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Transformational leadership theory aligned-practices and social workers' well-being: an exploratory study of leadership practices in the context of stress and job burnout

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Transformational leadership theory aligned-practices and social workers' well-being: an exploratory study of leadership practices in the context of stress and job burnout

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Transformational Leadership Theory-Aligned Practices and Social Workers’ Well-Being:
An Exploratory Study on Leadership Practices in the Context of Stress and Job Burnout
by
Vincente Benet Miles

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Vincente Benet Miles 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Vincente Benet Miles certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Alexandra Wilcox
Jennifer Phillips
Helena Seli, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

iv
Abstract
This study explored leadership practices in the context of the problem of social worker stress and
job burnout. The subject of social workers’ stress and job burnout has been well-researched with
respect to the causality to job satisfaction, job retention, job separation, and poor job
performance. Despite the availability of research on the topic of stress and job burnout, the
exploration of managers’ leadership practices that support well-being in non-profit social service
agencies is limited, especially within United States-based organizations. In recent years, the
study of leadership practices has emerged as a popular topic, especially in dissertations and
research projects. Among the most popular leadership theories have been transformational
leadership theory (TLT) and the role of leadership to inspire, motivate, stimulate and support
followers to achieve the organization’s mission. This research project explored managers’
leadership practices aligned with TLT with the ultimate goal of supporting social workers’ well-
being. The implementation of TLT-aligned practices has been found to diminish stress and
promote resilience to job burnout in social workers. The study focused on two-distinct parts: 1)
managers’ understanding of the phenomena of social workers’ stress and job burnout, and 2)
exploration of managers’ implementation of leadership practices that aligned with TLT to
support social workers’ well-being. The study culminated with recommendations for practice,
such as expanding a management training program to include TLT-aligned practices, emotional
intelligence, and reflective practice.
Keywords: Stress, job burnout, psychological safe job climate, work-family conflict,
family-work conflict, job demands, secondary traumatic stress, client-social worker interaction,
discrimination, job resources, transformational leadership theory, social cognitive theory, self-
efficacy theory, KMO framework, gap analysis, gender, race, age, sexual orientation.

v
Acknowledgments
I want to thank those people whose assistance and guidance was instrumental in
completing this project. I thank Helena Seli, Jennifer Phillips, and Alexandra Wilcox from the
USC Rossier School of Education for their advice on writing. Your support, encouragement, and
assistance in writing this project have been invaluable.
I have amassed 16 years of leadership in social services agencies and over 28 years in the
field, realizing the importance of effective leadership practices to individuals in the helping
profession. Job burnout may result from people caring too much, which requires managers to
demonstrate leadership by emphasizing well-being and performance. Well-being and
performance are not competitors but complementary concepts that promote and preserve an
essential workforce.
I have many individuals who made significant inputs to my professional journey. I thank
Ms. Maggie Spencer, Pastor Richard Williams, Pastor Anthony Bennet, Ms. Patricia Del
Monico, Ms. Cydretta Spikes, and Ms. Colleen Mock for shaping my concepts of leadership in a
variety of helping professions settings. I am most grateful for the opportunities to grow provided
and nurtured by you.
I would also like to thank Aisha Evans, the Adams Family, the Holden Family, the
Williams Family, and Elmer Nathaniel Primm for their support during this undertaking. During
this process, their love and support kept my feet grounded and my spirits light. I am grateful for
their friendship in helping me see the forest for the trees instead of getting lost amiss its hills.
Lastly, I want to thank my parents, Vincent and Lizzie Miles; my sister, Ruby Miles; and
my daughter, Breanna Miles-Williams. I am what I am because of your love and belief in me. I
do what I do because of my love for you.

vi
Table Of Contents
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………..iv
Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………...v
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………….ix
List of Figure ……….………………………………………………………………………….....x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ……………………………………………………………..1
Background of the Problem ………………………………………………………………2
Importance of Addressing the Problem …………………………………………………..5
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework …………………………...7
Organizational Context and Mission ……………………………………………………..7
Organizational Goal …………………………....…………………………………………8
Description of Stakeholder Group ………………………………………………………..8
Stakeholder Group for the Study ….………………………...……………………………9
Stakeholder’s Performance Goals ……………………………………………………….10
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ………………………………………......11
Organization of the Project …………………………………………………...………....11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ..………………………………………………………..13
Who are Social Workers? ….……………………………………………………………13
What Influences Social Workers’ Well-Being? ………………………………………....15
Social Workers and Job Burnout ………………………………………………………..22
Stress Indicator Factors and Social Workers’ Well-Being ……………………………...30
Predictive Factors for Social Workers’ Stress and Job Burnout ………………………...39
Protective Factors for Social Workers’ Stress and Job Burnout ………………………...40

vii
Managers’ Impact on Social Workers’ Well-Being ……………………………………..42
Transformational Leadership Theory …………………………………………………...44
Transformational, Transactional, and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Styles …………….45
Effective Leadership Practices Aligned with Transformational Leadership Theory …....49
Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...60
Managers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences …………………....60
Managers’ Knowledge Related Influences ……………………………………...61
Managers’ Motivation Related Influences ……………………………………....65
Managers’ Organization Related Influences …………………………………….69
Conceptual Framework ……………………………………………………………….....73
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………75
Chapter Three: Methodology ……………………………………………………………………77
Participating Stakeholders ………………………………………………………………77
Sampling Criteria and Rationale ………………………………………………………...78
Interviews ………………………………………………………………………………..79
Document and Artifact Analysis …………………………………………………….......81
Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………82
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………85
Chapter Four: Findings ………………………………………………………………………….87
Participating Stakeholders ……………………………………………………………………....87
Research Question #1 …………………………………………………………………...89
Research Question #2 ………………………………………………………………….107
Managers’ Knowledge Findings of Effective Leadership Practices …………...108

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Managers’ Motivation to Implement TLT-Aligned Practices …………………127
Research Question # 3 .………………………………………………………………...138
Organization Prioritizes Employee Performance Competence Over
Well-Being …………..........................................................................................138
Organization’s Provision Of Essential Job Resources To Employees ………....145
Conclusion .…………………………………………………………………………….152
Chapter Five: Discussion And Recommendations …………………………………………….153
Discussion of Leadership Practices Aligned with TLT that Support Employee
Well-Being ……………………………………………………………………………..153
Discussion of Unexpected Findings …………………………………………................157
Recommendations for Practice ………………………………………………………...160
Implementing A Management Training Program ……………………………...161
Expanding The Stress Mitigation Program …………………………………….163
Recommendations For Future Research ……………………………………………….164
Limitations And Delimitations ………………………………………………………...166
Implications For Equity Or Connection To The Rossier Mission ……………………..168
Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….169
References ……………………………………………………………………………………...171
Appendix A …………………………………………………………………………………….194

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Stakeholder Performance Goals 10
Table 2: Transformational, Transactional, and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Styles 47
Table 3: TLT Practices Supporting Social Workers’ Well-Being 59
Table 4: Manager Knowledge Related Influences 65
Table 5: Manager Motivation Related Influences 69
Table 6: Manager Organizational Related Influences 73
Table 7: Study Group Participants 89
Table 8: Participants’ Concept of General Well-Being and Social Workers’ Well-Being 94
Table 9: Procedures, Reports, and Forms for Document Analysis 141
Table 10: Determination of Assumed Influences as Assets or Gaps 149
Table 11: Table of Key Findings 151

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Stress Indicator Factors and Social Worker Performance 39
Figure 2: Managers’ KMO Related Influences in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework 74
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of Transformational Leadership Influence on Well-Being 75

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Stress is among the number one factors that affect employees’ well-being in the United
States. In a 2017 survey on the stress of adults in the United States, 926 out of 2,503 or 37%
stated that their stress increased over the prior year (Elflein, 2019). In 2017, 54% of respondents
indicated that they experienced high-stress levels. The American Stress Institute was citing
findings from the American Psychological Association (APA) Stress in American survey
completed by the American Psychological Association indicating that 61% of respondents stated
that work is one of the top five sources of stress (AIS, 2020; APA 2017). Elflein’s (2019)
research revealed that workload was the primary cause of workplace stress. Between 2012 and
2017, 51% was the average percentage of respondents reporting an experience of high levels of
stress. 63% of respondents reported engaging in unhealthy habits and behaviors due to stress
during this same period. Research indicated that managers play an essential role in creating a
workplace environment that may help or hinder resistance to social worker stress and job burnout
(G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Law et al., 2011; Maslach, 1982; Mor Barack et al., 2013; Semmer et al.,
2015). Managers provide supportive supervision, review of employee decision-making, and
professional coaching on effective practices that may promote resilience to stress and job
burnout in their employees (Carson et al., 2011).
Managers are not exempt from experiencing workplace stress either. Elflein (2019)
reported that 18% of managers surveyed in 2017 said that they experienced stress. Carson et al.’s
research identified that assumptions about organizational leadership practice expectations
contributed to managerial stress (Carson et al., 2011). Carson et al. (2011) indicated a shift in
supervision practices that primarily emphasized the organization-focused need for measurable
outcomes from the emphasis on the employee-focused professional supportive relationship. In

2
response to this demand, managers sought pragmatic ways to align supervisorial practices to the
employees with the accountability needs of the organization finding some challenges in
balancing the achievement of the relational needs (Carson et al., 2011; Maslach, 1982).
The field of social work is one of the most stressful occupations in the United States
where employees commonly experience job burnout (Montanez, 2019). Social workers’ well-
being is at high risk for workplace stress due to the difficult life situations or complex needs of
the individuals they support (Lloyd et al., 2002; Nissly et al., 2005). Social workers may
experience stress-related compassion fatigue, physical and mental conditions, low job
satisfaction, and job burnout (Law et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 2002; Nissly et al., 2005). This
problem is significant due to the detrimental effects stress has on employee turnover, stress-
related leave, and poor job performance (Nissly et al., 2005). Research suggests social services
employees may receive inadequate training and insufficient support to effectively cope with
workplace stress (Collins, 2007; Farchi et al., 2014; Rubin & Parrish, 2012).
Background of the Problem
The problem of practice this study addressed the managers’ implementation of ineffective
leadership practices that negatively affect social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and
job burnout. Social workers are important to the administration and institution of social programs
for individuals who may have a myriad of personal challenges (Lloyd et al., 2002). Social work
attracts individuals who are interested in helping others, achieving an organizational mission, and
fulfilling a personal sense of life purpose (Pooler et al., 2014; Shier et al., 2011). The U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services correlated social worker ideology to stress and job
burnout. In 2018, Perkbox, a United Kingdom-based company dedicated to enhancing employee
experiences, conducted a Workplace Stress Survey of 3,000 British adult workers finding that

3
the common causes of work-related stress were long working hours, concerns about work
performance, client level of satisfaction, and office politics.
The Occupational Outlook Handbook identified social services employees, also referred
to in this study as social workers, working in settings such as mental health clinics, probation and
corrections, schools, and child welfare in both non-profit and private organizations (BLS.org,
N.D.). In 2018, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics reported social workers totaled
707,400 in the United States. The American Psychological Association (APA) Survey on Stress
in America 2017 surveyed 3440 adult workers in the United States finding that the effects of
workplace stress include job retention, lower productivity, and work-life balance negatively
affecting the employees’ personal and professional lives (APA, 2017). The American Institute on
Stress 2014 Stress Survey reported an annual cost of $300 billion in stress-related costs to
employers (APA, 2015). Research indicated that the cost to employers is the tip of the iceberg in
terms of their social workers’ experiences of workplace stress negatively affecting their
employees’ health and mental health, and some having a long term impact (Boyas et al., 2012;
Bride, 2007; Collins 2008; Nissly et al.,2005; Ting et al., 2011).
Job Stressors
Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. Lloyd et al. (2002) defined stress as
“the emotional and physiological reactions to stressors or a demand, situation, or circumstance
that disrupts a person’s equilibrium and initiates the stress response of increased autonomic
arousal” (p. 256). Dollard et al. (2003) identified emotional dissonance and client-related stress
to two types of stressors associated with social service work as stress-inducing contributors.
Emotional dissonance is the conflict between experienced emotions and emotions expressed to

4
conform to display rules (Dollard et al., 2003). Stress is a common factor in the field of social
work and when left unaddressed, may lead to job burnout (Lloyd et al., 2002; Maslach, 1982).
Job Burnout
Job burnout is a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive
and prolonged stress. Lloyd et al. (2002) identified that social services employees, specifically
social workers, were at high risk for stress and burnout due to working with individuals who
were experiencing very complicated life situations. The clients may experience persistent factors
such as co-occurring health and mental health challenges, poverty, housing instability, or a
history of abuse creating stressful interactions and fostering unrealistic expectations of clients
and their families to remediate the effects of the condition on the individual, family, or both
(Lloyd et al., 2002; Pooler et al., 2014; Savaya et al., 2011). Nissly et al. (2005) identified a link
between job burnout in child welfare workers’ belief in their ability to effectively perform their
job duties and their evaluation of their job performance, whether their own or their supervisors,
causing high job stress and the intent to leave in some instances. Due to the combination of their
perspective of their mission-oriented work and the complexity of life circumstances the people
served experience, social workers are at risk for stress related conditions that affect their job
performance, physical health, and mental health (S. E. Kim & Lee, 2007).
The managers’ leadership practices may help or hinder the social workers’ resilience to
stress and resistance to job burnout (Maslach, 1982). Managers’ participation in the work
environment may help or hinder social workers’ resilience to stress due to four primary areas: 1)
the degree of job satisfaction; 2) the degree that expectations of the other are met; 3) the
perspectives of the accuracy of their performance evaluation; and 4) the perspectives on
feedback quality (Maslach, 1982).

5
Transformational Leadership Theory
Transformational leadership theory (TLT) among other leadership theories such as
servant leadership theory, adaptive leadership theory, and authentic leadership theory has
emerged as a popular leadership model that supports employees’ well-being (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Northouse, 2019). Research suggested that TLT practices may be suitable for non-profit
organizations, specifically social services, due to the emphasis on inspiring others to mission-
oriented service while emphasizing the importance of meeting the employees’ needs (Bass &
Riggio, 2006; Fisher, 2013; Song et al., 2012; Tafvelin et al., 2012). TLT research emphasized
that managers’ leadership practices influence the creation of efficacious workplace culture by
individualizing support, inspiring employees, modeling integrity, and sparking intellectual
engagement (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019). Research on TLT suggested that managers
who implemented transformational leadership practices were capable of balancing organizational
and employees’ needs supporting both job performance and well-being (Bass & Avolio, 1993;
Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burke, 2018; Northouse, 2019; Schein, 2017).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Managers’ ineffective leadership practices may negatively affect social workers’ ability
to respond to workplace stressors. Research indicates that managers serve an integral role in the
workplace as a conduit or proxy between the employee and the organization (Bandura, 1999;
Bandura, 2000). With respect to job burnout, managers’ leadership practices are noted as either
helping or hindering social workers’ efficacy in the performance of job tasks and addressing
workplace stressors (Maslach, 1982; Lloyd, 2002).
The American Psychological Association Stress in America 2020 surveyed 3409 United
States adult workers finding that 80% of employees reported experiencing workplace feel stress

6
(APA, 2020). Additionally, the research findings indicated that half of the workers reported
needing help in learning how to manage stress (APA, 2020). Montanez (2019) and Lloyd et al.
(2002) identified that stress and job burnout are prominent in the field of social services in
accordance with Maslach’s (1982) seminal work on stress in fields identified as the helping
professions, such as social workers, nurses, and police. Maslach (1982) identified one predictor
of social workers’ stress and burnout was the quality of their relationship with their manager.
Managers serve an essential function as job support in the areas of workload management, role
modeling, and goal setting (Carson et al., 2011; Mutkins et al., 2011; Neubert & Dyck, 2016).
Additionally, managers create informal learning environments for their employees to be
efficacious and offer opportunities to develop their knowledge, skill, and ability to build
resilience to stress and burnout (Carson et al., 2011).
The importance of this study is to understand the phenomena of social workers’ stress
and to explore effective leadership practices aligned with TLT that support social workers’ well-
being by mitigating the effects of stress and job burnout. The sheer number of social workers in
the United States continues to grow annually and the effects of social workers experiencing
stress and job burnout are costly to the employer and detrimental to the employee. Managers can
create a workplace culture that supports social workers in learning how to manage workplace
stress (Carson et al., 2011). Addressing the managers’ ability to support social workers’ stress is
important due to the causality of poor job performance, low job satisfaction, poor job retention,
and negative effects on physical and mental health (Collins, 2008; Lloyd et al., 2002; Nissly et
al., 2008; Shier et al., 2011). Social workers may experience stressful encounters, such as
unrealistic expectations of people served, hostile and dangerous client encounters; and
unsupportive work environments (Nissly et al., 2005; Savaya et al., 2011). Additionally, the

7
social workers may depend on their manager’s support due to being unable to effectively cope
with workplace stress on their own (Collins, 2008; Rubin & Parrish, 2012; Savaya et al., 2011).
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO gap analysis was adapted to an exploratory study and
implemented as the conceptual framework. Gap analysis is a systematic and analytical method
that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). Additionally, the research study analyzed the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact stakeholder capacity
based on context-specific and general learning and motivation theory. Specifically, Clark and
Estes’s KMO gap analysis (2008) and transformational leadership theory (Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2019) comprised the conceptual framework to evaluate the managers’
positioning to implement TLT-aligned leadership practices that support social workers’ well-
being. The research study explores these influences via a qualitative methodological framework
employing participant interviews and document analysis to gather qualitative data.
Organizational Context and Mission
Agency for Disability Services (ADS), a pseudonym, is the Western United States-
operated program that provides case management support and services for individuals and their
families who have a substantial developmental disability. The mission of ADS is to connect
individuals who have Autism, intellectual disability, epilepsy, and cerebral palsy to services
enabling community integration and self-determination of future goals and aspirations. For over
45 years, ADS has worked to provide support and services to families and individuals who have
substantial lifelong developmental disabilities. In 2020, ADS was a $300 million agency with
more than 350 staff members and served over 15,000 children and adults. ADS provides services

8
to individuals and families based upon age: Early Start (ages 0-7 years), Children and
Transitional Aged Youth (ages 7-22), and Adults (over age 22). This population tends to have
severe behavioral episodes, untreated mental illness, co-occurring physical health conditions,
high rates of homelessness, sexual exploitation, histories of abuse, and other hardships, such as a
lack of social support, history of abuse, and poverty-related issues, for example, food insecurity,
lack of transportation, scarcity of resources.
Organizational Goal
The ADS’s organizational goal is to reduce stress and burnout experienced by ADS’s
social workers by June 30, 2023. The ADS values the provision of support and services that are
accessible, empowering, appropriate, comprehensive, collaborative, and accountable. In 2019,
ADS employed 324 individuals and in that same year, 56 terminated their employment
representing a turnover rate of 18%. Comparably, in 2020 and 2021 ADS employed 331 and 349
individuals with 27 and 39 terminating their employment representing an 8% and 12% turnover
rate respectively. In all of the periods reviewed, as an employee group, social workers
represented 70% of individuals terminating their employment. Employee well-being, job
satisfaction, job performance, and job retention are key organizational goals.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are three main stakeholder groups that contribute to ADS’s organizational goal to
support employees’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The organizational goal
may be measured by employees’ job satisfaction, job retention rates, client satisfaction, and job
productivity. The first group is the front-line managers who are seeking to implement effective
leadership practices within their daily routine to increase employee retention, promote resilience
to stress, and mitigate the risk of job burnout. This group serves as the primary stakeholder group

9
as their participation in the implementation and integration of effective leadership practices was
critical for achieving the organizational and stakeholder goals. The second stakeholder group
consists of the social workers who are the recipients of the leadership practices employed by the
manager stakeholder group. This stakeholder group has a role in the achievement of the ADS’s
goal of client satisfaction, productivity, and job satisfaction. A final stakeholder group is the
senior leadership team of ADS. This group serves as the third stakeholder group consisting of the
Executive Director and other members of senior leadership who are responsible to ensure the
organization meets performance goals set by the ADS Executive Board and the State of
California. This group is responsible for the organizational expectations set for both the
managers and social workers influencing the culture that managers operate within.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, managers of ADS social workers were the focus of this exploratory study. Research
indicates that managers are key factors in the creation of organizational support, adequate
training, role clarity, and assignment of workload that influence job satisfaction affecting
employee job retention and causing stress in social workers (Dollard et al., 2003; Jones, 2001;
Law et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 2002; Mutkins et al., 2011; Nissly et al., 2005; Tafvelin &
Hyvönen, 2014). This stakeholder group is responsible for managing the stress of the social
worker, in this case, within the field of developmental disabilities supporting individuals who
require supports and services for access and functional needs that are expected to be life-long
and cause substantial impairment. This client population experiences stigma and challenges as
well as require support to address co-occurring mental health conditions, co-morbidity of

10
medical health conditions, behavioral support needs, and social support for circumstances such
as homelessness, drug addictions, and varying forms of abuse to name a few.
Stakeholder’s Performance Goals
ADS values its workforce by recognizing the impact stress and job burnout have upon the
quality of services to clients and employees’ well-being. ADS will implement plans to address
social workers’ well-being by July 31, 2022, and TLT-aligned practices by December 31, 2022.
Table 1 indicates ADS’s organizational mission, organizational goal, and stakeholder’s group
performance goal.

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal, and Stakeholder Group’s Goal
Organizational mission
ADS’ s mission is to provide support, options, and choices to individuals with developmental
disabilities and their families to participate as community members.
Organizational performance goal
By July 1, 2023, ADS will include in its strategic plan an initiative to address the well-being of
its ADS social workers.
Stakeholder group goal
By December 31, 2023, ADS managers will implement a transformational leadership theory
aligned practices to support social worker well-being.

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Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to explore the degree to which ADS managers are positioned
to implement transformational leadership theory-aligned practices supporting social workers’
well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The analysis will focus on managers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to their leadership practices that
support their supervisees’ well-being. The objective of this study is to contribute to the literature
on leadership practices that promote stress mitigation and job burnout resilience in the field of
social work. The following research questions will guide the evaluation study:
1. What is the managers’ conceptualization of social worker well-being?
2. What are the managers’ knowledge and motivation related to implementing
transformational leadership practices to support ADS social workers’ well-being?
3. How does ADS facilitate or hinder the managers’ ability to support ADS social workers’
well-being through transformational leadership-aligned practices?
Organization of the Project
The research project is organized into five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with
the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about stress and burnout in
social workers. Additionally, Chapter One presents ADS’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, and
the framework for the research project. Chapter Two provides a review of the current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. The emphasis of this chapter is two-fold. First, the researcher
presents literature reviews on social worker well-being in the context of stress and burnout.
Second, the researcher presents the theoretical framework of transformational leadership as a
leadership modality. Lastly, the researcher explores the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that determine the ability of managers to implement TLT-aligned

12
practices that support social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and burnout. Topics of
social worker stress, new employee onboarding and ongoing training, supports and interventions,
procedures, and organizational expectations to implement leadership practices that support social
workers’ well-being. Chapter Three details the methodology when it comes to the training of
managers, data collection, and analysis. Chapter Four presents qualitative data collected,
assessed, and analyzed. Chapter Five provides a discussion and recommendations for practice
and future research.

13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Employees in social service agencies are at high risk for stress and job burnout due to
working with individuals experiencing very challenging life circumstances (Lloyd et al., 2002).
Research indicates that the complexity of direct client needs and the emotional strain of
maintaining a nonjudgmental position on client behavior are related to employee stress (Dollard
et al., 2003). Employee efficacy or belief in their ability to perform work tasks may result in
workplace stress susceptibility (Jex & Gudanoski, 1992). Prolonged workplace stress has
detrimental effects on employee well-being, work performance, and job retention (Nissly et al.,
2005). The literature review explores the effects of stress on social workers’ well-being (Jex &
Gudanoski, 1992; Lloyd et al., 2002; Maslach, 1982) and presents transformational leadership
theory (TLT) as a theoretical model for effective leadership practices (Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2019; Tafvelin & Hyvönen, 2014). The literature review concludes with
the identification of the managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
affecting the implementation of TLT-aligned practices.
Who are Social Workers?
Social workers provide essential services and support in the field of human services to
individuals experiencing an array of life challenges. The field of social work attracts individuals
interested in working at organizations with a human-oriented mission (S. E. Kim & Lee, 2007).
Though most literature on social services focuses on the negative aspects of the work concerning
depression, substance abuse, and low job retention, there is an absolute satisfaction derived from
this helpful profession (Pooler et al., 2014).
In 2018, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Handbook reported the
number of social workers was 707,000, with a projected growth rate of 11% of 81,200 between

14
2018 and 2028. The Occupational Outlook Handbook defined social workers into classifications
that provide supportive services and care coordination to Children and Family (339,800),
Healthcare (180,500), Mental Health and Substance Abuse (125,200), and other (62,000) serving
individuals identified as at-risk (BLS, 2019). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, in
2020, there were 13,940 individuals were employed as social workers in California and the
annual mean salary was $73,620 (BLS, 2020). Additionally, in 2020 the United States average
mean salary for social workers was $64,940 (BLS, 2020) an increase from $61,230 or $3,720 in
2019 (BLS, 2019). The average mean salary varies among the types of social workers, for
instance in 2019 the median salary for social workers was $56,750 for Healthcare, $47,390 for
Children and Family, and $46,650 for Mental Health and Substance Abuse. Most social workers
mostly work full-time, and some require employees to work evenings, weekends, holidays, and
on-call shifts (BLS, 2019).
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook,
social workers’ credentials and qualifications may vary from requiring a certificate of completion
of a bachelor’s degree to a doctorate and state licensure. The position requires the employee to
demonstrate five competencies: communication skills, emotional skills, interpersonal skills,
organizational skills, and problem-solving skills. Communication skills refer to providing help to
clients by talking to and actively listening to clients to understand the clients’ needs. Emotional
skills refer to working with people in working situations and developing strong relationships,
empathy, patience, and compassion. Interpersonal skills refer to working with different situations
and fostering healthy and productive relationships with clients and others. Organizational skills
refer to the ability to assist clients, manage competing priorities, and complete required
documentation. Lastly, problem-solving skills refer to the ability to develop practical remedies to

15
their clients’ problems. Inherent in the work of social workers is the ability to work with other
human beings and make a difference in their life (Pooler et al., 2014).
Social workers’ well-being refers to the positive connection between personal mission
and organizational mission (S. E. Kim & Lee, 2007). Social workers are not driven by financial
remuneration but meet a more profound need to form extrinsic satisfaction from connections
with others and intrinsic satisfaction from the meaning in one’s life (Collins, 2008; Pooler et al.,
2014). Pooler et al. (2014) identified that social workers derive job satisfaction extrinsically from
helping clients address life challenges and intrinsically from making a difference in their lives.
Research indicated that attachment to the organization’s mission and the desire for clients to
surpass challenging life circumstances may contribute to stress in social workers that negatively
affect well-being.
What Influences Social Workers’ Well-being?
Social workers’ well-being is essential to clients receiving of adequate support and
services (Travis et al., 2016). Social workers demonstrate a high degree of personal commitment
to lower pay, insufficient job satisfaction, and high demands (McLean & Andrew, 2000).
McLean and Andrew (2000) referred to personal commitment as job commitment, which they
defined as “the desire to maintain membership of the employing organization, a belief, and
acceptance of its values, and a willingness to exert effort on its behalf” (p. 94). Job satisfaction is
essential to job commitment and attributes to social workers’ perception of employer-employee
relations, job control and autonomy, employer’s policies and practices, and inclusion in decision
making (Collins, 2008; McLean & Andrew, 2000). Stress negatively affects social workers’
well-being contributing to poor job performance, low job satisfaction, and low job commitment
(Collins, 2008; S. E. Kim & Lee, 2007; McLean & Andrew, 2000; Shier et al., 2011). The next

16
section presents an exploratory review on stress including the following: What is stress, and how
does it contribute to social worker well-being? Does stress help or hinder social work
performance? Moreover, what effects does unaddressed stress cause on social workers?
What is Stress?
Stress is present in life and affects everyone from time to time. It is not an anomaly in the
workplace. The American Psychological Association defined stress as physical, mental, or
emotional strain or tension (APA, 2017). The more common understanding of stress is the
definition of a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that demands exceed the
personal and social resources available to that individual (AIS, 2017). Though stress connotes a
negative perception, all stress is not bad, and some are necessary for survival. Hans Selye coined
the term stress in 1936 and defined it as “the non-specific response of the body to any demand
for change” (AIS, 2017, p. 1). Lloyd et al. (2002) defined stress as “the emotional and
physiological reactions to stressors or a demand, situation, or circumstance that disrupts a
person’s equilibrium and initiates the stress response of increased autonomic arousal” (p. 256).
Since stress is a response to a demand or stimuli, stress is subjective based upon the individual’s
perception of the situation, circumstance, or condition experienced and the response may vary
from one person to another (Lloyd et al., 2002).
Furthermore, there is a correlation between the individual’s response to stress stimuli and
the available internal and external resources (AIS, 2017; Meyer et al., 2008). Stress is a primarily
physiological reaction of the autonomic nervous system and its two major branches; a
sympathetic nervous system, or the control of heart rate and breathing, and the parasympathetic
nervous system, regulating homeostasis in the body such as rest, digestion, and reduced heart
rate (de Looff et al., 2018). High levels of stress are therefore associated with the sympathetic

17
and parasympathetic responses of the whole body. Contemporary research primarily has focused
on the adverse effects of stress, and there is limited research on stress as the subject matter.
There is not just one type of stress, and not all stress is harmful. The American Institute
on Stress identified four broad categories of stress: acute, chronic, eustress, and distress (AIS,
2017). Acute stress refers to the body’s fight or flight response in preparation to defend against a
perceived threat. Usually, it takes 90 minutes for the body to return to normal functioning when
the response is over (AIS, 2017). The symptom of acute stress is quickened pulse, breathing
faster, tensing of muscles, and sweating (AIS, 2017). Chronic stress refers to the response to the
everyday stress of daily living, such as debt, job, and children. Chronic stress accumulates over
time and the effects typically are unrecognized by the individual (AIS, 2017). Chronic stress is
long-term and uncontrolled stress that can negatively affect the immune system, reproductive
system, digestive system, and nervous system (AIS, 2017). Eustress refers to stress in daily life
that results from positive life changes such as marriage, childbirth, and job promotion and is
most generally associated with a sense of euphoria (AIS, 2017). Distress refers to stress in daily
life that results from life changes such as the death of a loved one, divorce, financial problems,
and illness(AIS, 2017). Research on stress concludes that stress is common, and though it cannot
be removed, it can be managed (AIS, 2017; de Looff et al., 2018; McLean & Andrew, 1999;
Meyer, 2008; Travis et al., 2016). Stress when left unmanaged may negatively affect the body by
the sum of the body’s flight or fight or freeze responses, instead of resulting from a single change
(AIS, 2017).
The American Psychological Association's Stress in America Report (2015) reported
findings from a nationwide survey of 3,068 adults ages 18 years and older who identified job
pressure as the top cause of stress in the United States (APA, 2015). The remaining causes of

18
stress were money, health, relationships, poor nutrition, media overload, and sleep deprivation.
With respect to the workplace, research indicated that workplace stress is linked to concerns
about money, affects partner relationships, and may have causality to poor nutrition, health, and
sleep (Bakker et al., 2008; Collins, 2008; Maslach et al., 2016; Travis et al., 2016).
Stress affects everyone and is everywhere. McLean and Andrew’s (1999) research on
stress indicated that limited amounts of stress might motivate some individuals. Short-term
(acute) stress may be beneficial to respond to demands, also referred to as stressors. However,
chronic stress can have long-term effects on physical and mental health and significantly affect
the individual (de Looff et al., 2018). Despite the varying responses to stress and work stressors,
the research identified the correlation between chronic stress, acute stress, and job burnout that
negatively affect social worker well-being (de Looff et al., 2018; Travis et al., 2016).
What is Job Burnout
Job burnout refers to the relationship people have with their work. Stress and job burnout
may be confused as interchangeable, but stress is a distinct state of being that when unaddressed
may lead to the experience of job burnout (Maslach, 1982). Maslach’s (1982) definition of job
burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization of others, and a feeling of
reduced personal accomplishments has been widely cited (de Looff et al., 2018; Demerouti et al.,
2001; R. T. Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Maslach et al., 2001). Alarcon et al. (2018) defined job
burnout as an adverse emotional reaction to one's job that resulted in a prolonged response to
chronic psychological job stressors. Maslach et al. (2001) referred to job burnout as a prolonged
response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors and characterized by the presence of
exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy (Maslach et al., 2001).

19
Maslach’s definition of job burnout focused exclusively on human service workers who
work in jobs that process people instead of things or information (Demerouti et al., 2001,
Maslach, 1982). Maslach et al. (2001) associated job burnout reflected the complexities of the
individual’s relationship to their work and reflected their workplace experiences. Originated in
the 1970s by Dr. Herbert Freudenberger, a psychiatrist, and Dr. Christina Maslach, a social
psychologist, they began researching emotions in the workplace (Maslach et al., 2001). The
initial research was exploratory and qualitative; focused on direct accounts of emotional
depletion, loss of motivation and commitment, and the emotional stress related to coping
strategies (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Leiter, 2016). Their clinical and social perspectives
utilized concepts of interpersonal relationships, coping strategies, motivation, and psychological
disorders, such as depression (Maslach & Leiter, 2016). The onset of industrial-organizational
psychology linked job burnout as a form of stress and a cause of damaging effects on job
satisfaction, job commitment, and job turnover (Maslach et al., 2001).
Three Dimensions of Job Burnout
Job burnout has three dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization of others,
and a feeling of reduced personal accomplishment (R. T. Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Maslach, 1982).
Maslach et al. ‘s (2001) research determined that job burnout responds to workplace stress in
three critical aspects: overwhelming exhaustion, feelings of cynicism, and a sense of
ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment. Though widely cited in literature reviews, the
response of job burnout varies based on the researcher’s orientation. R. T. Lee and Ashforth
(1990) emphasized the effects of job burnout as being a psychological response, agreeing with
Maslach’s (1982) definition.

20
In recent years, researchers have emphasized burnout as an emotional reaction to one’s
work environment deviating from the psychological aspect related to job satisfaction, job
performance, and job retention (Alarcon et al., 2009; Demerouti et al., 2001). De Looff et al.
(2018) emphasized the effects of prolonged stress on the autonomic nervous system signified by
increased heart rate and resulting physical health conditions caused by job burnout. Though the
emphasis varies, the literature reviews are consistent in the dimensionality that results in the
grouping of symptoms consistently associated with job burnout (R. T. Lee & Ashforth, 1990).
Furthermore, the three-dimensional model’s significance is that it places the individual stress
experience within the workplace’s social context and involves the individual’s belief in self and
others (Maslach & Leiter, 2016).
Emotional Exhaustion. The first dimension of job burnout out is emotional exhaustion
(Maslach et al., 2001). According to Maslach et al. (2001), the helper experiences emotional
exhaustion as overwhelming and represents the primary form of an individual’s response to
prolonged stress. Emotional exhaustion is when the individual experiences loss of energy,
feelings of depletion, feelings of wearing out, feelings of debilitation, and fatigue (Maslach &
Leiter, 2016). Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) identified emotional exhaustion as a state of mental
weariness and fatigue resulting from people’s work. R. T. Lee and Ashforth (1990) correlated
emotional exhaustion to strain and effects of tension, anxiety, fatigue, and insomnia. Dollard et
al. (2003) identified that human service agencies have unique strains associated with the work,
specifically being unable to meet the client demands or organizational expectations of customer
satisfaction. Travis et al. (2016) linked emotional exhaustion to an individual’s experience of
overwhelming workload demands that subsequently lead to others’ depersonalization as a
protective coping mechanism.

21
Depersonalization of Others. The second dimension of job burnout is the
depersonalization of others related to cynicism and affects the individual’s interpersonal
relationship within the workplace social context (Maslach et al., 2001). Maslach et al. (2001)
characterized depersonalization as cynical and detached responses to various aspects of the job.
R. T. Lee and Ashforth (1990) expanded on Maslach’s definition of depersonalization to the
notion of coping behavior and an individual’s attempt to staunch the depletion of emotional
energy by treating people as objects or numbers. Research is consistent on depersonalization
resulting from emotional exhaustion serves as a defensive coping mechanism expressed to work
either in a general sense (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) or toward clients and co-workers (Alarcon
et al., 2009). Depersonalization is demonstrated by the individual’s use of adverse responses
proactively and reactively to avoid unwanted work demands and reduce the threat of stressors
(R. T. Lee & Ashforth, 1990). In their research, Maslach and Leiter associated depersonalization
with worker irritability, change of attitude towards clients, and a loss of idealism (Maslach &
Leiter, 2016). Depersonalization correlates to employee dissatisfaction and low job engagement,
while job burnout is the erosion of job engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Research
indicates a stronger correlation between emotional exhaustion and depersonalization with a
weaker relational connection to the individual’s view of self and effectiveness (Demerouti et al.,
2001).
Reduced Sense of Personal Accomplishment and Effectiveness. The third dimension
of job burnout is a reduced sense of personal accomplishments and professional effectiveness
(Demerouti et al., 2001). Maslach et al. (2001) referred to this dimension of job burnout as the
emergence of feelings of incompetence and lack of achievement related to individual self-
evaluation. Recently, researchers referred to this dimension as related to the individual’s views

22
of personal and professional efficacy (Demerouti et al., 2001; Maslach et al., 2001; R. T. Lee &
Ashforth, 1990; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) as an outcome of job strain (R. T. Lee & Ashforth,
1990). In recent literature, Maslach and Leiter (2016) referred to this aspect as the inefficacy
dimension that results in reduced productivity, low morale, and inability to cope. Job burnout
poses psychological, emotional, and physical threats to social workers’ well-being due to chronic
job stressors, unreasonable work demands, and limited job resources.
Social Workers and Job Burnout
Social workers’ occupation puts some at high risk for job burnout due to working with
human beings who have complex needs and may have varying expectations of the results of the
social worker’s efforts (Lloyd et al., 2002). Unlike other occupations that work with a
consumable good or thing, human services’ outputs are subjective, resulting from the service
recipient’s perspective (Dollard et al., 2003). Job burnout is an occupational hazard for human
service workers, educators, and health care workers (Maslach & Leiter, 2016). Research
indicates that stress and job burnout may result in younger social workers’ intent to leave (Boyas
et al., 2012; Coffey et al., 2004), decreased job performance (Alarcon et al., 2009; Lizano & Mor
Barak, 2012), and increased risk to social worker well-being (Bakker et al., 2007; de Looff et al.,
2018; Collins, 2008; Maslach et al., 2001). Job burnout may stem from low job resources (Tims
et al., 2013), high job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Lizano & Mor Barak, 2012; Tadic
et al., 2015), and an unsafe job climate (Law et al., 2011) resulting in the decrease in job
satisfaction, decline in job engagement, and demise job commitment (Lambert et al., 2016;
McLean & Andrew, 1999; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Social workers in child protection and
mental health may be at risk of secondary traumatic stress due to supporting individuals who

23
may be survivors of abuse, crime, violence, self-harm, and suicidality (Bride, 2007; Ting et al.,
2011).
Researchers indicate that job burnout is attributed to social workers experiencing threats
of violence or physical violence from their client or others associated with the client and cause a
negative effect on social worker psychological and physical well-being in worst-case scenarios
(G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Law et al., 2011; Savaya et al., 2011). Job burnout may result in
workers’ compensation claims. However, in most circumstances, social workers who remain
connected to the workplace exhibit low job performance, and low engagement are common
occurrences (Macklin et al., 2006), while others experience an intent to leave and separate from
employment (Nissly et al., 2008).
Stress, Job Burnout, and Social Workers Attrition. Social workers’ stress and job
burnout have implications for job turnover that may result in negative consequences for an
organization. Stressors attributed to social worker attrition are demographic factors, professional
perceptions, and organizational conditions (Mor Barak et al., 2001). In their research, Mor Barak
et al. (2001) indicated that intent to leave and social worker attrition has predictive factors and
antecedents that occur before disengagement and separation from the workplace.
The most common and conclusive predictors of attrition are demographic factors (Mor
Barak et al., 2001). Their meta-analysis determined demographic factors such as age, years of
experience, education level, gender, and job level affect job satisfaction and engagement.
Moreover, age and educational level were the most common predictive factors for social worker
attrition (Mor Barak et al., 2001). Alarcon et al.’s (2009) research on the effect of personality
type, job burnout, and retention did not indicate a strong significant relationship between
personality and retention.

24
Research indicated a strong correlation between social worker age and experience and
causality to social worker attribution, especially in child protection workers (Boyas et al., 2012).
In a United States purposive sample of 209 public child welfare employees, Boyas et al. (2012)
suggested that stress, job burnout, and intent to leave differed by age group, with younger
workers most susceptible to adverse psychosocial effects. Their research revealed that younger
workers 37 years and younger were more likely to exit the workplace and seek other
employment due to education level. In comparison, older workers were more inclined to
emotionally disengage but remain connected to the workplace (Boyas et al., 2012). Research
attributed the intent to leave and rates of workplace separation to the diminishing workforce of
individuals under age 50 interested in entering the field of social work due to stress (Coffey et
al., 2004). Though gender is present in the literature, there is no significant correlation between
intent to leave and gender or marital status (Mor Barak et al., 2001).
Professional perception relates to the view of the organization (G. B. Hall et al., 2013;
Law et al., 2011) and the presence of conflict with one’s values (Mor Barak et al., 2001; Savaya
et al., 2011; Semmer et al., 2015). Retention of employees in child protection, social services,
and other human services agencies is a significant concern resulting in the poor quality of
services, low employee morale, and lack of consistency in the social worker-client relationship
(Mor Barak et al., 2001). Travis et al. (2016) studied 362 front-line social workers or supervisors
who worked for a large urban child welfare organization in the United States, finding employee
responses to job stressors. Their research indicated that job stressors such as work-family
conflict, role ambiguity, and role conflict resulted in employees psychologically disengaging
from the workplace before separation. Their research revealed that stress and job burnout

25
precipitated social workers’ intent to leave and employee disengagement over time (Travis et al.,
2016).
Research indicated a strong relationship between social worker retention or attrition and
organizational factors due to stress levels resulting from the social worker-client relationship
(Mor Barak et al., 2001), specifically the availability of job resources (Hobfill, 2002). In a United
States survey of 160 employees of a juvenile detention center, Lambert et al. (2016) determined
that supervisory support and social or peer support had a greater significance and correlation to
job involvement, job satisfaction, and attrition than demographic factors. Travis et al. (2016)
identified job resources as having a mediating effect on job burnout, such as social or peer
support, managerial support, and review of policy and procedures that may result in job burnout.
Causal Factors for Social Workers’ Stress and Job Burnout. The U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics identified the field of social work as a highly stressful occupation (Bls.gov, n.d.).
The high risk for stress for social workers may be due to a service-focused mission and client-
centered focus that sometimes possess unrealistic expectations placed upon them by the
organization and people served (Dollard et al., 2003; Travis et al., 2016). Savaya et al. (2011)
identified that social workers’ high-stress level stems from the profession’s values, societal
context, and the organizational environment. Some researchers identified the source of stress as
the combination of job stressors, or external stimuli, with limited resources to cope with job
demands (Collins, 2008; Marchand & Durand, 2011; Nissly et al., 2005; Travis et al., 2016).
Social workers experience unique job expectations due to the human-oriented, as opposed to
product-oriented, nature of the occupation (Dollard et al., 2003). Unlike product-oriented
occupations, the provider of the service can repair or replace the service; or the service recipient
can return it. In contrast, in human-oriented services, social workers have a single opportunity to

26
provide the service, and variables may affect service outcomes. Additionally, Dollard et al.
(2003) identified that a critical component of social worker job expectations is the social
worker’s full responsibility for the high quality of the services rendered and clients’ high
satisfaction with the services received. Unrealistic expectations, insufficient job resources, and
workload may cause stress (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Demerouti et al., 2001; Lloyd et al.,
2002; McLean & Andrew, 1999). Stress occurs due to other factors related to job satisfaction,
such as low autonomy (Macklin et al., 2006), low compensation (McLean & Andrew, 1999), role
conflict (Lloyd et al., 2002; Semmer et al., 2015) and low psychologically safe work
environment (Hall et al., 2012; Law et al., 2011).
Unrealistic Expectations of Social Workers. Social work is client-oriented, with
complex health, social, and psychological needs, and supports clients who may have unrealistic
or inappropriate demands (Lloyd et al., 2002). In a longitudinal U.S. study, Travis et al. (2016)
surveyed 362 employees at a large urban child welfare agency and found a correlation between
workplace stressors, employee engagement, and job burnout. Their research identified the
workplace stressors of role conflict, role ambiguity, and work-family conflict as causal factors in
emotional exhaustion that may lead to social work depersonalization (Travis et al., 2016).
Dollard et al. (2003) studied stress in Australia’s social work field. They identified emotional
dissonance, defined as the need to hide negative emotions, and client-customer relations as two
unique stressors social workers experience, leading to employee strain or distress. Lloyd et al. ‘s
(2002) research findings aligned with Dollard et al.’s (2003) emphasis on the social worker-
client dynamic is critical to understanding social worker stress, identifying the risk of social
workers who assume personal or organizational responsibility outcomes. Lloyd et al. (2002)
attributed role conflict in the social work profession to a lack of congruency duties of advocacy

27
and safety, client and public, and the perception of the ideals against the social worker’s actual
work.
Savaya et al. (2011) researched critical incidents that social workers in Israel experienced
and determined the critical and singular component to social worker stress was the social worker-
client dynamic. Their research identified that role conflict, role ambiguity, and work-family
conflict ancillary results of this primary relationship. There is surprisingly little research on the
client as stressors. Savaya et al. ‘s (2011) research attributed social worker stress to employee
over-involvement, in agreement with Lloyd et al. (2002), maintaining a judgment neutral stance,
in agreement with Dollard et al. (2003), and organizational influences (Collin, 2008; Semmer et
al., 2015).
Social Workers’ Job Satisfaction. Social workers’ workplace stress contributes to low
job satisfaction. Job satisfaction refers to a worker’s attitude toward their job, often as a response
to a view of the work, the rewards, or the conditions (APA, 2020). Lambert et al. (2015)
literature review summarily defined job satisfaction as an employee’s emotional response
concerning their job and whether they like their job. Coffey et al. (2004) furthered job
satisfaction to include intrinsic measurements such as job autonomy and various work tasks to
extrinsic measurements such as pay, recognition, and management.
The literature review revealed the following factors that contribute to low job
satisfaction: Management, limited promotional opportunities, low compensation, lack of work
autonomy, and a lack of employee recognition (Coffey et al., 2004; Collins, 2008; McLean &
Andrew, 1999). In a United Kingdom mixed methods research project, Coffey et al. (2004)
surveyed 1,234 social workers within two social service departments, children, and adults
concluding that employees working with children and families reported lower job satisfaction

28
than adult social workers due to the nature of cases of child abuse and child protection versus
adults. Additionally, Coffey et al. (2004), found social workers’ job satisfaction was also related
to the position as it relates to exempt versus non-exempt employee status, finding that hourly,
non-exempt employees reported lower job satisfaction than salaried, exempt employees.
Research studies indicated the effects of low job satisfaction were consistent cross research
characterized by high absenteeism, low mental well-being, and high levels of job constraints
(Coffey et al., 2004; Collins, 2008; Lambert et al., 2016; Mor Barak et al., 2001; Nissly et al.,
2008, & Shier et al., 2011). Job constraints consisted of a lack of sufficient time to meet work
deadlines, coping with client and family demands, and unreasonable workload (Coffey et al.,
2004; Shier et al., 2011). Coffey et al. (2004) found that stress resulted in employee
disengagement, disinterest in emerging professionals to enter the field, and affected the decision
to separate from the workplace.
Employee intent to leave and job turnover are related to social worker workplace stress.
Shier et al. conducted a meta-analysis on child social worker satisfaction and stated that the
“relationship between social worker satisfaction and turnover within the workplace was mutually
reinforcing” (Shier et al., 2011, p.121). Shier et al. concluded that social workers need a
connection to and a sense of satisfaction from work performed (Shier et al., 2011). This sense of
connection may be to the organization, the client, or both. Low job satisfaction affects employee
turnover, has high costs to the organization, and causes the employee to disengage emotionally
or terminate employment (Nissly et al., 2005). Research indicates that low job satisfaction may
result from the view that the perception that the workplace is psychologically safe or threatening
as determined by job demands, job resources, and job climate (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Hall
et al., 2012; Law et al., 2013; Lizano & Mor Barak, 2012).

29
Social Workers’ Efficacy and Job Burnout. Self-efficacy and social worker resilience
to stress and hardiness to job burnout has emerged as an area of research (Alarcon et al., 2009;
Maslach, 1982; Maslach et al., 2001). Self-efficacy is a crucial component of Albert Bandura’s
social cognitive theory that emphasizes personal agency, reliance upon the external agency or
proxy support, and collective agency or group performance to achieve workplace goals and
objectives (Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2001). Within social cognitive theory, Bandura indicated
that human agency is crucial within a theory of capacity to self-organize, be proactive, self-
reflect, and self-regulate (Bandura, 1999).
There is a link between employee job satisfaction and their perspective of their agency,
and autonomy in the workplace. Bandura (2006) identified in self-efficacy theory that the
individual serves in an intentional and interactive role as an agent and producer in the work
environment. The employee’s role as agent and producer encourages the development of
“functional consciousness of purposive accessing and deliberative processing of information for
selecting, constructing, regulating, and evaluating courses of action” essential to competency and
self-regulation (Bandura, 2006, p. 3). The core functions of individual agency enable the
individual the knowledge and motivation to participate in their self-development, adapt to
workplace circumstances, and engage in self-renewal (Bandura, 1999).
Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with the individual’s judgment, positively or
negatively, of their ability to perform as determined by the individual’s intention and course of
action taken (Bandura, 2006). Efficacy beliefs serve a crucial role in human agency, also referred
to as functioning and capability to determine intention and action (Bandura, 2006). Bandura’s
theory identified a causal relationship between performance and self-regulation skills knowledge,

30
such as diagnosing task demands, developing alternative courses of action, proximal and distal
goal setting, and setting personal incentives (Bandura, 2006).
Researchers distinguish perceived self-efficacy from concepts of self-esteem and self-
confidence as they are related but not synonymous concepts (Bandura, 2006; McCormick, 2001).
There is a causal relationship between an individual’s perceived self-efficacy (or belief in one’s
capability), self-esteem (or perceived self-worth), self-confidence (or perceived self-concept)
(McCormick, 2001). The centrality of efficacy may serve as a predictive factor in understanding
human behavior and building efficacy structures to facilitate and foster individual and collective
performance to achieve organizational goals (Bandura, 2006).
Stress Indicator Factors and Social Workers’ Well-Being
Job demands are another factor that affects social worker well-being and is one of the
strongest predictors of stress and job burnout (Haung et al., 2016). Excessive workplace job
demands can negatively affect employees’ mental well-being (G. B. Hall et al., 2013). Job
demands are the physical, psychological, and emotional aspects of work that require sustained
effort and are associated with psychological and physiological costs (G. B. Hall et al., 2013;
Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). High job demands, just like stress, are not necessarily negative
aspects of the job but become stressors when the corresponding efforts elicit psychological
responses such as anxiety, depression, sleeplessness, impaired physical health, and emotional
exhaustion (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). The
literature on the effects of job demand concerning job strain, social worker well-being, and job
burnout is exhaustive. Job strain is associated with the field of social work, especially in child
welfare (Boyas et al., 2012; Lizano & Mor Barak, 2012; Shier et al., 2011), mental health (Bride,
2007; Ting et al., 2011), and correctional officers (Lambert et al., 2016). However, their research

31
on the wide range of effects of workplace job demands on the employee’s personal life such as
personal factors such as gender and age (Bakker et al., 2008).
Gender and Family Roles
Gender and family roles have emerged as an area of stress studied in relation to job
demands (Bakker et al., 2008). Job demands are associated with two types of conflicts that affect
social workers’ well-being: Work-family conflict and family-work conflict (Bakker et al., 2008).
Work-family conflict refers to situations where work pressure hampers functioning at home.
Family-work conflict (FWC) refers to role pressures at home interfering with functioning at
work (Bakker et al., 2008). Due to their role in assisting clients in addressing challenging and
complex circumstances, job resources such as manager support, peer support, and training to
develop coping strategies are essential (Dollard et al., 2003; Lloyd et al., 2002). Research
indicated that job resources served as protective factors against emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization or cynicism in social worker job burnout (Dollard et al., 2003; Lloyd et al.,
2002). A Netherland research on gender roles that studied 168 couples who were dual-earner
parents, Bakker et al. (2008) found job demands had a crossover effect from the workplace to
personal life and gender roles were a significant factor in the experience of job stressors. Work-
Family Conflict (WFC) is one person’s experience of stress transmitted from one area of life
(work) to another area (home, personal relationship) and is most experienced by men. According
to their research, men experience greater involvement in work and are more susceptible to high
workload and job strain causing them to worry at home about work interfering with home life
(Bakker et al., 2008). Conversely, Family-Work Conflict (FWC) referred to the higher degree of
susceptibility that women experienced due to higher home demands, and emotional exhaustion
than their male counterparts (Bakker et al., 2008; Shier et al., 2011). The presence of WFC and

32
FWC may further exacerbate the effects of social workers’ distress experienced by high job
demands and the availability of job resources to address workplace stress and mitigate the risk of
job burnout (Bakker et al., 2008; Lloyd et al., 2002; Travis et al., 2016).
Age
In addition to gender, age was another personal factor that may affect a social worker’s
ability to effectively cope with job demands due to the potential for limited work experience and
perceived value of educational attainments (Boyas et al., 2012; Lloyd et al., 2002; Shier et al.,
2011). Boyas et al. (2012) conducted a United States sample of 299 respondents of a public child
welfare organization and determined younger respondents were more vulnerable to stress, job
burnout, and intent to leave. Their research determined that younger employees were more
vulnerable to the effects of high job demands due to a lack of work experience sufficient to
develop practical coping skills. Coffey et al. (2004) identified job demands and stress caused
younger social workers in England to leave the field of child welfare social work to pursue
employment in other fields, leaving the workforce for individuals who were 50 years old and
older. Coffey et al. ‘s (2004) research classified younger employees as younger than 37 and older
employees as 38 and older. The job stressors identified were making difficult decisions on cases,
managing large caseloads, and media attention on services delivered (Coffey et al., 2004). Their
research further identified the effect of a lack of work experience in responding to the number
and types of complex situations encountered and exceeded the social workers’ ability to cope
with them, making them susceptible to stress.
Ethnicity, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity
Related to the personal factors of gender and age, research has emerged including sexual
orientation and gender identity in related stress and job demands due to the presence of actual or

33
perceived prejudice (Frost et al., 2013; Meyer et al., 2008). In a United States-based study,
Meyer et al. (2008) interviewed 366 individuals who identified as gay, lesbian, and bisexual, and
128 individuals who identified as heterosexual people to examine the effects of exposure to
stress. Their study had inconsistent findings on the effects of stress on gender and negative
health. However, their study found a correlation between sexual orientation, ethnicity, and the
experience of workplace stressors due to perceived prejudicial or discriminatory practices
(Meyer et al., 2008). Frost et al. (2013) conducted a United States-based study on ethnicity and
sexual orientation. Their research surveyed 396 gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants to
examine the effects of minority stress on physical health. Their research concurred with Meyer et
al. ‘s (2008) study that poorer health was not observed but prejudice-related stress was present
whether the prejudice was actual or perceived (Frost et al., 2013; Meyer et al., 2008). Meyer et
al. ‘s (2008) research contemplated that work demands are not only about the work, but about the
social worker and the constellation of relationships, roles, and identities the individual possesses
that may contribute to workplace stress directly or indirectly.
Research indicated that the presence or absence of job resources serves as a buffer to the
effects of high job demands (G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Schaufeli and
Bakker et al. (2004) defined job resources as “those physical, psychological, social, or
organizational aspects of the job that either/or (1) reduce demands and the associated
physiological and psychological costs; (2) are functional in achieving work goals; (3) stimulate
personal growth, learning, and development” (p. 296). Hobfill (2002) defined resources as those
things that are either valued by the individual, such as self-esteem, and good health or serve as a
means to obtain things of value, such as money, and social support. Job resources may be either

34
internal or external to the person and are essential to the employee to manage job demands and
achieve work tasks (Hobfill, 2002; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
The Job Demands Resource Model (JDRM) proposed that excessive job demands
combined with low job resources jeopardized employee job engagement (G. B. Hall et al., 2013;
Maslach et al., 2001). Schaufeli and Bakker’s (2004) research on the JDR identified the effects
of overtaxing of the employee energy reserves due to excessive job demands on energy reserves
to attend effectively to job demands. Additionally, JDR affects employee motivation to attend to
job demands due to the lack of resources available to address work demands (Schaufeli &
Bakker, 2004). The presence of high job demands, and depletion of emotional reserves
negatively affected employee well-being, leading to exhaustion, poor job performance,
absenteeism, and job burnout (G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli & Bakker,
2004). G. B. Hall et al. ‘s (2013) research identified that low job resources constitute an unsafe
psychosocial environment where exhausted employees are at risk for anxiety, job burnout, and
depression.
Job resources fostered learning, development, and goal achievement and encouraged
employee motivation and work engagement (Tadic et al., 2015). Job resources reduced demands
through buffers created that support well-being (Bakker et al., 2007; Tadic et al., 2014) and
affect work engagement, job satisfaction, and employee motivation (Tims et al., 2013). Job
resources not only buffered the effects of high demands but boosted work engagement when high
job resources are present with high work demands (Bakker et al., 2007; Tadic et al., 2014; Tims
et al., 2013). Conversely, job resources were predictive of job satisfaction and work engagement
(Tadic et al., 2014). The research concluded that employees experienced job dissatisfaction, job

35
disengagement, depression, and job burnout when job resources were limited or lacking (G. B.
Hall et al., 2013).
Job Climate
The effects of an organization’s environment, job climate, and social worker well-being
have garnered attention in human services (G. B. Hall et al., 2013). The organization’s work
environment may create a psychosocial unsafe job climate with poor leadership practices,
unrealistic job expectations, high job demands, low job resources, bullying behavior, lack of
physical safety, and unethical practices (G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Law et al., 2011). Law et al.
(2014) cited Dollard and Baker’s (2010) definition of a psychosocial safety climate as
organizational policies, practices, and procedures that protect employees’ psychological well-
being. Hall et al. (2013) cited Cox et al. (2000) defined an unsafe psychosocial climate as one
where the job design and the organization and management of work, social supports, and
organizational supports have the potential to cause psychological, social, or physical harm (G. B.
Hall et al., 2013).
Social workers may experience other client-related challenges that create unsafe work
climates (Lloyd et al., 2002; Nissly et al., 2005). Work environments buffered or hindered social
workers’ well-being (Dollard et al., 2003). Lloyd et al. (2002) studied the effects of role
ambiguity and employee identity finding that the client-driven nature of social work is a
significant risk factor for job-related stress and the high potential for job burnout. Some
researchers, like Semmer et al. (2015), identified elements of illegitimate work tasks or tasks that
pose a threat to employee identity that exceed the normal expectations of the job that are
unreasonable and threaten an employee’s professional identity as one stressor that contributes to
unsafe job climates. Job control and employee autonomy on completion of work tasks have a

36
strong correlation to job satisfaction and job commitment and emphasized the importance of
degrees of autonomy and job control to mitigate the risk of employee disengagement and intent
to leave (McLean & Andrew, 1999; Tims et al., 2013; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). Hall et al.
(2013) summarized the psychosocial job climate or hazards as the effects of exhaustion and low
motivation caused by excessive job demands and low job resources for employees, resulting in
job disengagement and depersonalization. Job climate also causes poor physical health, such as
hypertension, eating disorders, sleeping disorders, substance abuse, and psychological well-
being, such as anxiety and depression. Collins (2008) cited Stanley et al. ‘s (2002) research of
700 social workers finding that 75 percent developed depression following their social work
careers. Law et al. ‘s (2011) research indicated that social workers might be susceptible to
prolonged exposure to stressors, assuming personal responsibility for perceived failure to meet
client expectations or agency job demands.
There is a relationship between social worker depression and other mental health distress
linked to an unsafe job climate due to secondary traumatic stress (Bride, 2016; Ting et al., 2011).
Some social workers’ and service recipients’ interactions involve physical assaults and
aggression that cause injuries and emotional distress. Law et al. ‘s (2011) research identified job
climate as a lead indicator of risk to social workers’ mental well-being, especially when
workplace bullying and harassment. In a research project of social workers in Israel, Savaya et
al. (2011) studied 130 critical incidents, four categories of events that caused emotional pain,
frustration, and self-doubt. Those four events were client hostility and aggression towards their
social worker, client behaviors that violated professional rules or social worker expectations,
professional dilemmas in reporting client behavior, and social worker’s personal issues and life
experiences.

37
The social workers’ perception of the psychological safety of the workplace is another
factor affecting well-being (Savaya et al., 2011). In their research, Savaya et al. (2011) identified
that more than half of the critical incidents were social workers being the target of hostility,
anger, or aggression by clients, clients’ family members, or others involved in the case. Savaya
et al. defined critical incidents as social workers experiencing actual, attempted, or threatened
physical violence and verbal aggression, citing examples of a psychiatric client throwing a chair
and another punching their mental health social worker (Savaya et al., 2011). Notably, Savaya et
al. ‘s (2011) research sample was ninety percent female ranging from 24 to 50 years old, mostly
in their 30’s. Lastly, Savaya et al. ’s (2011) research identified that social workers experienced
self-doubt and blamed themselves for critical incidents. Social workers may also experience an
unsafe job climate due to emotional distress from the social worker-client relationship unrelated
to physical violence but due to the client engaging in self-injurious behavior (Savaya et al.,
2011).
Mental health social workers are at increased risk of secondary traumatic stress due to
exposure to clients who have traumatic life experiences and behaviors, including attempted and
successful suicides (Ting et al., 2011). Secondary trauma is the emotional duress that results
when an individual hears about another’s firsthand trauma experiences. Symptoms are similar to
post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as primary trauma (NCTSN, 2011). In a survey study
of 515 mental health social workers, Ting et al. identified that social workers who experience
client suicidal behavior had higher rates of secondary traumatic stress in the immediate aftermath
and were also at greater risk of perceived current stress (Ting et al., 2011). Notably, seventy-six
percent of the sample group were female, and Ting et al. ‘s (2011) research was the first
empirical study focusing on current perceived stress. Additionally, research studies identified the

38
role of social workers’ traumatic life experiences that may result in triggering incidents due to
identifying clients’ traumatic experiences (Savaya et al., 2011; Ting et al., 2011; Wagaman et al.,
2015).
Social workers experiencing secondary traumatic stress may experience compassion
fatigue or depersonalization, resulting in a loss of empathy due to experiencing client trauma as
their own (Wagaman et al., 2015). Empathy is an essential skill for social work, providing
insight into the client’s feelings and thinking and may lead to experiencing their client’s
traumatic life experiences as their own (Wagaman et al., 2015). Some social workers repress
their feelings and withdraw from discussing triggering behavior for fear of the perception of
over-involvement with their clients, causing more harm to emotional and physical health due to
the repression of feelings (Ting et al., 2011).
The stress indicator factors of client relations, high job demands, limited job resources,
and unsafe job climate concerns result in chronic stress or routine work stressors, and if
unaddressed, may lead to job burnout (Bakker et al., 2007; G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Lloyd et al.,
2002.; Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Research indicated that high job
resources might boost work engagement when the employee experiences high work demands
(Bakker et al., 2007; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). The most common types of job resources in the
research were self-esteem (Hobfoll, 2002), self-efficacy (Huang et al., 2016), autonomy and job
control (Tims et al., 2013), social support (Beausaert et al., 2016; Collins, 2008; Lambert et al.,
2016), and managerial support (Lloyd et al., 2002; McLean & Andrew, 1999). These job
resources served as protective factors that mitigated the unsafe job climate (G. B. Hall et al.,
2013; Tadic et al., 2015). Figure 1 identifies there are stress indicator factors of the effects of

39
personal characteristics, job demands, and job resources on social workers’ well-being as it
relates to stress and job burnout.

Figure 1
Stress Indicator Factors and Social Worker Well-Being

Predictive Factors for Social Workers’ Stress and Job Burnout
Research indicates a strong relationship between personality characteristics and social
work stress management (Maslach, 1982; Maslach et al., 2001). Personality characteristics
impact social worker resilience and hardiness to stress and job burnout (Maslach et al., 2001).
Maslach (1982) defined personality characteristics as mental, emotional, and social qualities that
contribute to forming the individuals, including their interpersonal style, problem-solving ability,
and control over emotions. Social workers’ self-efficacy intersects with Maslach’s research on
job burnout and social worker personality characteristics, self-esteem, and self-concept as
predictive factors of stress resilience and job burnout hardiness (Bandura, 1999; Maslach, 1982;
Maslach et al., 2001).

Social
Worker
Job Climate +/-

Job Demands
+/-

Job Resources
+/-

40
Social workers’ stress can either have positive or negative results determined by the
individual’s predisposition due to personality characteristics (Hobfoll, 2002; Maslach, 1982;
Mutkins et al., 2011). Though all individuals may be susceptible to experiencing job burnout,
Maslach’s research identified four types of individuals who may possess burnout-prone
tendencies that may serve as predictive indicators for prevention (Maslach, 1982). The first
personality type is the nonassertive, anxious person who has difficulty setting personal
boundaries. This individual demonstrates an inability to assert themselves and to exercise control
of situations, causing the possibility of becoming emotionally overwhelmed. The second
personality type is the intolerant and impatient person who has difficulty managing their
hostility, frustration, and anger, causing the probability of projection of negative feelings toward
clients and depersonalizing clients. The third personality type is the person who lacks self-
confidence and low ambition, has difficulty in goal setting, and lacks the determination required
to achieve them.
Protective Factors for Social Workers’ Stress and Job Burnout
Stress management and job burnout mitigation efficacy intersect with self-efficacy in the
domains of the individual’s level of confidence in managing difficult tasks, level of conviction to
complete difficult tasks, and generalizability where competency can apply to other situations and
circumstances (Gist, 1987). Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory emphasizes that individuals are
producers or agents in their environments engaged in dynamic interpersonal and interdependent
activities with others and within the organization (Bandura, 1999). Jex and Gudanowski (1992)
identified that self-efficacy might be a mediating variable, and reductions in the individual’s
efficacy beliefs may risk the experience of chronic stress and vulnerability to job burnout.

41
The central idea of self-efficacy is that individuals can self-regulate their thoughts,
motivation, and behavior (McCormick, 2001). Self-regulation is related to the conscious
appraisal of the choice of setting and activities, skill acquisition, the expenditure of efforts, and
persistence of coping efforts the individual possesses (Gist, 1987). Self-regulation may also
include employees’ understanding of their thoughts, feelings, and actions in their ability to
control factors or conditions that affect job performance (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Researchers
revealed components of self-esteem and self-efficacy within this dimension of job burnout are
the worker’s self-appraisal while under duress resulting in a negative view of job performance
and personal achievements and determining ineffectiveness in working with clients and meeting
job demands (Alarcon et al., 2009; Demerouti et al., 2001; R. T. Lee & Ashforth, 1990;
Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). According to social cognitive theory, consciousness is functional and
achieved through the intentional processing of information for selecting, constructing, regulating,
and evaluating courses of present and future actions (Bandura, 2001).
Research indicated job burnout is a confluence of job demands and the social workers’
degree of autonomy, self-regulation, agency, and efficacy (Hobfill, 2022; Maslach, 1982;
McCormick, 2001). Maslach (1982) identified the need for social workers to exercise choice and
independence in the performance of job demands and job burnout is the result of feelings of
being powerless, helpless, and trapped. Self-efficacy beliefs are related to developing personal
goals to facilitate performance through individual motivation, as demonstrated by the
individual’s direction, effort, persistence, and strategy development (McCormick, 2001). Self-
regulation posits that individuals with high self-efficacy will facilitate the setting of challenging
goals, persisting in the face of obstacles, demonstrating greater effort to work tasks, and seeking
practical task strategies (McCormick, 2001). Individuals who experience low self-regulation may

42
also experience low emotional control as evidenced by 1) hostility – an inability to manage
feelings of anger or hostility with clients constructively; 2) fear – an inability to face and come to
terms with perceived threats to personal safety and well-being; 3) impatience – an inability to
manage impulsivity and intolerance that interferes with the ability to be self-reflective; and
lastly, 4) empathy – an inability to manage arousal of emotions triggered by others by detaching
psychologically from client’s situations or circumstances (Maslach, 1982). Self-regulation is
considered a personal resource that increases social worker well-being, resilience to stress, and
resistance to job burnout (Hobfill, 2002).
The effects of social workers’ self-efficacy and self-regulation may extend beyond the
individual to co-workers and the work environment (Gudanowski, 1992; Hobfill, 2002;
McCormick, 2001). Bandura referred to this effect as collective efficacy or the belief by others
that the organization is able to achieve mission objectives (Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2000).
Similar to the perceived self-efficacy residing in the individual’s self-concept or belief, collective
efficacy resides in the group’s perception of the organization and the group’s thinking about
achieving organizational goals that form a shared belief resulting in aspirational or demotivated
performances (Bandura, 2000). It is essential to remember that a critical social work component
is the client-focused mission and idealism symbolized by the profession (Pooler et al., 2014).
The next section will emphasize the role of the manager as job support and influence presented
in the literature review as help or hindrance to social worker well-being.
Managers’ Impact on Social Workers’ Well-being
Stress and job burnout affect employee well-being and may have adverse effects on
clients served (L. H. Hall et al., 2016). Researchers suggest that managers’ leadership practices
may have a positive or negative impact on well-being stemming from the organizational climate,

43
psychological safety, and work commitment resulting in poor performance or intent to leave,
especially in non-profit organizations (Fisher, 2013; McMurray et al., 2009; Suazo & Stone-
Romero, 2011). Unfortunately, research indicates that employee well-being is neglected, with
organizations viewing employees as a means to an end instead of focusing on compliance and
performance metrics (Guest, 2017).
A meta-analysis of the literature on social worker stress and job burnout reveals that job
resources of co-worker support and managers serve as protective factors against the effect of
high work demands, personality, demographic characteristics, and unsafe job climate (Maslach,
2001; Maslach, 2004; Tims et al., 2013; Travis et al., 2017). The front-line manager plays an
essential role in creating a team culture, providing training resources, coaching, modeling,
developing personal and team goals, and assigning work tasks (Burke, 2018; Du et al., 2015;
Schein, 2017).
The manager serves an essential role in supporting employees’ well-being and job
performance. Bandura’s (2000) research identified the manager as a proxy between the
organization and the employee. It may help or hinder individual performance that may have
similar effects on other subordinates and the collective efficacy of their interdependent work.
Moreover, he emphasized the managers’ role in developing requisite competencies, shouldering
the responsibility of leadership, and addressing work stressors that disrupt the achievement of
outcomes (Bandura, 2000). However, the literature review revealed that collective efficacy can
be positively or negatively affected not only by direct interactions with individual members of
the workgroup but also indirectly by observations and attributions of the workgroup members
(Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2001; Borgogni et al., 2011; Du et al., 2015). Stirin et al. (2011)
researched efficacy as the manager among external resources, such as equipment, valuable

44
guidance or support, and favorable working conditions. In a longitudinal study of 846 employees
of 105 work teams, Du et al. (2015) found that organizational efficacy predictability improved
when employees experienced high levels of support from their supervisor. The managers’
provision of support, feedback, and creating a healthy job climate is essential in promoting social
worker hardiness to stress and resiliency to job burnout (Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Brimhall
et al., 2017; Du, 2015; Simons, 1999).
Transformational Leadership Theory
For this exploratory study, the transformational leadership theory (TLT) serves as one
theoretical framework used to focus this study on the elements that comprise effective leadership
practices that support social workers’ well-being. Leadership and management are similar
processes but emphasize different goals and objectives (Northouse, 2019). TLT defines
leadership as being multidirectional in working with people to influence others and create visions
for change. At the same time, management emphasizes unidirectional authority relating to the
accomplishment of activities and mastery of routines for order and consistency (Northouse,
2019). TLT has emerged as a predominant leadership theory according to current research (Bush,
2018; de Hoogh et al., 2005; Dinh, 2014). Based on a survey on the frequency, percentage, and
overall rank of leadership theories published in top 10 tier journals between 2000 and 2012, TLT
ranked number one with 154 times referenced (Dinh et al., 2014). Moreover, TLT’s emphasis on
non-profit organizations and social work leadership aligns with the focus of this study (Fisher,
2013; Song et al., 2012; Tafvelin et al., 2012). The hypothesis of this exploratory study is the
influence of leadership constructs such as TLT on leadership practices that promote positive job
climates that impact social workers’ well-being.

45
Transformational leadership emerged from the seminal work of Burns (1978), who first
linked the term to types of political leaders. Bass and Avolio (1993) furthered Burns’s (1978)
research by positing that transformational leaders tapped into their employees’ motives to meet
organizational and employee needs (Anderson, 2013; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio,
2006; Burns, 1978; Fisher, 2013; Northouse, 2019). Transformational leadership is a process that
emphasizes emotions, values, ethics, goal setting to change and transform employees, also
referred to as followers (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978; de Hoogh et
a., 2005; Fisher, 2013; Northouse, 2019). Transformational leaders focus on influencing
followers through charisma and a person-centered focus that addresses the employees’
workplace needs, assesses their motivations, and recognizes their personhood and not merely as
workers (Burke, 2018; Northouse, 2019; Schein, 2017). These effective leadership practices
create a work environment where employees feel supported, essential resources are provided,
and implemented organizational policies and practices.
Transformational, Transactional, and Passive or Avoidant Leadership Styles
Transformational leadership theory identifies three leadership approaches
Transformational leader, transactional leader, and passive avoidant leadership (Burns, 1978;
Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019). Transactional leadership refers to
the traditional management approach that focuses on manager and employee exchanges, such as
promotions for performance and disciplinary actions for poor performance (Burns, 1978; Bass &
Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019). Additionally, transactional leadership
employs active management by exception style is a system of rewards and punishments and
determines how a leader selects, promotes, or terminates employees based on the leaders and

46
organizational values of employee fit (Burns, 1978; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Schein, 2017).
Transformational leaders use followers’ inspiration, visionary leadership, and model
integrity to foster follower trust and willingness to exceed workplace expectations (Anderson,
2013; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Bolman & Deal, 2017; Northouse, 2019; Simons, 1999).
Transformational leadership is a management approach distinct in focusing on joining a person
to a mission versus transformational that emphasizes the leader’s focus on the self and
completing the assigned tasks (Burns, 1978; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006,
Northouse, 2019). Moreover, Bass and Riggio (2006) identified a third management approach to
Burns (1978) concept of transformational and transactional leadership approaches and also
offered a third leadership approach referred to as the passive or avoidant management approach.
The passive and avoidant approach is characterized by two management approaches
Management by Exception (MBE) and Laissez-Faire (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019).
The MBE leadership approach uses a passive or avoidant style characterized as neither guided
nor actively engaged until standards are unmet (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019). Laissez-
faire or a hands-off characterized by the leader who abdicates responsibility, delays decision-
making, and gives little to no feedback (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019). Table 2
indicates there are types of leadership traits, including but not limited to transformational
leadership, transactional leadership, and passive or avoidant leadership styles that may help or
hinder managers’ ability to support social workers’ well-being.

47
Table 2
Transformational, Transactional, and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Styles
Leadership traits Description
Transformational leadership
● Idealized influence Leaders who act as strong role models of high
standards, moral conduct, and ethics for
followers and followers identify with these
leaders and want very much to emulate
them.
● Inspirational motivation Leaders who communicate high expectations
to followers, inspiring them through
motivation to become committed to and a
part of the shared vision in the organization.
● Intellectual stimulation Leaders who stimulate followers to be
creative and innovative and to challenge
their own beliefs and values as well as
those of the leader and the organization.
● Individual consideration Leaders who provide a supportive climate in
which they listen carefully to the individual
needs of followers; act as coaches and
advisors to help realize the individual’s full
potential and use delegation to help
followers grow.
Transactional leadership
● Contingent reward Leaders who develop a process of exchange
with followers in which effort by followers
receive specific rewards.

48
Leadership traits Description
● Management by Exception: Active Leaders who watch followers closely for
mistakes or rule violations and then take
corrective action.
Passive or avoidant leadership
● Management by Exception: Passive or
avoidant
Leaders who intervene only after standards
are not met or problems have arisen.
● Laissez-Faire Leaders who abdicate responsibility, delay
decision-making, give little to no feedback,
and make little effort to help followers
satisfy their needs.

Note. Adapted from Leadership: Theory and Practice, by P.G. Northouse, 2019, Sage
Publications.

The research identified transformational leadership as a more effective leadership style
than transactional and passive or avoidant leaders (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978;
Northouse, 2019). However, researchers believe that transformational leadership requires more
study to support the claim empirically (Anderson, 2013; Bolman & Deal, 2017; Burns, 1978). An
essential criticism is the subjective nature of the determination of a leader’s personality based
upon the follower’s perception as the subordinate or the evaluator’s inflated self-perception, both
of which limit interrater reliability due to bias (Anderson, 2013; Bono et al., 2012). Additional
criticism of transformational leadership is that an effective leader must incorporate both
transformational and transactional leadership methods to meet organizational goals (Anderson,
2013; Antonakis & House, 2014).

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Nonetheless, transformational leadership is a critical change management theory linked
to increases in employee performance and organizational engagement, which has a strong link to
employee well-being (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Eisenbach et al., 2014; Schein, 2018). In a
randomized sample of 158 employees of a Swedish social services organization, Tafvelin et al.
(2014) measured transformational leadership practices among managers using the Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) to evaluate the effects of the four theoretical components of
idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration determining a positive correlation to social worker job performance, role clarity,
and job commitment. In a United States research study of 23 small community-based service
organizations, Fisher (2013) used the MLQ Form 5X to determine the effects of transformational
leadership in empowering followers and building organizational capacity. Fisher (2013)
concluded that effective leadership, including transformational leadership attributes, was crucial
to organizational effectiveness, where volunteer support and employee commitment were
essential to achieving the organization’s mission. Leadership, both organizational and
managerial, can help or hinder employee performance and provide a protective or risk factor to
social worker well-being (Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Brimhall et al., 2017; Simons, 1999).
Effective Leadership Practices Aligned with Transformational Leadership Theory
Transformational leadership refers to a leader that demonstrates the following attributes
that encourages followers to commit to exceeding the leaders’ expectations: idealized influence,
intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio,
2006; Fisher, 2013; Northouse, 2019). Transformational leadership styles are more prevalent
within non-profit than for-profit organizations due to the mission-focused objectives (Fisher,
2013; McMurray et al., 2010). In this section, the literature review explores the subject of

50
effective leadership practices as identified within TLT that creates an environment that supports
employees’ work engagement and performance which contribute to well-being (Burke, 2017,
McMurray et al., 2010).
Manager as Influencer
The first principle of TLT is managers’ knowledge of how to demonstrate idealized
influence. Idealized influence refers to leaders who act as strong role models with high standards,
moral conduct, and ethics for followers and followers who identify with these leaders and want
to emulate them (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2019).
Bass and Avolio (1993) referred to idealized influence as both attributional, or the followers’
perception of the leader, and behavioral, or the observations made of the leaders’ behavior.
Furthermore, Bass and Riggio (2006) identified the role of leader trustworthiness in creating a
positive work environment. This management practice emphasized the importance of the
perceived trustworthiness of the leader by employees, in this instance social workers. This
section will explore the literature on the leaders’ ability to effectively influence employees
through the establishment of a psychologically safe work environment. The literature review
indicated that the transformational leader establishes a positive work culture and climate through
behaving in a trustworthy manner; managing conflicts effectively; and demonstrating emotional
intelligence plays in the manager as an effective influencer of employees.
Creating a Positive Work Culture and Climate. Leaders must know how to create a
positive work culture and climate that promotes trust and effectiveness (Law et al., 2011).
Trustworthiness and credibility are essential components of the culture established by the
manager (Simons, 1999). Managers create a work culture that promotes trust or distrust
depending on the behaviors demonstrated by the manager and others in leadership (Zak, 2017).

51
Leaders create culture by imposing their beliefs, values, and assumptions on the work
environment creating a shared experience within the leader-follower exchange and team dynamic
(Schein, 2004).
Research indicates that leaders who possess emotional intelligence create positive work
environments that promote credibility and trust due to understanding their emotions and the
emotional needs of their employees (Mayer et al., 2008). Emotional intelligence is the ability to
engage in the processing of one’s own and others’ emotions and the ability to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and behavior (Meyer et al., 2008). Leaders who demonstrate
emotional intelligence are more likely to engage in behavioral consistency, reflective practice,
and self-regulation which may result in their employee’s perception of trust and credibility
(Mayer et al., 2008). Though the nature of the manager and employees’ exchanges are unique
and individual occurrences, situations, or circumstances, general perceptions of the manager
from these exchanges promote or erode the employees’ trust in their leader (Mayer et al., 2008;
Korsgaard et al., 2002). Additionally, the employees develop attributions of the managers’
trustworthiness through observations of direct or indirect encounters between the manager and
other employees (Korsgaard et al., 2002).
Manager Behavior and Work Climate. Managers must understand the importance and
impact of their behaviors upon their employees. Korsgaard et al. cited Whitener et al. ’s (1998)
research on “managerial trustworthy behavior” identifying the five categories of managerial
behaviors that affect employees’ trust in their manager: Behavioral consistency, acting with
integrity, sharing and delegation of control, the openness of communication, and demonstration
of concern (Korsgaard et al., 2002, p. 313). Management of negative events such as
disagreements may promote or discourage manager trust and therefore knowing how to

52
effectively manage conflict is an essential ability for leaders. Korsgaard et al. (2002) indicated
trustworthiness of managers is displayed in disagreements and conflicts between the manager
and employee. Management of leader-follower disagreement is dependent upon the managers’
behavior and the employees’ attributions or attempts to understand the nature of the manager-
employee interaction (Korsgaard et al., 2002). The perception of distrust may lead to poor
performance by the employee and within the collective group (Alper et al., 2000). Alper et al.
posited that managers should effectively employ the five-cooperative approach (COOP) of
“emphasizing mutual goals, understanding everyone’s views, orienting employees toward joint
beliefs, and ability to incorporate several positions to find a solution good for all” (Alper et al.,
2000, p. 629). Effective leadership includes the ability to manage the relationships that include
both positive and negative events to ensure a perspective that the manager and the workspace are
psychologically safe (Law et al., 2011).
Managers’ Influence on Psychologically Safe Job Climate. Job climate is a collective
perspective of espoused beliefs and values describing the organization’s feel or character (Burke,
2018; Schneider et al., 1996). Burke (2018) indicated that job climate refers to the expectation of
the managers’ practices to adhere to organizational goals for compliance with customer
satisfaction. The characteristics of a psychologically unsafe work climate are when job
expectations occur under the condition of high job demands coupled with low job resources may
contribute to social worker’s experience of the adverse effects of stress and make them
vulnerable to job burnout (G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Nissly et al., 2005; Tafvelin & Hyvönen,
2014). A psychosocially safe climate results from the shared perceptions regarding
organizational policies, practices, and procedures reflected in a communicated organizational
position (G. B. Hall et al., 2013). Burke (2018) identified three vital indicator questions to

53
understand employees’ perception of job climate. These questions were as follows: “How well
they are managed, in general? How clear are they about what is expected of them in the
workplace? And how do they feel their performance is recognized?” (Burke, 2018, p. 235). The
inferences organizational members make about the climate develop perspectives about the
particular behaviors expected and rewarded or punished by the organization (Schneider et al.,
1996). Additional organizational perceptions are the degree employees feel the climate is
inclusive or exclusive (Brimhall et al., 2017; Fix & Sias, 2006), practices integrity (Simons,
1999), and empowering (Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Borgogni et al., 2011).
Managers who emphasize the transformational leadership practice of individualized
support through mentoring and coaching support employees in navigating organizational barriers
that impede performance (Burke, 2017). Lewis (2011) presented management competence in
three essential areas of organizational change that apply to effective leadership practices in
principle: management of meaning, management of networks, and management of practice.
Managing meaning refers to being aware of how stakeholders view what is going on with a
desire to explain and define the stakeholder role in the context (Lewis, 2011). Managing
networks emphasizes the creation of stakeholders' alignment to promote a connected job climate
that encourages participation and engagement, preventing fragmentation and skepticism or
antagonism (Lewis, 2011). Managing practice refers to the resources of organizational policy,
technology, training, and evaluation to promote skill development and a learning environment.
Schneider et al. ’s (1996) research on organizational theory identified an organization’s climate
as created by its members around two prevalent concerns. The first concern is to what degree of
flexibility and innovation does the organization conduct its daily business. The approach to daily
operation may be restrictive and stodgy or innovative and adaptable. The second concern is what

54
are the expressed goals pursued by the organization. Managers evaluate work systems and
support employees in applying training to performance, use feedback to guide performance, and
address organizational misalignments through employee innovation and creativity to achieve
organizational objectives (Burke, 2017; Northouse, 2019).
Manager as Engager
The second principle of effective leadership practice is the managers’ role to set
employees’ high expectations and gain commitment to the organization’s mission (Bass &
Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2019). In transformational
leadership theory, the leader’s knowledge of how to create a shared vision and use of emotional
appeals to inspire employees to work beyond their self-interest is important to both individual
and collective efficacy (Northouse, 2019). The primary tool managers use to establish
expectations is their ability to communicate effectively (Alper et al., 2000; Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Berger, 2014; Korsgaard et al., 2002; Northouse, 2019). Transformational leaders understand the
importance that their behavior must align with what they say to their employees (Berger, 2014).
Managers must both know how to communicate a compelling vision of the mission and the value
of their employees (Berger, 2014). Berger’s (2014) research indicated that communicative
managers empowered, informed, and improved the performance of their employees. Leaders that
possessed ineffective communication skills resulted in low employee trust, engagement,
retention, and performance levels (Berger, 2014). Conversely, effective managers of social
workers were determined to be more likely to employ transformational leadership practices to
communicate a vision and inspire commitment to the organizational mission (Tafvelin et al.,
2014). The managers’ ability to understand the emotional needs of their employees facilitated the
managers’ ability to craft a vision to gain increased commitment from their employees

55
(Eisenbach et al., 1999; Mayer et al., 2008; Northouse, 2019). The managers’ understanding of
the emotional needs of employees may result in knowing how to motivate individual employees
as well as build team spirit which results in higher performance in both (Eisenbach et al., 1999;
Fisher, 2013; Mayer et al., 2008; Northouse, 2019).
Manager as Facilitator
The third principle of effective leadership practices is the managers’ knowing how to
facilitate employees’ creativity and innovation. Transformational leadership theory refers to this
as the stimulation of the follower to challenge their own beliefs and values as well as those of the
leader and the organization (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978;
Northouse, 2019). In his research on Self-Efficacy Theory, Bandura emphasized the managers’
role as a proxy to support both individual and collective performance (Bandura, 1999, Bandura
2001). An essential skill an effective manager should know is matching employee attributes to
different jobs and supporting the discovery of work solutions in collaboration with the employee
(Bass & Riggio, 2006; Elliot et al., 2017). The requisite skills the managers must employ are an
assessment of employee ability, the ability to set appropriate goals, and the provision of
autonomy for the employee to develop effective work strategies (Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Eisenbach et al., 1999; Elliot et al., 2017). In this respect, the effective leader focuses upon
organizational performance measurements and goal setting for the employee that promote
multiple forms of employee well-being, including autonomy, advancement, skill development,
and inclusive decision-making practices (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Neubert & Dyck, 2014).
As a proxy between the organization and employees, the manager must effectively
translate organizational policy and procedures to promote employee well-being (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Tafvelin et al., 2012). The organization’s policy and procedures contradictions and

56
limitations may place a burden upon both manager and employee on work processes and
measurements which may result in employee stress and job burnout (Maslach, 1982). The
effective manager creates a collaborative environment where work solutions may result from
inclusive practices with the employees to address job demands and promote a supportive
supervisorial and co-worker climate (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Kim et al., 2008; Maslach, 1982).
The managers’ ability to motivate employees promotes employee autonomy, and acquisition of
new skills, and promotes employee creativity and innovation (Elliot et al., 2017; Neubert &
Dyck, 2014; Zak, 2017). The results of this leadership practice are employees’ job satisfaction,
job commitment, and job retention due to enabling their participation to provide input when new
practices, policies, and procedures (Eisenbach et al., 1999). This leadership practice enables wide
participation in organizational change efforts through inclusive practices forming an
organizational subculture that works pragmatically to achieve the organization’s mission (Bass &
Riggio, 2006; Eisenbach et al., 1999; Schein, 2004).
Manager as Coach and Mentor
The fourth and final principle of effective leadership practices is the managers’ ability to
provide individualized consideration by listening to employee’s needs and serving as coaches to
help employees reach their full potential (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns,
1978; Northouse, 2019). The managers’ ability to effectively evaluate employee performance
and provide feedback are essential skills of effective leadership (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Daley &
Vasu, 2005; Shute, 2008; Stone & Heen, 2014). It is crucial for the manager to know how to
create a cooperative learning environment within the workplace. This perspective draws from
Social Interdependence Theory and the use of cooperative learning in postsecondary institutions
but has application in professional contexts (Johnson et al., 2007). Cooperative learning creates a

57
work culture and climate where learning occurs through collective development through a
process of continual review and refining of procedural practices (Johnson et al., 2007).
Cooperative learning also maximizes the learners’ acquisition and long-term retention of
complex materials. Feedback is the primary tool managers may use to support employees as
learners and to create a learning workplace climate and culture (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Stone &
Heen, 2014).
Feedback is the information communicated to the employee or learner intended to modify
their thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning resulting in improved
performance (Shute, 2008). Feedback may be either general-level or task-level. General-level
feedback is summative of the employees’ performance over a timeframe, most normally within
an annual performance or competence appraisal occurring by observations, demonstrations of
cognitions or skill, interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, and emotions or self-regulation
(Elliot et al., 2017). Task-level feedback is formative in nature and occurs in relation to specific
work tasks and in a timely manner, preferably in real-time (Shute, 2008). Manager task-level
feedback focuses on increasing employee’s knowledge, skills, and understanding in some
specific content or general skill area (Shute, 2008).
Feedback can be directive addressing in fixing process or facilitative providing comments
to guide the employee in their own problem-solving activities (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Shute,
2008). Managers support employees in the development of metacognitive practices that include
learning how to develop processes to monitor and control learning (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Ambrose et al. (2010) identified a cycle of five processes for metacognitive practices: 1) Assess
the task at hand, taking into consideration the task’s goals and constraints; 2) Evaluate their
knowledge and skills, identifying strengths and weaknesses; 3) Plan their approach in a way that

58
accounts for the current situation; 4) Apply various strategies to enact their plan, monitoring their
progress along the way; and 5) Reflect on the degree to which their current approach is working
so that they can adjust and restart the cycle as needed (p. 192). Manager feedback serves to guide
employee development of knowledge and positively affects job performance (Ambrose, 2010;
Shute, 2008).
Feedback is both focused on what the managers addresses or appraises, as well as what a
manager acknowledges in a formal or informal manner (Shute, 2008). Managers must know how
to offer feedback, especially when faced with employee resistance to feedback (Stone & Heen,
2015). Stone and Heen’s (2015) research indicated that 63% of executives surveyed stated that
their managers lacked the courage and ability to have difficult feedback discussions. Moreover,
their research indicated that 51% of survey respondents believed their performance review was
unfair or inaccurate, and one in four employees dread their performance reviews (Stone & Heen,
2015). Managers must know how to give feedback effectively to promote a culture of
competence and care. Managers who provide feedback effectively develop employee talents,
improve morale, align teams, solve workplace problems, reduce organizational costs, and help to
achieve the organizational mission (Stone & Heen, 2015). Table 3 indicates there is relevant
research literature supporting leadership practices aligned with TLT that supports employee
well-being through trusting in leaders’ morality, creating of psychologically safe work climate,
fostering employee self-efficacy, supporting employee innovation, and effective job coaching.

59
Table 3
TLT Practices Supporting Social Workers’ Well-Being
TLT traits Description Support to well-being
● Idealized influence Leaders who act as strong role
models of high standards,
moral conduct and ethics for
followers and followers
identify with these leaders
and want very much to
emulate them.
Bass & Steidlmeier,
1999; Bass & Riggio,
2006; Eisenbach et
al., 1999; Simons,
1999
● Inspirational motivation Leaders who communicate
high expectations to
followers, inspiring them
through motivation to
become committed to and a
part of the shared vision in
the organization.
Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Song et al., 2012;
Tafvelin et al., 2014;
Walumbwa et al.,
2008
● Intellectual stimulation Leaders who stimulate
followers to be creative and
innovative and to challenge
their own beliefs and values
as well as those of the leader
and the organization.
Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Eisenbeiss et al.,
2008; Howell &
Avolio, 1993; Song et
al., 2012
● Individual consideration Leaders who provide a
supportive climate in which
they listen carefully to the
individual needs of
followers; act as coaches
and advisors to help realize
the individual’s full
potential; and use delegation
to help followers grow.
Bass & Riggio, 2006;
Eisenbach et al.,
1999; Elrehail et al.,
2018; Fitzgerald &
Schutte, 2009; Harms
& Credé, 2010;
Walumbwa et al.,
2008

60
Summary
Transformational leadership practices may positively influence management strategies to
support social workers’ competence and well-being thereby reducing the negative effects of
stress and promoting resilience to job burnout (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Transformational
leadership has been effective in supporting individual and collective efficacy in nonprofit and
governmental agencies due to the emphasis on idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and
individual consideration (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2019).
Transformational leadership styles are more prevalent within non-profit than for-profit
organizations due to the need for inspired leadership, client focus, and mission objectives
(Fisher, 2013). Transformational leadership has been determined as an effective theory to inform
effective leadership practices (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Elliot et al., 2017; Northouse, 2019). In the
preceding chapters, TLT was presented as a promising conceptual framework to influence
leadership practices that may result in employee well-being that can mitigate the impact of
workplace stress and promote resistance to job burnout. The next section explores the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that may support managers’
implementation of leadership practices influenced by transformational leadership theory.
Managers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This exploratory study utilized Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework to
evaluate the managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to gather
methodical data. Gap analysis examines three critical factors of people’s knowledge and skills;
motivation to achieve goals; and organizational barriers that affect people’s performance to
achieve workplace goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the context of this study, a gap analysis
explored the managers’ knowledge of management traits aligned with TLT, motivation to

61
implement those practices, and organizational structures that may promote or prevent effective
leadership practices.
Managers’ Knowledge Related Influences
The theoretical framework of TLT comprises the knowledge-related influences managers
should possess that translate to effective leadership practices and support employee well-being.
An assumption of this exploratory study includes the competence of inclusive practices to build
effective teams (Kezar, 2000; Mor Barak et al., 2017), the ability to set personal and team goals
(Neubert & Dyck, 2016), and providing performance feedback and recognition (Elliot et al.,
2017; Kluger & DeNisi, 1987). The competence of accountability serves as the bridge between
the effective leadership practices espoused in transformational leadership and other forms of
managerial practices within this exploratory study.
Managers’ Ability to Articulate Effective Leadership Practices
Managers who employ transformational leadership behaviors are more capable to create
cultures of care and competence than managers who employ transactional leadership practices
(Northouse, 2019). Burke (2018) indicated that leadership is primarily associated with direction,
irrespective of senior executive manager or front-line manager. Bolman and Deal (2017) view
leadership as an activity, not as positional but relational in nature, and the manager must be
skilled in relationships with subordinates and other stakeholders. In relation to the mitigation of
the effects of workplace stress, the manager may help or hinder social worker resistance and
resilience by assessment of workload distribution (Lizano & Mor Barak, 2012; Tims et al, 2013),
availability of job supports (Coffey et al, 2004; Collins, 2008; Du et al., 2015; Xanthopoulou et
al., 2009), creation of a safe job climate (G. B. Hall et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2015; Law et al,

62
2011; Semmer et al., 2015 ), and individualized in practice and application (Fisher, 2013; Gist,
1987; Petrie et al., 2017; Tafvelin et al., 2014).
Managers’ Ability to Inspire Employees
The managers’ motivation to implement effective leadership practices is their belief in
their ability to perform transformational leadership practices. Effective leadership practices
include the managers’ ability to influence employees, also referred to as followers, to work
beyond self-interest toward the mission of the organization (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978;
Northouse, 2019). The primacy of the managers’ modeling behavior that promotes
trustworthiness and inspiration is critical within transformational leadership practices
establishing the foundational principal subsequent principles are built upon (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Burns, 1978). According to social cognitive theory, the core feature of goal setting is the
individual’s intentionality (Bandura, 2005). Bandura (2005) indicated that people form intentions
that include action plans and strategies for their realization. In this respect, the manager as a
stakeholder actively chooses to set a goal of seeking to influence others through their behavior to
inspire in their followers a commitment to the organization’s vision and mission. Effective
leadership practices require the managers’ intention to lead from a position of admiration and
respect, referred to in TLT as charismatic leaders, instead of a position of authority focusing
solely on the ability to hire, fire, reward, or reprimand; and leadership, such as the ability to
direct and guide (Burke, 2018; Northouse, 2019).
Managers’ Ability to Engage Employees in Mission-Focus
Effective managers value the ability to set employees’ high expectations and gaining
commitment to the organization’s mission (Northouse, 2019). In TLT, the leader’s knowledge of
how to create a shared vision and use of emotional appeals to inspire employees to work beyond

63
their self-interest is important to both individual and collective efficacy (Northouse, 2019).
Communication is essential in the establishment of employee high expectations and a critical
skill an effective leader must possess (Alper et al., 2000; Berger, 2014; Korsgaard et al., 2002;
Northouse, 2019). Transformational leaders understand the importance that their behavior must
align with what they say to their employees (Berger, 2014). Managers must both know how to
communicate a compelling vision of the mission and the value of their employees (Berger,
2014). Berger’s (2014) research indicated that communicative managers empowered, informed,
and improved the performance of their employees. Leaders that possessed ineffective
communication skills resulted in low employee trust, engagement, retention, and performance
levels (Berger, 2014). Conversely, effective managers of social workers were determined to be
more likely to employ transformational leadership practices to communicate a vision and inspire
commitment to the organizational mission (Tafvelin et al., 2014). The managers’ ability to
understand the emotional needs of their employees facilitated the managers’ ability to craft a
vision to gain increased commitment from their employees (Eisenbach et al., 1999; Mayer et al.,
2008; Northouse, 2019). The managers’ understanding of the emotional needs of employees may
result in knowing how to motivate individual employees as well as build team spirit which
results in higher performance in both (Eisenbach et al., 1999; Fisher, 2013; Mayer et al., 2008;
Northouse, 2019).
Managers’ Ability to Self-Reflect on Leadership Practices
The managers’ willingness to employ emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2008) and
consistent reflective practice (Bandura, 2018) on their ability to effectively support employees’
well-being. The managers’ ability to practice self-reflection on their strengths and challenges in
the implementation of practices in alignment with TLT such as addressing workload demands

64
(Gerven et al, 2002; H. Kim & Stoner, 2008), supporting employee goal setting (Neubert &
Dyck, 2016), and promoting modeling and coaching of new skills to employees (Carson et al.,
2011; Shute, 2008), emphasizing cooperative learning (Johnson et al., 2007), listening to
employees (Clark & Estes, 2008; Northouse, 2019), and providing effective feedback to coach
and mentor their employees (Northouse, 2019; Shute, 2008). Bandura’s (2005) perspective on
reflective practices within self-regulatory behaviors supports the managers’ ability to monitor
performance and adjust practices in accordance with results. Feedback supports the process
called “calibrating” defined as the congruence between one’s perception of competence and
one’s actual performance (Elliot, 2017, p. 325). Table 4 indicates there is a conceptual level of
knowledge of the types of leadership practices that this exploratory study purports will support
managers to be effective leaders.

65
Table 4
Managers’ Knowledge Related Influence
Assumed knowledge influences Description
Conceptual: Knowledge of TLT-aligned
leadership practices
Managers need to know effective leadership
strategies such as communicating effectively,
providing constructive feedback, providing
coaching supports, and creating team leadership
that promotes social workers’ well-being.
Procedural: Ability to motivate
employees
Managers need to know how to create a
psychologically safe workplace climate that
supports social workers’ well-being.
Procedural: Ability to stimulate
employees
Managers need to know how to create inclusive,
shared leadership teams that support social
workers’ well-being.
Procedural: Ability to support employees Managers need to know how to develop social
workers’ well-being and productivity through
providing constructive feedback, coaching, and
delegating work tasks for professional
development.
Metacognitive: Ability to engage in self-
reflective practices
Managers need to be able to reflect on their ability
to support social workers’ well-being.

Managers’ Motivation Related Influences
In addition to knowledge, motivation is a key influence on performance (Clark & Estes,
2008). Clark and Estes cited Pintrich and Schunk’s (1996) definition of motivation as the
“internal psychological process that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us get jobs done”
(Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 44). Motivation is important to performance due to how it influences
three critical aspects of our work which are goal setting, persistence, and mental effort (Clark &
Estes, 2008). According to Clark and Estes (2008), the first aspect of motivation involves
choosing to work towards a goal. Active choice refers to the intention to pursue a particular goal.

66
It is essential to consider the absence of a clearly defined goal as a possible demotivator. The
second aspect of motivation involves persisting at the goal until achieved. Persistence refers to
the activation of self-regulation to pursue specific goals when faced with competing work goals
and distractions. It is crucial to consider the presence of too many competing work goals and a
lack of clarity on the priority of goals as a possible demotivators. The third aspect is the
determination of the amount of mental effort invested to achieve the goal. Mental effort refers to
the energy and determination invested in the achievement of a specific goal. It is crucial to
consider the individual’s level of confidence in their abilities, albeit the state of “under or
overconfidence" as a possible adverse effect upon motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 81).
This section will explore the motivation-related influences on managers’ implementing
effective leadership practices to support employee well-being that may mitigate social workers’
stress and job burnout. A literature review of TLT provides the foundational premise for
effective leadership practices, and social cognitive theory provides the basis for role managers’
belief in their ability to implement and maintain those practices.
Managers’ Value of Implementing TLT-Aligned Practices
Managers who value implementing effective leadership practices that are in alignment
with TLT desire to make a difference and serve as change agents in their work context (Burke,
2017; Eisenbach et al., 1999; Northouse, 2019). In accordance with Bandura’s (2005) social
cognitive theory (SCT), managers served as a proxy between the organization and the employee.
SCT is interwoven within Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis posited that managers who value
being effective leaders and must possess confidence in their ability to implement effective
leadership practices are more inclined to perform tasks aligned with those practices (Burke,
2017; Clark & Estes, 2008)

67
Managers who demonstrate effective leadership practices value empowering employees
to utilize their creativity and innovation to support the achievement of the organization’s mission
and vision (Northouse, 2019). TLT refers to this as the stimulation of the follower to challenge
their own beliefs and values as well as those of the leader and the organization (Northouse,
2019). SCT emphasized the managers’ role as a proxy to support both individual and collective
performance (Bandura, 1999; Bandura 2001). An essential skill an effective manager should
know is matching employee attributes to different jobs and supporting the discovery of work
solutions in collaboration with the employee (Elliot et al., 2017). The requisite skills the
managers must employ are an assessment of employee ability, ability to set appropriate goals,
and the provision of autonomy for the employee to develop effective work strategies (Eisenbach
et al., 1999; Elliot et al., 2017). In this respect, the effective leader focuses upon organizational
performance measurements and goal setting for the employee that promote multiple forms of
employee well-being, including autonomy, advancement, skill development, and inclusive
decision-making practices (Neubert & Dyck, 2014).
Managers’ Belief About Ability to Implement Leadership Practices
Managers’ belief in their abilities to implement effective leadership practices that support
employees’ well-being is essential. Bandura' s self-efficacy theory implied a distinct relationship
between motivation and self-regulatory practices (Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2000; Bandura,
2002). The managers’ beliefs of personal efficacy support their motivation to implement and
persist in leadership practices that are aligned with TLT (Elliot et al., 2017; Northouse, 2019).
Elliot et al.’s (2017) research on motivation indicated self-regulatory practices of goal setting,
strategic feedback, and self-reflection to have a strong connection with efficacy and
performance.

68
The managers’ belief in their ability to achieve job tasks related to the organizational
mission by the implementation of effective leadership practices supporting their employees is the
heartbeat of TLT and central to the concept of effective leadership practices (Burke, 2017;
Eisenbach et al., 1999; Northouse, 2019; Tafvelin et al., 2014). TLT encourages managers to be
aware of consciously or unconsciously creating a transactional culture, also known as a
competitive working environment, instead of a cooperative learning environment (Burke, 2017).
Cooperative learning environments promote shared learning and followers’ encouragement to
foster new knowledge and skills (Carson et al., 2011; Eisenbach, 2014). Managers must believe
in their ability to perform and may be susceptible, like their employees, to stress and job burnout
(Bandura, 2006; Patras & Klest, 2011). Table 5 indicates there are motivational influences that
support the managers’ perception of the value of and ability to implement and integrate effective
leadership practices aligned with TLT supporting social workers’ well-being.

69
Table 5
Managers’ Motivation-Related Influences
Assumed motivation influences Motivational influence assessment
Utility value: Managers’ value implementing
transformational leadership practices.
Managers need to value supporting social
workers’ well-being.
Self-Efficacy: Managers’ belief about ability
to implement leadership practices.
Managers need to feel effective in
implementing TLT practices to support
social workers’ well-being.

Managers’ Organization Related Influences
The third and final influence on managers implementing effective leadership practices is
organizational. According to Clark and Estes ‘s (2008) Gap Analysis, organizational
performance is affected by organizational culture. Organizational influences refer to “the lack of
efficient and effective work processes and material resources” (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 103).
Managers who know how to implement effective leadership practices and motivation to persist
in that implementation will experience limited success if work processes are cumbersome and
material resources unavailable (Clark & Estes, 2008). This section will explore the effects
organizational culture has upon managers’ integration of effective leadership practices aligned
with TLT to mitigate social worker stress. Managers’ implementation of effective leadership
practices that align with TLT focus on the navigation work processes (Clark & Estes, 2008), the
organization’s perspective of stakeholders and accountability (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987), and
the availability of job resources (Clark & Estes, 2008; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009).

70
Influence of Policy and Procedures on Social Workers’ Well-Being
Effective leadership practices require the negotiation of the work culture, work processes,
and work climate (Clark & Estes, 2008). Work culture embodies the explicit and implicit rules
expected to follow (Burke, 2017). Explicit rules refer to organizational norms such as dress code,
hours of operation, and established performance practices, such as training and procedures.
Implicit rules refer to informal, expected behaviors followed by employees but not discussed or
presented in formal documents, such as providing honest feedback to a supervisor. Work
processes refer to the processes that specify how people, equipment, and materials must link and
interact to produce organizational outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Work climate refers to
psychological and environmental forces that comprise the situational context of the workplace
(Burke, 2017). Research findings in Maslach (1982) and Maslach et al. (2001) indicated the
effects of misaligned work culture, work processes, and work climate on social workers’ stress
and job burnout. Research findings supported Maslach’s research identifying that these
organizational influences play a role in either promoting or discouraging the managers’ ability to
implement effective leadership practices that promote social workers’ well-being and
effectiveness (Burke, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008).
Managers’ Inclusion in the Development of Work Policies and Procedures.
Managers who practice effective leadership aligned with TLT understand the impact processes
that are misaligned affect employee performance (Elliot et al., 2017; Northouse, 2019).
Misaligned procedures may evoke stress in employees due to varying definitions of successful
service, institutional rules on the provision of services, and poor management and contribute to
job burnout (Maslach, 1982). Procedures that provide guidance on how to perform work tasks
promote individual and group achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). Nonaka and von Krogh

71
(2009) define the concept of organizational knowledge as making available and amplifying
knowledge created by individuals and ensconced in the organization’s knowledge system. The
collection of policies and procedures refers to the system designed to help employees with their
jobs and responsibilities (Burke, 2017). Managers serve a key role in the evaluation of work
processes and based on employee input as indicated within TLT (Burke, 2017) check and
validate organizational policies and procedures to remove barriers and fix ineffective processes
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Organizational Inclusion of Managers in Decision-Making. The final organizational
influence for leadership practices alignment with TLT is ADS’s ensuring the value of
employees’ involvement in decision-making about work processes. This principle aligns with the
emphasis upon leader accountability, which is an essential concept for managerial competence
(Elmore, 2005; Messner, 2009). Darling-Hammond and Snyder (2015) perceived accountability
as a system to assess and understand the requisite factors necessary to achieve organizational
alignment. Romzek and Dubnick’s (1987) research on organizational systems indicated a system
of accountability hinges on answering who, to whom, and for what the leader is accountable.
Effective leaders view their employees as stakeholders who should be involved in making
decisions that affect them (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Though the mission initially attracts
individuals into the field of social work, managerial efficacy and organizational resources affect
employees’ commitment and job engagement over time (S. E. Kim & Lee, 2007; Lloyd et al.,
2002; Nissly et al., 2005). Manager effectiveness correlates to the perception of accountability
and perspective of their role within the organization. An assumption of this exploratory study
includes the competence of inclusive practices to build effective teams (Kezar, 2000; Mor Barak
et al., 2017), the ability to set personal and team goals (Neubert & Dyck, 2016), providing

72
performance feedback, and recognition (Elliot et al., 2017; Kluger & DeNisi, 1987). The
competence of accountability serves as the bridge between the effective leadership practices
espoused in transformational leadership and other forms of managerial practices within this
exploratory study.
Availability of Adequate Job Resources
Managers need access to material resources to be effective leaders (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Material resources refer to job designs, equipment, and training that may create a performance
gap if unavailable (Clark & Estes, 2008). Manager training is essential to ensure managers’
knowledge and capability of implementing effective leadership practices that are in alignment
with transformational leadership theory. Most employees do not inherently possess the
knowledge, skills, and abilities to meet changing work demands and require the organization to
provide effective training (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Supervisorial support that provides
essential and timely feedback is critical to implementing effective leadership practices (Messner,
2009). The system of accountability created by the supervisorial relationship provides support
for the manager to receive constructive criticism and support (Shute, 2009). Lastly, the
organization must evaluate if human resource practices align with the expectation to implement
leadership practices that promote a learning transfer (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Training and
opportunities for advancement benefit the organization in performance, and productivity, and
may decrease employee turnover and organizational cost (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Table 6
identifies there are organizational influences that affect the managers’ ability to implement
effective leadership practices aligned with TLT that support employee well-being which in turn
mitigates social worker stress and promotes resilience to job burnout.

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Table 6
Managers’ Organization Related Influences
Assumed organization cultural influences Description of organization cultural influences
Organization cultural influence #1: ADS
prioritizes employee well-being.
The organization needs to communicate that all
employees,’ managers,’ and social workers’
well-being is a priority.
Organization cultural influence #2: ADS
provides essential job resources to
employees.
The organization needs to provide all
employees, managers, and social workers job
resources, such as training, that support
employee well-being.

Conceptual Framework
The literature review explored the nature of stress as a response that may promote social
workers’ productivity, creativity, and innovation under optimal conditions in the organization’s
climate. In this study, job burnout is the condition of chronic stress related to high job demands
and low job resources persisting over some time. Stress and job burnout correlate to unrealistic
expectations of the social worker-client relationship, demographic factors – age, gender, prior
mental health diagnosis, insufficient supervisorial and peer support as contributing factors to
intent to leave, and cynicism and adverse effects on social worker well-being. The theoretical
application of transformational leadership provides the basis for effective leadership practices to
create a culture of care and effectiveness and through that support ADS’s social workers’ well-
being, job satisfaction, and productivity. Figure 2 presents to effects of personal and contextual
factors on social workers’ well-being and the potential that TLT-aligned practices serve in
mitigating the effects of stress and burnout.

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Figure 2
Conceptual Framework of Transformational Leadership Influence on Well-Being

The managers’ ability to implement effective leadership practices that align with TLT
occurs within the organizational system that provides knowledge, promotes motivation, and
provides resources to support job performance. The managers’ implementation of TLT-aligned
practices may help their employees’ ability to address personal and contextual factors these
factors promote well-being, mitigate the negative effects of stress, and create resilience to job
burnout. However, leadership practices do not occur in a vacuum but within systems of
influence. Clark and Estes’s (2008) Gap Analysis conceptual framework was used to explore the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the managers’ ability to implement
TLT-aligned practices that supported social workers’ well-being. Figure 3 identifies there is a
relationship between the managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
their ability to implement leadership practices aligned with TLT that support social workers’
well-being.

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Figure 3
Managers’ KMO Influences in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework

Note. Adapted from the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecology Model in Chapter 2, Theories and
Methodology by H. Gardiner and C. Kosmitzki from Lives Across Cultures 4
th
edition, 2008, and
P. Northouse in Chapter 8 “Transformational Leadership” from Leadership: Theory and Practice
8
th
edition., 2019.

Conclusion
Chapter Two explored the phenomena of stress and job burnout in the field of social
work. The objective of this exploration was to understand the personal and contextual factors
related to the challenges social workers experience, and the mitigating effects of managers as a
job resource. Additionally, transformational leadership theory (TLT) was presented as a popular
and promising theoretical leadership model for social services agencies to implement practices
that support social workers’ well-being. The principles of idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation serve to promote leaders

Organizational Gap

Motivation Gap
Knowledge Gap

Procedural Barriers
Inclusive Decision-Making
Job Resources Available

Managers' Value TLT Practices
Managers' Efficacy in TLT Practices

Ability to Inspire
Ability to Motivate
Ability to Intellectually Stimulate
Ability to Coach and Mentor

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who behave in a trustworthy manner, utilize praise and recognition to motivate, provide coaching
and mentoring for follower professional development, and stimulate innovation (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Northouse, 2019).
The exploration of TLT-aligned practices as an effective leadership practice within the
nonprofit sector. The research study will emphasize the themes of well-being while engaging the
effectiveness of employee competence as research indicated the two states are intertwined
creating a culture of care and competence. The research study will explore the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on the managers’ ability to implement TLT-aligned
practices that support social workers’ well-being by reducing negative stress and promoting
resilience to job burnout. In Chapter Three, the research project’s methodological approach will
be presented including a description of the validation process of the assumed managers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
The study focused on the knowledge and motivation of managers of social workers and
organizational resources related to demonstrating competency of effective management
strategies and integrating effective leadership practices. For this exploratory study, the
stakeholder group was managers of social workers at the ADS. For clarity purposes, the problem
of practice was the managers’ knowledge and motivation to implement effective leadership
practices that may prevent low work quality, low employee retention, and job burnout that ADS
social workers experience because of stress and job burnout. The study explored the participants’
ability to implement transformational leadership practices aligned with practices that support
social workers’ well-being. The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the managers’ conceptualization of social worker well-being?
2. What are the managers’ knowledge and motivation related to implementing a practice of
effective management strategies to support social workers’ well-being and mitigate the
risk of stress and job burnout?
3. How do the ADS facilitate or hinder the managers’ ability to implement a practice of
effective management strategies to support social workers’ well-being and mitigate the
risk of stress and job burnout?
Participating Stakeholders
The purpose of this study was to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to ADS managers’ alignment of leadership practices with TLT to support
social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The intent of the research
project was to determine the degree to which ADS managers are positioned to implement TLT-
aligned practices supporting social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout.

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The site of the study was the Agency for Disability Services (ADS), a pseudonym, based in a
Western United States-operated non-profit organization. ADS employed social workers,
clinicians, and coordinated services and support from vendors for clients. The participating
stakeholders consisted of managers who possess at least one year of experience in supervising
social workers who provided case management services to individuals who have developmental
disabilities that are lifelong requiring support and services to participate in meaningful life
activities and to attend to independent life skills. ADA employed over 300 employees and
contractors, 22 full-time managers of social workers; 19 were female, and three were male. The
study occurred during the period of July through September 2021, consisting of interviews with
10 managers and document reviews.
Sampling Criteria and Rationale
This study employed a qualitative approach. The research design used participant
interviews comprised of open-ended questions and responses rather than closed-ended questions
and responses to gather qualitative data related to participant experiences (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). For the purposes of the study, the KMO Framework was the basis for the development of
the following criteria supported by the sampling decision and rationale.
Criterion 1
The sample size was both purposeful and limited (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The site
was one of the ADS sites located within Los Angeles County. The site provided services and
support to individuals who have access and functional needs related to possessing developmental
disabilities to provide insight into the problem and research questions (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). For the purposes of sampling, the researcher selected participants who share the same
level and similar performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).

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Criterion 2
The study group comprised 10 managers classified as non-exempt, salaried employees
who possessed no less than one year of management experience at ADS. The sample group
possessed an in-depth understanding of the topic. The selection was a typical or modal sampling
used to enhance generalizability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined
a typical or modal sample as one describing how a typical program, event, or individual
compares with others in the same program, circumstance, or situation. Due to the concerns about
the effect of COVID-19 on the availability of study group participants, the researcher emailed
ADS’s 22 managers inviting them to participate in the research project randomly selecting
respondents to achieve the identified study group sample size. The initial email resulted in three
managers agreeing to participate in the study group. A second email was sent one week later
resulting in the remaining seven managers agreeing to participate in the study.
Interviews
The primary qualitative data collection method consisted of interviews. Interviews served
as the most common qualitative data collection method and allow the researcher to gain
information from a study participant’s experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A critical part of
the participants’ interviews was to understand the perspectives of the managers who served as
the key stakeholder group. Conducting interviews in this study allowed the researcher to gain
insight into the study participants and the relationship with the practice of effective management
strategies to support social workers’ well-being within both an individual framework and an
organizational framework.

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Interview Protocol
The interview protocol for the research study followed a semi-structured approach. A
semi-structured interview process followed a less formal allowing for greater flexibility in the
interview to provide an opportunity for a natural flow and follow-up questions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interview procedure included one-on-one interviews with each of the study
participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described the interaction between the interviewer and
respondent as complex due to the multi-dimensional perspectives based upon biases, attitudes,
and experiences present in both and how these elements influence the exchange. Appendix A
presents the interview protocol.
In this study, the researcher scheduled the interviews conducted online using Zoom. The
Zoom teleconferencing platform ensured the researcher’s access to the study group due to
COVID-19 public safety restrictions allowing respondents to participate in a setting and time
most comfortable. Upon receiving permission from the study participants, the researcher
recorded the interviews using Zoom’s record feature. The researcher prepared an interview guide
for note-taking during the interview process. For data analysis, the researcher used Otter.ai to
create a verbatim transcription after conducting the interviews.
Interview Strategy and Rationale
The interview strategy was semi-structured with an open-ended questions format
designed to explore participant experiences and gather qualitative data. For this study, the
researcher sought to understand the managers’ knowledge and motivation and organizational
influences on the implementation of effective management strategies that align with TLT that
supports social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The researcher
employed Patton’s (2015) six types of interview questions: experience and behavior questions,

81
opinions and values questions; feeling questions; knowledge questions; sensory questions; and
demographic questions to study managers’ knowledge and motivation and organizational
influences. These questions provided the foundation of inquiry to stimulate the managers’
response to this study’s research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative interviews served as an effective data collection method when the researcher is
immediately responsive and adaptive as an ideal means of collecting and analyzing data
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell and Creswell (2018) described qualitative interviewing
methods as face-to-face, telephone, or focus groups. For this study project, the researcher used
Zoom video conferencing to conduct interviews due to concerns of in-person exposure due to
COVID-19 instead of in-person interviews. The researcher obtained access to study participants
through contact information granted by the Executive Director to email stakeholders directly to
solicit participation in the research project.
Semi-structured interviews provided a mix of structured interview questions worded and
used flexibly to allow the researcher to respond at the moment to the realities of the respondent
and emerging ideas on the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This interview style was necessary
to explore the study participants’ experiences through open-ended structured questions and asked
to promote in-depth dialogue and opportunity for follow-up questions.
Document and Artifact Analysis
This study included document and artifact analysis as another form of data collection that
addresses the research questions. According to Meriam and Tisdell (2016), documents referred to
a wide range of written, visual, digital, and physical materials, while artifacts were three-
dimensional physical materials in the environment that represent some form of communication
that is significant or meaningful to the study group participants, setting, or both. The researcher

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gathered documents including but not limited to new hire training materials, procedures,
supervision tools, performance evaluation, and feedback tools, meeting agendas, and
organizational performance reports. The following questions were utilized to analyze the
documents provided by ADS:
1. What type of training determines the types of training ADS provides to managers and
social workers?
2. What are the tools used to evaluate managers’ performance and what is the criteria ADS
uses to determine satisfactory performance?
3. What are the values and priorities expressed in managers’ meeting agendas and the
alignment with ADS’s mission goals and objectives?
The document analysis revealed operational patterns, attitudes, styles, and behaviors to
understand the organizational culture present, while the artifact analysis will reveal
organizational themes and messages that convey organizational beliefs and values (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The researcher requested documents that may be easily accessible electronically or
online. The review of artifacts presented challenges as they existed within a physical setting that
was inaccessible due to COVID-19.
Data Analysis
After the completion of participant interviews, the interviews were transcribed to allow
for coding. Upon completing the transcription process, the KMO framework was utilized to
establish a coding structure for the interview transcripts identifying any additional themes that
may have emerged. The KMO framework and emergent themes from the interviews assisted the
researcher in understanding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps present in the
research study.

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In addition to qualitative interviews, documents were gathered to triangulate interview
data findings allowing for an understanding of emerging findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents gathered from ADS shall include policies, procedures,
and forms on new hire training, performance evaluations, and supervision tools. Due to COVID-
19 restrictions prohibiting in-person and on-site interviews, there were no artifacts observed at
the study site. However, ADS provided a DVD titled “How Far We’ve Come: The Journey
Toward the Lanterman Vision” and a booklet titled “History of Developmental Services” to
understand the challenges and triumphs experienced by individuals who have developmental
disabilities.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
This research study employed strategies to ensure that the rigorous research method
derives findings and conclusions from benefiting practitioners, readers, and other researchers
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell and Creswell (2018) stated that qualitative research is
interpretive and must employ a reflective practice to be aware of positional biases, values,
judgments, and other personal factors that may influence the study. The interview guide was
developed comprised of open-ended questions and probing follow-up questions to stimulate the
study group by providing rich data and taking detailed notes during the interviews. During the
interview process, the respondent validation and member checks were performed to ensure the
participants’ comfortability with the interview content and direction (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Following the interviews, an interview memo was completed consisting of detailed notes on the
interview, interviewer-respondent interaction, and the interviewee’s responses (Gibbs, 2018).
Transcription of the interviews occurred following the interviews (Creswell & Creswell; 2018;
Gibbs, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Each transcript for accuracy and notate interview details

84
in interview memos (Gibbs, 2018). Upon completing the interview process, KMO coding (Clark
& Estes, 2008) was utilized to triangulate respondent interviews and document review of new
hire training materials, performance appraisal tools, and other professional development
materials to cross-check the data collected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Detailed note-taking
strategy, transcribing interviews, conducting respondent validation, and member checks and
writing interview memos and triangulation were employed to allow the researcher to ensure
credibility and for the research study perceived within the field as trustworthy (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Gibbs, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Ethical considerations were a vital component of this research study’s development to
anticipate potential ethical issues that may arise (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The research
design included rigorous thinking about the research method and developed ethical standards to
ensure the performance of the study with integrity and protect the study participants from harm
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Ethical standards guiding the research study included the concepts of
informed consent, voluntary participation, and privacy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The participant groups’ informed consent was an essential ethical consideration, as the
stakeholder group may have limited experience as participants within a research study group
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher provided the participant group with a document that
detailed the purpose of the study and the research methodology (Gibbs, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). As the researcher recruited ADS managers for participation in the study, the
researcher informed the potential participant of the voluntary nature of the study, ensuring that
participants were willing participants and force, or coercion was not a factor in their
participation.

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The researcher obtained ADS’s consent to recruit study group participants by
communicating with potential members via email to request voluntary participation from eight to
ten managers out of a participant pool of twenty-five managers. The researcher communicated
that the research study was voluntary, and participants could terminate participation at any point
during the research study (Gibbs, 2018). Once the study group participants’ selection was
complete, the researcher provided a research consent protocol for the participant’s review
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Before starting stakeholder interviews, the researcher reviewed the
informed consent protocol with the study group participants reiterating the voluntary
participation, that participants can terminate their participation at any time, and that participation
was confidential (Gibbs, 2018). Upon review and verbal agreement, the researcher provided the
participant the Information Sheet for Exempt Studies, and interviews proceeded afterward.
The data collection ethical standards were critical considerations concerning potential
power imbalances to ensure researcher credibility and the trustworthiness of the research study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher was an employee of ADS but possessed neither
authority nor influence over research participants. The research study participants’
confidentiality and anonymity to ADS leadership, other researchers, and practitioners served as a
protective factor against retribution due to research findings.
Conclusion
The research methodology for this study was qualitative and the data collection of
interviews coupled with document gathering and artifact review. The research methodology's
goal was to understand participants' experiences related to their knowledge and value in
implementing effective leadership strategies that align with TLT and organizational influences to
help or hinder employees’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The triangulation

86
of interview transcripts and artifacts, such as new hire training, performance appraisal
instruments, and professional development opportunities, ensured the study obtains rich data.
The ethical standards ensured the researcher’s credibility, and the perception of the study results
as trustworthy by readers, other researchers, and practitioners.

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Chapter 4: Findings
The qualitative research study explored the degree to which Agency for Disability
Services (ADS) managers are positioned to implement transformational leadership theory (TLT)
aligned practices supporting social workers’ well-being in the contest of stress and job burnout.
The emphasis of this study was to research the extent transformational leadership aligned
practices might help or hinder social workers’ resilience to stress and resistance to job burnout.
The purpose of the research study is to explore the managers’ implementation of TLT-aligned
practices supported social workers’ resilience to workplace stress and resistance to job burnout,
and the organizational influences on managers’ ability to implement TLT-aligned practices that
supported employee well-being.
Three research questions guided the study to understand managers’ general understanding
of well-being, knowledge of and motivation to implement effective leadership practices; and
organizational influences that help or hinder the implementation of effective leadership practices.
The interview protocol consisted of 13 items as well as probing questions. ADS provided
materials for documents analysis that included: 17 procedures, 11 forms, and the 2020 annual
report. The artifacts shared by ADS included videos and documents commemorating the 50
th

year of the ratification of the Lanterman Act on the history of social workers for individuals with
developmental disabilities included within the orientation of new hires.
Participating Stakeholders
I recruited study participants via purposeful sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
selections were based on the study participants meeting the criterion of being a manager at ADS
for one year or more and supervising social workers providing client services. At the time of this
study ADS employed 22 managers: 19 females and three males. The sample size desired for

88
interview participants was eight to 10 managers. ADS consented to the request for study site
approval and provided managers’ email addresses to me for recruitment purposes. I sent an
initial recruitment email to prospective study participants with four respondents accepted on a
first-come basis. The prospective study group members were emailed a second time requesting
their participation in the research study project. Six managers accepted the second invitation
bringing the total to 10 respondents. The composition of the participant study group accurately
represented the ADS case management group with equal representation from ADS’s three case
management departments: three managers of Early Childhood Services ages zero to five years;
three managers of Children ages five to 25 years old; and four managers of Adults Services ages
22 years and older.
The participants were 10 female managers ranging in age from 25 to 60 years old. The
researcher categorized the participants’ years of experience in the following: One to three years;
three to five years; five to 10 years; and over 10 years. The study group had three managers with
one to three years of experience; four managers with five to 10 years of experience; and three
managers with over 10 years of experience. The study group’s educational attainment revealed
that five of the participants had completed master’s degrees in fields of study involving clinical
intervention methods and reflective practices. Though the participant group was all female
managers, the participants reflected the management group as 87% of ADS managers are female.
Additionally, the diversity of the participants’ ages, ethnicity, years of experience, and
educational attainment provided a richly diverse sample for research purposes. Pseudonyms were
selected for the participants to ensure the confidentiality of their identity. Table 7 indicates the
participants’ pseudonyms, age range, years of experience, and educational attainment.

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Table 7
Study Group Participants
Pseudonym Age range Years of experience Educational attainment
Taylor 25 to 35 years old One to three years Master’s degree
Lee 55 to 65 years old Five to 10 years Bachelor’s degree
Sam 25 to 35 years old One to three years Bachelor’s degree
Alex 55 to 65 years old More than 10 years Bachelor’s degree
Max 35 to 45 years old Five to 10 years Master’s degree
Noel 35 to 45 years old Five to 10 years Master’s degree
Harley 35 to 45 years old More than 10 years Bachelor’s degree
Jan 25 to 35 years old More than 10 years Master’s degree
Dani 25 to 35 years old One to three years Bachelor’s degree
Jay 35 to 45 years old Five to 10 years Master’s degree

Research Question #1: What is the Managers’ Conceptualization of Employee Well-Being?
The researcher explored the participants’ conceptualization of well-being and
understanding of persistent factors affecting social workers’ well-being in the context of stress
and job burnout. The exploration of the participants’ concept of well-being was essential in the
consideration of TLT as a viable leadership framework that if implemented would support social
workers’ well-being mitigating the risk of stress and job burnout. The interview protocol
included specific questions to gauge the participants’ general concept of well-being and the
concept of social workers’ well-being specifically. Lastly, the questions explored the
participants’ awareness of the challenges to social workers’ well-being as it relates to
contributing to helping or hindering the resistance to the effects of stress and job burnout.

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Managers’ In-Depth Conceptualization of Well-Being
The interview findings revealed the theme that 10 out of 10 participants perceived well-
being as a particular mood of satisfaction an individual has with their life. The participants’
concept of well-being ranged from associations with feelings of happiness and satisfaction with
work, home, and self to self-help techniques to maintain well-being. Taylor described well-being
as “you’re happy overall, at work, at home, in your personal life.” Harley and Jan described well-
being as being healthy – emotionally and physically. The interview data revealed that
participants associated well-being with a sense of contentment with one’s life, with oneself, and
a general sense of that is well with self and loved ones.
The interview findings revealed that four out of 10 participants described their
understanding of the concept of well-being extended further than a mood to the ability to achieve
or attain individual pursuits of meaning and purpose. Lee believed that well-being “is a balance
between physical pursuits, emotional pursuits, intellectual pursuits, and probably intellectual
pursuits.” Additionally, two participants expounded on this concept of well-being as an
individual pursuit of meaning and purpose that may be associated with a state of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction with one’s achievements. Noel described well-being as the mental and physical
ability to accomplish “anything one needs.” However, Max cautioned that well-being in the
context of personal pursuits must balance achievement orientation with managing life stressors
such as intimate relationships, professional goals, financial goals, and personal health among,
other things. Max considered that well-being was “a matter of just being able to handle the day-
to-day life stresses without it becoming too overwhelming.” The interview data revealed that an
individual’s perspective about their meaning and purpose is important to their sense of well-
being.

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Lastly, the interview findings revealed that the concept of well-being was associated
well-being with a state of mental health. Four out of ten participants identified the importance for
an individual to be healthy emotionally to have well-being. For Harley, well-being was a state of
security commenting that “well-being, I think, primarily has to do with your own health, both
physical and emotional health. And well-being has a lot to do with security, financial security,
and also social support, whether that be family, friends, whatever that may be.” Jan’s perspective
of well-being shared the theme of security and optimism stating that “well-being can include
health, safety, and an overall sense that things are going well.” Dani shared that well-being is
ensuring that she is “taking care of my mental health.” Sam commented about being uncertain
about how to define well-being which complemented Dani’s perspective on the difficulty some
experience defining well-being without considering the workplace. Sam identified the difficulty
of defining well-being sharing that she was still developing a concept of well-being in general
but was able to clearly define well-being in relation to the workplace. Sam shared,
I think I’m still trying to figure that out. But I think it’s being in tune with
yourself, when is it my time to stand up and do a walk or break? Or when is it
okay to not be okay? Or like understanding yourself and taking care of yourself,
whether that’s putting boundaries or like you going on a walk, you buy
something, it’s just what works best for you.
Moreover, Alex considered well-being as the absence of work stressors that interfered with her
personal, non-work life. She shared that well-being is “being able to sleep through the night and
not waking up in the middle of the night and thinking, it’s two o’clock. I didn’t do that report and
the report is due.” The interview findings revealed that the participants’ concept of well-being
though ranging from a mood to spirit or state of being broaches the stressors present at work and

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the impact of stress on the individuals’ mood and state of being. This section focused on the
participants’ generalization of well-being, as well as explored their individualized perspectives of
personal well-being. The interview data revealed that well-being is perceived to be derived from
an individual’s sense of contentment and satisfaction with their lives. Well-being stems both
from a sense of purpose or mission, as well as, from a state of emotional health. In the next
section, the participants were asked to engage in the concept of well-being as it relates to the
workplace and their subordinates. Additionally, the conceptualization of well-being and their
perspectives on the challenges to well-being experienced by their subordinates assisted in
understanding the dynamic environment in which the participants perceived TLT-aligned
practices occurred within.
Managers’ Conceptualization of Social Worker Well-Being
The participants were posed the question about the conceptualization of their supervisees’
well-being to explore their understanding of the factors that may affect their job performance and
sense of emotional health. The participant group’s responses were consistent in contrast to a
general sentiment of well-being and well-being specific to the field of social work. Jay identified
that an emphasis on well-being is essential due to social work being “stressful emotionally,
physically, and mentally.” The participant group interviews revealed the theme of social worker
well-being as the importance of maintaining work-life balance and healthy boundaries due to the
nature of the social worker-client relationship dynamic.
Eight out of 10 participating managers responded that social workers needed to have the
ability to separate work-life from home life. Sam stated that social workers needed to do the job
but be “able to leave whatever happened there, and to live your life … without feeling stressed or
worried about the next day,” concluding that “it is easier said than done.” The interview data

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identified work-life balance as the social workers’ ability to leave work at work and protect their
personal lives from work spill-over. Lee stated that work-life balance is very important for social
workers due to the fact that the nature of working with clients and families can spill over into
one’s personal life and have negative effects on their health, relationships, and job performance.
Taylor described optimal balance as “somebody who’s happy in both work and home and
because they’re doing their best that they can to support people, but they’re also taking care of
themselves when they’re not at work.” The interview data revealed the importance that leaders’
awareness of personal and contextual stressors that affect their employees’ well-being. TLT
emphasizes the importance of the leader to provide individualized support to employees through
coaching and mentoring. The leaders’ understanding of factors that affect well-being and
implementation of leadership practices that support their supervisees is the central point of this
research study. Table 8 indicates the participant group’s concept of well-being as a general
concept compared to their perspectives on social workers’ well-being.

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Table 8
Participants’ Concept of General Well-Being and Social Worker Well-Being
Pseudonym General well-being Social worker well-being
Taylor “…I think well-being just means that
you are, overall, you’re happy
overall, at work, at home, in your
personal life.”
“[Well-being is] somebody who’s
happy in both of those dynamics,
like they’re happy, because they’re
doing the best that they can to
support people, but they’re also
taking care of themselves when
they’re not at work.”
Lee “Well-being is a balance. It’s a
balance between physical pursuit,
intellectual pursuit, emotional
pursuit, and probably spiritual
pursuit.”
“[Well-being is] I think taking the
time to, you know, to have
boundaries, I think it’s important
for social workers to have
boundaries too. And to somehow
be able to separate work from
home ... I think if you feel
supported by your supervisor, if
you feel supported by your
colleagues, that contributes to
well-being.”
Sam “I think I’m still trying to figure that
out. But I think it’s being in tune
with yourself, when is it my time to
stand up and do a walk or break? Or
when is it okay to not be okay? Or
like understanding yourself and
taking care of yourself, whether
that’s putting boundaries or like you
“I don’t know. I think being resilient
and just being able to come into
situations, see the bigger picture,
do what you have to do … being
able to leave whatever happened
there, and to live your life
accordingly how you want to live
it without feeling like stressed or

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Pseudonym General well-being Social worker well-being
going on a walk, you buying
something, it’s just what works best
for you.”
worried about the next day is
easier said than done … But I
think just being able to know your
balance, and actually separate
yourself in that feeling like you are
always thinking about work …
always doing work.”
Alex “Well-being is being able to sleep
through the night and not waking up
in the middle of the night and
thinking, it’s two o’clock. I didn’t
do that report and the report is due.”
“Well-being is being able to walk the
door at five o’clock and live my
life … Well-being is having a
healthy balance between work and
life.”
Max “[Well-being is] balance … It’s a
matter of just being able to handle
to the day-to-day life stresses
without it being too overwhelming.”
“Well-being is a matter of being able
to help your clients but also see
things from all angles and pull
yourself as much as you can away
from the full connection. So of
course, you’re going to care about
your clients and everything but
being able to separate [your work]
life and personal life.”
Noel “Well-being is being mentally and
physically able to accomplish
anything you need to accomplish…”
“Well-being means having that
capacity, being in the right mindset
to accomplish any tasks … I think
it’s important for me to have staff
that their mind is, their well-being,
is good, because if their well-being
is good, that means they’re gonna

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Pseudonym General well-being Social worker well-being
be well enough to work with our
families.”
Harley “Well-being, I think, primarily has to
do with your own health, both
physical and emotional health. And
well-being has a lot to do with
security, financial security, and also
social support, whether that be
family, friends, whatever that may
be…”
“For social workers, [well-being is]
good work-life balance and solid
boundaries.”
Jan “Well-being, I think can include
health, safety, and an overall sense
of things going well.”
“[Well-being for social workers is]
being able to take care of yourself
in a way that helps you be
effective in your job, separating
from the work that you do, and
making sure you’re in a good
place, so that you can best serve
your clients.”
Dani “Well-being, when I think of well-
being for myself, I think of ensuring
that I’m taking care of [my] mental
health, right ...”
“I always tell my team that you can’t
take care of others unless you take
care of yourself. So, ensuring that
you have your whole well-being –
physical, mental, emotional, is
being take care of ...”
Jay “Well-being, in general, I think it’s
having a good balance of just health
comes to mind, health, and
happiness.
“[Well-being for social workers] is
just a good balance of not having
too much stress. So, where you can
do your job, but also have time for

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Pseudonym General well-being Social worker well-being
your personal interest and not
become too overwhelmed with one
thing. Social work because of the
nature of the job can be very
stressful, emotionally, mentally,
physically. So, I think making sure
they have time, more time for an
outlet.”

Managers’ Awareness of the Challenges to Social Worker Well-Being
The interview data revealed the participants’ perspective that social work is a helping
profession for clients and families that addresses health, behavioral, social, and other challenges.
The participant interviews identified that social workers’ boundaries and healthy work-life
balance are emergent challenges to social workers’ well-being. Participant interviews revealed
the following challenges to social workers’ well-being: (a) maintaining healthy boundaries, (b)
client and family needs, (c) caseload size, (d) mandatory timelines and due dates, (e) the
psychological safeness of work environment, (f) external factors work-life balance, and (g)
building employee rapport and trust. The challenges to well-being identified by the participants
were consistent despite differences in clients’ ages served and unique challenges experienced by
clients and families with respect to their age. The participant group represented all the case
management groups that provided services for infants under age three, children and transitional
aged youth ages five to 25, and adults ages 22 and older. The participants shared the nuanced
responsibilities and work tasks related to the different stressors present in supporting a parent

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receiving a new diagnosis or supporting parents of a school-aged child with parental hopes that a
child will maturate out of a diagnosis or the adult with a disability and/or their parents navigating
the adult life including meaningful day activities, relationships, and independence. In all these
instances, the social workers bore the weight of the hopes, dreams, disappointments, and
stressors of the clients and families they served. The following sub-sections will explore each of
the challenges to social workers’ well-being identified by the participants.
Challenge of Maintaining Healthy Boundaries
According to the participant interviews, the development of healthy boundaries was a
pivotal challenge to the social workers’ ability to create and maintain a healthy work-life
balance. The interview questions probed the participants’ perspective of social worker well-being
inviting them to share practices implemented to support their supervisees’ well-being. Seven out
of 10 managers emphasized that supporting social workers’ boundary development was essential
to promote social worker effectiveness and protect their mental health. Boundaries referred to
social workers having a healthy separation from their work and their clients. The interview data
revealed that managers identified boundary development as the major challenge to social
workers. The managers identified the challenging nature of the client-social worker dynamic
related to the circumstances of the client or family. Noel described social work as “one of those
types of jobs that requires a lot of work with families and with people in general, and because
they require so much from you as a person … it’s draining, it’s really draining at times, to work
with people in general.” For instance, Sam identified the challenge of being empathetic to client
and family needs. She stated,
I think [social workers] put themselves in the parents’ shoes of being told that first
diagnosis, or maybe they’re a parent of a one-month-old, maybe they’re you

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know, I had that too, when my staff was like, ‘I just had a baby,’ I can’t keep
hearing these things for you know, or I can’t get people that little ones were in the
neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) because my child was in them, like they
relate to them so much more. And because they’re so vulnerable.
The interviews revealed managers’ observations of the difficulty of maintaining healthy
work-life separation due to the nature of boundary development and establishment of the
role of helper for the social worker causing them to carry client and family situations
home due to difficulty accepting the limits of their ability to aid. The managers identified
the challenge of leaving work at work affected both the participant group and the social
workers they supervised. Taylor contemplated that “I think it is tough to achieve, ‘well-
being’ as a social worker because we tend to always be empathetic towards our families
and our clients that we’re serving and then we forget about our own well-being.” The
interview data findings revealed the challenge of maintaining healthy boundaries was
intertwined with the role of being a helper to those who require help to address life
situations. The managers’ awareness of their supervisees’ overidentification with their
client’s circumstances and intervening with TLT-aligned leadership practices may help
the social workers’ ability to maintain work-life balance negatively affecting their well-
being.
Challenge of Client Needs
The interview data revealed a second challenge to social workers’ well-being is managing
the needs of their clients and families. The participants shared clients receive services and
support related to their possessing one or more diagnoses of autism, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and
intellectual disability causing substantial and life-long disabilities. Additionally, the participants

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shared that the impact of learning that one’s child has a diagnosis that affects their health or
cognition can be devastating to the parents, irrespective of the age of the client. Sam described
this situation as “I just feel even more for those families because they had such big dreams for
[their children] and then all of sudden one year in, it’s like everything changed … That’s the
hardest piece.” The social worker as helper supports the client or family in adjusting to
challenges of the diagnoses affecting the social workers’ well-being by the demands placed upon
them by the clients and families or assumed by the employees Jay provided insight on how
daunting the pressures are on social workers attempting to meet the needs of multiple clients and
families with similar needs. She commented,
They need, a lot of times, they need [the social worker] to do the work for them.
So, whether it’s they have more than one child, maybe it’s a single parent trying
to juggle their work, a school for the kids, putting food on the table, just their own
priorities, it limits them from making the time to apply for certain services. So
many times [the client or family] want the social worker to do most of the work.
They need someone to do it for them. So, you don’t have time. That limits our
[social workers] because they have more than one family to work with…
Due to the onset of COVID-19 during the research study period, social workers had more
pressure on them to respond to family needs. Dani observed, “we have a lot of clients right now
that are in crisis, a lot of mental health concerns that have come up that we weren’t really aware
of, historically which leads to coordinating services quickly and promptly.” The social worker
becomes the helper that supports the client and family obtains the support and services needed
and provides emotional support both adding to stress and potential affecting well-being when
feelings of inadequacy emerge. Taylor stated to offset the potential effects of stress, “So I remind

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my staff that we can only do the best we can within our parameters. And not to take these things
home, if you did the best you could, then you did the best you could.” The interview findings
revealed the importance of the managers’ awareness of the challenge social workers experience
in addressing their clients’ needs due to unrealistic expectations. The interviews revealed the
demands of supporting their clients may negatively affect social workers’ well-being requiring
managers to provide coaching and mentoring to address those demands.
Challenge of High Caseload Size
The participant interviews identified caseload size as the third challenge affecting social
workers' well-being. According to the Lanterman Act, social workers working for ADS and
similar agencies funded by the Department of Developmental Services shall have an average
caseload that does not exceed 62 individuals for longer than 12 months (DDS Lanterman Act,
2020). A high caseload ratio affects social workers’ well-being respective to compliance with
California mandates on program development guidelines and vacant caseload coverage due to
employees’ leave of absence. Seven out of 10 participating managers explicitly cited caseload
size as a concerning factor, while the remaining two participating managers alluded to the effects
based on caseload demands. The participating managers supervised between 10 to 12 social
workers. Caseload ratios varied between 60 to 85 clients for social workers serving clients under
age three and 80 to 90 clients for social workers serving over age three. Dani shared, “something
you’ll probably hear is that we have high caseloads so that makes providing quality services
probably more challenging because you can’t dedicate as much time as you probably like to.”
Jay further commented on caseload ratios in her interview, commenting that “the high number of
caseloads, the volume of work and the responsibility of needing to make sure each family gets
attention and gets the services they need but managing so many at one time, things can fall

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through the cracks” was a concern for social workers’ well-being. She continued, “I think as
social workers, they don’t want that to happen, but it’s difficult when you have limited time and
a high, high list of priorities.” The interview data revealed a relationship between the challenge
of client needs and high caseload sizes affecting social workers’ well-being. The managers’
consideration for the job demands experienced by their supervisees and ability to implement
strategies to support their well-being were identified as of the utmost importance.
Challenge of Mandatory Timelines and Due Dates
The interview data identified the fourth challenge of mandatory timelines and due dates
for work tasks emerged as a factor that negatively affects social workers’ well-being. Two of the
10 managers shared that the timelines as arbitrary due to the requirements of the State of
California and policy set by ADS. According to these managers, the effects of the timelines and
due dates cause undue stress upon social workers to meet expectations. Noel commented that
some of her social workers are very self-critical and that missing deadlines for person-centered
plans and other required reports contribute to their stress. Noel and Alex commented about the
Lanterman Act and the deadlines for individual person-centered plans of 45-days, but ADS
arbitrarily required social workers to complete them within 21 days. Noel and Alex agreed that
this requirement places significant pressure on social workers to complete the reports. High
caseloads are not static but change due to new clients. Sam identified that within a single month
she may receive 12 to 15 new cases to add to a social workers’ caseload irrespective of the
number of clients served. Caseload size emerges to have causality on the demands upon social
workers’ well-being. It may result in a leave of absence, albeit some for family planning and
others for stress-related. For instance, four out of 10 managers indicated having at least one
social worker on leave and having to redistribute coverage for the vacancy. Harley shared the

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dilemma of employee-leave on caseload ratios, she stated that she has “three vacant caseloads
out of 10 on my team… roughly 270 cases that don’t have a direct contact here and still have
needs and are being assigned to other people in addition to their own caseloads.” The issue of
caseload size requires managers to support social workers in managing other aspects of the job
alleviate stress and support well-being. As Max commented, “when one social worker is having a
hard time it affects all of them, yet what can be done.” Jan concluded, “… caseload, you know,
they’re high, they’re gonna be theirs’s, I don’t know there’s anything that can be done about
that.” The interview data revealed factors that are beyond the managers’ ability to change
requiring them to demonstrate skill in providing is individualized solutions to support their
supervisees’ job performance and well-
being.
Challenge of the Psychological Safeness of the Work Environment
The participant interviews revealed the fifth challenge to social workers’ well-being as
the effects of the workplace environment and culture. The workplace should be a safe space due
to so much time spent there. Sam referred to the workplace as her “safe place to fall” believing
that just as she feels at home, she expects to feel safe and secure at work. However, the
participant group revealed elements of the judgment of thought and opinion, perceived bullying
behaviors by peers and leadership, and disrespect that managers served as an intermediary to
shield their employees from those elements that created an unsafe work environment. Lee stated,
“it goes back to reducing judgment, and I just think that protecting people maybe from the
judgment of other leaders in the organization, I think that leads to well-being.” She further
commented “everyone makes mistakes, that person made a couple of mistakes, but it doesn’t
mean that should carry through for their entire career, I just think it is very damaging because I

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think people know when they’re being judged ….” Sam concurred with the perspective on
employee mistakes when she commented, “There was a lot of if you mess up, you’re going to get
into trouble, I felt that sometimes too… I can’t mess up, but you know when you live that way,
it’s almost like being a battered wife.” She continued by stating that “our organization didn’t
physically hit people, but we battered people here.” Harley emphasized the importance of
treating employees with respect and dignity as a key ingredient to a psychologically safe work
environment stating, “there is really no place for fear tactics, especially in social services, and
I’ve seen that occur.” Managers serve as an essential resource to their employees and, as Harley
stated, “that as much as possible act in a logical, direct, balanced manner” in order to create a
space that is psychologically safe. The interview data revealed a veiled concern about the
behavior of a senior leader as creating an environment that was psychologically unsafe where
managers felt it necessary to shield or protect their supervisees. Though the interviewees were
not forthcoming in their attributions to this leader, the point was clearly made that a leader
should promote psychological safety through modeling ethical and trustworthy behaviors.
Challenge of External Factors
The interview data findings identified the sixth challenge to social workers’ well-being is
external factors that affect their supervisees’ ability to attend to job demands. The participant
interviews revealed the stressors of managing personal life situations that may include marital
challenges, health challenges, and family challenges while providing support to clients and
families experiencing distress. The interviews revealed that managers sought methods to build
rapport and relationships with their employees to be aware of potential personal issues that may
impede their social workers’ ability to perform their job and affect their well-being. Personal-life
concerns include the birth of a child, death of a loved one, spouse or partner loss of job or

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reduction in income, personal physical illness, and mental health, among other life circumstances
that may affect work performance. The role of external factors highlights the observation made
by Alex that the social worker takes on someone else’s problems while dealing with their own.
Alex described the complicated social worker-client and family relationship dynamic in this
manner:
I think it’s inherent anytime you’re taking on someone else’s problems … I mean
you’ve got your own problems, you know, I can’t stress enough, we all have lives
outside of [the workplace], and the social worker world, whether you’re a hospital
social worker, whether you’re a jail social worker, whatever, you’re taking on
other people’s problems and it’s adding to your stress.
The effects of personal concerns may affect employee performance as Sam observed because
they are “struggling in the bigger things outside of work” that require support. Contextually, the
significance of external factors lies in the established trust relationship between employee and
supervisor. Sam commented on the importance of trust and communication in her observation, “I
think just being able to communicate your needs, and in the event that you run into something,
feel comfortable enough to say it.” The interview data revealed that the participants perceived
their ability to support their supervisees’ in addressing contextual and personal factors as a vital
component of their leadership practice. The managers’ ability to create as Alex indicated “a safe
place to fall” providing a safe place to share work-related and personal concerns were identified
as vital to their employees’ well-being.
Challenge of Building Employee Rapport and Trust
The interview data revealed the seventh and final challenge to social workers’ well-being
is the effect of the employees’ personal life stressors and the managers’ ability to develop a

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relationship with their supervisees based on trust. The participants identified that there is a
general misconception that personal issues should not affect the workplace looms in the psyche
of employees. Despite the encouragement of the proverbial “open door” policy, each of the
interviewed managers observed employees’ concerns about the assurance of confidentiality and
absence of judgment about what their employees shared. The participants’ perception that doubts
about their trustworthiness and being judgmental caused their employees to withhold asking for
support and manage work-life demands alone. For instance, Harley shared an experience with
such reticence from one of her social workers, “she was dealing with some major personal
problems, but she wasn’t telling anybody about them … She’s somebody who is very well
versed in her job, she’s not new. So, when things start to slip up, it’s very noticeable.” Max
observed the role of trust in employee sharing when she shared,
Again, going back to trust, if one of my social workers doesn’t trust me, they’re
not going to be comfortable coming to talk to me and I want them to be able to, I
want to be able to support them both within their work, but I also want to be able
to acknowledge and support them with what’s going on in their personal life.
Five out of 10 managers commented on the importance of creating a safe space where their
employees can talk about personal life concerns that may affect their job performance. Alex
further described the role of leadership in fostering open lines of communication stating,
“leadership needs to support and help staff do that balance and not make them feel that they can’t
take time off for unexpected things.” She continued saying “that’s really important for staff to
feel that we acknowledge that they have lives outside of this agency and life happens, and not be
punitive.” The interview findings revealed that the managers’ perceived their ability to establish
trusting relationships with their supervisees is vital to the employees’ well-being and a key

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component of any leadership practice. In TLT-aligned practices, the leaders’ morals and ethics
are central to encouraging trust through modeling trustworthiness. Additionally, TLT principles
emphasized that the followers’ trust in their leaders’ integrity of their leader emerged as a central
and key component of effective leadership practices.
Research question #1 explored the participants’ concept of well-being and their
perspective of the concept of social workers’ well-being. The data findings revealed the
participants’ concept of well-being emphasized general principles of being satisfied and content
with ones’ life while social workers’ well-being emphasized awareness of external factors that
affect the social workers’ ability to manage stress mitigating the risk of job burnout and job
performance. The next section will explore the managers’ capacity to implement leadership
practices that support both employee competency and well-being.
Research Question #2: What Are the Managers’ Knowledge and Motivation Related to
Effective Leadership Practices that Support Social Workers’ Well-Being Mitigating the
Risk of Stress and Job burnout?
The study explored the managers’ positioning to implement TLT-aligned practices that
support social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. TLT identified
idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration as components of charismatic leadership that promote followership to achieve a
goal bigger than themselves (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978). This research question
explored the degree to which ADS managers are implementing effective leadership practices that
are aligned with TLT-aligned practices to support social workers’ well-being. The following
sections will identify the participating managers’ knowledge of and motivation to implement
TLT-aligned leadership practices that support social workers’ well-being. Due to the small

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sample size of 10 participants, I determine the threshold to determine a finding to be an asset
were if three participants or more identified the presence of an influence, and a finding to be a
gap if three or more participants identified the absence of an influence. The threshold criteria set
indicated no less than 33% or one-third of participants agreed upon the presence or absence of a
particular influence to be sound judgment. I used the interview findings related to the managers’
self-reported effective leadership practices to identify their positioning to implement TLT-
aligned leadership practices.
Managers’ Knowledge of TLT-Aligned Practices
The participant group unanimously identified the importance of effective leadership
practices as central to supporting employee performance and well-being. The participants
identified the link between employee performance and well-being as an individual not being able
to perform well if they are unhealthy physically or emotionally. Noel commented that effective
leadership practices supported the mission of the organization by “having a staff that their well-
being is good because if their well-being is good that means they’re gonna be well enough to
work with our families.” The participants’ conceptualizations of effective leadership practices
were the following: 1) communicating effectively as a method to motivate and inspire
employees, 2) providing coaching and mentoring to employees, and 3) fostering a positive team
environment. Unsurprisingly, the participants identified the importance of these practices as
supporting employee work performance. The interview findings revealed that in many instances,
the emphasis on employees’ well-being was an afterthought.
Managers’ In-Depth Knowledge of Effective Communication with Employees
The participants identified that being an effective communicator is essential to being an
effective manager and leader. The interview data revealed an emergent theme that the leaders’

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ability to effectively communicate was critical to motivating and inspiring employees to achieve
organizational goals. The participants identified effective communication as the leader’s ability
to create mission-focused employees, appropriately using praise and acknowledging, and
demonstrating effective listening skills as essential to supporting both employee job performance
and well-being.
The interview findings revealed that all 10 participants relied on communication to
convey job expectations, onboard new hires, address performance concerns, and share new
guidelines and expectations. With respect to well-being, the interview findings revealed that the
participants perceived their ability to communicate, especially listening to employee concerns,
supported social workers’ well-being. The interview findings identified the following concepts
that supported employee motivation and well-being: (a) Communication of “The Why,” (b)
praise and acknowledgment, and (c) active listening skills as key communication skills that
managers, as effective leaders, employ to motivate and inspire their employees.
Managers’ Knowledge of Communicating to Create Mission-Focused Employees.
Participant interviews revealed six out of 10 managers utilize effective communication to inspire
their employees assisting them in finding purposeful work within the organization’s mission. The
interview data showed the theme of communicating the value social worker perform in serving
their clients who have developmental disabilities and families. The participants cited that many
of the social workers at ADS have a loved one or had prior experiences with someone living with
a developmental disability that inspired them to work within the field. The participants
emphasized using effective communication to convey meaning and purpose in the work of the
organization, in general, and the social workers, specifically, perform in serving clients with
developmental disabilities.

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Managers’ In-Depth Knowledge of Communicating “The Why” Creating a Culture
of Service. The participants unanimously shared their methods to select, indoctrinate, and inspire
their employees to commit to a “culture of service.” The strategies shared during interviews were
the participants discussing service orientation as aspects of screening candidates during
interviewing for vacancies, onboarding new hires, and providing support for complex cases
among the study participants. Dani best defined the culture of services who shared, “when you
work in this field, you work to serve others, and part of serving others is you’re also serving your
team.” The interview data revealed the theme of service to clients as the crux of the
organization’s existence or “The Why.”
The importance of the mission, according to Jan, begins in the interview process. She
stated, “I always want to know why they want to do this job … [and after hiring] I share a
personal story about something that really changed the way that I do this job.” Four out of the 10
participants cited that a prior manager’s emphasis on a culture of service influenced their desire
to serve as a leader. Sam shared, “if I could help 60 people [as a social worker], what about
helping 100s of people [as a manager] … which is my reason to want to be a supervisor.” She
furthered her comments by stating, “[so when I train a new staff] I become a social worker all
over again. So, we start by talking what is our mission? What do we do here? What is the
purpose? I break it all down.” The interview findings identified a perceived relationship by the
participants between their employees’ well-being and participating in mission-oriented work
where they make positive contributions to the lives of individuals in need of assistance.
The participants perceived their ability to effectively communicate the mission and vision
to inspire commitment to a goal larger than the individual’s need was vital to their leadership
practice. TLT principles identified that leaders need to possess the ability to communicate the

111
value of the mission to followers while working to meet the followers’ needs. TLT identifies that
leaders should inspire their followers by their behavior and commitment to an ideal and find
purpose in service to a vision and mission. Transformational leaders support the individual’s
need to participate in meaningful work that provides a sense of purpose in the contributions to
the lives of the people served and their employees’ well-being.
Managers’ Knowledge of How to Communicate Praise and Acknowledgement. The
interview findings revealed that one effective leadership practice managers implement was
utilizing praise and acknowledgment to motivate their employees. The TLT principle of
inspirational motivation or the leader who communicates high expectations to followers relies
upon effective communication (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burke, 2017; Northouse, 2019). The
interview findings revealed that five out of 10 managers commented on the importance of giving
their social workers praise in acknowledgment of work performed to support well-being. These
five managers shared that their primary method of praise was in an email to the team,
acknowledging individual and team efforts, which supported the team’s enthusiasm and feelings
of support. The interview data revealed that managers received complaints from clients and
family more frequently than compliments and praise. Sam shared, “I think we need to focus on
some sort of positive sides because our job is so draining and exhausting, and I think that
[saying] ‘you’re doing a good job’ [is important] because we constantly talk about families that
complain.” Additionally, she shared that “I don’t get calls from the parents that are happy. I
don’t get the calls or emails from parents that their social worker did so many things [for their
child].” In response to the job demands, Lee commented on the importance of using praise both
in team meetings and in the work area by providing public acknowledgment as a means to
support well-being.

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The interview data revealed that four participants identified the importance of
communicating praise to recognize and acknowledge their employees’ efforts to meet client and
family needs. The interview data revealed that acknowledgment and recognition were motivating
factors for employee performance and well-being. For instance, Max commented, “I have two
people who are out on leave, and it brings a lot of extra pressure on them. So, I just sent an email
out to everybody letting them know that I appreciate them.” In addition to group emails, Sam and
Max mentioned the importance of providing little gifts or food to value their supervisees. The
interview data revealed that the leaders used praise to motivate their employees to persist in
serving clients’ needs despite the challenges experienced by client demands, deadlines, or
personal matters experienced. Dani reflected, “I tried to really put emphasis on the hard work
that they do and the value that they do and the value that it is to those we serve and the impact it
makes longer-term.” For instance, Alex and Jay cautioned against the overuse of praise and
acknowledgment as a practice to motivate employees. Alex commented that praise and
acknowledgments should be sincere and specific to the observed behavior. Jay recommended
using praise sparsely so that the recognition is meaningful and valued, pointing out when her
employees perform excellent work. The interview data revealed the participants’ application of
the TLT principles, both inspirational motivation and individualized support, to motivate their
employees by recognizing the work performed as a method to support their well-being.
Managers’ Knowledge of Active Listening Skills. The interview data revealed that
active listening is crucial in leaders’ demonstrating effective communication. The interview data
indicated the emergent theme of leaders reporting that they practice listening to their employees
more than communicating directives, guidance, and mandates. Moreover, the participants
identified that providing opportunities for their supervisees to share their thoughts and opinions

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positively affected job performance and well-being, supporting innovation, creative problem
solving, and collaboration.
Four out of 10 participants cited active listening to their employees’ opinions as an
essential tool of effective communication to support their employees’ well-being. The
participants self-reported that they utilized active listening in work settings, such as monthly
supervision, team meetings, and impromptu meetings requested by supervisees to discuss
professional and, occasionally, personal matters. Additionally, the participants perceived that
their ability actively listen assisted them in understanding the needs of both the individual
employee and collective team. Lee and Sam emphasized that active listening supports the
manager in understanding and highlighting their employees’ strengths and using that knowledge
to form a robust collaborative team environment to support knowledge sharing and provide peer
support. Noel identified the importance of the managers’ ability to be an active listener to “fully
understand them, and they understand where you’re coming from, and you can show that you’re
able to truly address the issues they bring to the table.” The interview findings expressed the
importance of effective communication in terms of the messages communicated and received
during points of contact with their supervisees, both individually and collectively.
Four out of 10 participants reported the importance of listening to their employees’ needs
and valuing their opinions as critical in creating a safe and productive workspace and supporting
their employees’ well-being. Noel described active listening as a best practice due to allowing
the manager to seek to fully understand where the employee is coming from and assuring the
employee feels heard. Additionally, Noel shared that active listening allows the employee to
share personal concerns affecting their performance. Dani shared, “I think that as a leader, you
need to have open ears and listen to what their concerns are, and while I might not always have

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an immediate fix to it, I always validate and acknowledge how they’re feeling.” According to
Max and Noel, active listening promotes an emotionally safe space because it demonstrates that
managers value and respect the opinions of their supervisees. The participants identified a key
component of active listening: providing undivided attention and emphasizing being fully
present and at the moment with your supervisees. Jan advised that active listening gives your
employees your time despite having competing priorities. Jan shared her perspective on
managers being free from distractions as crucial in supporting her employees. She shared, “so I
think it’s just making sure you give people the time. Like if I’m in supervision or something ... I
don’t turn my attention away because I feel like that’s going to interfere with their trust in me.”
The interview data revealed the importance of valuing employees’ thoughts and feelings. TLT
emphasizes the leader who listens to their followers as a demonstration of valuing the employees
and conveying respect for their individual needs to motivate engagement and support their well-
being. The principle of individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation for innovation
and problem solving will be discussed in the next section on the leader’s ability to coach and
mentor as an essential component of well-being.
Managers’ Knowledge of Coaching and Mentorship Practices
Seven out of 10 participants identified the importance of coaching and mentoring their
employees as a vital leadership practice that supported their employees’ productivity and well-
being. The participants self-reported their perception that coaching and mentoring supervisees
supported their employees’ well-being and performance due to assisting them to manage work
demands. Noel shared, “I mentor my team, my staff. It all depends on where they’re at, and I
meet them where they’re at.” Max stated that she has to individualize her coaching strategies
because her social workers are so different, and some are more sensitive or need more or less

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guidance. Alex commented that managers should consider their supervisees’ job performance
through the lens of coaching and mentorship. She commented, “I think a good manager would be
Employee X can’t do the job because he doesn’t have the skills, versus Employee X can’t do the
job because he needs organizational skills. How can I help him build those organizational
skills?” TLT espouses the principle that the leader should individualize consideration of their
followers, tailoring support to meet their unique needs and stimulating professional growth. The
interview data findings revealed that coaching and mentoring of employees included the
following knowledge competencies: (a) the ability to support employee learning preferences; (b)
the ability to train employees to perform delegated tasks effectively; (c) the ability to support
employee risk-taking and handle mistakes; and (d) ability to provide feedback and evaluation.
Managers’ Ability to Support Employee Learning Preferences. The managers’
knowledge of employees’ learning preferences emerged from the interview data as a promising
method to train employees aligned with TLT’s principle of individualized consideration. Three
out of the ten participants self-reported their use of identifying their supervisees’ learning
preferences to tailor information to suit their process information. Noel commented that she does
her best to understand their abilities, stating, “one of the things I do is I learn how they learn; I
ask them what is your learning style?” Noel continued by saying that she tells her employees that
“I want to be able to make sure that I’m successful in how I’m training you. Can you share with
me your learning style? So, depending on what it is, I take that and use that.” Sam commented
that her awareness of her being a visual learner promoted her to inquire about the learning style
of her employees. She emphasizes learning techniques to provide visual prompts and worked
examples of reports, requests for funds, and interdisciplinary note documentation to support her
employees’ performance. Though research dispels the myth of teaching efficacy according to

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learning styles (Kirschner, 2017; Pashler et al., 2008), the interview data findings revealed that
Jay believed that the managers’ self-awareness was a critical factor in their ability to accept the
differences among team members. She shared, “I’ve had to learn because you’re working with a
group of at least ten people, they’re all different. They have different learning styles and
personalities.” The participants shared that their awareness of the differences among their
employees allows them to tailor their communication message to support their employees’
learning and growth. The TLT principle of individualized consideration supports the leaders’
efforts to maximize followers’ potential through development. Noel’s comment crystalized
strategy of identifying learning preferences as a strategy to provide individualized support to
employees as a means to support learning routine job tasks and well-being.
Managers’ Perception about their Ability to Effectively Train Employees to
Perform Delegated Tasks. The interview findings revealed that the leadership practice of
coaching included training their employees to perform delegated tasks. The participants
emphasized that effective leaders provide coaching to empower their employees to successfully
handle assigned new work tasks, develop new skills, and grow professionally. The participants
shared the importance of properly assessing their supervisees’ strengths and weaknesses to set
them up for success; however, the opportunity to succeed is also an opportunity to fail. Lee
shared that she based her delegation on the goals and objectives expressed by her employees to
empower her staff. Three out of 10 managers identified that leaders train their employees to
empower and enable them to successfully handle new tasks. Sam shared it was important that she
trained her staff to have the necessary skills to be ready for advancement opportunities and “to
set them up for success.” Taylor and Noel shared the importance of training their own staff to
ensure the new hires have the necessary knowledge required to perform expectations. Noel

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shared, “there’s a lot of pressure on a manager to make sure that their staff is training a certain
way and they have the skills to be able to execute the job.” Moreover, Noel shared that “I want to
make sure that I trust them to be able to, I trust them to make sure that they actually do the job
that they’re going to do.” Trust is an essential component of the TLT principle of idealized
influence and inspirational motivation where the leader trust the followers to achieve the
mission. As it seems, the interview findings revealed that the participants perceived trust as bi-
directional conveying the leaders’ belief in their employees and ensuring their success. The
interview findings revealed the emergent theme that managers’ trust in their employees is
essential as is their response to outcomes that achieve or miss the mark as an emergent theme of
task delegation.
Managers’ Ability to Support Employee Risk-Taking and Handle Mistakes. The
interview data revealed that the leaders perceived their ability to support employee risk-taking
and handle employee mistakes as critical to their coaching and mentoring relationship with their
employees. The interview findings identified the participants’ response to employee mistakes
affects the employees’ willingness to take on new opportunities due to fear of failure. Moreover,
the interview data revealed the response to perceived or actual mistakes and fear of consequences
for errors negatively affected supervisees’ well-being. The employee must believe that, as Alex
commented previously, the workplace is “a safe place to fall.” Harley stated, “everyone is going
to fail at some point in a task or in a certain responsibility, and no one should be demeaned
personally for that.” Alex shared her perspective on employee mistakes humorously,
I think putting things in perspective when people come and talk to me, and you
know, they’re stressed and I’m like did you kill anyone today. I said then today’s
a good day. You know as long as you don’t kill people, we’re good. We mess up,

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we make mistakes. And we have to, it’s not the end of the world unless we’ve
killed someone, and I can’t help you because I’m calling the police.
Jan advised that it is important for managers to “remember that the people you’re supervising
are people too, who make mistakes, who have needs outside of work, and so giving them a little
bit of grace helps.” The data findings demonstrated that the participants’ perception their ability
to provide a supportive environment was essential in helping their supervisees take risks and
learn from their mistakes. Moreover, the interview data revealed the importance of managers
coaching their employees to be successful in handling newly assigned tasks and professional
development assignments.
Managers’ Ability to Provide Feedback and Evaluation. The interview data findings
identified a second practice of providing individualized consideration through managers’
feedback and evaluation of employee performance as important to coaching employees’
performance and supporting their well-being. Individualized consideration is leadership that
provides a supportive climate in which the leader listens to ascertain followers’ needs, act as
coaches and mentors to help realize their followers’ full potential; and use delegation to help
followers grow (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019).
Six out of 10 participants identified the importance of feedback, or providing guidance or
constructive criticism, as a practice in supporting their employees’ growth and development.
Taylor described feedback that supports social well-being as being blunt, clear, and solution
oriented. She recalled an interaction with an employee to who she recently gave a formal
disciplinary write up sharing, “I told her I‘m not giving this to you to be for me to tell you that
I’m angry, because I’m not. It’s just something that we need to fix it and I’m going to help you
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The interview data findings revealed that managers use feedback as a practice to address
poor employee performance to prevent low morale among team members. Alex shared that
providing employees feedback to address poor performance is beneficial to maintaining high
employee morale and performance. Lee advised that the managers should “focus on the positives
that everyone contributes rather than the negatives, or the areas that they need to enhance.” Jan
mentioned the importance of giving feedback often and as close to the occurrence as possible to
ensure accuracy in reflecting on pertinent details. Moreover, she advised paying attention to the
employee’s body language and receptiveness. Jan shared that her observation of her supervisees’
non-verbal and verbal behaviors to determine if the employee understands or has emotionally
shut down. She stated the managers should look for “that point where they’re going back and
forth with you that you’re like, okay they’re hearing me” and if they are shutting down, the
manager should change their communication style. The interview data findings revealed the
participants self-reported the importance of knowing how to coach and mentor their employees
as a method to support their well-being through tailoring training their employees to perform job
tasks and learn to perform delegated tasks. The participants perceived a connection between
supporting their employees experience of being successful in their job duties and their employees
feeling good about themselves, which is the essence of well-being. The TLT principle of
individualized consideration supports the concept of the leader who sets up their employees for
success and the leader who fosters an environment where employees can be successful.
Managers’ Ability to Foster a Positive Team Environment
The interview data findings revealed the third practice effective leaders should utilize to
support their employees’ well-being fostering a positive team culture that emphasized shared
leadership and peer support. The participants unanimously identified that the creation of a

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positive team environment and a supportive team culture was a critical skill the leader should
possess. The creation of a positive team culture aligned with the TLT principle of the leader
fostering an intellectually stimulating work environment. According to Riggio and Burns
(2006), the intellectually stimulating leader creates a positive work environment where
followers’ innovation and creativity can emerge. This principle focuses on the collective group
while the principle of individualized consideration emphasizes the support of an individual’s
development. The interview findings revealed that managers who practiced creating
environments that stimulated positive team culture, most especially peer-to-peer relationships
that supported the achievement of the organization’s mission and employee well-being. The
participants identified the importance that employees not only felt heard but felt they had a voice
in decision-making. Jan shared, “when you feel good about where you’re working, it contributes
to your well-being and part of feeling good about where you’re working is being in an
environment where you feel everyone’s working toward a common goal.”
The emphasis on team culture is less on the performance of the work tasks as the
perspective of the interdependent relationships among the team that forms the work environment
and supports the individual and collective motivation. For instance, Harley shared,
… for my team, and every team is different, I think it’s important to maintain an
aspect of social interaction, where you can enjoy humor and lighter topics where
we can enjoy a meal together. My team enjoys celebrating each other’s milestones
in their lives, including marriages, the birth of children, engagements, birthdays,
and that’s a time for us to commune in a way that doesn’t involve any work and
we get to know each other better and find out what’s going on with our families
and our hobbies and things that had nothing to do with work ... I think the better,

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the more comfortable you are with your teammates, the more you can rely on
them for encouragement, guidance, and resources for your clients and families.
The interview data revealed that the manager and team form the primary, most immediate dyad
protecting the social worker against stress and job burnout and supporting well-being. Lee
described the importance of using humor and social gatherings to support well-being as the
opportunity to relieve the strain that accompanies the stress associated with social work. She
stated, “we used team gatherings where we would laugh and share stories that I think of some
things that were difficult, with what you encounter as a social worker to be able to somehow find
some lighthearted positivity and things.” The participants perceived that their leadership efforts
to create a positive team environment positively affected social workers’ well-being. The TLT
principle of intellectual stimulation, for the collective group, and individualized consideration,
for the individual, supported the development of a positive team culture where the leader and
peers provide a network of support for employee performance and well-being. However, the
team culture must reside within a psychologically safe work environment to benefit employees’
performance and well-being.
Managers’ Ability to Foster a Psychologically Safe Work Environment. The
participants perceived fostering a psychologically safe work environment as a key component in
their supervisees’ work performance and well-being. The TLT principles support the leaders’
ability to foster a psychologically safe work environment for their followers. The participants
shared their perception of the connection between their supervisees’ motivation and their
perceptions of feeling valued and psychologically safe. Harley commented on how a safe work
environment contributes to social workers’ well-being. She shared, “it helps for a very
comfortable, warm, easy environment, and then when we have to face challenges, we’re able to

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do that because we know that we’re going to come back to the office and with one another.” The
participants defined a psychologically safe space in a variety of ways. Dani defined a
psychologically safe work environment as “a workplace that invests in their employees and
provides adequate skills or resources or training to ensure that [the organization] are taking care
of [the employees’] well-being.” Lee considered a psychologically safe work environment as “a
workplace free of bullying.” Alex, Noel, and Jay shared the belief that a psychologically safe
work environment was one where the employee feels comfortable talking to their supervisor
trusting that what the employee shares is private and confidential. Jan furthered the thought that a
psychologically safe environment possesses open lines of communication and is characterized as
being respectful and judgment-free. The interview findings revealed emergent themes of the
leaders’ knowledge of confidentiality, reflective practices, and emotional intelligence to foster a
psychologically safe work environment as being perceived to be critical leadership practices.
Managers’ Ability to Maintain Confidentiality: The Open Door-Closed Door Policy.
The participants perceived maintaining their supervisees’ confidentiality as a critical element in
coaching and mentoring their employees. The participants shared the “open-door, closed-door”
practice referring to supporting employee wellness by creating a safe space to discuss items
concerning their performance, well-being, or both. Lee commented, “I think having an open-door
policy from the bottom to the top [of the organization] is important regardless of how high up in
the organization they are, that they communicate with the frontline staff and have some direct
contact.” Sam commented, “I’ve always had people feel like it they’re overwhelmed with what
they’re doing, or they need a break, maybe it’s been a tough week or a tough day. I want them to
feel comfortable enough to tell me that.” In Taylor’s opinion, “the manager is not just a
manager,” but serves as “a mentor, a therapist, a parent, and a friend all at once.” Furthermore,

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she commented that it is important for the manager to be “hyper aware” of the how people are
doing. She shared,
I recently had a staff member who was dealing with some major personal
problems, but she wasn’t telling anyone about them, but it was very apparent.
She’s somebody who is very well versed in her job, she’s not new. So, when
things start to slip up, it’s very noticeable. And so instead of me just reprimanding
her for not doing what she is supposed to do, I took some time to close my door
and sit down with her and she spent an hour and a half crying, telling me what’s
going on. I didn’t want to tell her what to do about her personal situation, but I
wanted to make sure she was comfortable in the fact that she had options. If it
helped her to stay at work, great, but if her work starts to slip off, and she needs to
take some time off, and she shouldn’t feel bad for that. So, I just had a moment
where I told her, once the door closes, we’re clocked out, you can tell me
whatever it is that’s going on.
Managers serve a myriad of roles with their employees requiring, as Harley commented, that as
leaders they must be “present mentally and emotionally.” Taylor commented on this point in
respect to social worker well-being the open-door policy promotes a safe space when she shared
“I feel like if you come to work, and you only focus on work, you don’t have any other outside
conversations, you don’t have anything to help your mental health, you’re not going to function
that well workwise.” The interview findings reveal some of the participants perceived their
practice of confidentiality and offering a safe place to discuss work and non-work-related matters
supported their employees’ well-being. The TLT principle of individualized consideration and
intellectual stimulation supports the perception of the leader as trustworthy which inspires and

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motivates followers’ productivity and engagement. TLT promotes the idealized influencer as the
foundational principle that the leader inspires followers through their trustworthiness and
integrity requiring the leader to be self-aware and self-reflective, which the other principles are
built upon (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
Managers’ Knowledge of Self-Reflective Practices
The final knowledge area explored with interview data is the managers’ engagement in
metacognitive practices, also referred to as self-reflective practice (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
practice of metacognition is associated with Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis (2008) and not with
transformational leadership theory. The interview findings revealed that the participants
demonstrated limited knowledge of self-reflective practices to guide their leadership practices.
Seven out of 10 participants shared that their reflective practices occurred when an interaction
that made them reflect upon their actions or circumstances that others made them aware of
prompted self-reflection. Taylor’s perspective of reflective practice typified the consensus
response sharing “when I’m done with work, I’m not done with work, I kind of like vomit up my
day with my significant other and to be honest sometimes it helps, sometimes it doesn’t.”
The interview findings revealed an emergent theme of managers whose educational or
professional background did or did not provide exposure to reflective practices. Only two of the
10 managers expressed familiarity with reflective practices due to exposure from their bachelor’s
and/or master’s level programs in social work, psychology, or related field. Five out of 10
managers reported reflecting on interactions with their staff that resulted in a negative,
unexpected response. For instance, when an employee reacted with tears to a purchase of service
renewal that she thought was late, Taylor reflected upon the interaction and shared, “I had to
think like, ‘what have I said that makes her feel like she needs to be that upset over this.’ So, I

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actually did have to sit and go like was I harsh, like what happened.” Sam commented how
mistakes cause her to reflect when she shared, “If I mess up, that’s when I reflect. Normally, I
don’t have time to reflect during the day.” However, Noel benefited from a pilot project where a
licensed psychologist provided guided reflective practice with her where she received the
opportunity to share her experiences with clients, families, and professional concerns and receive
feedback appreciating the safe space it offered for her to reflect and process. She commented on
reflective practice as “a safe space to talk about how we’re feeling at that moment and allows us
to reflect, and that’s what reflective practice is. It helps us reflect within ourselves or based on
what someone else is sharing.” The interview findings revealed the participants’ perception that
self-reflection was essential to their role in fostering a psychologically safe work environment
that supported their supervisees’ s well-being. TLT supports the concept that leaders’ behavior
and self-awareness affect their ability to inspire their followers as critical to their ability to
provide coaching to individuals and foster a positive team culture. Through self-reflection is
essential to fostering a psychologically safe work environment, the interview data revealed the
leaders’ knowledge of emotional intelligence as a necessary component of any self-reflective
practice.
Managers’ Knowledge of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence emerged from participant interviews as significant to the
managers’ ability to guide their reflective practice of employee interactions. Though the
participants did not identify metacognition about their leadership practices, they did demonstrate
the reflection on their interpersonal relationships, citing emotional intelligence as important in
self-reflection. Harley emphasized the importance of self-reflection in her observation, “I think
it’s important that as much as possible leaders act in logical, direct, [and] balanced manner with

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good emotional regulation.” Alex reflected on the importance of self-reflection due to her
tendency to be reactionary to employee situations. She stated,
I’m notorious for my emails where am I, and I, honestly have stopped doing that,
when I will write it, and I will save it, and I will not send it for a day or two, and
then I will go back and read it and I was like, whoa, I’m glad I didn’t send that
one. And I will revamp it, I do it all the time because I want to just, and it’s, it
doesn’t do anyone good.
Noel shared how a previous training on mindfulness assisted her in employing practices of
performing wellness checks with her social workers by inquiring about their morning, their
weekend, and how they were feeling. She stated that she uses that technique to gauge the pulse
of the team. She stated that “one of the things I have in my office is it says ‘self-care’ and that
goes hand in hand with well-being. I practice breathing exercises or take walks, and I conduct
mindfulness activities with my team to encourage their well-being.”
The interview findings revealed correlations between the participant’s perceived ability to
engage in self-reflection and their knowledge of emotional intelligence as a method of creating a
psychologically safe work environment. A key emphasis emerging from the interview data was
the managers’ ability to use self-reflection and emotional intelligence to emotionally regulate
interactions with their supervisees. Harley emphasized the importance of supporting her
employees through being self-reflective through her understanding of emotional intelligence in
her interactions with her employees, especially in handling mistakes. She stated that employees
expect their managers to behave responsibly and avoid demeaning or disrespecting employees
when they make mistakes. Jan summarized that a leader should demonstrate the ability to

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communicate, be flexible, and be empathetic to consider each individual team member and what
they need to perform their best work.
The interview findings revealed the participants’ perception that the leaders’ knowledge
of effectively communicating; coaching and mentoring practices; and ability to foster a
psychologically safe work environment. The participants perceived these leadership practices as
supporting their employees’ well-being. The participants’ self-reported practices align with TLT
principles of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation. The knowledge findings revealed the significance of leadership
trustworthiness, the ability to inspire and motivate employees to serve clients’ needs, stimulate
innovation and professional growth, and foster an environment that supports individual growth
and positive team culture. The intent of the research project was to determine the positioning of
ADS managers to implement TTL practices that support social workers’ well-being. The
participants’ self-reported practices suggest the presence of the foundational knowledge
competencies necessary to implement TLT.
Managers’ Motivation to Implement Effective Leadership Practices
The managers’ knowledge of effective leadership practices and the managers’ motivation
to implement those practices are essential to performance Gap Analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The interview data revealed that the participants valued implementing effective leadership
practices. Additionally, the participants’ self-reported leadership practices were found to be in
alignment with TLT principles. However, the participant interviews revealed their perspectives
of the challenges that affected their ability to implement practices that supported well-being. The
participants shared that work performance was the primary emphasis of these practices but
acknowledged the tension between implementing leadership practices that support social

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workers’ well-being and adhering to the expectations of ADS to meet client and family needs
and mandatory timelines. Additionally, at times, external factors such as employee illness, family
leave, and other personal concerns presented challenges to supporting their employees with non-
work-related matters.
The interview data revealed the participants clearly articulated their awareness of the
challenges social workers experienced in performing their duties and the effects of those
challenges to their supervisees’ well-being. Alex commented on the value of effective leadership
practices on the well-being of social workers’ happiness with their job. She stated, “we want
happy healthy people here, and when they’re not happy and healthy through no fault of their
own, we have to look at how we can get you back to a happy and healthy state.” The interview
data revealed the importance of the individual employee as a central theme to the achievement of
organizational goals. Dani identified this central component to emphasize her employees’
performance and well-being stating, “it goes back to being human and not losing sight of that.”
The participants emphasized that the importance of manager availability and a manager-
employee relationship that is supportive and responsive have a positive effect on social workers’
work performance, job satisfaction, and well-being. Jay observed, “a lot of turnovers happen
because of that relationship with the manager. If the social worker doesn’t feel supported, they’re
going to look for other jobs because they don’t have that well-being that they need.” In the next
section, the managers’ knowledge and implementation of effective leadership practices that
inspire, motivate and stimulate their employees as it relates to supporting social workers’ well-
being. The managers’ knowledge and implementation of a reflective practice that supports their
efficacy in demonstrating effective leadership.

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Utility Value: Managers’ Value Implementing Effective Leadership Practices to Support
Social Workers’ Well-Being
The interview data findings revealed the leadership practices of effective communication,
coaching and mentoring, and creating positive team culture as supporting social workers’ well-
being in the context of stress and job burnout. The data findings revealed the participants valued
the positive effects of their leadership practices in supporting their supervisees’ performance and
well-being. Though the participants emphasized the primary objective of their leadership practice
was related to their supervisees’ on-the-job performance, the benefit of the leadership practices
to their employees’ well-being was also expressed. The interview findings revealed the
participants’ leadership practices primarily supported their work performance the practices
employed inspired and motivated employees to mission-focused work, supported supervisees’
professional development, and psychologically safe team environment.
The participants unanimously revealed their perspectives on their role as being a support
to their social workers. Jan commented on the importance of her role in relation to her
supervisees and the clients and families served. She shared, “you know, I work for you. You
know, I’m here to help you do your job for your families.” Taylor shared,
I think [leadership practices] are super important. And I think it’s important
because I don’t feel like I necessarily had that as a [social worker]. And I’m a
pretty disciplined person, I don’t really need much leadership, but it would have
helped in certain moments.
Sam identified the value of effective leadership practices by commenting on the range of
practices from low to high managerial capacity that she observed and the effect it had on

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employee performance and well-being. She shared, “we have different levels of manager
capacity, meaning we have some very lazy managers, and we have some really on top of things.
And you can see [the effects] when you ask who their manager is.” Lee shared that her
leadership practices have value because they assist her in supporting her employees to be self-
aware and seek personal development for their well-being. She stated, “I think by trying to
develop myself and be as whole a person that I can be. I feel like, if I’m healthy, then I will be a
healthier leader.” Additionally, reflecting on her leadership practices, Lee shared, “I wasn’t as
cognizant of the importance of it, as I am now, and it resulted in a higher turnover of staff. It
resulted actually in what I would feel would be harmful to clients.”
The participants unanimously identified the importance of understanding the stressors of
their supervisees as a key element in implementing effective leadership practices. Sam shared, “I
let them know I was struck with stress when I was a social worker, I’ve been in your shoes.” The
participants identified the importance of their perceived leadership practices as supporting their
supervisees in achieving the ADS mission in the provision of providing services and support to
persons with developmental disabilities. Dani expressed this sentiment by saying, “when you
work in this field, you work to serve others. And part of serving others is you’re also serving
your team.”
The problem of practice addressed the effects of ineffective leadership practices on
employees’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout. The interview findings provided
evidence of the participants’ value of effective leadership practices in supporting social workers’
well-being. The participants’ identified their perceived motivation gap as the lack of managerial
training by ADS that may prevent the ADS managers’ knowledge and implementation of
effective leadership practices. This section will explore the interview data findings revealing the

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participants’ self-reported value of effective communication, coaching and mentoring
employees, and fostering psychologically safe work environments as supporting employees’
well-being.
Managers’ Value of Being an Effective Communicator to Promote Employee Well-
Being. According to the participants, ADS social workers experience a dynamic work
environment characterized by constant change sparked by new directives and mandates from the
State of California. The participants identified the importance of supporting social workers’ well-
being due to the constant change social workers experience in the context of clients’ needs,
mandatory timelines, and new State-mandates. Jay commented,
The only constant is change. So, there’s always changes happening. There’s new,
you know, we’re rolling out a new program, self-determination, that’s a learning
curve. With COVID, we’ve been doing alternative services to our typical delivery
of services or traditional services. So that’s a learning curve. So just a lot, you
know, always kind of being on your toes and learning.
Alex commented on the importance of communicating to employees the reason for a particular
requirement. She stated, “people are much more amenable to the fact you have to do this because
DDS is now requiring it on a monthly basis, rather than the effective date of this [new mandate],
people really need to know why.” The emphasis on performance job demands is essential.
Harley commented, “I expect people to be accountable and introspective about where they are
with the currency of their workload.” However, the participants shared the importance of
emphasizing performance and supporting social workers’ well-being. For instance, Taylor stated,
“I hold them accountable for their actions, but when directives come down and new things come
into play, and changes start to happen, I try to come up with a really cohesive plan, so that they

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don’t feel overwhelmed.” The participants perceived that their self-reported effective
communication skills reduced their supervisees’ anxiety and positively affected their
performance supporting their well-being. The interview findings revealed the participants
perceived being effective communicators as both valuable and essential in their roles as coaches
and mentors.
Managers’ Value for Coaching and Mentoring Employees. The participants expressed
the value of being a coach and mentor to their supervisees. The interview data revealed a theme
of the participants providing coaching and mentorship to their employees as another leader
afforded them at some point early in their career development. The interview data revealed a
variety of methods employed by the participants to provide coaching and mentoring. The data
findings demonstrated that the participants’ perception of the importance of their coaching and
mentoring to their supervisees was a central theme supporting their supervisees’ professional
development and well-being. Taylor identified the importance of being blunt and direct with
performance expectations while working with the employee to identify solutions to performance
concerns. She stated,
So, I’m like this is what you did, this is what was wrong, this is how we’re gonna
fix it. And we’re gonna move on. And if you have questions, you come to me, you
know, find me. But that kind of blunt approach is helpful because I’m not just
telling them to do it and leave. I’m telling them, I’m here to help you. And I’m
here to tell you how to do it the right way.
The interview data revealed the participants' persistence in supporting their supervisees
while expressing doubts about their practices due to the lack of written procedures and
comprehensive leadership training. The participants shared the absence of a training manual for

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managers affected their confidence in their ability to implement effective leadership practices,
especially those who did not benefit from prior leadership mentors or new professionals in the
Workforce and required them to develop their own management and leadership method and
develop an “on the job” training manual for their new hires. Noel shared her experiences with
training “we’re basically told this is your team. Follow the rules, do what you need to do,
empower them, and empower yourself, and then that’s it, right. So, you’re basically on your
own.” She continued by saying, “there was no training on how you deal with a difficult situation
with a social worker, this is what you do if there’s disciplinarily concerned, none of that was
something that came after that.” She continued saying, “so I did what I always do, I look up
things, I read things.” Alex shared her opinion of employee training by stating, “I think we fail
miserably here in training people, and I think our biggest problem is we have 21 teams, and we
have 21 managers doing training 21 different ways.” The participants perceived the duty to
coach and mentor their supervisees as an essential component of their leadership role. The
interview findings revealed that the participants perceived their leadership practices incorporated
coaching and mentoring elements supporting the performance of job expectations, the delegation
of new tasks, and supervisees’ professional development. The interview findings revealed the
participants perceived that coaching and mentoring were valuable to their supervisees’
professional development, and an essential element in fostering a healthy, positive work
environment.
Managers’ Value for Fostering a Psychologically Safe Work Environment. The
interview data revealed that nine out of 10 participants identified the leaders’ role in fostering
positive work environments characterized by shared leadership and psychologically safe
environments. The participants shared the value of creating positive work environments that

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supported supervisee empowerment, innovation, and collective learning. Employee competence
and engagement are factors contributing to employee well-being. Each of the study group
managers reported the importance of shared leadership within their team meetings to convey
information, problem solve concerns, and develop innovative approaches to challenges. Taylor
shared she sets her meeting agenda with time allotted to open discussion which keeps her team
grounded. She stated,
I’m telling them what they need to do and regular work stuff that they need to
keep up with, but I’m really letting them talk to each other for at least half the
meeting to whether that’s to problem solve or just to chat about whatever or the
next bonding event. So, our team meetings, they’re the backbone to why we are
pretty successful.
Sam discussed encouraging her team members to bring case scenarios to team meetings for
collective problem solving, peer support, and collective learning.
Seven out of ten participants valued using meetings as an opportunity for empowerment
and development of the collective team promoting shared leadership. Sam, Taylor, Lee, Jan,
Dani, Noel and Jay all commented on how they use meetings to present the team members’
strengths to one another and provide an opportunity for the team to determine items for
discussion. For instance, Dani shared that she has her social workers lead every meeting which
includes being responsible for developing the agenda, coordinating speakers, preparing an ice
breaker activity, and sharing a self-help tip for well-being. Jay shared that she uses the activity to
build the confidence of her team in being a team leader and to practice leadership skills in
facilitating team building activities. Jan commented on the rationale of empowering staff in this
manner. She stated, “I think because the work is a lot of times individual work, I looked for

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opportunities to give them assignments where they could work together.” In Sam’s opinion,
sharing power is about building morale within the team by focusing on the individual members
strengths and how it benefits the team because “everyone is a leader.” The interview findings
revealed the participants perceived that a psychologically safe work environment was essential to
creating a supportive environment to promote productivity and shared team leadership.
The interview findings revealed that the participants self-reported their value of effective
communication, coaching and mentoring employees, and fostering a psychologically safe work
environment. The participants’ identified their motivation stemmed from a perceived need to
serve as an intermediary to bullying behaviors by senior leaders and to support employees’
professional development. The interview data presented these leadership practices were intended
to support supervisees’ job performance with their well-being being a by-product of the peer
support established. However, the interview data presented that the participants perceived their
aforementioned leadership practices as being effective in supporting their supervisees’ well-
being.
Self-Efficacy: Managers’ Belief About Their Ability to Implement Effective Leadership
Practices
The research study explored the motivational influence of the participants’ belief in their
ability to implement effective leadership practices that support social workers’ well-being (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Bandura (2006) stated that perceived self-efficacy is concerned with the
individual’s judgment of their ability to perform as determined by the individual’s intention and
course of action taken. The interview data revealed the participants’ mixed findings with some
high and some low efficacy about their ability to implement effective leadership practices. The
interview data revealed an emergent theme of participants relying upon prior experiences or their

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director and peers as newly minted managers to inform their leadership practices. The interview
data revealed seven out of 10 participants expressed confidence in their ability to implement
effective leadership practices that supported their supervisees’ well-being under normal operant
conditions. The interview findings revealed themes of the effects of COVID-19 and CEO
leadership practices as influencing the efficacious implementation of leadership practices that
support well-being.
Effects of COVID-19. The interview findings revealed the participants experienced
challenges in the implementation of effective leadership practices due to the effects of COVID-
19. COVID-19 was a respiratory illness that caused mild to moderate illness like the common
cold but could lead to dangerous complications (County of LA, 2020). Seven out of 10
participants perceived that COVID-19 impaired their ability to implement effective leadership
practices due to the transition to remote work for their supervisees. Additionally, the participants
reported their working remotely and addressing familial concerns related to COVID-19
negatively affected their motivation. Sam described the challenges stating “there’s a certain
amount of disconnect by seeing someone in the little square box. I don’t think it’s as effective.”
The interview findings identified the participants felt ill-equipped to support their employees
remotely. For instance, Jan stated, “not everyone is equipped with knowing how to support their
teams in challenging times.” The interview findings revealed that the primary concern was the
health and well-being of clients and employees due to the prevalence of anxiety due to the effects
of COVID-19. The interview findings revealed that the participants perceived their efficacy in
implementing effective leadership practices was hindered by the challenges presented by
COVID-19 to their own well-being. The interview findings revealed that the unprecedented

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nature of the COVID-19 pandemic affected both the participants’ ability to provide support to
their supervisees which affected their well-being.
CEO Leadership Practices. The influence of the CEO’s leadership style emerged as a
theme in the participant interviews. The participant interviews revealed that five out of 10
participants expressed a perceived unsafe work environment characterized by bullying behavior,
and shaming by senior leadership. Alex described the environment stating “I don’t think people
feel safe here. It’s no secret that there was a lot of fear. There was a lot of if you mess up, you’re
going to get into trouble.” Seven out of 10 participants identified the perceived need to support
their employees from repercussions from missed deadlines and client complaints stemming from
their perspective of senior leadership’’ response in general and specifically, the CEO’s reaction.
The interview findings revealed data suggesting that the participants perceived efficacy of
leadership practices was influenced by the CEO’s and senior leadership’s practice of
transactional leadership or a punishment reward system instead of a transformational approach.
The interview findings revealed the presence of biased behavior and favoritism that negatively
affected employees’ well-being. The interview findings revealed that seven out of 10 participants
self-reported leadership practices that aligned with TLT as a response to perceived transactional
or laisse-faire leadership practices to support their supervisees’ well-being within the team
environment.
The interview findings revealed the effects of the influences of external factors, such as
COVID-19, and CEO leadership practices on the participants’ perceived self-efficacy in
implementing TLT-aligned practices that support employees’ well-being. The interview findings
revealed the strain created when leadership occurs within an unfamiliar setting, such as remotely,
and under unprecedented circumstances, such as COVID-19, affecting the well-being of both

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supervisor and supervisees. Additionally, the CEO’s leadership style preference influences the
ability to implement leadership practices that are perceived to be in conflict. It is important to
know the participants’ perceptions may be inaccurate or incomplete, but the attribution of the
leaders’ trustworthiness will be determined by the followers’ perspective (Korsgaard et al., 2002;
Law et al., 2011; Simons, 1999). The environment where leadership occurs must be considered
when exploring the influences of the leaders’ knowledge and motivation to implement TLT-
aligned leadership practices that support social workers’ well-being.
Research Question #3: How Does ADS Facilitate or Hinder the Managers’ Ability to
Implement Transformative Leadership Practices to Support Social Workers’ Well-Being?
The organizational findings emerged from the managers’ interviews as well as analysis of
documents and artifacts to identify potential influences that affect employees’ performance.
Organizational influences explored the culture, procedures, training, and resources available to
ADS managers. The research study will explore for potential organizational barriers that the
participants’ identified as hindering their ability to implement TLT-aligned practices that support
supervisees’ well-being. Clark and Estes (2008) identify organizational barriers as missing or
insufficient resources, such as equipment or work processes that impair the employees’ ability to
perform optimally. This section will explore the interaction between ADS culture and contextual
implications on managers’ knowledge and motivation to implement leadership practices that
support social workers’ well-being.
Organization Prioritizes Employee Work Performance Competency Over Well-Being
What role does the organization play in employee stress and job burnout? Maslach (1982)
posed this question by exploring the effects of “excessive caseloads, restrictive regulations, and
poor management” (p. 238). The interview findings and document analysis identified that

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employee well-being was absent from organizational policies or procedures. The participants
unanimously shared that the organizational emphasis was on employee performance and
compliance with timelines primarily with well-being considered as an after-thought. The
participant interviews revealed the evidence of organizational barriers of inconsistency in
organizational practices and a lack of inclusivity in decision making as harming employee
retention and well-being.
Evidence of Inconsistency in Organizational Practices
The participant interviews and document analysis revealed an inconsistency in adherence
to organizational practices. Inconsistency referred to the absence of cohesion within the agency
regarding the adherence to ADS’s organizational procedures. The interview findings revealed
that the primary organizational influence on the perceived inconsistency in adherence to
organizational practices was the absence of managerial training. The interviews revealed that
participants unanimously reported that they received little to no training on effective leadership
practices when hired. Moreover, seven out of 10 stated they relied heavily on leadership training
provided in prior employment settings and engaged in self-development. Jay, Lee, and Jan stated
that the management and leadership experiences they had prior to their employment with ADS
were instrumental in their implementation of leadership practices. The absence of clearly
articulated managerial expectations as detailed in a formal training curriculum may have
causality to the inconsistency in leadership practices and performance by managers to support
social workers’ performance and well-being.
Consistency in an organizational practice referred to the adherence to employee
expectations for completion of person-centered plans, purchase requisitions for client services,
case management documentation, and providing client and family support. However, three out of

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10 participants identified that the absence of an emphasis on well-being creates a void of support
for the social worker, in some cases, causing intent to leave or termination of employment. In
that context, Taylor observed,
The focus is on all these changes and things happening, and it’s steering [the
organization] away from focusing on making sure people are just okay. Like the
people, you expect to do these tasks and do the things that we’re implementing,
like are they mentally okay? Are they physically okay? Do they feel
overwhelmed? I think it’s just been left team by team, to be honest … I am
working extra hard to make sure my team is okay, because I’m not getting that
from someone else.
The inconsistency of organizational expectations for social workers’ well-being adversely
affects ADS’s managers. Lee shared that the lack of consistency created a lack of security
as the leadership practices and expectations affected employee well-being. The interview
data revealed the effects of stress and job burnout on all employees, including front-line
managers and senior leadership. Alex shared, “Seriously, I think that the managers’ well-
being hasn’t been addressed. And if you’re not well, you can’t help people that aren’t
well. But you know the department directors need to also make sure that their managers
are healthy.”
The document analysis findings supported the interview findings of the lack of emphasis
on employee well-being. Out of 31 documents reviewed, 13 were related to employee
onboarding, evaluation, and orientation. The document review revealed the only evidence of
organizational emphasis on employee well-being located in the employee evaluation
competencies. Specifically, the “Orientation” and “Staff Training” procedures indicated

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performance expectations without a mention of well-being awareness, monitoring, and support
expectations. Most peculiar is the absence of the reference to and encouragement for employees
to use the employee assistance program (EAP) within procedures as a resource for employees’
experiencing emotional distress. Both Harley and Jan mentioned the EAP as a resource available
to all employees, but based on document analysis, there is no evidence of a procedure or policy
providing managers guidance to support employees experiencing concerns with work-life
balance. Table 9 indicates the relevant documents reviewed related to the organizational
influences impacting managers’ implementation of effective leadership practices that support
employees’ well-being.

Table 9
Procedures, Reports, and Forms for Document Analysis
Document
Document
type
Date of last
review
Annual Report 2020 Executive 8/31/21
Sick Leave Procedure 3/14/17
Leave of Absence Form 3/14/17
Staff Training Procedure 6/10/20
Performance Evaluation Procedure 11/24/09
Performance Planning & Review - Client Services Manager Form 11/24/09
Performance Planning & Review - Service Coordinator Form 11/24/09
Performance Planning & Review - Department Assistant Form 11/24/09
Performance Planning & Review - Team Assistant Form 11/24/09

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Probationary Period Review Procedure 8/14/18
Three-Month Probationary Evaluation Form 8/14/18
Six-Month Probationary Evaluation Form 8/14/18
Orientation Procedure 1/28/20
New Hire Orientation Checklist Form 1/28/20
Case Management Orientation Checklist Form 1/28/20
Support Staff Orientation Checklist Form 1/28/20
Hiring Procedure 11/27/18
Management Position Rating Sheet Form 11/27/18
Employee Work Injuries Procedure 1/22/19
Termination of Employment Procedure 10/9/18
Meetings Procedure 3/17/21
Service Policies: Development and Review Procedure 12/11/18
Creation, Review, and Modification of Forms, Guidelines, and
Templates

Procedure

8/14/18
Procedures: Development and Distribution Procedure 3/17/21
Employee Agreements Procedure 10/9/18
Safety Policy Form 10/9/18
Personnel Records Procedure 7/24/18
Safety at HRC Procedure 9/24/13
Introduction - Why Procedures? Procedure 1/22/19
Modified Work Procedure 2/26/19
Remote Work: COVID -19 Guidelines 9/23/20

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Lack of Evidence of Inclusive Decision-Making Practices that Support Well-Being
The interview findings explored the organization’s practice of inclusive decision-making,
revealing concerns about the organization's responsiveness to employees’ needs. Harley shared,
“communication is not where it should be right now, and I think that’s why we have so many
people that are struggling.” She continued saying, “I feel I have someone I can get these ideas to
and who is taking ideas to whom they need to be taken to and certain things, but it’s not
happening as a whole.” Lee commented that she feels the lack of responsiveness is due to a
culture of “top-down management style” that results in a culture not being open to dialogue. For
instance, Jay shared concerns about the implementation of work systems that increased rather
than reduced workload demands on employees referring to them as “broken systems.” She
shared,
But I feel like interestingly, like when there’s a new system to put in place, it, I
feel like it doesn’t even, it’s not even going to be useful to our, our staff. So, I feel
like if, if the priority was staff, you know, having an efficient system to work
with, that they would start there and get feedback … It adds frustration to their
jobs … all these systems are I feel like they’re broken. But we give it to them
anyway. And we expect them to do their job with all these broken systems.
Dani stated that the organization should invest in providing employees with adequate training,
resources, and professional development opportunities to ensure that they are taking care of their
psychological well-being.
Noel shared, “I think they can do a better to listen to what is actually causing some of the
burnout, some of the stress, the stressors.” Jay shared,

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I honestly don’t feel like it feels like it hasn’t been the agency’s priority for the
well-being of the staff. I don’t think that’s been the number one. I just don’t feel
it. There is a big gap in communication. But I don’t know, I also don’t know if
they want to hear those things. For years, very little has been done about it, very
little. And to me, that just shows like you have people who are telling you and
giving you this feedback. But that’s not again, it’s not the priority, you know. So,
I don’t know if they want to hear it.
The interview data revealed a general sense that the organization espoused inclusive practices as
expressed in written procedures but not in practice. Moreover, the participants described a lack
of response by the organization to managers’ feedback on employees’ needs in relation to
performance and well-being.
The document analysis of the procedures “Introduction – Why Procedures?” “Service
Policies: Development and Review;” and “Procedure: Development and Distribution” explored
the documentation of inclusive practice for directors and managers to include employees in the
development of organizational policies and procedures. The procedures “Introduction – Why
Procedures?” and “Procedures: Development and Distribution” establishes the expectation that
managers review procedures with new hires, placement of the procedures on the organization’s
website for ease of access, and senior leadership review procedures no less than every three
years. The procedures indicate that the Department Director should review the procedure and
obtain input from those managers, staff, and departments “which may have specified
responsibilities pursuant to the procedure.” Furthermore, the procedures afford the opportunity to
recommend new or revised procedures by stating “all staff members are urged to identify, at any
time, the need for new or revised procedures.” The procedure further states that “Staff may ask

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their supervisor to call such a need to the attention of the Department Director who will bring it
to the attention of Operations Management for review and approval.” The interview findings
reveal though ADS clearly articulates expectations in their written procedures of soliciting
employee input into procedures, there is evidence of inconsistency in incorporating employee
input into work practices. The participant interviews revealed evidence that the perceived lack of
consideration and potential implementation of employees’ recommendations have a
demotivating effect on employees’ provision of input on work processes. Additionally, the
participants shared the effects of employee demotivation negatively affects employee well-being
due to increased workload demands, unproductive processes, and perception of a lack of
organizational inclusivity.
The interview and document analysis findings demonstrated a lack of organizational
emphasis on inclusive decision-making. Furthermore, there is a lack of evidence that the
organization practices inclusive decision-making. The interviews reveal an organizational gap in
responsiveness to employee input that may hinder the ability of managers to support employee
well-being.
Organization’s Provision of Essential Job Resources to Employees
The interview data and document analysis revealed that managers had access to job
resources designed to orient new hires to understand the mission and vision of ADS. The
document analysis revealed the emergent theme from the new hire materials that ADS existed to
serve clients who possess developmental disabilities and their families. The interview findings
revealed that TLT-aligned practices linked the leaders’ ability to engage followers’ to connect
with and commit to the organization’s mission of service. The following section explores the

146
evidence of organizational resources that supports mission and vision engagement and evidence
of resources that support employees’ well-being.
Evidence of Organizational Resources to Support Employee Participation in Mission and
Vision
The interview and document analysis findings revealed the influences of available
training, written procedures on leadership practices, and evaluation as organizational factors that
affect the implementation of effective leadership practices in supporting well-being.
Furthermore, this section will include artifact analysis of materials used by Services to the
Disabled to support new hire attachment to the organization’s mission and vision.
The artifact analysis of employee training included a review of the booklet “History of
Developmental Services;” “We’re Here to Speak for Justice;” and videos “How Far We’ve
Come: The Journey Toward the Lanterman Vision” and “Our Vision: Making It Happen.” The
artifacts provided a history of the collaborative partnership of parents, legislators, and
professionals in the development of community-based services for individuals who have
developmental disabilities. In the 1960s, individuals who were born with developmental
disabilities suffered due to legal commitment to institutional facilities because of the absence of
community-based options for education, living options, and supportive services for parents. ADS
incorporates these materials within their new hire training to promote a mission and vision of a
community that is inclusive and supportive of individuals who have developmental disabilities
and the families that support them. The artifacts identified assisted in inspiring and motivating
new hires; some of whom may have family members living with developmental disabilities, to
make a difference through support and advocacy.

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Evidence of Resources to Support Employees’ Well-Being
The document analysis of the procedure for “Performance Evaluation” and the
attachment of the “Performance Planning and Review Form for Managers” identified the
leadership competencies expected practices for managers’ proficiency. For instance, under the
“Employee Performance Management” competencies for “Staff Empowerment;”
“Accountability/Recognition;” and “Team Leadership” were identified. The “Staff
Empowerment” competency includes the expectation that managers are accessible and
communicate with staff to evaluate well-being, provide constructive feedback, provide one-to-
one coaching, and empower staff decision-making. The “Accountability/Recognition”
competency encourages managers to describe successful outcomes, set limits of authority to
support decision-making and autonomy, set and communicate high standards, recognize
performance, and provide employees with opportunities for growth, and promote a healthy work
environment. The “Team Leadership” competency communicates the expectation that managers
provide sufficient information to employees; guidance and direction; support through conflict
resolution and barrier removal; inspire and motivate the team; and exemplify leadership through
role modeling. The competencies identified were leadership practices that aligned with TLT, but
without a formalized managerial training methodology, the managers would not receive training
sufficient to meet the desired competencies. The interview data revealed the mixed levels of
efficacy may affect the mixed levels of the participants’ efficacy revealed in the interviews.
The interview findings revealed evidence that ADS utilized a budget allocation for
professional development pieces of training called “employee appreciation days.” Only five out
of the ten participants referenced these events due to the last offering was over five years ago,
where employees were introduced to topics such as mindfulness, chair yoga, and stress

148
management seminars. The participants referred to these offerings as supportive of employees’
well-being. Noel shared, “the mindfulness activities that we did allowed me to remember that we
need to take a breather and we need to be able to not only breathe, physically or literally, but also
mentally.” The training offered participants tools to manage stress at work, while also supporting
wellness practices at home. For instance, Dani observed, “that really helped me go into different
meetings, and taking a deep breath and separating from it, or even going to sleep at night, and
separating from work. I never knew that skill before that.” Noel’s and Dani’s comments share
the benefits of organizationally sponsored stress mitigation activities that support well-being.
The ADS 2020 Annual Report does not indicate a line item for “Professional Development” or
“Training.”
The interview findings revealed the participants unanimously identified concerns about
stress and job burnout among ADS employees. The participants identified high numbers of
employees on leave of absence due to stress-related conditions. When asked, “How does your
organization communicate the priority of employee well-being?” Taylor shared, “I think it’s very
important to focus on social workers’ well-being at our agency, but I don’t think as a whole,
we’re doing a great job right now.” The point of employees’ well-being is a critical one due to
the stressors of client demands, high caseloads, and mandated timelines that were identified as
challenges to social workers’ well-being. Additionally, ADS provides an “Employee Assistance
Program” linking employees with mental health professionals to support those experiencing
difficulties with stressors. Only Jan mentioned this organizational resource when discussing the
resources available to support employees’ well-being. Jan’s response suggests that resources may
not be promoted sufficiently that may support social workers’ well-being.

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Table 10
Determination of Assumed Influences as Assets or Gaps Per Qualitative Data Analysis
Assumed knowledge
influences
Description Determination of
assumed influences
Conceptual: Knowledge of
TLT-aligned leadership
practices
Managers need to know effective
leadership strategies such as
communicating effectively,
providing constructive feedback,
providing coaching supports, and
creating team leadership that
promotes social workers’ well-
being.
Asset
Procedural: Ability to
motivate employees
Managers need to know how to
create a psychologically safe
workplace climate that supports
social workers’ well-being.
Asset
Procedural: Ability to
stimulate employees
Managers need to know how to
create inclusive, shared
leadership teams that support
social workers’ well-being.
Asset
Procedural: Ability to support
employees
Managers need to know how to
develop social workers’ well-
being and productivity through
providing constructive feedback,
coaching, and delegating work
tasks for professional
development.
Asset

150
Metacognitive: Ability to
engage in self-reflective
practices
Managers need to be able to reflect
on their ability to support social
workers’ well-being.
Asset
Assumed motivation
influences
Motivational influence assessment
Utility value: Managers’
value implementing
transformational leadership
practices.
Managers need to value supporting
social workers’ well-being.
Asset
Self-Efficacy: Managers’
belief about ability to
implement leadership
practices.
Managers need to feel effective in
implementing TLT-aligned
practices that support employees’
well-being.
Asset
Assumed organization
cultural influences
Description of organization
cultural influences

Organization cultural
influence #1: ADS
prioritizes employee well-
being.
The organization needs to
communicate that all employees,’
managers,’ and social workers’
well-being is a priority.
Gap
Organization cultural
influence #2: ADS provides
essential job resources to
employees.
The organization needs to provide
all employees, managers, and
social workers job resources,
such as training, that support
employee well-being.
Gap

The research study identified that the leadership practices managers implement may help
or hinder their employees’ addressing stressors that may lead to job burnout. The interview
findings revealed key points the participants perceived as critical to their role in the

151
implementation of TLT-aligned practices that supported employees’ in addressing contextual
and personal factors that contribute to stress and job burnout if unmitigated. Table 11 presents
key interview findings on the exploration of stress, self-reported practices alignment with TLT,
and organizational influences related to the implementation of practices to support social
workers’ well-being.

Table 11
Table of Key Interview Findings
Key findings N = 10 %
Managers need to have a robust awareness of the concept of
stressors including personal and contextual factors that affect their
employees’ well-being
9 90
Participants intentionally and unintentionally implemented TLT-
aligned practices including inspiring mission-focused employees,
coaching and mentoring employees for professional development,
and fostering psychologically safe work environments that
supported employees’ well-being.
10 100
Organizational influences of the absence of managerial training for
managers created gaps in the managers’ ability to implement
TLT-aligned practices that supported employees’ well-being.
10 100

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Conclusion
The interview findings and document analysis demonstrated the participants knowledge
and motivation to implement effective leadership practices. The participants identified the
importance of the leadership practices of effective communication, coaching and mentoring, and
fostering a positive team environment. Additionally, there was evidence of the participants
motivation to implement the identified leadership practices as a means to support their
supervisees’ job performance and well-being. There was sufficient evidence to mixed
organizational influences that both helped and hindered the participants’ ability to implement
effective leadership practices that supported employee well-being.
The interview data and document analysis findings suggest that ADS managers are well-
positioned to implement TLT-aligned leadership practices due to the practices currently in place.
However, there are organizational factors that may hinder the implementation of effective
leadership practices that support well-being. First, the presence of organizational guidance in the
areas of inclusive practices and performance evaluation is misaligned with the managers’
knowledge of expected leadership practices expressed in the performance evaluation and thereby
influences managers’ motivation to perform leadership tasks due to a lack of self-efficacy and
collective efficacy. Secondly, the perspective that the agency collects feedback and input from
employees without evidence of incorporation of recommendations serves as a de-motivator
questioning the organization’s transparency and responsiveness. Thirdly, the organization’s lack
of emphasis on employee well-being results in both managers' and social workers’ vulnerability
to stress and job burnout.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This study explored the degree to which managers implement practices aligned with
transformational leadership theory (TLT). The study explored the concept of well-being in the
context of stress and job burnout and the degree to which ADS managers were positioned to
implement TLT-aligned practices. The interview findings determined the participants TLT-
aligned practices were present in the study group albeit intentionally, in some instances, and
unintentionally, in others, in supporting social workers’ well-being in the context of job stress
and burnout. The research study is approached from a desire to understand the phenomena of
stress and job burnout and leadership practices that may mitigate their effects on supporting
social workers’ well-being. TLT was selected as the preferred leadership theory from among
other theories such as servant leadership or adaptive leadership due to its focus on inspiring
followers to commit to a mission more expansive than their individual goals (Bass & Riggio,
2006). This chapter provides a discussion of the findings and recommendations for the
implementation of practices and for future research.
Discussion of Leadership Practices Aligned with TLT that Support Employee Well-Being
The central question of the research project was “what is the managers’ knowledge and
motivation related to implementing effective leadership strategies to support social workers’
well-being?” The interview findings revealed the participants’ self-reported leadership practices
that they perceived to be effective in supporting social workers’ well-being. The participants
identified practices of effective communication to inspire and motivate, coaching and mentoring
of employees, and fostering a positive work environment as important to their supporting
supervisees’ well-being and performance. The interview findings revealed that the participants
reported that they implemented practices aligned with TLT principles, but their practices were

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unintentional in intent. The participants self-reported the absence of a formal managerial training
program. They reported the lack of training as requiring them to rely upon leadership practices
developed in prior settings from leaders who demonstrated, modeled, and coached them or learn
them through self-development.
TLT identifies idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration as components of charismatic leadership that promote followership
to achieve a goal bigger than themselves (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978). The literature
review of TLT revealed the popularity of this leadership theory among similar charismatic
leadership styles, such as servant leadership and adaptive leadership, and has been the subject of
many recent studies on (Bush, 2018; de Hoogh et al., 2005; Dinh, 2014). The following sections
will discuss the principles of TLT that align with the participants’ perceived effective practices
that support social workers’ well-being in the context of job stress and burnout.
Discussion of the Practices of the Idealized Leader
The participants believed that leaders should have the ability to inspire their employees to
mission-focused work aligned with the transformational principle of the idealized leader.
According to TLT, the leader influences followers based on their integrity and ability to inspire
purpose (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978). The idealized leader’s character and integrity
establish a sense of purpose in their followers and a sense of trustworthiness and a
psychologically safe work environment resulting from ethical and moral conduct (Bass &
Riggio, 2006). The participants self-reported a perceived link between social workers’ well-
being and their finding purpose in their work. The interview data revealed the participants’ belief
in the importance that they model integrity and instill a sense of purpose in the work of their
supervisees. The participants reported that it was essential to help their supervisees, especially

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the newly hired, to understand the value of their roles in providing services and support to clients
and their families that offer an opportunity of meaningful day and social activities as members of
their community. The participants' degree of awareness of TLT or the practice of inspiring others
as a component of TLT-aligned practices was absent. However, all of the participants reported
behaviors engaged in this leadership practice as a means to marshal the talent and passion
resources present in their employees.
Discussion of the Practices of the Motivating Leader
Transformational leadership theory (TLT) principles include the leadership practice of
motivating followers by providing meaning and challenge to their followers arousing optimism,
enthusiasm, and team spirit through shared vision (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Sun & Anderson,
2012). The interview findings revealed the participants' perception of their ability to be effective
communicators was significant in motivating their supervisees. The participants’ were unaware
of the role of the motivating leader in TLT practice due to their unfamiliarity with TLT.
However, the participants’ reliance on the practice of effective communication as an element of
their perceived effective leadership essentially aligned with the TLT principal of being a
motivating leader. The participants self-reported that effective communication supported their
supervisees’ well-being through positive affirmation, praise, and formation of supportive team
culture as critical to support the team achievement of the organization’s mission. Social workers’
well-being benefits from managers who know how to communicate effectively (Berger, 2014)
and create job resources for social support (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006; Bakker et al., 2007;
Lambert et al., 2016; Mutkins et al., 2011; Tadic et al., 2015). The interview findings revealed
that all of the participating managers implemented the practice of being a motivating leader.

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Discussion of the Leadership Practice of Intellectually Stimulating Employees
The interview findings revealed the participants’ perspective on the importance of
fostering a positive work environment that promoted innovation and creativity among their
supervisees both individually and collectively. The literature review on TLT revealed that
transformational leaders intellectually stimulate their followers, encouraging innovative problem
solving and creativity through questioning assumptions, reframing problems, and approaching
old situations in new ways (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978). The participants self-reported
their perceived role as a catalyst for new idea generation, collaborative learning, and problem-
solving with their supervisees. They saw their role as utilizing shared leadership practices to
develop creative strategies to implement plans to meet new mandates, procedures, and timeline
requirements. Most importantly, the participants perceived their role as fostering a collaborative
team environment where members learned from and supported other members in managing work
demands. An essential component of team culture as it relates to social worker well-being is the
social support provided by the collective team to team members (Bakker et al., 2007; Lambert et
al., 2016; McMurray et al., 2010; Mutkins et al., 2011). TLT supports team climate and
innovation by creating the right environment for both to thrive (Eisenbeiss et al., 2008). The
participants reported practices that intellectually stimulated their supervisees but were unaware
of the alignment of their practice with the transformational leaders being an intellectually
stimulating leaders.
Discussion of the Leadership Practice of Providing Individualized Support
All participants identified their perspective that the ability to coach and mentor their
employees was paramount to their supervisees’ performance and well-being. The research
findings on TLT revealed that leaders need to know how to provide individualized support to

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support their followers’ professional development. The participants’ self-reported value for
coaching and mentoring is in alignment with the transformational leadership principle of
providing individualized support to followers. Additionally, the document analysis identified the
organization’s value of this TLT principle with competencies present in the procedure for
“Performance Evaluation” and the attachment “Performance Planning and Review Form for
Manages.” Specifically, the “Employee Performance Management” competency in the
“Performance Planning and Review Form for Managers” referenced written expectations for
“Staff Empowerment;” “Accountability/Recognition;” and “Team Leadership.” These stated
competencies indicate the organization’s inherent value in this aspect of TLT. TLT identifies that
the manager is a leader who provides individualized leadership by considering their employees’
needs for achievement and growth by acting as a coach or mentor (Bass & Riggio, 2006). As
with the other findings areas, the participants were unaware of the TLT leadership practice of
providing individualized support through coaching and mentoring employees, but their
implementation of this leadership practice aligned with TLT.
Discussion of Unexpected Findings
The research study revealed unexpected findings relating to the participants’ perspective
of factors that affected social workers’ well-being in the context of job stress and burnout. The
interview findings presented the participants’ assertions of the impact of COVID-19,
organizational emphasis on compliance only, and the influence of the Executive Leadership and
Organizational Culture on their employees’ well-being. This section will discuss the participants’
perceived effects of these factors on the implementation of effective leadership practices and
alignment with transformational leadership.

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Impact of COVID-19 on Managerial Practices
The research findings revealed the participants’ perspective on the effect of COVID-19
on their managerial practices and supervisees’ well-being. The participants identified the
immediate effect of COVID on their supervisees based on their observation of the high number
of employees who had taken family and medical leave of absence (FMLA). The high number of
employees on FMLA caused the participants and their supervisees additional strain to provide
case management coverage for their peers’ caseload. Additionally, the participants’ identified the
difficulties of implementing effective leadership practices virtually. They identified the
challenges presented by working remotely, in some instances while caring for children and
parents. The interview findings revealed the emergent theme of participants trying to balance the
responsibilities of providing managerial support to their supervisees while being overextended
with personal responsibilities. The participants self-reported supporting their supervisees’ needs
while experiencing the support they received from their leaders as ranging from very supportive
to not supportive at all. The research findings reveal the participants’ perspective that their well-
being affects their ability to implement effective leadership practices, TLT-aligned or otherwise.
Organizational Emphasis on Compliance versus Well-Being
The research findings revealed the participants’ perspective on the organization’s
emphasis on compliance solely. The participants perceived that the organization prioritizes
compliance with new mandates, resolution of client/family complaints, and adherence to
deadlines more than emphasizing employee well-being. Maslach identified the nature of job
stress and burnout are responses to everyday, chronic stress (Maslach, 1982). The interview
findings revealed the participants’ belief that the organization, specifically senior leadership,
should emphasize the well-being of their social workers instead of well-being considered as an

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after-thought. The participants self-reported the need to serve as a buffer between the
organization’s expectations and their supervisees supporting well-being and performance within
their scope of influence. The interview findings revealed the participants’ perspective that their
concerns about timelines, workload, and processes were either dismissed or ignored.
The Major Influence of Executive Leadership and Organizational Culture on Practice
The research findings revealed the participants’ perspective that the leadership practices
of executive leadership had a directly negative effect on organizational culture and influenced
their practices. The interview findings revealed the participants’ perception of bullying behavior
by the CEO that created an unhealthy work environment for employees. The researcher noted
one participant’s comment relating her perspective of the work environment as similar to being
in an abusive relationship. Resick et al. (2009) conducted research on the executive leadership’s
practices on subordinate practices and organizational culture resulting from top-down influence.
Based on TLT literature, the participant’s perception of the CEO’s leadership aligned with
transactional leadership practices, promoting other managers to practice similarly or employ a
passive/avoidant leadership approach. Sun and Anderson’s (2012) research on TLT identified
that transformational leaders demonstrate the ability to perceive the influences of their behaviors
as well as internal and external factors that affect their employees’ job performance and well-
being. The interview findings revealed that organizational context is an important factor to
consider when exploring managers’ leadership practices and employee well-being. The research
findings reveal that the executive leader sets the tone for the organization as a whole by
establishing expectations for the practices rewarded, punished, or ignored (Maslach, 1982;
Resick et al., 2009; Sun & Anderson, 2012).

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The research data presented the degree to which the participants were positioned to
implement leadership practices aligned with TLT supporting their employees’ well-being in the
context of stress and job burnout. However, the challenges indicated by the unexpected findings
present factors that may influence the survivability of recommendations presented in the next
section. Specifically, the challenges of the external factors that place a burden on managers’
capacity to implement new practices; well-being as a point of emphasis; and the context of the
existing leadership culture stemming from the executive’s leadership style affect the
implementation of TLT-aligned practices by ADS front-line managers and senior leaders.
Recommendations for Practice
The research study revealed recommendations for practice to support the managers’
ability to implement effective leadership practice and to address organizational influences that
support the operation of TLT-aligned practices. The recommendations identified in this section
emerged from the interview data findings as two comprehensive interventions that enhance both
the managers’ leadership capacity and the organization’s available resources to support social
workers’ well-being. The first recommendation is the implementation of a comprehensive
management training program. The management training program will expose front-line and
executive leadership to TLT-aligned practices, emotional intelligence, and reflective practices.
The second recommendation is the expansion of the stress mitigation program that supports
employee well-being. The stress mitigation program will provide employees the opportunity to
develop a variety of self-directed peer-organized groups fostering a sense of community
attachment and wellness. The following sections present the data findings supporting the
establishment of these recommendations and the expected outcomes of the interventions.

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Implementing a Management Training Program
The implementation of a management training program emerged as a recommendation
from the participant interviews. The interview findings revealed that the absence of a formal
management training program to support leadership development and institute effective
leadership practices was an organizational gap. Clark and Estes (2008) identified organizational
gaps as the absence of job resources that employees need to effectively perform job demands.
The participants unanimously self-reported their reliance on their prior knowledge from other job
settings or self-discovery to establish their leadership practices. The participants perceived the
absence of a formal training program to hinder the consistent implementation of effective
leadership practices across the organization that supports both employees’ job performance and
well-being. The implementation of a management training program will support leaders’ self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1999; Bandura, 2000; Bandura, 2002) and prevent the managers’ reliance on
previously garnered skills or resorting to independent learning solely. Clark and Estes (2008)
warned about the potential to overvalue or undervalue the self-estimation of abilities. The
recommendations indicated in this section provide a framework to construct leadership practices
that may support social workers’ well-being in the context of stress and job burnout containing
the following elements: TLT-aligned practices, reflective practice, and emotional intelligence.
Aligning Leadership Training with TLT Practices
The interview findings revealed that the participants were well-positioned to implement
transformational leadership practices. The research findings suggest that the implementation of
managerial training introducing TLT may increase the managers’ ability to support social
workers’ well-being due to principles of individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation
emphasizing individual and collective needs (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Northouse, 2019).

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Furthermore, the recommendation of transformational leadership practices training extends to
executive-level, senior leadership, and front-line managers for alignment and agreement at all
levels of the organization on the implementation of TLT-aligned leadership practices.
Additionally, the inclusion of all levels of leadership is essential in order to create a culture of
care and competence where leadership emphasizes both well-being and job performance. The
implementation of a leadership training program benefits managers’ leadership development and
supports the organizational goals of high employee satisfaction and low employee attrition.
Expanding Emotional Intelligence Training
The interview findings revealed the participants’ self-report of the benefits received from
training on emotional intelligence (EI). The participants’ reported that ADS offered EI training
on professional development days on two occasions but had not occurred within the past five
years. Meyer et al. (2008) identified that leaders who demonstrate emotional intelligence are
more inclined to foster a psychologically safe work environment due to behavioral consistency,
self-regulation, and reflective practice. The participants perceived their recommendation for EI
training as beneficial to supporting their supervisees’ well-being. The interview findings revealed
the participants’ perspective that the role of a manager required a degree of insight, care, and
compassion in building rapport and trusting relationships with their employees. The participants
identified the presence of emotionally disruptive behaviors that serve to demotivate employees.
The fostering of a psychologically safe work environment by training managers to behave in a
trustworthy manner (Law et al., 2011; Simon, 1999; Zak, 2017). EI training would support the
expectation that the establishment of a psychologically safe work environment is a requirement,
not an option.

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Implementing Reflective Practice Training
The interview findings revealed that participants had very little to no exposure to
reflective practice techniques. The participants self-reported the extent of their reflective
practices was related to uncomfortable interactions with their supervisees. The participants’
reflective practice ranged from knowing when to take a break from working to debriefing with
intimate partners and friends about the workday. Maslach (1982) recommended avoiding
discussing the workday as it may force the helper to relive stressful encounters, bringing the
work into the home environment. The reflective practice supports social service agents in their
job performance and reduces stress (Lutz et al., 2013; Thompson & Pascal, 2012). Thompson
and Pascal (2012) identified that reflective practice has a theoretical basis for the professional
development of people in the helping profession, specifically nursing and social work. Noel
(year) identified the importance of reflective practice in providing a safe place to discuss client
matters and to debrief with a skilled professional to discover learning opportunities. The
implementation of reflective practice training will equip the managers to be knowledgeable in
guiding their supervisees in handling clients’ and families’ challenging situations while
supporting their own awareness of challenges they experience as supervisors and employees.
Expanding the Stress Mitigation Program
The interview findings revealed the participants’ perception of the importance of
expanding the stress mitigation program at ADS. The participants identified methods that ADS
may incorporate in a stress mitigation program focused on employee wellness and well-being.
The participants communicated a belief that a program including self-directed, peer-organized
groups would positively impact their employees’ ability to effectively cope with stress and
potentially improve resilience to burnout. The interview findings revealed the participants’

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account of a variety of peer-operated groups including Weight Watchers, yoga, walking,
mindfulness, and book club. Immordino et al.’ s (2016) research on the effects of rest on the
creation of neuropathways supported the value of promoting spaces of inactivity to support
knowledge development and creativity. Maslach (1982) identified peer support as another
preventive factor for social workers’ mitigation of job stress and burnout. Researchers identified
the importance of peer support, in addition to the supervisorial relationship, as an important
predictor of social workers’ well-being (Collins, 2008; Hobfill, 2002; H. Kim & Stoner, 2008;
Marchand & Durand, 2011; Maslach, 1982; Nissly et al., 2005; Travis et al., 2016). Therefore,
the majority of participants recommended that the organization consider permitting the use of
meeting space for employees to organize peer-operated activities such as yoga, walking groups,
mindfulness, and book club during lunch breaks and at a designated time after work hours. ADS
can benefit from encouraging a peer-developed and operated wellness program to counterbalance
the work demands experienced by both social workers and their managers, allowing their
employees a momentary reprieve from client family demands, mandatory deadlines, and
personal matters.
Recommendations for Future Research
The study’s data suggest directions for future research on leadership practices that align
with transformational leadership theory in the context of supporting social workers’ well-being
and reducing job stress and burnout. First, further research on the influence of the chief executive
officer’s (CEO) leadership practice on managers’ leadership practices emerged as a key
recommendation. Initially, transformational leadership explored the political leader’s ability to
inspire and motivate others (Burns, 1978) and has recently emerged as a popular theoretical
practice of change management in the private sector (Bush, 2018; Chang, 2016; Eisenbach et al.,

165
1999; Eisenbeiss et al., 2008; McMurray et al., 2009; Song et al., 2012), the influence of
transformational leaders of United States-based social services agencies upon organizational
culture and employee performance in achieving organizational goals is surprisingly limited
(McMurray et al., 2009).
The study data suggested future research on the influence of the chief executive officer’s
(CEO) leadership style, personality, and behavior on managers’ leadership styles and behavior.
Six out of 10 participants’ perceived that the CEO’s leadership style and personality had a
negative influence on their ability to implement leadership practices that supported their
supervisees’ well-being inciting feelings to protect their employees from missed deadlines and
poor performance. Researchers who have studied CEO personality and behavior have identified
a correlation between CEO’s leadership style on organization practices and management
behavior (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Resnick et al., 2009). The literature review revealed a
prevalence of research studies on TLT, especially non-United States-based studies, however,
there is limited literature on transformational CEOs within non-profit social services
organizations. The majority of existing studies explore CEOs of private for-profit organizations
credited with for advances in business innovations (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; McMurray et al.,
2009; Song et al., 2012). Resnick et al. (2009) identified that transformational CEOs create an
environment where TLT practices occur and thrive.
The study data suggested that it is important to conduct further study into the research on
employees’ perspectives on the importance and impact of transformational leadership by their
supervisors on their well-being. The qualitative study included a small sample, focusing on the
participants’ perception of their leadership practices and their impact on their supervisees. The
qualitative study did not explore the supervisees’ perspective of the perceived benefits of their

166
managers’ leadership practices on their well-being. According to Bono et al. (2012) as well as
Sun and Anderson (2012), the followers’ biases influence their perspective of their managers as
being transformational leaders. A further study of the social workers’ perspective on the benefits
of their supervisors’ implementation of TLT-aligned practices on their job performance and well-
being is recommended. The exploration of the social workers’ perspective may contribute to
research on interventions that promote well-being in the context of stress and job burnout.
Limitations and Delimitations
This research study’s limitations and delimitations were common to imperfections in the
research methodology and researcher implementation. In this study, the most obvious limitation
was the impact of COVID-19 on the researcher’s ability to access a wider participant pool.
According to the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, COVID-19, a novel
coronavirus, is a respiratory illness that typically caused mild to moderate illness, like the
common cold, but could lead to dangerous complications (County of LA, 2020). COVID-19
affected the researcher’s ability to access the organization’s site and the ability to conduct in-
person interviews due to restrictions of the Governor’s edict of a State of Emergency that began
in March 2020 and extended through the duration of this study. As a result of events beyond the
researcher’s control and the USC IRB restrictions, interviews occurred online. Online interviews
via Zoom offered greater convenience in scheduling interviews; however, the richness of in-
person interviews and access to some artifacts were unavailable due to COVID-19.
An additional study limitation was the phenomenon of social desirability. The recruitment
of the participants required two appeals to participate. Though the response to the email requests
was considered reasonable due to managers working remotely due to COVID and the response
period given was only two weeks between the first and second emailing of invitations, the

167
potential for concerns about repercussions and reprisals related to participation may have been
present. Social desirability occurs when participants align responses to perceived socially
acceptable responses. Social desirability occurs due to retribution and reprisal concerns (Preti &
Miotto, 2011). Additionally, due to the topic of leadership practices that support employee well-
being, the participants’ bias may emerge in their perception of the effectiveness of their practices
in contrast to how their employees perceive them.
For this study, the research method’s delimitations were to focus on managers of social
workers in nonprofit and nongovernmental social services organizations. The selection of this
focus was the result of the literature review that indicated high rates of reported stress and job
burnout and the demands of the client-social worker relationship, and limited availability of
literature on the effects of managers’ implementation of effective leadership practices that align
with TLT that supports social workers’ well-being. Moreover, the researcher delimited the study
to only one organization, ADS, versus multiple organizations. The potential impact of the
decision to study ADS only was the variability from other social service organizations of similar
size and consumers in the allocation of funding, new hire onboarding, feedback protocols and
tools; and organizational policies and procedures that may influence managers’ leadership
practices in relation to social workers’ well-being.
The composition of the participant group was another factor that required consideration.
The participant group was comprised of only female managers. Though the composition aligns
with the high percentage of female managers, the absence of male participants may have limited
the richness of the study data. The influence of gender, gender roles, and gender identity were
prevalent in the literature review on stress and job burnout, especially within the discussions in
Chapter 2 on the effects of Work-Family Demands Conflict and Family Work Demands Conflict.

168
The research suggested differences among males and females in relation to leadership
approaches and relational values. The contribution of male participants may have shed additional
light upon normative research on perceived gender differences in leadership.
Finally, the determination to not inform the participant groups about the exploration of
their positioning to implement TLT-aligned practices or inquire about their knowledge of TLT is
a significant delimitation. At no point in the interview was transformational leadership
mentioned for two reasons. First, TLT is prevalent among university scholars and researchers,
but not widely identified as a theoretical framework within workplace settings. Secondly, I
refrained from introducing the concept within the interviews to prevent contamination of
interview data findings due to the possibility that participants were unfamiliar with the theory.
Out of an abundance of precautions, I felt it best to avoid introducing a concept only to interview
practices espoused within the theory. The potential impact to the social desirability of the
participants on the introduction of transformational leadership which may be unfamiliar to the
participants led me to evaluate their self-reported leadership practices to determine their
positioning to implement TLT-aligned practices.
Implications for Equity or Connection to the Rossier Mission
The study has promising implications for managing staff and leadership within nonprofit
and nongovernmental social services organizations. The mission for USC Rossier School is to
prepare leaders to achieve of educational equity through practice, research, and policy.
Educational equity establishes the responsibility of organizations and their leaders to create
learning pathways, analyze trends, and implement practices that support the fair and just
treatment of their employees. The significance of this study with a focus on exploring managers’
leadership practices that align with TLT and recommendations provided establishes a training

169
framework for ADS via which managers can learn effective leadership practices. The interview
data revealed that some of the participants entered managerial positions without the benefit of
mentorship and coaching in a prior work setting to assist in the development of their leadership
identity. The implementation of the study recommendations to implement a comprehensive
training program provides equal access to managers to implement effective leadership practices
while supporting their employees as a primary resource to well-being and a protective factor in
the mitigating of job burnout. Additionally, Rossier’s mission to create learning opportunities to
address disparities that affect marginalized groups extends beyond K through 12 and college
classrooms but exists within the workplace as well, supporting the principle of lifelong learning.
Research on stress and job burnout indicates that employee well-being is threatened when stress
is unmitigated and job burnout occurs, resulting in high rates of medical leave of absences,
termination of employment, and adverse health/mental health conditions. The research findings,
recommendations, and opportunities for future research seek to understand and address systems
of power that exist within the workplace that result in neglecting employees’ well-being.
Conclusion
This study explored the degree to which ADS managers’ self-reported leadership
practices aligned with transformational leadership theory. Transformational leadership as a
theoretical practice aligns with the centrality of the mission to inspire others to serve (Bass &
Riggio, 2006; Burns, 1978). The literature review revealed that social workers’ job stress and
burnout are well researched (Bakker et al., 2008; Coffey et al., 2004; Collins, 2008; Demerouti et
al., 2001; Dollard et al., 2003) especially for the sectors providing services to children and
families (Boyas et al., 2012; Lizano & Mor Barack, 2012; Lloyd et al., 2002; Mor Barack et al.,
2001; Nissly et al., 2005; Shier et al., 2011; Travis et al., 2016) and to a lesser degree to those

170
experiencing chronic and persistent mental health challenges (Bride, 2007; Farchi et al., 2014;
Ting et al., 2011). The objective of the research study was to explore managers’ leadership
practices in their alignment with transformational leadership theory. The data findings
demonstrated that the participants’ managerial practices generally aligned with transformational
leadership theory. The data revealed that the participants implement practices to inspire their
supervisees to be mission-focused by modeling integrity and trustworthiness; to motivate their
employees through effective communication; foster team-building supporting shared leadership
and peer support to problem solve, and to promote their supervisees’ professional development
through coaching and mentoring. The study provided key recommendation areas that may
enhance the implementation of TLT practices that support employee well-being. The data
revealed two recommendations identified from interview findings that address the managers’
ability to implement effective leadership practices and the organization’s resources that
supported social workers’ well-being. The first recommendation is to implement a management
training program that includes training aligned with TLT practices, emotional intelligence, and
reflective practices to support employee well-being and performance. The second
recommendation is to expand the stress mitigation program to include peer-operated activities
that provide a variety of opportunities created to support well-being. Well-being is vitally
important for employees in professions, but most especially in high-stress occupations such as
social work, where individuals are taking on the role of helper to individuals experiencing
complex life situations.

171
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
RQ1. What is the managers’ conceptualization of social worker well-being?
RQ2. What are the managers’ knowledge and motivation related to implementing effective leadership strategies to support
social workers’ well-being?
RQ3. How does ADS facilitate or hinder the managers’ ability to support ADS social workers’ well-being through
transformational leadership-aligned practices?

Research Question Type Key: Experience & Behavior (EB); Opinion & Values (OV); Feelings (F); Knowledge (K).
Respondent Type: 8 to 12 managers of ADS social workers that serve individuals who have complex and persistent mental health
needs.
Interview question Potential probes RQ Concept Q type
(Patton)
1. Tell me a little about yourself, your role,
how long have you been a manager at
ADS?
What did you do before this
position?
2 EB

195
2. How do you define well-being? What is your concept of social
worker well-being?
1 K, OV
3. What are some leadership practices that
support social worker well-being?
Can you give me examples of when
you have implemented these
strategies?
2 K1 K, OV, EB
4. How would you define a workplace that is
psychologically safe?
What leadership practices can create
a psychologically safe workplace?
2 K2 OV, EB
5. Tell me about your team building
practices. In what ways, if at all, do you
feel they contribute to social worker well-
being?
Can you share examples? 2 K3 EB, K
6. Tell me how your feedback practices. In
what ways, if at all, do you feel they
contribute to social worker well-being?
Can you share examples? 2 K4

EB
7. Tell me how your employee coaching
practices. In what ways, if at all, do you
Can you share examples? 2 K4 EB

196
feel they contribute to social worker well-
being?
8. What activities do you engage in to reflect
on your leadership practices, if any? I am
particularly interested in those related to
social worker well-being.
Can you share with me how you
incorporate your reflective practices
into your leadership strategy to
support social worker well-being?
2 K5 K, EB
9. How important would you say supporting
social worker well-being is for you as a
manager?
How important do you feel it is for
your organization?
2 M1 K, OV
10. Thinking about stress and job burnout,
how effective do you feel you are in
supporting your social workers’ well-
being?
Can you give me an example of
activities you do to support your
social workers well-being to handle
stress and job burnout?
2 M2 F, OV
11. How effective has your organization been
in promoting well-being for all
employees?
How does your organization
communicate the priority of
employee well-being?
3 O1 EB, OV, F

197
12. What training specific to supporting social
workers’ well-being did you receive from
ADS, if any at all?
Tell me how this training helped or
hindered your ability to perform
your duties?
3 O2 EB, K
13. What are the organizational resources, if
any, that help or hinder your ability to
practice effective leadership strategies that
support social worker well-being?
Can you give me examples of how
you have utilized these resources?
3 O2 OV, EB

Interview Question Matrix KMO
Managers need to know effective leadership strategies such as communicating effectively, providing constructive feedback,
providing coaching supports, and creating team leadership that promote social worker well-being.
K1
Managers need to know how to create a psychologically safe workplace climate that supports social worker well-being. K2
Managers need to know how to create inclusive, shared leadership teams that support social worker well-being. K3
Managers need to know how to develop social worker well-being and productivity through constructive feedback, coaching,
and delegation of work tasks.
K4
Managers need to be able to reflect on their ability to support social worker well-being. K5

198
Managers need to value supporting social worker well-being. M1
Managers need to feel effective in implementing leadership practices to support social worker well-being. M2
The organization needs to communicate that all employees,’ managers,’ and social workers’ well-being is a priority. O1
The organization needs to provide all employees, managers, and social workers job resources, such as training, that support
employee well-being.
O2

Demographic Information
D1. What is your preferred gender identity (may use preferred pronouns)?
D2. What is your identified ethnicity?
D3. What is your age?
D4.What is your educational level?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Miles, Vincente Benet (author)

Core Title Transformational leadership theory aligned-practices and social workers' well-being: an exploratory study of leadership practices in the context of stress and job burnout

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 04/29/2022

Defense Date 03/28/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Age,client-social worker interaction,Discrimination,family-work conflict,gap analysis,gender,job burnout,job demands,job resources,KMO framework,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychological safe job climate,Race,secondary traumatic stress,self-efficacy theory,sexual orientation.,social cognitive theory,Stress,transformational leadership theory,work-family conflict

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair), Phillips, Jennifer (committee member), Wilcox, Alexandra (committee member)

Creator Email vincentebmiles@gmail.com,vmiles@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111159641

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