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When they teach us: recruiting teacher candidates of color for the next generation of students, an evaluation study

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When they teach us: recruiting teacher candidates of color for the next generation of students, an evaluation study

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When They Teach Us: Recruiting Teacher Candidates of Color for the Next
Generation of Students, an Evaluation Study
by
Andre Burrell

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation presented to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Andre Burrell 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Andre Burrell certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Courtney Malloy
Alexandra Wilcox
Kathy Stowe, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
This study uses Clark and Estes’s gap analytical framework to understand the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that influence the recruitment of students of color into
preservice teaching programs. The purpose of this study was to examine the needs and assets
among administrators within a College of Education at an institution of higher education that
interfere with their ability to increase the population of students of color and implement effective
interventions. Administrators were selected for this study based on their role within the College
of Education as it relates to the recruitment of, as well as administrative duties regarding,
students of color. The design of this study drew from three principal data sources to understand
and evaluate the current practices of administrators: they include a literature review, individual
interviews, and document analysis. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit the study
participants. Interview data analysis and interpretation resulted in general findings rather than
conclusions specific to a single institution; administrators demonstrated an understanding of the
importance of recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs. Additionally, this
study found that administrators lacked confidence in their ability to effectively recruit students of
color into these programs. Finally, this study found that administrators lacked the resources and
training from their institution necessary to effectively recruit students of color into their
preservice teaching programs. Recommendations were presented and adapted using thematic
analysis to help make the College of Education more successful in meeting the goal of increasing
its students of color population. These findings provide meaningful conclusions for educators,
administrators, and other stakeholders responsible for the recruitment of students of color into
higher education institutions with preservice teaching programs.
Keywords: students of color, recruitment, teachers of color, college

v
Dedication
To me. I did it.

vi
Acknowledgments
The path toward this dissertation has been interesting, to say the least. Its completion is
thanks in large part to the special people who challenged, supported, and stuck with me along
this part of my journey. It is impossible to identify every single person that has helped me reach
this point, and I will not hold myself responsible to identify each of you. If you have positively
influenced my life, this adulation is for you, THANK YOU!
I do feel it is appropriate to acknowledge humorously, yet honestly, those long forgotten
who have nonetheless had the most significant role in this dissertation. First, I wish to thank
Kaldi, the ninth-century Ethiopian goat herder who is credited with discovering coffee, you have
uncovered the single most important substance for academic and professional excellence and
deserve to be honored in the same breath as the great prophets of the past.
I also feel it is especially important to acknowledge Larry Tesler, the computer scientist
responsible for cut, copy, and paste. Though not a household name like Steve Jobs or Elon Musk,
your contributions to making writing easier not only for me but for anyone. Cut, copy, and paste
are among the greatest innovations ever developed for humanity.
To all my detractors, distractors, and those who helped me procrastinate, writing this
dissertation has been an exercise in sustained suffering. I blame you all for why this dissertation
took so long to complete; many of you have played a large part in prolonging my agony with
your insufferable actions…you know who you are, and you owe me!
Finally, on a serious note, a thank you to people of color, past, present, and future who
have always been asked to consider the humanity of others while having our humanity erased by
those very same people; you are the spring water of motivation that nourishes my soul.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to Study ................................................................................................ 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 4
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 8
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................................... 10
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 12
Historical Factors .............................................................................................................. 12
The Relationship Between Students of Color and Teachers of Color .............................. 22
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and
the Organizational Context ............................................................................................... 43
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 47
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 47
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 47
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 49
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 50
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 51
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 55

viii
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 56
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 56
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 58
Participant Stakeholders.................................................................................................... 58
Interview Participants ....................................................................................................... 60
Research Question 1: What Is the Current Status of the Organization Related to the
Recruitment of Student-Teacher Candidates of Color? .................................................... 65
Research Question 2: What Are the Administrator’s Needs and Assets Related to
Knowledge and Motivation Factors Regarding the Population of Student-Teacher
Candidates of Color?......................................................................................................... 76
Research Question 3: How Do the Organization’s Current Recruitment Practices
Contribute to or Hinder Increasing Student-Teacher Candidates of Color? ..................... 86
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 100
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations....................................................................... 103
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................... 104
Knowledge Findings ....................................................................................................... 104
Motivation Findings ........................................................................................................ 106
Organization Findings ..................................................................................................... 106
Recommendations for Practice ....................................................................................... 107
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 115
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 116
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 119
References ................................................................................................................................... 121
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 146
Appendix B: Document Analysis Protocol ................................................................................. 150

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Knowledge Influences on College of Education Administrators .............. 33
Table 2: Summary of Motivation Influences on Admission Counselors ...................................... 38
Table 3: Summary of Organizational Influences on Administrators within the College of
Education .......................................................................................................................... 42
Table 4: Research Questions and Data Collection Method .......................................................... 48
Table 4: Participant Characteristics ............................................................................................. 59

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for Recruiting Students of Color into Preservice Teaching
Programs ........................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 2: Leader Engagement ..................................................................................................... 108

Chapter One: Introduction to Study
The increasing racial and ethnic diversity of students in kindergarten through 12th grade
in the United States challenges preservice teaching programs at the collegiate level to prepare
future teachers that can provide an equitable education, despite the relatively homogenous and
White makeup of students in these programs. In 2018, 84% of elementary and secondary
teachers were White while 9% were Hispanic, 7% were Black, 2% were Asian, 2% were of two
or more races, 1% were American Indian/Alaska Native, and less than 1% were Pacific Islanders
(National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2018). In 2000, teachers within elementary
and secondary classrooms were 84% White, while 6% were Hispanic, 8% were Black, and less
than 1% were American Indian/Alaska Native, Pacific Islander, or Asian (NCES, 2020a). While
the number of teachers of color has increased between 2000 and 2018, a deficit remains
compared with White teachers. This problem is important to address because research shows that
teachers of color benefit not only students of color but all students (Egalite et al., 2015;
Gershenson et al., 2017; Goldhaber et al., 2019). Research by Carver-Thomas (2018) shows that
diversity among teachers in K–12 schools improves student academic performance, makes
students and teachers more culturally aware, decreases the likelihood of implicit biases, and
improves the effectiveness of positive role modeling. Additional research shows that those who
identify as Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Pacific Islander, Middle Eastern, Arab,
and/or multi-racial have now exceeded the percentage of Whites in both K–12 and postsecondary
education (NCES, 2014; NCES, 2018).
With the rise of students of color in public schools, learning to recruit students of color
will become imperative for degree-granting universities and colleges. Teacher candidates of
color are critical to the cultural and social needs of the children they will teach (Andrews et al.,
2

2018; Carr & Klassen, 1997). These cultural and social needs include teachers of color who are
more empathetic to students dealing with racial inequities in school, deficit thinking, stereotype
threat, meritocracy, and mistreatment based on race and identity (Bonilla-Silva, 2014; Carver-
Thomas, 2018; Dupper, 2013; McNamee & Miller, 2014; Steele, 2011; Valencia, 2012). The
argument for increasing the critical mass of teacher candidates of color also builds on the idea
that schools not only provide academic knowledge but shape students’ values (Villegas et al.,
2012). Research by Mercer and Mercer (1986) has illustrated that students of color who fail to
see adults of color in professional positions implicitly believe that White people are best suited
for positions of authority (Mercer & Mercer, 1986; Villegas et al., 2012). Teachers of color also
have an impact on culturally responsive pedagogy and contribute to educating colleagues on
issues of equity, diversity, and inclusion (Egalite et al., 2015; Sanders, 1998). Research has also
indicated that White teachers wield less influence pedagogically on matters of race, sexual
orientation, and culture than their colleagues of color (Egalite et al., 2015; Ladson-Billing, 2007).
The landscape of education over the past decade shows that, despite the changing demographics
of the K–12 classroom, colleges and universities have failed to address the shortage of teacher
candidates of color.
Context and Background of the Problem
Existing literature offers multiple explanations of why universities and colleges struggle
to recruit teacher candidates of color (Boser, 2011; Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2005; Knowles &
Harleston, 1997; Li & Koedel, 2017; Patel, 2015; Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). Explanations for the
inability of higher education institutions to recruit students into preservice programs include the
graduation pipeline of students of color into higher education from high school. In an analysis of
graduation rates for high school students, Boser (2011) has indicated that on-time graduation
3

rates for students of color were less than 60% compared with over 75% for White students. The
disparity between graduation rates for students of color and White students has been attributed to
a lack of role models and negative school experiences for students of color that, combined,
reduce interest in teaching as a profession (Boser, 2011; Gershenson et al., 2017). Students of
color who do not graduate from high school find it challenging to enter and navigate
postsecondary education and especially encounter difficulties completing the competitive
education graduate programs that would make them desirable candidates for K–12 schools
(Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Knowles & Harleston, 1997; Patel, 2015).
Institutions that do serve students of color often see fewer of those students pursuing
education or Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM; Cochran-smith & Fries,
2005; Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). The immediate consequence of desegregation following the
American Civil Rights movement resulted in an expansion of career opportunities for people of
color; this, in turn, reduced teacher diversity (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005). Fewer people of color
pursued careers as teachers because more career opportunities were made available to them
through activism and legislation. Zumwalt and Craig (2005) found that 79% of Black female
college graduates worked as teachers following World War II compared with 23% by the 1980s.
Furthermore, Cochran-Smith and Fries (2005) found that the number of bachelor’s degrees in
education awarded to students of color decreased by 50% between 1975 and 1982, while the
number of degrees in business and other fields increased. According to the American College
Test (ACT, 2015), over 70% of ACT-tested students who entered higher education and were
interested in becoming teachers were White. Gordon (2000) argued that students of color who do
enter preservice teaching programs lack sufficient role models within colleges and universities
4

compared with students of color in other degree programs, contributing to their lack of interest in
the profession.
Faculty of color account for less than 10% of all faculty members in many institutions,
causing a scarcity of mentors for students of color in many academic disciplines (Li & Koedel,
2017; NCES, 2018). Research conducted on U.S. research universities by Li and Koedel (2017)
determined that Latinx, Asians, and Black scholars account for less than 10% of all humanities
and social science faculty. Incentives to recruit faculty of color and students of color within
preservice teaching programs have been inconsistent among universities and colleges (Carver-
Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Simon & Johnson, 2015). Many institutions have relied on
incentives such as dual-enrollment courses with high school students, financial aid, stipends,
loan forgiveness, and work-study programs to encourage students of color to enroll (Villegas &
Davis, 2007). These incentives are often luxuries for rural institutions that face greater obstacles
to recruiting teacher candidates of color, given their geographical location and community
amenities (Villegas & Davis, 2007).
Organizational Context and Mission
The College of Education is one of seven colleges at Ka’nsah University (KU). KU is a
public research university that serves over 21,000 students, and 24.8% of its student body are
students of color. As a public institution, KU is subject to both state and federal laws that govern
higher education institutions. The College of Education at KU provides 25 undergraduate and
graduate degree programs to its students. The mission of the KU College of Education is to
prepare individuals to enter positions of teaching and educational leadership to skillfully
contribute to the common good of society. The KU College of Education pedagogically seeks to
maintain its significance through its interactions with the community, other colleges within the
5

university, and local, state, regional, national, and international communities. The core values of
the institution include academic quality, community, diversity, innovation, integrity, and a focus
on students. The College of Education seeks to prepare its students to become teachers,
preferably within the Commonwealth of Virginia. Moreover, the College of Education seeks to
align its student body demographics with the demographics of the state’s public K–12 schools
that would potentially hire graduates of the program. The Commonwealth of Virginia’s public-
school students are, demographically, 54% students of color (Virginia Department of Education,
n.d.). As of 2020, the College of Education had 582 of the university’s 21,594 students enrolled
in a preservice teaching program. The racial and ethnic composition of students enrolled in the
preservice teaching programs at KU, as of 2020, was 3.1% Asian, 3.4% Black or African
American, 0.3% Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 5.8% Hispanic, 80.1% White, 4% two or
more races, and 3.3% unreported or non-resident alien.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of the study was to examine recruitment practices, programs, and policies that
the College of Education has adopted to enhance its student diversity, as measured by
demographic change. This study uses a modified gap analysis framework to evaluate the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences related to the College of Education’s
efforts to increase its teacher candidates of color population. The study examines the overall
strategies and recruitment efforts of the College of Education at KU, successful or not, to
identify protocols, policies, and practices that contribute to the development of a viable diverse
recruitment initiative for similar rural colleges and universities. The knowledge gained from this
study has the potential to inform and influence policymakers at the local and national levels as
6

demographic changes in K–12 schools inform teacher recruitment needs. While a complete gap
analysis would focus on all stakeholders, this study will focus on administrators in its analysis.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the current status of the organization related to the recruitment of student-
teacher candidates of color?
2. What are the administrator’s needs and assets related to knowledge and motivation
factors regarding the population of student-teacher candidates of color?
3. How do the organization’s current recruitment practices contribute to or hinder
increasing student-teacher candidates of color?
Importance of the Study
The scarcity of teacher candidates of color is important to address for several reasons.
First, most of the research examines recruitment practices within Black and Hispanic
communities. There is a dearth of research concerning student recruitment within American
Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific Islander groups, as well as
groups comprised of those who identify as two or more races.
Second, students of color who become teachers of color can positively impact the cultural
and social needs of their students (Dee, 2005). The presence of teachers of color within K–12 is
inimitable in its ability to affect liberating outcomes for students of color (Ayalon, 2011; Ladson-
Billing, 1994, 1995). Education in the United States has been permeated by a system of White
supremacy and privilege that denies equitable educational experiences for all students (Dilworth
& Brown, 2008; Foster, 1997; Hayes & Fasching-Varner, 2015; Kelly, 2007). Researchers note
that teacher candidates of color aid White faculty and White preservice student teachers in
7

making cultural connections with their students (Andrews et al., 2018; Carr & Klassen, 1997).
This is important because teacher candidates of color can draw on their own cultural context
when in the classroom and assist White students in understanding stereotypes, preparing them to
work with students of color (Carr & Klassen, 1997; Dee, 2005). Teacher candidates of color who
graduate and become teachers of color also serve as racially matched teacher role models,
positively benefiting students of color (Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2017). Negative
interactions between White teachers and students of color can contribute to negative student
attitudes about their sense of potential, ultimately leading to underperformance, feelings of racial
and cultural bias, and stigmatization of teaching and development-based professions
(Gershenson et al., 2017; Wallace & Constantine, 2005). These negative interactions include
negative student expectations, unequal reinforcement during class time, and explicit judgments
of appearances and speech (Douglas et al., 2008; Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2019).
These interactions are pervasive enough that students of color feel a sense of double
discrimination, both of race and education, contributing to a lack of interest in a career in
education (Daire et al., 2011; Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2019). This is significant
because students of color often divert to other majors, contributing to disproportionate
representation within teaching degree programs; this attrition from education programs, in turn,
impacts graduation rates of students of color who could potentially qualify to become teachers in
K–12 (Dilworth & Coleman, 2014).
Finally, this study is especially important because it focuses on the most persistent and
difficult issue in the U.S. education system: how institutions address their inability to produce a
sizable number of teachers of color from racial, ethnic, and underrepresented language groups
(American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTE], 2013). An examination of
8

the recruitment processes of teacher candidates of color may provide insight into the best
practices that other universities use to recruit more students of color to education programs. With
changing K–12 demographics, not only within the Commonwealth of Virginia, but also the
United States, future teachers must represent the students they will eventually teach. Given the
positive impact teachers of color have on students of color’s persistence and success in K–12 and
beyond, the recruitment of teacher candidates of color is an important equity issue (Ingersoll &
May, 2011).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis problem-solving framework is used in this study to
explore this problem of practice. Clark and Estes’s (2008) methodological approach examines
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that might impact performance. A gap
analysis is appropriate to explore the recruitment of students of color within preservice teaching
programs because it offers a framework for understanding barriers to the College of Education’s
recruitment performance efforts. In the context of KU, the barriers faced in the recruitment of
teacher candidates of color may limit the breadth and depth of their influence on White students
within preservice programs. These barriers may also limit the recruitment of underrepresented
students within the university into education-related majors. This study uses the gap analysis
framework to help guide the research process, including data collection and analysis.
The methodological framework is a qualitative case study consisting of individual
interviews and document analysis. The qualitative design allows the research to review existing
recruitment program processes and engage in in-depth interviews with key stakeholders to gain
an understanding of the recruitment gap and current practices used to increase student of color
recruitment rates within the College of Education’s preservice teacher program. While many
9

groups contribute internally and externally to the recruitment of teacher candidates of color, the
stakeholder group of focus for this research is administrators within the College of Education at
KU. The impact that KU’s College of Education’s administrators have on the recruitment of
teacher candidates of color makes this stakeholder group critical to analyze. One of the key steps
of recruiting into preservice teaching programs is College of Education engagement, including
campus visits, high school partnerships, and paid advertisement. The inability to effectively
advertise and engage with potential students may result in a lack of student of color motivation to
pursue a career in education or teacher preservice programs within the KU College of Education.
Evaluating actions taken by key College of Education administrators in recruiting teacher
candidates of color may provide further insight into the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences that help or hinder their ability to achieve their goals. The integrated
findings provide a more nuanced interpretation of the student recruitment program of the College
of Education.
Definitions
The following definitions address concepts related to the problem of practice and current
literature available on the topic of faculty of color within Colleges of Education.
 Cultural Self-Efficacy is “the perception of one’s own capability to mobilize
motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action necessary in situations
characterized by cultural diversity” (Briones et al., 2009, p. 303).
 Diversity is defined as “the inclusion of people of different races, cultures, etc. in a
group or organization” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).
 Equity “embodies the values, policies, and practices that ensure that all people—
including but not limited to those who have been historically underrepresented based
10

on race/ethnicity, age, disability, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity,
socioeconomic status, geography, citizenship status, or religion” (Americans for the
Arts, 2021). This representation includes support in policy, resources, and
information that facilitate access and fairness.
 Preservice Teaching Program refers to a program within a postsecondary institution
dedicated to preparing students to become licensed teachers within K–12 schools
(Education First, 2016).
 Students of Color are students within an institution who are not part of the
demographic label of White, Anglo, or Caucasian (Ingersoll & May, 2011).
 Underrepresentation, in the context of the study, refers to the condition in which the
percentage of faculty within a given demographic is lower than the percentage of
faculty of another demographic.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the study: It includes the
purpose of the study and the organization of focus and identifies the organization’s mission,
goals, and stakeholders. It also includes the study’s theoretical framework, the significance of the
study, the study’s target population, proposed methodologies, and conceptual definitions.
Chapter 2 includes a literature review of available research on the matriculation of people of
color through the U.S. education system. The literature review illustrates students of color
experiences in the U.S. education system and how these experiences help or hinder recruitment
into preservice teacher programs. The literature review also includes a thorough review of
recruitment and literature gaps related to Black, American Indian, Alaska Native, Asian, and
Hispanic demographics. Chapter 3 describes the qualitative methods used within this study as
11

well as the selection of participants, data collection, and analysis. Chapter 4 includes the study
findings. Chapter 5 provides solutions, based on data and literature, to address the identified
knowledge, motivational, and organizational gaps in the College of Education’s senior leaders’
ability to effectively recruit teacher candidates of color.
12

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review examines the root causes of low student of color recruitment rates
into preservice teaching programs. The review begins with an overview of the literature by
providing background on the importance of students of color becoming teachers of color and
then detailing reasons for the lack of students of color in preservice programs. After explaining
the absence of students of color from preservice programs, the review presents examples of other
institutions that have attempted to address this problem. Next, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis conceptual framework is discussed. This framework explains how knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences work together to impact the stakeholder group’s
actions toward recruiting students of color within their preservice teaching program at the
College of Education.
The United States’ racially and culturally diverse student population is not reflected in
the nation’s teacher population despite efforts to diversify this group (Andrews et al., 2018;
Rogers-Ard et al., 2013). The demographic gap between students and teachers is significant
because students of color that become teachers of color have an important role in improving
educational outcomes and experiences for students of color. To frame the significance and
scarcity of students of color entering preservice teaching programs, the next section provides a
historical review of Black, Native American, Asian, and Hispanic students, and teachers within
education.
Historical Factors
The historical barriers to a lack of student and teacher diversity began with the
colonialization of native lands, immigration during the United States’ early history, and the Civil
Rights movement. In the context of this research, those who identify as African, Hispanic, Asian
13

and Pacific Islander, and/or Native American descent are defined as students or teachers of color
(Carter Andrews et al., 2019). This section reviews historical research on African Americans,
Native Americans, and Asian American/Pacific Islander communities and their lack of
representation in preservice teaching programs. Prior research discussed students of color within
preservice teaching programs by addressing them collectively without highlighting their
differences, significance, and contributions to conversations of recruitment (Goldhaber et al.,
2019; Jackson & Kohli, 2016). However, it is critical to address each of these demographics
individually because students from these disparate backgrounds each have a unique set of
experiences that shape their perspective on education and their professional choices. By
addressing each demographic individually, institutions recruiting students of color within their
preservice teaching programs can strategically and specifically recruit from these populations
(Egalite et al., 2015; Gershenson et al., 2017).
Blacks/African American
For consistency throughout the project, this community is identified as Black. Many
within this community synonymously identify as African Americans to signify their African
heritage alongside their American heritage. Given the difficulty of tracing lineages to specific
countries within Africa due to slavery, Black has become the dominant identity for many
(Sandles, 2020). Also, individuals who come from the Caribbean, Europe, and other nations may
identify as Black, and yet they do not directly trace their lineage to Africa (Kelly et al., 2017).
Over the past 70 years, the United States has seen racial and ethnic disparities in
education contribute to diminished social mobility, gaps in employment, inequity in college
opportunities, and other related outcomes for people of color (Patton, 2015; Thelin, 2019).
Historically, before Brown v. Board of Education (1954) communities of color developed and
14

provided their own teachers. Research by Madkins (2011) revealed that by 1950, nearly half of
all African American professionals worked as teachers. The concentration of Blacks in the
teaching profession was due to segregated schools in the South and limited occupational
opportunities for people of color (Cole, 1986; Madkins, 2011; Sandles, 2020). In 1954, Brown v.
Board of Education ruled that schools could no longer segregate based on race, leading to the
dismissal of thousands of African American teachers over the next two decades (Bond, 2015;
Cole, 1986; Sandles, 2020). Lutz (2017) reported that more than 38,000 Black teachers were
dismissed from their positions and teacher-competency tests were used to deny African
Americans teaching positions, ultimately resulting in the observed decline of teachers of color
(Gould, 2008). In a study of 11 states between 1980 and 1984, Constance Cooper (1986)
determined that there was a 6.5% decline of Black teachers in states that administered teacher-
competency tests compared with less than 1% in states that did not. Furthermore, Brown v.
Board of Education led to historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU) supplying far
fewer teacher candidates as students opted to attend predominantly White institutions, since
attending these institutions was seen as advantageous for social mobility (Bond, 2015; Sandles
2020).
Researchers have also attributed the lack of teachers of color and students of color in
preservice programs to expanded career options for people of color (Boser, 2011; Cochran-Smith
& Fries, 2005; Sandles, 2020). Between 1975 and 1982, student of color enrollment in education
programs decreased by 50%, while rates in business and related fields increased by more than
75% (Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2005; Sandles, 2020). Georgetown University’s Center on
Education and the Workforce examined student graduation rates from 15 bachelor’s programs
between 2010 and 2014 and found that only 7% of African American students chose to study
15

education (Carnevale et al., 2016). In contrast, according to the NCES (2017), Black students
compose 15% of the K–12 classrooms. Barriers such as a lack of esteem for teaching, student
debt, and discrimination in K–12 education employment stand in the way of recruiting more
students of color to preservice teaching programs (Sandles, 2020).
Native Americans and Alaskan Natives
Notably, there is a dearth of literature on the historical trajectory of non-Black teachers
and students of color in preservice programs despite demographic growth in these communities,
including Latinx and Asian populations (Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Villegas & Lucas, 2005).
Furthermore, Native American students, as well as students who identify with more than one
race, are often excluded from research and data collection because their population size is
deemed too small (NCES, 2020b). Native Americans are currently the most underrepresented
population in higher education, representing only 0.7% of undergraduate students in 2017
(Ginder & Kelly-Reid, 2013; NCES, 2017).
Educational disparities and poor educational outcomes experienced by Native Americans
have contributed to their lack of representation in preservice teaching programs, completing a
postsecondary degree, and becoming teachers of color (Ginder & Kelly-Reid, 2013; Tucker et
al., 2016; Weaver, 2000). Historical trauma for Native Americans began with the colonization of
their native lands and continued with forced assimilation programs developed by European
settlers during the 19
th
and 20
th
centuries (Tucker et al., 2016; Weaver, 2000). This forced
assimilation began with the Carlisle Indian School, the first off-reservation boarding school for
Native Americans in 1879; the student body was comprised of individuals forcibly removed
from their homes and compelled to attend the school (Wright & Tierney, 1991). Western
education was unappealing to many Native people due to a history of colonialization and broken
16

relationships between Native peoples and European settlers (Champagne, 2015; Glenn, 2015;
Tippeconnic Fox et al., 2005). Educational missions aimed at serving Native Americans focused
on civilizing and Christianizing the population (Fish et al., 2017; Wright & Tierney, 1991). The
imposition of “Euro American values” onto Native American communities has had an enduring
impact on Native Americans’ experiences, beliefs, and philosophies, often leading to isolation
from traditional ‘American’ experiences (Fish et al., 2017).
In more recent history, government-sponsored funding sources aimed at making higher
education accessible to Native Americans included the G.I. Bill following World War II and the
Bureau of Indian Affairs/Office of Indian Education Program Grants. These programs led to
modest increases in Native American attendance at postsecondary institutions (Mosholder &
Goslin, 2013; Tippeconnic Fox et al., 2005). Champagne (2015) reported that Native American
tribal elders believe that the United States’ education system strips children of their culture and
fundamentally changes their children’s view of the world. The oppression of self-efficacy can
restrict Native American students from electing to attend predominately White institutions or
working in predominantly White professions, such as teaching in U.S. public schools (Brayboy,
2005; Champagne, 2015; Tachine et al., 2017). Native Americans need to be able to see
themselves represented in the classroom to effectively resist the cultural oppression that White
educational institutions enact on Native American students. It is the responsibility of
postsecondary institutions to make this cultural shift occur (Tachine et al., 2017). Ultimately,
postsecondary institutions must help Native Americans to see themselves in the classroom and
must appropriately acknowledge, accommodate, and facilitate their cultural expression (Tachine
et al., 2017). Native American students are more likely to see Western education and professions
17

as opportunities to benefit their community if educational institutions cultivate and promote
Native American experiences (Champagne, 2015; Grande, 2015; Weaver, 2000).
Asian American and Pacific Islander
The persistent lack of racial and ethnic diversity in preservice teaching programs has
predominantly focused on African Americans despite Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
composing only 7% of all postsecondary institution students and 4.1% of all teachers (NCES,
2017). Educational institutions have neglected Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in their
efforts to increase student and teacher diversity due to an emphasis on African Americans and
Hispanics (Rodríguez, 2018).
Asian American is an umbrella term used to categorize a diverse community composed
of nearly 50 ethnic groups, speaking more than 100 languages and spanning 40 countries
throughout Asia and the Indian subcontinents and islands (Chang, 2017; Kim & Cooc, 2021).
Ong et al. (2016) expected Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders to have the greatest population
increase of any other racial group in the United States, from 20.5 million in 2015 to 37.5 million
in 2040 (NCES, 2017). The characterization of Asian Americans and the model-minority myth
have contributed to a deficit of research on Asian Americans. The model-minority myth assumes
that the hardships that Asian Americans experienced did not hinder their social and economic
mobility in the United States. Further, the model-minority myth asserts that Asian Americans
should act as the standard against which other people of color are measured (Chang, 2017; Poon
et al., 2015; Shimabukuro, 2016). Policies from before the Civil Rights movement contain race-
specific barriers for Asians in the United States and resulted in Asians and Pacific Islanders
exclusion from the United States. One of the U.S. broadest anti-Asian laws was the Asiatic
Barred Zone Act of 1917 which put a halt to most Indian and Asian immigration not already
18

banned by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 sealed the
door on all Chinese labor, suspended Chinese immigration for 10 years, and declared immigrants
ineligible for naturalization. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first U.S. policy banning people
from entering the country based solely on race (Chang, 2017; Kim & Cooc, 2021). The model-
minority myth persisted during the civil rights era of the 1960s following the incarceration of
Japanese Americans during World War II and the wars in Korea and Vietnam (Chang, 2017).
This ideology is entrenched in the belief that all Americans can “pull oneself up by the
bootstraps,” and that any failure is attributable to individuals or communities and not a system of
inequity and racism (Chang, 2017; Yu, 2006).
The model-minority myth, as it pertains to education, perpetuates the false idea that
Asian Americans require minimal accommodations, services, funding, and policy reform despite
a history of exclusion, segregation, and exploitation experienced by all communities of color
(Kim & Cooc, 2021; Kumashiro, 2006). Asian Americans have faced exclusion from the
education system due to stereotypes rooted in the model-minority myth concerning language,
culture, and education. Hartlep and Scott (2016) found that Asian American cultural recognition
was often relegated to references to holiday celebrations and food. Asian Americans are often
perceived as “cultural representatives and Asian experts, foreigners, sexualized others, and
hypervisible” (Rodríguez & Kim, 2019, p. 68). The “foreigner” stereotype has often been
associated with Asian American and Pacific Islander students who have difficulty with the
English language, ultimately influencing whether students choose to study professions (such as
teaching) that require them to speak English frequently (Kim, 2016; Rodríguez & Kim, 2019).
Addressing and overcoming Asian American and Pacific Islander cultural exclusion in
higher education involves confronting many challenges, including the lack of teachers of color
19

and the Spanish-centric structure of bilingual education. It is difficult to increase culturally
relevant pedagogy in many preservice and in-service teaching programs because these teachers
are predominately White and lack the historical knowledge often found present in the experience
and expertise of teachers of color (Bisland, 2011; Rodríguez, 2018; Sleeter & Carmona, 2017;
Vogler, 2011). Chang (2017) asserts that, for Asian American students, lack of accommodation
in bilingual education is present in the U.S. education system because it is structured around
Spanish as the “other than English” language.
Hispanic/Latin
The Hispanic community is also not well represented within the field of teaching, neither
in the classroom nor in preservice teaching programs. The term Hispanic is used for consistency
within this study and the literature to refer to both Hispanic and Latinx groups. Although the
terms are often used interchangeably, the differences in meaning are critical to understanding
culturally relevant pedagogy and recruitment practices. Diaz (2019) asserted that Latina/o are
preferred terms because they focus attention on the origin and ancestry lines of those from Latin
America rather than Spain. Conversely, Hispanic is a term recognized by the U.S. Census and
indicates those who speak Spanish and are descended from Spanish-speaking populations.
Ultimately, the term Hispanic indicates a cultural belonging that potentially includes White
people (Diaz, 2019; Van Overschelde & Garza, 2019). As a matter of identity, research in the
United States has mostly used the term Hispanic despite the connotations of the term and its
impact on study participants (Diaz, 2019; Van Overschelde & Garza, 2019).
Undocumented individuals, especially, encounter serious challenges in pursuing
educational opportunities in Hispanic communities. These undocumented individuals often do
not want to attend K–12 or postsecondary education for fear of deportation along with their
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undocumented parents (Diaz, 2019; Irizarry, 2011). Their inability to matriculate through the
educational system contributes to their inability to be recruited into preservice teaching programs
(Diaz, 2019; Nora & Crisp, 2009). Many within this community looked to the Development,
Relief, and Education of Alien Minors (DREAM) Act introduced in 2001 to enroll in college or
even enlist in the military to qualify for permanent residency and citizenship and to use the G.I.
Bill to obtain their degree (Diaz, 2019). However, the DREAM Act has not been passed despite
two decades of congressional debate. More recently, former President Barack Obama introduced
the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy that protected undocumented
immigrants if they were brought into the United States as children (Diaz, 2019; Van Overschelde
& Garza, 2019). The difference between DACA and the DREAM Act is that the DREAM Act
provided a path for residency and citizenship for participants (Diaz, 2019; Van Overschelde &
Garza, 2019).
Despite a lack of legislation supporting undocumented individuals, the Hispanic
community has seen the fastest growth among people of color entering the teaching profession,
from 3% in 1987 to 8% in 2012 (Casey et al., 2015). Students within the Hispanic community
comprise 27% of the K–12 public school population and 35% of those enrolled in college
(NCES, 2017; Perkins & Arvidson, 2017). The scarcity of teachers of color has deprived the
Hispanic community of opportunities to receive education from a teacher who can uniquely
navigate the challenges experienced by Hispanic students, including language barriers, anxiety
concerning immigration, and cultural practices (Diaz, 2019; Flores, 2013, Gershenson et al.,
2017). These barriers (navigating immigration policy, language proficiency, and financial
difficulties) stand in the way of Hispanic students entering preservice teaching programs; this, in
21

turn, contributes to a dearth of students of color in these programs and in the overall population
of teachers of color for K–12 students (Diaz, 2019; Gershenson et al., 2017).
The Importance of Students of Color Becoming Teachers of Color
As the fastest growing population within the United States, communities of color can and
should be recruited by postsecondary institutions for their preservice teaching programs. The
strategic effect of such a recruitment effort should be informed by the changing demographics of
the United States, the teacher shortage within the United States, and the effects of teachers of
color on students of color.
Changing Demographics
Changing demographics of prekindergarten through Grade 12 schools demonstrate a need
to recruit more students of color within preservice teaching programs. In recent years, an
increasing amount of literature has been published on the changing demographics of the U.S.
student population within elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools (NCES, 2020a,
2020b). Research indicates that there are more students of color than White students in public
schools entering prekindergarten through Grade 12 in Fall 2020. The NCES (2020a, 2020b)
reported that of the 50.7 million students in public schools in Fall 2020, 23.4 million were White
and 27.3 were students of color. The changing demographics among students are, however, not
reflected in the current teacher demographics, which remain homogenous. Research from the
NCES (2020a, 2020b) also reported that 79% of the 3.2 million teachers in public schools were
White. While students of color have become the majority, demographically, over the past 10
years, teachers of color (over the past 20 years) represent fewer than 20% (NCES, 2020a; Snyder
et al., 2019). The stagnation in the rate of teachers of color is a call to action for postsecondary
22

institutions. Preservice teaching programs should devote their efforts to increasing their student
of color populations to keep pace with changing K–12 demographics.
The Teacher Shortage
According to the NCES (2018), there are over 50 million students enrolled in K–12
public schools, which means 1.5 million new teachers are required to keep pace with the growing
population of students (ACT, 2015; Wiggan et al., 2021). The teacher shortage in K–12
education is compounded by demographic shifts throughout the United States. The importance of
recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs aids in reducing the gap that
currently exists between available teachers and an increasing student population. Producing more
teachers, especially teachers of color, is a viable alternative class-size reduction in efforts to
improve classroom engagement (Wiggan et al., 2021). A Catch-22 exists regarding the number
of teachers of color and students of color: students who do not see teachers of color are less
likely to consider becoming a teacher themselves, and without more students of color entering
preservice teaching programs, the number of teachers of color will remain low in the United
States (Boser, 2011; Dee, 2004; Sleeter & Milner, 2011). Thus, student of color recruitment into
preservice programs is imperative to assisting students to achieve educational equity and
potentially considering education as a profession (Bryant, 2015).
The Relationship Between Students of Color and Teachers of Color
To increase the critical mass of students of color within preservice teaching programs,
students of color must first complete high school and enter college. For many students of color,
obtaining a college degree is the primary way to reduce poverty and close the wealth gap
between people of color and Whites (Bryant, 2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
Scholars in the field of teacher education have argued that there is a correlation between having a
23

teacher of color and academic success for students of color. Zapata (1988) suggested that
educational equity can be achieved for students of color when they have a teacher of color who
“may be better prepared to meet the learning needs of an increasing proportion of the school
population than a teacher from other backgrounds” (p. 19). Additionally, an important element of
college readiness among students of color is having a teacher who believes that their students are
capable of collegiate success (Bryant, 2015; Welton & Martinez, 2014).
Research demonstrates that teachers of color engage with students of color by
emphasizing their shared experience and serving as role models for all students, particularly
students of color (Andrews et al., 2018; Dee, 2004; Goldhaber et al., 2019; Irvine & Fenwick,
2011). A four-year longitudinal study on the effect of small class sizes was also used to evaluate
the relationship between own-race teachers and student achievement. Tennessee’s Project STAR
(Student-Teacher Achievement Ration) conducted a four-year longitudinal study in which it
analyzed over 7,000 students in 79 participating schools, including a randomized assignment of
both students and teachers to classrooms (Dee, 2004). Participants were administered the
Stanford Achievement Test with an emphasis on math and reading. In reviewing Tennessee’s
Project STAR, Dee (2004) found that students taught by a teacher of the same race scored higher
in mathematics by a standard deviation of 0.11 and higher reading scores by a standard deviation
of 0.06 compared with students assigned to a teacher of a different race. Furthermore,
Gershenson et al. (2017) found that these effects were more significant in the case of Black
students assigned to Black teachers. The study concluded that when Black males are taught by at
least one Black teacher, the probability of dropout is reduced by 39%, and student intention to
attend college is increased by 19% (Gershenson et al., 2017). All students, including White
students, share in the benefits of students of color in preservice teaching programs becoming
24

teachers of color. Cherng and Halpin’s (2016) research on students of color in K–12 found that
all students benefited from having a teacher of color in that they brought distinctive experiences,
knowledge, and role modeling to the student population.
Students of color in preservice teaching programs are important to closing the
educational equity gap experienced by students of color due to funding disparities between
school districts (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2014a, 2014b). Students
of color within preservice teaching programs who become teachers are uniquely positioned to
assist other students of color given their own experiences navigating their community, K–12, and
postsecondary education (Bryant, 2015).
Cultural Self-Efficacy
The recruitment of students of color into preservice teaching programs is also critical to
increasing student cultural self-efficacy. Cultural self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s own
capability to succeed in environments characterized by cultural diversity (Bandura, 2002;
Briones et al., 2009; Ivory, 2010; Pajares, 2006). Cultural self-efficacy is encouraged by parents,
peers, and teachers (Bandura, 2002). The recruitment of students of color into preservice
teaching programs is critical to eventually supporting students of color and promoting cultural
self-efficacy (Bandura, 2002; Flores et al., 2015). For example, Eaton and Dembo (1997)
suggested that Asian students possess low levels of self-efficacy due to pressure to succeed
academically from their parents. Their motivation for success is diminished by fear and
compounded by difficulty with the English language and a desire to assimilate into the majority
culture of the classroom (Eaton & Dembo, 1997; Kim & Omizo, 2005). Results from a survey-
based study of 156 respondents support the assertion that Asian students’ self-efficacy and
25

collective self-esteem were tied to adhering to Asian and European American cultural values
(Kim & Omizo, 2005).
Bandura (1986, 2000) further acknowledged the significance of role modeling in his
Social Learning Theory, suggesting that behavior, learning, attitude, and performance are each
honed through exposure to and interactions with role models. Gershenson et al.’s (2017) research
provided evidence to support this theory of modeling. A study of students and teachers across 6
United States school districts found that students who share racial and/or gender identities with
their teacher reported higher levels of “personal effort, happiness in class, feeling cared for,
student-teacher communication, postsecondary motivation, and academic engagement” (Egalite
et al., 2015, p.14). Using data from the Measures of Effective Teaching project and a teacher
fixed effect approach, researchers assessed the impact of teachers who are demographically
similar to their students. Egalite et al. (2015) reported that the largest benefits to performance
and attitude were seen among Black students who had a Black teacher. Modeling is important for
building efficacy and positively impacts performance. If modeling, more specifically race-based
modeling, improves self-efficacy and lowers self-apprehensiveness then institutions must work
to increase their critical mass of students of color in their preservice teaching programs. Teachers
of color who graduate from these programs will have a direct and measurable positive impact on
their students. Research suggested that future teachers of color can positively impact academic
performance and self-esteem more effectively than White teachers by fostering relationships
with their students of color (Durgunoglu & Hughes, 2010; Flores et al., 2015; Ivory, 2010).
Existing Strategies to Recruit Students of Color into Preservice Teaching Programs
Efforts to attract students of color into preservice teaching programs have been a focus of
many postsecondary institutions, but with mixed results. Despite valuing diversity in their
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student population, educational institutions deploy recruitment strategies that fail to increase the
critical mass of students of color (Carver-Thomas, 2018). Research concerning the relationship
between financial incentives and teacher preservice programs found that the availability of
financial assistance was directly associated with the more successful recruitment of students of
color (Ayalon, 2004; Davis et al., 2013; Hansen, 1983; Quarterman, 2008). Several examples of
financial assistance include the North Carolina Teaching Fellows Program (NCTFP) and the
Collaborative Urban and Greater Minnesota Educators of Color (CUGMEC) program that fund
education for students who commit to teaching in the state for at least 4 years (Carver-Thomas,
2018; Podolsky & Kini, 2016). The NCTFP addresses the critical need for teachers by providing
$8,250 per year ($4,125 per semester) to students in exchange for teaching STEM or Special
Education for one year at a low-performing school or two years at a non-low-performing school
for each year they accept funds (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Podolsky & Kini, 2016). Since the
program’s establishment in 1986, the NCTFP has provided over $250 in scholarships to over
8,500 students (Carver-Thomas, 2018). This funding is critical in its ability to reduce the
financial burden that loans cause for graduating students from higher education and in
encouraging students to pursue teaching careers in high-need areas of STEM and special
education. The CUGMEC program provides $1.3 million in grants each year to institutions
within the state to recruit teacher candidates of color who can meet licensing requirements
(Podolsky & Kini, 2016). Both programs are administered by their respective states, and funding
is appropriated by their state legislature each fiscal year.
Another existing strategy to recruit students of color into preservice teaching programs
includes Grow Your Own programs. Grow Your Own programs, which focus on students of
color, recruit high school students, transfer students, current students, paraprofessionals, and
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others by offering non-financial assistance including college credit during high school, research
opportunities on social justice issues, or standardized testing waivers for admission into the
university and the program (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Reininger, 2012). The degree of success for
these programs depends on the target audience and goals of the institutions. Many Grow Your
Own programs begin as early as high school while others focus on paraprofessionals, transfer
students, and career-changing adults (Reininger, 2012).
Additionally, colleges can offer support through mentorship programs for potential
candidates. Programs such as Call Me MISTER (Mentors Instructing Students Toward Effective
Role Models) at Clemson University and California Mini-Corps have found success in recruiting
students of color into their teaching programs by providing tutoring and preparation for college
services (Carver-Thomas, 2018). California Mini-Corps reports that approximately 80% of its
tutors go on to pursue teaching (Turner et al., 2018). Similarly, the Call Me MISTER program
determined that, of its 150 participants who graduated since 2004, 100% were committed to
teaching and 95% were already teaching in South Carolina schools (Carver-Thomas, 2018). A
common theme among these programs is the organization’s intentional commitment to recruit
students of color by committing staff, students, and other resources to reach their performance
goals (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2017).
Clark and Estes’s (2008) Knowledge, Motivational, and Organizational Influences
Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide an analytical framework that aids in identifying
performance gaps within three components of influence: knowledge, motivation, and
organization. These components of Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analytical framework help
28

examine the causes of low student of color recruitment and provide insight into effective
strategies to reach the desired recruitment objectives.
The stakeholders within this study include administrators in the College of Education.
Administrators in the College of Education serve as the primary team of individuals focused on
recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs. The College of Education’s
organizational goal is to have preservice teachers’ composition within its institutions that align
with the demographics of the Commonwealth of Virginia’s public school student population. To
meet these goals administrators must identify knowledge, motivational, and organizational gaps
that prevent success according to these metrics. In the sections that follow, literature related to
recruiting students of color is examined using Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analytical framework
to identify successful recruitment methods for the College of Education.
To achieve the organizational goal of increasing the critical mass of students of color, it
will be important for participating stakeholders to possess the necessary knowledge concerning
student of color recruitment. Clark and Estes (2008) defined “knowledge” as having the capacity
to identify and solve problems and being adaptable within an environment. Knowledge
disparities within an organization exist when people within those organizations are unaware of
the knowledge deficiencies that widen the gap between current and desired performance (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) identified four types of knowledge within Bloom’s taxonomy:
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Krathwohl (2002) defined factual knowledge
as knowledge of specific terminology and details; conceptual knowledge as the representation of
theories, principles, and categorizations of information; procedural knowledge as the “know-
how” to perform a particular task; and metacognitive knowledge as the awareness of (and
knowledge concerning) one’s own cognition.
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Declarative Knowledge
Declarative knowledge is the knowledge of facts concerning a subject, thing, or process.
Krathwohl (2002) suggested that declarative knowledge employs either factual or conceptual
knowledge. Factual knowledge includes the basic elements of any domain of information (e.g.,
definitions or other objects of knowledge) whereas conceptual knowledge focuses on the
relationships between these elements of knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Clark & Estes, 2008).
Administrators in the College of Education need to know the challenges and barriers they
face in recruiting more students of color within their preservice teaching programs. Furthermore,
administrators need to understand the K–12 to college pipeline and the distinct challenges that
students of color face (ACT, 2015). Administrators also need to know that standardized exams
such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the ACT have disproportionately prevented
students of color from qualifying for college (Carter Andrews et al., 2019). If COE
administrators have this factual knowledge, they will be better positioned to meet their
recruitment goals.
College of Education administrators must also possess declarative knowledge regarding
the recruiting practices best suited to attracting students of color into preservice teaching
programs. According to Miller and Endo (2005), stakeholders within a College of Education
should conceptually understand that the factors contributing to student of color enrollment in
preservice teaching programs include parental support, familial relationships with educators,
bonding with teachers as role models, having had previous teaching experience, and the intrinsic
motivation to teach. Potential preservice teaching students recruited into the College of
Education are influenced by these dynamics. If administrators possess declarative knowledge
about these factors, they are more likely to achieve their recruitment goals.
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Procedural Knowledge
Krathwohl (2002) defined procedural knowledge as knowing how to conduct a task or
process. Declarative knowledge influences procedural knowledge as stakeholders understand the
scope of the performance gap and develop processes and methods to achieve their desired
outcome (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Almost self-evidently, to recruit students of color,
College of Education administrators need to know how to attract students of color to their
preservice programs. The know-how required to develop and implement student of color
recruitment strategies is procedural knowledge. Research from the National Association of State
Directors of Teacher Education and Certification and the AACTE (2013) examined possible
strategies for increasing student of color enrollment within preservice teaching programs. Their
research investigated more than 50 institutions from 25 states and identified five strategies that
offer students the chance to learn more about teaching opportunities before college and, within
the first two years, build student interest in pursuing a teaching career (AACTE, 2013; The
Innovation Exchange, n.d.). These strategies included developing partnerships with local school
districts, collaborating with local schools to create “Grow Your Own” programs, reaching out to
nontraditional adults from other professions, reaching out to immigrants from underrepresented
groups, collaborating with state efforts that promote diversity in the teaching community, and
recruiting students of color who are already enrolled at the university (AACTE, 2013; The
Innovation Exchange, n.d.). To effectively recruit student-teacher candidates of color,
administrative leaders within the College of Education need to know how to utilize these
strategies in their own efforts.
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Metacognitive Knowledge
Administrators in the College of Education need to understand how their behavior
influences students of color recruitment into preservice teaching programs. After understanding
the factual and conceptual factors that prevent students of color from entering preservice
programs, administrators also need to assess their individual efforts as either helping or hindering
diverse recruitment. Researchers have determined that correspondence bias is likely present in
evaluating students of color during recruitment and admissions into college programs (Attewell
& Domina, 2008; Gilbert & Malone, 1995; Ross & Nisbett, 2011). Correspondence bias is
defined as “the human tendency to attribute decisions to a person’s disposition or personality
rather than to the situation in which the decision occurs” (Bastedo & Bowman, 2017, p. 68).
According to Bastedo and Bowman (2017), many students of color are often ignored in the
recruitment and enrollment processes of selective colleges due to their lower socioeconomic
status and test scores compared with White students. Students of color are less likely to have
access to assistance during the college admissions process (Buchmann et al., 2010; Holland,
2014). A lack of experience in these areas likely contributes to students dismissing teaching as a
viable profession. To remedy these issues, preservice teaching programs need to invest in
programs that improve access to these resources for students of color (Bastedo et al., 2016;
Espenshade & Radford, 2009).
Administrators looking to increase the student of color population in their programs need
to understand their own cultural sensitivity and awareness of students from different
backgrounds that contribute to or hinder their ability to recruit students of color into their
preservice teaching programs. Correspondence bias suggests that administrators are likely to
overlook these barriers and underestimate the value of potential applicants to their program
32

(Bastedo & Bowman, 2017). Students with a high socioeconomic status do not face these same
barriers. This difference in socioeconomic status contributes to disproportionate representation in
preservice teaching programs and contributes to the majority White demographics of preservice
teaching students.
Table 1 illustrates the relationship between assumed knowledge influences and the kinds
of knowledge required for administrators to implement best practices for improving their
recruitment efforts regarding students of color by May 2028.
Motivational Influences
College of Education administrators not only need to possess appropriate knowledge
regarding how to recruit students of color, but they must also possess the motivation to
accomplish their recruitment goals. Clark and Estes (2008) defined motivation as an internal
psychological process that can move an individual or organization into action, whether positive
or negative. Motivation is the most vital influence in determining organizational performance,
impacting both organizational and knowledge factors (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich & Schunk,
1996). An organization can have all the knowledge required for success, but members within the
organization may lack the motivation required to achieve these goals. Inversely, members within
the organization could be motivated but lack the necessary knowledge to achieve the goal.

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Table 1
Summary of Knowledge Influences on College of Education Administrators
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
Administrators in the College of Education need to
know the challenges and barriers to recruiting
more students of color within their preservice
teaching programs.
Declarative (factual)

Administrators in the College of Education need to
understand the connection between recruiting
students of color within preservice teaching
programs and potential challenges and barriers.
Declarative (conceptual)

Administrators in the College of Education need to
know how to attract students of color to their
preservice programs.
Procedural

Administrators in the College of Education need to
understand the impact of their behavior on the
success or failure of the college to recruit students
of color into preservice teaching programs.

Metacognitive

Clark and Estes (2008) described three motivational factors: active choice, persistence,
and mental effort. Active choice refers to one’s intention to do a task. Persistence refers to the
continuation of a person’s intention to do a task in the face of distractions or challenges. Mental
effort refers to the cognitive work required to focus on or apply energy to a given task. Mayer
(2011) considered motivation as the why behind a person or organization’s decision to
accomplish a task. Motivation provides individuals with the energy and guidance necessary to
accomplish their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000). Ultimately,
motivational influences, in tandem with knowledge influences, allow an organization to identify
solutions to performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Rueda (2011)
described motivational influences including self-efficacy and expectancy-value theories that are
useful in analyzing performance gaps.
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Self-Efficacy Theory
Bandura (1977) developed self-efficacy theory from social cognitive theory to understand
an individual’s capacity for learning or performing a task. Bandura (2000) and Pajares (2006)
suggested that self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in their own capability to achieve a goal. An
individual’s beliefs can impact their experienced motivation toward completing their goal.
Pajares (2006) suggested that without a belief in oneself, goal attainment would prove difficult.
Conversely, higher self-efficacy can increase the likelihood of individual success (Bandura,
1997). Individual administrators within the College of Education who do not understand the
barriers and challenges preventing students of color from wanting to become teachers and who
are aware of this lacuna in their knowledge may not be confident in their ability to change
recruitment practices in ways that impact these students. College of Education administrators
must understand that they will experience challenges to their organizational goals. Their
persistence, combined with their choice to actively pursue student-body diversity, is imperative
to their success (Clark & Estes, 2008). Administrators, individually, must see themselves as
efficacious recruiters, especially in recruiting students of color (Bandura, 1997, 2000).
Administrator Collective Efficacy
A lack of collective efficacy among administrators may contribute to an inability to
recruit students of color. Bandura (2000) defines collective efficacy as a group’s shared belief in
their cooperative capabilities to achieve a goal. Collective efficacy may be a predictor of group
performance because it nurtures motivation concerning, and commitment to, the organization’s
mission (Bandura, 2000; Clark & Estes, 2008). Administrators within the College of Education
must possess a collective belief in their capacity to positively influence the recruitment of
students of color into preservice teaching programs. They must, as a group, discuss and make
35

recommendations that affect everyone. They should see their efforts as contributing to the
community’s goals. Furthermore, they must perceive their colleagues as capable of addressing
problems and offering potential solutions regarding student of color recruitment. Finally,
administrators must have confidence in the group’s ability to address issues together, working
with confidence to resolve challenges and overcome barriers they may encounter. To be
successful in increasing the critical mass of students of color within preservice teaching
programs, as a group, administrators must work together and take collective action toward their
goals.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Jacquelynne Eccles and her colleagues developed expectancy-value theory to answer the
question: “Why should I do this task?” (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield &
Eccles, 1992; Wigfield et al., 2015). Expectancy-value theory postulated that achievements are
based on a set of beliefs about an individual’s expectations for success and an individual’s
subjective value of the task (Eccles, 2009). The factors of expectancy and value are distinct and
yet correlated as expectancies for success can often predict task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;
Wigfield et al., 2015). Research further posited that expectations for success are strongly linked
to performance while task values are strongly linked to achievement-related choices (Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield et al., 2015). Expectancy-value theory is important in clarifying
individuals’ motivation by understanding the expectations for achievement and the value
associated with the desired achievement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield et al., 2015).
To achieve their recruiting goal, College of Education administrators must create and
implement practices best suited to attracting students of color within their preservice teaching
programs. Based on prior correspondence bias research, administrators should expect themselves
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to create divergent, holistic practices to attract students of color (Bastedo & Bowman, 2017).
Creating a diverse classroom of preservice teaching students would improve administrator self-
efficacy; administrators would feel as if they were contributing to organizational change which
in turn creates greater expectations for themselves in future initiatives (Bandura, 1997; Clark &
Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2009).
Eccles (2009) differentiated value into four types: intrinsic, attainment, utility, and cost.
Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment a person gains from performing a task. When
administrators intrinsically value their efforts to recruit students of color, they are more willing
to commit themselves to accomplishing the task. Attainment value refers to the importance
attached to doing a task well. Attainment value corresponds to the altruistic motivation that
contributes to their desire in accomplishing the task. Utility value refers to the relevance of
completing a task for the sake of future goals. Administrators within the College of Education
attend to utility value by emphasizing the importance of improving student-body diversity for the
sake of future goals including graduating more teachers of color, reducing the shortage of
teachers in the United States, and increasing cultural awareness and competency among
graduates and educators. Cost value refers to the balance between the expected return of, and
investment in, a particular project. For instance, College of Education administrators may decide
to not target students of color because they often come from disadvantaged socioeconomic
backgrounds and are unable to afford to attend or continue college, especially given the lack of
institutional funding available (Eccles, 2009; Bastedo & Bowman, 2017).
Grinstein-Weiss et al. (2016) noted that a lack of financial resources poses a significant
barrier to recruitment, retention, and graduation rates. Research from the NCES (2012) revealed
that 47% of Hispanic students, 60% of African American students, and 37% of Asian students
37

receive no financial contributions from their families toward attending college compared with
only 29% of White students. Due to these financial burdens, many students of color may be
required to work through college or take out additional loans to attend. Research found that
students of color are less capable than White students of financially enduring the cost of unpaid
student teaching programs while attending their institution (Addo et al., 2016; Grinstein-Weiss et
al., 2016). Negative stereotypes during the recruitment process can lead administrators to ignore
students of color, in turn further contributing to the lack of students of color within preservice
programs (Addo et al., 2016; Eccles, 2009; Grinstein-Weiss et al., 2016). To be successful in
their goal of implementing best practices to recruit students of color into their preservice
teaching program, administrators in the College of Education must believe that potential students
will be successful teacher candidates and must commit resources to recruiting these students.
Table 2 details the motivational influences aligned against motivational constructs that
administrators within the College of Education require to achieve their goal of increasing the
critical mass of students of color within their preservice teaching programs by 2028.

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Table 2
Summary of Motivation Influences on Admission Counselors
Motivation Construct Motivation Influence
Self-efficacy College of Education administrators need to believe they are capable
of recruiting students of color into their preservice teaching
programs.
Expectancy-Value College of Education administrators need to believe that creating and
implementing culturally responsive recruiting practices will attract
students of color to their preservice teaching programs.

College of Education administrators need to value implementing a
new recruitment strategy that benefits all students but also
specifically supports the needs of students of color.

College of Education administrators need to value their role and
resources available in creating diversity in their preservice teaching
programs and be committed to communicating the importance of
teachers of color for K–12 students.

Organizational Influences
While knowledge and motivation can aid in addressing performance gaps, there are
organizational factors that can contribute to or mitigate these gaps. Work process, material
resources, value chains, value streams, and workplace culture are examples of organizational
factors that impact performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The culture of an
organization is the glue that keeps the organization together (Alverson, 2012). Changes within
the knowledge and motivational factors will ultimately impact an institution’s organizational
features and affect performance. Organizations are understood through their cultures.
Organizational culture can influence motivation and knowledge in how the organization can
create and sustain success for desired change. Schein (2017) defined organizational culture as
“the accumulated shared learning of that group as it shares its problems of external adaptation
and internal integration…This accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values, and
behavioral norms” (p. 6). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) stated that it is possible to examine
39

and understand an organization’s culture through models and settings. Cultural models are
intangible factors that include shared modes of thought. Cultural settings, in contrast, are tangible
factors such as employees, tasks, and the contexts in which cultural models exist. Both cultural
models and cultural settings work together within an organization’s structure to accomplish its
goal.
A Shared Understanding of the Mission and Goals
The College of Education needs to develop a shared understanding of its mission and
goals as they relate to recruiting students of color within its preservice programs. Clark and Estes
(2008) identified six types of support necessary for most organizational change. The first is
having a clear vision and goal, and the appropriate methods with which to measure progress
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Researchers agreed that positive organizational outcomes are more likely
when the organization has established a mission and set clear goals and expectations
(Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) further suggested
that organizations should align their structure and processes with the goal. However, an
organization without established goals or a mission is unlikely to change its performance and
instead is more likely to perpetuate historical practices that contributed to past failures (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Frølich & Stensaker, 2010). Moreover, institutional consensus (an important step
toward meaningful change) is impossible without common goals and missions shared among all
stakeholders involved (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schein, 2017).
The Organization’s Recruitment Behavior
The College of Education needs to develop a culture in which to facilitate an
understanding and implementation of appropriate recruitment behaviors. Research suggests that
behavior is linked to motivation (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Kezar, 2001). Argyris and Schön
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(1974, 1996) reported the impact of formal and informal organization structures on individual
behavior and how their behavior was controlled by personal theories for action. Argyris and
Schön (1996) organized their research into two categories: espoused theory and theories-in-use.
Espoused theories are the words an individual uses to convey what they do or what they would
like others to think they do when describing, explaining, or predicting their own behavior.
Theories-in-use refer to what people actually do. These theories, considered together, aid in
recognizing the human element of an organization; they help to understand the people who
choose to be involved and how they understand their involvement (Argyris & Schön, 1974,
1996; Bolman & Deal, 2017). Argyris and Schön’s (1974, 1996) theory indicated that there is a
gap between one’s perception of their actions and their actual behavior. Administrators need to
understand how their actual behavior impacts the success of their efforts to recruit students of
color. Research by Argyris and Schön (1974, 1996) applies to stakeholders within the College of
Education. If administrators in the College of Education are asked about their behavior during a
recruitment event, they typically provide an espoused theory of action. The response
communicates what administrators believe regarding their actions. However, there may exist a
difference between what was said and what was done (Argyris & Schön, 1974). Members often
resist organizational change due to a lack of motivation to change their behavior (Clark & Estes,
2008; Kezar, 2001). The College of Education needs to mitigate unconscious or implicit bias
among its predominately White administrators and faculty (Villegas et al., 2012). Choices rooted
in unconscious or implicit bias can detrimentally impact an organization’s ability to recruit
diverse students (Mercer & Mercer, 1986; Villegas et al., 2012). Appropriate recruitment
behavior includes following up promptly with candidates and a portrayal of the organization as
exciting, desirable, and cohesive across all forms of marketing and communication, both formal
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and informal (Marrun et al., 2019). Ultimately, the College of Education must ensure that it
understands how its perception of its behavior can either help or hinder its ability to recruit
students of color.
Sufficient Resources and Materials
While assessing the organizational influences on student of color recruitment, the College
of Education needs to consider whether it provides sufficient resources and materials to support
outreach to communities with students of color. Lewis (2011) defined resources as inclusive of
any tangible or intangible benefit that contributes to the organization’s goals. Numerous colleges,
along with their states, have developed initiatives to increase the student of color population
within preservice programs. In the Commonwealth of Virginia, leaders identified barriers and
proposed solutions regarding student of color recruitment into preservice teaching programs
(Task Force on Diversifying Virginia’s Educator Pipeline, 2017). The task force recommended
that colleges and universities provide financial aid for students and begin campaigns targeted
toward recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs from high school and
community college (and post-college in the case of graduate study programs; Task Force on
Diversifying Virginia’s Educator Pipeline, 2017).
Policies, Processes, and Procedures
The College of Education needs to create policies, processes, and procedures aligned with
the desired goal of increasing students of color enrollment in its preservice teaching programs.
Goals, roles, relationships, and coordination are critical assets to successful organizational
performance (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Policies, processes, and procedures structurally aid
organizations by allocating the right goals, roles, relationships, and coordinating efforts to
achieve goals (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008). Policies, processes, and procedures
42

ensure the predictable and consistent behavior of individuals within the organization (Bolman &
Deal, 2017). Policies, processes, and procedures compose the strategy employed by the
organization to achieve its goals and meet performance metrics. An organization’s strategy must
be “specific enough to provide direction but elastic enough to adapt to changing circumstances”
(Bolman & Deal, 2017, p. 50). Policies, processes, and procedures can expand or constrain an
organization’s capabilities. Thus, policies, processes, and procedures must be aligned with the
College of Education’s goals and require continual scrutiny in light of changing research and
evaluation.
Table 3 illustrates the College of Education’s assumed organizational influences aligned
within either cultural models or cultural settings.
Table 3
Summary of Organizational Influences on Administrators within the College of Education
Org. Influence Category Org. Influences
Cultural Model Influence 1 The College of Education needs to develop a shared
understanding of its mission and goals related to the
recruitment of students of color within its preservice
programs.
Cultural Model Influence 2 The College of Education needs to develop a culture of
accountability that ensures the appropriate
recruitment behaviors are understood and
implemented throughout the organization.
Cultural Setting Influence 1 The College of Education needs to provide sufficient
resources and materials to support outreach to
student of color communities.
Cultural Setting Influence 2 The College of Education needs to create policies,
processes, and procedures aligned with the desired
goal of increasing its critical mass of students of
color within its preservice teaching programs.

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Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation, and the
Organizational Context
Research relies on linking concepts or variables within a structure to provide context and
understanding of the relationships among concepts or variables. A conceptual framework
provides structure to identify, clarify, and join concepts and variables that influence the research
(Maxwell, 2013; Ravitch & Riggan, 2017). This study builds upon the gap analytical framework
developed by Clark and Estes (2008). Clark and Estes’s (2008) framework is useful in
identifying the knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs of the organization that
influence stakeholder performance. The study also looks at how administrators within the
College of Education perceive their knowledge regarding recruitment practices aimed to recruit
students of color. The study further explores the motivation of administrators within the College
of Education to recruit students of color. This literature review considers both theory and
research to explain why preservice teaching programs struggle to recruit students of color.
Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the study’s conceptual framework showing the
relationship between the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on the
stakeholder group in question and the impact of those influences on the stakeholders’ ability to
recruit students of color. The diagram illustrates that these organizational influences encompass
both knowledge and motivational influences. Knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences are inextricably linked; however, each influence must be assessed individually. This
study aims to understand the current performance of the College of Education’s recruitment of
students of color into their preservice program. A link between its desired performance outcomes
(i.e., increasing the number of students of color) and potential barriers or solutions (in terms of
44

the organizational, knowledge, and motivational influences) is assumed within the conceptual
framework.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for Recruiting Students of Color into Preservice Teaching Programs

To achieve their recruitment goal, stakeholders within the organization should consider
knowledge influences that involve factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive types of
knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). Administrators within the College of
Education must first understand how to attract students of color into their preservice teaching
program and the incentives necessary to support their organizational success. Without influence
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from the organization, neither knowledge nor motivation can sustain the organization’s ability to
reach its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). As Figure 1 shows, the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences within the conceptual framework operate together to achieve the goal.
This research considers all three influences as experienced by the administrators within the
College of Education that may help or hinder their ability to achieve the goal.
Summary
This chapter reviews previous research on the recruitment of students of color to
understand potential strategies to increase the critical mass of students of color within preservice
teaching programs. This chapter first explores some of the key historical factors relevant to
individuals from specific demographic groups and their issues within the educational system.
The chapter then examines the recruitment of students of color, current strategies for recruitment,
and student motivation for becoming teachers. After that, the chapter discusses the study’s KMO
framework and factors related to the study site as well as the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences on administrators within the College of Education. Potential barriers
preventing students of color from choosing a preservice teaching program include financial
insecurity and a lack of role models during their time in K–12. Additionally, the review explores
research-based strategies that may help recruit students of color, such as institutional
collaboration with state and local leaders, providing personal attention to high school students,
and providing financial support packages. The study’s conceptual framework is discussed to
organize the barriers to, and influences on, recruitment efforts in the College of Education. This
study aims to evaluate and understand the college’s current efforts aimed at recruiting students of
color into their preservice teaching programs. Chapter 3 presents the methodological approach
designed to address the study’s research questions.
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47

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences on administrators within the College of Education in their efforts to
recruit teacher candidates of color. This chapter presents the methodology used for this research
as well as a justification for the use of this method. It reiterates the guiding research questions
that steer this study and transitions to an overview of the methodological design. The research
setting, my positionality, and data sources are also discussed in this chapter. Lastly, issues of
validity and reliability, ethics, limitations, and delimitations are also discussed.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the current status of the organization related to the recruitment of student-
teacher candidates of color?
2. What are the administrator’s needs and assets related to knowledge and motivation
factors regarding the population of student-teacher candidates of color?
3. How do the organization’s current recruitment practices contribute to or hinder
increasing student-teacher candidates of color?
Overview of Design
This study employed a qualitative methodology. Qualitative methods are distinct in their
ability to yield data that provide answers about motivation, processes, procedures, and
knowledge that influence performance (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative methods are
appropriate because this study aims to understand the experiences, motivations, and perspectives
of College of Education administrators.
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This study’s data collection methods included interviews and document analysis. This
study seeks to understand the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that impact
the performance of teacher candidates of color recruitment. In examining these dynamics,
interviews are effective in exploring the range of knowledge, motivational, and organizational
factors that influence administrators and ultimately their recruitment strategies (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, document analysis provides me with an
opportunity to understand the organizational priorities and efforts regarding student of color
recruitment (Bogdan & Biklen, 2011). The combination of interviews and document analysis
complement each other within the qualitative approach, allowing me to ask additional questions
and provide a broader understanding of the organizational factors impacting recruitment
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Table 4 indicates the research questions and the data collection
method mapped to each question.
Table 4
Research Questions and Data Collection Method
Research Questions Interviews
Document
Analysis
RQ 1: What is the current status of the organization
related to the recruitment of student-teacher
candidates of color?
X
RQ 3: How do the organization’s current recruitment
practices contribute to or hinder increasing student-
teacher candidates of color?
X X
1. What is the organization currently doing around
recruitment of teacher candidates of color?
X
2. What are the administrators’ needs and assets
related to knowledge and motivation regarding
increasing the percentage of teacher candidates of
color?
X X
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Research Questions Interviews
Document
Analysis
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation,
and organizational solutions to increasing the
number of teacher candidates of color?
X X

Research Setting
The setting for this study was a College of Education at a major university referred to as
“Ka’nsah University.” KU is a public university subject to both state and federal laws governing
higher education institutions. The College of Education within KU has over 600 students and
over 80 faculty and staff that teach within its 14 undergraduate and six graduate teaching
program majors. The faculty composition is 80.7% White, 1.8% Asian, 1.8% Black or African
American, 0% Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 10.5% Hispanic, and less than 1% identify as
two or more races, non-resident alien, or unreported. As of fall 2020, student composition in the
preservice teaching program was 80.1% White, 3.1% Asian, 3.4% Black or African American,
0.3% Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 5.8% Hispanic, 4% two or more races, 2.6% did not
report, and 0.7% were non-resident aliens.
The KU College of Education was selected based on convenience, as I had access to the
institution and a relationship with the faculty and staff of the College of Education. The KU
College of Education was also selected due to its geographical location within a rural
community, where institutions often have large White populations but seek to diversify their
student demographics to match the state and national metrics. The site was also selected due to
its uniquely emphatic commitment, compared with other intuitions within the state, to producing
teachers. The institution, according to its website and conversation with faculty and staff, prides
itself on its commitment to supporting a diverse student population, faculty, and curriculum and
50

producing culturally competent graduates that support K–12 schools. Given the College of
Education’s efforts, this institution was suitable for gathering data that assisted in answering the
research questions.
The Researcher
In qualitative research, the researcher is the research instrument, situated within the data
collection, analysis, and interpretation throughout the research process (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Malterud (2001) explains that “a researcher’s background and position will affect what
they choose to investigate, the angle of the investigation, and the methods judged most adequate
for this purpose” (p. 483). Therefore, as a qualitative researcher, it is critical that I openly and
honestly disclose my positionality, showing where and how my beliefs influenced the research.
I have been a faculty member in a higher education context for 3 years. I am a Black
male who has navigated the U.S. K–12 education system as a student and as a teacher. As an
adolescent Black male, I hailed from a matriarchal household with low socioeconomic standing.
This research is informed by these factors and is informed by a motivation to increase the critical
mass of students of color in preservice teaching programs that eventually become teachers in K–
12 schools. My positionality and educational experiences inform my perspectives on students
and teachers of color. The research participants of this study are my professional colleagues,
known to have an interest in around diversity, equity, and inclusion in K–12 and higher
education.
I am cognizant of the biases that may exist given the institution in question and my
positionality as a Black male, educator, and student of color. Bias mitigation was attempted first
by providing my positionality as it related to this study and its participants. My relationship with
the participants has been clarified, giving awareness of the influence I have on the study and how
51

the research process affects me as the researcher (Probst & Berenson, 2014). Ultimately, an
understanding of my positionality does not eliminate bias in the data analysis; reflexivity of
potential biases provides the audience perspective into the stances and efforts of the researcher
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Data Sources
Data sources for this qualitative study included interviews and document analysis
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Both data collection methods were used
sequentially to provide insight into the College of Education’s efforts to recruit teacher
candidates of color (Bogdan & Biklen, 2011; Bowen 2009). Interviews preceded document
analysis in sequence. This organization allowed the interviews to inform document collection
and analysis. Document collection consisted of searching the College of Education and the KU
websites (in addition to any sources discovered in the interviews) to collect relevant material
related to the recruitment of teacher candidates of color.
Interviews
The first data collection method used in this study was interviewing. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) suggested that interviews provide an in-depth understanding of participant thoughts and
behaviors. The interviews in this study were semi-structured to understand the knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences on the recruitment of teacher candidates of color
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview was used, in part, to inform the
subsequent document collection and analysis and to provide additional perspectives on the
organization’s recruitment efforts. I utilized probing questions in the semi-structured interviews
to provide additional in-depth understandings of the knowledge and organizational factors that
influence recruitment efforts (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008; Maxwell, 2013;
52

Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The use of interviews was critical to understanding the College of
Education’s performance regarding teacher candidates of color recruitment because interviews
prioritize participant perspectives and inform document collection and analysis (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Document Analysis
After the interviews occurred, documents were collected and analyzed. Document
analysis provides valuable data related to the organizational culture and context influencing
teacher candidates of color recruitment. Document analysis also triangulates data concerning the
role of the College of Education’s resources available to improve recruitment performance
(Bowen, 2009; Clark & Estes, 2008). Documents analyzed in this study included policy practices
(such as standard operating procedures or strategic recruitment plans) within the College of
Education and KU. Additional documents included advertisements, brochures/pamphlets, news
articles, public records, and organizational website pages dedicated to recruitment. These
documents provided a holistic understanding of the recruitment of teacher candidates of color
and assisted me in contextualizing data gathered from interviews, confirming themes discovered
in the interviews, providing alternative perspectives, or problematizing theme identification in
the interviews. The decision to conduct document analysis after interviews was intended to help
focus the clarity of triangulation in the study (Bowen, 2009; Clark & Estes, 2008).
Participants
The primary selection method used to identify participants was purposeful sampling.
Purposeful sampling is the non-probabilistic selection of participants to target specific
individuals and types of information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015). Ten participants
for this study were identified based on their roles within the College of Education and their
53

responsibilities to the organization’s recruitment diversity. The objective of this study was to
increase the critical mass of teacher candidates of color in the College of Education. Snowball
sampling occurred when the College of Education’s Advisor to the Dean on Diversity, Equity,
and Inclusion (DEI) suggested that certain people be interviewed before the initiation of this
study. The participants identified for this study included the following: the Dean of the College
of Education, the College of Education DEI advisor to the dean, the College of Education
Diversity Council chair, the College of Education Diversity Council co-chair, two additional
members of the College of Education Diversity Council, an associate within the Professional
Educational Coordinating Committee who works on policy for the recruitment of students into
preservice teaching, a Faculty Advisor for the Future Teachers of Color student organization, and
an associate professor in Multicultural Education that advises the College of Education on
multicultural initiatives and efforts.
Research Instruments
This qualitative study used interviews and document analysis as data collection methods.
The instruments used to collect data included interviews that followed a semi-structured
protocol, allowing for the exploration of participant motivation and knowledge, and allowing
participants to strategically inform document collection and analysis (Bogdan & Biklen, 2011;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The questions included in the interview protocol were guided by the
research questions and conceptual framework. They explored the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences on teacher candidates of color recruitment. The protocol included
questions related to participant performance as well as organizational performance. Open-ended
questions were used throughout to provide participants with opportunities to clarify their
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responses and provide explanations. Document analysis occurred after interviews and
contextualized the information gathered from interviews.
Data Collection Procedures
The participants in this study were known to me and had continual contact with me
through email and phone calls. I interviewed each participant individually for approximately one
hour, or until saturation was achieved. Interviews were conducted via WebEx due to the
geographical location of the participants and provided me with the ability to capture video and
audio data. Zoom’s video conferencing service was used with the explicit permission of the
participants, and video recordings were destroyed upon the conclusion of the data. Interviews
with participants were ethnographic, allowing for an open-ended interview approach (Patton,
2015). Appendix A contains the interview protocol developed and used to interview the
participants. The protocol documents were provided to each participant, and questions were used
to standardize the interview between participants. Documents for this study were procured from
the College of Education via email immediately after the interviews were completed.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was performed following the collection of data using interviews and
document procurement. Thematic analysis was used for the interview data analysis and
document analysis. Thematic analysis entails me using an exhaustive review of all data to
identify codes, categories, and themes (Bowen, 2009).
Interviews
Transcripts from interviews used open coding, axial offing, and selective coding to
determine themes that addressed the research questions (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Merriam &
55

Tisdell, 2016). Coding the themes identified within the interviews allowed for the categorization
of data found within each participants’ response.
Document Analysis
Documents provided a historical record of the institution’s prior efforts, current efforts,
and future desires regarding their recruitment practices (Bowen, 2009).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative research, it is critical to demonstrate credibility and trustworthiness when
conducting a study. Credibility refers to whether the research is believable and supported by the
research findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Trustworthiness refers to the level of confidence
one can have in the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure the integrity of the study,
triangulation was obtained using multiple methods to test data validity through multi-source
information convergence (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) have stressed
that the person conducting the research is the primary instrument for data collection, and their
proximity to the data directly impacts the credibility and trustworthiness of the data.
Accordingly, triangulation was obtained using multiple data sources in the study, including
interviews and document analysis, respondent validation, and finally a full disclosure of my bias
and positionality. Data collected from both interviews and document analysis increased the
consistency of findings within the study. Additionally, I employed respondent validation, also
known as member checking, to confirm the information gathered in the interviews. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) defined member checking as when a researcher offers “preliminary analysis back
to some of the participants and ask whether [their] interpretation rings true” (p. 246). After
conducting the interviews, I allowed participants to view transcripts of their responses to confirm
that their statements were representative of their position. Finally, I fully disclosed my
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positionality as it relates to the research to demonstrate how I affects and am affected by the
research process (Probst & Berenson, 2014). Additionally, I used self-reflection throughout the
data collection, including the use of notes and participant involvement in data interpretation.
Ethics
This study employed qualitative research methods, including interviews and document
review. The use of interviews requires that participants interact with me directly. To address
ethical concerns, each participant was required to submit a signed consent form and verbally
confirm that they were voluntarily participating in this research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Privacy is often the biggest participant concern in qualitative research (Glesne, 2016; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). As the participants and I previously worked for the same organization, concerns
about my relationship with senior administrators and the influence that this relationship implies
were considered by me. Throughout the study, I clarified my role as a researcher and not as a
professor, and that the benefits of this study outweigh the risk of their participation (Glesne,
2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Pseudonyms were used for each participant to maintain
confidentiality, and the participants only had access to their own response data. Permission was
obtained before creating recordings, and all recordings were destroyed after this study’s
approval. Finally, given my interest in increasing the critical mass of teacher candidates of color,
I disclosed my positionality as a Black male educator and former employee of the College of
Education at KU.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study explores the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on
administrator efforts to increase the critical mass of teacher candidates of color. Although this
research used multiple data collection methods to provide greater research depth, there are still
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limitations to the study. In focusing on the administrator’s role in the recruitment of teacher
candidates of color, this study overlooks the perspective of other stakeholders such as current
teacher candidates of color in the program, university administrators, and students in K–12. Not
including their perspectives is a limitation of this work because those stakeholders may provide
unique strategies not yet understood by current research. Additional limitations may include
participant truthfulness and willingness to complete interviews given their prior relationship with
me, and the potentially critical nature of my findings. There may also be limitations regarding
document availability such as insufficient detail.
Delimitations also exist in the data collection. I selected participants who had direct
involvement with the recruitment of teacher candidates of color within the College of Education,
although other faculty and administrators might fulfill indirect roles in this mission. The
literature review was extensive; however, certain demographics and subgroups were not
discussed given the pragmatic limitations of the literature review and data collection. Additional
delimitations exist in that interview questions were strategically chosen to solicit narrative
responses. Finally, the selection of interviews and document analysis increased the quality and
meaningfulness of the data for analysis.
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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the progress KU’s College of Education has
made toward its goal of increasing its student-teacher candidate population with students of
color. The study focused on administrators’ knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences as they related to achieving the organization’s recruitment goals (Clark & Estes,
2008). This chapter presents data generated from participant interviews and document analysis to
better understand the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on student
of color recruitment in the College of Education’s preservice teaching programs. The following
research questions guided this study:
1. What is the current status of the organization related to the recruitment of student-
teacher candidates of color?
2. What are the administrator’s needs and assets related to knowledge and motivation
factors regarding the population of student-teacher candidates of color?
3. How do the organization’s current recruitment practices contribute to or hinder
increasing student-teacher candidates of color?
Data collection for this study included 19-question, semi-structured interviews with
administrators (Appendix A), a literature review, and document analysis (Appendix B). This data
supported an account of the organization’s actions and rhetoric related to its recruitment program
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Participant Stakeholders
Purposeful sampling was used to identify 10 participants for this study to share their
perspectives regarding the organization’s efforts to recruit student-teacher candidates of color
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015). These 10 participants for this study were identified
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based on their roles within the College of Education and their responsibilities to KU as they
relate to recruiting student-teacher candidates of color. Table 5 provides an overview of the study
participants, including pseudonyms utilized to preserve participant confidentiality.
Table 5
Participant Characteristics
Name Position Race
Gender
Batgirl Department Chair within the
College of Education
Caucasian Female
Professor X Dean of the College of Education Caucasian Male
Captain Marvel Chair of the College of Education
Diversity Council
Caucasian Female
Storm Founder/Advisor of Future
Teachers of Color Student
Organization
African American Female
Black Canary College of Education Diversity
Council
Caucasian Female
Thunder Advisor to the Dean on Diversity,
Equity, and Inclusion
African American Female
America Chavez College of Education Diversity
Council
Latino Female
The Wasp College of Education Diversity
Council
Caucasian Female
Supergirl College of Education Assistant
Dean of Accreditation,
Assessment, and Accountability
Caucasian Female
Elastgirl College of Education Diversity
Council
Caucasian Female

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Interview Participants
I believe teachers are heroes due to their capacity to transform the lives of students
and the communities in which they live by their ability to make teaching and learning
possible for all children. Pseudonyms for each participant were selected to align with this belief
that teachers are heroes and aligned with their positionality. Their positionality is significant in
understanding their perspectives, perceived and acknowledged strengths, and limitations
regarding their performance and the performance of the organization to recruit student-teacher
candidates of color (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008). These pseudonyms were used
for more than just entertainment; they illuminated the authenticity of each individual participant.
Amusing as they are, these alter-ego titles offer insight into the lives, values, behaviors, beliefs,
and aspirations of participants as they relate to their position and performance within the College
of Education (do Carmo Dalbeto & Oliveira, 2015). All 10 participants agreed to complete a 45-
minute interview.
The first participant interviewed was Batgirl. Batgirl is a White woman who serves as
Department Chair within the College of Education at KU. The pseudonym of Batgirl was
selected for this participant because, like the DC comic character, she is an inquisitive leader and
seeks to understand how and why things perform the way they do in her workspace. Batgirl spent
over a decade as a middle and high school teacher before beginning work at KU over 8 years
ago. Batgirl advocates technology implementation within classrooms and innovative pedagogy
for students at every educational level.
Professor X is the College of Education Dean at KU and has been in this position for over
three years. Unlike the Marvel Comic character, he is not bald. However, the pseudonym reflects
his leadership of the College of Education and his passion for creating systemic change. Similar
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to the comic character, Professor X is also White and has spent over two decades of his life
advocating for equity and justice for those who do not have the same privileges as him and are
easier targets of discrimination given their skin tone and cultural preferences. In his role as the
Dean, he oversees over 250 faculty and staff.
Captain Marvel has been an associate professor for eight years within the College of
Education at KU, previously served as the Chair of the College of Education’s Diversity Council
for three years, and was affiliated with the council for six. Her pseudonym is suitable given her
gregarious, confident aura and self-awareness of not only who she is as a White woman and its
influence on the topic, but also her leadership and commitment to excellence as it relates to her
students and efforts of DEI. Similar to the Marvel character, she is assertive and vibrant in her
demeanor and actions, interacting with her colleagues as one of many leaders in initiatives to
bring students of color and socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals to KU and the College
of Education.
Storm has been an associate professor for four years in the College of Education at KU
and currently serves as the Chair of the College of Education’s Diversity Council. She founded
Future Teachers of Color, a student organization dedicated to students of color within the
College of Education’s preservice teaching programs. The pseudonym “Storm” was selected for
this participant for multiple reasons: First, the participant is an African American woman and a
pivotal leader in the College of Education similar to the Marvel character. Second, the Marvel
character is the principal at the Xavier School for Gifted Youngsters, which is a school dedicated
to mutant students where they are able to receive an education without persecution from the
outside world. The Marvel character taught multicultural studies and science courses at the
Xavier School for Gifted Youngsters. She also serves as a mentor to her colleagues and students.
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The participant is similar insofar as her specialization is in the fields of STEM for early,
elementary, and reading education. Given her institutional position, she is seen by her colleagues
as an authority on issues relevant to students and faculty of color. Moreover, as the founder of
Future Teachers of Color, she is involved in the mentorship and development of students of color
within the organization. As her colleagues acknowledged, her inclusion in the College of
Education contributes to interrogating the barrier that exists for students and faculty of color as it
relates to education, similar to her namesake (do Carmo Dalbeto & Oliveira, 2015).
Black Canary has been an associate professor for five years within the College of
Education at KU and is an active member of the College of Education’s Diversity Council. Her
research, teaching, and advocacy focus on diversity, equity, and justice in elementary education.
The name “Black Canary” is apropos for this participant because she does not shy away from
expressing her perspective, especially as it relates to issues of equity, inclusion, and justice; her
passion for these subjects was evident in our interview. She appeared deliberate but inviting, and
her sense of humor would intermingle itself into her statements outlining some of the more
difficult aspects of trying to build a more inclusive environment for both students and teachers.
Her efforts throughout the College of Education garnered her a reputation as a crafty, creative
pedagogue who consistently finds ways to facilitate discussions regarding diversity, equity, and
justice in which she shares her perspective with her colleagues.
Thunder is an associate professor and Associate Dean for DEI within the College of
Education at KU. Thunder has been affiliated with KU for over 30 years and has committed her
efforts to the areas of diversity, leadership, and adult learning. Her pseudonym is suitable given
that the character is also an African American woman, and both are known to “shake things up.”
Just as Thunder is the deuteragonist of the Black Lightning series, the study participant is the
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deuteragonist of the College of Education given her responsibilities related to diversifying the
organization. She not only works to recruit faculty and students of color but has also worked
throughout the institution in order to advocate for equity and diversity within the predominately
White institution. Finally, comparable with the comic hero, she is also vocal and honest about
some of the harsher realities that exist and challenges efforts to create a more inclusive and
diverse environment for students and faculty. In her position at the university, she collaborates
with her colleagues and acts as a critic of Professor X, the Dean of the College of Education.
America Chavez who uses the moniker of Miss America is an Instructor in the College of
Education at KU and has been affiliated with the institution, first as a student and now as faculty,
for over a decade. America Chavez serves on the College of Education Diversity Council and is
a faculty advisor to Future Teachers of Color, a student organization for students of color within
their preservice teaching programs. The Marvel character America Chavez is a young Latina
woman who possesses superhero strength, superhuman speed, and the ability to travel between
Comparable to the Marvel Comic hero, the participant identifies as Latina, and her unique
positionality allows her to offer perspectives unavailable to her colleagues having navigated the
dimensions of KU as a student to faculty and serves in multiple committees. Similar to the
fictional superhero, the participant is enthusiastic in her efforts to create a more equitable
environment for underrepresented people. She is outspoken and energetic and ensures that she
has a voice in academic spaces often dominated by White men and women.
Wasp has been an associate professor within the College of Education at KU for over
seven years and is currently the Co-Chair of the College of Education’s Diversity Council with
which she has been affiliated for over four years. Wasp is the program coordinator and
administrator for inclusive childhood education and has devoted her research to matters of anti-
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racist and anti-ableist teacher preparation. Comparable to the Marvel Comic hero, the participant
is a White woman who has, ironically, never shrunk from the numerous responsibilities she has
taken on. She is the Program Coordinator for the Post Baccalaureate Early Childhood Special
Education program and the Inclusive Early Childhood Education program. Like the comic book
hero, she is family oriented; Wasp mentors her students as she would her own children, helping
them navigate intimidating academic careers.
Supergirl is the Assistant Dean for Accreditation, Assessment, and Accountability within
the College of Education at KU. Supergirl has been affiliated with KU for close to two decades,
during which time she earned her Ph.D. from the institution. Similar to the DC Comic hero,
Supergirl (the study participant) is also a White woman, has tremendous power and influence
given her position, and yet maintains a humble demeanor. Supergirl’s responsibilities include
several research initiatives aimed at implementing change within the College of Education.
While the comic hero is a leader in the Department of Extranormal Operations, the participant is
similarly instrumental in her work. The legitimacy and legacy of the College of Education rest on
her work as she works to uncover potential strengths and weaknesses related to the college’s
recruitment, retention, and regulations.
Elastigirl has been an Associate Professor in the College of Education at KU for over five
years and has been a member of the College of Education’s Diversity Council for four years. The
participant, similar to her selected pseudonym from Disney’s The Incredibles, is a quick-witted,
caring, and flexible (with her schedule) White woman. Elastigirl contributes to the College of
Education Curriculum Committee and her department Personnel Advisory Committee in which
she reviews tenure applications, promotion dossiers, and annual reports. She is a model of
stability and elasticity given how she navigates being an advisor to over 100 students within the
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elementary education program, managing her teaching load, service commitments, and her
obligations to her children.
Research Question 1: What Is the Current Status of the Organization Related to the
Recruitment of Student-Teacher Candidates of Color?
Findings in this section were drawn from major themes identified in the interview
transcripts of all 10 participants and documents gathered from the institution. This study’s first
research question focused on themes gathered under the umbrella of organizational influences as
they relate to the College of Education’s current recruitment of student-teacher candidates of
color. The first theme identified within the research question found that the organization is
isolated in the recruitment and admissions efforts of KU. Second, the research question helped
illuminate the organization’s focus on identifying and recruiting faculty of color prior to
recruiting students of color. Third, research predicated on this question found that administrators
collectively believed their dean’s leadership effectively communicated a commitment to
diversity within the College of Education. Finally, this research question addressed the impact of
COVID-19 and social justice issues throughout the United States that may have impacted the
College of Education’s ability to recruit students of color.
Organization Influence Findings
Centralized and Siloed Recruitment and Admissions
Participants described their understanding of the College of Education’s recruitment
processes, procedures, policies, and their experience utilizing them. All participants described
the recruitment process as centralized and primarily conducted by KU. Professor X stated that
“recruitment comes from admissions…everything runs through admissions.” This responsibility
was echoed in comments by Supergirl, Wasp, and Thunder who explained that KU’s Office of
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Admissions primarily addressed the recruitment of students to the institution while individual
colleges had smaller recruitment practices. In particular, Wasp stated that the College of
Education hosted “recruitment fairs in the northern part of the state and open houses, to which
we had all of those virtual last year [as a result of COVID-19], are supposed to help encourage
students to become education majors.” Participants also posited that the institution’s transition
from an Interdisciplinary Liberal Studies (IDLS) major to an Education major influences their
recruitment. Thunder stated,
Prior to a year or two ago, our programs were not major programs; they were, you
minored in Education. So, you came in as an IDLS major, sort of minored in education.
So, when it was IDLS, we really did not do recruitment, students were recruited to the
university and then later pursued Education.
Storm and Thunder called attention to the significance of this change. Storm reported that the
previous IDLS program was a four- or five-year program in which students did not take any
education-related courses until after their second year, completing their student teaching, and
other master’s-level requirements. The new Education Major allows students to begin taking
Education courses beginning their sophomore year. Administrators of the College of Education
found this change necessary, as Storm related, because “students would graduate, especially
students of color, graduate after those four years and then go to a title-one school where they
could get the masters pad for.” Thunder added that this change redirected the College of
Education to focus on participating in recruitment, keeping website information up-to-date, and
becoming better involved with KU’s alumni. KU’s website illustrated these changes: each type
of Education major offered by the College of Education was listed as an undergraduate major,
rather than a minor. However, there was no demonstration of an effort to recruit student-teacher
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candidates of color. Based on my own estimates gleaned from analyzing their website, the
webpage function also illustrated the centralization of the recruitment and admissions process by
KU. Each web page redirected to the Office of Admission whose organizational structure
assigned a counselor to each region of the state or group of states regardless of recruitment focus
(i.e., no separate counselors or web pages exist for specific majors, such as Education). KU
employed a Senior Assist Director for Multicultural Recruitment whose focus was recruiting
students of color with no preference given to specific majors. This individual, KU’s admissions
page reported, was one of 18 admissions leaders who focus on multicultural recruitment. The
composition of the admissions team was 15 White members, eight of whom were women.
Ultimately, administrators in the College of Education reported feeling isolated from the
recruitment process because the institution performs recruitment and admissions processes
independent from the colleges. Supergirl said,
We were bound kind of by if [KU] doesn’t do a good job, which I mean, I don’t think
they did a great job for a while, if they didn’t have a diverse undergraduate pool, and
that’s who we’re pulling from, we didn’t really have a lot of control I’d say over, how do
we diversify? We only have these pool of [KU] students.
Supergirl’s statement indicated that the College of Education’s ability to diversify hinged on
whether or not KU’s admissions process gathered a diverse group of applicants. Furthermore, the
College of Education did not know if students of color would elect to enter the preservice
teaching programs or consider education as a potential career path. Moreover, as America
Chavez jokingly acknowledged, “we have resources, if you look at the admissions office, who is
going out there to recruit? Are we sending BIPOC [Black, Indigenous, and People of Color]
recruiters out? No. We’re sending White females.” Additionally, in order to recruit these students
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of color, administrators argued that the College of Education, as well as KU, needs to determine
where to begin their recruitment efforts.
First the Faculty, Second the Students
This study found that administrators within the College of Education believed that in
order to better recruit students of color, they needed to first foster a sense of community and
inclusion for these students. All 10 participants suggested that the College of Education needed
to expand its faculty of color population before it could expand its student of color population.
Professor X’s experience at other institutions influenced his belief that for the College of
Education to improve its demographic posture, it first must begin with its faculty. He stated, “one
of my things, because of my history at another university, one of the best strategies that we
always used was to bring in candidates [faculty] of color that really matched the demographics of
the students they taught.” He further remarked,
It’s just like, it’s a chicken and the egg thing. The biggest thing is if I bring in five faculty
of color does not necessarily mean that I’m going to have 50 students of color because we
have all these other barriers to work through, but at least it’s got to start somewhere.
that’s why the intentional sort of recruiting of faculty of color is so essential in creating
the foundation for this.
Professor X’s response was noteworthy on a multitude of levels. First, he acknowledged that
(similar to the chicken and the egg) it is difficult to decipher which issue to address first:
diversity among the faculty or diversity among the student body. He followed up, articulating his
belief that diversifying the College of Education’s faculty was the correct project to address first.
Similarly, Elastigirl used the same chicken-and-egg analogy in her interview. She suggested,
“it’s important in recruiting students of color that we have a diverse faculty, they go hand in
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hand, and it’s not right, or ethical to try to get our student numbers up when we know they’re not
going to be supported or happy when they’re here. I think it’s connected.” Black Canary echoed
this sentiment in her assertion that lack of diversity among students was “part of a larger
problem, we don’t have the tenure track or long-term positions available,” and that “we’re often
with adjuncts from the local community, which tend to be White women” making it difficult to
hire “from marginalized populations so that students will see themselves and [in] their
professors.” When asked to describe the current strategy of the College of Education regarding
student of color recruitment, Storm reported that the priority was recruiting faculty of color.
Storm stated,
These things I think the focus has been more on recruiting faculty of color right now, um,
which is part of the formula for recruiting students because if they see themselves in the
faculty, then they're more likely to attend the university because they see, can see
themselves in the, um, people who work there.
Professor X and his team of administrators believed that a connection exists between increasing
the population of faculty of color and increasing the population of students of color within the
College of Education. Professor X committed himself to going beyond rhetoric and developing a
“comprehensive framework” that would intentionally advance recruitment efforts for “not just
undergraduate students of color, but graduate students of color and also faculty of color.”
Speaking on behalf of the College of Education, his statements demonstrate a willingness
to find out how to address their current dearth of students of color, while also acknowledging
that the dearth of students of color is intertwined with the scarcity of faculty of color.
Interviewees all agreed that the organization should take more initiative in efforts to increase the
critical mass of students of color that in turn positively influences faculty of color recruitment.
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These findings highlight an organizational gap between the belief that the college should hire
faculty of color and the creation of positions for which faculty of color are hired.
Conveyed Commitment Through Leadership
When asked about their recruitment of student-teacher candidates of color, eight of the 10
administrators expressed optimism in the recruiting process given their leadership by Professor
X, Dean of the College of Education. Thunder described their optimism:
I think our number one strength is a dean who’s committed to diversity. That’s our
number one strength. If he were not committed to diversity, we couldn’t do it. Because
you could have someone who says they are committed, they could talk all day. And
unless they put the money behind it, put the positions behind it. To say yes, [Thunder], go
ahead and take that trip. Yes, [Thunder], go ahead and do that. Yes, [Thunder], I'm going
to put you in that position. Yes, let's try this. There’s not a thing that I could do, what
anybody could do unless the Dean says it's so.
This comment illustrates Professor X’s commitment to increasing the critical mass of students of
color and the meaningful efforts he makes in service of this goal. His commitment to diversity is
further demonstrated in his reflection. He said,
So, it goes back to your original question. Why do we need teachers of color? They need
to go back to those school divisions and say, “I can speak into your world because you're
not stupid.” You know? It's not your fault that you have 15 checks against you possibly
society says, let's break down those barriers. So that's my passion. That's been my
passion. Literally, since the time I was young, I gotta get out. You know, I said, I gotta go
back. I just, it's not back to my neighborhood 'cause I didn't go back to my neighborhood.
It’s back to all the neighborhoods that I’ve been to since. I’ve got to get folks out.
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Influenced by his own childhood, Professor X understands the importance of helping the less
fortunate. This commitment to service is part of who he is, and he has remained committed to
maintaining that perspective. In fact, Professor X has spent the past three years working toward
increasing the population of both faculty and students of color within the College of Education.
One of those efforts included hiring Thunder to be his advisor on matters of DEI and hiring her
to the position of Associate Dean. Professor X explained his reasoning, he needed “somebody
that really understood the historical landscape of the university and area and who was a person of
color.” This position, he believed, could not just be that of an “influencer” but must be a
“position of authority and leader[ship] that sends a message to a lot of people.” Echoing similar
sentiments, Captain Marvel recalled Thunder’s new position as
A really big step in terms of resources. I think having folks in leadership like [Thunder]
now it’s a matter of how intentional her position is, what it is she is able to do in that
position with the people around her to help her operationalize, get the stuff out and do
these [recruitment and retention] efforts with her.
Captain Marvel, Thunder, and Professor X’s statements demonstrate that leadership is critical in
directing the College of Education’s efforts toward increasing its critical mass of faculty and
students of color.
Additionally, the College of Education established committees and conducted community
outreach as part of its leadership program. Six of the 10 administrators interviewed for this study
were members of the College of Education’s Diversity Council. The Diversity Council is an
organization led by faculty, within the College of Education, whose efforts are focused on the
recruitment and retention of faculty and students of color. Captain Marvel remembered that the
position was unpaid until Professor X established an official position for the Associate Dean for
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DEI. Black Canary, however, suggested that the Diversity council was inefficacious. She
remarked that the council gave “their once-a-year spiel” to potential students but did not consider
“how is the College of Education supporting this” such that students know they are “valued and
we want them to come, beyond just this small group of people who do this work every single
year.” Leaders throughout the College of Education wondered how they could become more
integrated into not only discussing how to change their practices, but in doing so. Specifically, an
organization called Future Teachers of Color was established and dedicated itself to supporting
student-teacher candidates of color who attend KU. The organization was developed by Storm
and works with faculty advisors including America Chavez and others. Storm’s colleague
Elastigirl admired her work in establishing the Future Teachers of Color organization. She said,
Storm formed the Future Teachers of Color organization, a student organization, and she
is so active in supporting the students we do have. She’s also been very active as a faculty
member of color in advising. She was an advisor with me a couple of years ago, in
helping to kind of track and identify some of the challenges that students have to get into
the college. She along with other members of the Diversity Council started working with
the Education Support Center to help support our current students in their field
placements and kind of mindfully placing student teachers of color with cooperating
teachers who will support them and welcome them in the classroom.
Professor X shared that the student organization was “huge, that a place where people can come
together, and I’ve had multiple conversations with that group. In fact, I think I have the leader of
that group in a meeting with me tomorrow about their initiatives.” His excitement for
involvement and inclusion in this organization highlights how important it is that leaders in the
College of Education understand the importance of organizations like this for recruiting and
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retaining students of color. Professor X understands this organization and his faculty of color as
critical components of his plan to recruit a more diverse faculty and student body.
The Impact of COVID-19 and Social Justice
KU, similar to other institutions of learning throughout the United States, was negatively
impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, these institutions of learning, in the wake of
George Floyd protests, were also called into uncomfortable conversations addressing racial and
ethnic educational divides within their institutions. I asked Captain Marvel what the College of
Education was currently doing regarding the recruitment of student-teacher candidates of color
and how she thought the trajectory of the College of Education regarding those efforts. She said,
“The last 18 months has been really challenging with COVID,” adding,
There’s been like budget cuts and things like that. But also on the other hand, we’ve had,
you know, for the last 24 months, not to mention 400 years of this racial injustice in this
country, but particularly sort of the uptick of what we can do about it. You know, it was
just like this big energy forward, and then it’s like, and we stop, right. And now what, we
don’t really know what to do. So, like, we turn to our colleagues of color. I’m like, are
you kidding me? And I just feel like it’s sort of just dissipating.
Captain Marvel’s response identified a prevalent practice of many institutions when faced with
pressure to address racial and social justice issues: using the moment to call upon their faculty of
color to aid in their response (Bonilla-Silva, 2014; Carter Andrews et al., 2019; Kelly, 2007).
Further, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound effect on recruitment, forcing the use of
alternative recruitment methods while adhering to health and safety protocols. Black Canary
would also share that “uncertainty exist[s] for these students” as they address not only college
matriculation itself but the educational format (in-person or online classes) and financial
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adjustments. According to data collected by the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center
(2021), enrollment for undergraduates fell 4.4%, first-year enrollment fell 13%, and two-year
institutions experienced an 18.9% drop in first-year enrollment. Students of color in 2020,
compared with 2019, experienced an additional enrollment decline of, on average, 15%
(National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, 2021).
Even as KU tries to appeal to a larger commitment to DEI, efforts are often met with
resistance from faculty, students, and community members. For example, Wasp described an
initiative led by KU’s Student Affairs office for new DEI training with students and student
ambassadors, adding,
I’m assuming that some students didn’t like it because it somehow made the news. KU
was according to the news basically brainwashing students and making White students
feel like they were inferior, making White males feel bad for their privilege, making
Christians feel bad. So, it came out in the news, everybody was talking about it and what
we should be doing, what the reaction should be. It was total bullshit, I mean it was
ridiculous, everything that they were teaching the students in the training from what I
saw, it’s truth. It’s getting them to recognize their White privilege and getting them to,
you know, start that process of figuring out their own biases. It just blew up and KU’s
response was to say well, we’re really sorry and we’re going to stop this diversity
training.
Wasp’s comment illustrates her frustration with diversity training at KU. The training in question
and document review of publicly available KU resources confirms was a part of a first-year
student orientation for student leaders. The training, documents corroborate, focused on “social
justice, identity, power, and privilege.” Wasp’s own family dynamic her belief that the institution
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needed training, among other initiatives, to bring about a more inclusive, diverse climate for
students. Wasp remembered that her daughter felt uncomfortable visiting campus. Wasp would
state, “she looked at me and she said mom, is it all White people here?” Her daughter, who does
not identify as White, immediately expressed a desire to leave. “If she feels that, I know others
are feeling that, right,” Wasp reflected. Her comments, contextualized by her colleagues’
remarks, illustrate a systemic issue, both for the College of Education and KU. The issue is
racism and its effects not only on DEI efforts and whether they are done correctly but also on
students and teachers of color in their ability to succeed academically. These issues are
heightened in this climate of social justice and exacerbated by COVID-19.
Summary of Research Question 1
As demonstrated in the literature review, the organization shares a responsibility with KU
to recruit students of color. While all administrators were able to convey the College of
Education’s commitment to recruitment efforts, over half of the participants reported difficulty
recruiting due to the structure of KU and its admissions department. Recruiting issues are further
exacerbated, according to administrators, by COVID-19 and social justice issues across the
United States. These data suggest that rearranging the university’s organizational structure is
required to reflect the College of Education’s intent to recruit students of color. Understanding
the organizational gaps in the College of Education’s ability to recruit students of color is related
to the knowledge and motivation of its leaders.
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Research Question 2: What Are the Administrator’s Needs and Assets Related to
Knowledge and Motivation Factors Regarding the Population of Student-Teacher
Candidates of Color?
Findings in this section were drawn from major themes found in all 10 participants’
interviews and supporting documents. This study’s second research question focused on issues
under the umbrella of knowledge and motivational influences as they relate to the needs and
assets of its administrators specifically concerning increasing the population of student-teacher
candidates of color. The first knowledge theme identified by the research question concerns
administrator knowledge of demographic changes occurring throughout the United States in K–
12 student populations. The second knowledge theme identified was a lack of knowledge among
administrators regarding best-recruiting practices for students of color. Similarly, a third
knowledge theme identified was a lack of training and educational resources for these
administrators. The first motivational theme identified concerns administrators’ individual
perception of their abilities to recruit students of color. Finally, the last theme related to this
research question addresses administrators’ perception of their collective efficacy to recruit
students of color into their preservice teaching programs.
Knowledge Influence Findings
Impact of Student Demographic Change Across the United States
In interviews, four of the 10 administrators referred to the importance of their colleagues
understanding the shifting demographic of K–12 students as a foundation for their perception
that the college should recruit more student-teacher candidates of color. For example, when
Thunder discussed her colleagues’ understanding of the importance of diversity in the College of
Education, she remarked,
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Anybody who’s been outside of [the community], would realize, or who has ever really
been in a school or been in looking at the news or understand, statistical data in terms of
where the world is going and how small and how demographics are changing, that we as
a people, the communities are getting smaller. And we need to understand and know who
our neighbors are. We don’t live in silos anymore.
Thunder’s statement highlights how, in a predominantly White institution and particularly in a
profession that focuses on K–12 education, administrators must know that their students’
demographics are changing. Understanding these shifting demographics is an essential part of
effective recruitment reform. Wasp mentioned earlier that many of the students recruited to KU
come from the northern portion of the state that is demographically diverse. However, the
students in the College of Education’s preservice teaching program are overwhelmingly White.
America Chavez echoed Thunder’s sentiments when asked what leaders within the
College of Education needed to know about recruiting students of color,
If you look at the U.S. demographics, Whites in the next 20 to 10 [10 to 20] years, is not
gonna be the majority anymore. They are gonna be the minority in the classrooms. Right?
So, I think this concept of, you know, multiculturalism, it’s not gonna be an option…That
teachers also need to be diverse so that they can be representative. So, I think it’s just not
an option to diversify.
America Chavez also recognizes that administrators and their colleagues require a factual
understanding of current demographic shifts across the United States and that they must adjust
their practices to increase diverse representation in the field of K–12 education. These
demographic changes are visible and demand attention as many organizations and accreditations
either require or incentivize program diversity (NCES, 2018). The accreditation standards for the
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College of Education at KU require that the College of Education demonstrate evidence of
progress “towards a candidate pool which reflects the diversity of America’s P-12 students,”
Supergirl, addressing the accreditation requirements, commented,
The 20-year-olds of today are different than the five-year-olds of today. So, we know we
have to [recruit]…if we think our college pool looks diverse, it’s not, we’re not, it doesn’t
look like the kids they’re going to teach in a few years.
In order for the College of Education to reach its goal of increasing its population of students of
color, the findings have shown that the College of Education needs to place a high value on
helping its administrators and faculty understand that, despite the institution reaching its
recruitment numbers quantitively, the College of Education still struggles to diversify.
Lack of Knowledge Regarding Best Practices to Recruit Potential Student-Teacher Candidates
of Color
Administrators had a difficult time naming specific strategies used by the College of
Education or KU that were successful in recruiting potential student-teacher candidates of color.
As previously mentioned, the administrators of the College of Education are siloed off from
larger recruitment efforts conducted by KU. Administrators often expressed a negative attitude
toward the current lack of knowledge concerning the College of Education’s best recruitment
strategies. Black Canary commented,
I think that there are a lot of things that are in place that have just always been in place. I
don’t know all the ways that we do it, I don’t know enough of all the efforts that are
being done or what those recruitment efforts should look like.
In her remarks, Black Canary focused on a prevalent issue for KU’s efforts to conduct
recruitment: the university remains highly siloed across 17 colleges with minimal involvement
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between those colleges except in cases of marketing and small-scale recruitment activities.
Ultimately, KU takes responsibility for getting students to the institution, while colleges are
responsible for recruiting students into their respective programs. Supergirl echoed these
sentiments in a somewhat sarcastic tone, adding,
So, you know, yeah, it would be nice, I think, if we had some actual experts who know
how to do that and can guide us and say, you know, “Here are the things that...” Or,
“Here are the best practices in marketing.” And marketing equals recruiting, you know, at
some point…Why doesn’t the upper administration [KU], when there’s a push to do
something, why don’t they tell us what the best practices are to get that done, right? It’s
not a really unified approach, and I find that frustrating you know.
Administrators shared their position of being uncomfortable with the lack of available
knowledge concerning best-recruiting practices for students of color. Administrators expressed
concern that individuals’ efforts, in the absence of organizational guidance, are ineffective in
recruiting student-teacher candidates of color. This is significant since administrators need to feel
confident in their knowledge of what to do in order to encourage more students of color to enter
their preservice teaching programs, coupled with having a clear understanding of their role in
aiding that student’s success upon selecting their program and institution for study.
Insufficient Training Regarding the Recruitment of Potential Student-teacher Candidates of
Color
Three of the 10 administrators interviewed referenced a lack of training as a contributing
factor to knowledge issues regarding student of color recruitment. As Supergirl stated,
[KU] does the recruitment, but like, for instance, like we don’t have any marketing help
and we don’t know what marketing is. I’ve never taken a marketing class. And so, we’re
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told like, “Well come up with engaging materials that people can read about your
college.” I don’t know what that looks like. So, I don’t know that [KU] really knows how
to recruit and like how to develop the website presence. They think they do, and we
don’t. But they don’t really give us, they just tell us to do it, but they don’t really coach
us on how to do it. Or they don’t really come here and guide us through it. They just say,
“Uh, do this stuff.”
Supergirl’s statement paints a picture of an institution that instituted collegiate requirements
without preparing administrators to meet these requirements. Supergirl voiced frustration with
being asked to perform tasks without training; she shared this frustration with many of her
colleagues. Moreover, due to the lack of training, the knowledge burdens related to student of
color recruitment often fall on faculty of color. Captain Marvel acknowledged that faculty of
color, regardless of experience or professional training, are often called on to be experts in
diversity initiatives. Elastigirl echoed these sentiments in her statement that the College of
Education and KU need to “support the faculty who do the work” due to the few faculty of color
often doing the majority of the work “for free, without even like a line on their service.” The
consequence of administrators’ lack of knowledge is an inability to recruit students of color, thus
perpetuating an institutional climate dedicated primarily, if not solely to White students.
Moreover, because many administrators lack training, the burden of training and execution is
often placed on faculty of color without additional incentives. This disproportionate distribution
of burdens plays a role in faculty fatigue regarding efforts to diversify the College of Education’s
student body.
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Motivational Influence Findings
Administrators’ Individual Perception of the College of Education’s Recruitment of Potential
Student-Teacher Candidates of Color
Administrators were asked to what degree they felt confident in their abilities to recruit
student-teacher candidates of color. Six of the 10 participants expressed skepticism in their
capabilities to recruit student-teacher candidates of color. The administrators interviewed clearly
valued a diverse student body in their classrooms but expressed that they had little to no
influence on recruiting and could contribute little to nothing to the goal of recruiting student-
teacher candidates of color to the college directly. Black Canary reported, “I don’t know, I mean,
if you look at the numbers, I’m not 100% confident.” Her skepticism stemmed both from the
efforts of the College of Education and the efforts of KU. She continued,
I feel like we’ve done a great job with [College of Education specific recruitment
initiative] and thinking about that. And who’s in our backyard, thinking about, the diverse
population here, I’m not 100% sure that we’re doing that. Like, are we going into the
[Community] High Schools and, you know, really how are we offering up a glimpse into
uh, [KU] and into teaching?
Black Canary is dedicated to diversity given her efforts both in and out of the classroom to
promote DEI; however, she is reserved in praising the efforts of the College of Education given
the lackluster results of current practices. Black Canary, in her comments, articulates an
understanding that work is being done but a sense of defeat regarding the efficacy of that work.
Her quote is similar to statements from other administrators reflecting a lack of confidence in
their own abilities to recruit student-teacher candidates of color. Storm also, when asked the
same question, stated that “I shouldn't say I have no [confidence]. I don’t think we are the right
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example because we’re far removed.” Storm's lack of confidence, she clarified, speaks more to
how the experiences of former students, specifically other “graduates of color from this
institution is the best route” to understanding how to recruit more students of color. As a faculty
member of color herself, she cautioned against asking faculty of color to carry the burden of
recruiting students of color. She added that “most of our faculty of color now are just at the
beginning of their careers and that’s a lot to ask of them” to work on recruitment efforts and
potentially tenure qualifications alongside their teaching responsibilities. Wasp spoke to her
dwindling motivation toward contributing to the recruitment of students of color due to
competing requirements in the College of Education. She elaborated:
We have had some challenges within our own department with getting enough time for
diversity-related issues and trainings and that’s something I’ve had to push for and say
hey, you know, like we need more than 45 minutes to do this. But then in terms of
recruitment specifically I feel like I’m pretty left out of that in terms of what I would be
able to do because there’s only so much that I can squeeze into my schedule. So, like,
would I like to go out and travel and go to schools that have, you know diverse
populations? Yeah, I would love to, But I don’t know how that would work on top of like
everything, unless something else were to give, you know?
Wasp’s remarks illustrate no shortage of enthusiasm to conduct diversity and recruitment work,
at least at first. However, her motivation diminished as she was overwhelmed by tasks and
responsibilities pursuant to her career in the College of Education. “I don’t think it’s enough of a
priority,” Batgirl echoed. The lack of resources, including time, personnel, or relief from
responsibilities, influences administrators’ belief that they personally affect the recruitment of
student-teacher candidates of color.
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Conversely, Elastigirl believed there was a reason for optimism in the College of
Education’s efforts to recruit student-teacher candidates of color, due to specific faculty
members’ work in comparison to the efforts of the college as a whole. She elaborated:
I think, not necessarily as a college, but there are faculty members who come to mind,
who I know are doing everything they can to make the [KU] College of Education a place
deserving of recruiting more student-teacher of color. So, like, the Future Teachers of
Color organization, for instance, that’s a huge accomplishment and change for our
students, so yeah, I do think, but again most of this is as I’m familiar with is the work of
faculty members.
Elastigirl acknowledges the individual efforts of her colleagues, specifically Storm and America
Chavez, as reasons for optimism about the College of Education’s recruitment efforts. Earlier in
the interview, Elastigirl emphasized her own efforts on a working group within the Diversity
council dedicated to efforts of spreading “awareness to interrupt microaggressions in K–12
schools, [KU], and in the community.”
Collective Efficacy Among Administrators to Recruit Potential Student-TeacherCandidates of
Color
Administrators collectively expressed cautious optimism about the direction in which the
College of Education was heading. This optimism was due to an understanding of the collective
goal to recruit more students of color into their preservice teaching programs. Effective
recruitment of students of color requires a continued, collective effort over an extended period of
time. Professor X described cautious confidence in his team, stating, “I’m confident that we can
do it, I’m just not confident that we can run a marathon you know?” Professor X’s concerns
about the long journey of recruitment stem from his worries about potential burnout among his
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faculty. His disposition changed at this point of our interview as he sat and thought for a moment
during an extensive pause about his team before he continued,
I just don’t wanna burn folks out. When you’re bringing on a new faculty and especially
in faculty of color, one thing we’re not doing. I gotta protect each person I bring on. I
have to protect them and that’s gonna take several years…I have full confidence we can
do it. It’s just the, the tough part about it is, you don’t see the results on one night it takes
time. You’ve got to have patents, and you just have to know, it takes time and people just
gotta hopefully believe in me that I’m not leading them down the wrong road.
Professor X, in his response, demonstrated concern directed toward the process of recruitment
and how it affects his people. Professor X is sympathetic to his team’s teaching course load,
research, and other committee requirements that contribute to burnout and negatively impact
motivation. Researchers have shown that teaching is one of the most stressful professions and
has an accordingly high burnout rate, often leading teachers to leave the profession (Chang,
2017; Jepson & Forrest, 2006; Naghieh et al., 2015). These issues are exacerbated further in
today’s climate, especially as it is impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States and
around the world. Professor X identifies these issues as critical to understanding his faculty and
the education and matriculation of students not only at KU but in K–12 education as well.
Professor X states, “You know the thing that we haven’t talked about, the impact of COVID on
this whole thing, we have kids that have missed almost two years of school.” This is significant
given that the pool of students from which KU and the College of Education could potentially
recruit are impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Students, in response to COVID-19-related
issues, fall behind or find it difficult to adjust to their new environment. Additionally, Professor
X expressed an interest in his ability as the organization’s leader to affect the climate of his team.
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His leadership, noted by other administrators, is one of the most significant reasons there is a
collective belief that the College of Education can improve its recruitment of student-teacher
candidates of color. Collective belief in the College of Education’s success is sustainable as long
as the team remains patient during the process. Supergirl mentions in her interview,
I’m very confident, but I think we also need to be patient that it will, the uptick will be
slow. Because I think, you know, we might have things in place, but we also depend on
kind of the natural feedback through the community. So, I think we have to sort of let it
catch fire a little bit too, but I’m totally confident that things will be put into action and
hey, I think have been already. We can’t expect to see, you know, a complete 180 in, you
know, a year. We have to be patient.
Her remarks illustrate that the College of Education remains committed to creating a more
diverse and inclusive environment for both its faculty and students, but this transformation will
require time. Administrators have expressed their continued support to the efforts of the College
of Education, despite some dissatisfaction, in large part due to their leadership.
Summary of Research Question 2
Sixty percent of administrators expressed cynicism about their individual efficacy to
recruit students of color, suggesting the need for more knowledge regarding how to best recruit
students of color. While there was collective optimism among administrators regarding their
efforts to recruit students of color, this optimism was rooted in their belief in the Dean and his
mission more than in themselves. These results suggest the need for individual and collective
opportunities to build self-efficacy among administrators and in the team, so they can be
confident in their abilities to recruit students of color. In the section that follows, I explain how
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the organization’s current efforts contribute to or hinder the College of Education’s ability to
increase its population of student-teacher candidates of color.
Research Question 3: How Do the Organization’s Current Recruitment Practices
Contribute to or Hinder Increasing Student-Teacher Candidates of Color?
In the interviews, participants shared an understanding of the organization’s current
efforts and how they contribute to or hinder increasing the population of student-teacher
candidates of color. Emerging themes from the research are organized into contributing and
hindering factors. First, a contributing factor is the administrator’s belief that their current efforts
demonstrate a commitment by the College of Education to diversify its student body. Second,
and also a contributing factor, is new leadership, particularly that of the new Dean, which
accelerated the organization’s already-increasing emphasis on diversification. Five hindrances
were identified: (1) the siloed structure of KU’s recruitment and admissions organization; (2)
complacency among administrators regarding current recruitment practices; (3) a lack of
organizational resources available to tangibly commit to diversification efforts in the College of
Education; (4) institutional restrictions including the College of Education’s accreditation, the
program admissions requirements, and state certification requirements; and finally, (5) an
institutional commitment to recruiting Black students without similar efforts dedicated to other
marginalized demographics.
Contributing Organizational Influence Findings
Commitment of the College of Education
Most participants articulated a college-wide commitment to the efforts of recruiting
student-teacher candidates of color. Supergirl mentioned in her interview that these efforts have
been “in development for the past few years,” and Batgirl emphasized the college’s “beginning
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and burgeoning commitment” to diversity. This institutional focus has not always been placed on
diversity in recruitment. Captain Marvel stated,
So, when I started at [KU] in 2013, the recruitment of student teachers of color was really
important thing. It was sort of something that folks were talking about. Um, but I didn’t
recognize there being any sort of, like organized process for understanding where we
currently were in regards to how like students, our students of color population,
demographically, you know, who was enrolled, you know, who were we thinking
intentionally about recruiting? There wasn’t any sort of systematic process for having
these conversations. I would say, over the course of the eight years that I was in the
College of Education, that kept sort of, as a goal for the college itself, kept emerging,
being really important, increasingly important. And so, you know, the collective of us
who are sort of going through this conversation, I think that really sort of galvanized
people to think intentionally about a process for support, space, recruitment, retention,
and so I think that the focus became even more clear [Storm] alongside [America
Chavez], you know numbers of folks who were involved in sort of the beginning stages
of the group [Future Teachers of Color] that supported the students of color on campus.
Captain Marvel’s statements are notable in how they describe the efforts of the College of
Education in rethinking its responsibilities toward students of color. Captain Marvel’s statements
also identify the catalyst for the College of Education’s current commitment: the foundation of
the Future Teachers of Color organization. This organization, she reports, helped shape the
narrative for understanding and recruiting more students of color. She concluded by sharing that
“over the course of the last three to four years, really sort of began to gel,” implying that only
now is the College of Education working toward the goals it set out when she first arrived.
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This commitment by the College of Education contributes to a shared understanding of
the direction of the organization. Understanding the commitment of the COE’s commitment to
recruitment is important because administrators who understand this commitment better
understand how their individual actions contribute to this shared goal. This commitment to
diverse recruiting is demonstrated by the efforts of members of the College of Education’s
Diversity Council, and their work with Professor X and his team to recruit faculty and students
of color. This is apparent in Storm’s response concerning the efforts of the College of Education.
“What they’ve [the College of Education] done in terms of getting alumni in particular areas to
go out and recruit staff, recruit folks, it’s a lot of work,” Storm reported. She explains the
College of Education’s strategy of involving alumni to recruit diverse leaders and students and
the effort that this work entails. Efforts demonstrating college-wide commitments to diversity in
recruiting were emphasized by Thunder, who shared,
I think the college is very committed, um, to increasing the diversity of students
of color here at our college. And we, um, are doing everything we can to increase that
diversity and one thing that we are starting to do, is really looking at our programs and
trying to remove barriers to student- students coming into the field and students re-
remaining in the programs, uh, until graduation. We have career fairs where- where it
says now education’ majors and we also have partnered with, um, [KU] alum who help
us recruit and get the word out. Uh, we now have brochures that say majors, uh, in
Education.
Thunder’s comments echo the sentiments of her colleagues; the College of Education has been
steadily improving its collective efforts to diversify since addressing the naming of its programs
from IDLS to Education. Throughout her interview, Thunder emphasized not only the
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significance of the Future Teachers of Color organization but how the renaming of their
programs catalyzed the College of Education’s clear articulation that their program created
teachers.
Additional efforts by the College of Education include yearly recruitment in local and
distant schools. This is seen in the College of Education’s messaging developed by the Diversity
Council and emphasized by Professor X during his semester welcome back and semester
concluding meetings with all employees of the college. These efforts have ultimately led to the
College of Education’s continued focus on recruiting students of color and ensuring everyone is
aware of and committed to this mission.
New Leadership, New Emphasis
When asked about actions that the College of Education has taken to increase the student
population of color, the most commonly cited answer was leadership efforts, more specifically,
Professor X and his team. This commitment is seen in the organizational changes made by
Professor X in promoting Thunder to the position of Associate Dean position and allocating
resources to the recruitment of students and faculty of color. America Chavez reflected on
Professor X,
I will say that with this new administration, the new dean, I can see definitely, a clear,
approach to trying to recruit students of color…I know every time I ask for something,
like especially funds, the dean is always like, “Here. It’s an investment, and I know it’s
good. Here you go. Like every time I invite him to stuff about Latinos, he’s like, “I’m in.
What time? Where?” So, he’s making an effort to get to know what can I do better in
order to recruiting more students.
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This perception reflects the extent to which Professor X engages in efforts to increase the student
of color population in the College of Education. Professor X noted that his efforts included an
emphasis on new strategies to aid the College of Education’s efforts to increase its student and
faculty population of color. He further explained that the Provost of KU was instrumental in his
plan, allowing him to promote Thunder to her current capacity as Associate Dean on DEI. He
added that the College of Education is now “consulting with the Black alumni group to do
different recruiting” and “going into the ‘HBCUs’” outside of the state to recruit potential
students into master-level programs. He understands these efforts as pivotal to their project to
increase their population of students of color. In recent months, as Thunder mentioned, the
College of Education has worked closely with the Office of Admissions, even visiting K–12
schools in an effort to recruit more students of color. These joint efforts, she believes, are a result
of the College of Education’s establishment of Education as a full-fledged major. These
collaborative efforts are a welcome addition to the College of Education, given how siloed the
college feels to study participants. The interviews revealed three common themes among
administrator concerns: (1) the new tangible and intangible efforts by Professor X and his team
to bring about systemic changes, (2) current changes to the admissions process that either are
working or are not working, and (3) the additional efforts required to improve or sustain current
recruitment programming.
Professor X’s efforts are aimed directly at recruiting students of color. He explained,
I call it the three-legged stool. So, one leg is that we’re going to be recruiting in low
wealth districts and high schools. The second leg of the stool is that we believe that there
were a number of paraprofessionals teacher assistants and other individuals who are
currently in school divisions who represent the, the group that we're really trying to keep
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any low wealth school districts. And, and they've already made the community a home.
So, we're working with the community college system so that we're bringing our
university to that school division. And the third one is how, how do we work with folks
who currently have their bachelor's and master's and in some school divisions, they
actually have their terminal degrees and it, it is really not cost effective to go through the
accreditation.
Professor X’s efforts are apparent in the detailed strategies he develops to lead diversification
projects in the College of Education. The fact that Professor X has dedicated a position to
diversity efforts and has developed a three-pronged strategy to diversify his student population
indicates an organizational commitment to diverse student recruitment. However, he cautioned,
recruitment “is a longitudinal thing.” His efforts are critical in motivating his team within the
College of Education to actively work to better recruit students of color in their preservice
programs.
Hindering Organizational Influence Findings
Impact of a Structurally Siloed State and School
One of the organizational challenges hindering the College of Education from increasing
its population of students of color in its preservice teaching programs is a lack of communication
between the state, KU’s Office of Admissions and Recruitment, and the College of Education
administrators. Mirroring themes from research question one, participants understood the
university as central to matters of recruitment. In contrast, colleges across campus only
conducted major-specific recruitment and had to hope that potential students ultimately attend
KU. Captain Marvel suggested, “for this work to happen, you have to create intentional space for
it. It comes with collective energy. It cannot be in a silo. It just doesn’t work that way.” The
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institution’s website and other analyzed documents revealed that the university had made no
attempts at major-specific recruitment, instead of letting individual colleges perform major
recruitment. The university has, however, dedicated three admissions counselors specifically to
recruiting students of color. The KU Office of Admissions only recruits by region, pursuing
students from out of state to diversify the student body geographically, if not academically.
Admissions counselors of color are sent to geographical areas where they believe they can reach
a dense population of potential students of color for KU to recruit from. These practices leave
each college without recruitment guidance at the institutional level. Furthermore, the raw data
necessary to diversity KU’s student body is not readily available for administrators throughout
the institution. Lack of guidance and information (related to the financial costs of recruiting
students of color) frustrated many administrators within the College of Education. Storm
expressed her frustration, she shared, “admissions is a Black hole” and so colleges across the
campus you do not know “how much they [admissions and recruitment offices of KU] invest in
recruiting students of color.” Transparency is critical in identifying issues of equity in the
admissions and recruiting process at KU.
Furthermore, Storm drew attention to one of the unique barriers to recruitment in the
College of Education and KU: state law prohibits maintaining identifying information on
students. KU resides in one of over a dozen states that legally prevent their higher education
institutions from collecting or maintaining records of their students’ racial demographics. “So,
unless someone knows that someone is a student of color it becomes harder to track things,
shared Storm” Storm, accompanied by other leaders throughout the College of Education, is
stifled by state law which limits the collection of important data, and consequently administrator
motivation.
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Complacency Within the College of Education
Eight participants directly disagreed about the College of Education’s diversification
efforts. Four believed the college was committed to diversity and successful in its efforts; four
others believed that the college’s complacency prevents the institution from achieving its goals.
Batgirl suggested that complacency has set in for many administrators, not only in the College of
Education but at KU generally because the university is not struggling to recruit enough students
and so student-body diversity becomes an afterthought. “I’m unequivocal about this. It’s
exhausting to professionally develop people who aren’t interested in being professionally
developed.” Wasp offered similar remarks,
There has to be a plan especially for faculty of color that are being asked to do this work
over and over again, to get something out of it. Like I don’t know, but like they need, like
I don’t know if it would be a course release or extra pay.
Wasp’s comments illuminate the additional burden placed on certain faculty, particularly those
of color, to address diversity issues in recruitment. Meanwhile, their colleagues are free to focus
on general recruitment in one of the premier colleges of education within the state. Wasp’s
comments also reference a lack of resources, only compounding issues stemming from the
ineffective organizational structure in admissions and recruitment. Similarly, Captain Marvel
pointed out the burden that institutional complacency placed on faculty of color. She claimed
that the institution, the College of Education, in particular, has a tendency to over-rely on the
work of faculty of color. “Sort of my feeling, it was just like, two, five, ten people against the
world,” Captain Marvel added. Her comments demonstrate irritation at the issues inherent to a
system that places the burden of diverse recruitment on faculty and administrators of color, even
while other faculty remain uninvolved. The disproportionate burdens placed on faculty and
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administrators of color are significant in that it contributes to faculty burnout and teachers or
faculty of color leaving the profession. This exodus only adds to the issues facing the College of
Education’s recruitment diversity efforts.
Insufficient Resources Available
Findings in this study demonstrate the challenges administrators faced in collecting
sufficient resources for strategic diversity in recruitment. One of the many barriers, identified by
six administrators, is financial. As Supergirl eloquently put it, “scholarships is a way to recruit.”
When asked what he believed he needed in order to increase diversity in the College of
Education’s recruitment efforts, Professor X unequivocally stated, “I would love to have about
two to three million dollars 'cause I need scholarship money.” Students of color and first-
generation students, often from low socioeconomic backgrounds, face unique difficulties in their
education. According to administrators within the College of Education, addressing the funding
issue requires financial support, not only from KU and its benefactors but also from the state.
Professor X argued that the issue of funding is an issue of access,
It’s easy to get into the door and smile at somebody and recruit, but you gotta be able to
say, “Can we bring you here?” … So my thing is, I wanna say, “Hey, I want to give you
this money, I wanna invest in you by bringing you here.” And it’s one thing to say, “I
wanna invest in you,” but it’s another thing to say, “I wanna invest in you and I have the
money to do it.”
Here, Professor X expresses, in his opinion, just how critical financial support is to
diversification. His efforts are split between recruiting faculty of color to set the conditions for
the students while ensuring funding to incentivize students of color to select KU’s College of
Education. Professor X was candid in his interview about his low-income childhood, and the Pell
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Grants he received. These aspects of his background, he said, allow him to empathize with
students for whom money is a considerable barrier to education. However, according to the U.S.
Department of Education (2016), Pell Grants cover approximately 30 percent of the cost of a
four-year public college education. A significant gap still exists between funding and expenses
for low-income students and their families. Nevertheless, Professor X began working with the
state legislature to acquire more funding for his preservice teaching programs. This collaboration
is instrumental to the College of Education’s success in recruiting students of color. The lack of
funding (compared with their peer institutions across the states and across the nation) potentially
prevents the College of Education from being competitive in attracting potential students of color
in the first place. The current demographics of the College of Education (overwhelmingly White
and affluent) do not demonstrate a similar level of financial need and are easier to recruit
compared with their peers of color. Furthermore, this lack of required financial assistance makes
these demographics desirable for admissions offices and colleges, especially in addressing the
economic and academic instability following the COVID-19 pandemic (Lederer et al., 2020).
Related, funding is critical to hiring efforts. Black Canary remarked that, without financial
assistance, the College of Education will be unable to “attract, recruit, and retain a more diverse
faculty.” Especially given the College of Education’s reliance on faculty of color for diversity in
recruitment, this is worrying.
The lack of evidence-based research and interventions available to administrators was
also identified as a problem for the College of Education’s diversification efforts. Evidence-
based research and interventions are critical resources as they provide empirical information
useful in affecting change within an organization (Mazzucca et al., 2019). Administrators within
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the College of Education are hindered in their ability to attract diverse students because they lack
procedural and factual knowledge concerning best-recruiting practices.
Supergirl asked, “if that’s not available [information], then research. What’s effective?”
Her response is anchored in the belief that, without the appropriate information, “it’s gonna make
it look sloppy.” Information is critical specifically considering that research has suggested
evidence-based decision making aids in the development and dissemination of evidence-based
interventions (Mazzucca et al., 2019). Mazzucca et al. (2019) described evidence-based decision
making as “the best available peer-reviewed evidence, using data and information systems,
engaging the community in assessment and decision making, disseminating findings to key
stakeholders and decisions makers as decisions are made” (p. 455). Empirical resources will be
imperative to the College of Education’s efforts to improve its recruitment processes, practices,
and procedures as they relate to recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs.
The Effects of Accreditation, Program Admissions, and State Certification Requirements
During interviews, five administrators shared additional insight about how accreditation
and program admissions requirements hinder their recruitment efforts. The Council for
Accreditation of Educator Preparation (2020) is widely recognized as the top teaching program
accreditation in all 50 states including territories. According to their web page, they are dedicated
to “creating standards to ensure educator preparation providers impart future teachers with
knowledge and skills to support the development of all students” (p. 86). Simply stated, they
provide an external review to ensure the quality of the programs they accredit. Supergirl, as the
College of Education’s overseer of accreditation, explained that one of those review’s standards
include “goals and evidence that address progress towards a candidate pool which reflects the
diversity of America’s P-12 students.” Although the intention of this goal is noble, the standards
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established by CAEP are often seen as mere hurdles to clear. For example, as Captain Marvel
wondered, “why is there a Grade Point Average [GPA] requirement?” Her frustration was
focused on how students, especially in their first two years of college (depending on their major),
see greater fluctuation in their GPA compared with students in their third and fourth years. The
CAEP requires, according to its website, at least a 3.0. Captain Marvel mentioned how
humanities majors fared better than students in STEM programs (with regards to grades) and yet
the GPA requirement is consistent across disciplines, creating issues of equity. Elastigirl added
that a considerable number of transfer students experienced difficulty with the GPA requirement.
She shared,
It’s harder to transfer into [KU] and major in education and meet all the requirements. If
they do a couple of semesters at a community college or something like that, they’re
going to need an extra semester, a year here, they just can’t fulfill the course
requirements without paying more tuition to do so.
Elastigirl’s statements suggest that GPA requirements force students to take on additional
financial burdens in order to gain admittance into the program. Students weigh the benefits of
KU’s reputation against the financial cost of transferring into an expensive program compounded
by GPA requirements. In general, Captain Marvel and Elastigirl spoke to the challenge of
recruiting students, given that many students struggle to meet institutional requirements given
their academic backgrounds. Elastigirl’s comments illustrate the challenge of trying to waive this
requirement given accreditation requirements. These challenges, which exist across all student
demographics, grow exponentially for students of color when compounded with financial,
academic, and social factors that impact their decision to attend KU or become a student-teacher
candidate of color.
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In addition to institutional accreditation, six of the 10 administrators also discussed
program and state requirements. As discussed in Chapter 2, federal and institutional requirements
played a critical role in the loss of teachers of color and establish a barrier for students who may
otherwise enter the profession. According to statements by administrators, and confirmed
through the College of Education’s website, these requirements include completing standardized
math, reading, and writing entry assessments and include scores from either the SAT or ACT.
The tests for reading and writing cost money, according to Storm, while the math test does not.
These statements were confirmed through a review of KU and state testing requirements listed
on their website. The College of Education has hired tutors specifically for students who
experience repeated issues taking these tests, according to Storm and Captain Marvel. However,
these tests are a hindrance to supporting students of color insofar as they deter students of color
from enrolling in the first place. Elastigirl expressed a similar sentiment,
Standardized tests that students have to take to get teacher licensure, or even to get
admitted to the college are barriers. They’re expensive tests, and if you don’t pass them,
you have to pay again to take them again. And so, it’s a financial barrier, but it’s also
like, an academic barrier, the test. These tests are gatekeepers, essentially doing what
they’re intended to do and designed for, and that is not student-teacher candidates of
color. They’re having the effect they’re intended to have, which is to ensure, you know,
protect whiteness in education. And that’s one that I know many faculty have been
pushing back on, and that’s not a [KU] College of Education policy that’s at the state
level, but there are also folks in [KU] College of Education who want to protect the test.
It’s not an easy problem to solve, but it’s a big one.
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Elastigirl’s statement reflected widespread administrator belief that these tests were negatively
impacting their ability to recruit students into these preservice teaching programs given the
added hurdles for applicants. Once again, administrators mentioned financial waivers and
tutoring, but without additional funding from the institution or the state, these services are
unlikely to survive long.
Always Betting on Black
One of the findings from interviews with College of Education administrators was a
consistent focus on initiatives that primarily targeted the Black community. An administrator
indicated a need for the College of Education to go beyond their primary selection within the
students of color population (even if this bias is unintentional on the part of the institution).
America Chavez said,
I have realized, especially this last year, that there’s a lot of movement toward, let’s
bring Black students in, and I’m like, where are the Latinos? What are we doing for the
Latinos? So, I’m like, why can’t we just say BIPOC [Black, Indigenous, and people of
color]? Why can’t we focus on all of them? I know, apparently, back in the way many
years ago, we had this weekend where Black students came. I’m like, can we do one just
for Latinos or can we do one just for BIPOC, in general? Right? Why do we have to keep
dividing instead of uniting and conquering? Why do we have to divide? It just makes it
worse.
America Chavez, in her candid comments, expressed concern regarding representation among all
demographics. She feels that one of the limitations of the college’s current strategy is the
exclusion of other identities that exist under the umbrella of “students of color.” Her emphasis on
Latinx recruitment stems from a desire to support her own community while continuing to
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support cultural and linguistic diversity, more generally, in the College of Education. She
clarified, “just making it [the COE’s recruitment efforts] wider, not just Blacks, not just
Latinos[Latinx], but where are the Asians.” Professor X, Thunder, and America Chavez have all
mentioned the College of Education’s outreach efforts to the Latino and Black communities.
Professor X shared that he was “doing a lot of work now with Hispanic, the Latinx community
group, we’re starting to do things in that area.” This need to go beyond simply Black or African
American students is mirrored in Thunder’s statement. She was asked what potential barriers she
encountered in terms of recruiting more students of color, and she shared that recruiters need to
“first of all understand that the classroom that they’re walking into is different from the
classrooms within [KU].” References to Black students, teachers, and organizations were
mentioned 54 times during the interview process while other communities of color were
mentioned fewer than 10 times by interview participants. Administrators explicitly referenced
recruiting from the following demographics: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (who comprise a larger portion of the KU population
than even the Black community). Similar to how the university looks beyond state lines to
diversify its student body, the College of Education must expand its understanding of diversity.
This also includes students pursuing students who are more aligned by their ethnicity rather than
their race such as those from the Middle Eastern community.
Summary
Findings from the interviews and documents related to the College of Education and KU
showed differences and similarities in perspectives between the 10 administrators regarding their
efforts to recruit students of color. This chapter identified the challenges regarding the efforts of
the College of Education in their recruitment effort regarding both tangible and intangible
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resources. Formative documents included institution websites, brochures, and open-source
reporting related to the institution as these documents pertained to information gathered during
the interviews. This research was used to clarify gaps in processes, practices, and procedures as
documented. The data demonstrate that administrators already possess considerable procedural
knowledge regarding student recruitment but lacked an understanding of best practices to recruit
students of color into their preservice teaching programs. The lack of knowledge is intertwined
with the organizational structure of the institution in how they go about recruitment and
marketing efforts to solicit students to attend KU. All administrators were motivated to recruit
more students of color into their preservice teaching programs. However, many participants
spoke about complacency in this effort given the College of Education’s consistent ability to
meet recruitment metrics in terms of student quantity irrespective of demographic disparity.
According to interview responses, the organization is positively committed to its efforts to
diversify its student body. Nevertheless, internal and external barriers still exist to hinder their
success in these efforts.
The findings from the data indicate a positive trend for the College of Education given
its new leadership and environmental factors that accelerated diversification efforts in the
college. The findings illustrate an organization with considerable self-awareness, particularly
among its administrators, and enough cohesion as a team to know who they are, who their
colleagues are, and how they each contribute to their goal. The lack of knowledge, motivational,
and organizational resources is an issue not only for the College of Education at KU but for the
larger United States community regarding how best to recruit and support those who pursue a
degree in education. The work of administrators to recruit more students of color into preservice
teaching programs is significant as it has the potential to lead to an increase in teachers of color
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throughout the United States in K–12 schools. Actively improving the critical mass of students
of color is difficult given the multitude of barriers identified both in Chapter 2 and in the findings
of this chapter. Despite the barriers acknowledged by administrators, it is possible to recruit more
students of color to become student-teacher candidates. The following chapter makes
recommendations to KU for improvement based on the data of this study.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Sixty-eight years following Brown v. Board of Education, the composition of the U.S.’s
K–12 schools has transformed considerably as student diversity increased across many
categories, including linguistics, culture, geography, and socioeconomics. This transformation
has called into question faculty representation in the case of teachers whose experience and
expertise entail an ability to connect with these students based on a shared background (Andrews
et al., 2018; Carr & Klassen, 1997). This study attempts to reveal and explain the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences influencing administrators’ ability to recruit potential
students of color into their preservice teaching programs. This study used thematic analysis to
better understand the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors influencing the
College of Education’s recruitment of students of color, with a specific aim to identify ways to
improve enrollment diversity. This study used qualitative research methods to answer the
following questions:
1. What is the current status of the organization related to the recruitment of student-
teacher candidates of color?
2. What are the administrator’s needs and assets related to knowledge and motivation
factors regarding the population of student-teacher candidates of color?
3. How do the organization’s current recruitment practices contribute to or hinder
increasing student-teacher candidates of color?
Chapter 4 presents a data analysis of administrator interviews, and document analysis of public
records on the institution and the College of Education, as those findings relate to the study. It
identifies themes as they related to knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors
influencing the recruitment of students of color by administrators in the College of Education.
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This chapter addresses the recommended knowledge, motivational, and organizational solutions
aimed at increasing the number of student-teacher candidates of color. This chapter begins with a
discussion of the findings, providing a foundation for the subsequent recommendations. Next,
the chapter addresses recommendations for the College of Education aimed at increasing the
number of student-teacher candidates of color. The chapter then elaborates, offering
recommendations founded on evidenced-based practices common in the literature. Finally, the
chapter concludes with a consideration of the study’s limitations and delineations and offers
recommendations for future research not yet addressed within the study.
Discussion of Findings
A set of 16 findings emerged from the research, with four findings identified from
research question one, five from research question two, and seven from research question three.
The first question examined the standing of the organization regarding its recruitment efforts of
students of color. The second question investigated knowledge and motivational influences as
they relate to administrator needs and assets in their recruitment of students of color. Research
question three investigated the organizational influences that contributed to (or hindered) the
organization in its efforts to recruit students of color. Thematic findings were positioned into
their respective knowledge, motivation, and organizational sections.
Knowledge Findings
Forty percent of administrators explicitly identified changing demographics in K–12
education as a reason in favor of increasing their student population of color within their
preservice teaching programs (NCES, 2018). While other participants reference the desire to add
more diversity to their classrooms due to the teacher shortage, they did not address trends in K–
12 where literature demonstrates Black, Asian, Hispanic, and other students of color have
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exceeded the percentage of Whites in K–12 (Andrews et al., 2018; NCES, 2018). The data
demonstrated that administrators already possess general knowledge about shifting demographic
in K–12 student populations but needed factual and conceptual knowledge to understand the
significance of this change. The literature has pointed to the positive impact of having a teacher
of color on all students’ long-run educational outcomes such as socioeconomic mobility,
earnings, employment, and civic engagement (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Dee, 2004). Research
has identified these students for whom a teacher of color reduces dependence on social benefits
and lowers costs associated with criminality (Grossman, 2006; Lochner & Moretti, 2004).
Seven of the 10 administrators interviewed were unable to identify specific strategies
used by the College of Education or KU that were successful in recruiting students of color.
These trends are consistent across the teaching community, and research has shown
inconsistencies among universities and colleges regarding how to recruit not only students of
color but faculty of color (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Simon & Johnson,
2015). These results suggest that administrators are in desperate need of knowledge regarding
effective strategies for recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs. Clark and
Estes (2008) state that acquiring knowledge of new skills is dependent on gaining declarative
knowledge about processes and steps. Thirty percent of administrators blame this lack of
knowledge on a lack of sufficient training. During the interviews, administrators said that they
had not received any training from either the College of Education or KU regarding effective
strategies for the recruitment of students of color. Administrator interviews indicate that faculty
of color bears the burden of educating their colleagues on best recruitment practices for students
and student-teacher candidates of color and that these faculty members are rarely compensated or
supported for this work (Carver-Thomas, 2018; Gershenson et al., 2017).
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Motivation Findings
Six out of 10 administrators expressed cynicism during their interviews regarding their
ability to recruit students of color into their preservice teaching program. Further, eight out of 10
administrators expressed cautious optimism that the College of Education was making progress
in diversifying its preservice teaching programs. Motivation, influenced by knowledge factors,
directly influences performance to diversify their preservice teaching program (Clark & Estes,
2008; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). These findings suggested a need for increasing administrator
motivation related to the recruitment of students of color and the knowledge influences that
inform that recruitment.
Organization Findings
Shared understandings of the mission, goals, policies, processes, and procedures
(identified in the literature review) were among the organizational attributes investigated by this
study (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The
literature has illustrated the significance of cultural models in developing sustainable
organizational change (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schein, 2017). Nine of the 10
administrators offered similar statements regarding ongoing collective efforts within the College
of Education to support the Dean’s mission to diversify their preservice teaching programs. All
administrators interviewed articulated that this shared collective effort was rooted in their new
leadership, specifically the Dean, and the direction he has chosen to direct the College of
Education (i.e., diversifying the institution). The literature has also demonstrated the importance
of cultural settings as they relate to an organization’s ability to sustain or improve its
performance (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Participants highlighted organizational
hindrances affecting their recruitment performance including a lack of communication between
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the state and the KU Office of Admissions and Recruitment, and a lack of effort on the part of
the College of Education administrators. These findings suggested that these institutions require
organizational restructuring to better coordinate their efforts to recruit students of color into
preservice teaching programs. Participants also highlighted several organizational barriers, both
internal and external, that impacted their ability to recruit students of color. Of those barriers, the
accreditation requirements of the program, testing requirements by the state, and a lack of
funding to both provide scholarships for students and to hire diverse faculty for those students
were identified by participants. These findings suggested a need for systemic change, both
internal and external, to address policy changes and acquire additional funding to improve the
College of Education’s ability to recruit students of color.
Recommendations for Practice
The findings from this study pointed toward thematic recommendations related to the
College of Education’s capacity to recruit students of color. The first recommendation is for
administrators to engage with leaders within and beyond the College of Education. The second
recommendation is for the College of Education to expand upon its current Grow Your Own
program. Finally, the third recommendation is for the College of Education to restructure and
teach its team effective strategies to increase the number of students of color within their
preservice teaching program.
Recommendation 1: Engage Leaders Within and Beyond the College of Education
The effort to increase the number of students of color within the College of Education
does not begin or end within the College of Education itself. In this section, I explore where, and
with whom, the College of Education can engage to improve its recruitment of students of color
into its preservice teaching program. This section is divided into two parts: First, I suggest
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potential leaders within the College of Education and KU who are pivotal stakeholders in their
efforts to increase the number of students of color. Second, I identify leaders external to the
College of Education that may aid in the leaders of the College of Education’s efforts to increase
the number of students of color. Figure 2 offers a visual to illustrate the recommendation that the
College of Education should engage with leaders, both internal and external to the organization.
Figure 2
Leader Engagement

Internal Leader Engagement
Leaders within the College of Education and KU play a central role in the organization’s
efforts to increase the number of students of color within their preservice teaching programs.
Leaders identified in this project include students, faculty, staff, administrators within the
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College of Education, Alumni of KU, the Office of Admissions, the Provost, and individuals in
the Student Affairs offices. Each of these leaders plays an inextricable role in shaping an
inclusive campus environment conducive to recruiting more students of color. These leaders act
as agents of change encouraging students to consider teaching and connecting them with
preservice teaching programs such as the College of Education at KU. These efforts are
ultimately aimed toward building a sustained relationship between previously identified leaders
and potential students of color that would lead to admissions and matriculation through their
programs.
External Leader Engagement
Administrators within the College of Education and KU should continue to directly
engage with leaders outside their institution. Engaging with state legislatures (including the
governor and the state education agency or chief state school officer) is critical to gaining
additional funding otherwise unavailable at the institutional level for preservice teaching
program recruitment (Cohen-Vogel & McLendon, 2009; McGuinn, 2006). Efforts by Professor
X and the College of Education to reach out to leaders in the community and political office are
critical in their efforts to improve their recruitment of students of color into preservice teaching
programs. These efforts are significant and should continue to be pursued, especially considering
that the poverty rates among students of color range from 11% to 34% (NCES, 2017). Research
by Podolsky and Kini (2016) determined that financial support from legislatures (including
scholarships and loan forgiveness) is effective in recruiting students to become teachers,
particularly when school attendance costs present a meaningful barrier to student matriculation
or retention.
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It is incumbent upon the College of Education to connect with state and local leaders to
develop policy measures dedicated to recruiting both students of color and potential teachers of
color. Increased rates of teachers of color begin a cycle of positive reinforcement in retaining and
recruiting more candidates of color. Although much of this focus aligns with teachers, this
enables better marketing opportunities for the institution and the state as they address teacher
shortages and make the profession more attractive for students to pursue while in higher
education or for adults changing careers. Research by Mintrom (1997) found that, during
election years, state legislatures are more likely to consider legislation related to education.
Engagement with local schools, districts, and student-serving non-profit organizations is critical
for the College of Education to build rapport with those who can cultivate an early interest in
education careers (Ahmad & Boser, 2014; Goodloe et al., 2020). Moreover, rapport with leaders
and these organizations is pivotal for expanding upon initiatives already present in the Grow
Your Own program.
Recommendation 2: Expanding Upon the Grow Your Own Program
Grow Your Own initiatives have been identified as a pipeline to address shortages of
teachers of color and encourage the youth of color to enter preservice teaching programs (Goings
et al., 2018). These programs proactively recruit student-teacher candidates from local
communities to join the profession and teach in their communities’ schools, diversifying the
teacher population not only racially but culturally and socioeconomically. However, to expand a
Grow Your Own program beginning recruitment efforts before secondary school (i.e.,
intentionally addressing middle-school students) is essential. Grow Your Own programs often
begin with high school students; however, given the problem that student perception of teaching
poses, the College of Education must plant the seed of an educational career sooner (Professional
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Educator Standards Board, 2016). The College of Education must reach these students in middle
school, before their career aspirations have solidified, and encourage them to see teaching as a
possibility for their futures.
Additional opportunities to expand upon the College of Education’s Grow Your Own
program also include developing dual-education courses with local high schools and community
colleges. Partnerships between higher education institutions with teacher preparation programs
and school districts are a foundational component of traditional Grow Your Own programs
(Education First, 2016). Dual-enrollment programs provide opportunities for students to develop
a sense of self-efficacy within the teaching profession (Bandura & Locke, 2003).
Leaders within the College of Education that achieve goals or milestones related to
recruiting students of color should be recognized and rewarded. Researchers have suggested that
properly aligned incentives can dramatically improve motivation, increase performance, and
foster intrinsic interest in the work (Clark & Estes, 2008; Eisenberger et al., 1999). Regarding the
type of recognition and awards: money and gifts are universal in their motivational appeal (Clark
& Estes, 2008; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). Those who already value diversity will achieve these
milestones quickly while those who require external motivation to value diversity will seek to be
recognized just as their colleagues were (Bandura, 1997; Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2009;
Rueda, 2011).
Finally, the Grow Your Own program ought to develop collaborative messaging with K–
12 schools, school districts, and non-profit organizations to encourage teaching as a profession.
To cultivate early and consistent interest, the College of Education must help students of color to
imagine themselves as teachers by appropriately targeting their messaging to encourage young
students to pursue education as a career. This aspect of the Grow Your Own program focuses on
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building intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy among students regarding their own capability and
desire to become a teacher (Clark & Estes, 2008; Bandura, 1997). Targeted messaging should
present education as a hospitable profession for students of color and this presentation must be
supported with intentional actions.
The efforts outlined within this recommendation demonstrate new initiatives to support
the College of Education in its effort to recruit students of color. The Grow Your Own program
impacts a range of stakeholders including students, teachers, community members, and
administrators who each benefit from its projects. Ultimately, these recommendations encourage
the College of Education to invest not only in its institution but in the community that supports it.
These recommendations to expand the current Grow Your Own program are nested within
recommendations to engage with leaders and require administrators to be deliberate in their
efforts to meet performance objectives (rather than passively contributing to current and future
decline within preservice teaching programs).
Recommendation 3: Restructure and Reeducate the Team
To best implement, these recommendations to expand the Grow Your Own program and
engage with external and internal leaders, the College of Education should consider restructuring
and re-educating its team. To address this gap between administrator efforts and effective
techniques regarding the recruitment of candidates of color, the following sections of this
recommendation will clarify how the College of Education can restructure itself as an
organization and how it can reeducate its team to best recruit students of color within their
preservice teaching programs
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Restructure the Team
Given the siloed structure of KU and the admissions office’s monopoly on recruitment
efforts, the College of Education must explore restructuring its own team and work with KU to
expand its recruitment structure as well. Bolman and Deal (2017) claimed that leaders should
consider the structural framing of their organization as they work toward institutional change.
The College of Education in collaboration with KU should explore alternatives to its current
structure, specifically considering investing in programs and processes that aim to hire, train, and
equip admissions staff and diversity-focused leaders to serve students of color (NACAC, 2020).
The primary strategy is for KU to adopt an education major-specific recruiter and
admissions counselor within its organization. This strategy would require KU to invest in a
position dedicated to major-specific recruitment with subject matter experts dedicated to each
respective college within the university. This position, if possible, should be a person of color so
that students see themselves reflected in the fac of postsecondary admission offices proving a
greater ability to attract and relate to diverse students (NACAC, 2020). The second aspect of this
strategy is for the College of Education to develop a center with a team of people dedicated to
equity, education, and the recruitment of students of color. This center would focus its efforts on
the work of diversity, equity, and inclusion within education, both in research and recruitment.
The College of Education can re-center the Associate Dean for DEI led by Storm to oversee this
center and its efforts. The composition and practice of this center will emphasize evidence-based
practices that can inform the College of Education and its administrators on best approaches,
both tangible and intangible, to recruit and retain both students of color and faculty of color. This
center would also be critical in expanding and leading in the College of Education’s Grow Your
Own program initiatives, working with local and state officials to align their efforts in recruiting
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students of color into preservice teaching programs. The center in its efforts should develop a
comprehensive diversity and recruitment plan that includes outcome assessments that are
supported by the College of Education Dean and the Provost. Finally, this center under the
leadership of Storm and with guidance by Professor X and his team would regularly revisit the
College of Education’s commitment to diversifying its student and faculty population ensuring
processes, staffing, budgets, and priorities are aligned with this goal in mind.
Reeducate the Team
An additional strategy the College of Education should consider is providing regular
opportunities for faculty, staff, administrators, and students to learn the best evidence-based
practices for diversifying the profession of teaching.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that acquiring knowledge of new skills is dependent on
gaining declarative knowledge about processes and steps. They suggest hands-on training only
after candidates understand what resources (in this case, declarative knowledge) they require to
perform their job. The College of Education should consider conducting small group sessions
with panel members, guest experts, and students to gather input and encourage thinking that was
once bounded by current knowledge to both improve factual knowledge and procedural
knowledge but built interest and importance value that is shown to positively affect motivation
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002; Miller & Endo, 2005; NACAC, 2020). Furthermore, the
College of Education ought to reflect on its current understanding of and actions regarding
students of color. This reflection would encourage expanding the institution’s focus beyond
Black and Hispanic communities and looking toward evidence-based research interventions.
Directly, the College of Education should host cultural competency training for its faculty and
staff to address diversity issues and provide cultural competency training. The College of
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Education should look to current instructional coaches throughout the country and explore the
option of having them support and lead professional development and mentoring of key faculty,
staff, and administrators on the best practices suited to attract students of color into the
profession of teaching through the College of Education’s preservice teaching programs.
Krathwohl (2002) reminds us of the importance of procedural knowledge that aids in our ability
to conduct a task or process. Procedurally, the College of Education should host annual symposia
with experts who can provide toolkits and design materials and practices with the College of
Education to attract potential students of color into their preservice teaching programs (ACTE,
2013; The Innovation Exchange, n.d.). Moreover, the College of Education should host a cultural
competency training for its faculty and staff about diversity issues and provide cultural
competency training for them. These efforts can be led by the new center for diversity equity and
inclusion recommended in this study, having employees within the college whose efforts are
solely focused on amplifying the College of Education’s ability to expand its Grow Your Own
program, identify organizational deficiencies, and inform the team on how to effectively recruit
students of color into their preservice teaching programs.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of this study included the sample size, participant positionality, and the
setting of this study (given the nature of its focus). The responses of the 10 administrators who
participated in this study were potentially limited due to truthfulness, level of experience and
involvement, and knowledge of current or previous efforts related to the recruitment of students
of color into their preservice teaching programs. Additional limitations included the number of
administrators who were able to participate, administrator availability, and administrator
positionality as it relates to the subject of students of color. The study was also inhibited by the
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setting of this study. Collecting data from a rural four-year public institution in a densely
populated state may prevent information in this study from being generalizable to other
institutions. This study was also limited by its measurement tools (the interview protocol and
document analysis protocol) that were developed specifically for this study. Despite piloting both
protocols before the initiation of this study, neither was proven effective by previous studies.
Furthermore, several more factors (including the period of data collection, Zoom-format
interviews, and the general constraints of COVID-19-era data collection) limit the scope of this
study.
Delimitations of this study included the number of participants, question types, the
number of questions asked, the selection of documented artifacts, and the use of the KMO
model. Unforeseen circumstances limited participation from purposefully selected administrators
for this study. Their absence was a potential limitation of the study due to their expected
contribution to the diversity of the participants. Finally, this research was limited to the
perspective of the College of Education’s administrators and did not address the views of any
other stakeholder group regarding the College of Education’s recruitment of students of color.
Field notes were utilized not only to chronicle the nonverbal communication of
participants but also to document the demeanor of each participant. This aided in clarifying
participants’ perceived disposition as understood by me. This documentation was completed to
support the trustworthiness and credibility of the research. Field notes also served as a non-
digital failsafe to verify interview recordings in the event of any technical malfunctions.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study produced findings that indicate systemic change is required within the College
of Education to address its knowledge, motivational, and organizational gaps in its efforts to
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recruit students of color. As a result, future research topics could further investigate the ability of
students of color to pursue teaching as a profession and the ability of higher education
institutions to effectively recruit them at rates that improve the diversity of preservice teaching
programs. The following three future research topics are offered for consideration: The role of
families in recruiting students of color into preservice teaching programs, the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the ability to recruit students of color, and KMO factors related to state
legislature attempts to increase diversity in preservice teaching programs.
The Role of Families in Recruiting Students of Color
Future research on the role of families in preservice teaching program recruitment would
seek to understand the role of family involvement for current students of color in these programs
and the knowledge and motivational factors that shape their perspective regarding their child’s
decision to become a teacher. Findings from this research would aim to identify strategies for
school districts and collegiate collaboration with families to encourage students to consider
teaching as a profession. Research has indicated that Caucasian and African American students
were more likely to report familial involvement in their collegiate and professional search
(Boser, 2011; Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2005; Sandals, 2020). The same research has shown that
Asian and Hispanic students were more likely to report their families were not at all involved in
their collegiate and professional search (Boser, 2011; Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2005; Sandals,
2020).
Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Recruiting Students of Color
Second, future research could focus on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic as related
to preservice teaching program diversity. Administrators, the focus of this study, are potentially
the wrong stakeholder group to address to ascertain the impact of COVID-19 on student
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decision-making. Future studies should include a quantitative study of students in K–12 to
understand if COVID-19 has shaped their perspectives on educational career paths. Additionally,
future research in this area could analyze quantitative data from before and during the pandemic
to identify significant changes in the admissions numbers of preservice teaching programs (if any
such changes exist). Data gathered should be contextualized by interviewing recently
matriculated students in preservice teaching programs to understand whether COVID-19 was a
major factor in their decision to enroll in a preservice teaching program (or if they know any
peers who have shared related information).
KMO Factors Related to State Legislatures’ Performance
The final recommendation for future research considers the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational factors related to state-level legislation which addresses any of the following
areas: scholarships for education programs, testing requirements, funding for K–12 schools with
high proportions of students of color, earmarked funding for faculty and student of color
recruitment in public higher education institutions, and teacher wages. This study (contextualized
in a wealth of literature) illustrated the power that state legislatures have over public education
specifically related to the recruitment and retention of students and faculty of color. Research
studying gaps in the state legislatures’ performance regarding passing legislation dedicated to the
aforementioned efforts would contribute greater understanding about how to best articulate and
develop policy or initiatives that enjoy enough widespread political support to pass both
chambers of state government (and are popular enough to be signed by the governor) and benefit
both teacher and teacher candidates of color and all those within the field. An additional
companion to this study would include research that looks to understand why those who are
currently (or previously did not consider) running for political office to effect systemic change.
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Conclusion
Colleges of Education often tout their commitment to diversity; however, the way they
recruit students of color tells a different story. The process of recruiting and selecting students is
regarded as indispensable to effective growth in any program. The purpose of this study was to
understand the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors influencing administrators
within the College of Education in their efforts to recruit students of color into their preservice
teaching programs. Interest in increasing the number of students of color in the teaching
profession is predicated on research that students of color benefit from education and mentoring
by people with similar racial and gender identities. These benefits include a positive effect on
test scores, attendance, course grades, disciplinary outcomes, and expectations in a multitude of
educational settings (Dee, 2004, 2005; Fairlie et al., 2014; Gershenson et al., 2017; Holt &
Gershenson, 2015; Lindsay & Hart, 2017). To encourage students of color to become teachers,
recruiting students of color into teacher preparation programs is essential. The present study
illustrates the vast and complex nature of student recruitment regarding candidates of color into
preservice teaching programs and the difficulties involved in capturing who is involved, how
they facilitate recruiting success, and the support required to enable and sustain momentum in
these endeavors.
Overall, this study cited factors in knowledge, motivational, and organizational literature
that influence administrator performance in recruiting students of color into their preservice
teaching programs. While administrators demonstrated factual knowledge about the need to
recruit more students of color, many acknowledge the lack of procedural knowledge regarding
the implementation of these goals. Furthermore, administrators articulated a desire to recruit
more students of color but often struggled to achieve these goals due to inadequate knowledge of
120

efficacious evidence-based interventions. Finally, the study revealed that the organization in
question was led by a dean who generated momentum to increase not only its students of color
but faculty of color. Administrators revealed that organizational structures are their greatest
hindrances in attempts to recruit students of color. These difficulties arise due to several factors,
including the siloed admissions office of the institution and the need to develop a sub-
organization devoted solely to diversifying the College of Education.
If the College of Education genuinely believes in the emancipatory power of a more
diverse teaching population for K–12 students, then the administrators within the college must
actively work toward changing the current dynamic. Strategically recruiting students of color and
resources to support them would catalyze the change administrators already recognize as
essential. The success of these students will be intertwined with the knowledge, motivational,
and organizational commitments of the College of Education to identify these students and
provide them with resources that enable their matriculation and graduation from educational
programs, and their employment in K–12 schools as teachers of color. Continued exploration of
this problem will provide crucial information to leaders throughout the education system as they
explore strategies that positively impact students of color’s perception of teaching as a viable
profession. The education system asks a lot of its teachers which often seems impossible but only
for the heroes who continually sacrifice themselves to create change in the classroom. Their
creativity and resilience in uncertain times while creating opportunities for students to learn is
exactly why we must recruit and develop more of them because they personify the heroes many
of us have adored in comic books. This poses a difficult, but not insurmountable, problem. With
proper training, motivated individuals, and institutional support, the only barrier that remains is
inaction.
121

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the Interview:
First, thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. The purpose of this study is to
gain a better understanding of the recruitment practices and process of the College of Education,
and how those practices and processes have contributed or hindered the College of Education’s
recruitment efforts of students of color into their preservice teaching programs.
Introductory Protocol
1. Could you tell me about your role within the College of Education? (Background
knowledge and information gathering)
2. Please describe the College of Education’s commitment to recruiting teacher
candidates of color. (Organization: CMI 1)
3. Could you tell me how the College of Education goes about recruiting teacher
candidates of color? (Organization: CMI 2, CSI 2)
4. Could you share with me any potential challenges or barriers you as an Administrator
may have encountered trying to recruit teacher candidates of color? (Knowledge:
Declarative)
5. What policies or procedures exist in the College of Education that are focused on
increasing teacher candidates of color population? (Organization: CSI 2)
6. Could you share with me any potential challenges or barriers you believe the College
of Education encounters trying to recruit teacher candidates of color? (Knowledge:
Declarative; Organization: CSI 1,2)
7. What do you believe Administrators within the College of Education need to know to
be prepared to recruit teacher candidates of color? (Knowledge: Procedural)
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8. What do you believe are the impact of Administrators within the College of
Education on the efforts to recruit teacher candidates of color? (Knowledge:
Metacognitive)
9. Speaking directly to the College of Education’s current practices, what do you see as
a strength of the current recruitment plan? (Knowledge Declarative, Organization:
CSI2)
10. To what degree do you feel confident in your ability or your colleagues of
Administrators collectively to recruit teacher candidates of color? (Motivation: Self-
Efficacy)
11. Speaking directly about recruiting, can you tell me how you as an Administrator
value your role in the College of Education’s teacher candidates of color?
(Motivation-Expectancy-Value)
12. As an administrator, to what extent have you encountered organizational culture
barriers that you believe are impacting the recruitment of teacher candidates of color?
(Organization: CSI 1)
13. If anything, what do you believe the College of Education should do to aid you and
other Administrators in your efforts to recruit more teacher candidates of color to the
College of Education? (Organization-CSI 1, 2)
Transition Questions
14. Why do you believe the College of Education should value efforts to recruiting and
supporting teacher candidates of color? (Motivation: Expectancy-Value;
Organization: CMI 1)
148

15. What incentives or recognition are given to administrators, faculty, and staff for
recruiting teacher candidates of color? (Organization: CSI 1,2))
16. What resources do you believe would make the College of Education more
successful in recruiting teacher candidates of color? (Organization: CMI 1,2; CSI
1,2)
17. How does the College of Education receive feedback from administrators, faculty,
staff, and students to help increase its critical mass of teacher candidates of color? (
Knowledge-Procedural, Organization: CSI 2))
18. What consequences do you believe exist if the College of Education does not change
its current recruitment practices to improve the critical mass of teacher candidates of
color ?( Knowledge: Metacognitive, Organization)
19. Do you have any other thoughts about the recruitment of teacher candidates of color
within the College of Education? (K,M,O)
Conclusion to the Interview
Post Interview Comments and/or Observations:
______, thank you for taking the time to meet with me today to discuss my strong interest in
closing the recruitment gap of teacher candidates of color within the College of Education. I
enjoyed learning about your organization’s efforts to recruit teacher candidates of color. As a
former underrepresented faculty having worked in this institution, I am keenly aware of the
challenging circumstances rural institutions face in trying to recruit and I admire you and the
other leaders’ efforts to address the critical mass of teacher candidates of color within your
college. Our conversation today further strengthened my interest in working towards increasing
149

the number of teacher candidates of color. Thank you again for our conversation and look
forward to sharing the culminating results with you from this study when completed.

150

Appendix B: Document Analysis Protocol
1. College of Education’s websites along with connected resources (e.g., marketing
material) and available links.
2. College of Education’s recruitment plan, published research by the College of Education
on recruitment of teacher candidates of color, or similar.
3. A review of public findings, newspaper articles, public communication releases, and
financial records related to recruiting teacher candidates and teacher candidates of color.
RQ1. What is the current status of the organization related to the recruitment of
student teacher candidates of color?
RQ2. What are the administrators’ needs and assets related to knowledge and
motivation factors regarding the population of student teacher candidates
of color?
RQ3. How do the organization’s current recruitment practices contribute to or
hinder increasing teacher candidates of color?
College of Education’s website (and connected resources) analysis prompts:
1. Do the organization’s website and marketing material illustrate its efforts to recruit
teacher candidates of color? (RQ1, RQ3)
2. Are there links connecting the site visitor to resources for potential teacher candidates of
color recruits (e.g., financial aid, mentorship opportunities, internships, research
opportunities)? (RQ1, RQ3)
3. What resources does the College of Education provide for administrators to use in their
efforts to improve their website or marketing material related to the recruitment of
teacher candidates of color? (RQ2, RQ3)

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College of Education recruitment plan (or published research by the College of Education)
regarding teacher candidates of color research analysis prompts:
1. Is there an indication of accountability in reducing disparities in recruitment based on
race/ethnicity? (RQ3)
2. Is there an investment of resources devoted to identifying recruitment disparities and
have they increased mitigated these disparities? (RQ1, RQ2, RQ3)
3. Does an administrator’s position in the organization influence that administrator’s ability
to recruit teacher candidates of color? (RQ2, RQ3)
4. Has the College of Education (or, have their administrators) gathered data specific to
recruiting teacher candidates of color and best practices for their organization? (RQ1,
RQ2, RQ3)
5. What resources are made available to administrators within the College of Education and
are these resources efficacious for their efforts to recruit teacher candidates of color?
(RQ2, RQ3)
Public findings, newspaper articles, financial records, and communications analysis prompts:
1. What factors impact the recruitment of teacher candidates of color (e.g., social justice,
recruitment drives in communities of color, or current events)? (RQ1, RQ3)
2. Do public findings, such as marketing material and articles published by the College of
Education, conflict with administrators’ perspectives within the College of Education
regarding recruitment work being conducted or accomplished? (RQ1, RQ3)
3. What communication and financial resources are made available for administrators in
their efforts to recruit teacher candidates of color? (RQ2, RQ3)

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Burrell, Andre Ralon (author)

Core Title When they teach us: recruiting teacher candidates of color for the next generation of students, an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 04/27/2022

Defense Date 04/27/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag College,OAI-PMH Harvest,recruitment,students of color,teachers of color

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney (committee member), Wilcox, Alexandra (committee member)

Creator Email andreburrell@gmail.com,arburrel@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111136588

Unique identifier UC111136588

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Burrell, Andre Ralon

Type texts

Source 20220428-usctheses-batch-934 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu