she had any questions. Due to the IRB
categorization of this study, a signed consent form was not required to participate.
Interviews were on average about 60 minutes in length and were audio taped with
permission from the student. At the end of each interview, I asked the student to fill
out a demographic information sheet and identify a family member participant.
Once family members were identified, they were contacted by mail to explain
the purpose of the study and ask for their participation. In one case the family
member was initially contacted by email and I followed up with a mailed letter. An
informed consent information sheet accompanied the mailed or emailed letter.
Translated letters and consent forms were provided when necessary. About a week
after each letter was sent, I followed up with the family member by phone to
schedule an interview. All family members were interviewed over the phone. Three
family members lived over 130 miles from the university. Due to work schedules,
time constraints and family obligations, the other family members preferred to be
interviewed over the phone as well. Informed consent signatures were not required
as explained previously. Interviews lasted between 45 and 60 minutes and were
audio taped with permission from the family member. One family member declined
to be audio taped. To ensure the quality of the data from this interview, both the
translator and I took extensive notes during and immediately after the interview and
spent a substantial amount of time debriefing about the interview together. Family

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members were asked several demographic questions at the conclusion of the
interview.
Two administrators identified in student interviews as having a significant
impact on their success were contacted and asked to participate in the study. The
administrator interviews were conducted in offices on campus and were 60 to 70
minutes in length. The informed consent information sheet was presented a few days
before each interview and both interviews were audio taped with permission. No
informed consent signatures were required. Administrator interviews concluded
with a few demographic questions.
University Structure and Document Review
In order to gain a greater understanding of the experiences of first-generation
college students and their family members at Deane University, I reviewed the
structure of the university in terms of services and programs specifically targeted to
this population of students. Documents and resources available to these students and
their family members were reviewed, which helped to establish the context in which
first-generation students and their families navigate the university.
Reflexive Field Notes
In addition to interviews, I took extensive reflexive field notes to supplement
my data collection. Creswell (2007) noted that reflexive field notes are “notes about
your experiences, hunches and learnings,” (p. 134). Reflexive field notes can
include the researcher’s thoughts or feelings about what is occurring, notes about
observations during the interview, items to follow up on or return to, and preliminary

98

conclusions the researcher has drawn. Additionally, reflexive field notes place the
researcher within the context of the research (Creswell, 2007). Patton (2002)
described reflexivity as “self-awareness” or “self-knowledge” (p. 299). The
researcher enters the study with a unique background and perspective, which cannot
be completely separated from the research. Reflexivity and reflexive field notes
remind the researcher of her own social, political, economic and cultural view points
and how these might be either the same or different from participants in the study
(Patton, 2002). From the start of this study, I have acknowledged the importance of
reflexive field notes during data collection since the experiences and background that
have shaped my perspective are significantly different than the backgrounds and
experiences of the participants in this study.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began prior to the conclusion of my data collection, which gave
me the opportunity to confirm preliminary findings (Patton, 2002). All interviews
were transcribed and translated if necessary. Once interviews were completed,
transcriptions and reflexive field notes were read and reread, viewed through the
family capital framework. Comments from transcriptions were coded based on the
themes within the framework. A comment could be coded as either an example of a
theme, or as an example that does not fit into the framework. Transcriptions were
also coded by research question. Field notes from interviews were used to confirm
findings that emerged from the coding process.

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Trustworthiness of the Data
In any research study, concerns emerge with regard to the trustworthiness of
the data collected. This study took three approaches to ensure the data collected
represents the experiences of the participants. First, data were collected from three
different participant groups: students, family members and university administrators.
Data collected from a number of sources aided in the triangulation of findings.
Denzin and Lincoln (2003) emphasized the importance of triangulation in data
analysis, as every method of data collection provides a different way of seeing the
same problem or issue. Using multiple sources in data collection creates a clearer,
deeper picture of the phenomenon being studied. Second, immediately following the
conclusion of each interview, I reviewed the notes I had taken during the interview,
making additions or changes to ensure accuracy. I spent time summarizing the
findings within the interview, reflecting on the interview, and taking reflexive notes.
Patton (2002) emphasized that taking these steps directly after an interview helps to
insure the accuracy and validity of the data collected. Third, all interviews took
place in a non-threatening and relaxed environment that was conducive to active
participation from students, family members and administrators. Most of the
participants shared incredibly personal and sometimes painful experiences with me,
which suggests their trust in my ability as a researcher and their openness throughout
the duration of the interview process.

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Researcher Bias
One of the most basic tenets of qualitative research is that it recognizes
reality as socially constructed, making objectivity impossible (Denzin & Lincoln,
2003). I recognize that I bring to this study a set of values that cannot be completely
removed from the research. As a White woman, who comes from a middle-class
background and is not a first-generation college student, I am, in many significant
ways, an outsider to the experiences of the participants of this study. I know that
greater awareness of my individual perspective has resulted in less influence of that
perspective on the current research (Patton, 2002), yet, my unique background will
impact the findings of this study in some unknown ways.
As a student affairs practitioner, I value the idea that students from all
backgrounds should have the opportunity to attend college and access the tools they
need to attain degrees. Experience in family programs at a university has shaped my
perspective that family members are partners in college student success. Whether
they have attended college or not, it has been my experience that parents and family
members can provide essential support and encouragement to successful college
students. Parents’ and family members’ active interest and involvement in their
student’s education helps give students the confidence and motivation they need to
do well. I acknowledge that this perspective could have potentially influenced my
interpretation of the data in the present study, however, throughout the data coding
and analysis I remained committed to following the inductive process of qualitative
research. The use of reflexive field notes was one attempt to remind myself of my

101

perspective and how this might bias the research. Though researcher bias can never
be completely avoided, the use of reflexive field notes helped keep it to a minimum.
Limitations
A few limitations of this study should be noted. First, time constraints and
available resources allowed for interviews to be conducted with 11 student
participants, nine family members and two university administrators. There is no
doubt the study would have been enriched, had I been able to interview the two
family members who declined to participate, as their stories would have likely
provided valuable insight. Additionally, larger student and family member sample
sizes may have provided even greater understanding of the role family members play
in first-generation student success. Yet as in any research study, there are trade-offs
the researcher has to make regarding such factors as time, funding and data
collection methods (Patton, 2002). The fact that four of the family member
interviews were conducted in a language other than English was limiting, as
previously discussed.
Second, the sample used for this study included students from a variety of
racial and ethnic backgrounds, making it impossible to draw conclusions about
students from any one particular race or ethnicity. Future studies may wish to focus
on students who share the same racial or ethnic background, as findings from this
type of study may draw on cultural norms and values as well. Additionally, this
study incorporated the experiences of both male and female students. Therefore
findings are not gender specific. While ethnicity and gender are important aspects to

102

consider, the core goal of the present study was specifically to understand the
experiences of first-generation students.
Third, since the focus of this study was on family support and involvement in
successful first-generation students’ college going experiences, the experiences of
first-generation students who do not persist are not included. Fourth, the researcher
may have altered participant responses and behaviors during interviews in unknown
ways. Every effort was made to make participants feel comfortable, thereby
encouraging them to answer honestly and naturally, yet the presence of the
researcher still likely had an effect on participants. Finally, because the study was
conducted at only one site, and due to the small and intentional sample size, results
of the study cannot be assumed to be generalizable to students at other universities.
Still, the findings of this research have implications that provide guidance to
university leaders when working with first-generation students and their families.
Conclusion
This chapter has provided a detailed description of the inquiry design for this
study, including site details, participant selection, instrumentation, data collection
and data analysis. The method presented here has allowed me to collect and analyze
data pertinent to the research questions and provide greater insight into the
experiences of first-generation students. In chapter four, the findings that resulted
from this methodology are discussed and an analysis of these findings is presented.

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Chapter IV: Findings
In this chapter, the findings of this study are presented. This chapter is
organized in the following way. First, the data collection method is briefly reviewed.
Each of the student participants are introduced, providing context and background
information to aid in understanding the findings of this study. Next I present the
findings, which have been analyzed and organized using the family capital
framework (Gofen, 2009). At the conclusion of this chapter, four major themes that
emerged within the findings of this research are laid out. These themes will be
discussed more extensively in chapter five.
Review of the Data Collection Method
Interviews were the primary source of data for this study. Interviews were
conducted with 11 first-generation college students at Deane University (DU), nine
of their family members and two university administrators who work closely with
this population of students. Extensive reflexive field notes supplemented data
collected through interviews. Field notes were taken immediately following each
interview, as well as frequently throughout the course of the data collection and
analysis process. Finally, the university structure was examined and university
documents were reviewed in order to better understand the services available to
families of first-generation college students.

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Student Introductions
This section serves as a preface to the findings presented in the next section.
In this section, each of the students who participated in the present study is briefly
introduced.
Albert
At 23 years old, Albert is the eldest of the students in this study. Albert is
ambitious, driven and a self-described “workaholic” who is double majoring in
Political Science and Public Policy. His focus and drive was evident during our
interview, as Albert described his hectic schedule during his time at DU, which in
addition to class and homework has included meetings with mentors and professors
outside of class, assisting professors with their research, participating in professional
student groups and activities, and working at up to three different jobs at a time.
Next year Albert hopes to attend graduate school at an Ivy League university and at
the time of our meeting he was working on his applications.
Albert, his parents and his sister immigrated to the United States from the
Philippines when Albert was in high school and his sister was in middle school. His
parents now live about 30 miles from campus. Albert’s sister, who also participated
in this study, lives at home with Albert’s parents and attends a local community
college. Albert got married when he was 20 years old and lives in an apartment with
his wife close to campus. Being married and financially independent from his
parents, Albert admitted he has not had the “typical” college experience. Albert
came to DU to take advantage of the opportunity to learn and prepare himself for the

105

professional world after graduation. He has viewed social events and parties as
distractions to his ultimate goal of finishing his bachelor’s degree and moving on to
graduate school.
Alejandra
Alejandra loves Deane University. Though not as strong academically as the
other participants in this study, Alejandra is a solid student and has found her niche
through social aspects of the university, most notably through her sorority, made up
predominately of Latinas, like herself. Alejandra has helped plan activities and
programs, and has done volunteer work as a member of her sorority. She talked at
length about the pride she has for her Latino heritage and the sense of
accomplishment she feels as a first-generation Latina college student about to
graduate from DU. At the time of our interview, Alejandra was studying for the
GRE and looking into one of the masters programs at DU as a possibility for after
graduation.
Alejandra is the eldest of four children. Her parents live about 30 miles from
campus with their three younger children, Alejandra’s middle sister, a junior in high
school, her brother, a freshman in high school, and her youngest sister, who is six
years old and in first grade. Alejandra communicates with her family frequently; at
least once a day by phone and several times a day by text. Though Alejandra and her
mother, who participated in this study, have not always agreed on the choices
Alejandra has made while at DU, they have a very close relationship. Alejandra is
close to her extended family as well and goes home for family events and gatherings

106

as much as possible. She is one of the oldest of all her cousins on both sides of the
family and is proud that she can be a role model for her younger siblings and
cousins.
Ana
Her bubbly personality, wide smile and unassuming demeanor are Ana’s
trademarks. Ana has excelled both academically and socially at DU. Currently a
senior, she plans to stay enrolled for a ninth semester so that she can study abroad
and complete the requirements for her second major. Ana is considering pursuing a
Masters in Business Administration, but has heard that practical work experience is
necessary for most MBA programs, so she will most likely begin working after
graduation. A friend of her father’s owns a small company and has already offered
Ana a job, but she is not yet sure if she will take it.
Ana’s parents immigrated to the United States from Mexico when Ana was a
year old and her brother was eight months old. At that time, her parents could not
bring Ana and her brother with them, so they left the two children with their
grandparents in Mexico. Ana was raised by her grandparents until her parents were
able to bring her and her brother to the United States when she was “10 or 11.” Up
until that time, Ana had only met her parents once, though they had spoken
frequently by telephone. After Ana’s parents moved to the United States, they had a
third child, Ana’s sister, who is three years younger than Ana. Ana’s parents
divorced when she was in eighth grade. Her mother remarried and Ana has a six-
year-old half brother. Though her parents are divorced, her mother and stepfather

107

remain close with her father. While Ana’s friends consider this arrangement
“weird,” Ana is thankful that her parents still get along. Since her later years in high
school, Ana’s father has been particularly helpful in her pursuit of higher education,
which is why Ana recommended her father to participate in this study. Her mother
would have preferred Ana to attend college closer to home. Deane University is over
300 miles from Ana’s family. Ana’s graduation will be the first time her parents
visit campus.
Daniel
Easy-going and relaxed, Daniel arrived for our Friday morning interview
with a breakfast sandwich in hand, which he unwrapped and ate as I explained the
study and went over the informed consent document. Daniel’s philosophy is to get
as much out of life as possible, especially while he is at DU. The opportunity he has
to be at the university is a not lost on him. Though quite accomplished, he has taken
a laid back approach to his education. He does well in his courses and tries his best,
but his attitude is that there is no midterm or final project worth stressing too much
over. Daniel is involved with a few organized activities, but has not over-involved
himself. His hobbies include photography and skateboarding, which is one reason he
decided to pursue journalism as his major. Growing up he read skateboard
magazines and began to see writing as a possible career. Now he is considering
graduate school, but is unsure of what field he wants to pursue. While he “likes”
law, he does not want to enroll in graduate school “just to go to grad school.” In
terms of definitive plans for after graduation, Daniel has not thought too much past

108

summer. He explained that after graduation, he plans to go to Nicaragua, where his
parents are from, to “hang out and lay low for a month.”
Daniel attributes his father’s influence as the main reason he selected
journalism as his chosen field of study at DU. Daniel’s father has worked as a
messenger at a Spanish language newspaper for over 18 years and began taking
Daniel to work with him at a very young age. Daniel feels “blessed” to have had that
exposure to the professional world when he was younger. After three years of living
on or near campus, Daniel decided to live at home with his mother and father for his
senior year. Daniel is very close to his half brother, who is seven years older and
participated in this study. Daniel has tremendous respect and admiration for his
brother. He and his brother talk on the phone and text message each other every day.
Esteban
The first year Esteban attended Deane University, he felt like he did not fit in.
His doubts began when he attended summer orientation. Having attended a high
school made up of 90 percent Latinos, Esteban immediately noticed how few Latinos
there were in attendance at his freshman orientation program, causing him to feel
“out of place.” To make matters worse, he felt his student orientation leader did a
poor job of establishing relationships among the students in his group. When I asked
Esteban why he did not just give up and go home at that moment, he explained to me
that his parents had taught him to take responsibility. He was given an opportunity
to attend an elite university and had a responsibility to “stick it out.” He continued,

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“I made it to college. I was the first person in my family. I wasn’t going to let them
down.”
Since that first year, Esteban’s attitude has been to take advantage of all of
the opportunities he has been given as a student at DU. He has become involved in
numerous activities, has participated in volunteer trips, and even became a student
orientation leader so that he could make new students’ experiences at orientation
better than his was. Though Esteban’s parents did not attend the family portion of
new student orientation with him, he encourages families of first-generation students
to participate so that they can be exposed to what their student’s life will be like at
DU. He wishes his parents had attended and would like to see orientation programs
better tailored to address the needs and concerns of families of first-generation
students. Esteban is a triple major and is planning to stay a fifth year in order to
complete all of his course requirements.
Esteban’s family supports him taking a fifth year to finish his degree.
Though they do not entirely understand why he wants to pursue three majors, in their
eyes, the more education one can get, the better. Esteban’s parents live about ten
miles from campus with his younger sister, who is 18 years old and has cerebral
palsy. His younger sister requires 24 hour a day care, so his mother stays at home
during the week to care for her while his father works. On the weekends Esteban’s
mother works while his father is home and can take care of his sister. Esteban has
another sister who is 10 years older than him. His older sister never finished high
school. Though the distance between campus and the family’s home is about 20

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minutes, Esteban usually only sees his family during holidays and other special
occasions. His busy schedule keeps him close to campus most of the time. His
father, who participated in this study, is understanding of Esteban’s commitments on
campus and accepts that he cannot come home more frequently.
Isabel
Isabel has always known she was smart. In kindergarten she was identified
as gifted and in high school she took an honors and Advanced Placement (AP)
curriculum. As a Health Sciences major, Isabel has tried to get involved with every
health related activity she can at DU. She is a volunteer student health educator and
has a part time job in student health services. Isabel is taking the pre-med
curriculum and hopes to go to medical school when she graduates. In addition to her
career related activities, Isabel is active in her sorority.
Isabel tries to go home at least once a week on Friday or Saturday to visit her
family. Her parents live about 10 miles from campus. Isabel’s father has been
dealing with a chronic illness for most of Isabel’s life. Isabel recommended her
father to participate in this study, since she felt he was most responsible for
encouraging her education. However, during the data collection period, her father
was once again quite ill and therefore unable to participate. Isabel’s mother is the
primary income provider for the family. Her mother had a stroke several months
ago, but has returned to work. Isabel has two half sisters who are much older, an
older brother and a younger brother. Her older brother did not finish high school.
Isabel communicates openly and frequently with her parents, who know where she is

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and who she is with most of the time. She gives them her class and work schedules
and updates them on events she will be attending. Though both parents emphasize
that school should be Isabel’s priority, Isabel feels compelled to go home most
weekends to visit her father and check in with her mother.
Julio
Soft spoken and reserved, Julio’s goal at Deane University is to do the best he
can to make his parents proud. Though he admitted to procrastinating from time to
time, for the most part, Julio is focused on his academic objectives, acknowledging
that being able to attend the university is a privilege his parents never had. Julio felt
unprepared to handle the rigor of his courses during his freshman year and struggled
to keep his grades up. Since then, he has adjusted to academic life and his grades
have remained high. Julio is involved on campus with student organizations like
Hermanos Unidos, which have provided him with academic support and social
networking.
Julio’s mother, who participated in this study, wants Julio to take full
advantage of the opportunity he has been given at the university. Julio considers
himself fortunate because both of his parents were home for much of the time when
he was growing up. His father injured himself at work when Julio was a baby and
was unable to work very much after that. Julio’s mother, who has been working
since she was six years old, has been employed primarily has a housekeeper for most
of her adult life, but was still able to spend time at home with her three children.
Julio has a younger brother who is 19 and attends community college close to home,

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and a younger sister who is 18 and attends a large state university. During Julio’s
sophomore year in college, his father passed away from cancer. His family lives
over 300 miles from campus, so he visits only during holidays and summer. Like
some of the other students who participated in this study, Julio’s family has never
been to campus. Julio talks to his mother on the phone every day.
Kim
Though her small, thin build might suggest otherwise, Kim is anything but
quiet or shy. She considers herself somewhat “rebellious,” as was the case earlier in
her career at DU when she told her parents she was going to pursue a career in public
health. Kim’s parents wanted her to consider a more traditional health related
profession such as pharmacy or optometry. Since then, they have warmed up to the
idea of Kim’s chosen career path, insisting that they want her to do what will make
her happy, even though they are not entirely clear on what a person who works in
“public health” does. Kim and her parents immigrated to the United States from
Vietnam when Kim was in second grade. She speaks only Vietnamese with her
parents and has found it difficult to explain to them concepts such as “public health”
and “epidemiology” with her limited, colloquial knowledge of the language. Kim
believes her parents still secretly wish she would change her mind and pursue a
health profession they are familiar with. While at the university, Kim has worked as
a research assistant and does volunteer work related to her career interests.
Kim is an only child. Her parents live about 15 miles from campus. She is
quite close to her parents, but feels they can be overprotective at times. Kim goes

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home almost every weekend and checks in with her mother, who participated in this
study, by phone multiple times a day. Though her family lives close to campus, Kim
stressed that neither she nor her parents ever considered her living at home while
attending college. The 20 minute drive to and from campus was seen by her parents
as too much time taken away from potential study time. Both Kim and her parents
want her to go to graduate school, but the details have yet to be ironed out. While
Kim dreams of attending graduate school on the East Coast, she thinks her parents
would probably prefer she stay closer to home. Having not had much formal
education themselves, Kim’s achievements have been a dream come true for her
parents.
Mike
Mike transferred to DU from a local community college when he was a
junior. He described the university as “the big leagues” compared to his community
college and struggled with “time management” during his first semester. The quick
pace of the Accounting curriculum added to the pressure, but by his second semester
he had learned to balance his responsibilities. Mike is easy going and seems proud
of what he has achieved. He interned over the summer at one of the big four
accounting firms and was offered a full time position after graduation, which he has
accepted. Mike is considering pursuing a master’s degree in Accounting,
particularly if his employer will pay for it.
Mike is the “man of the house” in his family. The oldest of four children, he
assumed this responsibility after his parents divorced when he was 16 years old. At

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that time, he moved with his mother, brother and sisters to a small apartment about
10 minutes from DU. He no longer speaks to his father and has tried to help his
mother raise his younger siblings as much as possible. His mother works long hours
to provide for her children, and was therefore unable to participate in this study. As
the only person in his family with a car, Mike tries to go home on Sundays to help
his mother with errands and to visit with his two sisters and brother.
Though Mike admitted that it was hard after his parents divorced, his
experiences with his family have reinforced his belief in himself that he can
accomplish anything. This belief helped him especially through his tough first
semester at DU. In our interview, Mike noted how far he has come, from growing
up in a gang-infested neighborhood, to community college, to DU and a job already
secured for next year. Yet every step of his life has taken place in close proximity to
the last. From where he grew up, to where he will be working after graduation is
about a 15 minute drive, along one street. The university falls in the middle. Mike
reflected on this phenomenon. “Fifteen minutes. My entire life.”
Sara
Deane University was not Sara’s first choice for college. She would have
preferred to attend a college on the East Coast, but DU offered her a substantial
scholarship and she knew financially it would be easier on her family if she accepted
it. Sara arrived to our meeting with a large drawing portfolio. Her passion is art, and
she feels lucky that her parents have encouraged and supported this passion
throughout her education. Sara has found many ways to get involved at the

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university. She is a resident advisor (RA), which helps with the financial burden of
college. She volunteers teaching art and music to elementary school children in the
neighborhood surrounding campus. Since Sara is still only a junior, she is not sure
what she will do after graduation, but graduate school is a definite possibility.
Sara has an older sister and a younger sister. Her older sister just graduated
from a nearby state university and her younger sister is a junior in high school. The
women in Sara’s family are very close. Sara shares just about everything with her
mother, who participated in this study, and considers her younger sister to be her best
friend. Her family lives about 25 miles from campus and Sara goes home
occasionally, although her RA duties often keep her on campus. Her father, an artist,
is somewhat of an outsider within the family, but he and Sara often talk about art
since this is something they share. Though both of Sara’s parents completed a
couple semesters at community college, they were strongly discouraged from higher
education by their respective families. This is a major reason why education has
been emphasized throughout Sara’s upbringing. Her parents want her and her sisters
to have the opportunities they were never able have.
Trisha
The first item on Trisha’s “to do” list in spring is to find a full time job after
graduation. During our interview, Trisha commented that unlike many of her peers,
she does not have the luxury of taking time off after graduation to travel or “hang
around.” She needs to find a job in order to contribute to the family’s finances.
Originally majoring in biology with a pre-pharmacy emphasis, Trisha changed her

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major to psychology, which she enjoys more and gets better grades in. Though her
parents had hoped she would become a pharmacist because of the “stable income”
and because “you’re making a career out of helping people,” they supported her in
her decision to change majors, which she is thankful for. Trisha has been involved
as a leader within the branch of the university student government that plans events
and speakers for the student population. She has enjoyed this activity tremendously
because of the “sense of fulfillment” she gets by seeing an event unfold from the
planning stages to execution.
Trisha plans to move back home with her parents and older brother when she
graduates so that they can pool their money and hopefully move to a nicer
neighborhood. Her brother, who participated in this study, is currently attending a
local community college and is considering attending art school in the fall. Trisha’s
parents immigrated to the United States and speak Cantonese. Trisha was raised
speaking Cantonese, but is now more comfortable speaking English. Like Kim,
Trisha sometimes finds it difficult to find the right words to explain to her parents
what she is learning in her courses and the activities she participates in. Her father
works full time for another family member but her mother cannot work because of
health related issues. She had a stroke ten years ago and the doctor has told her that
working will cause stress which may trigger her condition. Going to college was
always something that Trisha’s parents expected from their children. Trisha derives
much of her motivation from her understanding that if she does not do well in
college, she has nothing to fall back on.

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Findings
In this section, the findings of the current study are presented. The data were
analyzed through the lens of the family capital framework (Gofen, 2009) and have
been organized here in the same way. Telling the stories of these students using
Gofen’s (2009) framework has allowed me to focus on the efforts families make to
help students get through college, which have been unrecognized throughout much
of the literature. Additionally, using the framework to organize this section helps to
capture the ways families contribute to student success, which are not financial or
procedural in nature.
Attitude toward education
Parents and families of the students in this study believe that education for
their student is extremely important and have communicated this belief through their
words and actions throughout the student’s lifetime. Parents view higher education
for their student as a way to make their own unrealized dreams of college come true.
Additionally, higher education represents a way to establish greater financial
security, gain access to better, less labor intensive jobs, have more “success” in
general and find greater happiness in life. Parents want better opportunities for their
children than they have had and see college as the means through which to achieve
this. As a result of this perspective on higher education, parents and family members
have been involved in students’ education in a number of ways and have consistently
emphasized education as a priority.

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Parents’ attitude toward education has provided students with encouragement
and motivation to do well in school. Sara’s mother explained how their family has
embraced and emphasized education. “Education isn’t our enemy in this house. It’s
our friend. We enjoy school.” Esteban’s father concluded that education is “the best
thing there can be in life.” Though not highly educated themselves, parents clearly
understand the benefits to their children in pursuing higher education.
Parents’ objective in student’s education
Eight of the families indicated that parents view their student’s education as a
way to make parents’ own unrealized dream of achieving higher education come
true. Parents want more for their children, in terms of education, than what they had.
Kim and her mother expressed this feeling. While both parents want Kim to do well
in school, her mother views Kim’s education as especially significant. Kim’s mother
had very little formal education. Growing up in Vietnam, she was not allowed to go
to school for long because she was expected to help her family with responsibilities
at home. Kim’s college degree is in many ways fulfilling the chance for education
that her mother never had. Kim’s mother noted that because she and her husband did
not have the chance to pursue education in Vietnam, they cannot get good jobs and
feel they cannot contribute to society in as meaningful a way as they would like.
Kim believes it is for these reasons that her mother pushes her to consider graduate
school after she finishes her bachelor’s degree:
My mom doesn’t have that much education because she’s a girl.
Back in Vietnam, a girl would just stay at home and take care of the
housework. She always told me to learn as much as I can. If there’s

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an opportunity for going into further education beyond a bachelor’s
degree, just go get it.

For Daniel, it is not only his parents, but also his brother who views his
education as “a dream come true.” Daniel’s brother sees Daniel’s pending
graduation from DU as the realization of a dream he is unsure if he will be able to
fulfill himself. Having joined the military after high school, and now with two small
children at home, Daniel’s brother understands that getting to a four-year university
at this stage in his life will be challenging. At the same time, he has drawn
inspiration from Daniel’s achievements and hopes to transfer to DU, or another
university, in the future.
Getting admitted to college and succeeding in higher education is not only
seen as the student’s achievement, but as a reflection of the family’s achievement as
well. Parents are proud of their student, and feel a sense of accomplishment for
themselves at seeing their student attend DU. Esteban’s father expressed this
attitude:
My manner of thinking is that, well, as a father, if I notice that my son
can graduate from a superior school, it’s like I’ve reached my goal in
life even though it wasn’t me, you understand? But, at least as a
parent, I am going to have the satisfaction that I accomplished what
many parents wanted that had a lot of money, that they sometimes
can’t.

Knowing what Esteban has achieved, given the family’s financial and educational
background, is a particular source of pride for his father and has provided him with a
sense of satisfaction in helping Esteban to accomplish this goal.

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Some parents’ objective in their student’s education has been to ensure that
their student has greater financial security, can find a well-paying, professional job
and will have “better opportunities in the long run.” Students know that establishing
financial security is up to them. Parents have only been able to help students with
finances in meager ways, if at all. Trisha described what her parents have said to her
about the importance of focusing on college:
If you don’t want to keep living in low income, like, you don’t want
to live in like a two bedroom apartment, really small, you want to
have a good life then you need to study. Like, it’s all you. We can’t
do anything to help you.

Trisha knows she cannot rely on financial support from her parents after graduation,
which has motivated her to do her best at college so that she can get a good job and
have an easier life than her parents have had.
One of the administrators who participated in this study reflected that first-
generation college students who attend DU recognize that they have been given
better opportunities than their parents have had, and can feel a “sense of duty” to be
successful and help the family financially after graduation. Trisha’s plan to move
back in with her parents after graduation, find a job and contribute to the family’s
income demonstrates this point. Other students’ stories speak to this idea as well.
Kim is keenly aware of the fact that her parents immigrated to the United States in
order for her to have a better life. Kim’s family background is a big motivator for
her. She feels a responsibility to succeed at college and in her professional life after
college so that she can have a more stable financial future than her parents have had.
Kim worries about finding a job after graduation and is fearful of having to live

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“paycheck to paycheck” like her parents do. Ana’s father described his family’s
financial situation as “living day by day” and has told Ana she needs to find a job
that will allow her to avoid living in this type of situation. For Esteban, attending
college and getting a good job after graduation will allow him to provide a “better
growing up experience” for his children. While Esteban described his own
childhood as “normal,” he wants his children to have better resources and
opportunities than he had.
Julio’s parents have worked in labor-intensive jobs throughout their lives and
see education for Julio, his brother and sister as a way for the children to secure less
physically demanding work than they have had. Growing up, Julio’s parents
emphasized the need to go to college for this reason. “They both didn’t want me to
do, like, the sort of physical menial labor that they had to all their lives. So they
really stressed education and going to a higher institution at some point throughout.”
Julio’s mother reiterated this point in her interview. She emphasized the importance
of education in order to make life better, commenting that life is already difficult, but
without education it is worse.
Alejandra’s mother wanted Alejandra to go to college so that she could have
“more options other than just oh, find yourself a boy and get married” and have
children. In her mother’s eyes, “options” are important for Alejandra to have and
she sees college as giving Alejandra these options. Though she does not fully grasp
the extent of the “options” available to Alejandra through the university, she knows
they are there. She has a general sense that college has provided Alejandra with

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choices to decide what path she will take in life, rather than that path being dictated
for her. Sara’s parents want their daughters to have what they did not have in terms
of a chance to pursue higher education. Her parents were discouraged from higher
education by their families, which is why they have emphasized the idea of college
with their daughters. Students in this study recognize that their parents want them to
have better opportunities. Knowing that they are gaining these opportunities through
higher education motivates students to do their best and take advantage of their
options.
In addition to seeing education as a way out of poverty, an opportunity to
create greater financial security or chance to have a better career, parents want
students to pursue higher education because they equate education to “success.”
Parents expressed a belief that successful people are educated, and therefore happy,
people. This idea is similar to the “path out of poverty” theme in Gofen’s (2009)
framework, but is distinct in that it focuses not only on education as a way to ensure
greater financial stability, but as a means of finding a career that students enjoy, and
that will enable them to be successful and happy with their lives. When Kim and
Trisha changed their majors, after some initial questioning, their parents were
supportive because they wanted their students to pursue areas that would make them
happy. When Esteban told his parents about his plan to stay in college for a fifth
year so that he could complete his triple major, instead of getting upset, his parents
supported his choice because of their belief that the more education you have, the

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more successful you can be. For parents, “success” refers not only to financial
success, but also to finding happiness in one’s life.
Families want their student to be successful at whatever major or career the
student has chosen. The idea of education for the purpose of education was
expressed by a few parents. Sara’s mother wants her children to learn because
learning is fun, not because education will make her children “rich.” She has
fostered a love of learning in Sara and commented, “There will never be a day when
she (Sara) won’t be learning. She’ll learn her whole life.” Alejandra’s mother wants
her children to choose fields that will make them happy and will allow them to do
what they are good at. She has encouraged her two high school aged children to
choose a college they want to attend because it has the academic programs they are
interested in. While education does provide financial stability, learning is an
opportunity to better yourself, have more opportunities to do what you love and give
back to society.
Parents’ objective in their children’s education has resulted in fewer conflicts
between students’ school lives and family obligations such as family gatherings,
house chores, caring for younger siblings and earning money to contribute to the
household while in college. Parents have expressed that school work comes first,
which is different than what much of the literature says about many families of first-
generation college students, which indicates parents are often unsupportive of
students’ higher educational pursuits (London, 1989; Phinney & Haas, 2003;
Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). The difference between the

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finding in the current study and those of previous research could be that most studies
on first-generation college students have been conducted with students at community
colleges and large public universities. Family obligations and responsibilities at
home may contribute significantly to the reason students attend these institutions,
which creates greater tension between home and college life.
Parents’ attitude toward their own education
Parents’ attitudes about their own education have helped to shape their
attitudes about their students’ education. Parents and family members have often
used themselves and other members of the family as examples of what their students
should not do. Kim thinks her parents want her to do well in college so she “won’t
be like them.” Her mother wants her to go to school and be independent because she
was not allowed these privileges. Kim has a cousin who was college educated in
Vietnam and immigrated to the United States after marrying an American. She is
currently working at a nail salon, which Kim’s mother views as “really degrading.”
Kim often hears her mother talking to her cousin on the phone, trying to encourage
her to take night classes to learn English so that she can do something more with her
life. Kim’s mother communicates to Kim that this is not that path she wants for her.
Parents’ interest in seeing students not follow in their footsteps emerged
frequently when discussing finances and better opportunities. Trisha’s parents made
it clear to her that she needed to go to college if she did not want to struggle
financially like they did. Julio’s parents did not want him and his sibling to have to
“work with their bodies” like they have had to do their entire lives. His mother

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continues to tell her children to study, so that they can do work with their minds.
She wants an easier life for her children.
Other times, parents made decisions about educating their children based on
parents’ own difficulties going through the education system. When Alejandra was
first learning how to speak, her father emphasized speaking English at home
“because he wanted us to be at the same level as everyone else so that we wouldn't
have to struggle.” Her father’s experience as an immigrant to the United States
shaped his belief that his children should learn English before Spanish. Alejandra
described this experience as:
his way of caring because he came from his country when he was
seventeen here and actually went to a high school a couple blocks
away. And he knew what it was like to be in an ESL class and all
that, so that was his way of not having that happen to us.

Alejandra’s father wanted his children to have advantages he did not have.
For some students, older siblings were the ones who sent the message of “do
not become like me.” Esteban and Isabel both have older siblings who did not
graduate from high school. Esteban and Isabel have watched their siblings struggle
since they dropped out and indicated that their siblings have acted as role models for
what not to do. Daniel has learned a similar lesson from his brother. Daniel
described his brother as “a smart kid” who “never really tried in school.” Not having
achieved his potential in high school, Daniel’s brother joined the Navy upon
graduating. Now that his brother has a family of his own, he sees the importance of
higher education and continually shares this feeling with Daniel. At the same time,
Daniel has learned from his brother’s experiences. “So seeing him as an older

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brother was really almost like ‘don’t do what I did.’ He really guided me, in terms of
what I should do, and he wanted me to come to (DU).”
Daniel’s brother reiterated this sentiment in his interview, “I’m a big
influence (on Daniel) because I believe that my decisions that I’ve made have made
him realize that military is not for him.” Daniel’s brother expects Daniel not to
repeat his mistakes. “I’ve told him also learn from my mistakes and ‘I expect you to
do better because you are better.’” Daniel’s brother’s friends, who, like his brother,
were not focused on school when they were growing up, have encouraged Daniel as
well. Daniel indicated that many of his brother’s friends got involved with gangs
and a few have gone to prison. Yet they continually encourage Daniel to keep doing
well in college and learn from their missteps.
Daily expressions of prioritizing education
Parents and family members have emphasized the importance of education to
their students consistently throughout their lives. One of the biggest ways parents
have conveyed education as a priority is through involvement in their student’s
schooling. Many examples of involvement found in this study were as simple as
engaging the student in a conversation about school or providing assistance or
transportation to school related activities. Deeper forms of involvement included
attending school functions, helping with homework, participating in parent portions
of early college outreach programs, providing financial assistance to students in
order to participate in school activities and talking about college with students.
Parents and family members have been involved in their students’ education starting

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when students were very young and have continued to be involved, though to a lesser
extent, through their college years.
When students were young, parents would talk to their children and ask them
about their education “every day.” Sara’s mother explained, “Whenever they’d
come home from school, I’d say, ‘Tell me what you learned today.’” Trisha’s
brother had a similar recollection of conversations he had with his mother after
school. “When we were younger, she would ask us what we did at school today, or
‘what did you learn at school?’ what kinds of activities, or ‘How was school? Was it
interesting?’” Through this gesture, parents acknowledged the importance of school
to their children. Ana’s father talked to his daughter about education frequently and
firmly believes that education is not something that happens only at school. He
thinks that parents have the responsibility to provide education at home. When
asked if he was involved with Ana’s education, her father’s response was, “100
percent.”
Parents not only talked about school, but were active participants in their
children’s elementary and secondary education. Some families, like Daniel’s, helped
their children with homework. Daniel remembers his mother drilling him with times
tables, while his brother helped him with essays and other school projects. Sara’s
mother, perhaps the most involved of all the parents who participated in this study,
taught her children how to read before they began kindergarten. Both Alejandra and
Sara’s mothers volunteered in their elementary school classrooms and Alejandra’s

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mother still volunteers in her youngest daughter’s elementary school classroom
today.
When Kim first moved to the United States, she and her dad would work on
her homework with an electronic dictionary that translated words from English to
Vietnamese. When completing her homework, her father insisted she write out the
answers in complete sentences, so that she could practice her English as much as
possible. Within a few years, however, Kim had passed her parents’ educational
level and they were no longer able to help her with school work. Other students
outlined similar situations at home. Julio’s parents were only able to help him with
his academic work when he was very young. “In terms of the subject matter itself,
my parents had – my mom had a sixth-grade education, and dad had a third-grade
education, so very early on they couldn’t help me on my homework.” Mike’s
mother left school in the sixth grade as well, so Mike could not rely on her for help
with his school work either.
Families were involved in and helped with a variety of students’ activities in
elementary and secondary school. In middle school, as Alejandra became more
involved in school activities, her parents provided rides, made costumes and gave her
money for things she needed at school. Kim’s parents were not familiar with the
United States education system and were limited by how much they could be
involved with Kim’s education due to language barriers. However, her mother noted
that she and Kim’s father made an effort to juggle their work schedules in order to
take Kim to school and pick her up every day. Trisha’s father gave Trisha rides

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back to school in the evenings so that she could cover basketball games and other
events for the school newspaper. Trisha felt this was a task her father did not
necessarily want to do, but he did it because he knew it was important to her. When
Sara was getting ready to apply for colleges, her father helped arrange her art into a
portfolio for college applications. When I asked how he had known that she would
need a portfolio to apply as an art major, Sara explained, “He had done a little bit of
research and had talked to my art teachers in high school and found out from them
what to do.” This comment illustrates how Sara’s father took it upon himself to find
out how he could best assist his daughter in the college going process.
Julio’s mother was “one of the more involved parents” in his early outreach
program. She made cookies and cakes for bake sale fundraisers and attended parent
meetings because she wanted to support Julio in his education. Since she could not
help Julio with his homework, Julio’s mother felt that attending these meetings was
the best way she could encourage him in his education. Esteban participated in a
college early outreach program that required parents to participate as well. Esteban’s
father would arrange his transportation to the program in the morning and attended
parent meetings twice a month on Saturdays, “where they teach parents how to
calculate a GPA, when’s the right time to take the SAT,” and “what it entails to have
a good learning environment for students to do homework.”
In addition to Esteban’s early college outreach program, Esteban’s father was
involved in other aspects of Esteban’s education. Esteban’s mother could not be as

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involved because of his parents’ work schedules and the need to care for his younger
sister. Esteban explained his parents’ involvement:
I don’t think my dad ever missed one parent conference. He was
always there at awards ceremonies. I also did four years of ROTC in
high school, so he would come to all of our ceremonies and huge
presentations. He was really, really involved. My mom wanted to be
more involved, but she’s usually the one that stays at home, takes care
of my sister, just because she requires a lot of attention. She wanted
to be more involved, but she just couldn’t.

Esteban’s father reiterated that he has tried to support his son and be involved
as much as possible in Esteban’s education by “always being attentive in what he
does.” Attending Saturday parent meetings for the early college outreach program
helped him to become informed about Esteban’s path to college and connected him
more closely to Esteban’s progress. This experience was a great source of pride for
Esteban’s father because he enjoyed knowing how well Esteban was doing.
Esteban’s mother often took days off from work so that his father could attend these
meetings at the high school, but they feel this sacrifice was necessary because
Esteban’s education and success in school is a priority.
Some parents went to great lengths to try to improve their children’s chances
of receiving a good education. Parents got to know their children’s teachers. In
elementary school, Sara’s mother would try to “steer” her children toward specific
teachers and intervened when she felt they were not being challenged enough. In
middle school, Daniel and Sara’s parents moved them and their siblings to private
schools because they perceived the education to be better there. In Sara’s case, her
mother did “a ton of research” regarding the public middle school options for Sara

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and her sisters and determined that the options were “bleak.” All three of her
children applied to a private prep school beginning in middle school and with the
help of “generous” financial aid, all three children were able to attend.
While parents were involved in their children’s elementary and secondary
schooling in a variety of ways, some parents were unsure of certain aspects of the
school system. Julio’s parents did not fully understand what his grades on his report
card meant, but they knew that they were an indication that he was doing well in
school. Other parents felt they should not participate because of language barriers.
Isabel’s parents did not attend events at school like Parent Night and Parent Club
meetings because they felt they would not understand since they do not speak
English.
A few parents were not as involved in their children’s education until an
older sibling was unsuccessful in school. Once parents realized their older child’s
mistakes, they began to pay more attention to their younger child’s school activities.
Isabel was in tenth grade when her brother dropped out of high school. Her parents
learned from their experience with Isabel’s brother and began to take more of an
interest in her schooling at that time. Isabel described the situation this way:
I had, still, two years of high school left when he was supposed to
graduate. I realized that before that, they would never bother to ask
me, ‘Oh, how’s your work doing?’ or anything. After that happened,
if I wanted to go somewhere, they would ask, ‘Are you done with
your homework yet?’

Esteban had a similar experience, but because his sister was ten years older,
his parents became more involved in his education at a much younger age than Isabel

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was when her brother dropped out. Esteban explained the experience and how it
impacted his determination to go to college:
College is something I always knew I wanted to do. I have an older
sister who is ten years older than me. She dropped out of high school.
Just seeing the struggle she was going through, just pushed me to do
better. I felt like my parents saw that – my sister struggling after she
dropped out of high school. They eventually started pushing me more
than they pushed her because they didn’t want me to go through the
same thing she was going.

Since students have been in college, their families have continued to be
involved, most commonly through conversations students have with their families
about school, either by telephone or when students go home to visit. University
administrator participants feel that parents talking with their students about school
and “checking in” with them are good practices to keep students focused on their
college lives. The parents of the students in this study have ongoing conversations
with their students about college. Six students speak to a parent on a daily basis,
four speak to a parent three to four times a week and one speaks to his family once a
week. Julio and his mother talk on the phone every day about school. She asks him
how school is going, what he has done that day, what he is doing later, and what
homework and projects he has. Kim and her mother talk multiple times a day.
Kim’s mother asks her about school, classes and the volunteer work she does. She
inquires about how much rest Kim is getting and what she is eating, because her
mother knows how important Kim’s health is to doing well in college. In addition to
checking in on Kim, Kim’s mother contributes to her college success in other ways.

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When Kim comes home on the weekends, her mother helps her with laundry, cooks
and tries to take care of her so that she can focus on class work and resting.
Isabel communicates openly with her parents about her life at college, a fact
she is proud of:
Well, they know – for example, if I’m going somewhere, they know.
Even though I’m not living at home, they do know if I go to an event,
or – I, personally, like to give them a schedule of my classes, of my
work hours and everything, just so they know, if they try calling, why
I can’t answer or something. If people are staying over at the
apartments or anything, they know who’s there. I’m really open. I
don’t keep anything – oh, if my roommate’s having someone there,
I’ll even tell them about it. It’s just something that I’m really open
about.

Five students mentioned giving their parents a copy of their class and work schedules
so that their parents would know where they were or why they were not answering
their phone at a particular time. Like Isabel, Alejandra is very open with her parents
about her college life, even if they do not always fully understand the choices she
makes or why she is involved in particular activities. Though they do not always
agree, Alejandra’s parents constantly express their support of her efforts in college.
Ana likes to keep her parents involved and updated on her life in college:
I always try to keep them involved. Especially my dad. I’m very
close with my dad because I actually lived with him. Every time I go
back, I stay at his house. He just is always willing to just have
conversations about my classes and everything. Even though he may
not understand what I’m supposed to do for a certain project, he
listens to what I have to say.

At the same time, Ana’s father continually checks in with her about school, “He’s
always asking me how classes are going. If I told him I had a certain issue or certain
problem with one of my classes, he’ll follow up on it.”

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Ana’s father confirmed that he is there to listen. They talk “about school,
about her personal life, about her problems, about everything.” He even helps Ana
occasionally with her Spanish assignments. Ana’s father has supported her through
the “big things” she has dealt with while in college. Early on in her career at DU,
Ana was devastated when she was not admitted to the major she wanted to pursue.
She called her father to talk to him about her situation. Her father could not
understand why the university, which had already admitted her, would not let her
study the program she was most interested in. However, he listened, they discussed
her options and he reassured her that she would find a major that she would enjoy
and that would suit her career after college. Throughout their conversation Ana’s
father expressed his opinion, but he stressed that the final decision regarding which
major to choose, was up to Ana. Ana’s father does not expect Ana to interpret the
opinions he shares with her about college as “orders.” He wants Ana to weigh her
options and decide what is best for her in a given situation. He explained:
the important thing is to listen, you don’t have to do what I tell you
but listen to me. You listen, you take what you can use, not what you
can’t use, you take it and reach your own conclusions after this.

Trisha recognizes that her parents are involved in her education by the way
they check in on her progress. “They always ask me, like, how are you doing in your
classes. Like, they show they were concerned and just making sure I was doing
okay.” However, Trisha hesitates to tell her parents too much about certain aspects
of her college life, particularly the specific grades she earns. In high school Trisha
got straight A’s, which her parents knew about because her report cards were sent

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home. Now in college, though she does very well in her classes, she no longer gets
straight A’s. Her parents do not know this since her grades are no longer sent home
and Trisha does not volunteer this information.
Like Trisha, other students are selective in what they share about their college
experiences during conversations with their parents. Students focus generally on
academic work, upcoming assignments, tests and projects, though grades are hardly
ever discussed in detail. Students share information about their social lives to a
lesser extent. Albert does not “boggle (his parents) down with the details” of his
college life, particularly with regard to challenges he has faced. Albert has made this
choice partially because of the pressure he feels to succeed and partially because he
feels his parents may not entirely appreciate what he has accomplished. Daniel
chooses not to share certain aspects of his social life with his parents:
If they ever ask about how much I party or how much I drink or
nothing, no. It’s just – I just tell them what I tell them. If they ask
me, I’ll tell them, but they really kept it at, ‘We’ll trust you.’

Of all of the student participants, Kim keeps the most information from her parents,
even though they talk on the phone every day, primarily because of her perception of
their expectations of her in college. She does not want to make them angry, which is
discussed in more detail in the next section.
Administrator participants confirmed that the first-generation college students
they work with tend to share “only the positive stuff” about college with their
families because “they don’t want to worry them.” First-generation college students
often do not to share their struggles with their parents or tell them about difficulties

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they are having in their classes. In many cases this was true for the students in this
study. However, there were a few exceptions. Julio, who struggled in his courses
his freshman year, was open about this with his mother, though she does not know
what his specific grades were. Isabel, Sara and Alejandra share extensive
information about college with their families. Alejandra communicates openly with
her family even though it can sometimes cause tension between her and her parents.
A few students discussed their education with parents less frequently since
they have been in college. Esteban’s parents are not as involved now that he is in
college because they consider him an adult and trust that he will get his work done.
Additionally, his father works at night and it is more difficult to find time to connect
over the phone. Esteban’s father admitted that since he does not have much formal
education, some of the things Esteban tells him about classes he does not understand.
However, he is certain Esteban is learning a lot and he is proud of his son.
Since these students have been on campus, families have been involved in
their education primarily through frequent conversations about students’ college
experiences. However, direct interactions between families and the university have
occurred rarely, if at all. Families are unfamiliar with how the university system
works, which often leaves them feeling intimidated and unsure of how to advise their
student. None of the families in this study have attended university programs
designed for parents and family members, such as new student orientation or family
weekend, and they are largely unaware of the wide array of resources and services

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that are available to students on campus. Nevertheless, families do their best to
support and encourage students in their persistence efforts in every way they can.
In our interview, Esteban made the comparison of his parents’ involvement
in college to his experience with their involvement in high school. Esteban feels that
because of the early outreach program, his father knew about his high school work
and preparation for college. Since there is not a similar program in college to teach
his parents about university procedures and expectations, they know little about
Esteban’s experience or the college system in general. Esteban indicated that this
lack of knowledge about college is likely a contributor to his parents’ lack of
involvement in his college life.
In addition to being involved in students’ education, parents and family
members have conveyed the message that education is a priority through what they
say and how they behave. Parents nurtured the belief in students, starting at a young
age, that students were college bound. Students explained that they “just knew” they
would go to college based on the messages they received from their parents. For
Trisha, college was something that was continuously emphasized by her parents.
“Throughout high school and even during elementary and middle school they just
instilled this belief in me that, like, you have to go to college.” Trisha’s brother
confirmed that growing up, his parents’ attitude was to “get your work finished and
play afterwards.” His mother would occasionally remind them of this philosophy if
she saw them “playing around” before they had finished their homework for the day.

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Ana has known she was going to college since she was young and described
her parents’ feelings toward her education like this:
It’s a priority. It has always been a priority. They may not know how
the whole education system works here with applying to college or
financial aid, or where to go when you need help. They might not
know the logistics of it, but they have always pushed us to go to
college and become the best we can.

Ana’s parents did not have the procedural knowledge to help Ana get into college,
but they knew it was important and continually emphasized college, which helped
Ana to believe that higher education was in her future.
As students were growing up, parents made education a priority for specific
reasons. Mike’s mother emphasized education as a means of survival. The presence
of gangs in the neighborhood where Mike grew up was cause for his mother to be
concerned. In response, Mike’s mother encouraged him to focus on school and
football as a way to stay out of trouble. Being able to positively contribute to society
was given by parents and students as a reason for parents’ emphasis on education as
a priority, as was parents’ interest in students having an easier life.
Parents’ actions demonstrated to students that education was a priority.
Julio’s parents conveyed this message to Julio by showing up to awards ceremonies
he participated in: “When I got any sort of recognition or anything, they were really
– they were always the first one there.” Esteban’s parents emphasized education as a
first priority by allowing him to participate in the college early outreach program.
The sacrifices Esteban’s parents made in order for Esteban’s father to attend the
parent meetings associated with the program further illustrate the priority his parents

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placed on his education. Esteban’s mother, who usually worked on the weekends in
order to make additional money for the family, would stay at home to care for his
younger sister on these Saturdays, so that his father could attend the meetings.
Parents have further conveyed the message that education is a priority by
providing students with what they needed to be successful in school or excusing
them for responsibilities around the house in order to study. This practice has often
resulted in minimal conflicts between students’ academic lives and their
responsibilities at home. When Alejandra was in elementary school and high school,
her parents excused her from chores around the house until her homework was done,
which she explained helped her to understand that education was a priority. “At
home, it was very, like, ‘Do homework first and then help around the house.’” Now
when Alejandra comes home from the university on the weekends, if she is studying
and needs time to complete school assignments, she is still excused from work
around the house.
All of the parents in this study have made their belief in education as a
priority clear to students through the understanding they show when students cannot
come home to address family responsibilities or attend family events. Esteban, one
of the most involved students in this study, frequently has activities on weekends,
which often prevent him from visiting his family. When I asked about how his
parents react when he has to stay on campus to study or participate in an
extracurricular activity instead of coming home for a family gathering, Esteban
indicated that his parents are generally understanding. “They’re fine with it. As

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long as I’m doing well in school, that’s what they care about.” Esteban has missed
family get-togethers on several occasions, including during the summers when he
was an orientation advisor and studied abroad. In his interview, Esteban’s father
reiterated that Esteban’s education is the priority. The pride that he and his wife feel
about Esteban’s accomplishments in college and their desire for his success far
outweigh their interest in taking him away from school activities for family
obligations.
Isabel’s parents continue to put her education first, despite the fact that both
her parents have battled health problems. Isabel explained:
They’re very proud of me. They always support me. If I want to join
an organization or if I want to go to some kind of event that is going
to help me, they actually push me like, ‘Yeah, for sure, go.’ Even if –
sometimes – even if my father’s sick and I really want to be home,
they try to tell me no – like, ‘If you have things to do, go and do it.’

Even when Isabel’s father is ill and she feels she should be at home, her parents
encourage her to focus on school and to put her education first. Although Isabel
insists that her “family always comes first,” if working on school assignments
conflicts with family obligations, her family usually wants her to stay at the
university to take care of her work first. If it is a social event at school that conflicts
with a family event, Isabel is more inclined to come home.
For Julio, the greatest indication that his parents felt education was a first
priority was when Julio’s father was diagnosed with cancer in the second semester of
his senior year in high school. Julio wanted to be close to home so that he could
support his mother through is father’s illness, but he was not admitted to the

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prestigious university located about 30 minutes from his parents’ home. Julio had,
however, been admitted to Deane University, over 300 miles away. Julio described
the conversation he had with his mother. “I was, like, ‘Mom, do you need me to be
here? I can try to appeal that (the admission decision at the closer university) or try
to figure something out,’ but she said, ‘No, I want you to pursue your education.’”
Julio’s mother put Julio’s education before her own needs and the needs of the
family, even in this painful time. In her interview, Julio’s mother reiterated that to
this day, “school is number one” and “most important” and that it has “superseded
everything else.” She confirmed that the only time a family obligation pulled Julio
away from college was when his father passed away during his sophomore year. She
emphasized that “only that one time” did Julio leave college to attend to a family
matter.
In terms of emphasizing education as a first priority, some parents have made
the distinction between academic work or coursework and extracurricular activities,
preferring students to focus on academic work over extracurriculars. While for some
families this was the case when students were in middle school and high school,
other families have continued to emphasize academic work over other activities since
students have been in college. Ana’s father is proud of the fact that Ana has taken on
leadership roles within the organizations she is involved in, but has cautioned her
that her extracurricular activities should not take precedence over academic work and
has encouraged her to not involve herself in more than she “can handle.” Academic
work, he feels, should be the first priority.

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Alejandra’s mother expressed a similar feeling. She and her husband have
always preferred that educational activities come before extracurricular activities,
which she believes can distract from “learning” activities. Alejandra’s parents are
concerned that her extracurricular activities do not teach her much of value and
would prefer that if she did participate in these outside activities, that they be more
aligned with her professional pursuits. Alejandra’s mother explained, “Sometimes,
I’ve asked (Alejandra), ‘I want to hear you’re involved with nursing or doctor stuff –
for you to have more experience in that side of school.’” In reflecting on her desire
to see Alejandra focus her attention on academic and professional activities, her
mother continued, “A cousin of mine told me, ‘Yeah, but you don’t want them to be
a computer…’ what did she call it… ‘a library geek.’ I said, ‘No, but at the same
time, I do.’” Here, Alejandra’s mother is conflicted about her daughter’s activities.
She recognizes that Alejandra’s activities may serve a purpose, but she would like
Alejandra to focus more of her attention on academics and activities that will help
Alejandra prepare for her career after college. Alejandra’s mother also feels strongly
that education should have priority over “boys.”
In general, parents’ attitude toward their student’s education suggested an
overall sense of pride, which students were keenly aware of. Kim’s mother was
“very happy” when Kim was admitted to DU. Daniel’s parents are proud of him
because he is about to graduate from the university. Daniel commented, “Well, I
know that it would make them very, very proud if I graduated from (DU).” He
continued, “I think any parent who comes to this country wants to see their child

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graduate from college and make it that success story. I think that’s all they want.”
Mike noted that his mother “doesn’t let me forget how proud she is.” Albert’s
family is proud of him, as conveyed by his sister. “My father is very proud of him. I
know he is – they are, and yeah, I’m proud of him too.”
Alejandra shared a story that points to how proud her parents are of her as the
first in their family to graduate from college. Last May, when Alejandra was
finishing her junior year, she began to get graduation announcements from some of
her friends. Shortly thereafter, at her cousin’s baptism, where many of her family
members were gathered, Alejandra’s mother began to tell everyone “Save the date!
May 2010! (Alejandra’s) going to graduate!” Alejandra reflected, “It was like she
was announcing it a year before. She was really excited thinking of what we can do
and was already getting emotional about it.” This experience helped motivate
Alejandra to rededicate herself to studying for finals and finishing the semester
strongly.
Parents’ attitude toward education has played a significant role in student
success. Parents have conveyed the message that they want their students to have
better opportunities, more financial stability and an easier life than they have had.
Parents have consistently emphasized education as a priority in students’ lives
through their words and behaviors, getting involved in students’ education in any
way they can, providing encouragement and emphasizing education as a priority.
Students feel supported by their families and have internalized their parents’ attitudes
toward education. Students are motivated by the efforts they have witnessed their

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parents make on their behalf, as well as their parents’ desire to see them succeed and
be happy.
Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal relationships between students and family members have
played a key role in getting students in to college, motivating them to do well since
they have been there and assisting students through difficult times during college.
All students expressed closeness to their parents and family members, which was
illustrated throughout the data. Examples of close family relationships include the
frequency in which students talk with their families on the phone, most at least once
a day, as well as conversations students have with their families about their college
experiences. Ana’s father feels like he knows “everything about her” and considers
their relationship “more than parent and child, but that of friends.” Close
relationships among family members was also evident when four of the students
indicated that they talked with their families about the interview process for this
study before and after their interviews took place. Sara and her mother discussed
what she would say in her interview. Alejandra talked with her mother after her
interview about what she had shared.
Parent-student relationships
As mentioned previously, parents and students in this study have close,
supportive relationships. Within these relationships, students tend to be the focus
within the family, with parents doing what they can to support students in their
educational endeavors, give them the best chance for a good education and ensure

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their students are happy. When Julio was growing up, his parents emphasized that
the children came first:
Well, that’s one thing that I consider myself really lucky to have is a
family that had both parents, and had them at home all the time. And
that they did support me and loved me, and they would consistently
reiterate the concept that their lives kind of revolved around us, and
that they wanted to see our success.

Albert’s sister discussed how her parents have been “very supportive” to her,
even in middle school when she was not doing well academically. The family had
just moved to the United States and while Albert adjusted quickly, Albert’s sister
struggled in school. Albert’s parents encouraged his sister to try her best but did not
put pressure on her to achieve at a specific level. She felt supported by her parents
even though she was not performing as well in school as her brother was.
A focus on the student and the student’s well-being was evident by students’
claims that their parents supported them in the decisions they made about college,
whether they agreed with their students or not, because parents wanted their students
to be happy. Esteban’s parents want him to be happy with the academic areas he has
chosen and the activities he participates in. They do not always understand the
choices he makes, but they support his decisions because he is pursuing activities
that make him happy. The relationship between Esteban and his parents
demonstrates a considerable amount of trust his parents show him, which was
common among students in this study and their parents.
Parent support of students when they wanted to change majors is another
example of parents’ interest in putting their students’ happiness first. Though

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Trisha’s parents would have preferred her to major in one of the sciences, they were
supportive when she wanted to change her major to psychology because they wanted
her to be happy. Isabel’s parents support her decisions as well. Their primary goal
is for her to be happy at school and in her chosen career path. She described her
parents as not “pushy” about education. They do not have a specific path they would
like to see her follow, but emphasize education as important nonetheless. “I think
they just want me to be happy with what I do. Because every time I say, ‘I don’t
know if I want to do this. I think I want to change this way,’ they’ll be really
supportive of it.”
Putting students first, giving them the best opportunities for a good education
and a chance for a better life has often required parents to make sacrifices. Sacrifices
parents have made range from taking time to help students with their activities in the
face of competing priorities, to coming to the United States so that their children can
have better opportunities. When students were in elementary school and high
school, parents sacrificed their time and energy to be involved in their children’s
activities because they recognized that these activities were important to their
children. When asked if she felt Alejandra’s extracurricular activities in high school
were important, her mother responded:
they were to her, so I made sure that I was – sometimes, trust me, it
was hard because you have two other ones that you have to kind of
keep an eye on, or cater to. You’re also tired, and at the same time,
you have to be there for them. So it was hard, but at the same time, I
think there was – at some point, she would see my frustration and ‘oh,
no, I have to go?’ But I would still go.

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Alejandra’s mother juggled her schedule and the needs of her other children in order
to attend Alejandra’s activities. Though she did not necessarily want to go, she made
this sacrifice because she knew Alejandra enjoyed her activities.
Families made financial sacrifices in order to give their children better
options for education. Esteban’s family sacrificed the income his mother could have
made working on Saturdays in order for his father to participate in the parent portion
of his college early outreach program. Daniel’s parents bought him two cameras
when he was in high school to nurture his interest in photography and journalism.
Other parents have given their students money for activities they are involved in.
Some parents, including Ana’s and Kim’s, made great sacrifices by leaving
family behind and coming to the United States so that their children could have
better opportunities. Ana’s father emphasized the importance of parents dedicating
themselves to their children in order to make sure children become good people. His
commitment to his children has required him to give up the “easy life,” but the
alternative of having children who cannot contribute to society as adults is
unacceptable to him. Kim’s mother and father have tried to make Kim aware of the
sacrifices they have made for her to be able to go to college as a way to remind her
how important they believe education is.
A prominent feature within the parent-student relationships of all participants
in this study was the parent’s belief in the student’s abilities. Parents explained how
they “always had confidence” in their children’s abilities do to well in school and
recognized their children’s academic potential from an early age. Now that students

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are in college, parents demonstrate their belief in their student’s abilities by trusting
them to do well in their coursework, even when parents do not know the details of
students’ academic performance or grades. For example, Esteban’s father believes in
his son and trusts that his college experience will culminate with Esteban earning his
degree. Esteban’s father views his son as an adult and therefore does not concern
himself with the details involved with how Esteban will complete his degree. Julio’s
mother illustrates her belief in Julio’s abilities through the trust she shows him. She
does not fully understand what Julio’s assignments are, or what he is doing with
regard to coursework, but she trusts him to make the right decisions to be successful
at the university.
Other families demonstrate their belief in their student’s abilities by
encouraging their student to continue on to graduate school once they have finished
their bachelor’s degree. Daniel’s brother believes that Daniel has what it takes to be
successful in graduate school. He explained, “(Daniel) told me recently he was
considering doing Law. So I told him yeah definitely, to pursue it, because I mean -
sky’s the limit.”
Parents’ belief in their students’ abilities have helped students to believe in
themselves, resulting in better academic performance and perseverance in the face of
adversity. Albert has derived a sense of empowerment from his family’s beliefs in
his abilities, which has motivated him in his pursuit of higher education. Albert’s
sister has been equally motivated. Even though Albert was the better student
growing up, his sister was motivated to try harder in school because she felt her

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parents believed in her. Albert’s sister went from an average student in middle
school to a high achieving student in high school, eventually earning her
International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma. She attributes this upswing in her
academic performance to her parents’ belief that she was capable of achieving
academically, just as her brother had.
Ana’s parents’ encouragement and their belief in her abilities have helped her
to overcome difficult moments in college. As a minority student at a Predominately
White Institution, Ana has found herself in situations where she felt her right to be at
the university was questioned by her classmates. Ana explained, “I’ve been in
situations where I felt that my own classmates looked down on me. It may be race,
but I actually wouldn’t know why.” These instances were upsetting to Ana and she
shared them with her father who confirmed his belief in her and pushed her to
continue to believe in herself. Ana reflected:
It hasn’t been easy. There have been times when I called my dad very
emotional and crying almost, because of a certain thing happening in
class or whatever it may be. But he’s always there to kind of reiterate
those values and remind me of them.

Parents’ belief in their student’s abilities has often manifested in the
expectations they have for their students to achieve in school. In high school,
Daniel’s parents wanted him “to get straight A’s all the time.” Daniel noted, “I came
through maybe 90 percent of the time. There were times when I just – I couldn’t.
I’d have to explain ‘I’m not going to get straight A’s all the time.’” Other parents
have communicated that the expectation they have for their children is that they try
their hardest in school, no matter what the final grade is. Sara’s mother demonstrates

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this expectation. Her message to her children has been, “If you feel you’ve done
your best job, that’s all I’m going to expect from you.”
Parents’ expectation that their children would go to college is additional
evidence of their belief in their student’s abilities. In talking about Alejandra’s path
to college, her mother commented, “So I guess, deep inside, we always knew she
would go, or we wanted her to go and we were going push her to go.” Trisha’s
parents expressed a similar expectation to Trisha and her brother, which her brother
reflected on:
I do feel that there was an expectation from our parents. It wasn't
really stated that we have to achieve this, this, and this, but there were
certain levels of expectation that we kind of had to meet. Like, we
should go to college, and should graduate from that college, and
things of that nature.

Trisha’s brother did not feel that his parents pushed him and his sister too hard, but
hard enough to for them to know that college was a priority.
While families have focused on putting their student’s needs before their own
and have expressed a belief in their student’s abilities, students have demonstrated a
great deal of respect for their parents and have expressed a desire to please their
parents. Students’ need to please their parents is derived from the sense of
responsibility they feel to their parents, their recognition of the sacrifices their
parents have made in order to give them greater opportunities, their desire to
represent the family in a positive light and their interest in making their family
proud. Being able to help the family financially after graduation is another reason

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for students’ desire to please their parents. Sara’s mother sensed Sara’s interest in
pleasing her and her husband:
I think that (Sara) tries really hard to be a perfect daughter. She
doesn’t need to be because she’s so close to it. I think she doesn’t
want to disappoint us sometimes. I think she feels an obligation to be
perfect all the time.

While the need to please their parents serves as a motivation for students, it can
occasionally become a burden to students as they try to live up to their parents’
perceived or real expectations. Sara and her mother differ in their perceptions of her
parents’ expectations of her. For instance, with regard to visiting the family on
weekends, Sara’s mother does not feel she requires Sara to be home on most
weekends, yet Sara feels a sense of responsibility to come home.
Trisha also feels pressure with regard to pleasing her parents. Trisha is the
first cousin on both her mother and father’s side to graduate from college. A few
cousins have attempted college but “flunked out.” Being first to graduate makes
Trisha feel proud, but she also feels pressure to succeed. This feeling is particularly
pronounced during large family events:
The bad thing about, like, family gatherings is that, they like to
compare their kids with each other. I guess there’s a little bit of that
stress and, like, everyone’s watching you to see, like, what you’re
going to do when you graduate after four years.

Like Trisha, Kim expressed her parents’ tendency to compare her to her cousins and
other relatives. Kim’s parents have made comments to her such as “We want you to
be successful so that we can hold our heads up high and tell relatives that this is what
my daughter is getting into.” Though interested in making her parents happy, the

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competitive aspect of her parents’ expectations is not as important to Kim personally.
“For me, I don’t care about these things.”
For some students, their interest in pleasing their parents has caused them to
withhold some details of their college experiences. As previously stated, most
students do not share their course grades with their parents. While overall, students
have performed well academically, they are wary of revealing their exact grades to
their parents for fear of disappointing them. In addition to withholding academic
information, students withhold information about their social lives from their parents
in order to maintain their parents’ perception of what their lives at DU are like. Kim
appears to withhold the most information about her life on campus from her parents.
She feels her parents are “over protective” and “won’t approve” of much of what she
does on campus, including meeting up with her friends for dinner and going out at
night. Since her parents expect her to be in her room by 8:00 or 9:00 pm, Kim rarely
tells them about her social life on campus. She also withholds information about her
academic performance because she feels her parents’ expectations are so high.
Kim is one of two students who participated in this study, who most acutely
demonstrates a need to please her parents. Kim is conscious of the sacrifices her
parents made coming to the United States and feels it is her responsibility to take full
advantage of the opportunities she has been given, which her parents never had. “I
feel like it’s my duty to be successful. Since I came here in second grade, I always
felt like I must succeed to make my parents proud.” Though she ultimately changed

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her major to public health, and was proud of the fact that she made the switch, the
thought of her parents’ disappointment in this decision still bothers her.
In general, Kim’s professional choices are a source of tension between her
and her parents. She considered applying for “Teach for America” but could not
convince her parents that taking two years after her undergraduate work to
participate in the program was a valuable use of her time. Her father particularly
feels she should continue on to graduate school immediately after she graduates.
Kim wants to make her parents proud, but struggles with pursuing the interests she is
most passionate about. Financial circumstances are a consideration. “There’s also
the pressure of having to earn a good amount of money that would make my parents
happy and make sure I don’t live from paycheck to paycheck. That’s not a smart
way to live right now.”
Kim goes home almost every weekend, even though she would often prefer
to stay on campus, because she thinks her parents would be “unhappy” if she did not
visit them. When further pressed about what they would say if she absolutely could
not come home on the weekend, Kim was quick to point out that they understand
that her education must be her first priority. In fact, there have been times when she
has told her parents that she needed to study or be on campus for another reason
during the weekend. Though her parents wished she would come home, they
understood that it was easier for Kim to stay on campus since all of her books and
course materials are there. Even though her parents want her to come home on the
weekends, Kim’s education remains the priority.

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Albert is the second student participant who most prominently demonstrates a
need to please his parents. He attributed his fear of disappointing his parents to the
recognition that his parents did not have the same opportunities he has been given in
terms of higher education. Like Daniel, Albert’s need to please his parents has
caused him to have less open communication with them. As such, Albert only shares
his successes with his parents and has refrained from sharing anything he feels might
be seen as a failure. “I would say I usually share with them the finished product
instead of the application process and what I'm looking into. So a lot of times my
parents don't really hear about what I'm doing unless I've succeeded in something or
have attained something.” Albert’s respect for his parents and the struggles they
have gone through have motivated him to do well in college. He feels it is his
responsibility to make his parents happy and proud of him.
Most students’ concerns over pleasing their parents come from a deep respect
they have for the sacrifices parents have made for them and the opportunities they
now have because of their parents’ hard work and interest in seeing them succeed.
Students expressed that they want to please their parents and do well in college so
that they can show their parents that their struggles have paid off. Ana expressed a
profound respect for her parents because of the sacrifices they made for their family:
Just seeing what my parents went through to get us a better life and
better opportunities than they had. Seeing their work and sacrifice
along the way has motivated me in wanting to let them know that
their sacrifices haven’t been in vain.

Isabel wants to please her parents because of the hardships they have been
through and the encouragement and support they have provided over the years

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regarding her education. She described the feeling of wanting to do well to make her
parents happy. “It pushes you to even do better because you know that they have
given you everything throughout your entire childhood. So it’s like your way of
paying back for what they’ve done. So it’s a big, big motivation.” Isabel’s interest in
pleasing her parents is not a source of stress in her life, rather, she works hard
because she wants to make them happy. “It’s more like me wanting to give back
something to them.” Six other students mentioned similar sentiments.
Sibling relationships
In addition to the support and motivation student participants draw from their
relationships with their parents, sibling relationships are another source of motivation
and encouragement. Students described close relationships with their siblings.
Daniel and his brother talk on the phone every day and text each other two or more
times a day. Sara has helped her sister choose courses at her high school and study
for tests. Older siblings act as role models for younger siblings, encouraging their
academic work, providing assistance and even taking on parenting roles.
Both Alejandra and her parents see her as a model to her younger siblings.
Alejandra explained:
I have three younger siblings, so it's definitely something that because
I was able to get to a university, it's something that my parents are
very happy that I can now show my younger siblings that just, ‘Look
what Alejandra did. Maybe follow in her footsteps.’ Not through the
same school, but definitely the bar is set high to not just graduate
from high school.

On a recent trip home for the weekend, Alejandra’s youngest brother, a
freshman in high school, talked with Alejandra about the research he has done on the

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best colleges in the state. This conversation and her brother’s interest in college
inspired Alejandra because she felt that the guidance and modeling she has tried to
show her younger siblings has paid off. Alejandra acts as a role model not only to
her younger siblings, but also to her cousins on both sides of her family. Alejandra
sees her cousins on a regular basis. They know she is attending DU and are “always
asking” her “How is it going?” As one of the oldest cousins on both sides of her
family, Alejandra knows that her cousins look up to her. She is proud that she can
serve as an example to the younger members of her family.
As the oldest, Ana feels it is important to set a good example for her younger
siblings. Ana described how even her youngest brother, who is six years old, sees
her and her other siblings as role models and mimics their studying behaviors.
“Even my little brother now, he sees us doing projects. He plays around on the
computer and is like, ‘I have a project due as well.’” Ana feels an obligation to her
younger siblings, and explained during our interview that she has taken on the role of
a “second mom” to them. When she left for college she worried that she was too far
away from her oldest brother and sister to help them with the college application
process and to “push them about deadlines.” Her sister is currently a first-year
student at a four-year state university close to her family, while her brother took a
few community college courses and decided that college was not for him. Ana feels
slightly guilty about not being closer to home when her brother and sister were in
their junior and senior years in high school. She indicated that perhaps her brother
might have stuck with college had she been there to encourage him. However, Ana

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noted that whatever her brother decides to do, as long as he is happy she will support
him.
Like Ana, Mike has taken on the role of a parent to his siblings. After his
parents divorced when he was 16, Mike felt he needed to be a good role model for
his younger brother and sisters. Though one of his sisters dropped out of high
school, his other sister is currently taking courses at the community college Mike
attended prior to transferring to DU. Mike helped her identify the courses she needs
to transfer to a veterinary program at another university. His brother is a sophomore
in high school and is following in Mike’s footsteps by playing football and focusing
on school. Mike’s brother currently wants to be an accountant, like Mike. Mike is
not only a role model for his younger siblings, but also for other children in the
neighborhood where he grew up:
It’s almost like I’m a celebrity. I tell them (children in the
community) all the time that I didn’t do anything special. You’ve just
got to do what you’ve got to do. There’s distractions and stuff that
doesn’t matter that you’ll waste your time on. Just spend your time
studying. Just put in the work. I make them see it as it’s just
tweaking the little things. It’s not that hard. It just requires a little
more focus. It’s time management. I make it seem like it’s not that
big a deal so that it won’t seem impossible.

Albert feels pressure to be a good role model to his sister, especially since his
parents are not familiar with the United States education system. Albert is glad he
can act in this capacity, but worries that his sister will follow his lead too closely.
Albert tries to encourage her to choose the path that will make her the happiest.
Albert’s sister reiterated that Albert is a role model to her. She explained, “he takes
on the role of like being the big brother like he’s the eldest in the family, so he kind

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of like tries to be like an example for me.” Albert’s sister is aware of how Albert has
“set the standard” regarding what she should be able to accomplish academically.
She sees this as a challenge, rather than as pressure to do as well as he has. She is
inspired and motivated by his accomplishments. “I really look up to him. It’s not
like I see him as competition.”
Typically, older siblings set good examples for younger siblings, but these
roles were reversed in the case of Daniel and his brother. While Daniel’s older
brother has acted as a role model for Daniel in terms of “what not to do,” Daniel has
acted as a positive role model, showing his brother that getting into college is
possible. Daniel’s brother discussed the motivation he has to attend DU after seeing
Daniel’s success. “When I heard (Daniel) had got accepted to (DU), I was like
‘wow, I’m so happy that you made it.’ It only makes me want to attend there also.”
Like other student participants, Daniel is a role model to his younger cousins. His
attending Deane University has illustrated to his cousins that the goal of attending a
private, elite institution is attainable.
According to the student participants in this study, parent and sibling
relationships have played a key role in helping students persist through their degree
programs. Students share much about their college experiences with their families
and feel it is their responsibility to take advantage of the educational opportunities
their parents have worked so hard to give them. Parents believe in their students’
abilities and have consistently put their students’ needs ahead of their own in order to
provide students with the best opportunities possible. Students enjoy helping their

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siblings in their paths to college and take pride in the fact that they can serve as role
models to other members of their families.
Family Values
The close relationships students have with their families have aided students
in developing their personal value systems. These values have helped students in
achieving their goal of graduating from college. Families have emphasized the
importance of family solidarity and have taught students to respect themselves and
others. Students’ drive to achieve in higher education is a value that has been
nurtured by their families. They have learned about the value of hard work through
the examples their parents have set for them. Giving back to society and helping
others is a value that many parents have instilled in students, noting that the more
educated a person is, the easier it is to give back. Each of these values has aided
students in their journeys through college, motivating them to persist to graduation
and helping them to navigate obstacles they have encountered.
Family Solidarity
As was noted in the previous section, families in this study are incredibly
tight-knit. Students whose families live close to DU go home frequently on the
weekends if school, work and other campus obligations permit. Parents and students
make the effort to bring everyone in the family together as often as possible. When
students were living at home, parents often required the family to have dinner
together. Parents stressed the importance of being “very close to your family.” As

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one administrator commented, good student-family relationships can have a
profoundly positive effect on first-generation student success in college.
Family solidarity is evident throughout the stories students shared. Students
often made comments such as “family comes first.” Isabel was one of these
students. Though she rarely misses school obligations for family events, she did
miss a few classes, including a class meeting when a quiz was given, when her mom
had a stroke. Though she worried about what other students in the class thought of
her missing the class session, she was determined to be with her mother during a
time when she knew her family needed her. Isabel explained her suspicions. “Some
people, I thought, were just like, ‘Oh, maybe she’s just not ready for the quiz’ or
something.” Though she felt some of her classmates and even her professor may
have doubted her intentions, the decision to miss the class was easy. “It was a time
where I was just like, ‘My family comes first. A quiz is a quiz, but my mom’s in the
hospital,’ kind of thing.”
Since Mike has the only car in the family, he tries to go home every Sunday
to help his mother run errands, do “chores” and check in with his siblings. He takes
his role as the head of the household seriously. He noted that when his father left the
family, his mother and siblings were forced to move from a house where each child
had their own room, to an apartment where they all shared rooms. Though the move
was part of an extremely negative experience, Mike reflected back on this in a
positive way. “Having a small apartment brought us closer than when we had our

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own bedrooms. I didn’t think about it much, but I look back, and that change
brought us all together.”
Family solidarity is most vividly illustrated by the actions of parents and
family members, who have demonstrated the lengths they are willing to go for the
betterment of the family. In this sense, family solidarity is closely related to the
interpersonal relationships between students and their families and the idea of putting
the child’s needs before the parents’. The sacrifices Esteban’s parents made so that
his father could participate in the early outreach program is an example of this type
of family solidarity, as are his parents’ work schedules. Esteban’s parents work
during opposite hours so that there is always someone home to take care of his
younger sister. Even though all family members are hardly ever at home at the same
time, family solidarity is evidenced through the work and sacrifices the parents put in
to caring for the children.
The interest of family members in supporting their students while they are in
college demonstrates family solidarity as well. Ana’s father’s attitude is that his
children come first and he has made extensive sacrifices to help his children succeed.
Kim attributed the collectivist mentality that is part of her family’s culture as a
reason for her parents’ efforts to do whatever they can to help her in school. The
importance of family sticking together and supporting each other was prominent
throughout the data collected for this study.
Students described how the members of their families, especially siblings,
“look out for each other,” and do anything to help each other. When I began the

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interview with Daniel’s brother I thanked him for participating in this study.
Daniel’s brother’s response was, “Oh, it’s no problem. Anything for my brother.”
Daniel’s brother perceived his participation in the interview as helping Daniel.
Throughout the interview it was clear that Daniel’s brother supported Daniel
wholeheartedly and would do anything he could for him, as illustrated by comments
like, “I love my brother. I would do anything for my brother. I’m very proud of
him.” Other students shared this type of relationship with their siblings as well.
Albert’s sister described how in high school Albert confronted her then boyfriend
because he thought the boyfriend was not treating her well. When Sara was planning
a day trip for some of the residents on her floor and one of the drivers backed out at
the last minute, her older sister volunteered to fill in and drive a group of students.
Occasionally family members have been able to help students out of tough
financial situations. Alejandra’s family members have co-signed on loans she has
taken out for college because of their support of her education. Trisha shared a story
about how her brother loaned her money for summer school one year:
He really helped me out when I had to take summer school and then,
like, I couldn’t get enough money for it. I got the Stafford loan, but
then I still had to cover, like, several thousand and I didn’t have that
money. He let me actually borrow several thousand to cover that cost
and now I’m paying him back, like, bit by bit right now. Yeah. That
really touched me because even though he’s not that well off he’s still
willing to help me.

Whether providing encouragement, making sacrifices or looking out for each
other, families of the students in this study stick together and support each other in
many ways. Administrator participants echoed the sentiment that first-generation

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college students who come from supportive families are more likely to do well in
college. Students with “stable” families, characterized by loving relationships and
open communication, often “thrive” in educational settings. Family solidarity has
aided these students in persisting in college.
Respect
The family values category in Gofen’s framework includes a subcategory
called “respect for parents.” While the families in this study have taught their
students to respect parents, they have taught students about the importance of respect
for self and others as well. Teaching respect in this broader sense has helped
students to cope with challenges they have experienced while in college. Ana’s
parents taught her to have respect for adults and everyone, because you never know
when your paths might cross again in the future. Julio, Isabel and Esteban’s parents
have similar perspectives on respect for others. Esteban and Albert’s parents
emphasized the importance of staying humble throughout life and have discouraged
their children from being prideful. When Albert and his sister were younger, one of
Albert’s father’s favorite sayings was “silent waters run deep,” indicating his belief
that those who are not loud or boastful have the greatest success and happiness in
life.
Parents have stressed the importance of having respect for oneself as well.
Teaching self-respect has been a big priority for Alejandra’s mother. She feels
teaching self-respect is a key factor in encouraging Alejandra to make good choices
in college. Alejandra’s mother knows that Alejandra has been tempted by the

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college social scene, which includes drinking alcohol and dating. She understands
that Alejandra has experimented in these areas, but hopes that she has taught her
daughter enough self-respect to stay level-headed and safe. Alejandra’s mother
wants her daughter to take advantage of the learning opportunities at college. She
hopes Alejandra will choose to participate in activities that will give her advantages
in the long term, rather than spending too much time on activities that provide instant
gratification like drinking or dating.
Most parents emphasized a more general feeling of giving respect to others in
order to receive respect. Ana’s father felt teaching respect for elders was a big part
of the education parents need to provide to their children. He noted the difference he
sees in this aspect between American and Mexican cultures:
In our Mexican culture, a child is taught to respect adults. A child is
prohibited to interrupt an adult conversation. When an adult is
speaking, the child has the obligation to not interrupt, and for the
child to be heard, to be attended, has to wait for that moment to be
attended. And the North American culture is completely different.
I’ve heard a conversation with two adults, and a child comes that is
speaking to you who is five or six years. The North American says,
‘Oh, no, first the child, attend to the child and we come after.’ And
that is wrong. The child becomes accustomed to being a person that
doesn’t know how to respect, loses their values and when they are an
adult has no respect for people.

After Ana moved to the United States, her father made a commitment to continue to
teach her to respect adults and respect others. Ana feels that she has benefited at
college from what she has learned from her father, particularly when dealing with
difficult classmates. Knowing the value of respect has served students well along
their college journeys.

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Achievement and ambition
The students who participated in this study are highly motivated to succeed.
They are committed to their goal of graduating from college and display a sense of
determination that they attribute to learning from their parents. Much of students’
drive and belief in themselves comes from their resiliency in the face of adversity.
Each of the students has faced multiple hardships along their path through higher
education. When encountering these obstacles, students often refer back to lessons
they have learned from their families to get them through tough times.
Esteban recognizes the opportunities he has been given and tries his best to
take advantage of all of them. He appreciates that he is on full financial aid and does
not want to waste the opportunity that he has been given at college. He sees students
on campus who have had multiple advantages throughout their lives as not
appreciating what they have. However, in his case, he sees things differently. “If
you’re in the position where you’ve never had everything you’ve wanted and now
you have this amazing opportunity, you’re going to take advantage of it and do
everything that you have to do to do a good job.”
Like Esteban, some of Albert and his sister’s ambition and motivation to
achieve comes from valuing the opportunity they have to attend higher education.
Due to the family’s financial constraints, Albert and his sister have had to attend
community college before transferring to a four-year college, even though they were
both accepted to DU as freshmen. Albert’s sister feels that being at the community
college has taught her the value of the opportunity she has been given to get a

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college education. Though in high school she wished that she could go straight to a
four year university, she now feels fortunate to have had her community college
experience because she feels she appreciates her education more.
Students learned how to be responsible at a young age which has aided in
their development of achievement and ambition. For Esteban, taking care of his
sister taught him to be responsible. Though he sometimes missed getting to hang out
with his friends, he did not mind taking care of his sister because he knew his parents
were working hard to provide for them. In high school Isabel found motivation
through her situation at home with both parents sick. When she finished high school
at the top of her class, her belief in her abilities was confirmed. She knew that if she
could get through high school, having gone through her experience at home, she
could achieve in college.
Like Isabel, Mike developed a sense of self-responsibility and ambition from
the situation he went through when his father left the family. Since that time, Mike
has developed the self-confidence to know that he can handle anything that comes
his way. He has applied the situation with his family to difficult situations he has
experienced at DU:
When I was having trouble at my first semester here, when I’m
having trouble getting through a task or project, or I’m nervous for a
presentation, I just think how much it takes to be here. I just compare
it, and I’m like, ‘This is easy. I shouldn’t be nervous about this. I’ve
been through way worse.’ That helps a lot.

Parents’ unfamiliarity with the educational system and lack of procedural
knowledge about the college going process required students to be responsible and

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self-sufficient early on. Since her parents were not familiar with how to go about
applying for college, Ana was left on her own to figure out the process. She had to
take the initiative to visit the college counselor’s office, ask questions and be
persistent. She described how this lesson in determination has helped her in the long
run, particularly when compared to some of the other students at her high school:
It was funny to me because I’d see a lot of my classmates who
weren’t on top of their thing (the admission application process)
because their parents were doing it for them. It’s fine, but I just saw
that they had no idea. One of my classmates, her mom was applying
for her, which is – I don’t know if that’s right. They have no
motivation, I guess. They knew it would get done somehow. I knew
I didn’t have that option. It was just that internal drive.

Ana attributed her persistence through the college application process to the fact that
she knew that if she did not take care of her applications, no one else would do them
for her. She derived motivation from this situation by knowing that she had to take
care of college applications on her own. Other students described situations
throughout their education where they knew if they did not achieve, they could not
ask their parents for help. Much of Trisha’s achievement and ambition has come
from this realization. “I knew that I had to graduate university, graduate high school,
find a good job, or else, like, I don’t have them (her parents) to fall back on.”
For three of the female students in this study, part of their motivation to do
well in college has come from their mothers’ encouragement and interest in seeing
their daughters grow up to be independent, strong women. Kim’s mother has
encouraged Kim to do well in college so that she does not have to rely on anyone
else. “That means not having to depend on a guy, earning my own income,” and

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“being able to support myself with my income.” Kim’s mother’s wants Kim to work
hard because her mother did not have the same opportunities. As Kim explained, her
mother “comes from a culture where women are subordinate to the men.”
Sara expressed a similar value she learned from her mother. Growing up her
mother emphasized “individuality” and “speaking up.” Her mother wanted her to be
independent and able to think for herself. Sara’s Halloween costumes were always
“homemade” because her mother felt it was important for their costumes to be
unique and individual. For Alejandra, being a Latina who is “beating the
stereotypes” is a great source of pride and motivation for her to continue to do well
in college. Believing in herself and knowing that she can persist at an elite
university has contributed to her self-confidence.
Parents set examples for their students through hard work and by conveying a
love of learning. Sara’s mother and father set examples for their children by taking
learning into their own hands, reading books and taking trips to the local library.
The value of hard work was consistently emphasized throughout the interviews.
Student participants demonstrate a strong work ethic, which they attribute to learning
from their families. Students recognize how hard their parents have worked to
provide for their families and students have internalized this value. Students have
been encouraged by their parents do their best in school. Julio’s mother has tried to
teach her children that if you try your best, anything is achievable. Albert’s parents
also emphasized a strong work ethic with their children. Albert believes his parents’
values helped make him a “workaholic,” while Albert’s sister learned that if you try

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your hardest it is okay to fail. Trisha’s parents have always emphasized hard work
and believing in yourself. Trisha’s mother has taught her to “keep your head up” and
“always persevere.” Trisha recalled her mother’s words of encouragement. “Even if
you don’t do that well on a test, like, don’t give up. Like, try harder in the class.”
Giving back to society and helping others was mentioned in five instances as
a value that parents have tried to instill in their students. Families see education as a
way to be able to contribute to society and have encouraged students to learn as
much as possible for this reason. Kim’s parents have urged her to contribute to
society and believe that “you don’t need to be too rich” or “selfish.” They have
taught Kim that “whatever amount you earn or if you’re rich or not, you still need to
help others who need the money.” Isabel’s father has shared a similar philosophy
with Isabel. Daniel’s mother taught him and his brother to “do good.” Daniel’s
brother has tried to encourage Daniel to use his education to give back to society,
particularly in the community where he grew up. Daniel’s internship with a city
councilman has given his brother an idea for how Daniel can give back. Daniel’s
brother explained, “I told (Daniel), ‘hey, maybe you know what, maybe you should
be a councilman.’ Maybe he can help out a lot. He knows the pros and cons of the
neighborhood, he would be a great asset to it.”
While students believe that the values they have learned from their families
have helped them be successful in higher education, parents and family members
attributed their students’ success to the internal desire they see in their students to do
well in school. Alejandra’s mother feels that Alejandra’s success in college as “been

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more her than us” in terms of the internal drive Alejandra has exhibited to her
family. Kim and Sara’s mothers believe that their daughters do well in college
because they enjoy learning and take pride in their work. Daniel’s brother explained
that Daniel has “always been the type of person that if you show him the door and
you open it for him, he’ll walk through it.” Daniel’s brother described him as
mature, professional and savvy when approaching various opportunities in his life.
Esteban’s father suggested that Esteban has done well in school because he has
“always been a responsible young man and applied for study by himself. In general,
as parents, we’ve never had any problems with him in that aspect.” In this regard,
parents may not completely recognize the influence they have had on their students’
educational pursuits.
Additional Findings
The sections above were organized using Gofen’s (2009) family capital
framework, which allowed me to identify specific ways in which parents and
families have contributed to the success of first-generation students in college.
However, two findings from the data did not fit into the family capital framework
and are presented here. The first is that while parents and families have supported
their students in many ways while in college, their understanding of the university
system and knowledge of its resources is vague. Though this finding has emerged
peripherally throughout the data presented to this point, it is important to address it
directly. Families know little about their students’ academic lives on campus, and
what they do know, they learn from their students, rather than from the university.

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Since seven student participants have elected to share only portions of their college
experiences with their families, parents do not have a complete picture of what life is
like for their student at the university or understand how they may be able to further
support their student’s college going efforts.
Some means of communication implemented by the institution that provide
information to parents of undergraduates, such as websites and emails, do not reach
the parents in this study. Only one of the parent participants has an email address.
Emails I sent to this parent were never returned, though I was able to reach her by
mail and phone. Language barriers are another issue. Eight of the 11 students who
participated in this study speak a language other than English with their parents.
Students noted in their interviews that parents occasionally receive letters from the
university, but because these documents are in English, they do not understand them.
Esteban described how happy his parents are when they get brochures from DU in
the mail. They flip through the pages, commenting to Esteban about how “nice” the
university looks in the pictures. Due to a lack of familiarity with the university
system and barriers created by language, parents do not contact the university on
students’ behalf and do not consider this an option in providing assistance to their
students.
The divide between families and the university has been further exacerbated
by the fact that families of the students in this study rarely come to campus, if at all.
They have never participated in university programs, including orientation and
family weekend, designed to acclimate parents to the university culture and provide

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them with information about institutional policies and procedures. Unfamiliarity
with the university system, a lack of awareness that a particular event is occurring
and costs associated with such programs were reasons cited by students as to why
their parents have not attended. After four years of her parents not participating in
family weekend, Trisha stated that this was something she simply “got used to.”
Administrator participants reiterated students’ views and emphasized that the parents
of first-generation students they work with are often uncomfortable coming to
campus and participating in university events because the institution is such an
unfamiliar place to them. Parents’ lack of participation in university events also
contributes to their lack of knowledge regarding staff or administrators they might be
able to contact for assistance or additional resources.
The second finding outside the scope of Gofen’s (2009) framework emerged
during the interviews with administrator participants and points to the fact that some
successful first-generation college students do not have supportive families. While
the students who participated in this study come from families who have supported
their college going efforts, interviews with administrator participants indicated that
this is not the case for all successful first-generation students at DU. In terms of the
impact parents and families can have on first-generation college student success, the
university administrators viewed students within this population as falling
somewhere along a family support continuum. On one end of the continuum are
students with families who demonstrate unwavering support for their student’s
college pursuits, and on the other end are students with families who do not support

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their students’ college going efforts at all. For students with supportive families,
these relationships can have a significant positive influence on student persistence
and success in college. Students with poor relationships with their families can still
be successful, but they do not derive their motivation to achieve from their families.
For these students, their families have little, if anything to do with their success and
can even hinder student progress.
The administrators emphasized the difference between first-generation
students who are of traditional college age and first-generation students who are
older and may have families of their own. Both groups can be successful, but
traditional aged students are typically more heavily influenced by their parents.
Older first-generation college students at DU are more likely to have gone through
the college journey on their own. They are less likely to have had the support of
their parents along the way.
Each of the students in this study had parents who strongly supported their
college pursuits. I made a conscious decision to include only students who were
traditional college age in order to maximize findings of parent and family
contributions to student success. These students attributed much of their persistence
to the efforts and support of their parents and families. However, it is important to
acknowledge that not all successful first-generation college students have such
strong support networks at home.

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Major Themes Drawn From the Findings
Each of the students who participated in this study has demonstrated
exceptional academic and personal achievement. All student participants will
graduate from Deane University, an academically competitive, private, research
institution, within the next two years, demonstrating a level of success not commonly
seen within the first-generation college student population in the United States.
Based on the data presented in this chapter, four major themes emerged.
1. Family matters: Students cited their families as a major reason for their academic
success and persistence in college.
2. Family support manifests itself differently for first-generation students: Family
support and involvement for first-generation students differs in some ways from
parent involvement documented in the literature, which often makes the assumption
that parents went to college.
3. Conflicts between students’ responsibilities at college and their roles within the
family were minimal: Although some conflicts between family and college life did
emerge within the findings, the number of these conflicts was low. Parents have
prioritized education, excusing students from family commitments when necessary
and emphasizing that education comes first.
4. A disconnect between families and the institution exists: A lack of connection
between the university and families was evident throughout the findings. Overall,
parents knew few details about their students’ academic lives or resources available
to students on campus.

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Conclusion
In this chapter, the student participants for the current study were introduced
and the study findings were presented using the family capital framework as a guide.
Four major themes emerged from the findings and were presented. In chapter five,
the four themes will be discussed in further detail. The implications of these themes
for university administrators and student affairs practitioners will be addressed and
suggestions for universities in working with first-generation college students will be
presented. Chapter five will conclude with areas for future research.

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Chapter V: Discussion and Conclusions
As discussed earlier in this dissertation, first-generation college students
represent some of the most disadvantaged students in terms their persistence
behaviors in higher education in the United States. This study set out to explore the
experiences of successful first-generation students at an academically competitive,
private research institution, in order to understand the reasons for their success. The
contributions of parents and family members to student persistence were examined.
I endeavored to answer the following research questions:
• How does family support contribute to first-generation college student
persistence?
• How do student perceptions of their parents and families influence their
motivation to persist in higher education?
Four major themes emerged from the findings of this study. This chapter will
take a closer look at each of these themes and identify ways in which the themes help
to answer the research questions, where appropriate. Following the discussion of the
themes, implications for policy and practice are presented. This chapter will
conclude with recommendations for future research and final thoughts.
Major themes that emerged from the findings
Theme 1: Family matters.
Students cited their families as a major reason for their academic success and
persistence in college. In response to the opening interview question “what are the
reasons for your success?” students began their comments with phrases such as

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“family support is a really big, big, big factor,” “I think the main reason is my
family,” “I think it’s really based on – of course my parents,” and “I think the main
reason is my mom.” Students consistently placed factors relating to the support and
efforts of their families at the top of their list of reasons for being successful in
higher education. Some students identified one parent as the primary influence on
their educational success, some focused on the efforts of both parents and others
gave credit not only to parents, but also to brothers, sisters and extended family.
With regard to the primary research question, data from this study indicate
that family support aids first-generation student persistence in a number of ways. A
common theme throughout the data, which laid the foundation for family support of
students’ college going, is the tight-knit relationships exhibited among students and
their family members. The closeness of these relationships is demonstrated by the
value placed on family, what students share with their family members and the
lengths parents have gone to in order to give their students the opportunity to be
successful in college. Encouragement emerged as a common way for parents and
family members to support their students’ higher education persistence. This finding
is in contrast to previous research which found that first-generation college students
reported receiving less encouragement from family members to pursue higher
education (Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella & Nora, 1996). Parent support
has given students direction from a young age. Families’ belief in students’ abilities
has led to families providing support to students in any way they can and ensuring
students have what they need to be successful. Students’ academic needs have

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almost always come before family obligations or responsibilities, with parents giving
students extra time to study and allowing them to focus their attention on school
work. Throughout students’ lives, parents have shared their perspective that higher
education will provide students with better job opportunities, greater financial
stability and happier lives.
Making education a priority and being involved in students’ schooling are
additional ways parents and family members have aided in student persistence.
Whether rearranging schedules in order to provide a ride to school, helping with
homework, attending school events or inquiring with students about their academic
progress, parents and family members have conveyed the message to students that
education is a priority through their involvement. Finally, parents have taught their
students values that have helped students persist in higher education. Students have
internalized the importance of values such as respect, hard work and trust, which
have helped them to persevere in the face of challenges they have encountered
during their college journeys.
Turning to the second research question, the support families have
demonstrated to students in their college going efforts has influenced student
perceptions of their families, motivating students to persist in college. Student
participants recognize the sacrifices their parents have made to give them the
opportunity to go to college and talked at length in their interviews about not
wanting to waste the opportunities they have been given. Students have a
tremendous amount of respect for their parents and want to make them proud, which

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further fuels their desire to achieve in college. Additional ways in which students’
perceptions of their parents motivates them to persist include wanting to fulfill the
dream of college they know their parents never had the chance to and realizing they
cannot count on their parents for financial assistance after graduation.
Theme 2: Family support manifests itself differently for first-generation students.
Family support and involvement for first-generation students differs in some
ways from parent involvement documented in the literature, which often makes the
assumption that parents went to college and focuses on school based types of
involvement common among White, middle-class parents (Auerbach, 2007). From
this perspective, parent support consists of assisting students with a variety of college
going procedural tasks including visiting colleges, completing admission and
financial aid applications, paying for college entrance exam preparation courses and
helping to arrange housing, meal plans and other details. Parents are assumed to
participate in events on campus designed for parents and family members, such as
orientation and family weekend. They may call the university on the student’s
behalf to take care of financial aid, housing and other matters. This viewpoint
suggests that parents and family members of first-generation students have little, if
anything, to contribute to student success because they are not equipped with the
procedural knowledge necessary to assist students in the college going process
(Riehl, 1994) and do not typically attend university organized programs and events.
Since previous literature has found parents and family members of first-
generation students to be largely unequipped to support students’ college going

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efforts based on these traditional ideas of parent support and involvement, much of
the research on this student population has suggested that successful first-generation
students achieve in higher education despite the influence of their parents and family
members (London, 1989; Pike & Kuh, 2005), rather than as a result of parent
support. When viewed from a traditional parent involvement perspective, this study
confirmed some of the ways parents are unable to assist first-generation students in
their higher education pursuits, which have been noted in previous research. Such
findings include an inability to provide assistance with college processes and less
power to provide financial assistance for higher education, since families of first-
generation students are more likely to come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
With regard to procedural tasks related to college going, it is well
documented that families of first-generation college students are largely unable to
assist students in this area (Choy, 2001; Rendon, 2004). The findings of the current
study reiterate this point. In discussing the processes of applying to colleges,
applying for financial aid and selecting a college, students noted that their parents
“didn’t know a lot of the procedures” or “where to start.” Some parents made
attempts to familiarize themselves with college processes. Alejandra’s mother
attended a FAFSA workshop with her in high school, while Esteban’s father learned
about applying for college in Esteban’s early college outreach program. However,
for the most part, parents “didn’t really know how to help.” Due to their lack of
familiarity with the American education system, Kim’s parents signed up for a ten
month payment plan with a company that completed Kim’s financial aid paperwork

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for her. Later, when Kim realized she could have gone to her high school guidance
counselor to get help with the forms for free, she felt “tricked.” Parents admitted
they were largely unable to help their students get into college. Students relied
heavily on their high school counselors and teachers to help them with these
procedural tasks. Since students have been at college, none of their parents have
made calls to the university to take care of procedural matters or would ever consider
doing so.
In addition to not being able to help with procedural aspects of college,
findings of this study confirm that families have been largely unable to contribute
financially to students’ college pursuits. This result is in line with previous findings
that indicate that first-generation students are disproportionately represented in low
socioeconomic groups (McCarron and Inkelas 2006; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin,
1998; Terenzini, Springer, Yaeger, Pascarella and Nora, 1996). I assume that the
students in the present study all come from low to moderate income backgrounds,
though without any direct financial data, I cannot say this with certainty. Four of the
student participants were recipients of a scholarship awarded to students from low-
income backgrounds. The issue of finances was present throughout the data,
whether it be in regard to selecting Deane University because of the financial aid
package the student received, working on campus to help pay for expenses, trying to
find enough money to enroll in a GRE prep course, or needing to contribute to the
family’s income in the future. Although students expressed concerns over finances,
they rarely approached their parents for help, preferring not to burden or worry them.

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While the above findings confirmed ways in which parents and family
members are often unable to help their students in their college going efforts, using
the family capital framework to analyze the data produced more notable results. To
answer the first research question of this study, the family capital framework gives
researchers and practitioners a new way to view and recognize the contributions of
parents and family members to first-generation student persistence. Ways families
do support students were noted in the discussion of the first theme and include
providing encouragement, prioritizing education, making sacrifices on students’
behalf and getting involved in students’ educational activities. However, family
support for the first-generation students in this study differs in some ways from
family support of non-first-generation students.
Family support of the student participants has occurred overwhelmingly
within the family home or at family gatherings away from campus, which typically
goes unnoticed by campus administrators. Parents and families of the students in
this study have visited campus rarely and have not attended organized campus
events. They do not contact the university on their student’s behalf. From the
untrained campus administrator’s perspective, these families may appear
disinterested, unwilling or unable to support their students’ college pursuits, when in
actuality, these families care very much about their students’ success and do
whatever they can to support them in college. This phenomenon is similar to the
lack of recognition by K-12 school administrators of the multiple ways working class
parents support their children’s academic success in Lareau’s (2003) and Knight,

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Norton, Bentley and Dixon’s (2004) studies. Auerbach (2007) identified this issue in
her study of 16 working class parents of high school students, arguing that these
parents were involved in their students’ education in a variety of ways, most of
which were unnoticed or unappreciated by teachers and school administrators
because they did not fall within the narrow construct of “what counts” as parent
involvement based on dominant cultural values (p. 278). Data from the present
study, as well as the findings from previous research mentioned here, point to the
need for college administrators to be cognizant of the multiple ways in which parents
and families of first-generation college students may support their students that can
be invisible to campus representatives.
Moreover, the approach parents of the students in this study have taken in
assisting students with their college going efforts has potentially led to added
benefits to students, including a high level of trust between student and parent, a
focus on overall student well-being, and greater personal growth and development of
these students. In general, families know little detail about students’ academic lives
in college, which has led to a great level of trust between student and parent. Parents
do not know the particulars of what students are studying or the grades they get, yet
parents trust that their students are doing well academically, which in fact, they are.
Students are keenly aware of the trust their parents have placed in them and work
hard to maintain that trust. Since parents know less about students’ academics, they
tend to focus more on students’ overall well being, such as making sure students are

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sleeping enough, are eating well, are not stressed out and are taking care of
themselves in general.
Finally, because parents lack familiarity with college processes, students are
required to take greater responsibility for themselves and navigate the university
without much assistance from their families. Whereas parents of non-first-
generation students may be more inclined to complete procedural tasks for the
student, students in this study have learned to do these things on their own. Further,
parent participants are supportive of students, but recognize them as adults, have
nurtured their independence and are not overly intrusive in their college lives. For
example, Ana’s father has helped her to talk through various issues she has had to
deal with while in college, identifying different options or alternatives, but has let her
make the final decisions on her own. This lack of intrusiveness by parents is in
contrast to how parents are often viewed by university administrators, faculty and the
media (Carney-Hall, 2008) and dispels the idea that all parents of today’s college
students qualify as “helicopter parents.” It seems likely that the necessity of students
to navigate college processes on their own, as well as their parents’ consideration of
them as adults, may have a positive impact on student development. The ways
parent support may provide additional developmental benefits to first-generation
students is an area for future research that is discussed at the end of this chapter.
With regard to the second research question for this study, students’ views of
their families have motivated them in different ways than non-first-generation
students. Their background as first in their family to graduate from college creates

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an additional layer of motivation that their non-first-generation peers do not have.
While being first in the family to graduate from college can be a source of pressure
for students, overall, the students in this study saw this circumstance as a source of
pride and a challenge they happily accepted. Parents’ expressions of pride in
students’ achievements and their desire for students to have better opportunities have
motivated students in different ways than their non-first-generation peers as well.
The students in this study recognize they have come from disadvantaged
backgrounds, making them appreciate the opportunities they have been given to
attain higher education and motivating them to make full use of these opportunities.
Additionally, students like Daniel, Esteban and Isabel have been motivated by their
perceptions of their older siblings who did not go to college. From their perspective,
not going to college has meant working in less desirable jobs, starting families at a
younger age, and struggling to get by overall.
Theme 3: Conflicts between students’ responsibilities at college and their roles
within the family were minimal.
Conflicts between family and college life did emerge within the findings.
However, for the most part, parents have encouraged students to put their education
first, even placing it above family obligations. Though parents would prefer to see
their students more frequently, they understand that academics are the priority and
excuse students from family commitments when necessary. Conflicts between
family obligations and students’ extracurricular activities have been more common
than conflicts with students’ academic responsibilities. Overall, each of the students

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has developed a balance between going home and staying on campus that works for
their individual and family situations. Students consider family a priority. When
students go home to see their families, most of the time they view this as something
they want to do, rather than something their parents make them do.
In answer to the primary research question for this study, this phenomenon of
minimal conflicts between students’ home and campus lives has no doubt played a
critical role in student persistence while in college. Students are able to focus on
academic priorities while the messages parents communicate to students about the
importance of education reinforce student persistence behaviors. Students
acknowledged that family members have placed an emphasis on education
throughout their lives and family members reiterated this sentiment. Prior to college,
if students had homework or school related activities they needed to attend to, they
were excused from family responsibilities such as house chores, taking care of
siblings and attending family functions. Since students have been in college, the
same standard has applied. Even students like Kim and Sara, who feel obligated to
go home frequently, confirmed that if they have a pressing academic deadline or
other responsibilities, their parents understand when they need to stay on campus.
This finding is different from previous research on first-generation college
students, which has found students to have extensive competing demands at home
that create conflicts with their academic work (London, 1989; Phinney & Haas,
2003). These studies suggest that students may be required to hold one or more jobs
to contribute to the family financially, take care of younger siblings at home, or

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assist parents and other family members with household duties. It is worth noting
that the majority of research on first-generation college students has been conducted
at community colleges and large, comprehensive state colleges and universities.
Students may have enrolled at these institutions precisely because of the competing
demands between home and college that they have experienced throughout their
lifetimes, which have kept them from focusing more attention on academic work,
both prior to and during college.
In contrast, the data from the present study suggest that some of the most
successful first-generation college students, able to persist at an academically
competitive, private, research institution, have families who have made education the
priority over family obligations, often at the expense of additional work and sacrifice
on the part of the parents. Parent support and sacrifice has impacted the educational
progress of these students beginning when they were very young. Encouragement
and involvement from parents and family members in elementary school has laid the
foundation for student achievement in high school. Further support from parents and
family in high school has helped carve out the path for these students to DU. Since
enrolling at DU, families have had a positive impact on student persistence. For
these students, each step of the educational ladder has been influenced by family
support, with the end result being that they will graduate from an elite institution,
defying current trends for first-generation students in higher education. First-
generation students at less selective colleges may not benefit from the same level of

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family support and sacrifice that has played an integral role in the success of the
students in this study.
With regard to the second research question, students’ acknowledgement that
their parents have consistently placed students’ educational needs before family
needs has motivated students to achieve in college. Each student was able to identify
situations when parents excused them from family obligations in order to study or
participate in school sponsored activities. Students recognize the sacrifices parents
have made in order to allow students to put their education first. Part of this
realization has occurred as student participants have encountered situations with
friends who have parents who are not as understanding about university
commitments, requiring students to sacrifice academic performance to attend to
family matters. Again, students’ interest in taking advantage of the opportunities
parents have worked so hard to give them has motivated students to persist in
college. Since families have made sacrifices that have allowed students to focus on
education, students want to make their parents proud by showing them that their
sacrifices have paid off.
Theme 4: A disconnect between families and the institution exists.
Though families have supported students’ academic pursuits in the best ways
they know how, a lack of connection between the university and the families of the
students in this study was evident throughout the data. Overall, parents knew few
details about their students’ academic lives or resources available to students on
campus. Several barriers exist, which keep parents and family members of first-

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generation college students from establishing connections with the university. First,
many of the ways the university communicates with parent and family constituencies
are unavailable to these families, including email and websites, which require
computer and internet access. Of the 11 students who participated in this study, only
one of their parents had an email address and it is unclear whether this parent has an
internet connection at home. The message I sent to this parent’s email address was
never answered, though several phone messages were returned, indicating that either
the parent did not have convenient access to check the email account, or simply
preferred communicating by postal mail and phone. Second, the majority of the
parents of the students in this study speak a language other than English as their
primary language. Communication from the university sent only in English is not
understood by these parents and requires translation by either the student or another
family member, if one is available. While a few offices, such as the Office for
Parent Programs and Financial Aid, do translate a few documents for parents, other
key communications from the university are not translated.
Finally, even though most families of the students in this study live within
close proximity to the university, none of them have participated in programs
designed by the university for parents and family members, such as orientation or
family weekend. Parents either do not know about these programs, or have chosen
not to come, in part because they fear they will not understand anything. The cost, or
perceived cost, to attend these events was another reason given by students and
parents as to why parents have not attended. Though some offices offer free or

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discounted program registration to families with expressed financial need, this option
is not widely publicized and parents are unaware that they should ask for it.
Additionally, college campuses are unfamiliar places to parents of first-generation
college students. Parents of these students may feel intimidated coming to the
university for programs, or as one administrator put it, parents often feel like they
“don’t belong” on campus.
Another potential reason for the lack of connection between parents in this
study and the university may be due to the fact that no office exists to support the
first-generation college student community as a whole. While several offices
provide resources which may be helpful to various populations within this student
community, there is no central office designated with the sole purpose of providing
resources and services to the first-generation college student population specifically.
If an office that supports first-generation college students existed, it could provide
assistance and resources to the parents and families of these students as well.
Currently, the scholarship office at Deane University that works primarily with low
income, first-generation students has implemented several successful initiatives that
reach out to the families of these students. However, this office works with only a
small fraction of the first-generation college student population on campus. Similar
services offered to the greater parent community would no doubt help connect these
families to the university.
With regard to the first research question for this study, not knowing much
about campus or the resources available to students hinders parents’ and family

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members’ ability to support student persistence. Besides providing support and
encouragement to the students in this study within the home environment, parents are
unsure or unaware of ways they can connect with the university to provide additional
support to their student. Parents who are familiar with campus services have a
greater capacity to act as an additional resource for their students, as they may be
able to make suggestions regarding where students can seek support on campus for a
variety of issues. Recent research indicates that parents are better able to recall
important information they receive from their student’s higher education institution
than students are (Daniel, Lobdell, Springate, Rayome, Bottoni, Doerr, Saddlemire &
Allen, 2009). This finding suggests that higher education institutions should reach
out to parents as a way to reinforce critical university information with students and
emphasizes the role parents can play in student success. The benefit may be even
higher when providing this information to parents of first-generation college
students, as these parents are probably less aware of the positive impact they can
have on student success and their students may be in need of greater support in some
areas than their non-first-generation peers.
Parents like Alejandra’s mother could benefit from a stronger connection to
the university in order to gain a greater understanding of the value of the
extracurricular activities students participate in. Though these activities may not
have a direct link to students’ professional goals, the skills they learn by participating
in these activities, such as communication, organization and time management, will
be extremely valuable to them when they enter the professional world. First-

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generation students could benefit if the university spent time educating their parents
about the mission of the university to develop the whole student and how
extracurricular activities work to achieve this goal. A better understanding of the
purpose and benefits of extracurriculars may decrease the number of disagreements
between first-generation students and their parents that participation in these
activities may cause as well.
In the above discussion, I have focused on the four major themes that
emerged within the findings of this data. I now turn to the implications of these
themes on policy and practice in higher education. Due to the fact that the setting for
the current study was a private, academically competitive research university,
recommendations presented here may be most applicable to first-generation student
populations at this type of university. However, some of the broader ideas regarding
working with parents and family members of first-generation students may be
applicable to other institutions of higher education as well.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Implication 1: Colleges and universities must recognize that parents and
families can have a significant positive impact on first-generation college student
success and persistence. Findings from this study indicate that the value families
have placed on education and the efforts and sacrifices families have made on
students’ behalf have aided students in their college going efforts in multiple ways.
Results show that family support of first-generation students may not always be
easily seen from the college administrator perspective. Findings suggest that a

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reconceptualization of parent support and involvement in college is necessary in
order to fully recognize the contributions these parents and families make to first-
generation college student success. Though families may not participate in events on
campus or contact the university, this does not mean they are not providing support
to their students.
Findings from this study challenge previous literature that indicates parents
have a minimal or even negative impact on first-generation student persistence in
higher education. Hossler and Stage (1992) found that parents of first-generation
students have lower educational expectations of their students than parents of non-
first-generation students. Data from the current study indicate the opposite has been
true for successful student participants. Parents have shared their expectations with
students that students would attend and graduate from college, which has had a
positive impact on students’ college going behaviors and motivation. Parents have
also encouraged their students to go to graduate school and get as much education as
possible, which has promoted students’ goal of obtaining a graduate degree. This
finding is in contrast to what has previously been noted in research on first-
generation students, which indicates that these students have lower educational
aspirations than their non-first-generation peers (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004; Pascarella,
Pierson, Wolniak & Terenzini, 2004; Pike & Kuh, 2005). In terms of successful
first-generation college students, results of this study show that parents have high
academic expectations of these students and family involvement has a positive
influence on students’ educational aspirations. The importance of parents and

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families in setting these expectations and elevating educational aspirations cannot be
overlooked.
Implication 2: Universities must provide communication and services that
reach parents of first-generation college students in order to leverage their full
potential as partners in student success. First-generation college students at
academically competitive institutions may be in need of more assistance than their
non-first-generation peers, and building stronger connections with their parents and
families is one way to provide additional support. In order to adequately address the
needs of this parent population, parents’ lack of familiarity with college processes, as
well as potential language barriers, technological barriers and financial barriers must
be considered.
University administrators cannot assume all parents of undergraduates
attended college. Parents of first-generation students, unfamiliar with the higher
education system, will require additional programming and information in order to
serve as good resources for their students. Early college outreach programs for
families while students are in middle school or beginning high school can provide
essential information to help students in their path to college. If parents are familiar
with college application and financial aid processes, they can assist students with
these critical steps. Similarly, explaining the benefits of higher education to parents
through early college outreach programs can encourage parents to support the
academic progress of their middle school and high school aged children.

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Universities should coordinate these types of early outreach programs to serve local
area students and their families.
Once students are admitted to the university, programs that target parents of
first-generation students and address specific issues these families might experience
should be offered. Such programs could be included as part of summer orientation
or could be offered separately. Esteban pointed out that parents would benefit from
an orientation session that was geared toward helping parents of first-generation
students understand the college system. Functions of key offices and on-campus
resources for students should be explained, and parents should be made aware of
important dates and deadlines throughout the academic year. University faculty and
administrators should emphasize the long term benefits of college for the student and
family and discuss with parents the demands of university level academic work on
students. Additionally, universities should create programs that bring this population
of parents to campus occasionally throughout students’ time at the university, so that
an ongoing dialog between parents and family members and the university can be
established. Relationships with campus staff members can be strengthened through
these programs so that parents know who they can contact with questions and will
feel comfortable doing so. Administrators can strongly encourage parents to attend
by sending targeted mailings to parents of first-generation students specifically.
Communication to parents from the institution should be retooled as well.
Since much of the support these families provide takes place in the home, it is
critical not only to encourage families to come to campus, but also to reach them in

196

their home context. Institutions should not expect that all families will show their
support for students by coming to campus. Student affairs practitioners and
university administrators need to find effective ways to communicate essential
information and connect with parents at home.
Esteban’s story, in which his father was able to help him navigate the high
school and college application process after attending parent sessions for the college
early outreach program, is evidence that if parents are given the opportunity to learn
about the higher education system, they will be better equipped to help their students
navigate the course. Esteban commented that if there had been a program at DU that
was similar to the program he and his father participated in when he was in middle
school and high school, his parents would likely have been able to provide greater
assistance to him during college and would be more at ease with what they see as a
very foreign system. In discussing this topic, Esteban’s father commented “one that
doesn’t have much education can’t even find what to ask.” This quote underscores
the lack of familiarity parents of first-generation students have with higher
education, often feeling as if they know so little, they do not even know what
questions to ask in order to support their students.
Potential language and technological barriers must be considered when
working with parents of first-generation students. To address language issues,
universities should translate important communication to parents and if possible
provide translators at programs targeting this population of family members and
parents. If cost is an issue, translation services for the languages most commonly

197

spoken among this parent population should be a minimum goal. Technological
barriers can be dealt with by sending key information to parents by mail. To
minimize cost, universities can identify particular parent populations to send mailed
information to. Additionally, universities must offer a registration option for parent
and family programs that does not require computer access. Many universities,
including DU, are moving to online registration systems for their programs. While
this method is convenient for many parents, it prohibits some from registering.
Financial barriers are another concern when designing programming that
reaches parents of first-generation students. It is important to note that not all first-
generation college students come from low income backgrounds. However, as was
discussed earlier in this dissertation, first-generation college students are more likely
to be classified as low income than their non-first-generation peers. To address this
issue, university administrators should take cost into consideration when planning
programs and events for the parent constituency in order to avoid inadvertently
excluding some parents from attending due to fees charged. Universities should
consider offering programs that parents are strongly encouraged to attend, like new
parent orientation, on weekends in order to accommodate parent work schedules and
should provide discounted or free registration to parents who qualify. While it may
pose logistical or administrative challenges for colleges to publish fee waiver or
discount options, the more transparent institutions can be regarding this policy, the
more likely families with financial need will be to take advantage of it and attend the
program. It would be worthwhile to partner with the financial aid office to identify

198

parents with the most need. This population of parents should be contacted ahead of
time so that they are informed about waived or discounted registration fees, and staff
can use this opportunity to reiterate the importance of parent attendance at these
programs in helping students be successful.
Implication 3: Universities must reach out to first-generation students on
campus and encourage them to get their families more involved with the institution.
For these families, coming to campus and participating in parent and family
programs can be intimidating. Students may be able to ease some of this
apprehension by encouraging their families to attend and participating with parents
in some programs. This type of strategy can be easily be implemented if an office
that serves the first-generation college student population exists.
Implication 4: Train staff to work with parents of first-generation college
students. Since first-generation college students are found in lower numbers at
academically competitive, private research institutions, parent and family office staff
at these universities may not have much experience working with the parents of this
group of students. Staff should be provided with professional development
opportunities, either on campus or at professional conferences, which can assist them
in learning to meet the needs of this potentially hidden parent population. If
possible, a staff member in the parent and family office should be dedicated, at least
part time, to providing targeted outreach to this group of parents.
Implication 5: It is critical for universities to know their parent constituency.
Just as students on college campuses vary in background and experience, so do their

199

parents. Institutions will be able to more effectively address parent needs by
knowing parent demographics (Merriman, 2006). Previous research has noted that
parent involvement and contact with students varies by groups depending on social
class, parental immigrant status, race/ethnicity and other demographic variables
(Wolf, Sax & Harper, 2009). Knowing key information such as which students are
first-generation, how many students come from low income backgrounds and what
the most common languages, other than English, spoken at home are, will allow
parent and family offices to better tailor their communication and services to fit
diverse parent needs. Again, the assumption cannot be made that all parents of
undergraduates attended college themselves. A “one-size-fits-all” approach to parent
communication and programming will not be effective and will result in the loss of
significant opportunities to impact student success.
Implication 6: Universities must act now. A major consequence of not
engaging parents and family members of first-generation college students with the
university is that we are missing an opportunity to provide students with added
support through networks that are already in place. Data from this study suggest
greater family involvement prior to college encourages students to make education a
priority, which could lead to greater attendance of first-generation college students at
academically competitive, selective universities. Additionally, greater family
support once in college has the potential to increase student persistence at these
institutions significantly. Given that first-generation students attend college at lower
rates than non-first-generation students and when they do attend college, they go to

200

community colleges and less selective universities in disproportionately high
numbers (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak &
Terenzini, 2004), data from this study provide clues as to how university
administrators can address this issue. By ignoring this data, student affairs
practitioners, especially those who work with parents and families, inadvertently
support the current trend of cultural reproduction that keeps first-generation college
students at a disadvantage when compared to other students. Through cultivating
relationships with first-generation students’ parents and families, university
administrators have an opportunity to break the cycle of cultural reproduction and
impact the success of these students in significant ways.
Future Research
I now turn to areas for future research. As the phenomenon of parent
involvement in college student lives continues, there is much to be explored. Prime
areas for further inquiry include how parents and families affect student success
within today’s college landscape and how additional constructs, such as culture,
influence relationships between first-generation students and their families, thus
impacting student persistence in higher education.
The influence of parent and family support on student persistence and development.
The data from this study have demonstrated the positive influence parent and
family support can have in aiding first-generation college student persistence, yet
there is much more to learn in this area. Future studies should further explore the
positive outcomes associated with parent support of first-generation college students.

201

The approach of this study, in examining the experiences of successful students
should be replicated, thereby identifying lessons from these students that can be
adapted and applied to assist greater numbers of first-generation students in their
persistence behaviors. Studies designed to use both qualitative and quantitative
methods would provide in depth, detailed pictures of these students’ experiences, as
well as breadth of knowledge that results from statistical analysis. Research utilizing
quantitative methods should be designed to measure aspects of family contributions
based on the family capital framework and other non-deficit perspectives.
Many of the studies on parent involvement in college student lives that were
reviewed in chapter two of this dissertation are now somewhat outdated. However,
findings from the current study show the positive effect parents and families can
have on student success. In order to keep the field current, additional studies should
examine not only parent and family support of first-generation students, but also
parent support for other college student populations and parent support at various
types of institutions. Parent and family support may look different depending on
students’ backgrounds or the type of college or university they attend.
Results of this study point to possible differences between parent support and
involvement with first-generation college students and parent support and
involvement with non-first-generation students, which may potentially lead to
varying student developmental outcomes. Since first-generation students often take
care of procedural aspects of college on their own, they may progress within some
areas of student development more quickly than students whose parents went to

202

college. Future studies should examine differences in developmental levels of first-
generation college students and other students in terms of how this relates to parent
involvement, or potential over-involvement. Future research should also consider
the impact of technology on college students’ relationships with their parents and
families. The use of mobile phones and other technology that allows students to be
in constant contact with their parents may have an additional impact on the nature of
family support for students and student development.
Cultural considerations and family support of first-generation college students.
How does culture relate to family support of first-generation college
students? Evidence of culturally motivating factors in persistence emerged to some
degree in the present study, though only a few of the student participants discussed
this aspect of their college experience directly. Some students suggested that the
closeness of their families is directly related to their cultural background. Alejandra
attributed the overwhelming support she has received from her extended family to
her Latino heritage. The concept of family within her culture, she explained, is of
great significance. Family members support each other in achieving their goals.
Alejandra’s pride in her culture and her interest in representing young Latinas in a
positive way has profoundly motivated her to persist in college.
As the eldest son, Albert partially attributed his interest in achieving at the
university to his desire to represent his family well, which he explained was a result
of his “conservative Asian side.” Kim also briefly discussed how culture has
interplayed with family to influence her college experience. She suggested that

203

because her parents have raised her with traditional Vietnamese values, it is her
“duty to be successful” and contribute to society. Additional qualitative, in depth
studies should examine the role culture plays in family involvement in the
educational pursuits of first-generation college students. It would be beneficial to
design studies that focus on students within one ethnic group in order to hone in on
the cultural nuances of this issue.
Previous research has concluded that students often find their culture at home
in conflict with the culture at college (Bryan & Simmons, 2009). A few findings in
the present study point to such conflicts. While students are proud of their home
culture, some indicated that they prefer “American” culture, while their parents want
them to live by the culture of their heritage. Parents and students have different
perspectives regarding academic and career expectations, what constitutes frequent
visits home and whether students should date. Each of these issues is no doubt
influenced by culture.
However, other findings from this study point to ways in which the culture at
home creates an environment that supports students’ academic endeavors. Since
family is a big part of many cultures, some students may spend more time with their
families on the weekends than others. Yet rather than taking students away from
their academic work, families may be providing support for student academic
success. The families in this study have wholeheartedly supported students’ college
going efforts, reiterated their beliefs in students’ abilities and have allowed students
time to do school work when they are at home. When students attend large family

204

functions they are inundated with support and expressions of pride from their family
members. Future research may wish to gain a deeper understanding of how the
home culture may provide support to students in college.
Conclusion
The data from this study have shown that family support and involvement
can play an important role in helping first-generation students persist in college.
Students derive much of their motivation to succeed in college from their families.
In this study I have challenged two common perceptions, that parents and families of
first-generation college students are uninvolved or lack interest in seeing their
students be successful in higher education and that, as a standard, parents are
intrusive in their college students’ lives. Findings clearly indicate that families of
first-generation students are heavily invested in their students’ education and support
students in a variety of ways, often resulting in added work and sacrifice for the
parents. Additionally, while these families have encouraged their students’
educational goals, they have not been overly involved in their students’ day to day
lives on campus, giving students the autonomy to make decisions and complete
developmental tasks on their own. This finding confirms previous research that the
term “helicopter parent” does not apply to all parents of undergraduates (Wartman &
Savage, 2008; Wolf, Sax & Harper, 2009).
Just as other researchers have made the case for a broader definition of parent
support and involvement for children in the K-12 system (Auerbach, 2007; Lareau,
2003), this dissertation has demonstrated that traditional ideas of parent support and

205

involvement in college student lives must be expanded to include efforts put forward
by parents and families of first-generation students. This reconceptualization of
family support and involvement must include the emphasis parents and families
place on higher education, the sacrifices parents make in order for students to have
educational opportunities and the values families cultivate within their students,
which aid students in overcoming obstacles they face as they navigate the
educational pipeline. Equally critical to a new definition of family support of college
students is the recognition that for some families most, or even all, of the support
they provide takes place in the home environment, when students visit their families
and when students and family members communicate by phone, or occasionally text
message, when students are on campus.
By utilizing Gofen’s (2009) family capital model, this dissertation has shown
that family support that takes place in the home can be just as valuable to student
success as support that is easily seen by university administrators when parents come
to campus. Universities cannot judge parent and family support of students by the
number of times parents contact the institution or by their participation in programs
on campus, as parents of first-generation students may not feel comfortable working
within the higher education system. While it is important to continue to work to
make these parents and families feel welcome and at home on campus, it is also the
responsibility of student affairs practitioners to identify effective ways to connect
with parents and families at home, so that they can serve as the best possible
resource for their student.

206

As was discussed at the beginning of this dissertation, first-generation college
students, as a group, are some of the most educationally disadvantaged students in
higher education. While a variety of interventions have been implemented in order
to promote the success of these students in college, additional strategies are needed.
This study has shown that family support can positively contribute to the persistence
of first-generation college students at an academically competitive, private research
institution. By reconceptualizing our idea of family support of college students,
strengthening partnerships with this group of underserved families and viewing their
support of first-generation students as an additional resource to leverage in students’
higher education efforts, universities can enhance the environment on campus that
promotes first-generation student success in college.

207

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214

Appendix A

Student Interview Protocol

You have been selected to participate in this study because you are a first-generation
college student who has been successful at this university. I am interested in
learning about the role your family has played in your life as a college student. Your
answers to the following questions will provide important information to help
understand this issue. As a reminder, your participation in this study is voluntary,
and you may decline to continue with this interview at any time.

1. Many students whose parents did not go to college do not achieve higher
education. By achieving senior status, you have demonstrated success in
higher education. How do you explain your success?*

Attitude Toward Education

2. How would you describe your family’s attitude toward your education?

Probe: Does your family think education is important? Why or why not?

3. How have your parents and/or family members been involved in your
education?

Probe: Describe a time when a family member helped you in your college
pursuits.

Interpersonal Relationships

4. How would you describe your relationship with your family?

5. Do you think your relationship with your family is typical or atypical
compared to other first-generation college students?**

6. Do conflicts between your role as a family member and your role as a student
arise? If so, how do you handle these conflicts?**

Family Values

7. What values do you associate with your family?

8. Have these values helped you during college? Why or why not?

9. Has your family motivated you to succeed in college? Why or why not?

215

Concluding Question

10. Is there anything else about what we’ve talked about that you would like to
add?

* Question adapted from Gofen (2009)
** Question adapted from Herndon and Hirt (2004)

216

Student Demographic Information

Name: ___________________________________ID#_______________________

Date of Interview: _________________________Location: ___________________

Mailing Address: _____________________________________________________

Phone: _______________________Email:_________________________________

Major: ______________________________________GPA:___________________

Year in College (Jr., Sr., etc): __________Gender: ___________Age: ___________

Ethnicity: _____________Marital Status: _________Number of Children: _______

I live: ____on campus
____off campus in university housing
____off campus in private housing
____off campus with my family

The distance between the university and my family’s home is ____________miles.

Types of contact with family (check all that apply):

______ phone How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ email How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ mail How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ text How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ instant message How often? ___ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ in person How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ other How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

Family Member Info: A family member has been influential to you in your success
in college.
Name:___________________________________Phone:_____________________

Address:___________________________________________________________

217

Appendix B

Family Member Interview Protocol

You have been selected to participate in this study because [student’s name]
identified you as family member who has had an influence on his/her college
experience. I am interested in learning more about the role family plays in the lives
of students who are the first in their family to go to college. Your answers to the
following questions will provide important information to help understand this issue.
As a reminder, your participation in this study is voluntary, and you may decline to
continue with this interview at any time.

1. Many students whose parents did not attend college are not successful in
school. As a senior in college, _____________ has shown that he/she is good
in school. What do you think are the reasons for his/her success?*

Attitude Toward Education

2. How would you describe your attitude or feelings toward ___________’s
education?

Probe: Do you think _____________’s college education is important? Why
or why not?

3. Have you and your family been involved in ____________’s education? If
so, how?
Probe: Describe a time when you helped ____________ with his/her college
pursuits.

Interpersonal Relationships

4. How would you describe your relationship with ___________?

5. Do you think your relationship with ___________ is different or the same as
other college students and their families?**

6. Do conflicts between ___________’s role as a student and his/her role as a
family member come up? If so, how do you handle these conflicts?

Family Values

7. What values have you tried to give to ______________?

218

8. Do you think these values have been helpful to ___________ during college?
Why or why not?

Concluding Question

9. Is there anything else about what we’ve talked about that you would like to
add?

* Question adapted from Gofen (2009)
** Question adapted from Herndon and Hirt (2004)

219

Family Member Demographic Information

Name: _____________________________________________________________

Translator name (if applicable):__________________Language:_______________

Date of Interview: _________________________Location: ___________________

Mailing address: _____________________________________________________

Phone: ______________________Email:__________________________________

Name of student at university: __________________________________________

Relationship to student: __________________Occupation: ___________________

Your highest level of education: _________________________________________

Where attended school/college (if applicable): ______________________________

Number of family members who have attended college: ______________________

Number of family members living in household: ____________________________

Number of children: _____________________Ages: ________________________

Marital status: ___________________Gender: _____________Age:____________

Distance between you and student/university _____________miles
Types of contact with student (check all that apply):

______ phone How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ email How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ mail How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ text How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ instant message How often? ___ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ in person How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

______ other How often? ______ times per day/week/month/year (circle one)

220

Appendix C

University Administrator Interview Protocol

You have been selected to participate in this study because several of the students
who participated in this study have identified you as an administrator who has had an
influence on their college experience. I am interested in learning more about the role
family plays in the lives of first-generation college students. Your answers to the
following questions will provide important information to help understand this issue.
As a reminder, your participation in this study is voluntary, and you may decline to
continue with this interview at any time.

1. In thinking about the successful first-generation students you work with, how
would you explain their success?*

Attitude Toward Education

2. Of the successful first-generation students you work with, what do you think
are the attitudes of their families toward education?

Probe: In your experience, do families view education as important? Please
explain.

3. Are families of the successful first-generation students you know usually
involved in the student’s education? If so, how?

Interpersonal Relationships

4. How much do you think family influences first-generation student behavior
at college?**

5. How do you advise students experiencing conflicts between their family
obligations and school obligations?

6. What do you think the family members’ role should be in the first-generation
college student experience?

Family Values

7. Do you think the values successful students learn from their families impact
students during college? Why or why not?

8. Do you think family motivates students to succeed in college? Why or why
not?

221

Concluding Question

9. Is there anything else about what we’ve talked about that you would like to
include?

* Question adapted from Gofen (2009)
** Question adapted from Herndon and Hirt (2004)

Administrator Demographic Information

Name: ______________________________Title: ___________________________

Department/Division: __________________________________________________

Number of years worked at the university: __________________________________

Highest level of education: ______________________________________________

Generational Status: ___________________________________________________

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Research has shown that first-generation college students are educationally disadvantaged in a number of ways. While a variety of interventions have been recommended to increase the success of this population of students in higher education, little attention has been placed on the role that families can play in supporting these students, specifically during the college years. This dissertation approached the role of family in first-generation college student lives from a non-deficit perspective. Utilizing Gofen’s (2009) family capital framework, ways that families support first-generation student persistence in college were identified through the family’s attitude toward education, relationships between family members and the values families have instilled in students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ziemniak, Anne Elisabeth Lamkin (author)

Core Title The contribution of family members to first-generation college student success: a narrative approach

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/07/2010

Defense Date 02/25/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag families,family capital,first-generation college students,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,Parents,persistence

Place Name USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Venegas, Kristan M. (committee chair), Merriman, Lynette S. (committee member), Tambascia, Tracy Poon (committee member)

Creator Email alamkin@usc.edu,anne.ziemniak@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2898

Unique identifier UC1255390

Identifier etd-Ziemniak-3532 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-306505 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2898 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Ziemniak-3532.pdf

Dmrecord 306505

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ziemniak, Anne Elisabeth Lamkin

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu