University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Investigating how general education middle school teachers support the social inclusion of students with special needs

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Investigating how general education middle school teachers support the social inclusion of students with special needs

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INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS
SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

by

Rebecca Lee Canges

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Rebecca Lee Canges
i

DEDICATION

I am under no illusion that I could have accomplished this without the unwavering
support of my family and I dedicate this to them.
To Thien, I cannot fully express the depth of my appreciation for your support
during this process. Not to mention all of the other "projects" I've taken on within the
years that you have known me. You have made many sacrifices...and I appreciate every
one of them. Can you believe it? No more school!
To Cooper, you have served as my inspiration from the beginning. Your laughter
kept me going when I felt overwhelmed...and watching you grow has inspired me to be a
better person, a better teacher, and the best mother I can be. You are everything I ever
hoped for and more.
To my mom, your faith in me is truly amazing. Thank you for providing me with
a lifetime of encouragement and strength so that I could accomplish this goal. My success
is truly a reflection of the principles you instilled in me.
Finally, to my dad. You are always on my mind. When I began this journey it
never occurred to me that you would not be here to celebrate its completion. However, I
know that you are watching and would, if you could, tell everyone about your
daughter...the doctor.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee; Dr. Margo
Pensavalle, Dr. Kim Hirabayashi, and Dr. Shireen Pavri, for their guidance and support
throughout this process. It was truly a journey...a journey that led me back to what
inspired me to become a teacher in the first place; helping kids feel accepted.
I would also like to thank the teachers, students, and school that participated in
this study. Your openness and acceptance of me was truly appreciated.
I would like to acknowledge my family at California State University, Long
Beach. From the beginning (literally) you were all there for me. Your ongoing support
and guidance helped me realize that I could achieve great things. Thank you for always
understanding...always listening...and always providing me with the encouragement I
needed throughout this process.
Thank you to my family and friends who have stuck with me during these three
years. It fills my heart to know that I have such caring, supportive and loving people
surrounding me.
Finally, to the educators that shared this three year journey with me. Thank you
for the laughs and words of encouragement along the way. I am proud to call you my
friends...and look forward to calling you doctor!

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW ...........................................................................................1
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .....................................................15
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................51
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..........................................................................................66
FIGURE 1 ……………………………………………………………………….69
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................101
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................124
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................136
Appendix A: Social Support Interview: Teacher ....................................................136
Appendix B: Social Support Interview: Student .....................................................137
Appendix C: Observation Field Notes Template................................................... 138

iv

ABSTRACT
Because of the focus on inclusion in public schools today, the interest regarding
how to effectively support students with special needs in the general education
environment, both academically and socially has been ignited. While we have witnessed
an increase in the academic success of students included in general education classrooms,
we have not yet successfully identified specific strategies a teacher can use to meet the
social needs of students with special needs included in their classroom. Because of this,
the research question used to guide this study asked how general education teachers
promote the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom so that
effective strategies may be established for other teachers to implement.
Through a combination of teacher interviews, interviews with students with
special needs, and classroom observations, the findings of this study offers insight into
the strategies general education teachers identify as important to promote the social
acceptance of students with special needs included in their classrooms. Collectively, the
general education teachers that participated in this study reported that the following
strategies were essential to increasing the social acceptance of students with special needs
in their classrooms (1) Arranging the Environment, (2) Establishing a Tone of Respect in
the Classroom, (3) Providing Instructional Support, (4) Providing Peer Support, and (5)
Providing Direct Instruction for Social Support. However, classroom observations and
results from student interviews revealed significant discrepancies between the teacher's
knowledge of the strategies and their practice.

1

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

Securing acceptance in society can be a major obstacle for individuals with
special needs. Before the passage of Public Law 94-142, commonly known as the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1975, students with special needs
were educated in learning environments that were segregated from their non-disabled
peers, often receiving a sub-par education within institutions and specialized schools. In
some cases, parents were forced to pay for private schools because public schools did not
provide appropriate educational settings for their children (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).
Schools are, possibly, the most important venue for social opportunities for children and
youth. Yet, through their use of labeling and segregation, schools unintentionally foster
the development of negative attitudes towards students with special needs. More often
than not, individuals with special needs are viewed as different and treated as somehow
less than others making it increasingly difficult for them to be socially accepted and
viewed as equal members of the school community (Swaim & Morgan, 2001).
Perhaps one of the greatest challenges faced by individuals with special needs lies
in the barriers created as a result of society’s adverse attitudes and persistent prejudice
toward them. Many sociologists agree that society plays a role in the development and
maintenance of prejudicial attitudes (Johnson, 2006). Generally each society maintains its
impermissible and permissible prejudices. Impermissible prejudices are those most
people recognize as such. However, permissible prejudices are those that may be inherent
and not recognized as prejudice. Instead, the prejudicial views are seen as truths based on

2

historical and cultural views (Johnson, 2006). According to Shapiro (1999), negative
attitudes about individuals with special needs are learned early in life through cultural
influences such as family, school, the media, and literature. For example, many children
are introduced to stereotypical images that portray people with special needs as those to
be ridiculed, feared, or dismissed when watching movies or reading classic fairy tales.
Examples of this can be seen in the Disney animated version of Victor Hugo’s (1831)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame where the title character is berated and ridiculed by the
townspeople who hail him as “the ugliest face in Paris”. Laughter fills this scene as the
Hunchback is mocked for his appearance and crowned the “King of Fools” teaching
children that those who look different from the mainstream public are different and
should be treated as such. Views such as these can also be seen in other childhood tales
such as Beauty and the Beast, The Frog Prince and The Ugly Duckling. The
consequences of such beliefs result in segregation and avoidance of individuals with
special needs and because there is no real pressure from society to think any differently,
the negative attitudes become permissible prejudice.
Though societal barriers persist, structural changes within schools have provided
individuals with special needs an avenue toward equality and acceptance. While many
school districts continue to segregate children with disabilities by placing them in special
education classrooms separate from their typically developing peers, mandates like IDEA
remind us that “the education of students with disabilities can be made more effective by
having high expectations for such children and ensuring their access to the general
education curriculum to the maximum extent possible” (IDEA-2007, Sec. 601 (c) (5)

3

(A)).As a result of legal mandates to protect the rights of individuals with special needs,
the move toward full-inclusion and educating students with special needs in the Least
Restrictive Environment (LRE) has become more prevalent.
Full inclusion refers to providing education for students with special needs,
regardless of the severity or type of disability, in the general education classroom for the
entire school day (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Advocates of inclusion maintain that all
students have the right to be educated along-side typical peers, and believe that by being
included in a general education classroom, students with special needs will experience
stronger academic and social achievements (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Simultaneously,
proponents of inclusion feel that the stigma that exists about individuals with special
needs can be reduced when students with special needs are educated with their typical
peers (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996).Studies have shown that when students with special
needs are included in general education classrooms they improve their test performance,
have a higher rate of meeting Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals, and increase
their chances of completing high school and attending college (Rea, McLaughlin, &
Walther-Thomas, 2002). Family members of individuals with special needs that are
included in general education classrooms have pointed out that their children have greater
access to positive role models, increase their self-esteem, are more likely to form
friendships, and are better prepared for the real world (McLeskey, 2007).
While our education system continues to move toward more inclusive practices,
some fear that placement in the general education classroom is neither effective nor
appropriate for every student with a special need. Opponents of the inclusion movement

4

express concern stating that general education teachers are not prepared to educate
students with special needs and, therefore, cannot provide them with the specialized
curriculum and accommodations that they require (Dymond & Russel, 2004). Limited
materials and support in addition to the large class sizes are additional reasons related to
why some oppose inclusion. Furthermore, parents of students with special needs have
expressed concern that if placed in a general education classroom, their children will not
have access to an individualized education or instruction for functional life skills. Finally,
studies have noted that students that are included may feel frustrated, unsupported, and
isolated (Eisenman & Tascione, 2002). While many teachers often assume that the mere
physical presence of students with special needs in the classroom is enough to foster the
student's social acceptance research has revealed that without specific strategies to create
a socially accepting classroom environment, students with special needs struggle to
develop authentic friendships with their typically developing peers (Siperstein, Parker,
Norins-Bardon, & Widaman, 2007; Swaim & Morgan, 2001).
While much of the research has focused on ways general education teachers can
support the academic needs of students with special needs that are included, over the last
decade there has been an increased interest in the social functioning of students with
special needs in inclusive settings (Anderman, 2003; Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005;
Korinek, Walther-Thomas, McLaughlin, & Toler Williams, 1999; Meadan & Monda-
Amaya, 2008; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Pearl, Van Acker, Rodkin, Bost, Coe, & Henley,
1998). Although studies have found that placement in an inclusive setting can improve a
student’s school experience by enhancing their self-esteem (Mastropieri& Scruggs,

5

2010), barriers hindering the social acceptance of students with special needs continue to
exist. Widespread implementation of inclusion programs has been paralleled by the
realization that children’s attitudes about their peers with special needs are a key element
in the success of inclusive education. In fact, negative attitudes held by students without
disabilities about their peers with special needs are generally recognized as a key barrier
to successful social inclusion at school (McDougall, DeWitt, King, Miller, & Killip,
2004) and are often the cause behind students with special needs feeling socially isolated.
Children bring a set of social interaction skills to social settings, such as a
classroom. However, many children with special needs possess social difficulties which
may prohibit their ability to engage a peer and establish friendships (Court & Givon,
2003). Teachers have revealed that typically developing students are unsure as to how to
enter into a relationship with their peers with special needs (Colwell, Thompson, &
Burke, 2001) and admit that they struggle with providing the skills and strategies to
facilitate these relationships in their classroom. These findings raise a variety of questions
about the availability of social supports for students with special needs that are included
in general education classrooms as well as how educators can assist in promoting the
social acceptance of students with special needs. Since one of the principal goals of
inclusion for children with special needs is to develop social acceptance and increase
positive social interactions with typical peers, research is needed to identify effective
skills and strategies that general education teachers can utilize to promote the social
acceptance of their students with special needs.

6

Over the past three decades, attempts to generate increased opportunities for
social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs has focused on teaching
social skills to the target student with special needs (Sapon-Shevin, Dobbelaere,
Corrigan, Goodman, & Mastin, 1998). Although appropriate social behaviors typically
increase as a result of social skills interventions (McIntosh, Vaughn, & Zaragoza, 1991)
studies have shown that there is little correlation between the implementation of social
skills interventions and an increase in social acceptance of students with special needs
(Vaughn, McIntosh, & Spencer-Rowe, 1991). School-wide programs such as Circle of
Friends (Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, Hummel, & Nance, 2008) and Best Buddies (Grenot-
Scheyer, Staub, Peck, & Schwartz, 1998) have also been implemented to aid in the social
acceptance of students with special needs. These programs center on recruiting students
without disabilities in “befriending” a student with special needs. While such programs
continue to be implemented in schools as a way to promote social interactions between
students with and without special needs, a noted concern is that the programs fail to
produce true reciprocity and preservation of friendships (Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998).
Without a means to foster the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special
needs so that friendships can occur naturally within the classroom, the relationships that
are formed may remain superficial and one-sided (Sapon-Shevin, et al., 1998).
One fundamental building block to the successful inclusion of students with
special needs is to ensure that the classroom possesses essential elements of an effective
inclusive program with a culture of acceptance. Educators have agreed that some of the
critical components required in an inclusive classroom that may facilitate a student’s

7

social development include: a) creating an environment that embraces a sense of
community where differences are valued; b) employing a range of strategies that will
assist students in developing natural and ongoing social relationships; c) Implementing an
array of strategies to develop students pro-social skills; and d) structuring the classroom
and instruction to allow for flexible grouping and authentic learning experiences
(McLeskey, 2007). Given this, research must now focus on the skills and strategies
educators can use to consistently facilitate social learning opportunities in these settings
so that students with special needs are no longer seen as an inclusion student, but as a
valued and equal member of the classroom community.
Statement of the Problem

Inclusive schools and classrooms afford numerous opportunities for students with
special needs to develop social relationships with their typically developing peers.
However, time and time again, research reveals that students with special needs are
socially rejected by their typical peers both in and outside of the inclusive classroom
(Heward, 2006; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Lucas, 1999; Pearl et al., 1998; Vaughn &
Haager, 1994). Being socially isolated from your peer group can result in depression that
can deepen over time; eventually contributing to a negative self-image and issues with
proper social functioning as an adult (Court & Givon, 2003). While schools have
recognized that peer rejection is a persistent problem for students with special needs,
there have been inadequate methods implemented to prevent it.
Although numerous policies and legislation for including students with special
needs have been put in place during the past 30 years, currently, many schools rely on

8

increased contact through the physical act of inclusion to promote the social acceptance
of students with special needs. However, research has revealed that it will take much
more than physically integrating students with special needs to alter typically developing
children's negative attitudes so that they will accept students with special needs into their
social network (Freeman, 2000). In a study that examined the attitudes of students with
varying levels of experience in inclusion programs, Krajewski and Hyde (2000)
concluded that, over time, some small positive shifts in attitude occurred among typically
developing peers when just contact was made. However, a review of the data also
suggested that, by and large, the attitudes of typically developing peers stayed the same
or in some instances, became more negative toward their peers with special needs. The
inconsistencies observed among the student's attitudes were attributed to the schools
over-reliance on contact between the peers as their primary method for breaking down
stereotypes rather than utilizing strategies for creating school and classroom cultures of
acceptance. Findings such as these indicate that contact is not enough; promoting social
acceptance needs to be intentionally facilitated by school personnel; and more
specifically, teachers.
Because children spend a substantial portion of their day in classrooms, the social
support they receive from their teachers could possibly play an important role in their
academic and social functioning. In fact, preliminary research has indicates that a
teacher's attitude toward their students with special needs is one of the most powerful
factors in the students being accepted by their peers (Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore,
students with special needs have reported feeling more comfortable in their inclusive

9

classroom when their teacher treats them as an equal member of the classroom culture
rather than segregating them by, for example, placing them in the back of the classroom
with a paraprofessional (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001). There is a need to explore effective
intervention strategies that a general education teacher can use to facilitate a climate of
acceptance for students with special needs in the general education classroom. Therefore,
this study investigated the strategies general education teachers are currently using to
provide a socially supportive and accepting classroom environment for students with
special needs so that concrete methods for promoting the social inclusion of students with
special needs in inclusive settings can be documented. In addition, the findings highlight
whether the teachers are implementing the strategies they deem as essential as well as if
the students with special needs are receptive to the strategies their teachers use. Without a
common consensus based on research findings related to effective methods for promoting
a socially accepting classroom, schools will persist in their over-reliance on mere
physical inclusion to promote social acceptance of students with special needs. This
dependence on ineffective habitual practices will make it increasingly difficult for
students with special needs to develop social networks among their typically developing
peers and, in the end, contribute to the social isolation they endure.
Purpose of the Study

The role that the teacher plays in creating the social environment within which
classroom peer relationships develop has received little attention in the literature
(Anderman, 2003; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the strategies general education middle school teachers are implementing to

10

provide a socially accepting classroom for students with special needs. Furthermore, the
perceptions of students with special needs regarding their teacher’s ability to socially
support them in the classroom were investigated. Much of the literature suggests that
students with special needs have a difficult time engaging in social interactions and
forming friendships with their peers with and without disabilities (Freeman, 2000;
Heward, 2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). In addition, a
vast number of studies have indicated that students without special needs possess
negative attitudes about their peers with special needs (Vaughn & Haager, 1994; Pearl et
al., 1998; Lucas, 1999; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Heward, 2006). Though the
literature on teachers’ attitudes reveal overall positive perceptions toward the concept of
inclusion, limited understanding and inadequate preparation on how to deal with the
social and behavioral differences of students with special needs are frequently cited as
contributors to teacher failure to provide social support for them in the classroom
(Korinek et al., 1999; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Furthermore, scarce research on the most
effective methods a teacher should employ to support the social inclusion and acceptance
of students with special needs in a general education classroom indicates a gap between
research-based theory and practice. To examine the current practices used to provide a
socially accepting classroom for students with special needs by general education
teachers the following research question will be explored in this study:
How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of
students with special needs in their classroom?

11

Importance of the Study
Historically, special education research has focused on placement, service-
delivery options, and providing support for general education teachers so that they can
academically support the students with special needs in the inclusive environment
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). Few studies have focused on how general education
teachers are providing social support for students with special needs so that the students
are able to develop authentic relationships with their typical peers. However,
implementation of regular practice curricula that increases the acceptance and
socialization for students with special needs has been targeted by educational researchers
as an important element to explore (Freeman, 2000; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). Far too often,
educators are assuming that by simply physically including a student with special needs
in the general education classroom environment, you will see positive social interactions
unfold. As is evident from the number of studies that show typically developing students
continue to hold negative attitudes towards their peers with special needs, even when in
inclusive classroom settings, it is recognized that more needs to be done so that students
with special needs are seen as equal members of the classroom. Having equal status
would provide students with special needs with the same opportunities to engage and be
accepted into the classroom’s social networks.
Because the relationships developed during childhood play a central role in later-
life adjustment, it is imperative that schools create a culture that supports and promotes
acceptance of diverse students; especially those with special needs (Anderman, 2003;
Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008). Significant correlations have been found between

12

rejection by peers and high anxiety, maladjustment, and hostility among individuals with
special needs later in life (Damico & Sparks, 1986). Findings such as this highlight the
urgency to explore effective intervention strategies that will facilitate a climate of
acceptance for students with special needs in the inclusive setting. By providing
increased social and educational support in our schools and, more specifically, our
classrooms, we may be able to alter students’ negatives attitudes towards their peers with
special needs. Such support can assist with breaking down the barriers that exist between
these two groups of students so that authentic friendships may develop and students with
special needs are not condemned to endure the ramifications of social isolation that they
experience as adolescents into their adult lives.
School programs that are developed to increase contact and encourage supportive,
respectful, and responsible relationships among students with and without special needs
have proven to be effective in establishing a more accepting school climate (McDougall
et al., 2004). Without the efforts of a school to promote social acceptance, students tend
to associate only with other students whom they already know and who are most like
themselves (Korinek et al., 1999). However, by creating a classroom and school
community of social acceptance and appreciation of diversity, schools will witness a
culture that exhibits social benefits for all students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) and
could subsequently, aid in the successful implementation of inclusion programs. This
study will contribute to the field by identifying effective strategies implemented by
general education teachers to provide a socially accepting classroom environment for
students with special needs.

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Limitations and Delimitations
Certain limitations must be considered when reviewing this study. First, the data
was gathered from a relatively small sample of teachers in one school district in Southern
California. Future investigations that focus on larger numbers of teachers and expand
data collection beyond one school district would help to provide evidence regarding
generalizability to these findings.
A second limitation involves the use of interviews as a source of qualitative data.
As Patton (2002) notes, interviews have the possibility of containing distorted
information due to anxiety within the participant. Further, interview data is subject to
recall error of the researcher. To account for these limitations, running field notes were
included within the data to provide checks and corroboration on what is stated during the
interview. In addition, each interview was digitally recorded to account for any possible
recall error.
A noted delimitation in this study stems from the use of purposeful, rather than
random sampling of the study participants. Though random sampling lends itself to
increased empirical generalizations, purposeful sampling can yield critical information
and in-depth understandings about specific questions asked (Patton, 2002). Given that
this study sought to investigate how exemplary general education middle school teachers
were providing social support for their included students, it was vital to use purposeful
sampling in order to select participants that would serve as high-quality examples.

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Definition of Terms
______________________________________________________________________
Terms Definitions

Attitude Attitudes are complex and, therefore, difficult to
define. However, researchers agree that attitudes
consist of cognitive, affective, and behavioral
intentions (Lee & Rodda, 1994). A number of
definitions regarding the term attitude exist. For the
purposes of this paper, attitude is defined as, “a
psychological tendency that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of
favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1, as
cited in Beck & Fritz-Verticchio, 2003).

Inclusion The education of students with special needs in the
general education classroom, under the
guidance of the general education classroom
teacher (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).

Individuals with Disabilities “A law passed in 1975 that specified that all
Education Act (IDEA) children-including those with disabilities formerly
excluded from school-were entitled to a free,
appropriate public education” (Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 2010, p. 3).

Social Acceptance Associated with a child's acceptance level among
his/her peers; how much other children want to be
with that child (Freeman, 2000)

Social Support A process by which individuals feel valued, cared
for and connected to a group of people”
(Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p. 391).

Student with special needs Students served by IDEA under one of the 13
disability categories.

Typically developing students Most people look, move, communicate, behave, and
learn in general patterns that we call “typical” or
“average”. Therefore, students who have developed
without any identifiable disabilities, as noted by
IDEA, will be referred to as typically developing.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

Over the last 30 years, educating students with special needs in the general
education classroom environment has received considerable attention. The movement
toward a more inclusive education for students with special needs gained legislative
recognition in the United States with the passing of Public Law 94-142, The Education
for all Handicapped Children’s Act, in 1975. Although the goals of inclusion include both
academic and social objectives, research has revealed that for it to be considered truly
successful, the inclusive environment must support the development of authentic
relationships between students with and without special needs (Meyer, Park, Grenot-
Scheyer, Schwartz, & Harry, 1998). Unfortunately, studies have shown that students with
special needs that are included in the general education classroom setting are frequently
teased and insulted by their typically developing peers (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) resulting
in them feeling socially isolated and unaccepted by their peer group. Although general
education teachers, on average, feel prepared to support the academic needs of their
included students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008), many report that they do not feel
equipped to effectively support their social inclusion (Freeman, 2000; Korinek et al.,
1999).
In order to maximize the effectiveness of an inclusive placement for a student
with special needs, there needs to be a clear understanding and awareness of the tools and
strategies general education teachers can put into practice to create a socially accepting

16

classroom environment for students with special needs. Without this, teachers may
overlook the critical need behind the implementation of social learning opportunities to
promote the acceptance of students with special needs in their classrooms, leaving the
students feeling socially segregated from their peers.
For this literature review, the following key ideas have been identified to support
the research question:
1. Inclusion: A Brief Overview
2. Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory
3. Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs
4. The Need for Social Acceptance
5. Building a Classroom Culture of Social Acceptance
Before offering a summary, a literature-based rationale for the methodologies
used in the study to collect data is presented.
Inclusion: A Brief Overview

“Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut
you in and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and
sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship
before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way of knowing
how near the harbor was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light
of love shone on me in that very hour.”
--Helen Keller

As students with special needs have gained equal access to a public education we
have witnessed a move from separate schools and institutions to special education classes
on public school campuses. Further, some students with special needs are now receiving
their education alongside typically developing peers in general education classroom
settings. This placement option, frequently referred to as inclusion, is an educational

17

reform movement seeking to establish full integration of students with special needs in
the general education environment. Though the literature offers a multitude of
definitions, for the purposes of this study, inclusion refers to “placing and serving all
students with special needs, regardless of the severity or type of disability, entirely within
the general education classroom for the entire school day” (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010,
p. 19). According to Friend and Bursuck (2009), inclusive practices have three
dimensions: a) physical integration, where students are placed in a classroom with their
typical peers; b) instructional integration, where curriculum is provided with the same
level of high quality instruction for all learners in the classroom; and c) social integration,
where relationships between students with and without special needs are nurtured.
The notion of inclusive education is based on the belief that students with special
needs should be fully integrated into their school communities by participating in all
facets of general education including but not limited to the classroom, cafeteria, hallways,
and common social meeting areas, for example, a school quad used for lunch. In addition,
the instruction they receive should be based on their abilities, not their disabilities. When
students with special needs are selectively integrated in general education settings they
are said to be mainstreamed (Friend & Bursuck, 2009). With mainstreaming, students
continue to be pulled-out of the general education environment to a special education
classroom setting for the majority of the day. Whereas in inclusive models the general
education teacher maintains the responsibility for the child’s education throughout the
school day (Grenot-Scheyer, Jubala, Bishop, & Coots, 1996). Therefore, it is essential

18

that general education teachers are prepared to support these students both academically
and socially so that their inclusion experience is successful.
While many educators agree that students with special needs should have access
to the general education curriculum by being included, many question the appropriateness
of placing all students with special needs in a general education classroom. Anti-
inclusion attitudes are commonly found among educators and parents of students with
special needs who express concern that the general education teachers are not prepared to
accommodate their children (Salend & Duhaney, 1999) stating that there are few pre-
service credential programs that explicitly prepare general education teachers to work
with students with special needs (Pugach, Shaker, Shanley, & Yinger, 2002). In addition,
with the recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
and the onset of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) there has been a push to educate all
students according to the state standards. Subsequently, some parents of students with
special needs are concerned that their children will not develop the functional life skills
they perceive their children need to be successful in their community (Billingsley &
Albertson, 1999). Finally, though advocates believe that inclusion in the general
education environment will result in increased social opportunities with typical peers;
several studies have shown that students that are included are often ridiculed by students
in their classroom (Pivak, McComas & Laflamme, 2002). Subsequently, opponents of
inclusion elect to keep their students in special education classrooms to “protect” them
from the possibility of rejection from their typical peers.

19

While steeped in controversy, many educators and parents of students with special
needs agree that inclusive placements are associated with positive outcomes in academics
and promote social learning opportunities between students with and without special
needs that would not otherwise occur in a segregated special education classroom
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Palmer Fuller, Aurora, & Nelson, 2001; Pavri & Monda-
Amaya, 2001). Placement in the general education environment, even for part of the day,
can provide opportunities for expanding social networks and building authentic
relationships with typical peers (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Further, research has
shown that student’s attitudes toward them are more positive when their peers with
special needs are fully included (Freeman, 2000). Not only do they benefit from the
experience of being in an inclusive school environment, but they can increase their
awareness by learning about their peers with special needs (McDougall, et al., 2004).
Finally, it has been recognized that students who are included are more likely to pass
state-wide assessments and increase their chances of completing high school, going to
college, and obtaining a job (Salend & Duhaney, 1999).
In their book The Inclusive Classroom Grenot-Scheyer, Bishop, Jubala, & Coots
(1996) sum up inclusion by stating:
Inclusion is really about school change to improve the educational system for all students.
It means changes in the curriculum, changes in how teachers teach and how students
learn, as well as changes in how students with and without disability labels interact with
and relate to one another (p. 1).

Although many battles have been waged to achieve equal access to education for
individuals with special needs they continue to be labeled as the least understood
minority. Opposition towards inclusion can lead to further segregation of individuals with

20

special needs. Thus perpetuating the structural constraints that exist in schools for
children with special needs and making it difficult for them to develop successful social
relationships with their typical peers. A child’s social world is critical to their
development. Classroom contexts can be fashioned to support a students’ social world by
being inclusive of all learners. By organizing educational programs that minimize the
social interactions students have with each other, schools may be restricting essential
social learning opportunities (Grenot-Scheyer et al., 1998). In fact, considerable
differences exists between students in schools with segregated settings and inclusive
schools in terms of whether students develop friendships with peers with special needs
and whether students with special needs had friends in general (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). In
a study conducted by Bunch and Valeo (2004) where they assessed students’ attitudes
regarding their peers with special needs through interviews, a number of the students in
the inclusive school settings revealed that contact with peers with special needs through
inclusion had a positive effect on the development of their friendships. One student stated
that she wanted students with special needs in her class because “you make new friends
in a regular class” (p.66). Whereas, students in schools without inclusion commented that
the students with special needs probably made friends with other kids with special needs.
Qualitative findings such as these underline the reality that social and academic
interaction between typically developing students and their peers with special needs are
strikingly different in schools with and without contact, and that these structures have an
effect on students’ attitudes.

21

Research has shown that although progress has been made, we have not done
enough to promote positive relationships between students with and without special
needs. Though inclusion has helped, students with special needs continue to be socially
rejected by their typically developing peers (Freeman, 2000). It has been noted that we
cannot rely on the simple act of physical inclusion itself to foster positive attitudes
(Siperstein et al., 2007). Therefore, it is essential that schools integrate other supports to
facilitate the acceptance and belonging of students with special needs among their peer
group (Pavri & Luftig, 2001).
Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory

“Living a life is like constructing a building: if you start wrong, you'll end wrong.”
--Maya Angelou

Including students with special needs in general education classroom settings can
provide social benefits for students with and without special needs (Friend & Bursuck,
2009; Johnson, 2006; Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008). The research indicates that
students without special needs that participate in inclusive classrooms develop a greater
knowledge and acceptance of individual differences, are less likely to believe in and
contribute to stereotypical views about individuals with special needs, and become more
caring individuals (Burstein, Sears, Wilcoxen, Cabello, & Spagna, 2004; Krajewski &
Hyde, 2000). Despite the progress that has been made in terms of integrating students
with special needs in the general education classroom environment, it is essential to
recognize that the physical placement of students in general education classes is not an
end in and of itself but rather a means to an end (Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001). Inclusion
should not simply be seen as a physical space; but, rather, a condition that offers a sense

22

of belonging and acceptance of the students. While many schools maintain an over-
reliance on physical inclusion as a way to promote awareness and acceptance of students
with special needs, for inclusion to be truly successful, appropriate programs and specific
strategies must be implemented by the general education teacher to support authentic
social learning opportunities (Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001).
Studies have examined the benefits of the addition of a systematic program or
evidence-based practices for developing positive social learning opportunities, as
opposed to relying on the physical placement of a student with special needs, by looking
through the lens of Gordon Allport’s Contact Theory. Gordon Allport first presented his
Contact Theory in the book entitled The Nature of Prejudice (1954), which explored how
prejudice and discrimination can be reduced through contact. Contact Theory maintains
that prejudice and discrimination toward a minority group will only be reduced when the
contact between the different groups of individuals is specifically designed and executed
so that four conditions are met: a) equal status among the groups, b) common goals, c)
inter-group cooperation supportive of change, and d) the association must be genuine
(Maxwell & Shammas, 2007; Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000). Though this theory
is commonly used when designing school and community practices that reduce prejudice
and discrimination among people (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000) much of the
research is beset with the lack of a clear definition of “contact” (Manetti, Schneider, &
Siperstein, 2001). Therefore, because of an inattentiveness in the research to describe the
factors associated with the nature of the contact between students, school administrators
work under the false assumption that contact without the addition of systematic programs

23

to promote acceptance is enough to facilitate authentic relationships between students
with and without special needs.
A study conducted by McDougall et al., in 2004 explored youth's attitudes about
their peers with special needs, illustrating how insufficient guidelines when using Contact
Theory to promote the acceptance of students with special needs can lead school
professionals to implement the program without a detailed course of action to ensure
effective results. Their study, which surveyed 1,328 students on their attitudes towards
students with special needs found that 61% of those surveyed stated that they had either
"positive" or "very positive" attitudes towards their peers with special needs (McDougall
et al., 2004, p. 302). While their study concluded that these high school students had
more positive attitudes towards their peers with special needs as a result of mere contact,
the study did not document the type of contact the students had or if any specific
programs or strategies were used by their teachers to support the contact that occurred
(Siperstein et al., 2007). Without this guiding evidence, inconsistencies regarding the
effectiveness of programs based in Contact Theory may arise.
Allport (1954) suggested that stereotypes could be altered through contact if the
contact is both recurrent and of high quality. However, he also stressed that the elements
of contact will only be successful “if the contact works in such a manner that it breaks
down existing stereotypes rather than reinforces them” (Allport, 1954-cited in Siperstein
et al., 2007, p.436). Though Allport’s (1954) ideas on contact were not used in research
to change attitudes toward children with special needs until the 1970s a number of studies
have been conducted since that time (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000). These

24

studies indicate that inclusion programs that emphasize a sense of equality in social
status, avoid artificiality, and establish a strong community among its students, as
emphasized by the Contact Theory, reduce stereotypes and have a positive impact on the
attitudes of typical students towards their peers with special needs (Giangreco, Dennis,
Cloninger, Edelman, & Schattman, 1993; Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001;
McDougall et al., 2004; Siperstein et al., 2007). This is why it is critical to ensure the
components proposed by Allport are all established when implementing inclusive
models. In fact, some research has shown that negative attitudes may actually increase if
physical inclusion occurs without pedagogical practices to promote social learning
opportunities and endeavor to dispel the stereotypes held by typical peers that may be
contributing to their views (Shapiro, 1999).
Access to the general education classroom environment does not automatically
guarantee equal outcomes, full participation or social acceptance for students with special
needs (McDougall et al., 2004). If inclusion is to be realized as it is intended; it will
require a focus on educating students without special needs about disabilities and their
peers that possess them while, also, providing a classroom culture of social acceptance
and equality for all learners. Because students with special needs require additional
support and guidance to establish friendships and engage in positive social interactions,
schools should abandon the act of mere physical inclusion as their method for promoting
a more accepting school culture and seek out practices supported by research that will aid
in the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs.

25

Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs

“Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.”
-- Winston Churchill

With the passing of time, the number of students with special needs placed in the
general education classroom setting is rising. During the 1984-1985 school year, the U.S.
Department of Education reported that only 24.6% of students with special needs were
included in a general education classroom. In the 2002-2003 school year, 47% of students
with special needs were reported to be included (Vaughn & Bos, 2009). Though we have
witnessed an increase in inclusive placements, researchers have begun to note the
variables that may impede the success of students when included. Specifically the social
acceptance of students with special needs by their typical peers has been identified as an
area of concern (McDougall et al., 2004; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Westein-Kroft & Vargo,
1984). Therefore, the common variables recognized as barriers to the successful social
inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs will be explored in the following
sections.
Societies Views on Individuals with Disabilities
Although it has been established through legislation that individuals with special
needs are guaranteed equal rights and opportunities for a free and appropriate public
education, laws do not necessarily change the negative attitudes held about them by the
greater part of society. Despite federal acknowledgments, individuals with special needs
continually endure the negative ramifications of persistent stereotypical beliefs and
prejudicial views held about them.

26

While most of the problems faced by individuals with special needs are either
brought on or exacerbated by society, these views are not readily seen as discriminatory
or prejudicial. Instead, society’s views about individuals with special needs are
commonly accepted as permissible prejudices. Nancy Chodorow, a psychoanalyst whose
studies focus on unconscious beliefs and their contribution to the development of an
individual’s personality, describes permissible prejudices as views no one recognizes as
prejudice (Johnson, 2006). Commonly referred to as rational prejudices, permissible
prejudices are those that are seen as assumptions based on beliefs passed on from culture
to culture or generation to generation that have, over the years, become “true” (Johnson,
2006). For example, some cultures instill the attitude that those with special needs must
have sinned in a former life and are now being punished by having a disability (Shapiro,
1999). While there is no scientific evidence to support such a claim, cultures pass on this
belief as truth.
People who hold permissible prejudices do not feel that their beliefs are wrong,
therefore, they see no need for changing their views. Having a permissible prejudice may
lead a person to laugh at an individual who stutters without realizing the detriment to that
person’s self esteem. Or, a person could assume that all individuals with special needs
require assistance from more capable people. What’s more, having a permissible
prejudice may direct a person to believe that if you are in a wheelchair, you must have a
mental challenge as well.
While cultural beliefs and attitudes are recognized as a common contributor to
prejudicial views (Shapiro, 1999) attention has also been paid to the influential means

27

that mass media plays in its perpetuation of stereotypes associated with individuals with
special needs (Westein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984). For example, Baskin (1974-cited in
Westein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984) analyzed 45 children’s books from an elementary school
library that had characters with special needs in them. Results from the analysis revealed
that individuals with physical impairments were portrayed either as incompetent or
lacking skills necessary to function without the support of a non-disabled person. Further
research which analyzed comic books available at local convenience stores revealed that
characters with physical impairments were overwhelming cast at the evil villain,
perpetuating the stereotype that those who possess special needs are often angry,
malicious, and deviant (Westein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984). Finally, as Shapiro (1999) notes,
many fairy tales impress upon children that having a special need is a punishment for
wrong doing. An example of this can be seen in Grimm’s (1945) version of Cinderella
where her stepsisters are blinded when birds peck their eyes out as punishment for being
wicked.
Whether the influences stem from family or cultural beliefs, children's books or
the media, the negative views about individuals with special needs frequently held by
members of society adds to the stigma that exists about them. These faulty beliefs may be
passed down and replicated by younger generations and may, in the end, result in
typically developing students socially rejecting their peers with special needs.
Typical Peers Attitudes about Students with Special Needs
During the past 50 years, a number of studies have focused on the public’s
attitudes toward people with varying disabilities; most focusing on the attitudes of

28

children and youth (Bunch & Valeo, 2004; Lee & Rodda, 1994; Morrison & Ursprung,
1987; Rapier, Adelson, Carey, & Croke, 1971; Royal & Roberts, 1987; Trent, 1993;
Siperstein, Bak, & Gottlieb, 1977; Siperstein, et al., 2007; Swaim & Morgan, 2001). The
consistent findings have been, with few exceptions, that student attitudes toward their
peers with special needs are extremely negative and reflect a lack of social acceptance
(Lucas, 1999; Ochoa & Olivarez, 1995; Pearl, 2004; Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein,
2001; Royal & Roberts, 1987; Siperstein et al., 2007).
In 2007, Siperstein et al. gathered data on the multiple aspects of student’s
attitudes about their peers with special needs, specifically those with identified
Intellectual Disabilities (also known as Mental Retardation) through the dissemination of
a national survey to 6,000 middle school students in 47 school districts across 26 states.
The researchers reasoned that contact with and exposure to individuals with special needs
would influence how youth viewed their peers with special needs. They assessed and
compared the results and found that only 10% reported having students with special
needs included or mainstreamed in their classrooms.
While some students in the study reported that including students with special
needs would have a positive impact on them and would make them more accepting of
differences, the majority reported that they would not develop friendships with students
with special needs outside of school (Siperstein et al., 2007). Although some students
reported that they would engage in basic social activities with students with special
needs, such as saying hello in the hall, it is not surprising that only 10% of the students
that responded stated that they had a friend with a special need. This finding led the

29

researchers to conclude that those schools that promoted more integration of students
with special needs via inclusion had higher rates of friendships and positive social
interactions. Furthermore, it was noted that the students that reported having authentic
friendships with peers with special needs were those that attended schools who provided
both contact and opportunities for learning more about the disability that their friend had
(Siperstein et al., 2007).
Negative attitudes held by typically developing students about their peers with
special needs are generally recognized as a key barrier to successful social inclusion at
school (McDougall et al., 2004).Studies have shown that overall, typically developing
students are reluctant to engage in “friend-type” activities with students with special
needs (e.g. inviting the student to their birthday party or going to the movies with them)
(Siperstein et al., 2007); oftentimes stating that students with special needs should be
friends with other students with special needs (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Because students
with special needs are frequently segregated, typically developing students may develop
negative attitudes toward them due to limited exposure, lack of awareness, and
misunderstanding about disabilities (Colwell, Thompson, & Berke, 2001). In addition,
because they do not have an example to show them otherwise, a common perception held
by typically developing students is that students with special needs are less able
academically and socially (Siperstein et al., 2007). To examine the perceptions of
students with special needs about their social acceptance at school, Pivak, McComas, and
Laflamme (2002), interviewed fifteen students (ages 9 to 15 years-old) with orthopedic
impairments (either spina bifida or cerebral palsy) at eight different schools and asked

30

them to identify aspects of school they considered to be barriers to their successful
inclusion. All of the students interviewed identified instances of bullying by their typical
peers as a key barrier; stating that students at their school frequently called them
derogatory names, labeled them as stupid, and would often stare. One student
commented: “the students just stare and point then whisper to each other…all they have
to do is ask me about my disability, but they don’t” (Pivak, McComas, & Laflamme
(2002, p. 102).
Concerns with teasing and insulting of students with special needs are often cited
as the reason to place the students in segregated settings (Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Though
they may be protected from such unpleasant encounters, segregating students with special
needs from their typical peers will, no doubt, limit their opportunities to establish
friendships with them and break the stereotypes that typical peers hold about them
(Bunch & Valeo, 2004). Ultimately, without increasing opportunities for authentic social
interactions, students with special needs will continue to be socially rejected.
General Education Teacher Perceptions about their Students with Special Needs
Looking at the characteristics and elements that play a role in teacher-student
compatibility is important as the teacher's characteristics, attitudes, and perceptions may
contribute to the success or problems students with special needs experience in their
classroom. Successful inclusion is contingent upon positive attitudes and social
acceptance. Attitudes held by general education teachers about the students with special
needs that are included in their classroom provide meaningful insights as to the success or
failure of the inclusive placement (Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007). While some

31

research reveals that general education teachers involved in inclusive environments have
better attitudes toward the concept of inclusion when compared to general education
teachers who are not working in such environments (McLeskey, Waldron, So, Swanson,
& Loveland, 2001), it has been noted that many teachers continue to oppose the concept
of inclusion and hold negative attitudes toward the included students even when the
inclusive programs they are involved in are well designed (Pivak, McComas, &
Laflamme, 2002; Waldron, 2007).
Since the onset of inclusion, there have been a number of studies related to
teacher’s attitudes about students with special needs and their placement in the general
education classroom environment. Concerns highlighted by general education teachers
regarding the students with special needs included in their classrooms typically revolve
around procedural issues, such as how well their school was prepared for inclusion or
how many resources they would be allotted to effectively manage an inclusive classroom
(McLeskey et al., 2001; Waldron, 2007). Many teachers indicate that the specific skills
and strategies needed for providing a successful inclusive environment would interfere
with their ability to manage the classroom and address the curriculum to a high degree
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Added fears stem from the belief that students with
special needs will take away instructional time from the rest of the students due to the
individualized education they often receive (Siperstein et al., 2007).
Though teachers’ negative reaction to inclusion and inclusive students are often
attributed to bureaucratic issues, additional explanations for their negative attitudes relate
to how well prepared the teachers felt they were to support the students academically and

32

socially. According to a study done by Cook (2004), teachers who are under-prepared
(e.g. less experience in the classroom or limited training in working with students with
special needs) may, more frequently, hold a biased attitude towards their students with
special needs. In a later study, Cook, Cameron, and Tankersley (2007) sought to replicate
and extend his initial investigation of general education teacher’s attitudes toward their
included students by utilizing a rating scale to measure the teachers’ level of “attachment,
concern, indifference, or rejection” (p. 232). The findings revealed that teachers typically
nominated students with special needs in the “indifference” or “rejection” category
because they “did not feel knowledgeable about them or responsible for their instruction”
(Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007).
In order for students both with and without special needs to feel psychologically
secure in their school environment, they must feel accepted by both their teachers and
peers (Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001). Many students with special needs experience stress
when they enter middle school (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998). During this time, it is
not uncommon for them to feel less supported socially as they begin to adjust to this new
phase in their life. Social support from family, friends, and adults outside the home, such
as teachers, has been found to be a significant feature of how students deal with the stress
they may experience (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998). Therefore, it is essential that
teachers maintain positive attitudes and perceptions towards their students with special
needs. By fostering negative attitudes toward a specific population of students, teachers
may, inadvertently, aid in their social rejection. Without a positive sense of self efficacy
in their ability to support students with special needs in an inclusive setting, teachers may

33

persist in their negative attitudes; causing barriers to the successful inclusion of students
with special needs. In the end, additional teacher education and training on sensitivity to
the needs of students with special needs may be advantageous.
General Education Teacher Preparation for Working with Students with Special Needs
Critical to successful social integration is the pre-service and in-service
preparation of general education teachers. A commitment to be successful with all
children requires that educators have both the knowledge and skills to serve the diverse
population that encompasses their classroom. The last two decades has witnessed an
increase in the diversity of students served in public schools. The composition of school
populations reveal a broad range of cultures, socioeconomic backgrounds, languages,
family structures, and include a wide range of abilities. General and special educators are
faced with the challenge of creating school environments that support and promote both
the academic and social success of all of their students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya,
2008).
Historically, mainstreaming and inclusion programs were developed with very
little involvement of general educators (McLeskey et al., 2001). During this time,
inclusion was seen as a privilege for students with special needs and reserved for students
who could be successful without any accommodations by the general education teacher.
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the preparation programs for general educators
offered minimal guidance in working with students with special needs. However, with the
recent amendments to IDEA, the expectation that students with special needs should be
served in the general education classroom in order to have access to the same content

34

standards is more prevalent. Therefore, general education teachers must have a command
of strategies to support and educate students with special needs.
While it is understandable that not everything can be learned during formal pre-
service preparation teacher candidates must be taught to “conceptualize their practice and
develop their pedagogy with a vision that all students, including those with disabilities,
will learn to high standards in their classrooms” (Pugach et al., 2002, p. 4). Frequently, in
an effort to meet the individual needs of their included students, general education
teachers overemphasize teacher-directed, one-on-one instruction (Jordan & Stanovich,
2001). While this type of instruction may support a student with special needs learning
style, it results in less student-led exploration, little cooperative learning, and restricted
opportunities for social interactions that could otherwise occur (Meyer, 2001). Without
proper preparation on how to provide effective instruction without relying on direct
instruction or the assistance of a paraprofessional to deliver one-on-one support, a teacher
may, unintentionally, play into the stigma that students with special needs cannot be an
integrated part of the general education classroom. This view impinges upon the student’s
ability to feel like an equal member of the classroom culture, and may, as a result,
demonstrate to typical peers that students with special needs are different.
There is a high level of need for general education teachers to receive training on
appropriate instructional techniques and social support strategies that they can implement
in their classroom so that they will feel adequately prepared to work with students in an
inclusive setting. Teachers can set the stage and play a major role in peer acceptance of
students with special needs if they are prepared and willing to treat them as equal

35

members of the classroom. Aside from directly supporting students in acquiring social
skills, teachers can incorporate strategies for developing a pro-social classroom
environment characterized by acceptance (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1997). Social
relationships can be cultivated by facilitating peer interactions and friendships in the
classroom (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001) and by modifying their instructional practices
to increase awareness in their classroom. Past research has indicated primarily positive
influences on students’ attitudes when both social contact and information received about
peers with special needs is introduced (McDougall et al., 2004). Therefore by teaching
typically developing students about individuals with special needs their willingness to
accept students with special needs into their social network may increase. If a teacher can
assist in guiding typically developing children in having positive social experiences with
students with special needs the barriers that exist between these two groups of students
may be broken and they can grow up with more accepting attitudes.
Students with Special Needs: Contributing factors to their Social Acceptance
While negative attitudes and limited teacher preparation may impede a student
with special need's ability to feel socially accepted, they may not be the only obstacles
students with special needs must endure. Several factors revolving around the student’s
disability may contribute to their struggles with social interactions and peer acceptance.
For example, some children with special needs have deficits in their conversation skills
which may hinder their ability to initiate and engage in social interactions (Vaughn &
Haager, 1994; Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998). In addition, students with special needs
often struggle with appropriately interpreting social cues (Pavri & Luftig, 2001) and

36

initiating and sustaining positive social relationships (Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005).
Students with special needs have also been known to exhibit more aggressive and
negative verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Friend & Bursuck, 2009). Any or all of these
behaviors may impede upon their ability to establish positive social connections (Pavri &
Monda-Amaya, 2001) and, in the end, may result in the student’s persistent social
rejection by their typical peers (Pavri & Luftig, 2001).
The shift into adolescence, specifically the move into middle school, can also play
a role in the struggle students have with feeling socially supported and accepted. The
preexisting difficulties that come with having a disability compounded with the
increasing academic and social demands of middle school have been highlighted as
stressors that may thwart the social adjustment of students with special needs (Wenz-
Gross & Siperstein, 1997). If social acceptance is, for the most part, a function of positive
interpersonal contact, then the problems many students with special needs experience
with obtaining acceptance from their typically developing peers may be attributed to the
contact opportunities that a school or, more specifically, a classroom at the middle school
level provides. Within the elementary school setting, social and academic groupings are
common practice; allowing a relatively large amount of contact and interaction to occur
among students within one core classroom (Damico & Sparks, 1986). At the middle
school level, however, students may have upward of eight different classes. This may
reduce the feeling of having a core classroom culture to rely on for support and
relationships. Furthermore, many schools implement organizational policies that
segregate students. This can occur, for example, when schools place students in

37

classrooms based on test scores. Moreover, in middle school many teachers view
education as primarily consisting of teacher-talk and seat work (Carteldge & Talbert-
Johnson, 1996); which may contribute to the loneliness and isolation students with special
needs feel as they are rarely give opportunities to interact with their typical peers in
academic settings. Generally speaking, the middle school structure presents a barrier for
students with special needs to establish relationships with their typical peers because it
begins to reduce opportunities for peer interactions just as the need for relationships is
increasing (Damico & Sparks, 1986).
Adolescence is a significant time in a child's social world (Court & Givon, 2003).
Puberty, and the shift to middle school and beyond, is considered to be major transitions
in the lives of students with special needs (McDougal et al., 2004). Healthy social
interactions during this time are critical to a child's development and can assist in the
preparation for children to participate in customary adult social situations; including
feeling independent, fitting in to varying social settings and being comfortable in work
environments (Court & Givon, 2003). These preceding factors, as well as the recognition
of the social difficulties that are common among students with special needs, illustrate the
need for schools and, more specifically, classroom teachers to utilize effective practices
for promoting positive social learning opportunities between students with and without
special needs. In order for students with special needs to learn and grow to their full
potential, it is crucial to ensure the presence of a socially accepting and supportive school
and, more specifically, classroom environment so that they can develop meaningful
friendships and feel like a sense of belonging and membership in the school community.

38

The Need for Social Acceptance

“People are like stained glass windows.
They sparkle and shine when the sun is out, but when the darkness sets in, their true
beauty is revealed only if there is light from within”.
--Elizabeth Kubler Ross

Freeman (2000) has defined social acceptance as how others like and desire
another person. While it has been acknowledged that inclusion will result in stronger
social connections for students with special needs, while also create a more accepting
school culture (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) studies continue to reveal that students with
special needs who are included are often rejected by their peers and frequently become
the target for jokes, teasing and bullying (Bunch & Valeo, 2004; McDougal et al., 2004).
This type of chronic peer victimization can result in an increased risk of a variety of
adjustment problems for students with special needs. For example, research has indicated
that students with special needs who are socially rejected by their typically developing
peers have issues with anxiety, often develop a low self-esteem, and have a tendency to
dislike or avoid school, resulting in a poor academic performance (Court & Givon, 2003;
Weiner, 2004). Other research has correlated school drop-out and behavior problems both
in and out of school with being socially rejected during adolescence (Meadan & Monda-
Amaya, 2008; Wiener & Tardif, 2004). Further, children who struggle with peer
relationships during their adolescent years have been found to internalize their difficulties
and suffer from depression as adults (Vaughn & Haager, 1994). These findings highlight
the critical need for schools and classroom teachers to provide educational settings that
are, not only inclusive of all learners, but accepting and allow for opportunities for
students with and without special needs to establish authentic relationships.

39

Peer relationships are especially significant during the adolescent years as the
peer group frequently becomes the single most important influence in students’ lives
(Weiner, 2004). Noted in research on child development, during the adolescent years
peers take on an important role in “shaping identity, providing social comparisons,
developing a sense of belonging outside of the family, and in buffering stress” (Wenz-
Gross and Siperstein, 1997, p. 191). Further, it is during this time in a child's life that they
begin to look toward their peers to share activities and experience caring and loyal bonds
with each other (Weiner, 2004). When students with special needs are rejected by their
typically developing peers, they miss out on engaging in such activities. Being socially
accepted by your peers and developing friendships can fulfill essential socialization
functions such as: models to imitate, support in separating from your parents, and a basis
for making future connections with people (Court & Givon, 2003). For these reasons,
providing a classroom that supports the social inclusion and acceptance of students with
special needs is important.
By creating opportunities for increased social interactions, for example through
inclusion, schools can provide much needed education and awareness that will elicit
increased positive attitudes toward students with special needs. However, merely
integrating students with special needs into the general education classroom environment
without pedagogically dealing with attitudes is futile and, in some cases, may actually
increase the negative attitudes held by typical peers (Shapiro, 1999).To further support
the students and assist in altering their peer’s negative perceptions, the implementation of
evidence-based practices that support the social needs of students with special needs is

40

vital (Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001).Therefore, it falls on the responsibility of
the teachers to utilize strategies for creating a socially accepting environment in their
classroom so that students with special needs will not have to endure the ramifications of
being socially rejected, and, instead, will be given the support they need to become
socially accepted members of the classroom culture.
Building a Classroom Culture of Social Acceptance
“Intelligence plus character—that is the goal of true education”.
--Martin Luther King, Jr.

Relationships outside of the family unit become more and more important as the
child moves through adolescence. Though parents typically continue to be the main
source of emotional support, studies have begun to recognize the role that a teacher plays
in the academic and social functioning of children with special needs (Pavri & Monda-
Amaya, 2001; Pavri & Luftig, 2001). In general, children who are provided greater
support by their teachers tend to have increased engagement in academics, better grades
in school, fewer behavioral problems and greater social competence (Montague &
Rinaldi, 2001; Murray & Greenberg, 2006).
Teachers are more than subject matter specialists. They can also be seen as
“facilitators of social relationships” (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p. 407). In addition to
delivering curriculum, teachers are responsible for constructing classroom social
environments by creating norms and rules for the student's social behavior that should
occur in the classroom (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). As mentioned previously, while
increasing contact between students with and without special needs through classroom
integration provides opportunities to enhance peer interaction and elevates the social

41

status of adolescents with special needs (Mpofu, 2003-cited in McDougall et al., 2004) it
is not enough. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers play a more active role in creating
a classroom culture of social inclusion by implementing specific methods and strategies
that will serve as the catalyst for the social acceptance of students with special needs.
Thus far, in educational settings, specific attempts to generate increased
opportunities for social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs
commonly maintain a narrow focus on teaching the child with special needs social skills
(Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998) or implementing school-wide friendship programs. With an
overemphasis on social skills instruction or on remediating the student’s “deficits”,
schools, and teachers, commonly fail to acknowledge the capabilities of the child and,
consequently, may define the students by their social difficulties (Staub, 1998). School-
wide programs such as Circle of Friends and Best Buddies, though widely used, offer
little research to indicate that the programs actually lead to true friendships between
students with and without special needs (Staub, 1998). By focusing on widening the
social network for students with special needs, the programs “link” typical peers with
students with special needs (Patterson et al., 2008) leaving the typically developing peers
with the feeling that being the friend of a student with special needs is more a chore
rather than an opportunity to develop a genuine bond with a peer (Patterson et al., 2008;
Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). Subsequently, a noted concern regarding the use of these
programs is the lack of true reciprocity and preservation of any of the friendships that
may have been developed (Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). Without a means to foster the
social inclusion of students with special needs so that friendships can occur naturally

42

within the classroom, the relationships that are formed may remain superficial and one-
sided (Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998).
While these attempts have been made to increase the social acceptance of students
with special needs in schools and classrooms, specific evidence-based strategies for
creating a socially accepting general education classroom environment for students with
special needs, have not been clearly delineated. Kozleski and Jackson (1993) found that
schools who utilized methods such as a special education administrator visiting the
general education classroom and teachers who demonstrate a positive social philosophy
can increase social outcomes for students with special needs (Freeman, 2000). However,
the study failed to identify any specific strategies the teachers used in their classroom to
encourage authentic social relationships, making it difficult to learn from their findings.
Pavri and Monda-Amaya (2001) attempted to identify specific strategies teachers
use to provide students with learning disabilities social support in the classroom by
interviewing both general and special education teachers about their roles and the
strategies and interventions they favored. The themes that emerged from a content
analysis of the interviews indicated that teachers favored using grouping strategies,
school-wide programs, and classroom rules that establish a respectful environment to
support the social needs of their students. While this study provided a more solid
foundation from which to work from in identifying evidence-based practices, the author’s
noted a limitation in their study was relying on teacher reporting as the key method for
identifying the strategies used in the classroom. To further validate the strategies

43

discussed by the teachers, Pavri and Monda-Amaya (2001) recommend including
observations in future studies.
Other research has investigated how the dimensions of the classroom can aid in
creating a socially accepting classroom culture. Ryan and Patrick (2001) found that a
classroom that promotes mutual respect through rules and expectations results in an
environment where students communicate positively with one another and feel successful
in their social relationships. Meadan and Monda-Amaya (2008) proposed that teachers
implement a three-tiered social support system to guide them in creating an environment
responsive to the social needs of their students. Based on the concepts of Positive
Behavioral Support (PBS), the social support system focuses on creating a classroom that
is socially accepting, develops the social competence of all students, and addresses any
issues with social difficulties that occur by implementing the following levels: a)
structuring a classroom community, b) integrating specific strategies and curriculum for
promoting social competence, and c) targeted individual interventions. Further, classroom
structures that facilitate increased opportunities for peer interaction, such as cooperative
learning activities and peer tutoring may foster positive peer interactions and permit
students the opportunity to learn to encourage and support each other (Pavri & Monda-
Amaya, 2001). Increasing peer interactions also teaches the students to assume
responsibility for their own and other's learning and teaches group-related social skills
such as decision making and trust building (Cartledge & Talbert-Johnson, 1996). Finally,
a classroom that allows greater peer interactions can increase the acceptance of students
with special needs by their typical peers because the students are viewed as academic

44

equals in that they complete the same assignments. In fact, it was noted by Siperstein et
al. (2007) in their national study of student's attitudes toward their peers with special
needs that students who witnessed the competence of students with special needs in the
general education classroom were more likely to have positive attitudes about them.
As a final point, research on school-wide programs that positively alter the
attitudes of typical peers by expanding their knowledge base about disabilities have been
examined as a method to increase the social acceptance of students with special needs.
Over the years, many schools have shared commons goals for introducing awareness
programs, commonly referred to as “Abilities Awareness Programs” (Jones, Sowell,
Jones, & Butler, 1981). Those are a) to help teachers and students get rid of
misconceptions they may have relating to disabilities; b) to foster a better understanding
about people with disabilities; and c) to promote positive interactions between students at
all ability levels. However, there is no consensus regarding the methods used to achieve
these goals, thus awareness programs have varied in their delivery. Common techniques
observed in awareness programs are using videos depicting the lives of people with
special needs (Swaim & Morgan, 2001), using children’s books (Jones et al., 1981),
performing puppet shows (Trent, 1993), having group discussions about individuals with
special needs (Siperstein, Bak & Gottlieb, 1977), and integrating disability simulations
within the curriculum (Kiger, 1992).
Awareness programs that provide information about disabilities and integrate
disability simulations have been shown to be the most effective in positively altering the
attitudes of typically developing students regarding their peers with special needs

45

(Handlers & Austin, 1980; Jones et al., 1981; Kiger, 1992). During disability simulations
typically developing students participate in activities that emulate a specific disability in
order to improve their understanding of what it is like to have that disability. Although
varied in practice, disability simulations have been found to be an effective method to
change attitudes in a positive way and minimize prejudice against individuals with
special needs (Behler, 1993; Colwell, Thompson & Berke, 2001; Hallenbeck &
McMaster, 1991; Kiger, 1992; Wilson & Alcorn, 1969; Wurst & Wolford, 1994).
Schools that have implemented awareness programs with simulations have reported that
afterward typically developing students feel “more aware of their peers with disabilities”
(Hallenbeck & McMaster, 1991, p. 15) and have a deeper level of understanding about
what having a disability means (Denti & Meyers, 1997). Research has shown that the
benefits of disability simulations are not only observed in individual students but in
collective groups. Therefore, one can predict that awareness programs that involve
disability simulations can positively change the school culture since the information
received from the experience may reduce prejudice and stereotypes about students with
special needs (Kiger, 1992).
While Awareness programs that include disability simulations appear to be a
viable intervention to intentionally facilitate attitude change in typically developing
students about their peers with special needs, questions have been raised about the effect
of simulations to have a long-term impact on students’ attitudes. Attitude change
typically occurs over a long period of time (Wetstein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984). Because
awareness programs tend to be brief experiential interventions delivered at one point in

46

time, researchers have questioned their ability to promote sustained attitude shifts in
students. Though studies have concluded that even one-time simulation experiences can
assist in increasing awareness toward people with special needs (Colwell, Thompson, &
Berke, 2001), few studies have performed follow-up assessments to measure the
maintenance of any observed attitude change. Therefore, it is critical for schools to go
beyond one-time awareness programs to provide a socially accepting environment for
students with special needs.
The concept of social inclusion and acceptance should move beyond the mere
physical placement of students with special needs in general education classes and should
consider the quality and quantity of interactions between students with special needs and
their teachers and typical peers (Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001) as well as how the climate
of the classroom facilitates the idea of diversity and acceptance. One expectation of
inclusive practices is that meaningful social relationships will form between children with
and without special needs as they become familiar with one another in classroom settings.
However, structuring the learning environment to promote the social acceptance of
students with special needs is an important responsibility that educators must
acknowledge (Beck & Fritz-Verticchio, 2003; Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001). While there
appears to be limited but emerging research on specific strategies a teacher can use to
promote social acceptance in their classroom educators have agreed on some of the
critical components a classroom should embrace to provide a culture of social acceptance
for students with special needs. Some factors that should be considered are the structure
and culture of the classroom, the methods a teacher uses for building peer knowledge

47

about disabilities and the tools a teacher utilizes for increasing interaction between
students with and without special needs. The challenge that lies before us is to identify
strategies general education teachers can use to allow for each of these components to be
included successfully in their classroom so that students with special needs are no longer
socially isolated; but accepted and valued as an equal member of the classroom.
Rationale for Methodology

In order to gather data to answer the proposed research question and highlight
how general education teachers promote the social inclusion of students with special
needs, interviews and observations were conducted.
Interviews

It is difficult, if not impossible to observe a person’s feelings, thoughts, and
underlying intentions (Patton, 2002). Hence, individual interviews will be conducted with
general education teachers in order to gather information about their perspectives and
understanding of methods for supporting the social inclusion and acceptance of students
with special needs. In their review on the effect teacher's can have on student behavior
and performance in the classroom Clark and Peterson (1986) noted that teacher's thought
processes, pedagogical knowledge, and personal philosophy about teaching can all be
contributing factors. Because these characteristics cannot be readily observed, it was
important to conduct a one on one interview with each participating teacher.
Conducting individual interviews allowed for direct quotations from participants
about their experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge and permitted a qualitative

48

analysis on how middle school general education teachers provide social support for
students with special needs in their classroom.
Student Interview
One way to conceptualize and investigate how children with special needs
perceive their social world is by asking them directly (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998).
It has been noted that few studies have attempted to explore student’s perceptions about
their placement or the instruction they receive in order to provide a rationale for how
their instruction can be improved (Pugach & Wesson, 1995). Therefore, an additional
source of data for this study involved an individual interview with students with special
needs included in the general education classrooms that were observed. Data from these
interviews served as a means for comparison between the strategies the teachers noted
that they utilized in class, the strategies observed, and the student’s perception of the
social support they felt they received from their teacher. The data from these interviews
may further validate strategies used in the classroom as effective and replicable or
identify discrepancies that may exist between the teacher's philosophy and their practice.
Observations

It has been noted that interviews rely on self-reported data that could be affected
by the “emotional state” of an interviewee (Patton, 2002). However, pairing interviews
with observation can enhance the qualitative data collected during an interview (Patton,
2002). Previous studies in the area of strategies for social inclusion based their findings
and generalizations solely on the results of teacher interviews; noting the importance of
adding observation to future studies to provide empirical support for the strategies

49

teachers described (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). By conducting observations alongside
the interviews, this study was able to corroborate the strategies teachers reported using
during their interviews and recognize any discrepancies that may have occurred between
the two. In addition, the observations facilitated the identification of strategies used that
teachers found difficult to describe or did not distinguish as a strategy.
Summary

“I cannot, and will not judge, by what my eyes may see.
For the skin on a man shall not reveal his true identity”.
--Robert M. Hensel

Across the country, a number of students with special needs are included within
the general education classroom environment for all or, at least part of, the school day.
Their success in that environment is dependent upon the collective expertise of
educational professionals working to assist the student in attaining social and academic
goals. Because inclusive education is being implemented in more school districts each
year, the chances that typically developing students will interact with students with
special needs is increasing and may present an immediate challenge if the historically
negative attitudes are not recognized as barriers to successful inclusion placements and
altered through practices that promote a socially accepting classroom so that authentic
relationships can occur.
Increasingly, research contends that students with special needs frequently
demonstrate social difficulties (Heward, 2006), including feelings of isolation (Meadan &
Monda-Amaya, 2008) and loneliness (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). Simply placing
students in general education classrooms with no social support or only focusing on

50

methods for “acquiring” friends for students with special needs is not enough to truly
facilitate social acceptance. Instead, teachers need to have specific strategies that they can
use in their classroom to assist in creating a socially accepting classroom culture so that
social interactions occur naturally.
There is a growing body of scholarly work related to the academic benefits
resulting from inclusion of students with special needs in general education classrooms.
Now, research should focus on ways for promoting positive social inclusion as well.
While there are current overarching themes that serve as recommendations for teachers to
implement in order to create a more socially accepting environment for students with
special needs that are included; the themes offer no specific strategies for the teachers to
use. Therefore, implementation could be varied and lead to ineffective results. The goal
of this study is to observe strategies that teachers are utilizing; strategies that could later
be researched and recommended for others to use so that their students will experience
the true nature of a socially accepting inclusive setting.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLGY

Introduction

The fundamental purpose of this study was to investigate the methods and
strategies middle school general education teachers implement in their classrooms to
promote social acceptance for students with special needs. Student’s perceptions of the
social support they receive in these same classrooms were also assessed. Currently,
educators are faced with the challenge of providing a classroom environment that
facilitates both the academic and social inclusion of students with special needs.
Typically developing students have commonly been identified as having negative
attitudes towards their peers with special (Lucas, 1999; Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein,
2001; Ochoa & Olivarez, 1995; Pearl, 2004; Royal & Roberts, 1987; Siperstein et al.,
2007). As a result, students with special needs are often isolated and ignored by their
peers.
Facilitating positive social interactions between students with and without special
needs can contribute to a positive learning environment where all children are accepted.
Few studies have revealed what educators are currently doing in their classroom to
promote the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs. The present
study was designed to investigate the current methods and strategies general education
teachers are using in their classroom to provide a socially accepting environment for
students with special needs.

52

To guide this study, the following research question was explored:
How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of
students with special needs in their classroom?

This research question was answered using qualitative data. Qualitative studies
allow for a rich analysis of the subject being studied due to their detailed, and often,
personal methods for collecting data (Patton, 2002). The qualitative findings for this
study grew out of two forms of data collection: interviews with both general education
teachers and students with special needs included in the general education teacher’s
classrooms and classroom observations. The present study will contribute to the research
base on methods general education teachers use in their classroom to aide in the social
inclusion and acceptance of their students with special needs.
Sample and Population

Purposeful sampling allows a researcher to select information-rich cases that
would present in-depth information central to the study (Patton, 2002). Therefore,
purposeful sampling was employed in this study to select general education teachers who
effectively and frequently utilized strategies that facilitate social acceptance for students
with special needs in their classroom. Observing and interviewing teacher’s who were
adept at creating a positive classroom culture for all learners, would allow for the
identification and dissemination of what specific methods and strategies that likely
contribute to creating more socially accepting learning environments for students with
special needs.
To generate a sample of general education teachers to invite to participate in the
study, the researcher contacted a special education district leader. The district

53

representative was contacted due to her knowledge of special education teachers and
programs that focus on inclusion at each school site within the district. The district
representative was asked to nominate one or more middle schools where general
education teachers have been observed using strategies to promote the social inclusion
and acceptance of students with special needs to a high degree. In making the
nomination, the district representative was asked to consider the following criteria. The
school recommended for participation in this study must include general educators who
a) teach at the middle school level, b) have students with special needs included in their
classrooms, and c) have been observed using methods and strategies for promoting social
acceptance of students with special needs in their classroom to a high degree. The district
representative responded with two middle school nominations.
The principal was contacted at each of the two middle schools. One principal
responded with consent to conduct this study at their site. The other principal failed to
respond to contacts. The principal of the selected middle school and the special education
lead teacher at the school site were briefed as to the purpose of the study and asked to
independently nominate ten general education teachers at their school site who have been
observed using strategies for promoting the social inclusion and acceptance of students
with special needs to a high degree. In making the nomination, the principal and lead
teacher were asked to consider the following criteria: a) the teacher must have students
with special needs included in their classroom, b) the teacher has been observed using
methods and strategies for promoting social acceptance of students with special needs in
their classroom to a high degree. 15 general education teachers were nominated; with 6 of

54

these general education teachers being nominated by both the principal and lead teacher.
Having two nominations indicated to the researcher that the general education teachers
were thought to be exemplars by the principal and lead teacher. Therefore, from the
larger sample nominated, the 6 teachers nominated by both the principal and lead special
education teacher were invited to participate in the study. Out of the 6 general education
teachers invited, 5 agreed to participate. Because only 3 were needed for the current
study, the 5 names were written on pieces of paper and 3 were randomly selected for
participation in the study.
The students who participated in the individual interviews were selected based on
their enrollment as a student with an identified disability included in one of the general
education classrooms observed. Fifteen students with special needs were included across
the classrooms in which observations were conducted. The 15 students were invited to
participate in the individual interviews. Both student assent and parent consent forms
were distributed to the students along with a cover letter which explained the purpose of
the study. From the 15 invited, 6 students with special needs were granted consent to
participate in the study and were, subsequently, provided assent forms. Of the remaining
9 students, 2 informed the researcher that their parent did not consent to their
participation in the study and 7 did not return the consent form.
Teachers. Participants in the study were three general education middle school
teachers that served students with special needs in their classrooms.
Teacher 1: Mr. Cooper (pseudonym) is a Caucasian-American male with 7 years
of teaching experience. As a seventh-grade Pre-Algebra teacher, Mr. Cooper has taught at

55

two different school districts. Mr. Cooper has a Bachelors of Arts in Broad area History,
a Single-Subject credential in both Social Studies and Math and holds a Cross-cultural,
Language, and Academic Development (CLAD) certificate. He is currently pursuing his
Masters Degree in Curriculum and Design. Mr. Cooper has stated that he has worked
with an estimated forty students with special needs over his teaching career.
Teacher 2: Ms. Alexander (pseudonym) is an Asian-American female with 6
years of teaching experience. As an eighth grade Science teacher, Ms. Alexander has
taught at this school site for her entire teaching career. Aside from teaching Science, she
also teaches students enrolled in the AVID program. Ms. Alexander has a Master's in
Education along with her Single-Subject Science credential and is CLAD certified. She
has worked with, an estimated twenty-seven students with special needs over her
teaching career.
Teacher 3: Ms. Dennis (pseudonym) is a Caucasian-American female with 35
years of teaching experience. Her current teaching assignment is Vocal Choir for both
seventh and eighth grade students, General Music for sixth grade students, and seventh
grade Literature. Ms. Dennis holds a Masters of Arts in Educational Administration, a
Single-Subject credential in both Literature and Music and her CLAD certificate. Ms.
Dennis stated that over her thirty-five years as a teacher, she has taught, on average, ten
students with special needs each year.
Students. Six students participated in the interviews. Each student was identified
as having a disability covered by IDEA and was included in one of the participating
general education teacher’s classes. Two of the students were in Mr. Cooper's class, 1

56

was enrolled in Ms. Dennis' class, and three of the students were in Ms. Alexander's
class. Student participants’ ages ranged from 11 to 13 and were enrolled in either grade
sixth, seventh or eighth grade.
Student 1: Debbie (pseudonym) is a Hispanic female in the seventh grade. Debbie
is considered an English Language Learner; though she has lived in California her entire
life. She receives special education services under the category Specific Learning
Disability. She is included in general education classes for the majority of her school day.
However, attends Math and Language Arts in the Resource Specialist Program (RSP)
classroom. In sixth grade Debbie was educated in a self-contained Mild/Moderate Special
Day Class. However, after teacher assessment and observation, Debbie's placement was
changed to the RSP program in the seventh grade.
Student 2: Lily (pseudonym) is a Caucasian female in the eighth grade. Lily is a
student with Aspergers Syndrome and receives special education services under the
category of Autism. She is currently included for all of her classes and receives support
on a watch and consult basis from the Resource Specialist Program (RSP). Though Lily
was found eligible to receive special education services in the second grade, she has
always been fully included in the general education classroom setting.
Student 3: Maya (pseudonym) is an African-American female in the eighth grade.
Maya receives special education services under the category Specific Learning Disability
and receives services from the Resource Specialist Program (RSP). She is included in
general education classes for all subjects except for Math; which she receives from the
RSP teacher. In sixth grade Maya was transferred to this school from a middle school in a

57

neighboring district. Upon arrival to this school she was placed in a self-contained
Mild/Moderate Special Day Class. However, after teacher assessment and observation,
Maya's placement was changed to the RSP program in the seventh grade.
Student 4: Lance (pseudonym) is a Caucasian male in the eighth grade. Lance is a
student on the Autism Spectrum. While he has not been identified with a specific disorder
he receives special education services under the category of Autism. He is currently
included for all of his classes and receives support on a watch and consult basis from the
Mild/Moderate Special Day Class (SDC) teacher. Although Lance received his education
in a Mild/Moderate Special Day Class in elementary school, he has been fully included in
the general education classroom setting since he began middle school in the sixth grade.
Student 5: Scott (pseudonym) is a Caucasian male in the seventh grade. Scott is a
student with Aspergers Syndrome and receives special education services under the
category of Autism. He is currently included for all of his classes and receives support on
a watch and consult basis from the Mild/Moderate Special Day Class (SDC) teacher.
Scott was found eligible to receive special education services in the sixth grade.
Student 6: Teresa (pseudonym) is a Caucasian female in the sixth grade. Teresa is
a student with Bipolar disorder and receives special education services under the category
of Other Health Impairment. Teresa is currently included for all of her classes and
requires minimal support from the special education department on campus.
The School District. The general education teachers worked at one middle school
within a school district in Southern California. With an estimated enrollment of 9,503
students among 15 schools (Kindergarten through Eighth grade) in the 2009/2010 school

58

year, the school district served 1,145 students with special needs at the time of this study
(http://www.cde.ca.gov/index.asp). The school district primarily serves students that are
White (45%), Hispanic (30%), and Asian (12%), provides 33% of its students with free
and reduced lunch and supports 22% English Language Learners (ELLs). The school
district is a part of a five district Special Education Local Planning Area (SELPA) that
has combined their special education services and programs to serve students with special
needs.
The School: The participating school is a highly regarded middle school within
the school district due to its reputation of having high test scores. The Academic
Performance Index (API) Rank, which measures the academic performance and growth
of schools with an array of academic measures ranges from 1 to 10. A rank of 10
indicates that a school's API fell into the top 10% of all schools in the state with an
equivalent grade range. In the 2008-2009 school year the participating school ranked 9
with an API of 864(http://www.cde.ca.gov/index.asp). 100% of the teachers at this school
site are fully credentialed and have, on average, seventeen years of teaching experience.
The school site primarily serves students that are White (59%), Hispanic (23%), and
Asian (8%) and provides 22% of its students with free and reduced lunch. Approximately
10% of the student body are English Language Learners (ELLs). At the time of this
study, the total population of the school was 909 with, an estimated 50 students with
special needs enrolled.

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Data Collection and Timeframe
The data collected for this study was initiated by individual interviews with
general education teachers and followed by field observations of the teacher’s classrooms
and individual interviews with students with special needs. To initiate the study, each
general education teacher participated in one interview that lasted approximately 30
minutes. After each interview was completed, each general education teacher was
observed on five separate occasions for approximately eighty minutes (or the length of
the class period). After the classroom observations were completed, the students with
special needs engaged in one individual interview lasting approximately 15 minutes. It
was vital to conduct the student interviews after the observations were completed so that
the students were not cognizant of the purpose of the observations as they occurred.
Interview: Modified Version of Pavri & Monda-Amaya’s Social Support Interview

A semi-structured interview protocol was created based on Pavri and Monda-
Amaya’s (2001) Social Support Interview. The original version of this interview protocol
presented in Pavri and Monda-Amaya (2001) consisted of two sections. The first section
asked ten questions to gather data on demographics, certification, and teaching
experiences of both general and special educators. The second section consisted of eight
core and three probing open-ended questions to elicit information regarding the
“teacher’s perceptions about providing social support and promoting peer relationships
among students in inclusive classrooms, their perceived role in this process, and a
description of the strategies they used to provide social support and foster relationships
between their students” (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p. 397).

60

As in the original interview conducted by Pavri and Monda-Amaya (2001), the
modified version used for this study consisted of two sections. The first section asked the
general education teachers basic demographic information. In addition, questions were
asked to gain information about the teacher’s educational experience and qualifications as
well as their experience in working with students with special needs. The second section
of the interview used for this study utilized 6 of the 11 original questions as a basis for
development. The six questions included in the interview for this study were selected due
to their direct relation to the research question presented and, therefore, specifically
addressed the teachers view on their role in providing skills and strategies to support the
social acceptance of their students with special needs as well as the specific tools and
methods they utilize in the classroom. See Appendix A for the teacher interview protocol.
Student Interview

A semi-structured interview was also created to assess how students with special
needs included in the general education classroom felt about the social support they
received from their teachers. Interviews were chosen as the main source of data on
student’s perceptions of their social support in the classroom as they allow social
interaction and in-depth explanation of a student’s feelings and perceptions. This semi-
structured interview followed an open-ended format; however, each interview adhered to
a protocol of four predetermined questions to elicit information that would address the
research question. See Appendix B for the student interview protocol.
While it is noted that interviews rely on self-reported data that could be affected
by the emotional state of the interviewee, Patton (2002) affirms that pairing interview

61

with observation can enhance any qualitative data collected. Therefore, observations were
conducted to corroborate evidence from the interviews.
Observation

As Patton (2002) notes, observations allow for detailed descriptions of people’s
activities, behaviors and actions and offer several advantages. While conducting
observations presents challenges such as learning to take copious field notes and
maintaining objectivity when interpreting those notes, there are many advantages to
support the participation in collecting observational data as well. First, observing the
context in which people interact allows the inquirer an increased understanding of the
subject. Next, an observation allows the inquirer a first-hand experience with the people
and the setting. Finally, observations allow the inquirer to view aspects of the subject and
setting that may have gone unnoticed by the people within the setting; thus allowing for
the opportunity to move beyond the perceptions of others and observe things that may
have gone unsaid during an interview (Patton, 2002).
To collect thick descriptions of high-quality methods and strategies used by
general education teachers to support the social acceptance of students with special needs
in their classrooms, running field notes were taken during 15 class sessions. See
Appendix C for the Observation Field Notes Template. The field notes provide
complementary data to the individual interviews with both the general education teachers
and students with special needs. By taking running field notes, the observer was able to
gather impressions of the teachers and their relationships with their students as well as the
overall class composition, organization, and interactions. The notes were as detailed as

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possible and included descriptions of the classroom setting and activities, notations
regarding the interactions that occurred between the teachers and the students and the
students with special needs with their typical peers, direct quotations from the teachers
and students in the classrooms, and comments made by the researcher.
Timeframe for data collection
All data for the study was collected by the researcher between the months of
November 2009 and January 2010. Data collection began after IRB approval was
obtained.
Teacher interviews were administered during the months of November and
December and lasted approximately 30 minutes each. Each interview was digitally
recorded and transcribed by the researcher in November and December of 2009. Each
interview was held in the middle school teacher’s classroom during their preparation
period while the students were not present.
Observations of the three general education middle school teachers interviewed
were conducted after the interviews were completed, during the months of November
2009 through January 2010. Each teacher was observed during 5class periods that
included students with special needs on 5 different days. Each observation was conducted
by the researcher and lasted approximately eighty minutes (or the length of a class
period). To avoid any distraction, the researcher observed from a location in the
classroom away from the students and focus of instruction.
Once the observations had been completed, the researcher invited the students
with special needs to participate in individual interviews. Each student was briefed as to

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the purpose of the interview and given a copy of the parent consent and student assent
form to take home to their guardian. After parent consent and student assentwas obtained,
the student interviews were conducted. Each interview was conducted in January 2010.
The interviews lasted approximately fifteen minutes and were scheduled at a time that
was convienent to the teacher and student’s schedule.
All of the data was collected by the researcher and handled with confidentiality.
Original data from the interviews and observations were stored in a locked filing cabinet
in the researchers’ office and will remain there for a period of three years. To ensure
participant confidentiality all participant’s names and school sites were removed from the
interview and classroom observation forms and the participants were assigned
pseudonyms.
Data Analysis

The findings and themes that emerged from this qualitative study were found
throughout the data analysis and emerged as the key variables in how a general education
middle school teacher supports the social acceptance of students with special needs
included in their classroom. All of the data was collected, coded and analyzed following
Connolly’s (2003) guidelines for data analysis. Connolly’s (2003) model of qualitative
data analysis has been influenced by the grounded theory style of research and offers
steps for analysis and interpretation so that data can be triangulated to look for
consistency and emerging themes. Furthermore, analyses of these data sources allowed
the researcher to align any themes observed with major constructs gathered from

64

pertinent literature about the methods and strategies for supporting the social inclusion of
students with special needs as well as elements of Contact Theory.
The data collected for this study included individual teacher interviews, individual
interviews with students with special needs, and classroom observations. All of the data
were initially examined as separate sources. To begin, the researcher reviewed the
interview transcripts line by line. This method, which is equivalent to the open coding
phase in grounded theory (Connolly, 2003) allowed for the data to be broken down into
discrete parts, individually examined, and then compared in order to find similarities and
differences among the teacher's responses. During this stage, key terms were extracted
that were representative of the strategies the teacher's noted as essential to their classroom
practice for socially supporting students with special needs and paralleled current
findings in the pertinent literature. Next, the observation field notes were analyzed to
compare and contrast the strategies the teacher's identified as essential to their classroom
practice and what was actually observed. Finally, the transcripts from the student
interviews were analyzed to compare and contrast the results with both the teacher
interviews and classroom observations.
The second level of analysis involved the development of two conceptual
categories based on common key terms identified in phase one. Each conceptual category
serves as an overarching construct for more detailed themes which were developed in the
third phase of data analysis.

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Summary
For this study two types of data are relevant: (1) the qualitative data collected
from teacher and student interviews, and (2) classroom observations of the general
education teachers. This chapter presented the research methodology for this study.
Included within was a description of the research design, the sample, and the instruments
used. In addition, an explanation detailing the data analysis was provided. The goal of
this study is to identify the specific methods and strategies general education teachers
implement in their classroom to provide a socially accepting environment for students
with special needs. Results from this study will acknowledge the efforts general
education teachers make to include students with special needs while, also, add to the
knowledge base regarding ways general education teachers can provide specific strategies
to support their social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate the strategies middle school general
education teachers utilize to support the social acceptance of students with special needs
included in their classrooms. This chapter presents the research findings from the current
study which examined the strategies of three middle school general education teachers at
a single school site in Southern California. The data was derived from three sources:
interviews with the teachers, interviews with a sample of students with special needs
included in the general education classroom and field notes taken during classroom
observations. The findings of this study will be reported through a presentation of themes
that were identified during data analysis employing Connolly's (2003) modified version
of grounded theory analysis and as supported by pertinent literature.
Report of Findings

Noted in the review of pertinent literature, many students with special needs
observed in school settings lack the skills needed to develop and maintain friendships
(Freeman, 2000; Heward, 2006; Korinek et al. 1999; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010;
Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998). As a result, research has identified the need for teachers to
play more active roles in facilitating peer acceptance of students with special needs
included in general education classrooms (Freeman, 2000; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Ryan &
Patrick, 2001). This study offers qualitative evidence to contribute to this knowledge
base.

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A single research question was presented to set the stage in investigating the
strategies middle school general education teachers use to support the social acceptance
of students with special needs included in their classroom. The question was:
How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of
students with special needs in their classroom?
The research question focused on the practices and strategies of three middle school
general education teachers presented in this paper as Mr. Cooper, Ms. Alexander, and
Ms. Dennis. The question was aligned to the overall purpose of the study, which was to
examine middle school general education teachers who have successfully supported
students with special needs that are included in their classroom and to identify the
specific strategies they used to assist the students in feeling socially accepted.
Emergent Themes

Previous literature on methods for promoting the social acceptance of students
with special needs have indicated that general education teachers favor the following
strategies: 1) creating a classroom structure that facilitates positive peer interactions, 2)
establishing a classroom culture that promotes mutual respect among the students, 3)
using typical peers as a support to further the achievement of students with special needs,
and 4) providing direct instruction on skills to increase positive social interactions
(Freeman, 2000; Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). The results of
this study offers support to the previous findings as well as additional evidence that may
contribute to the knowledge base regarding methods and strategies middle school general
education teachers use to support the social acceptance of students with special needs.

68

During data analysis, several themes were revealed. The themes have been
clustered into two conceptual categories to serve as overarching constructs. The first
conceptual category, Preparing the Classroom, focuses on the strategies that the teachers
identified as methods for creating a classroom structure that would support the students'
social inclusion. The themes that emerged under this category have been identified as
Arranging the Environment and Establishing a Tone of Respect in the Classroom. The
second conceptual category, Types of Support, centers upon the strategies the teachers
stated they implemented throughout the school year. The themes that will be discussed
under this category are Instructional Support, Peer Support, and Targeted Instructional
Support for Social Interactions (See Figure 1).

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Figure 1
Qualitative Data Analysis based on Connolly's (2003) framework

Phase 1: Generative Phase Phase 2: Interpretive Phase Phase 3: Theorizing Phase

Conceptual Category 1: Preparing the Classroom
Within the concept of Preparing the Classroom, two prominent themes emerged
from the interviews and observations. In response to the research question that guided
this study, these themes focused on how the middle school general education teachers
Research Data
from Literature
Review
Key Terms
from data
findings

Social Skills
Instruction (Sapon-
Shevin, et al., 1998)

School-wide
friendship programs
(Staub, 1998)

Utilizing support
from special
educators (Kozleski
& Jackson, 1993)

Peer Grouping (Pavri
& Monda-Amaya,
2001)

Promote respect
through classroom
rules (Pavri &
Monda-Amaya, 2001;
Ryan & Patrick,
2001)

Implementing PBS
(Meadan & Monda-
Amaya, 2008)

Seating
Arrangement
Tone of the
Classroom
Instructional
Accommodations
Serving as a
Facilitator
Direct Instruction
of Social Skills
Linking Students to
Positive Peers
Equal Expectations
Conceptual
Categories
Preparing the
Classroom

Types of Support
Arranging the
Environment
Establishing a tone
of Respect in the
Classroom
Instructional
Support

Peer Support
Targeted
Instructional
Support for Social
Interactions
Themes
Rules that Establish
Respect
Peer Tutoring

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prepared their classroom before and during the first few weeks of school to support the
social acceptance of students with special needs. These themes are 1) Arranging the
Environment and 2) Establishing a Tone of Respect in the Classroom.
Arranging the Environment
Teacher Interview
The first theme, Arranging the Environment, emerged from interviews and
observations as a fundamental strategy the teachers used to support the social inclusion
and acceptance of students with special needs. Comparable to research that indicates that
teachers can structure their classroom so students are more likely to feel a sense of
belonging (Grenot-Scheyer, et al., 1998); each teacher emphasized their reliance on
arranging the physical environment of the classroom as a way to promote positive
interactions between students with and without special needs. While Ms. Dennis
discussed the importance of talking with the students to find out where they would be
most comfortable sitting, "I say to them right off, "Oh-do you have friends here in class?"
(personal communication, December 7, 2009), Mr. Cooper and Ms. Alexander focused
on placing students with special needs next to a typical peer who could serve as a positive
role model for them. Mr. Cooper stated:
"I am strategic in placing [the students with special needs] in places where they
might be around students that will be more understanding or helpful. I think I
might be doing him [referring to a student with special needs in the class] a
detriment if I put him in a situation and the kids around him are like, 'I'm scared
of you'. You know, so it's good to find a person [for him to sit by] that is open to
the people that they socialize with. Hopefully their opinion of him will change"
(November 12, 2009).

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And Ms. Alexander stated:
"A simple seating chart is very important. We do labs and so, setting up the
groups strategically is really important....So, the structure is important and just
kind of setting the environment so that it is conducive to them interacting with
one another and being successful at the same time" (November 19, 2009).

The role that the physical arrangement of the classroom played in providing social
support for students with special needs, in the teachers’ perspective, was important
because it allowed them to facilitate positive interactions between students with and
without special needs in a natural setting. It was repeatedly emphasized that placing the
students with special needs in a location near more “socially accepting students” (Mr.
Cooper, personal communication, November 19, 2009) was critical. This type of seating
arrangement gave the students an increased opportunity to develop authentic friendships
without any obvious intervention employed by the teacher. This is an important aspect to
contemplate, since research has shown that one of the elements hindering the
development of friendships between students with and without special needs is the
teacher’s obvious role in initiating their relationship (Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005).
Student Interview
During the data analysis, results from the student interview were examined to
identify if the classroom structure, specifically the seating arrangement, impacted the
students’ perceptions regarding their level of social interaction with their peers. While no
specific question asked the students to comment on the seating arrangement, the findings
were identified within the students’ answers to the question, “What do you like about this
class”.

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Debbie was the only student who identified the seating arrangement as something
that made a difference to her because, as she noted, “we get to sit with our friends in this
class” (personal communication, January 4, 2010). However, she offered an additional
layer of information regarding the structure of the classroom stating that, “I feel
comfortable being in class 'cause I'm with my friends, but, sometimes, I don't like where
he puts me to sit [during group activities] ‘cause I don't know the people and I get shy"
(January 4, 2010). Statements such as these initiates’ questions as to whether or not the
teacher in this example is merely relying on the creation of the seating chart that places
students with and without special needs in close proximity as a way to promote positive
social interactions. It would be an understandable assumption that the friends Debbie
identified to be sitting with were relationships that arose out of the teacher’s classroom
arrangement. However, Debbie reported during the interview that the peers she identified
as her friends in the classroom were students in her special education class that she knew
prior to this school year.
The remaining student interviews revealed that the classroom structure had little
to no impact on the social interactions they had with their peers. An excerpt from the
interview with Lance offers an example of this:
[From Interview with Lance, January 19, 2010]
"My friends aren't in the same class with me usually".
Q: "So, you don't feel like you have friends in this class?"
A: "Uh, not really".
Q: "Do you ever talk with anybody in class…maybe people you sit by?”

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A: "No, I really don't talk. I just mind my own business".
The findings from the student interviews suggest that the physical arrangement of
the classroom has very little impact on their perceptions of their social acceptance or
opportunities for engaging in social interactions with their typical peers. While the
teacher’s noted this as an essential strategy they used in supporting the social acceptance
of students with special needs when they established their classroom structure at the start
of the school year, the findings indicate the need for teachers to offer additional supports
throughout the year to ensure that the physical environment they arranged is, indeed,
creating opportunities for the students to engage in positive social interactions.
Classroom Observation
To substantiate the results from the teacher interviews, the structure of the
classroom was noted during the classroom observations. In general, Mr. Cooper and Ms.
Alexander utilized tables in their classroom where the students sat next to each other to
form table buddies, while Ms. Dennis had arranged chairs in a u-shape so that the
students would be able to see her at the piano. It was noted that while Ms. Dennis' seating
chart remained the same throughout the observations; the seating chart in Mr. Cooper's
and Ms. Alexander's classes changed twice within the duration of the visits. These
changes were made based on general behavior management and deliberate movement of
students with special needs to locations that were more conducive to their learning.
Because each of the teachers identified the seating arrangement as a key strategy
in how they promoted the social acceptance of students with special needs in their
classroom, how they utilized this strategy became an integral part of each of the

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observations. To illustrate how the seating arrangement served as a strategy to support the
students’ social acceptance, observations made of Mr. Cooper’s classroom will be
discussed.
Upon the initial visit to Mr. Cooper’s classroom, it was observed that all of the
students were sitting next to a "buddy" as the teacher had indicated in the interview.
However, one of the students with special needs, Scott, was sitting in the back row,
removed from other peers. With two chairs separating Scott and his closest peer, it was
observed that he was not an integral part of the buddy system. This placement was
rationalized by Mr. Cooper during the interview when he stated that Scott had
"demonstrated some pretty aggressive behavior...and the students were scared of him"
(personal communication, November 12, 2009), therefore he was being isolated from the
group. The location of Scott's seat appeared to have an effect on his behavior as he was
observed by the researcher to be off-task for the majority of the class period. Rather than
participating in the warm-up or class activity, Scott was observed digging through his
backpack, staring out of the window and reading a book that he brought to class. Instead
of raising his hand to participate in class discussions, Scott shouted out answers twice and
made three irrelevant comments during the lecture; all which were deliberately ignored
by Mr. Cooper. While Mr. Cooper roamed the room to check that students were on-task
during independent seat work; during this observation he did not walked toward the back
of the room where Scott was sitting.
By the fourth observation, nearly two months after the first, Scott was sitting in
the front row next to one of the more popular and high achieving girls in the class. This

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move appeared to be a positive one as Scott was observed holding conversations with the
peer and discussing warm-up questions with her during this and the final observation a
week later. Scott's new placement in the classroom also gave Mr. Cooper a greater chance
to work one-on-one with him during the lesson. It was observed that the more positive
attention Scott received from Mr. Cooper, the more Scott participated in class discussions
and activities. Furthermore, with his seat now an integral part of the buddy system, Scott
became more socially engaged with his peers.
While each of the teachers deliberately arranged the classroom in one way or
another to place students with special needs near typically developing peers, Ms.
Alexander also utilized homogeneous grouping in her classroom. With eleven students
with special needs included in this classroom, Ms. Alexander found it in her best interest
to group together five of the students with special needs who were having the most
trouble academically so that the special education paraprofessional could support them.
Unfortunately, while this arrangement may have helped Ms. Alexander logistically, it
often prevented these students from interacting with their typical peers in the class.
Missed opportunities for social interactions were observed on a number of occasions
because when the students were permitted to work collaboratively on an assignment, the
five students within the homogenous group worked solely with the members within this
group and the paraprofessional.
The arrangement of students in a classroom tends to be a result of what the
physical structure will allow, rather than to promote a student’s learning or facilitate
social interactions (Kutnick, Blatchford, & Baines, 2002).The results from the classroom

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observations suggest that the teachers rely on manipulating the physical environment to
support the social acceptance of the students with special needs in their classroom. Even
though Ms. Alexander may have hindered the social interactions for the five students in
the homogenous group, the six remaining students with special needs included in the
classroom were observed to be sitting next to typically developing peers. While there
were few instances that clearly illustrated the impact that the arrangement had on the
social inclusion of the students with special needs, there was some evidence to show that
placing students near positive role models altered their behavior which may, in turn,
assist the students in becoming more socially accepted.
Establishing a Tone of Respect in the Classroom
Teacher Interview
Classrooms can promote mutual respect between students with and without
special needs by providing rules and clear expectations that establish a tone of comfort
and belonging for all students (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). During the interviews, each of the
teachers in this study recognized the value of establishing a classroom culture that
promotes respect and identified this as a strategy for supporting the social acceptance of
students with special needs. Three exerts from the teacher interviews serve as examples
of their perspective on the importance of establishing a tone of respect in their classroom.
Mr. Cooper stated:
"I think that my job is to make sure that they [the students with special needs] feel
like they're not excluded, but included....to be aware that they [the students with
special needs] are not being bullied or being intimidated or being made fun of. "
(November 12, 2009).

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While Ms. Alexander shared:
"Establishing the tone of the classroom is important....A lot of the mainstreamed
kids [students without disabilities] I don't think realize that the kids, the other
students, have special needs. Which I think is good for the special needs kids so
then they don't feel like, "Why am I so different than everyone else?" Some of my
students get pulled out for tests and none of the other students will ever ask why.
Because they just know, they need some additional support and that's it. It's just
part of the way the class operates" (November 19, 2009).

Finally, Ms. Dennis commented:
"I want to make sure, number one, that my children feel safe in the classroom…
that the kids understand what the rules are in order to make that a safe
environment for them. They need that comfort zone. Because if you don't have
that comfort, you're not going to get the rest of it to work for you....A lot of the
teacher's role is setting up specific tasks or scenarios for positive interactions so
that it is not spiraling into teasing" (December 7, 2009).

Findings from the teacher interviews suggest that they provide rules and establish
expectations in their classroom to promote a tone of mutual respect. However, it should
be noted that the teachers did not specify the methods they used to establish this tone.
Instead, they merely discussed the importance of providing an environment that was
comfortable and supportive of all students.
Student Interview
Frequently cited in literature on adolescent development, middle school students'
perceptions of how their teacher's facilitate and promote mutual respect among the peers
in the classroom can predict their feelings of academic and social self-efficacy
(Anderman, 2003). While each of the teachers emphasized that establishing a tone of
respect in their classroom is a critical element in their process for creating a socially
accepting classroom environment for students with special needs, comments made by the
students during their interviews challenged this conviction. For example, Debbie shared,

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"People make fun of us, like me and my friends, ‘cause they say we go to special ed.
classes" (personal communication, January 14, 2010).
An additional student shared a similar example that revealed her perception of the
students in her classroom and the negative attitudes the typical peers hold about her:
[From Interview with Maya, January, 19, 2010]
"There's a lot of mean kids in that class. ‘Cause, like, they always pick on me.
They're like, get out of this class...why are you in here? I know it's a general ed.
class and some of the stuff I don't understand at all.”
Q: "People make fun of you because you don't understand?"
A: "Ya."
One student further commented on how students in her classroom are
disrespectful to the teacher as well:
[From Interview with Lily, January 19, 2010]
Q: "Is there anything you don't like about this class?"
A: "It’s everybody. ‘Cause, you know, they are very noisy and disrespectful. I
don’t like it.”
Q: "You just mean in general or to the teacher?"
A: "To the teacher.”
Alternatively, Scott shared that because of the teacher's relaxed nature, he felt
more accepted in the class observed during the study as compared to other classes that he
was in. During the interview, Scott stated:
"I feel just like the other kids in this class. I am trying to learn the same stuff. I am
working, like, as hard as the other kids and that sort of stuff. I feel the same

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because he [the teacher] doesn't exclude me from anything....I look big and scary
so most kids just write me off as a jerk or something like that. But, most of the
kids in this class don't really write me off. Mr. Cooper helps me a ton more than
the other teachers I have" (January 25, 2010).

Scott offered some positive evidence regarding the efforts Mr. Cooper made to
support him so that he felt like an integral member of the classroom. By ensuring that
Scott was learning the same curriculum as the other students in this classroom and
emphasizing that Mr. Cooper does not "exclude him", he acknowledges how Mr. Cooper
has set a tone in the classroom where everyone should be respected and treated equally.
Though Scott's interview results hinted toward a sense of equality in his class, the
results from the student interviews, overall, indicate that the students with special needs
feel that their typical peers are disrespectful to them and often zero in on their status as a
student with special needs when taunting them. Ryan and Patrick (2001) found that when
students felt that their classroom teacher supported them as individuals and encouraged
members of the classroom to respect each other to reduce the threat of embarrassment the
student's social and academic self efficacy increases. As a result, students feel more
socially accepted by their peers. Unfortunately, evidence from the student interviews
revealed that the expectations for a respectful and supportive environment held by their
teachers were not being met.
Classroom Observation
The teacher's mission to create a more accepting social environment for the
students with special needs that are included in their classroom by establishing a tone of
respect was difficult to observe. Attempts to corroborate their views were made by
observing the overall classroom environment (e.g. posted classroom rules and

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decorations) as well as specific interactions between the students that may have
demonstrated their mutual respect for each other. Unfortunately, the instances that
revealed themselves were counterintuitive.
While the walls of each classroom were covered with posters related to academic
success and the curriculum area (e.g. pennants from universities, a three dimensional
periodic table, pictures of composures and musical instruments, and posters with math
quotes such as “Math Success…Go Figure!”) only one room had a rule posted related to
respect: "Be respectful and courteous to everyone”. Despite the fact that observations
began well after the start of the school year when rules and procedures were already in
place, the absence of posted rules, in general, raised questions regarding how the teacher
established the tone of the classroom as well as how they reinforced this tone throughout
the school year.
Several examples of peer rejection based on the premise that the student had a
special need were observed by the researcher and indicated that the tone of mutual
respect the teachers were hoping to establish among their students may not have been
achieved. The first incident observed occurred as the students in Ms. Alexander's class
prepared to take a test. As Ms. Alexander indicated that the students were about to begin
the test the special education paraprofessional instructed several of the students in the
classroom to leave the classroom with her. She made no attempts to gather the students
discreetly. Instead, she motioned to a few students with her finger to follow her and shout
out other students names asking, “[student's name] are you coming with me?”. The
students that left the classroom were both students with special needs and English

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Language Learners (ELLs) that required extra support and/or accommodations on tests. It
was observed that eleven students walked out with the paraprofessional to receive her
assistance on the test. Four of the students with special needs opted to stay in the
classroom to complete the test on their own. However, as the group of students started to
leave the classroom a typically developing peer asked one of the students, “Why are you
leaving? Are you retarded?” The paraprofessional rolled her eyes at the student and told
the group to “Keep moving”. The teacher became very upset, raised her voice, and told
the student that he was “never to say that word again at school”. The student laughed and
responded to the teacher, “What word? Retarded? What’s wrong with that? I am retarded
sometimes. I just wanted to see if they were retarded.” With that, the teacher turned
around and told the students to begin their test; missing an opportunity to reinforce a
sense of equality in the classroom by failing to truly discuss the incident that occurred.
A second account that demonstrated behavior divergent from the teacher's
aspiration for mutual respect among students in the classroom occurred during Mr.
Cooper's class as the students began their warm-up activity. As Mr. Cooper walked
around checking the homework, he approach Scott and asked, “Do you have your
homework today?”. Scott stated that he forgot to do his homework and then said “sorry”.
As the teacher walked to the next student, cloud coverage made the room very dark. Scott
stated loudly in a joking tone of voice, “Let there be light!”. While a few students giggled
at the comment, a student sitting behind Scott said, “Why don’t you shut up retard?”. The
teacher was not aware that the comment occurred. Scott offered no response to his peer.
He sighed quietly and put his head down on his desk.

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The results from the observations suggest that even though the teachers wanted a
classroom that encouraged mutual respect between peers, little evidence of this type of
environment or strategies to reinforce the concept of equality in the classroom were
directly observed. Kluth (2003) reminds us that an educator needs to use specific
strategies and practices to develop and maintain a classroom community that
demonstrates respect of individual differences. Having not observed instances of specific
strategies implemented by the teachers, leads one to question if the teachers assumed that
the activities done the first week of school to establish a tone of respect would be
sustained without any additional reinforcement throughout the school year or if they were
un-prepared with methods for reinforcing this concept throughout the year.
Summary of Preparing the Classroom
Research has indicated that preparing your classroom during the first few weeks
of school to establish a socially accepting classroom environment is critical (Korinek et
al., 1999). Allowing the students to get to know each other, helping them learn about one
another, and “providing clear messages about classroom expectations” are essential to
creating this tone of acceptance (Korinek, et al., 1999, p 5). While this type of thought
and preparation was heavily emphasized in the teacher interviews, it was not consistently
reflected during the observations or in the student interviews.
Evidence increasingly shows that classrooms and schools that do not establish or
sustain a sense of community endure increased problems with underachievement and
witnesses the exclusion of students with special needs from their typical peer group
(Korinek, et al., 1999). Once teachers are able to establish the tone of their classroom so

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that a respectful community occurs, they are challenged with developing and
implementing specific strategies that will promote positive social interaction and the
development of authentic relationships (Kluth, 2003).
Conceptual Category 2: Types of Support
Within the concept of Support Systems, three prominent themes emerged from the
interviews and observations. In response to the research question that guided this study,
these themes focused on the academic and social strategies the general education teachers
used throughout the school year to increase the social acceptance of students with special
needs in their classroom. The themes that emerged are 1) Instructional Support, 2) Peer
Support, and 3) Targeted Instructional Support for Social Interactions.
Instructional Support

Teacher Interview

One of the most striking themes to emerge from the interviews and observations
was the role instructional accommodations played in supporting the student’s social
acceptance. During the interviews, the teachers noted the importance of providing
instructional accommodations for the students with special needs so that they would not
become frustrated or overwhelmed by the academics; noting that when the students
become overwhelmed academically, they often “shut down” and will “disengaged from
the rest of the class” (Mr. Cooper, personal communication, November 12, 2009). By
providing the students with the academic support they need to feel successful, the
teachers observed that the students with special needs became more active members of
the classroom and, as a result, had more positive interactions with their peers.

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An excerpt from the interview with Mr. Cooper offers as an example of this
perspective:
[From Interview with Mr. Cooper, November 12, 2009]
"I try to incorporate strategies or different ways to explain things. I try to be really
deliberate and slow in my speech so that they are not overwhelmed. I recognize
that you need to approach it [supporting students with special needs] differently.
Sometimes it takes going over it again and maybe actually individually explaining
certain things to a student; or modifying the homework…. Rather than shutting
down...let's keep her engaged. Let's go ahead and, if she is having a problem with
something, let’s limit it".
Q: “So, you see modifying the curriculum and the accommodations you provide
the students as a way to prevent behavior issues that they may have which will, in
the end, lead to them having more positive social interactions?”
A: “Yes, I hope so. I think the whole idea of mainstreaming is for them to be able
to function normally in a classroom and not be labeled as anything other than a
student. I think that's the goal in here.”
Ms. Dennis also commented on the ways she supports the students in the classroom by
making them feel successful academically:
"We have a variety of activities to do and I have to support them [students with
special needs] to help them achieve those activities with some level of success.
One way I do this is by asking them [students with special needs] questions I
know that they can answer. This, in my opinion, boosts their self esteem"
(December 7, 2009).

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Finally, Ms. Alexander noted that while the students in her classroom were
provided the accommodations specified by their Individualized Education Plan (IEP), she
relied on the notion that all students in her class were treated equally; stating "My
expectations of them [students with special needs] are exactly the same...and all of my
students know that" (November 19, 2009).
The findings from the teacher interviews revealed the teachers strong belief that
when students with special needs feel academically successful they become more
confident overall. This confidence, in the teacher's opinion, would motivate the students
to engage in an increased level of social interactions with their peers. In addition, by
having equal expectations for the students with special needs, the typically developing
peers would have the opportunity to see the students with special needs as academic
equals. This idea parallels findings in research about typically developing peers’ attitudes
towards students with special needs in that, typical peers who witnessed the competence
of students with special needs in the general education classroom are more likely to have
positive attitudes about them (Siperstein et al., 2007) and would, as a result, engage in
more authentic social interactions with them.
Student Interview

When students recognize that their teachers are supporting them so that they
successfully master content, they are more likely to view the school experience as a
positive one; leading to feelings of competence, acceptance, and self-efficacy
(Anderman, 2003). To learn about the students’ awareness of how their teachers

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supported them academically, each of the students was asked to comment on their
perceptions of how their teacher supported them in their school work.
Students Lily and Maya stated that their teachers assisted them by allowing the
special education paraprofessional to help them during class. While Lily simply
responded by saying, "My teacher helps me with my school work by letting
[paraprofessional identified] help us (personal communication, January 14, 2010), Maya
noted that, "We get more help than other kids. [Paraprofessional identified] takes us out
of class and helps us with our tests. The other kids don't get as much help as we do. Like,
they have the whole test, all 40 questions, and we only have to do 30" (personal
communication, January 19, 2010).
Scott commented on the specific methods the teacher used to support him in the
classroom when he said:
“If I need help he’ll [the teacher] actually come to me and ask what’s going on-all
that sort of stuff. If I have a question he’ll, like, come to me and answer it…like
the basic steps or whatever. And, like, so I will actually, like, understand it….I
feel like, he like…tries a whole ton more to help me out with stuff I don’t
understand. More than any other teacher I have” (January 25, 2010).

While the students noted that the instructional support they received assisted them
in understanding the curriculum, an alternate point of view developed during the
interviews regarding the instructional support the teachers provide. Specifically, one
student stated that the changes the teachers made to support their understanding of the
curriculum were too easy and, as a result, did not challenge them. While two other
students commented that the academic support provided to them made them made them
feel different and, as a result, may be hindering their acceptance from their typical peers.

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The following excerpts from the student interviews provide examples that illustrate these
perspectives:
[From Interview with Debbie, January 14, 2010]
Q: “How does your teacher support you with your school work?”
A: "Sometimes by not giving me too much homework. Like, sometimes we just
do one side of the piece of paper"
Q: "Do you think you could do both sides of the paper?"
A: "Ya."
[From Interview with Lily, January 19, 2010]
"...if I were normal..."
Q: "If you were normal? You don't think you are?
A: "No. 'Cause, they [students in her general education class] don't go to special
ed like me."
Q: "So, using your words...if you were normal like them...what?"
A: "I would get harder homework. Like, sometimes I think, like, the math
homework is too easy…We also get help on quizzes. Like today's science quiz."
Q: "So, students make fun of you because you get help?"
A: "Yes."
[From Interview with Maya, January 19, 2010]
Q: "Do you feel different from the other kids in the class?"
A: "Sometimes."
Q: "What makes you feel different?"

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A: "Um…’Cause we get more help than the other kids."
Q: "Is it a bad difference?"
A: "Ya."
When students are encouraged by their teachers and see their teachers as
respectful of their ability and capability, they tend to be more engaged in the curriculum
and the class (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). The results from the student interviews reveal that,
while the students recognize that the teachers are supporting them with instructional
accommodations, they often feel that the accommodations create a social and academic
divide between them and their typically developing peers in the classroom.
Classroom Observation

To corroborate the results from the teacher interviews, the types of instructional
support provided to the students with special needs were noted during the classroom
observations. A variety of instructional strategies to support the academic success of the
students were observed across all classroom settings. Instructional strategies, such as the
use of technology via Smart board and videos were observed as a way to engage the
students. Students were provided scaffolding during lectures with the assistance of
skeleton notes that outlined main ideas and concepts. Furthermore, homework and class
assignments were color coded to assist students with organization. Finally, each of the
teachers began their class with a warm-up activity to both introduce the students to the
topic of the day and allow them time to settle in as the class began.
In addition to these instruction strategies, the teachers were observed supporting
their students learning by making new concepts meaningful through background building

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and personal connections. A widely received notion among educators is that the student’s
schemata can provide a foundation for learning (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). In Mr.
Cooper's class an example of how he built on the student’s schemata to support their
academic success was observed when a student was asked to solve an equation on the
board. The student began by saying, “First, we have to clean up the yard because we
can’t have variables in my yard that belong to you. So, to get rid of them, we need to
push them over the fence”.
Additional examples were observed during Ms. Alexander's class. For instance,
during her lecture on atoms, Ms. Alexander explained how an atom would be created
using the Plum Pudding Model by stating, “If I were to give you a bowl of cookie dough
and then a bowl of chocolate chips and told you to smush them together…that would be
like creating an atom using the Plum Pudding Model”. She continued her explanation,
using a batting cage reference to explain the vocabulary term deflected and drawing
comparisons between the concept of orbit and being on the teacups at Disneyland stating,
“If you’ve ever been to Disneyland and rode the teacups…you orbited around the cups”.
In addition to these specific instructional strategies observed to support the
students learning, the active participation strategies the teachers used and the way the
teachers positively reinforced the students with special needs during class, were also
observed as instructional supports that increased the student's confidence in class and
made them feel like integral members of the classroom community. Across all settings,
the teachers were observed engaging the students through active participation strategies
such as using white boards for whole class response, pulling Popsicle sticks and playing

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cards with students names on them to randomize student responses, and integrating
whole-class games like Around the World to review concepts.
For students with special needs, asking for help may, in their eyes, show a
weakness that they do not want to reveal (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998). To eliminate
this risk, the teachers were observed implementing additional instructional strategies to
support the students when they did not understand a concept and reinforce them when the
students gave an accurate response in order to boost their confidence about the academic
task at hand and, as a result, increase their level of engagement. For example, during
whole class instruction in Mr. Cooper's class Debbie was observed attempting to
participate by raising her hand to answer a question. When she was called upon, she
responded incorrectly. She appeared to the researcher to be upset as she sighed loudly
and put her head down when Mr. Cooper stated that she answered incorrectly. Later,
Debbie raised her hand again, but was not called on. She pounded her fist on the table
and made verbal sounds indicating frustration (E.g. “Argh!”). Sensing her frustration and
fearing that she would "shut down" and fail to participate later, Mr. Cooper proposed a
question to the class that he knew Debbie could answer (this was discovered during a
brief conversation between the researcher and teacher after the observation). When
Debbie answered the question correctly, the teacher verbally praised her by saying, “Very
good! I knew you would get it.” Debbie smiled and sat up in her chair.
Another example of how the students were provided instructional
accommodations during class to reduce their level of anxiety so that their participation
would increase occurred in Ms. Dennis' class. As Ms. Dennis began to review a new

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piece of music she eased the students anxiety by saying, "Just treat this like a Daily Oral
Music (DOM) activity; one note at a time". Going note by note, Ms. Dennis labeled each
with its corresponding letter. She asked for student volunteers to identify certain notes. It
was observed that neither student with special needs included in this class raised their
hand to volunteer. As the teacher went on to the next measure of notes, she asked a
student with special needs to identify the note after "f" on the sheet of music. Observing
the student staring silently at his sheet of music, Ms. Dennis supported him by saying, "it
is the letter in the alphabet that comes after f." He stated, "g". Ms. Dennis reinforced the
student by saying, "Excellent! Well done!". She moved on and asked a second student
with special needs, Teresa, to identify the note that began the next measure. It was
observed by the researcher that the note was "c"; a note that they had already identified
four times. Teresa offered a correct response. Ms. Dennis reinforced by saying,
"Wonderful job! You are a brainiac!".
Despite the fact that the students offered mixed views about the benefits of the
instructional support they received in the classroom during their interview, the findings
from the observation reveal that the teachers deliberately and strategically provided
multiple forms of academic support so that the students felt successful in the class.
Although evidence has shown that engagement and active participation in class activities
are behavior indicators associated with a student's feeling of belonging in a classroom
(Anderman, 2003), it is difficult to say if the instructional strategies observed truly made
a difference in the overall social acceptance of the students with special needs. However,
because of the relationship between social and academic variables in school can be

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viewed as reciprocal (Anderman, 2003), one can draw the conclusion that the
instructional support offered by the teachers would support the student’s engagement
which could increase their opportunity for peer interaction.
Peer Support

Teacher Interview

Classroom structures that facilitate increased opportunities for peer interaction,
such as cooperative learning activities and peer tutoring may foster positive peer
interactions and permit students the opportunity to learn to encourage and support each
other (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). Each of the teachers revealed their reliance on the
support of typically developing peers as a strategy to support students with special needs
academically and socially.
"I have tables in my class. It lends itself to being table buddies. I think that's
important. That is...their partner that they are working with...and then, they might
get some academic reinforcement too" (Mr. Cooper, personal communication,
November 12, 2009).

"In my room, the way that I sit the kids even, is, I put them with kids who are
going to set them up for success. I do a lot of think-pair-share, so I try to place
some students that are higher students in with special needs students so that they
can help...so they can talk to the person next to them and share their combined
force....I provide an environment that's structured for all students to feel like they
can interact with peers in a way that's conducive to them developing the skills to
just have an interaction or conversation with their peer as opposed to the teacher"
(Ms. Alexander, personal communication, November 19, 2009).

"I have a classroom where kids will buddy up with someone who needs help and
will help them achieve. They may be able to achieve it with me one-on-one, but
more than likely it's achieved through peer intervention. I also try to get to know
my classroom and then which kids will be willing and have that ability, that
personality, to help those with special needs….and many times that will be
between two, um, "mothers" so to speak " (Ms. Dennis, personal communication,
December 7, 2009).

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Using peers as a support presents a solution to the common challenge of
addressing the needs of a diverse group of students in a large classroom. Furthermore,
strategies that include using peers to support students with special needs have been
shown to increase the self esteem of students with special needs as well as their attitude
toward their peers and school in general (Byrd, 1990). The results of the teacher
interviews indicate that using typical peers to support the needs of the students included
in their classroom plays a fundamental role in the way they support their social
acceptance.
Student Interview
While no specific question during the interviews asked the students to comment
on their perceptions of the peer support they received in their classroom, the findings
were identified within the students’ answers to the question, “In what ways does your
teacher help support you both with your school work and with getting along with others
in this class”. Contrary to the teacher’s beliefs that peer tutoring is supporting their
students with special needs, when interviewed; only one student confirmed this saying,
"My teacher helps me by putting us in groups" (Debbie, personal communication,
January 14, 2010). However, it is interesting to note that this is the same student who
declared that being in groups made her feel uncomfortable because she did not know the
other students as well as she knew the friends she had in class.
Aside from the views of Debbie, the other student participants failed to
acknowledge any form of peer support in their classes. In fact, one student shared that
they were not interested in receiving assistance from their peers:

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"I'm not like other kids because I am different. My personality is very
different...I'm a very nice person...I'm very respectful...I'm very quiet. Some
others are chatty. And, I am very nice and some other kids are not. I don’t need
help from other students. You know, sometimes I get help from other teachers...I
even ask my dad to help me once in a while" (Lily, personal communication,
January 19, 2010).

Although peer tutoring has been shown to increase the achievement of students
with special needs and is often used as a method for including the students so that they do
not feel segregated in the general education classroom (Byrd, 1990), the results of the
student interviews reveal that receiving support from their peers was not something they
viewed as essential.
Classroom Observation

On the whole, there were limited accounts of structured peer support observed
across the classroom settings. While the teachers indicated that peer support was a key
strategy they utilized to allow for social interactions between students with and without
special needs, the majority of observations were teacher dominated lectures with brief
opportunities for student participation through the answering of teacher directed
questions. Although the teachers used a variety of strategies to call upon different
students during the lectures (E.g. playing cards and Popsicle sticks with students names
on them), cooperative learning strategies identified by the teachers as methods for
inviting students to work together, such as think-pair-share, were not observed.
The interactions that were observed were frequently unstructured and sporadic.
Although one classroom allowed students to work as a group to prepare for quizzes, the
students were permitted to sit where ever they wanted; subsequently, clustering with
those they were most familiar with. It was observed that the students with special needs

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included in this class were frequently left to prepare for the quiz alone or with only one
other peer. Other peer interactions observed occurred at the end of class periods when
students were allowed time to begin their homework assignment or during group lab
assignments.
The absence of a specific structure for peer interaction during specific classroom
activities may have contributed to the occasions observed where the students with special
needs were ignored by their peers or left to work alone even though the teacher instructed
the students to work together. An example of this was observed during a Lab activity that
occurred in Ms. Alexander's class. As Ms. Alexander distributed the handout for the
"Element Lab", she instructed the students to work in "table groups/partners" to complete
the assignment. A group of five students with special needs that were homogeneously
grouped at the front of the room were observed working together with the support of the
paraprofessional. There was no interaction between these students and other students in
the classroom. Lily was observed to be sitting next to a typical female peer. Lily
attempted to engage the peer by asking her a question about the assignment. The peer did
not respond. Instead, she turned her head away from Lily and started the assignment by
herself. A minute passed and another female peer entered the room; giving her teacher a
pass to clear her tardiness. She proceeded to take her seat at the table with Lily and the
other female student. The female student welcomed the peer by saying, "Where were
you?" and turned her body to face her. With her back facing Lily, she and the female peer
that just sat down began working on the lab assignment together. Lily proceeded to
complete the lab independently.

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Research has suggested that while students may be sitting in pairs and/or groups
to initiate interaction or be provided academic support from a peer, without the structure
to guide them, the groups lack coordination and purpose; and are therefore often
ineffective (Kutnick, Blatchford, & Baines, 2002).The findings from the classroom
observations suggest that the students, though sitting together as table buddies, were not
aware of their roles in the peer support structure. As a result, the few opportunities the
students had to work together and support the learning and social needs on one another
were missed.
Targeted Instructional Support for Social Interactions

Teacher Interview

Previous literature suggests that general education teachers often see themselves
as facilitators of the relationships that occur between students rather than one who
provides direct instruction on social skills (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). While
teachers in the present study frequently used the word facilitator to describe their role in
supporting the students' social needs, they also commented on their commitment to
provide direct instruction to the students with special needs on skills for engaging in
positive social interactions:
"A lot of kids, I think, know already how to socially interact with an adult. But,
speaking to their peers, I think, is a very different environment. I think a lot of
them do need explicit directions on how to interact with one another. So, I think a
lot of the kids need something explicit...teacher directed even....Sometimes it's
simply providing scaffolding or prompting to give students clues in how to
interact with one another " (Ms. Alexander, personal communication, November
19, 2009).

"I think the nature of special ed. kids...I think sometimes what we see in the
education world here at school are ones that have some social difficulties

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negotiating with other kids. Every kid has needs. It's just our special kids need
more of the social instruction from us" (Ms. Dennis, personal communication,
December 7, 2009).

Though conscious of the additional supports some students with special needs require,
Ms. Dennis emphasized the importance of the student being an advocate for themselves
in social situations:
"I do realize that you need to look...you need to approach things differently [with
students with special needs]. However, at this point, the student needs to kind of
figure those things out. I mean, that's part of becoming mainstreamed...they gotta
be able to figure out how to interact with people" (Mr. Cooper, personal
communication, November 12, 2009).

The findings from the teacher interviews suggest that the teachers recognize the
additional layer of support required by the students that are included in their classroom to
engage in positive social interactions. As a result, they acknowledge specific instruction
on social skills as a strategy to promote the students social acceptance in the classroom.
Student Interview

Students often view their teachers as having a one-dimensional role in their lives.
That is, merely providing them with academic support (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001).
The results of the student interviews parallel this idea.
Frequently, when asked how their general education teachers supported them
socially, students asked for the question to be rephrased for clarity or hesitated to offer a
response. Furthermore, Teresa asked to be excused from answering any questions related
to the social support she received. In general, the students identified how their general
education teachers supported them with school work, but made few references to any
social support they received from them. For example, Lily stated, "She [the general

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education teacher] does help me with my homework, but not with friends. ‘Cause, I can
make friends" (personal communication, January 19, 2010). While Lance noted, "I think I
make my own friends, you know, just by interacting with people" (personal
communication, January 19, 2010). Finally, Scott commented that, “He [general
education teacher] helps me with school. I don’t really have trouble with friends....I am
already doing pretty good with that" (personal communication, January 25, 2010).
Despite the fact that the students did not see the general education teachers as a
person who supported them socially, it should be noted that many identified their former
special education teacher at the school as the one they looked to for social support. For
example, Debbie shared that, “[Special Education Teacher identified] helps me a lot. She
tells me who not to hang out with…who to hang out with. Not to listen to people that
make fun of me" (personal communication, January 14, 2010). Lily also identified this
special education teacher when she stated that, "[Special Education Teacher identified]
helps me to make friends. She says, like, don't be friends with other kids who are mean"
(personal communication, January 19, 2010). Finally, Maya added to this when she
commented that the special education teacher was someone she looked to for social
support stating, "Cause, like, we can come to her with anything. Like, advice. She'll
understand and she'll go to the person, or whatever, who done something to you, she'll go
to that person and tell them" (personal communication, January 19, 2010).
Apart from the special education teacher, Lily also identified her mother as a
person she looked to for social support stating, "I really only need my mom's help. She
knows how to get along with girls...boys...how to be friends with them...how to be nice.

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My mom is very helpful because she is my role model" (personal communication,
January 19, 2010).
Given the findings from the student interviews, it appears that the students do not
rely on their general education teacher for assistance in social support or perceive them as
a source to solicit guidance from, even though the teachers, themselves, identified this as
a strategy they used to support the students' social acceptance. However, the students did
identify their special education teacher as a person they received support from; indicating
that the students are aware of how teachers can play a role in facilitating their social
interactions and acceptance.
Classroom Observation

It is evident from the teacher's responses during the interviews that they
understand the additional guidance some students with special needs require to have
positive social interactions. While the teachers nominated this as a strategy they use to
support the social acceptance of students with special needs included in their classroom, a
significant discrepancy arose during the observations when there were no instances of
explicit, teacher directed instruction by the general education teacher regarding social
skills observed. The findings would suggest that if the teachers truly implemented
specific instruction to teach students strategies to increase their positive social
interactions with typical peers, this was done away from the observer or was not deemed
necessary during the observational period.

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Summary of Academic Support

Research has noted that the support a teacher provides their students is a critical
component in their academic achievement and acceptance in the social environment of
the classroom (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). Each of the teachers involved in this study
outlined their methods for supporting their students with special needs; emphasizing the
academic strategies they used, noting the importance of typical peer support, and
acknowledging the significance of stepping outside the role of a content area teacher to
address the specific social needs of students. Unfortunately, while these tools were noted
as vital to their practice in promoting the social acceptance of the students with special
needs included in their classroom, the student interviews and classroom observations
offered mixed findings that could not be corroborated.
Summary

The data gathered from this study included interviews with general education
middle school teachers, interviews with the students with special needs included in their
classrooms, and classroom observations. What emerged from the data were the strategies
that middle school general education teachers identified as essential to their practice in
supporting the social acceptance of students with special needs included in their
classroom. Additional insight was revealed when these strategies were either validated or
unsupported by student interviews and classroom observations. A discussion of the
results presented here will be addressed in Chapter 5.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The first four chapters provided an introduction, review of the literature, the
methodology and research design and the findings that were revealed through classroom
observations and teacher and student interviews. Chapter four also discusses the emergent
themes identified through the data analysis. This chapter will provide overall conclusions,
implications, and recommendations for future research based on the findings from this
study.
Purpose and Significance of Study

This qualitative study provides a detailed view of three general education middle
school teachers and the strategies they feel are essential to implement in providing a
socially accepting classroom environment for students with special needs. Understanding
the strategies general education teachers incorporate in their classrooms can help inform
practices that other teachers can utilize when supporting a student with special needs.
Thus far, in educational settings, specific attempts to generate increased opportunities for
social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs commonly maintain a
narrow focus on teaching the child with special needs social skills (Sapon-Shevin et al.,
1998) or implementing school-wide friendship programs where the student with special
needs is linked to a typically developing peer in hopes that they will establish a
friendship. However, a noted concern discussed in the literature review regarding the use
of these programs is the lack of true reciprocity and preservation of any of the friendships

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that may have been developed (Sapon-Shevin, et al., 1998). This study seeks to explore
the specific strategies educators are utilizing within their daily practices so that students
with special needs included in their classroom have access to authentic social interactions
with their typical peers.
A limited number of studies have focused on the role that general education
teachers play in providing social support to the students with special needs included in
their classrooms (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). Those that have been done have heavily
relied on teacher reporting through interviews to investigate the strategies. In this
research study, the added element was individual interviews with students with special
needs included in the classrooms to assess their perceptions regarding the support they
received from their general education teachers as well as classroom observations to
witness how, and to what extent, the teachers implemented the strategies they identified
as essential to their practice. The findings of this study can be informative in raising
awareness of both general and special education teachers, who are attempting to address
the social needs of students with special needs included in general education classrooms,
as well as inform teacher preparation programs working to prepare new teachers to work
in inclusive settings.
Discussion

Because of the focus on inclusion in public schools today, the interest regarding
how to effectively support students with special needs in the general education
environment, both academically and socially has been ignited. While we have witnessed
the academic benefits for students with special needs in inclusive settings (Friend &

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Bursuck, 2009; Salend & Duhaney, 1999), research continues to show that typically
developing students hold negative attitudes toward their peers with special needs (Lucas,
1999; Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001; Ochoa & Olivarez, 1995; Pearl, 2004;
Royal & Roberts, 1987; Siperstein et al., 2007). As a result, students with special needs
are reported to feel lonely and socially isolated from their typically developing peer
group (Heward, 2006; Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008; Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001).
Each of the teachers in this study shared similar views regarding the strategies
they deem essential to break through this social divide and provide a classroom that is
supportive of all learners so that students with special needs feel socially included.
Collectively, the teachers noted the importance of arranging the classroom environment
to facilitate positive social interactions, establishing a tone of respect in the classroom,
providing both instructional and peer support, and offering direct instruction for the
students to develop the skills they need to have positive social interactions. The findings
of this study revealed evidence of teacher knowledge regarding effective practices to
support the social needs of students that are included in their classroom. However, the
data also revealed a significant discrepancy between the teachers’ knowledge of the
strategies and their ability to apply them in the classroom.
Thus far, specific evidence-based strategies for creating a socially accepting
general education classroom environment for students with special needs have not been
clearly delineated. However, investigations conducted on this topic have identified
common trends in the strategies teachers report using in their classroom. These trends
parallel the findings from this study. For example, Ryan and Patrick (2001) discussed

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teachers’ emphasis on establishing a classroom that promoted mutual respect through
rules and expectations as a strategy for supporting the social acceptance of students with
special needs included in general education classrooms. While, in this current study, only
one classroom was observed to have clearly posted rules that clarified respect as an
expectation, the concept of establishing a tone of respect in the classroom was
highlighted by each teacher as an essential element in creating a classroom that socially
supported the students with special needs.
An additional trend found in the literature revolves around the importance of
providing a classroom structure that facilitates opportunities for peer interaction, such as
cooperative learning activities and peer tutoring, to allow students with and without
special needs to communicate positively with one another (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001;
Ryan & Patrick, 2001). The teachers in this study heavily emphasized the importance of
peer support as a strategy, noting that they arrange their seating chart to purposely pair
students with special needs with a typical peer that could serve as a role model; while,
also, emphasizing the allowance for cooperative learning during their lessons. Although
instances of cooperative learning were not observed on a regular basis, the teacher’s
acknowledgement of this strategy served as an indication that they understood this to be
an effective way to support the social acceptance of students with special needs.
Although no teacher can actually create friendships among students with and
without special needs, all teachers can generate the circumstances in the classroom that
will present students with the opportunity to increase their social relationships (Kluth,
2003). While the teachers in this study were all cognizant of the strategies they saw as

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important to support the social acceptance of the students with special needs included in
their classroom, the student interviews and observations did not corroborate the
statements made by the teachers during the interviews. This initiated questions regarding
the teacher's ability to transfer theory into practice and whether they, like many others
before them, relied on the assumption that contact with typical peers is enough to
promote the social acceptance of students with special needs.
The conclusions drawn from this study will be discussed in two sections. First,
strategies identified by the teachers as essential to their practice but not directly supported
during the student interviews and/or observations will be discussed using the theoretical
framework presented in chapter 2; Gordon Allport's (1954) Contact Theory as a guide.
Following that, conclusions in relation to the discrepancies that arose due to a gap
between the teacher’s knowledge and practice will be presented.
Contact Theory
Most would not argue that the placement of students with special needs in the
general education classroom environment has positive effects on their self-esteem, self
worth, and their ability to make friends (Bunch & Valeo, 2004; Friend & Bursuck, 2009;
Klinger, 1998; Pivak, McComas, & Laflamme, 2002). However, it has been recognized
that students with special needs that are included need more than the inclusive classroom
itself to feel socially accepted. Instead, the students require the direct support of their
teachers in providing access to successful social opportunities with their typical peers
(Kluth, 2003). The results of this study indicated that, while the teachers claimed to set
the stage for social acceptance to develop through the arrangement of the seating and

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establishing rules for respect, the observations indicated that each of the teachers
frequently fell victim to the assumption that the structure was enough to foster the social
acceptance of students with special needs included in their classroom. What's more, the
strategies that the teacher's indicated they implemented throughout the school year were
not consistently observed by the researcher or identified as having an impact on their
social acceptance by the students with special needs.
Studies have examined the benefits of the addition of a systematic program or
evidence-based practices for developing positive social learning opportunities, as
opposed to relying on the physical placement of a student with special needs, by looking
through the lens of Gordon Allport’s (1954) Contact Theory which was discussed in
more detail within Chapter 2. Contact theory is considered to be an essential guide for
designing school practices that seek to reduce prejudice between groups of people
(Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000). The theory maintains that prejudice and
discrimination toward a minority group will only be reduced when the contact between
the different groups of individuals is specifically designed and executed so that four
conditions are met a) equal status among the groups, b) common goals, c) inter-group
cooperation supportive of change, and d) the association between the groups must be
genuine (Maxwell & Shammas, 2007; Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000). Previous
studies using Contact Theory to examine the effectiveness of inclusion programs have
noted that when these conditions are not met stereotypes will not be broken down and, as
a result, students with special needs will not feel socially accepted (Siperstein, et al.,
2007). While the general education teachers in this study discussed practices for

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supporting the social acceptance of students with special needs included in their
classroom that were analogous to the literature, the observations revealed the absence of
conditions that Contact Theory deems necessary for an effective inclusive environment to
occur. The following sections offer a discussion using each of the conditions of Contact
Theory as a guide to reflect on the findings from the current study.
Equal Status
A true classroom community, if implemented with an awareness of equal status
among groups, would provide a positive environment for all students, including those
with special needs. When analyzing the data for this current study, several incidents
illustrated how the first condition of Allport's (1954) Contact Theory, Equal Status, was
lacking among the classrooms. While each of the teachers noted the importance of
establishing a tone of respect in their classroom so that the students felt safe and included,
instances were observed that demonstrated the need for the teachers to provide explicit
curriculum to address behaviors that would build and sustain a healthy classroom
community that is accepting of diverse learners (Korinek et al., 1999). Two accounts that
were observed, which illustrate this point, occurred when two typical peers called a
student with special needs "retarded" during two different classes. In both instances,
described in more detail in Chapter 4, the teacher quickly dismissed the situation offering
no consequence to the students. When opportunities for addressing situations like this are
dismissed it may inhibit the social progress of the class and, perhaps unintentionally,
reinforce a sense of superiority among the typical peers who harbor stereotypes about the
ability level of students with special needs. To instill the condition of Equal Status,

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teachers must assume responsibility for modeling and facilitating community among their
students (Korinek et al., 1999). In order for this to happen it is vital for teachers to make
social learning an explicit part of the classroom curriculum by addressing behaviors that
may impede the feeling of equal status among its members (Korinek et al., 1999).
Common Goals
While the classrooms observed for this study attempted to incorporate
opportunities for student interaction, by and large the instances of peer contact lacked the
second condition deemed necessary by Allport's (1954) Contact Theory for an effective
inclusive environment to emerge; that is that during interactions, the peers should share
Common Goals. Allport (1954) contends that students should actively cooperate in
meaningful activities in order for stereotypes to fade and acceptance to thrive. While the
teachers indicated in their interviews that they provided structured cooperative learning
opportunities so that students with special needs could establish relationships with their
typical peers, the observations did not support this. In fact, the majority of the social
interactions that took place during the observations were sporadic and lacked sufficient
opportunity for meaningful activities to take place. The few social interactions that
occurred were brief, often transpired during the remaining five minutes of class, and
lacked specific guidance or structure by the teacher. Therefore, even when given the
chance to interact, the classroom structure and seating arrangement failed to support the
teacher's original intentions of using cooperative grouping to foster meaningful
relationships or Allport's (1954) concept of having common goals. Guidance during
interactions could have ensured that the association between the peers was of high

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quality. Instead, the absence of the teacher’s regulation during the small number of peer
interactions observed may have contributed to the instances where students with special
needs were ignored rather than accepted by their typical peers.
Teachers must facilitate student interactions so that they are meaningful; not
superficial. Some models based on Contact Theory insist that any interactions that take
place in the classroom must contain seven features: frequent, interactive, pleasant,
focused on a common goal, meaningful, promoting respect, and long (Slininger, Sherrill,
& Jankowski, 2000). Conclusions from the data gained from this study indicate the need
for teachers to facilitate interactions that occur in their classroom so that these features
can be met. Without these efforts, given the opportunity for peer interaction, students will
typically associate with other students whom they already know and who are most like
themselves (Korinek et al., 1999) rather than branch out to develop new relationships
with diverse peers. Ultimately, it is imperative that teachers understand that if students
with special needs feel disconnected from the common goals of the classroom, even
during basic interactions, they may be left feeling like visitors in the classroom rather
than valued members of the group.
Inter-Group Cooperation Supportive of Change
The third condition proposed by Allport (1954) for students from differing
backgrounds to feel socially connected is for the students to be Supportive of Change. In
the case of inclusive settings, the change that often must occur is in the typical peers’
attitudes toward disability that may create false stereotypes about the ability levels of
individuals with special needs or may lead to feelings of superiority on the part of the

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typical peer. Although the teacher interviews showed that the teachers believed in
creating a classroom where everyone is equal and felt included, the findings from the
student interviews revealed otherwise. In fact, the students with special needs voiced
concern that the teachers may be unintentionally creating a disparity between themselves
and their typical peers through the instructional accommodations the teachers provided
them.
A key finding in this study was the teacher's belief that by providing the students
with special needs instructional accommodations their self efficacy in the classroom
would be enhanced. The teachers connected this self-efficacy to social acceptance by
stating that if the students felt academically successful in the classroom they would be
more likely to engage in social interactions with their typical peers. Furthermore, the
teachers expressed that because the typically developing peers would have the
opportunity to see the students with special needs completing assignments in the general
education classroom they would become more accepting of the students with special
needs because they would see them as academic equals. This idea parallels findings in
research about typically developing peers’ attitudes towards students with special needs
in that, typical peers who witnessed the competence of students with special needs in the
general education classroom are more likely to have positive attitudes about them
(Siperstein et al., 2007) and would, as a result, engage in more authentic social
interactions with them.
What the teachers failed to recognize, however, was how the accommodations
made the students with special needs feel. While the students understood that the teachers

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were trying to support them by implementing the accommodations written in the their
Individualized Education Plans (IEP), they also felt that the changes the teachers made to
their curriculum made the work too easy and, as a result, did not challenge them.
Furthermore, the student's revealed feelings of inadequacy and difference because of the
accommodations they received. While one student stated that she did not feel "normal"
because of the assistance she received, two of the other students revealed that many of the
typical peers made fun of them because they received extra help or modified assignments.
The results from the interviews provide an eye opening perspective about providing
students with special needs instructional support. Though the teachers had good
intentions, their methods for supporting the student's academic needs may have actually
hindered the students' acceptance by reinforcing the view that the students included in the
class required "extra help" and were not "the same”; thereby, making it difficult for any
attitude change to take place amongst the typically developing peers regarding the ability
level of students with special needs.
Genuine Associations
If a person's social acceptance is, for the most part, a function of positive contact
with other members of one's social dynamic, then the difficulties many students with
special needs experience in gaining acceptance from their typical peers may be a result of
the quality of contact opportunities that their classroom provides (Damico & Sparks,
1986). Allport's (1954) final condition revealed in his Contact Theory is that the
interactions that take place among students must be genuine or, "of the sort that leads to

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the perception of common interests and common humanity between members of the two
groups" (Allport, 1954, p. 281).
During the teacher interviews, the importance of seating students with special
needs next to a peer that would be more "open", "accepting", and "understanding", of the
student’s disability was discussed. This was, as the teachers indicated, an essential
method for facilitating genuine and authentic relationships without any obvious
interference from them. In fact, all three of the teachers discussed how they viewed
themselves as facilitators in supporting the student’s social inclusion and found that
sitting the students with special needs next to students that resembled a "mother", or
caring role model, would assist in the development of genuine relationships in class.
While this type of structure was observed, it should be noted that purposely sitting a
student next to another does not automatically suggest that they will interact or work
effectively with each other; nor will it presuppose that the students will develop a genuine
relationship. While there was some evidence to show that placing students with special
needs near positive role models positively altered their behavior, as was seen with Scott,
a student presented in Chapter 4, the majority of student responses during the interviews
indicated that the seating arrangement had little impact on their social interactions in the
classroom. In fact, one student went so far as to say that he did not view the students at
his table group as friends. The students that did discuss having friends in their classes
identified the friends as students that they met previously in their special education
classes and not as those assigned to sit next to them in their general education class.

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While it is understandably difficult to ensure that any interactions that occur in a
classroom are genuine, especially in a time of adolescence when all students are seeking
to find their place in this social world, it behooves educators to focus on strategies to
foster the development of authentic rather than forced relationships in our classrooms. A
first step toward this goal is to look beyond mere physical placement of students as a
strategy to facilitate their social acceptance.
Early on, advocates for educating students in the Least Restrictive Environment
(LRE) believed that one of the main benefits of inclusion was that over time, mere
exposure to students with special needs would result in increased positive attitudes and
the social acceptance of these students by children without disabilities (Siperstein, et al.,
2007). We know now, however, that it takes more than just exposure to make a difference
in the social acceptance of students with special needs. Research has shown that negative
attitudes may actually increase if physical inclusion occurs without pedagogical practices
to promote social learning opportunities and endeavor to dispel the stereotypes held by
typical peers that may be contributing to their views (Shapiro, 1999).
The conclusions drawn from this study denote that, although the teachers were
aware of the strategies needed to create a supportive classroom, their implementation of
these strategies, as viewed through the lens of Contact Theory, were inconsistent and may
actually be impeding their ability to provide a truly accepting classroom environment for
the students with special needs. This struggle between having knowledge of effective
strategies and successfully putting that knowledge into practice is discussed in the next
section.

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Knowledge to Practice Gap
Research on teacher education and their practices readily contend that teachers
who know more, teach better (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). This idea that teachers who
have a foundation of knowledge regarding topics related to teaching is most commonly
referred to as knowledge-for-practice and assumes that teachers who hold a deep
knowledge of effective teaching strategies should be able to apply them appropriately
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Teaching, from this point of view, is understood as a
process of applying the knowledge one has to a situation so that others may grow
intellectually and/or socially.
Inherent in the knowledge-for-practice relationship is the ability for one to readily
observe practice in how, when, and what teachers do in the daily work of their classroom
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). The results of this study indicated that, while the
teachers had knowledge of strategies for supporting the social inclusion of students with
special needs and offered a classroom structure to facilitate opportunities for positive
social interactions, their knowledge was not always reflected in how or what they did. In
fact, gaps between the teachers' knowledge and practice appeared to be persistent across
each of the classrooms observed.
Evidence of this gap between knowledge and practice revealed itself when
attempts were made to draw comparisons between the strategies discussed in the teacher
interviews and the observations made of their classrooms. Strategies such as arranging
the classroom environment and providing instructional support via accommodations were
readily observed. However, efforts to establish a tone of respect in the classroom and the

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use of peer support through cooperative learning activities to assist students with special
needs both academically and socially were rarely observed. Moreover, the teachers’
identification of providing direct instruction to the students on developing skills for
positive social interactions was not observed on any occasion.
In summary, specific evidence-based strategies for creating a socially accepting
general education classroom environment for students with special needs have not been
clearly recognized. Studies that have been conducted in this area have relied heavily on
the results from teacher interviews. Subsequently, few investigations have been done to
see if the strategies teachers name as important to their practice are valued by the students
they target and are implemented by the teacher on a consistent basis. As a group, the
teachers in this study identified arranging the classroom environment to facilitate positive
social interactions, establishing a tone of respect in the classroom, providing both
instructional and peer support to students with special needs, and offering direct
instruction for the students to develop the skills they need to have positive social
interactions as important strategies in facilitating the social acceptance of students with
special needs included in their classroom. However, through classroom observations and
student interviews, the findings of this study revealed that a significant discrepancy exists
between the teachers’ knowledge of the strategies and their ability to apply them in the
classroom. Although the teachers involved in this study may have been implementing
their practices out of sight of the observations, the conclusions drawn from the data raise
questions as to whether the teachers struggled with how to implement practices
effectively or if they were under the false assumption that they were implementing the

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strategies they discussed in the interview. While the teachers in this study are regarded as
knowledgeable, to improve upon their success for supporting the social acceptance of
students with special needs included in their classroom, the teachers need to implement,
translate, or otherwise put into practice the knowledge they encompass.
Implications

This study provides an impetus for teachers and schools to carefully examine their
current methods for supporting the social inclusion of students with special needs as well
as how teacher preparation programs support their teachers in developing the knowledge
base for implementing evidence-based strategies successfully. Subsequently, the findings
of this study have implications for policy, practice, and teacher preparation programs.
Policy Implication-School Level

If general and special educators are to share responsibility for the education of
students with special needs, significant shifts must be made within school structures.
During the interviews conducted for this study, each of the teachers noted the importance
of working with the special education teacher on campus to support the students’
transition from the special education classroom to the general education classroom.
However, they added that their opportunities for collaboration were relegated to lunch
time and after school; noting that the school structure did not allow time for them to meet
during the work day. If students with special needs are going to be successful in general
education classrooms, structures are needed to support ongoing discussion and
collaborative decision making between teachers.

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Working collaboratively is a skill that all teachers would benefit from, but is
essential in order to meet the academic and social needs of students with special needs
fully included in the general education environment (Pugach et al., 2002). To achieve a
common understanding of the student’s goals, teachers must have time to work together.
Without a system for sharing this responsibility, the quality of the student’s education
will diminish. Therefore, it is essential that schools work to create new structures to
enable dialogue to take place on a regular basis; for the success of all children can be
enhanced when there is continuity between those responsible for their education.
Policy Implication-District Level

The implications of this study recognize the need for district policies to be altered
to support the inclusion of students with special needs in authentic social situations.
Generally speaking, district policies inhibit opportunities for students with special needs
to engage in social interactions with their typically developing students outside of the
classroom. An example of this is illustrated in the limited allotment for funding buses for
students with special needs so that they can participate in after school programs.
Although typically developing students are frequently offered a late bus in order to
participate in after school activities or sports, student with special needs are not offered
this as an option. Instead, they are provided one opportunity for transportation in a bus
that also segregates them from their typical peers.
Having informal opportunities, away from the burden of academic content, for
students with special needs to interact with their typically developing peers allows the
students to see each other from a different point of view (Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005). If

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our goal is for students with and without special needs to engage in authentic social
interactions, we need to provide them with the opportunities to do so. Therefore,
governance structures are needed to support the full integration of students with special
needs across all parts of the school day.
Implications for Practice

At the conclusion of this study, a follow-up question was asked of the general
education teachers to inquire about the methods the school, as a whole, utilized in
supporting the social acceptance of students with special needs. Each of the teachers
responded that the school offers no special programs or events that promote awareness of
individuals with special needs. Subsequently, one of the immediate implications for
practice can be applied directly to how schools provide an environment of social
acceptance for students with special needs.
A critical element in building social relationships among students with and
without special needs is to help all students become more aware of disabilities (Korinek
et al., 1999). Schools can promote this awareness in a number of ways. For example,
schools could invite individuals with disabilities to share their stories at different points
during the school year. Another option would be for schools to participate in Disability
Awareness activities where they integrate movies or documentaries about individuals
with special needs into the school day or allow students to experience what it is like to
have different types of disabilities by participating in disability simulations. Overall, the
goal of incorporating awareness programs into schools is to share information about
individuals with special needs with the student body so that typically developing students

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have an opportunity to develop a new understanding and sense of respect for people who
may have differences.
School-wide programs have the capability to assist general education teachers
who are serving students with special needs in their classroom because the typical peers
would have new, more positive perspectives towards individuals with special needs on
the whole when they enter an inclusive environment. However, if school-wide programs
are not a part of the school culture, teachers can alter their practice by infusing
information about disabilities into their curriculum. Classes such as English, Psychology,
or Government would lend itself to conversations of literature involving individuals with
special needs, ethics and social injustices regarding the treatment of people with
disabilities over the years, and political movements that illustrate the development of
equal rights for individuals with disabilities. Another avenue for teachers to explore
would be to invite the students with special needs, themselves, to share about their
disability with the rest of the classroom. This would provide typical peers with an
increased understanding about their peers with special needs, while giving the student
with special needs the chance to advocate for themselves and play a more active role in
their social acceptance.
Implications for Teacher Preparation

Details from the Study of Personnel Needs in Special Education (SPeNSE, 2000)
indicate that 95% of all general education teachers currently working in classrooms
across the United States teach students with special needs. With this substantial increase
in the practice of inclusive education, the challenge to prepare general education teachers

120

to work with students with special needs has become an important component of reform
in teacher preparation. Even though it has been recognized that little research has been
done regarding the pre-service preparation of general education teachers to work with
students with special needs, prospective teachers regularly demand this type of
preparation to be a part of their program (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005). More
specifically, general education teachers have expressed a need for training on specific
strategies for facilitating the social acceptance of students with special needs included in
their classroom (Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001). Implications for increased teacher
training in this area revealed themselves in this study during the teacher interviews when
all three teachers stated that they had no training in methods for supporting the social
inclusion of students with special needs. However, each commented that, given the
opportunity for training in this area, they would take it.
Teacher confidence in working with students with special needs in a general
education classroom environment is an essential component to being successful and has
been linked to their views on the quality of their pre-service program in preparing them to
support students with special needs (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005). Despite the fact
that the preparation of general education teachers to work with students with special
needs was recognized as a critical need from the onset of modern special education
practice (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005), the research described here indicates the
need to raise the bar during teacher preparation programs so that general education pre-
service teachers are given the knowledge and skills to support both the academic and
social needs of the students included in their classroom.

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Recommendations for Future Research

The current study included only three general education teachers at one middle
school. To expand the study it is recommended that the methods be replicated with the
addition of multiple school sites across districts to further assess the strategies general
education teachers implement to support the social inclusion of students with special
needs. With a larger sample of teachers to interview and observe greater generalizations
regarding their knowledge of strategies for supporting the social needs of students with
special needs in their classroom as well as how they implement those strategies could be
identified.
An additional recommendation would be to include interviews with the typically
developing peers enrolled in the classes with the students with special needs to assess
their perception of the support the general education teachers provides in the class.
Further assessment could be made regarding their attitudes of the students with special
needs included in their classroom.
It would also be meaningful if teachers were trained and coached on strategies for
supporting students with special needs included in their classroom. After the initial
training, each teacher could be observed in order to assess their level of implementation
of the strategies and then coached on methods for improving their execution of the
strategies. An assessment could also be made regarding the effect these strategies had on
the perceptions of both students with and without special needs through pre and post
interviews or the utilization of validated tools to measure students perceptions regarding
social acceptance.

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Conclusion

Schools are environments where academic and social dimensions are inherently
intertwined (Anderman, 2003). Therefore, a student's sense of school membership is,
without a doubt influenced by several aspects of the schooling experience. While this
study sought to investigate how general education middle school teachers were
supporting the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom, the
findings provoked questions when a discrepancy between the teacher’s knowledge and
their practice was observed. Though the results of the teacher interviews highlighted
strategies deemed essential for supporting the social acceptance of students with special
needs included in general education classrooms, the data from this study stresses the
importance for future research to move away from an over reliance on the results of
interviews and concentrate on corroborating interview data with observations to present
more reliable findings. Furthermore, it is essential for future studies in this area to
integrate the voice of the students when investigating whether or not strategies utilized in
the classroom are effective in supporting their needs.
Upon completion of this study it has become apparent that educators must
increase their knowledge of and consistency in utilizing specific, concrete supports to
foster natural social interactions amongst students with and without special needs so that
students with special needs are accepted by their typically developing peers (Pavri &
Luftig, 2001; Siperstein et al., 2007). To support this, it is imperative for researchers to
continue on the journey for finding evidence-based methods that can be utilized by

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general education teachers so that the inclusive environments are fully accepting of the
diverse learners they encompass.

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136

APPENDIX A

SOCIAL SUPPORT INTERVIEW: TEACHER
Adapted from Pavri & Monda-Amaya (2001) Social Support Interview

Section I
Please answer the following questions about your certification and teaching experience:

Teacher Code: ________________

Current Position (grade/content area): _________________________________________

Number of years teaching: ___________________________

Highest Degree Held: ______________________________

What teaching certificates do you currently hold? _______________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
How many students with special needs have you taught over the years? ______________

How many students with special needs are in your classroom now? _________________

Section II

1. This interview is about the strategies you use to provide a classroom that is socially
accepting of students with special needs. I’d like to start by finding out-what does the
term social support mean to you? (probe: How would you define social support)

2. Do you think students with special needs require a teacher to use specific methods and
strategies in their classroom to illicit a more accepting environment? (probe: what makes
you think yes or no)

3. Do you think students with special needs require a teacher to use specific methods and
strategies in their classroom to illicit positive social interactions between them and their
typical peers? (probe: what makes you think yes or no)

4. What do you see is your role in providing social support to students with special needs in
your classroom?

5. What strategies or methods do you use in the classroom to support the social inclusion
and acceptance of students with special needs? (probe: are they different then what you
would do for students without special needs?)

6. Have you had any specific training about developing children’s social relationships?

137

APPENDIX B

SOCIAL SUPPORT INTERVIEW: STUDENT

1. How do you feel being in this classroom? What are things you like about this
class? Things you do not like?
2. In what ways do you feel different from other students (or kids) in this classroom?
In what ways do you feel just like the other kids in this classroom?
3. In what ways does your teacher help support you both with your school work and
with getting along with others in this class? (probe: if yes, what? If no, why not?)
4. Do you feel like your teacher in this class does anything differently from other
teachers to support you both with your school work and with getting along with
others? (probe: if yes, what? If no, why not?)

138

APPENDIX C

OBSERVATION PROTOCOL

DATE: START TIME: END TIME:

TEACHER ID:

RESEARCHER CODES:
Sts=Students
SWS=Student with special needs
Tchr=Teacher
Thm=Strategy identify by research as effective for promoting social inclusion
Ref=Researcher Reflection

OBSERVATION FIELD NOTES:

Structure of Classroom (Building a Community):

Opportunities for Social Interaction (Student to Student):

Specific Strategies for Promoting Social Acceptance:

Teacher-Student Interactions:

General Observations During Lesson:

Other Observations/Notes/Reflections:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Because of the focus on inclusion in public schools today, the interest regarding how to effectively support students with special needs in the general education environment, both academically and socially has been ignited. While we have witnessed an increase in the academic success of students included in general education classrooms, we have not yet successfully identified specific strategies a teacher can use to meet the social needs of students with special needs included in their classroom. Because of this, the research question used to guide this study asked how general education teachers promote the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom so that effective strategies may be established for other teachers to implement.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Canges, Rebecca Lee (author)

Core Title Investigating how general education middle school teachers support the social inclusion of students with special needs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/03/2010

Defense Date 05/06/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag inclusion,middle school,OAI-PMH Harvest,social acceptance,social inclusion,students with special needs

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Pavri, Shireen (committee member)

Creator Email rcanges@csulb.edu,rcanges@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3175

Unique identifier UC1268952

Identifier etd-Canges-3789 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-365024 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3175 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Canges-3789.pdf

Dmrecord 365024

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Canges, Rebecca Lee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu