University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A comparison of improvements in sight reading pitch accuracy in beginning instrumentalists after treatment

(USC Thesis Other)

A comparison of improvements in sight reading pitch accuracy in beginning instrumentalists after treatment

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content A COMPARISON OF IMPROVEMENTS IN SIGHT READING PITCH
ACCURACY IN BEGINNING INSTRUMENTALISTS AFTER TREATMENT

by

Asunción Ojeda

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(MUSIC EDUCATION)

December 2010

Copyright 2010 Asunción Ojeda

ii
Dedication

To my students,
who inspire me to
keep learning

iii
Acknowledgements
This dissertation came to being largely through the guidance of my advisor,
Dr. Sheila Woodward. Her insight as a music educator, pragmatic wisdom gained
from research experience, and command of writing conventions all poured in to the
assistance I received and for which I am deeply grateful.
The input from the other committee members, Dr. Bryan Simms and Dr.
Susan Helfter, is also greatly appreciated. I especially wish to thank Dr. Helfter for
her direction in getting the project started.
For the time and attention which they contributed to this project, the judges
who scored the tests deserve more thanks than I could ever express. I would also
like to thank the administrators at the school sites for their support.
The music education course work at the USC Thornton School of Music has
greatly shaped my teaching practice and my interest in music literacy development.
It also planted the seeds that led me to pursuing a study on the topic of music sight
reading. My field seminar professors all had a hand in this and deserve to be
acknowledged: Dr. Patrice Madura, Dr. Karl Swearingen, Dr. Jay Zorn, Dr.
Gwendolyn McGraw, and Dr. Tina Vartanian.
I extend an infinite amount of thanks to friends and family. Without their
support and encouragement, I would not have been able to complete this endeavor.
Last, but most certainly not least, I wish to thank my husband Paul, whose
love, patience and understanding carried me through this journey.
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables vii

Abstract viii

Preface x

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Background 1
The nature and complexity of sight reading 1
The internal conception of sound 2
Pattern recognition 2
Theoretical models 3
Prescribed practices 5
Aural skills 6
Tonal pattern training 6
Vocalization 7
Problem Statement 9
Need for the Study 10
Purpose Statement 11
Research Questions 11
Null Hypothesis 12
Definitions 12

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature 14
Introduction 14
Theoretical Models 14
Visual Perception 20
The Learner’s Aptitude and Abilities 27
Musical aptitude, musical ability, and cognitive ability 27
Technical proficiency 29
Comprehensive Musicianship as a Basis for Literacy 31
Aural skills and aural perception 31
Vocalization 36
Mental strategies 39
Appropriate visual materials 41
Tonal pattern training 43
v
Learning sequences 46
Formal Sight Reading Instruction and Practice 48
Implications for the Study 52

Chapter 3: Methodology 54
Introduction 54
Sample 54
Target population 54
School setting 55
Classroom setting 55
Study participants 55
Study Design 57
Participants’ music-reading background 58
Variables and Measures 59
Independent variable 59
Curricular context 60
Sight reading practice melodies 60
Implementation of the independent variable 61
Dependent variable 61
Test procedure 61
Judges and scoring 62
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures 63
Experimental Validity 64

Chapter 4: Results 66
Introduction 66
Research Questions and Null Hypothesis 66
Sample Profile 67
Inter-Judge Reliability 68
Pre-Test Results 69
Post-Test Results 70
Gain Scores 70
Pre-Sight Reading Behavior of Students 72
Summary of Results 74

Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion and Conclusion 76
Summary 76
Discussion of Outcomes 77
Acceptance of null hypothesis 77
Analysis of raw scores 78
Supplemental research question 78
Discussion of procedures 79
vi
Sample 79
Instruction during the study period 80
Testing 80
Observation of student behavior 81
Judges and scoring 82
Discussion of independent variable 83
Discussion of the dependent variable 84
Participants who performed poorly 84
Implications for Music Education 85
Recommendations for Further Research 86
Conclusion 87

Bibliography 89

Appendices 99
Appendix A: Site Permission Letter 99
Appendix B: Parents' Informed Consent Form 100
Appendix C: Participant Recruitment Script 103
Appendix D: Melodic Sight Reading Achievement Test 105
Appendix E: Directions for Administering and Scoring 107
Appendix F: Raw Scores for Pre- and Post-Tests 111
Appendix G: Pre-Sight Reading Behavior of Students on Post-Tests 112
Appendix H: Curricular Context 113
Appendix I: Sight Reading Practice Melodies 115

vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Study Participants by School and by Class 67

Table 2: Stratified Random Assignment of Intact Classes 68

Table 3: Number of Participants per Group 68

Table 4: Inter-Judge Reliability 69

Table 5: Pre-Test Scores and ANOVA 70

Table 6: Comparison of Pre- to Post-Test Scores for Group I and Group II 71

Table 7: Comparison of Gains for Experimental Group I and Group II 72

Table 8: Pre-Sight Reading Behaviors on Post-Test 73

viii
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare relative gains in sight reading
ability by two groups of elementary students when compared to each other after 8
weeks of treatment and to determine whether or not the participants used the pre-
reading routine in which they were trained during testing. The study sample
included fourth and fifth grade students (n=52) enrolled in urban public schools who
attended weekly instrumental music classes. The curricular context was that of rote-
to-note instruction coupled with the incorporation of literacy development through
vocal activities. The study employed a pre- and post-test, quasi-experimental two-
group design, with a treatment period of eight weeks. Experimental Group I
employed a solfège-based melody reading approach, and Experimental Group II
employed an intervallic sight reading approach. In order to insure that all the
participants had access to guided reading instruction, no control group was
employed. Each of the groups demonstrated statistically significant improvement in
sight reading accuracy in the post-tests, when compared with pre-test scores (p<.05).
The differences in the mean gain scores for the groups were not statistically
significant. In the testing situation, none of the participants appeared to use the
entire procedure in which they were trained, but eight used a portion thereof. The
results indicate that improvements in sight reading can be achieved in beginning
instrumentalists through diverse teaching approaches, and that neither of the two
ix
approaches investigated here showed evidence of being significantly more valuable
that the other in terms of impacting sight reading skills.

x
Preface
Instrumental class method books abound, and they generally tackle literacy
instruction right from the start, teaching music notation reading simultaneously with
basic instrumental technique. Not all music educators agree with this approach,
however, especially when it comes to elementary school music students. In the
school environments in which I have been teaching, I have found rote teaching to be
beneficial, along with the deferment of instrumental music reading lessons until the
students are more comfortable with playing position, tone production, and the
performance of simple melodies. The challenges of making that transition prompted
me to turn to general music instructional methods.
Teaching sight reading offers unique challenges to the teacher. Having
observed the success of colleagues in using the Kodály approach in the development
of student music literacy, I have been developing a beginning instrumental music
curriculum that incorporates singing activities. An intervallic approach, which trains
students to recognize patterns, contour and intervals, is commonly known amongst
fellow teachers to be successful and this approach appears in numerous method
books. This study comes out of the context of determining the benefits of different
approaches to developing sight reading skill.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background
Two distinct but related notions form a foundation for this study: the
temporal nature of music; and the different modalities involved in music reading.
Music is a temporal art, and the notational symbols on the written page represent
changes that occur to sound in time. The sonic events in the temporal dimension,
which are perceived aurally, are represented by the visually perceived notational
elements in the spatial dimension. In discussing how music is perceived and
recognized, Perretz and Zatorre (2005) identified music as a medium that relies on
the relationship between elements, not on the absolute values of individual elements.
Based on that observation, it would make sense for music students to be trained to
realize music notation in a manner that is congruent with processes involved in
hearing music and with processes involved in proficient sight readers’ visual
perception of music notation.
The nature and complexity of sight reading. Sight reading, a complex
process and a valuable skill, is the ability to perform unfamiliar music at sight from
standard music notation. It is one of the most frequently discussed objectives of
music education (Colwell and Goolsby, 2002), perhaps due to the benefits it offers to
the musician. In musical traditions that rely on written transmission, a skilled reader
would be able to learn a repertoire of music more quickly than one who reads with
difficulty (Lehmann and McArthur, 2002). The skill is useful in circumstances
2
where musicians are not given much advance preparation time before needing to
perform. The complexity of this skill and the difficulties in acquiring sight-reading
proficiency might also be reason for the popularity of this topic in music education.
Hodges (1992) defines music reading as the process of converting special visual
symbols into sounds, and proposes that these sounds may be conceived internally, as
well as being produced externally through voices or musical instruments.
The internal conception of sound. This internal conception of sound implies
a skill that goes well beyond the identification of discrete symbols. Fundamental
musicianship, according to Mainwaring (1951), is built from such a skill, which he
referred to as the ability to think in sound. In sight reading, according to Schleuter
(1997), a combination of proficient technique and musical skills is required, as well
as an interaction of aural and visual processes. This suggests that brain processing of
the visual symbol requires simultaneous conceiving of the sound represented by the
symbol. Therefore, during the process of learning music reading, aural skills would
need to be developed alongside the skill of processing visual cues.
Pattern recognition. Lehmann and McArthur (2002) describe sight reading
as a reconstructive process that involves a number of sub-skills, one of which is the
ability to recognize patterns and match them with a previously acquired vocabulary
of musical concepts such as tonal and rhythmic patterns, high or low pitch, duple or
triple meter, descending or ascending scale, neighboring tones or large leaps.
Familiarity with such basic concepts develops a readiness in the learner for decoding
3
music notation (Gordon, 2004; Mixon, 2007; Schleuter, 1997). A transfer from the
known to the unknown occurs in the sight reading process when the learner puts to
use familiar musical vocabulary and technical skills while processing the notation of
an unfamiliar piece of music (Schleuter, 1997).
Theoretical models. The multi-modal nature of music reading has been
proposed and tested by researchers in a number of theoretical models. Wolf’s (1976)
cognitive model of musical sight-reading illustrates an information processing
system in which good sight readers are able to draw from long term memory stores
to reduce to a minimum what is registered in the short term memory, while the poor
sight readers tend to fill the short term memory stores to capacity with discrete
notational details. This model is supported by the approaches described by Lehmann
and McArthur (2002), who describe two angles from which the aural and visual
processes in interpreting music notation can occur: the data-driven approach, based
on the identification of discrete symbols, or the conceptually-driven approach, based
on prior knowledge that allows the student to view larger units of information, form
structural analyses, and anticipate continuations. Other models assign a crucial role
for aural perception and the development of aural skills. Gordon’s music learning
theory (1984) is centered on what he calls “audiation,” which is “to music what
thought is to language, and takes place when we hear and understand in our minds
music that we have just heard performed or have heard performed sometime in the
past” (Gordon, 1999, p. 42). According to Gordon (2003), audiation skill is
4
important in sight reading ability and that music education must include a
foundational taxonomy for tonal and rhythm pattern instruction, designed to equip
the music learner with a tonal and rhythmic vocabulary, in order to develop music
reading skills. The continual linking of sound and physical action on the instrument
is considered to be the most musical instruction method (Hayward & Gromko, 2009;
Mainwaring, 1951; McPherson & Gabreilesson, 2002). Sight reading requires
audiation and an association with symbolic notation and high levels of technical
proficiency. At its core is the importance of the learner’s ability to mentally imagine
the sound represented by music notation while simultaneously manipulating the
instrument to physically produce that sound. Such a complete grasp of musical
literacy is summed up by Choksy (1981), an advocate of the Kodály approach, as the
ability to read, write and think music. In the Kodály approach, which is essentially
based on aural foundations, ear and vocal training along with a sequence of
intervallic relationships and rhythm patterns permeate every stage of music learning
(Choksy, 1981; Zemke, 1997). Inner hearing ability, or the mental performance of
music, is a vital component that is nurtured throughout the entire span of the
curriculum, yet even at early ages the sound experience is associated with
developmentally appropriate notational symbols (Zemke, 1977). In the McPherson
model (1993), five aspects of music performance and learning are proposed and
confirmed as being interconnected, these being the abilities to sight-read, play by ear,
play from memory, perform proficiently-rehearsed music, and improvise. A study
5
on music reading development by Scripp (1995) formulated and tested a cognitive-
developmental model which presents three key dimensions: production (playing or
singing), perception (aural and visual), and reflection (students’ self-evaluation and
analyses of their own learning and reading processes). Scripp’s hypothesis, which
predicted that the three dimensions would become more integrated as the learner
advances in musical development, was confirmed by the results of the study. In
Kopiez and Lee’s (2006) model of skills in music sight reading, the significance of
cognitive and expertise related sub-skills shifts, depending on the complexity of the
sight-reading stimuli. The models from Kopiez and Lee (2006), Scripp (1995) and
McPherson (1993) appear to agree on the interaction among aural, visual, cognitive,
and technical abilities within the process of music reading.
The cognitive models cited in the preceding paragraph provide essential
ingredients for a type of instrumental music class setting that would be conducive to
developing comprehensive musical literacy. Other existing research offers
additional recommended practices, such as tonal pattern instruction and the use of
vocal activities.
Prescribed practices. Schleuter endorses the development of sight reading
skills through the “careful building of tonal and rhythm pattern vocabularies,
audiation skills, playing by ear, technical skills, and regular practice with unfamiliar
notation” (Schleuter, 1997, p. 138). When a beginning instrumentalist with little or
no prior musical training (and consequently little prior knowledge) is asked to play
6
an unfamiliar melody from music notation, the complicated system of symbols
represents a form of language in which the student has little or no proficiency,
possibly causing the task to be quite overwhelming.
Aural skills. The development of aural skills as a contributor to sight reading
ability has gained support from various studies (Azzara, 1993; Earney, 2008;
Gromko, 2004; Haston, 2004; Hayward & Gromko, 2009; Luce, 1965; Mann, 1991;
McPherson, 1993; Sweetnam, 2008). Tracking text, an important sub-skill in
language reading, is equally critical in music reading, and studies on eye movements
have led to conclusions about perceptual span and its relationship to music sight
reading proficiency (Chang, 1993; Furneaux & Land, 1999; Goolsby, 1994; Schmidt,
1981; Sloboda, 1976; Truitt, Clifton, Pollatsek & Rayner, 1997). The theoretical
models cited in the next paragraph illustrate further the necessity of developing aural
and other basic musical skills either prior to or simultaneously with the teaching of
decoding music notation.
Tonal pattern training. Tonal pattern instruction, a process by which
students are trained to recognize short melodic phrases as opposed to single notes,
integrates aural and visual perception processes (Bluestine, 2007). A body of
research on tonal pattern instruction and its effect on the sight reading abilities of
first-year beginning instrumental music students has yielded mixed, but mostly
positive results (Bernhard, 2004; Gamble, 1989; Grutzmacher, 1987; MacKnight,
7
1975). The outcomes from these studies support the incorporation of this type of
instruction into a beginning instrumental music curriculum.
The recommendations from Schleuter (1997), the principle behind Gordon’s
music learning theory (1993); and the elements of the Kodály approach (Choksy,
1981; Zemke, 1977) all support the idea that the building of tonal and rhythm
vocabularies in beginning instrumentalists could be started through vocalization.
The experience with these tonal and rhythmic vocabularies, by way of singing and
rhythm chanting, would equip beginners with conceptual knowledge with which they
could associate the symbols encountered in music notation.
Vocalization. The value of singing in the instrumental music class, as a tool
for developing musicianship, is promoted in a number of sources. Fritts’ (1991)
research on the historic development of the concept of comprehensive musicianship
in school bands sheds light on music teaching practices from some of the earliest
days of instrumental music being formalized in American public schools. He cites
how the use of singing, solfège, the movable Do system, individual and group
singing of tones and chords, and ear training, were an integral part of the
instrumental music curriculum, as documented in some earlier published
instrumental method books. In the Hungarian music education system, a pre-
requisite to instrumental music instruction is a minimum of one year vocal music
training, which includes sight singing and the development of aural skills (Choksy,
1981; Zemke, 1977). Proponents of this system have maintained that to be
8
internalized, musical learning must begin with the voice, the child’s own natural
instrument. Howard (1996), an advocate for incorporating the Kodály approach in
instrumental music instruction, states that, according to Kodály, singing provides an
excellent foundation for the study of music. He explains that singing develops the
inner ear, which is the most important musical goal of all. In Mixon’s (2007, p. 69)
sequence for teaching music notation, singing is seen as an integral part thereof
because “instrumental music students often learn most efficiently when they first
attempt skills through the most natural instrument – the voice.” A number of studies
on singing activities incorporated into several areas of instrumental music instruction
have also been conducted, with sight reading being one of them. In a study by Davis
(1981), structured singing activities had a significant effect on the participants’ sight
reading abilities, particularly for those in their first year of instruction. In another
study (Yang, 1994), the participants who engaged in singing activities scored higher
on the sight reading tests, but the results were not statistically significant. A study by
Dunlap (1989) yielded no significant difference on the sight reading test scores
between the experimental and control groups. These mixed results would warrant
continued research on the benefits of integrating vocalization activities in
instrumental music classes.
These authors’ statements imply that, while building up a vocabulary of tonal
and rhythmic patterns through listening and singing, the beginning instrumentalist
could develop an understanding of musical concepts and practice musical skills, such
9
as the vocal interpretation of music notation. Their position supports the kind of
musical learning environment advocated by this project. Equipped with a sound
vocabulary and an understanding of notational symbols, the learner would then
acquire the ability to produce, either mentally or vocally, the music represented by
the written page. The young learner who has acquired these skills, while
simultaneously developing basic instrumental technique, has a solid foundation for
the development of sight reading skills (Elliott, 1982; Gromko, 2004; Hayward &
Gromko, 2009). With enough technical proficiency on the instrument, the student
will be able to render the imagined sound. The skill of audition, in association with
symbolic notation and technical proficiency on the instrument, is what’s required for
sight reading.
Problem Statement
Based on the literature review, the musical learning environment would (a)
build a child’s sound vocabulary in association with notational symbols (similar to
the minimum of one year music training in Hungary), (b) develop a child’s technical
proficiency on the instrument (through rote teaching), and, when these skills are
established, then (c) integrate the aural/literacy skills and technical proficiency skills
in sight reading exercises (Elliott, 1982; Gromko, 2004; Hayward & Gromko,
2009). If expertise in sight reading requires audiation, interpretation of notational
symbols, and technical proficiency on an instrument, then there is a need to evaluate
the effects of different instructional approaches that use some or all of these aspects.
10
Need for the Study
Effective instruction and efficient practicing are expected to yield good
results in student achievement levels in performance accuracy, and this would
certainly hold true for sight-reading. Specific instruction in sight-reading has been
found to be necessary for developing comprehensive musicianship, especially among
beginner instrumentalists (Barlar, 2010; Bluestine, 2007; Ferrin, 2003; Galyen, 2005;
Laverty, 1995; Schleuter, 1997), but inconclusive research in this area warrants
additional study. Band directors whose ensembles consistently received superior
ratings in sight-reading had incorporated a guided model technique or pre-reading
routine for improving their students’ proficiency (Casey, 1991; Sorrells, 1992). With
younger students, the cultivation of problem solving skills has the potential for
accelerating the development of sight reading proficiency (McPherson, 2005).
Previous research prompts a closer look at different sight-reading strategies. This
study examines the implementation of two different guided reading routines. It
contributes importantly to existing literature on the development of sight reading
skills by presenting findings specifically pertaining to beginning instrumentalists, an
area that has been recommended for further study (Fridley, 1993; Haston, 2004;
Kopiez & Lee, 2006; Mann, 1991; Shehan, 1987).
The complementary roles of visual perception and internal realization of
music notation are represented by the two different sight reading approaches
examined in this investigation. One approach emphasizes the student’s reliance on
11
aural skills developed through solfège and tonal pattern instruction, and the other
emphasizes the use of interval recognition. The study heeds the recommendations
from Luce (1965) and Grutzmacher (1987) to further explore the diverse aspects of
understanding pitch patterns and tonal concepts. Based on Lehmann and McArthur’s
(2002) description of sight reading as a reconstructive process, this study examines
whether the beginning singer/instrumentalist, when trained to draw from a previously
learned musical vocabulary of either tonal patterns or intervals, demonstrates
improvement in his or her sight reading ability.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study was to compare relative gains in the melodic sight
reading ability by two groups of elementary students when compared to each other
after 8 weeks of treatment. The independent variable was the type of guided reading
approach that the groups will receive as treatment, and the dependent variable was
the participants’ gain scores on a sight reading measure.
Research Questions
The study answers the research question: Is there a significant difference for
performance on a test of melodic sight reading following musical treatment, one
treatment being a solfège approach (Experimental Group I) and the other an
intervallic approach (Experimental Group II)? A supplementary question is: When
taking the post-test, how many participants actually used the guided reading process
in which they were trained?
12
Null Hypothesis
The hypothesis, stated in the null format, was that there would be no
significant difference in the gain scores between Experimental Group I and
Experimental Group II.
Definitions
“Guided reading” is a term from language reading instruction, and it refers to
a method in which students are taught, in a small group setting with directed
instruction from the teacher, strategies for decoding and comprehending text. In this
study, this method was adapted as the treatment for teaching instrumental sight
reading by helping the students draw from previously learned vocabularies of sound
patterns and musical concepts.
The phrase “sight playing” is often used in this report, and it refers to
instrumental sight reading, as opposed to vocal sight reading or sight singing.
“Rote-to-note” methodology is a type of instructional approach in which
music reading is delayed until the student has acquired basic instrumental technique
along with a repertoire of simple melodies learned from teacher modeling.
A “tonal pattern” or melodic pattern refers to a melodic fragment that
contains from three to five notes. It contains the tones and intervals with which the
learner is expected to become familiar, both vocally and on the instrument.
A “rhythmic pattern” can be two, three, or four beats long, and it contains the
note values and note combinations that the learner is studying.
13
The word “sequence,” as used in the descriptions of the guided sight reading
approaches, refers to the series of steps undertaken to enable students to perform on
the instrument the notated music that they are looking at for the first time.
“Audiation,” according to Gordon (2003) refers to the mental image of
sound that has been heard or that is represented by notated music. It also includes
the comprehension of that sound.

14
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
Introduction
This chapter begins by summarizing theoretical models of music reading skill
development, and it continues with a review of studies on the visual perception of
music notation. In any educational setting, the participants’ aptitude and abilities,
whether innate or acquired, impact achievement levels and they have often been
considered when determining equality between experimental groups (Azzara, 1993;
Davis, 1981; Gamble, 1989; Grutzmacher, 1987; Haston, 2004; Mann, 1991;
McBride, 1993; Mora 2007). They have also been considered as possible predictors
of students’ musical achievement, including sight reading performance (Elliott,
1982; Gromko, 2004; Kopiez and Lee, 2006; McPherson, 1993). Hence, a section
on the topics of musical aptitude, musical ability, cognitive ability, and technical
skill is included. This chapter then follows through with the ingredients that,
according to the theoretical models, make up a foundation conducive to the
development of literacy: aural skills and aural perception, vocalization, mental
strategies, appropriate visual materials, tonal pattern training, and the role of learning
sequences. The last section reviews research on specific instructional techniques for
sight reading practice.
Theoretical Models
Prompted by Hodges’ (1992) assertion that a comprehensive theory of music
reading should guide research, this survey of research literature begins with
15
theoretical models. The models cited here subscribe to one of two foundational
approaches: information processing and the multi-modal nature of music reading.
Two models that illustrate the processing of information involved in music
reading come to us from Wolf (1976) and Lehmann and McArthur (2002). Wolf, in
a qualitative grounded theory study that involved intensive interviews of two groups
of pianists, proposes a cognitive model of music sight reading. This model is a
synthesis of previously formulated information processing theories from the field of
psychology. Specifically, Wolf (1976) describes Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968)
proposed system and control processes of human memory and Broadbent’s (1958)
theory on perception and communication. The seven steps of Wolf’s model can be
summed up in the following three stages: 1) external input is registered in the
appropriate sensory dimension (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or other), 2) information
from sensory register is matched with similar information stored in long term
memory, then the matched information is arranged in a condensed form and fed to
short term memory, and 3) the effector systems, upon continual receipt of messages
from the long term and short term memory stores, send action messages to the
muscles. Wolf arrived at this model after analyzing data compiled from interviews
of four pianists, age 18-62, all of whom were skilled readers. The model was then
tested and verified with a new group of subjects including four professional pianists,
age 27-55, who were not skilled at music sight reading. The same interview
questions were used for both groups of pianists. Wolf concluded that the skilled and
16
unskilled readers differ in the kind of information fed to the short term memory
stores. The poor sight readers’ short term memory slots tended to be filled with
minutiae, such as individual pitch names and note values, while the good sight
readers’ short term memory slots were occupied by generalized information, such as
left hand music resembling phrase played by the right hand at the beginning of the
piece, or treble progressing from tonic to dominant. The skilled sight readers’ short
term memory slots also tended to not be filled to full capacity.
The model presented by Wolf is supported by the cognitive model from
Lehmann & McArthur (2002) who, upon surveying existing research on music sight
reading, concluded that sight reading is a reconstructive, two-fold process. They
further explain that the two steps developed from training are 1) the reconstructive
process of encoding the printed music in terms of its structural and technical
properties, and 2) the production of appropriate physical actions. They describe two
kinds of encoding processes which begin from the auditory and visual perception
systems: “1) data driven, or bottom up, and 2) concept driven, or top down” (p.
138). The data driven process resembles the short term memory stores of the less
skilled readers from Wolf’s model, while the concept driven process is analogous to
the more generalized information in the short term memory stores of the skilled
readers from Wolf’s study.
An implication for music education, based on the concepts of the two models
mentioned previously, is the development of balanced literacy programs. It can be
17
inferred that the acquisition of literacy skills would more likely occur if facilitated
through multiple dimensions. Studies by McPherson (1993), Scripp (1995), and
Kopiez and Lee (2006) all support the dynamic and multi-modal nature of music
reading.
McPherson’s (1993) theoretical model of a balanced approach to musical
performance and learning illustrates the interrelatedness of five variables: students’
abilities to play by ear, sight-read, play from memory, improvise, and perform a
rehearsed piece. The model offers a necessary balance among visual, aural, and
creative forms of performance. A study, conducted to investigate the relationships
among these five aspects, involved 101 beginning and intermediate clarinet and
trumpet students. McPherson combined ex post facto data from the Australian Music
Education Board Exams, the results from the researcher-administered Watkins
Farnum Performance Scale (1954), and the students’ scores on three researcher-
constructed measures to test the model. In addition to these measures, the
participants and their parents were asked to complete a questionnaire which included
general questions on the students’ background, questions on the types of aural and
creative activities to which the students were exposed, and questions on how often
the students sang and composed. The data gathered from the questionnaire prompted
an expansion of the model to include four additional aspects: length of study, quality
of study, enriching activities, and early exposure. The results of the correlation
analyses confirmed the relationships proposed in the theoretical model, with the
18
strongest relationship between the ability to sight-read and the ability to play by ear.
These results imply that the development of aural skills might benefit music sight
reading ability.
The Scripp (1995) model explored the interaction between aural skills and
reading ability. This cognitive developmental model of music reading skill
acquisition looks at three domains of music reading – production, perception, and
reflection. In his study, the relationships among the three were explored, as well as
the change that occurs over time with these relationships, as students mature in their
musical development. The subjects consisted of a longitudinal sample (20 students
enrolled in a 2-year sight-singing class at the New England Conservatory) and a
cross-sectional sample (a different group, varied in number, at each of four testing
periods over a 2-year span). The measures employed represented each of the three
domains: sight-singing and sight-playing tasks adopted from Watkins Farnum
Performance Scale (1954) (production), error detection tasks (perception), and
videotaped interviews designed to yield information about learning, reading
processes, self assessment, and internalization experiences (reflection). The results
confirmed the author’s hypothesis that a stronger relationship among the three
domains is present at more advanced levels of musical development. The question
that arises from this is whether the concurrent nurturing of these three domains
would enhance and even accelerate the development of musical literacy among
beginners.
19
A correlation study by Kopiez and Lee (2006) offers yet another model for
predicting sight-reading skill. Kopiez and Lee examined various predictor variables,
classified into three categories, and their relationship with the subjects’ scores on a
sight-reading measure. The subjects were 52 graduate and post-graduate piano
majors at Hanover University, and data were collected through a battery of tests and
retrospective interviews. The sight-reading measure consisted of 5 test pieces of
progressive difficulty. The 3 predictor categories were the subjects’ general
cognitive skills (short term, working, and short term music specific memory; general
mental capacity), elementary cognitive skills (speed of information processing,
simple visual and simple auditory reaction time, tapping and trill speed), and
expertise related skills (accumulated hours of solo practice, lessons, sight-reading,
inner hearing). The subjects’ raw scores on the sight-reading tests decreased
continuously from Level 1 to Level 5, and the relationship of each predictor variable
with the criterion variable (sight-reading test scores) was different across the five
levels. The authors concluded that sight-reading skill prediction is dynamic due to
the shifting significance of each predictor, depending on the difficulty of the sight-
reading stimuli. They explained sight-reading as a combination of various skills, and
the combination changes according to the demands of the task at hand. This level-
specific, dynamic model of music sight reading suggests that the appropriateness of
the instructional strategies employed by teachers would have to shift according to the
complexity of the music being read. Stepwise multiple regression analyses found the
20
certain predictors to be most important for each level, as follows: Level 1 – sight
reading practice (self-reported); Level 2 – psychomotor speed, Level 3 –
psychomotor speed, working memory and sight reading practice; Level 4 – inner
hearing, sight reading practice, and speed of information processing; and Level 5 –
psychomotor speed and sight reading practice. Based on the results, the authors also
recommended that beginning instrumentalists be trained in the five sub-skills of
McPherson’s model (1993)—playing by ear, playing from memory, sight-reading,
performing rehearsed piece, and improvising—for sight-reading skills to be
successfully developed.
Visual Perception
In music reading, as in other types of reading, the visual perception of
stimulus is an important domain for investigation. Two areas of visual perception
and visual processing research are represented in this section: eye movements and
eye hand span. The eye movement studies deal with text tracking, while the eye
hand span involves a memory component.
The eye movements observed and recorded in two studies by Goolsby
included saccades, or rapid sweeps of the eye from one focal point to the next, and
fixations, or series of stops and starts in which the eyes focus on particular areas for
longer periods (up to about half a second). These are also categorized as either
progressive or moving farther ahead, and regressive or returning to a point already
seen. In a study of the effects of ability, notational complexity, and encounter on eye
21
movements in music reading (Goolsby, 1994), the eye movement patterns of 24
graduate music students were examined. These participants, selected from a pool of
72 volunteers, were the 12 who received the lowest scores on a sight-singing test and
the 12 who received the highest scores. Equality on 24 demographic variables was
established between the two groups. Each participant was asked to read 4 melodies 3
times, with the third time preceded by a 4 minute study or practice period. The six
dependent variables measured were the number of progressive fixations, progressive
fixation duration (in milliseconds), length of progressive saccades, number of
regressive fixations, regressive fixation duration, and regressive saccade length. The
results revealed that the eye movement patterns in the two groups differed only with
notational complexity. Eye movement was reduced when the visual information was
more concentrated, and there tended to be fewer but longer fixations in the encounter
that included practice. Over all, the skilled music readers looked farther ahead in the
notation, then back to the point of performance, when sight reading. In a later study,
Goolsby (1994b) determined a profile of perceptual processing for skilled and less-
skilled sight-readers. The progressive fixations, regressive fixations, mean
progressive saccade length, and mean regressive saccade length of two participants,
one skilled and the other less skilled at sight reading, were observed. The less skilled
sight reader used more progressive fixations but slightly fewer regressions, and spent
more time fixating at the beginning of each melody. The skilled sight reader had
longer progressive saccade lengths, and had more saccades moving between staves.
22
The skilled sight reader was characterized by not fixating on every individual note,
while the less skilled sight reader was characterized by many consecutive horizontal
fixations. In the skilled sight reader, there was also strong evidence of use of vertical
peripheral vision in addition to horizontal peripheral vision. In another study on
fixations, Chang (1993) concluded that accurate sight readers have more frequent
fixations, but shorter average fixation duration.
The other topic that dominates visual perception research as related to music
reading is eye hand span. It refers to the amount of music notation that the eyes have
scanned beyond the point of performance. It is also measured as the amount of
music one is able to recall and perform after the notation is made unavailable
(Fourneaux and Land, 1999; Sloboda, 1974, 1976, 1977; Truitt, et al., 1997).
Sloboda (1974) began with a study on the nature of the eye hand span,
followed it with four experiments to further investigate its memory component
(Sloboda, 1976), then conducted a study on phrase units as determinants of visual
processing in music reading (Sloboda, 1977). The first study explored the eye hand
span of 10 music students, representing a wide range of sight-reading ability, under
different cut-off points at which the musical text being read was made invisible.
This cut-off point was anywhere between 1 to 19 notes from a phrase boundary, thus
offering a view into the role of structural markers in the notated music. When the
distance from the cut-off point to the phrase boundary was 4 notes or less, all
participants reached the end of the phrase, but when the distance was 11 notes or
23
more, no one reached the end of the phrase. The best reader ended at the phrase
boundary 72% of the time, while the worst reader ended at the phrase boundary 20%
of the time (Sloboda, 1974).
The role of the phrase boundary was further explored in a later study
(Sloboda, 1977). This project sought to determine if the presence or absence of
structural or physical markers would influence the subjects’ eye hand span. The
subjects, 6 accomplished keyboard sight-readers between the ages of 22 and 30, were
presented with passages that contained physical or structural unit markers. The
length of their eye hand span was measured, as well as the number of times in which
the eye hand span coincided with phrase boundaries. When structural markers were
present, the eye hand span coincided with the phrase boundary 47.2% of the time.
The coincidence also occurred 41% of the time when physical markers were present,
19.4% of the time when structural markers were absent, and 25% of the time when
physical markers were absent. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) determined the
effect of the structural markers to be highly significant, the effect of physical
markers to be less significant, and the effect of the distance from the cut-off point to
the phrase boundary to be significant. Just like in the earlier study (Sloboda, 1974),
the tendency for the eye hand span to fall on the phrase boundary decreased when
that distance was greater. A second ANOVA determined the effect of structural
markers on actual eye hand span values to be highly significant, and the effect of the
physical markers to be not significant.
24
Eye hand span involves the acts of scanning and recalling, so extending its
study to the domain of memory is a logical step to take. The four experiments
conducted in between the two previously cited studies sought to examine the
subjects’ immediate written recall of visual stimuli, groups of notes displayed on a
screen, under various conditions (Sloboda, 1976). The different conditions were
duration of exposure (Experiment I and II) and the presence of interfering material
(Experiment III and IV). The first two experiments employed 8 participants each,
and the other two each employed 10 participants. In all of these experiments, all the
subjects were students, and in each experiment, half of the sample was highly
proficient and experienced in music while the other half was not. The independent
variables in Experiment I were duration of exposure (either 20 milliseconds or 2
seconds), the subjects’ musical background, and the number of notes on the stimulus
card. The musically trained participants did significantly better in the 2 second
condition, but only when the stimulus contained 4 or more notes. There was no
significant difference between the two groups in the 20 millisecond condition.
According to Sloboda, the results suggested the existence of dual coding
mechanisms—visual coding and non-visual coding, and that the non-visual coding
seemed present in the musicians only. This led to Experiment II, the purpose of
which was to determine the precise interval, after the onset of the stimulus, at which
non-visual coding began to affect the subjects’ performance. The two independent
variables were duration of stimulus exposure (20, 40, 60, 80, 100 or 150
25
milliseconds) and the subjects’ musical background. Exposure duration had a
significant effect, and the two groups differed significantly only at the longest of the
six exposures (150 milliseconds), with the musically-trained subjects performing
better. Sloboda inferred from this that it took at least 100 milliseconds for an array
item to be coded into abstract form by musicians, and that these musicians might
have coded directly into some kind of underlying pitch representation.
In the results of the first experiment, Sloboda had drawn our attention to the
possible existence of a non-visual coding system seemingly present in musicians.
From the results of the second experiment, he inferred the possibility of coding into a
mental image of the pitches represented. His selection of auditory interference as an
independent variable in the next two experiments reflects these possibilities. He
hypothesized in Experiment III that the immediate written recall of displayed notes
and the concurrent perception of extraneous auditory stimuli might use the same
code and therefore interfere with each other. Four interference conditions were
explored—speech, tonal music, atonal music, or no interference. The results
revealed that the main effect of the interfering conditions was not significant, but that
there was a significant difference in how each group (musician or non-musician)
responded to the interference. The interference had no effect on the musicians, and
the music interference appeared to improve the non-musicians’ performance. An
additional demand was placed on the subjects in Experiment IV—that of consciously
paying attention to the auditory interference material. The auditory material in this
26
case was either a sequence of spoken letters or a sequence of tones played on an
organ. The subjects’ recognition of the auditory interference, as either similar to or
different from the notes being displayed, was put in place as one of the independent
variables. The main effect of the subjects’ musical training was highly significant,
the main effect of the interference conditions was not significant, and the interaction
of groups by conditions was not significant. Sloboda left us with the following
conclusions: that musicians do not code by pitch names, or perhaps code them as
such but can carry on concurrent activities with the same code; that musicians use
some sort of internal motor code; and that musicians code relations between notes
rather than the notes themselves.
A more recent study involving the eye hand span also explored the perceptual
span or the effective visual field. This refers to the specific region in a visual display
that is targeted by a fixation and from which useful information is acquired.
Through the use of moving window conditions and the infrared light device from a
Fourward Technologies Dual Purkinje Image Eyetracker, Truitt, Clifton, and Rayner
(1997) were able to track the eye movements and measure the perceptual span of 8
pianists. These subjects were of average to above average ability, and their piano
experience ranged from 2 to 16 years. They were asked to read 32 musical
selections under four different window conditions—2 beat, 4 beat, 6 beat, or no
window. In each window condition, a limited amount of musical text was made
available to the subject, and the remainder of the notation was masked. The eye
27
tracking device prompted the movement of that window as the subject sight-read
each selection. The results showed that the range of perceptual span was between 2
and 4 beats, and that the average eye hand span was a bit under 1 beat for the less-
skilled group and about 2 beats for the skilled group. The fixation point tended to be
close to the sounding note, and there was a narrow region from which useful
information was extracted. The highly skilled readers had shorter playing time
(maintained the tempo), larger eye hand spans, and shorter fixation durations than
the less skilled readers. In another study, the eye hand span, when measured by
notes, increased with an increase in skill (Furneaux and Land, 1999). It decreased,
however, when the tempo was increased, and when measured by time, was about the
same for novices and advanced players.
The Learner’s Aptitude and Abilities
Musical aptitude, musical ability, and cognitive ability. The
recommendations from the theoretical models mentioned above beg for further
examination of correlations among various types of aptitudes and abilities, either
within or outside the field of music.
Rhythm reading ability was found to be the single best predictor of sight-
reading ability in a study conducted with 32 undergraduate wind instrumentalists at
the University of South Carolina (Elliott, 1982). The other predictors tested in this
descriptive study were technical proficiency, sight singing, cumulative grade point
average (GPA), cumulative music theory GPA, cumulative performance jury GPA,
28
and major instrument GPA. Performance jury GPA was the second best predictor.
The criterion variable, sight reading ability, was measured by the subjects’ scores on
the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (1962). A similar study but with sixth and
seventh grade students determined that cognitive music skills and rhythm pattern
recognition skills were the most important predictors of sight reading ability (Miller,
1988).
Gromko (2004) conducted a related study, which concluded that music sight
reading ability could be predicted by a number of cognitive abilities. 98 high school
band students participated in this study, and the predictors investigated in this case
were the subjects’ scores on the Gordon Advanced Measures of Music Audiation
(1989) (musical aptitude), Holzman Schematizing Test (Holzman, 1954) (visual field
articulation), Kit of Factor Referenced Cognitive Tests (Ekstrom, et al., 1976)
(spatial orientation), and the Iowa Tests of Educational Development (Hoover, et al.,
2003) (academic achievement). The students’ sight reading ability was indicated by
their scores on Form A of the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (1954).
Gromko’s regression analysis yielded a set of four independent variables that
predicted expertise in sight reading: audiation, academic achievement, spatial-
temporal reasoning, and perception of patterns. In a follow-up study which included
university students as participants, Gromko and Hayward (2009) found aural skills,
spatial reasoning, and technical proficiency to be strong predictors of sight reading
ability.
29
An earlier study by Ciepluch (1988) arrived at similar conclusions. This
correlation study determined a significant relationship among sight reading
performance and the following predictor variables: musical aptitude, grade point
average, academic achievement, field independence on a visual perception test, and a
sensory mode preference for written text.
Technical proficiency. Much of the research presented in this chapter
supports the integration of various cognitive and performance skills to develop music
literacy. With instrumental sight reading, basic technical proficiency in instrumental
performance is an obvious prerequisite. Although McPherson has found the use of
mental strategies to be a more powerful predictor of sight reading than the time spent
on polishing technique, the performance of a rehearsed piece still correlates
significantly with sight-reading ability (McPherson, 1993, 2005).
A study that was conducted in the high school band setting compared two
types of technical practice and their effects on sight reading proficiency (WFPS),
performance proficiency (prepared piece), and students’ attitudes about their
classroom laboratory activities (Price, Blanton & Turner Parrish, 1998). The
participants, 58 students from concert or symphonic bands in one high school in the
southeastern United States, were assigned to one of two music laboratory groups—
the fundamentals exercises group or the repertoire excerpts group. Both groups
followed a plan that included many of the same music laboratory activities, such as
counting rhythms or repetition of patterns. The only difference was in the rehearsal
30
materials used. The excerpt group scored significantly higher in the prepared piece
and had more positive responses in the attitude survey. In sight reading, however, no
significant difference was found between the exercise group and the excerpt group.
The correlation study by Elliott (1982) found technical proficiency, as
measured by the researcher-constructed Technical Proficiency Evaluation, to be a
significant predictor of sight reading ability. The TPE included scales, thirds, and
arpeggio patterns, which were all provided on music notation in the key of C major.
The participants were required to play in the other 11 major keys from memory.
In a study by Hayward & Gromko (2009), the strength of technical
proficiency, along with aural skills and spatial-temporal reasoning, as a predictor of
sight reading ability was examined. These three predictor variables together had not
previously been examined in a single study. The initial analysis found a strong
correlation between technical proficiency and sight reading (r=0.70, p<.001). The
results of the regression analysis found aural-spatial skills and technical proficiency
to be both strong predictors of sight reading ability.
Technical proficiency is only one of the goals of instrumental music
instruction, and it is feasible to develop instrumental technique concurrently with
aural skills and literacy through vocal activities, as seen in the studies that employed
tonal pattern instruction (Bernhard, 2004; Dunlap, 1989; Grutzmacher, 1987; Haston,
2004; Kendall, 1988). In these studies, the melodic patterns were performed
instrumentally as well as vocally, while ear-to-hand coordination was developed
31
through ear-playing activities and through sing-while-fingering activities.
Furthermore, eye-to-hand coordination was strengthened through activities that
associated fingerings with the notated tonal patterns.
Comprehensive Musicianship as a Basis for Literacy
Aural skills and aural perception. Sloboda’s (1976) suggestion that
musicians might use a pitch-based coding system while reading notated music leads
to a discussion of aural skills and aural perception. In the theoretical model proposed
and tested by McPherson (1993), the two variables that had the strongest relationship
were the ability to play by ear and music sight reading ability. An earlier study by
Luce (1965) had come to a similar conclusion. This study, pertaining to a group of
98 high school students from Lincoln, Nebraska, aimed to investigate a possible
relationship between sight reading and ear playing, and to discover any contribution
which certain student characteristics might make to those two variables. The student
characteristics were amounts of music instruction, kinds of music instruction,
intelligence quotient scores, mental age, leadership status, and music goals. A
positive relationship was found between sight reading and ear playing (r = .50), and
the student characteristic that had the most significant correlation with the two test
scores was total music instructional hours.
Other studies have investigated the integration of aural activities, as part of
the instrumental classroom setting, and its influence on music sight reading ability.
Haston’s study (2004) compared two different instructional approaches—
32
aural/modeling approach vs. visual approach—and their influence on students’
musical achievement. The sample was 20 fourth grade beginners who received an
hour of instruction once a week for 15 weeks. In the aural/modeling group, the
instructor kept the use of verbal directions to a minimum and modeled the behaviors
for the students to imitate. The technique of call and response was used for
introducing new rhythms, modeling articulation, echo singing, and echo playing. In
making corrections, the students were asked to observe, compare, and make
inferences, thereby solving their own problems. Music notation was introduced to
this group in the 5
th
session, upon the distribution of the instrumental method books.
The visual group, on the other hand, played strictly from printed music, received
only verbal explanations, and was not exposed to teacher modeling at all. The
following additional independent variables, to check for group equality, were also
considered—composite scores on the Gordon Musical Aptitude Profile (1995), prior
formal instrumental training, and frequency of voluntary singing. The dependent
variables were the participants’ scores on a sight-reading measure Watkins-Farnum
Performance Scale and on a performance of a prepared piece. The aural/modeling
group scored higher than the visual group on both measures, but the difference was
not significant. In reviewing the data, Haston pointed out that the aural/modeling
students with no prior musical experience scored highest overall.
Sweetnam (2008) investigated the effect of applying an aural participation
procedure while note reading and note learning unfamiliar music. Fourteen
33
undergraduate students were the sample for this study, which compared two
processes for note reading and note learning performance—the researcher-designed
aural participation/memory procedure and the participants’ own learning process.
The music that was learned with the aural participation procedure yielded higher
scores, although they were not statistically significant.
The next two studies summarized here incorporated aural and improvisatory
activities. In addition to the echo singing and echo playing activities described in the
Haston (2004) study, the students in a study by Karas (2005) were also asked to
create their own rhythmic and tonal patterns based on guidelines set by the
researcher. The 184 fifth-grade beginning instrumentalists who participated in this
study were assigned to either the experimental or the control group, and their sight
reading ability was measured after the 16 week treatment period by tests in Smart
Music Studio (2004). Both groups used the same beginning band method book, but
the experimental group engaged in the aural and improvisatory activities for 5-8
minutes out of each regular class period. The results showed no significant
difference in the mean scores between the experimental and control groups, but there
was a significant difference between the high aptitude students in the experimental
group, who scored higher, and the high aptitude students in the control group.
Another researcher who probed the use of an aural skills based improvisation
curriculum was Azzara (1993). Sixty six 5
th
graders participated in this study, all of
whom had had one year of instrumental music instruction prior to the research
34
project. They all used the same instrumental method book and home study cassette,
but only those in the experimental group were exposed to the aural/improvisatory
curriculum. This curriculum involved 10 to 15 minutes of improvisation
performance activities out of a 30 minute weekly lesson, and it extended over a
period of 27 weeks. The activities, based on the instructional content from an early
edition of the Jump Right In series (Grunow, et al., 1989), consisted of learning
selected repertoire by ear, developing a vocabulary of tonal and rhythm syllables,
and improvising tonal and rhythm patterns, both vocally and instrumentally. The
other independent variable was the subjects’ musical aptitude, as measured by the
Gordon MAP (1995), and the dependent variable was their performance scores on
three etudes: one prepared with assistance from the teacher, one prepared without
assistance, and one sight-reading etude. The students in the experimental group
scored significantly higher than those in the control group on the teacher-assisted
etude, the sight-reading etude, and the composite etude scores. These results suggest
strongly that aural and improvising skills could contribute to more accurate
performances when reading from notation.
A study by Earney (2008) compared the sight reading abilities of 7
th
and 8
th

grade students who engaged in aural rhythmic dictation exercises with the abilities of
those who did not. The sample consisted of 128 middle school students enrolled in
intact band classes that were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the
control group. Both groups studied the same rhythm patterns, but only the students
35
in the experimental group practiced them with aural dictation exercises. No
significant difference was found between the post test scores of the treatment group
and the scores of the control group. The outcomes of Earney’s study correspond
with earlier studies that had found rhythm pattern recognition to be an excellent
predictor for sight reading ability (Elliott, 1982; Miller, 1988).
The body of research that has been cited thus far seems to declare that music
reading skills are just one of the components of a comprehensive instructional
program, and that the other components contribute to the development of literacy.
An example is the holistic Kodály approach (Choksy, 1981, 1988), which includes
the development of aural skills, the use of solmization with corresponding hand
signals, and a sequential presentation of musical concepts. A growing number of
instrumental music instructors have begun to adopt this approach as part of the
curriculum (Tevis, 2006).
The interfering material experiments cited above (Sloboda, 1976) probed
inner hearing as an important area of literacy development. The presence of a
stimulus that might redirect that inner hearing ability away from a reading task is
worth investigating. A study on the effect of distracting music on sight-singing
performance continues along this vein (Wöllner, 2003). Twenty undergraduate and
postgraduate music students were tested individually in a single session, during
which they completed a questionnaire and were given two pieces to sight sing, each
one to be sung under a different performance condition. Each sight singing
36
performance was preceded by one minute of silent study, and during one of these
two performances, distracting music was present. The data collected by the
questionnaire were the subjects’ self-report on frequency of sight-singing practice,
how difficult they found sight-reading, and the strategy that they employed during
the test session’s silent study period. The dependent variables were the number of
mistakes made, a score on continuity or fluency, and a score on overall quality,
which included intonation, expression, and confidence. There was no significant
difference between the two conditions in the number of mistakes or in the quality of
continuity and fluency. The overall quality was significantly more proficient for the
condition without interference. The subjects made more mistakes in both
performances when they found inner hearing more difficult, and the most prominent
strategy used was that of concentrating on the intervals.
Vocalization. Singing activities in the instrumental music classroom are
highly recommended by music educators as an effective mode for polishing
performance skills, improving students’ understanding of basic musical concepts,
and developing literacy skills (Howard, 1996; Kretchmer, 1998; Medford, 2003). A
disparity exists, however, between educators’ opinions on the effectiveness of
vocalization and their actual teaching practices (Burton, 1988). The research on this
topic might encourage them to place more importance on and allow more time for
vocalizing during the instrumental lessons.
37
The use of singing activities in instrumental classrooms, particularly among
young beginners, has been studied by a number of researchers. Elementary school
beginning band students who received tonal pattern training with vocalization scored
significantly higher than those in a traditional note-to-note group on two
performance tests (Lee, 1996). The performance tests focused on phrasing and
articulation, and not on music sight reading, but the study is worth considering for its
use of beginners as subjects and for its emphasis on the benefits of singing activities.
A study on the use of singing to learn new melodies, and its effect on pitch and
rhythm accuracy, was conducted by Emanuele (2000). The participants were
beginners—16 piano students, age 7-12, who had been studying for 6 months to 2
years. Over the course of eight weeks, they learned 4 new researcher-composed
pieces, either solely from the teacher’s explanation or with singing in addition to the
teacher’s explanation. There was no significant difference in pitch accuracy between
the two conditions, but the rhythm accuracy in the pieces aided by the singing
method was significantly better. Another study worth noting found structured
singing activities to have a significant effect on the performance of a prepared piece
and on sight-reading performance (Davis, 1981). The activities employed in the
experimental group included the singing of preparatory scale patterns, the singing of
songs, and rhythm clapping. The subjects were 93 fifth (beginning) and sixth
(intermediate) grade band students, and the activities were found to be particularly
effective in the first year of instruction.
38
Teachers incorporate singing in their instrumental music lessons to help
students understand concepts such as high or low pitch, ascending or descending
melody, or conjunct vs. disjunct tones, to name a few. Mnemonic devices, including
verbal association through solfège and kinesthetic representations of melodic
contour, are often used. A body of research on solmization training exists, and a
considerable portion of this research has examined the role of this type of training in
developing literacy skills. In a study that involved 78 beginning fifth grade wind
instrumentalists, solfège with movable Do was incorporated with the lessons of the
experimental group (Dunlap, 1989). This training included echo singing, echo
singing with visual association (music notation), and melodic reading. The study
sought to determine the training’s effect on five dependent variables: vocal
accuracy, melodic ear to hand coordination, melodic aural/visual discrimination,
instrumental performance, and instrumental sight reading. A positive relationship
was found between vocal accuracy and the other four dependent variables. As for
instrumental sight reading, the control group performed slightly better than the
experimental group, but it was not significantly different. The instrumental method
book used by both groups, Listen, Move, Sing, Play (Froseth, 1984), deserves to be
mentioned as it is known for its comprehensive approach (Kretchmer, 1998).
Through this series of lessons, both groups had engaged in musically enriching aural,
kinesthetic, and vocal activities. The only difference was the experimental group’s
use of solfège. The teaming of solmization training and rhythmic movement training
39
was examined in a study by Yang (1994) of 48 first year piano students between the
ages of 6 and 9. The solfège treatment used was similar to that from Dunlap’s study.
The participants were in 4 intact classes, with 12 students in each class, and each
class was randomly assigned as follows: group 1 – solmization and movement,
group 2 – movement only, group 3 – solmization only, and group 4 – control group
(no solmization, no movement). The classes met for two 50-minute lessons per
week, and the treatment activities were part of their warm-up period. The
participants’ sight reading proficiency was one of six dependent variables, and it was
measured through a researcher-constructed piano sight reading test. The
solmization/movement and solmization groups scored significantly higher on the
sight reading test than the movement and control groups, although ANOVA testing
showed the differences between the groups to be nearly but not quite significantly
different.
Mental strategies. Formal instruction in music sight reading implies
guidance, and that guidance equips the student with a tool kit of mental strategies for
translating the symbols on the page into musical sounds. In the cognitive models
described at the beginning of this chapter, the reading processes involve references to
musical vocabulary stored in long- and short-term memory, and the beginning
musician may have to rely on specific strategies for this process to occur.
A study found mental strategies to be a more powerful predictor of students’
abilities on five musical tasks, including sight reading, than the time spent on
40
technical practice (McPherson, 2005). This study was a longitudinal replication of
McPherson’s 1993 study but with younger students. The sample included 107
beginning instrumentalists, between the ages of 7 and 9 at the onset of the research,
and data was collected from a series of repeated measures. Tests in sight reading,
rehearsed performance, playing by ear, playing from memory, and improvisation
were administered at the end of the first, second and third years of study. The
students were interviewed at the onset, then at the end of the first, second and third
years. The students’ parents were interviewed a total of 10 times: at the onset, then
nine times in the course of three years. Prior to each sight reading test, the students
were prompted to describe what they thought of in the few seconds before playing
the musical selection. Their responses were categorized in to the following five
strategies: studying the first measure of the music to get an idea of how the piece
started, actively finding the key and time signatures, establishing a suitable tempo by
thinking about how the piece should sound, scanning the piece to identify possible
obstacles, and scanning the piece to determine the appropriate tempo and style. Of
the five musical tasks, sight reading had the lowest correlation with use of mental
strategies, especially in the students’ first year of study. However, this correlation
increased in the second year, and even more in the third year of study.
The practice of providing sight-readers, whether they’re singers or
instrumentalists, with the opportunity to scan and analyze the pieces they are about
to read is supported by research as a process that would allow developing musicians
41
to tap into a well of previously learned strategies. The availability of preparatory
time and its effect on the sight-singing performance of 198 high school students was
investigated by Killian and Henry (2005). When provided, the 30-second
preparatory time allowed the participants to use whatever preparatory strategies they
knew in order to sing, as accurately as possible, the melodies placed in front of them.
The overall accuracy scores were significantly higher with preparatory time, though
the less accurate singers did not benefit from this 30-second allowance. During the
preparatory time, the highest scorers tonicized, used Curwen hand signs, sang out
loud, physically kept the beat, and finished before the end of the allotted practice
time. The type of strategy used made no significant difference.
Appropriate visual materials. The complexities of music notation and the
overwhelming demands that these place on the beginner have led educators to devise
preparatory systems or modifications to assist the learner in making sense of it all.
Besides aural/visual association activities, alternative and modified notational
systems are being used as introductory scaffolds. Their role in the development of
music reading has been studied, as mentioned in the paragraphs that follow.
Kendall (1988), in a study that isolated the use of visual materials and
aural/visual association activities, compared the musical achievement of students
instructed in a modeling approach (aural/kinesthetic) vs. a comprehensive approach
(aural/kinesthetic/visual). Beginning fifth grade instrumentalists (n=76) were
assigned to one of the two groups, and their musical achievement was measured by
42
four instruments: Froseth’s Ear to Hand Coordination Test (1985) and three
researcher-constructed tests—a verbal/solfege-association test and two instrumental
performance skills tests: a prepared étude and a sight reading test. Both groups
employed teacher modeling, melodic and rhythmic solfège, and ear-playing
activities. The comprehensive group used visual materials in the form of notation
flash cards and selections from the instrumental method book. The comprehensive
group performed significantly better on all measures, and strong positive correlations
were found among the scores on the four tests. A musical aptitude test had been
administered to determine group equality, and a look at any interaction between the
participants’ musical aptitude and their musical achievement yielded a negligible
relationship.
A study by Rogers (1991) investigated the use of color-coded notation and its
effect on performance and reading abilities. The participants were 92 fifth and sixth
grade beginning wind players. Both the experimental and control groups used the
same method book and the same supplementary materials. The only difference was
that the experimental group had color-coded pitches. The following tests were
administered after the treatment period: 1) test of performing music by memory (26-
note melody); 2) test of sight-reading 2 twelve-note melodies, one in plain notation
and the other in color-coded notation; and 3) letter-name note identification test (2
seven-note melodies, one in color and the other plain). No evidence was found to
clearly support the enhancement of the students’ music achievement through the use
43
of color-coded notation, and the students tended to read better with the mode of
presentation to which they had been accustomed.
In a study on rhythm reading performance, in which the researcher tested the
effects of bar line, pitch, or meter, 64 undergraduate and 32 graduate instrumental
music majors were asked to perform two music excerpts (Byo, 1992). These were
selected from etudes in Hickman’s Music Speed Reading (1979), and modifications
were made to represent the following conditions: absence or presence of bar lines,
melodic line or monotone, and changing or unchanging meter. Meter was found to
have a significant effect, but the presence of bar lines and melodic line was not. The
participants performed changing meter excerpts with better rhythmic accuracy than
the unchanging meter excerpts.
Tonal pattern training. Based on the findings of experiments on eye hand
span, perceptual span, structural markers, aural skills, aural perception, and vocal
activities, it would make sense to incorporate tonal pattern training in music reading
instruction. Tonal pattern training refers to the aural and notational study of short
melodic fragments. The literature summarized in this section involves beginners
from the fourth through the sixth grades.
MacKnight (1975) investigated the music achievement of 90 fourth grade
beginning wind instrumentalists after weeks of melodic and rhythmic pattern
instruction. In presenting the tonal and rhythmic patterns to the students, these three
stages were followed: 1) aural, 2) auditory/visual, and 3) auditory/visual within a
44
musical context. Music achievement, in this case, consisted of the participants’
scores on a sight-reading post-test (WFPS), their scores on the Colwell Music
Achievement Test (MAT) (1969-70), and their pre- and post-test scores on a student
attitude questionnaire. The experimental group’s performance on the post-tests was
significantly superior to that of the control group.
Another study that used melodic pattern training as an independent variable
was a study by Bernhard (2004) of the melodic ear playing and melodic sight reading
achievement of 42 sixth grade beginning wind instrumentalists. Both the
experimental and control groups used the same 22 traditional beginning method book
melodies selected from Brook I of Accent on Achievement (O’Reilly and Williams,
1997) and Book I of Yamaha Advantage (Feldstein and Clark, 2003). In the tonal
pattern training group, for each melody, the students echo sang on a neutral syllable,
echo sang on solfège, echo played, then played the melody by sight. The control
group visually identified the pitch names for each melody, visually and
kinesthetically identified the associated fingerings or positions with each pitch, then
performed the melody on the instrument by sight. The treatment had a significant
effect on ear playing, but not on the melodic sight reading. The experimental
group’s mean scores for sight reading was greater than that of the control group, but
the difference was not statistically significant.
Two more studies, similar to the others on tonal pattern, included harmonic
content as part of the treatment. The effect of tonal pattern with harmonization and
45
vocalization training on the aural perception, reading recognition ability, and
melodic music sight reading ability of fifth and sixth grade brass or woodwind
players was investigated by Grutzmacher (1987). Forty-eight first year instrumental
music students, assigned to either the experimental or control groups during a 14-
week treatment period, participated in this study. Both groups used the 1977 edition
of Alfred’s Basic Band Method (Feldstein and O’Reilly, 1977) in their lessons, and
the major and minor key patterns vocalized by the experimental group were derived
from the melodies and exercises in the method book. The dependent variables were
measured by the participants’ scores on the Iowa Test of Music Literacy (Gordon,
1970) (aural perception and reading recognition ability, ITML Test 1 and 2) and the
Music Sight Reading Achievement Test (melodic sight reading, MSRAT), a test
constructed by the researcher for this study. The experimental group scores on the
sight reading measure were significantly higher than the scores of the control group.
The relationship between the ITML Test 1 and the MSRAT scores was not significant
at the p<.05 level in the control group (r = .01), but stronger in the experimental
group (r = .40). This outcome suggests that proficient aural skills may have a
positive impact on the development of sight reading skills.
In another study, two different types of tonal pattern instruction were
compared: one which emphasized arpeggios, and the other which emphasized
diatonic scales (Gamble, 1989). The subjects’ scores on Gordon’s Musical Aptitude
Profile (MAP) (1989) were also considered as another independent variable.
46
Seventy-six first year clarinet students (4
th
and 5
th
graders) were assigned to one of
three groups—tonal pattern/arpeggio group, tonal pattern/diatonic scales group, and
the control group. After 30 weeks of instruction, the students’ music achievement
was measured by the following researcher-constructed tests (Gamble, 1989):
Notational Audiation Test (NAT), Instrumental Performance Test (IPT), and Music
Reading Achievement (MRA; a composite score derived from raw score conversions
of NAT and IPT). The subjects who received tonal pattern/arpeggio training scored
significantly higher than those in the control group, and a moderate relationship was
found between the MAP and MRA scores (r = 53).
Learning sequences. Instrumental method books, just like text books in any
subject, are built on a scope and sequence of concepts and skills. The sequence of
musical content and instrumental technique to be presented to the students is another
area of investigation explored in music reading studies.
The musical achievement of a group of guitar students instructed under the
tonal sequence of the Kodály approach was compared with the achievement of a
group instructed with the more traditional note sequence from a standard guitar
method book (Fridley, 1993). The actual sight reading performance on guitar was
not assessed. Instead, the subjects’ scores on a researcher-constructed Test on
Knowledge of Music Notation and Guitar Fingerboard were considered (Fridley,
1993). Both the experimental and control groups learned the same number of notes
per lesson, the same number of songs and scales, the same lesson outline, and the
47
same lesson presentation. Both groups also used solfège in their echo singing and
sight-singing activities. No statistically significant difference was found in the gain
scores for both groups. However, the gain scores of the subjects with more years of
experience were significantly higher than those with less experience.
A study which sought to determine the effect of the sequential organization
of sight reading pieces involved 102 instrumental music students from two
intermediate level bands in southern California (McBride, 1993). The participants
were from two schools whose student populations were similar in socio-economic
status, and their gain scores on the WFPS sight reading measure were compared at
the end of the treatment period. The sight reading pieces used were 24 selections
from John Kinyon’s Mini-Score Series for Band (1993), and three of those pieces
were used per week. The experimental group sight read the exercises pieces in
sequential order, based on difficulty level, while the control group sight read the
pieces in random order. Both groups made similar gains in their sight reading
scores, and no significant difference was found. No formal conclusion on the effect
of the sequential order was made due to the differences between the two groups, as
measured by their MAP (Musical Aptitude Profile) (Gordon, 1965) scores and the
Home and School Music Environment Index (HMEI), constructed by McBride for
this study.
Bluestine (2007) explored the effect of the sequence of instruction,
specifically the teaching of whole melodic patterns versus individual pitches, on
48
students’ music reading (symbolic/tonal association) and sight singing abilities. In
this study, 100 elementary school general music students were assigned to one of
four groups: whole pattern group, individual pitches group, whole pattern followed
by individual pitches group, and individual pitches followed by whole pattern group.
The post-tests were administered at the end of the study period, which consisted of
32 sessions on tonal reading. No significant difference was found among the groups
on their sight singing and music reading abilities.
Formal Sight Reading Instruction and Practice
If the most logical way to improve a skill is to practice that skill, then
proficiency in music sight reading is likely to be achieved through reading practice
on a regular basis. Formal instruction and practice is another area which researchers
have explored, as summarized by the next paragraphs.
The study mentioned above on the effect of the sequential order of sight-
reading pieces (McBride, 1993) investigated two types of sight reading practice that
indicated little difference. The order of the practice pieces used did not significantly
affect the students’ progress.
A small group of high school band directors in Arkansas participated in a
qualitative study on band conductors’ ensemble preparation for sight reading (Casey,
1991). The subjects had 8 or more years of teaching experience, had earned two
Superior ratings for their ensemble in the three years prior to the study, and had been
at their school for a minimum of three years. Using ethnographic techniques, the
49
researcher gathered data on the subjects’ behaviors with regards to formal ensemble
sight reading practice. Simulated contest sight reading sessions with the conductors
and their ensembles were videotaped. The sessions included the pre-sight reading
discussion period and the sight reading period itself, plus a post-sight reading
interview with the conductor. Three researcher-constructed forms were used for data
collection: the Verbal Topic Information Form, designed to categorize all comments
made by the conductor during the discussion period; the Conductor Activity
Information Form, which recorded conductor activity during the actual sight reading
performance; and the Conductor Sight Reading Interview Guide, which contained
prompts for gathering data regarding score reading procedures, analysis and problem
solving during the discussion period, and the instructional techniques used to prepare
the students for sight-reading. This research found that the conductors had no
systematic plan in place for teaching sight reading in the curriculum throughout the
whole year. All formal instruction on sight reading preparation was reserved for the
two or three months prior to the contest competition. A systematic routine of part
analysis involved having the students examine the parts for key, meter, tempo
markings, phrase and articulation marks, style indicators, and difficult rhythmic
passages.
A researcher-designed method of sight reading was developed, implemented,
and evaluated by Laverty (1995). The method, a collection of rhythm and rhythm
plus interval sight reading études, was created for undergraduate music majors, and
50
29 first and second year students served as the field test sample. The participants
were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control groups. The
treatment period lasted for 12 weeks, during which time the members of the
experimental group received a weekly 15-minute sight reading method lesson. A
significant difference was found between the pre- and post-test scores of all the
subjects, but there was no significant difference between the two groups on their
post-test scores.
In a study by Ferrin (2003), 51 students from two intact high school concert
band classes performed significantly better on a sight reading test after a six week
treatment period, during which they engaged in a steady and consistent regimen of
sight reading experiences. The participants took a sight reading pre-test, were
assigned to one of two groups, a group which received the sight reading treatment
only and a group which received sight reading and educational kinesiology
treatments, then took a sight reading post-test. No significant difference was found
between the gain scores of the two groups.
Unlike the study cited in the preceding paragraph, Barlar (2010) used a
control group which did not receive a sight reading program. The study participants
were 7
th
and 8
th
grade students (n=55) enrolled in one of two band classes at a middle
school in Florida. At the end of the study period, all the participants did significantly
better on the sight reading post-test than on the pre-test. The experimental group,
which received the sight reading program of flash card practice with rhythmic
51
patterns and pitch identification as well as the instrumental sight reading of pieces,
had higher gain scores than the control group, but the difference was not statistically
significant.
Of the expertise-related skills investigated in Kopiez and Lee’s dynamic
model, the self-reported accumulated hours of actual sight-reading was a significant
predictor of sight-reading ability (Kopiez and Lee, 2006). The study participants, in
a retrospective interview, reported the amount of time they spent sight-reading up to
the age of 10, between the ages of 10 and 15, and between the ages of 15 and 18.
The total hours of accumulated sight reading was also considered. The accumulated
hours of sight reading up to the age of 15 was found to be the strongest single
predictor, especially at the most difficult sight reading test level in the study.
As described in this chapter, less-skilled readers tend to spend more time
fixating at the beginning of the melody, and they use many horizontal progressive
fixations (Goolsby, 1994). They do not look ahead as frequently as skilled readers
do (Sloboda, 1974), and their average eye hand span is under 1 beat (Truitt, et al.
1997). In terms of information processing theory, their short term memory slots tend
to be filled to capacity with minute details (Wolf, 1976). The short term memory
slots of skilled readers, on the other hand, are occupied by generalized information,
and they tend to be not filled to full capacity (Wolf, 1976). They look farther ahead
in the notation, then back to the point of performance, and they do not fixate on
every individual note (Goolsby, 1994). They look ahead to the ends of phrases much
52
more frequently (Sloboda, 1974), and rather than focusing on individual notes, they
code relations between notes (Sloboda, 1976). The average eye hand span of skilled
readers is approximately 2 beats (Truitt, et al., 1997), and a strong relationship
among the three domains of perception, production, and reflection is apparent among
more advanced readers (Scripp, 1995). With the target population for this study
being beginning instrumentalists in the upper elementary grades, it may be
considered that their music sight reading skills are just emerging. and their stage of
development is not unlike that of the less-skilled readers in the studies reviewed
above. The aim of the guided reading procedures used in the study was to nurture
among beginning instrumentalists the practices and behaviors that had been
demonstrated by skilled readers.
Implications for the Study
The literature review provides indications that the essential components for
developing early sight reading ability are: (a) building a child’s sound vocabulary in
association with notational symbols (b) develop a child’s technical proficiency on the
instrument, and, having established these skills, then (c) integrating the aural/literacy
skills and technical proficiency skills in sight reading exercises (Elliott, 1982;
Gromko, 2004; Hayward & Gromko, 2009). Furthermore, it is essential that
generous amounts of time are spent on the activity of practicing sight reading. The
classroom context that underlies this study is that of a developing curriculum that
incorporates the methods and activities recommended by the studies reviewed in this
53
chapter. Two approaches were identified for investigation that develop children’s
aural/literacy skills, one through sight singing and another that strengthens their
intervallic pattern recognition in symbols.

54
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to compare relative gains in sight reading
ability by two groups of elementary students when compared to each other after 8
weeks of treatment. The principal research question was: Is there a significant
difference in the sight reading gain scores between the group that uses a solfège
approach (Experimental Group I) and the group that uses an intervallic approach
(Experimental Group II)? The supplementary research question was: When taking
the post-test, how many participants actually used the guided reading process in
which they were trained? This chapter describes the study’s sample and design,
identifies the variables involved, narrates the data collection and analysis procedures,
and declares any known threats to the study’s internal and external validity. Besides
describing the study’s participants, the section on the study’s sample also discusses
the target population from which the sample was drawn, as well as the school and
classroom environments that surrounded the participants. The treatments that were
used in the study, including their implementation and curricular context, are
described in the section on variables and measures.
Sample
Target population. Fourth- and fifth- grade beginning instrumental music
students who were enrolled in urban public schools and who attended music class
once each week served as the target population for this study.
55
School setting. The participants were recruited from a pool of about 230
instrumental music students at five public schools within a large urban school district
in the state of California. All five schools qualified for and received Title I funds,
federal government assistance aimed at improving the academic achievement of
disadvantaged students, and roughly half of the students at these schools were
English language learners (LAUSD, 2010). The subjects represent a sample of
convenience. The researcher was the music instructor at each of the five schools
included in the study. Permission from each school site administrator was obtained.
A copy of the permission site letter is found in Appendix A.
Classroom setting. The instrumental music students were released from
their general education classrooms to attend weekly music lessons. Since the
approval of their classroom teacher had been required before they were admitted into
the music program, these students tended to have consistently good work habits.
Almost all of the students in the instrumental music classes used instruments that
were provided on loan to them by the school district. Each music lesson, which was
held once a week, lasted about 45 minutes. The students learned techniques
fundamental to playing the instrument and a modest repertoire of simple songs by
rote, while learning about musical concepts and acquiring basic literacy skills
through vocal activities.
Study participants. A few weeks before the beginning of the study, the
researcher introduced the study to the students during the regular music class
56
instruction period. The researcher explained the procedure of the study and the fact
that, while all students would receive eight weeks of instruction in one of two
approaches to learning sight reading and be tested as part of the music lessons, only
those agreeing to participate would be audio- and video-recorded and would have
their results included. It was further explained that no penalties or rewards would be
given for participation. When recruiting the students, the researcher used the wording
on the parents’ consent to participate form and they were given a copy to take home
for their parents to read, sign and return, indicating consent to participate in the study
(Appendix B and C). A total of 78 fourth- and fifth-grade beginning instrumentalists
were recruited for the study, but only 52 participants make up the sample for this
study. Participant attrition was due to the following: 10 students moved away from
the area, 4 dropped out of the music program, 3 were absent from school during
testing, 6 were not performing at the level required by the test, and 3 voluntarily
withdrew from the study. Both experimental groups received instruction by the same
teacher in order to minimize variability, and the subjects were drawn from the
particular classes to which the researcher had access. All students enrolled in these
music classes participated in all the instructional activities, including the treatment
procedures and the tests, but only the tests of students participating in the study were
evaluated and scores included in the study. A stratified random assignment of intact
classes was employed. The pre-test and post-test recordings and results were coded
to protect the anonymity of the subjects.
57
Study Design
This study employed an eight-week treatment with a pre- and post-test, quasi-
experimental two-group design. The study occurred midway through the school
year, by which time the students in their first year of study had already become
familiar with their instruments and were able, technically, to play simple songs
learned by rote. They had also acquired a working understanding of certain elements
of music notation, such as meter, treble or bass clef, and the letter names of notes on
the staff. They had had practice with reading simple melodic and rhythmic patterns,
either by singing or playing on their instrument, through the use of flash cards and
tonal pattern sight-playing exercises. They had also begun to learn short songs from
standard music notation. The students in their second year of study had begun the
school year by becoming reacquainted with their instruments, reviewing the
repertoire of simple songs learned during the first year of study, and reviewing basic
elements of music notation, including the letter names of notes on the staff, time and
key signatures. They had also added to their repertoire a few short pieces, learned
from standard music notation, for mixed instrumentation. The ten-week study period
began and ended with the assessment of the students’ sight reading skills. The pre-
test was administered in the first week, the post-test in the tenth week, and the
treatment period took place during the eight weeks in between. The treatment for
each experimental group, applied in the weekly music lessons, was intended to aid
the students in making connections between the conceptual and technical skills that
58
they had acquired thus far. Since it was relevant to the music students’ course of
study, the use of the treatment during instructional time was justified.
Participants’ music reading background. Before the study period began,
the first and second year students (fourth and fifth graders) had begun doing music
reading activities to learn new pieces, using a practiced strategy prescribed by
Katinka Daniel (Bowyer King, 2001). The Daniel sequence, which had been
formulated for piano students, was slightly modified for the purposes of this study.
It was abbreviated to include the following steps: 1) the students identified the letter
names of each pitch contained in the piece, while the teacher notated them in
ascending order on the staff board then identified the tonic (Do in major keys, La in
minor keys), 2) the students sang in solfège, then played on the instrument, reading
the scale or tone set of the piece from the lowest to the highest note, as scribed by the
teacher on the board; 3) the students identified the time signature of the piece,
clapped and spoke the rhythm, then clapped the rhythm while counting the beats; 4)
the students spoke the pitch letter names while clapping the rhythm; 5) the students
played the piece. This procedure, as it had been modified, applied only rhythmic
reading and pitch identification to the actual notated music being read. For step 4 in
the original sequence, the students sang the piece in solfège then sang it with pitch
letter names while clapping the rhythm.

59
Variables and Measures
The study included one independent variable and one dependent variable.
The independent variable was the approach used for instrumental sight reading, and
the dependent variable was the participants’ gain scores, from pre- to post-test, on a
sight reading measure.
Independent variable. The treatment for Experimental Group I was based
on a melody reading sequence outlined by Gordon (2004), adapted as follows: 1) the
students scan the piece and familiarize themselves with the melodic tonal patterns or
familiar phrase units by singing them with solfège syllables; 2) the students sing the
entire melody on solfège; 3) the students audiate the entire melody while fingering
on their instrument or moving the slide to the appropriate position; and 4) the
students play the entire melody.
Experimental Group II employed an intervallic sight reading approach similar
to the techniques advocated by Nitti (2003), O’Reilly and Williams (1997), Lehmann
and McArthur (2002), Starr (1981), and Bastien (1976). The steps were modified as
follows: 1) the students scan the piece and verbally identify the melodic contour and
types of motions that occur in the piece (upward, downward, step-wise, skips, leaps,
repeated notes); 2) the students verbalize each interval and melodic direction that
occurs, while fingering on their instrument or moving the slide to the appropriate
position; and 3) the students play the entire melody.
60
In both groups, the instructor sometimes had to repeat a step before moving
to the next. This depended on the student mastery of the level.
This study did not employ a control group to insure that all of the participants
and all of the students in the classes had access to guided reading instruction.
Curricular context. The Kodály approach was incorporated with the
instrumental curriculum under which the study participants were taught. This
approach emphasizes the development of aural skills and a vocabulary of musical
concepts through vocal activities. Each lesson consisted of warm-up activities (10
minutes), review of material previously studied (15 minutes), the introduction of new
material (10 minutes), and the performance of previously learned music. A
description of each segment of the lesson is found in Appendix H. Each portion of
the lesson included both vocal and instrumental activities, as shown in the outline.
During the study period, however, the vocal activities were discontinued for
Experimental Group II. The sequence of tonal patterns studied is also listed in
Appendix H.
Sight reading practice melodies. Throughout the treatment period, the same
unfamiliar melodies were used by both experimental groups, with a new melody
being introduced each week. The tonic (Do for major and La for minor) for each
selection was marked on the score, although the participants in Experimental Group
II were not asked to sing the music in solfège. The pieces included melodies by
61
Kodály (1941), traditional folk melodies, and melodies composed by the researcher.
These eight melodies are found in Appendix I.
Implementation of the independent variable. The guided reading
procedures were presented and practiced during the weekly lesson. A few treatment
lessons were recorded for later viewing by judges to insure unbiased teaching by the
instructor in both groups.
Dependent variable. The dependent variable for the study was the
participants’ gain scores, representing change in their sight playing ability, from pre-
to post-test. The test was an adaptation of the Melodic Sight Reading Achievement
Test (Grutzmacher, 1985). The melodies from the test are found in Appendix D.
This melodic sight reading test was created by Grutzmacher (1985) as part of a
research project to measure beginning instrumental music students’ ability to
correctly sight read melodies. The melodies had been constructed to correspond with
the tonal patterns taught to students participating in a study on the effectiveness of
tonal pattern content training. An adaptation of this test was used in a later study on
tonal training (Bernhard, 2004). The type of tonal training used in those two earlier
studies is related to the guided reading process investigated in this study, and the
outcome on which this study is focused—the students’ melodic sight reading
ability—is similar to that of the earlier studies.
Test procedure. The test was administered twice—as a pre-test and a post-
test. Both the pre-test and the post-test were audio-recorded, and a portion of each
62
post-test was also video-recorded so that the participants’ apparent use of a pre-sight
reading routine could be confirmed. The MSRAT pre- and post-tests were
administered individually, and since this testing process formed a part of the
necessary ongoing student assessment, the administration of the test during
instructional time was justified. The administration of the tests took place during the
participants’ normal music class time and in the classroom where the regular music
lessons were held. The study participants were called in to the room one at a time,
while the other students worked on a written assignment in an adjacent classroom.
The researcher administered the test while an assistant supervised the other students
who were engaged in a writing task. The audio-recordings were made on an Apple
iPod Model #A1136, using a Belkin microphone (Model #F8Z082, N10117 Z528).
During the scoring sessions, these recordings were played back on a Bose sound
dock. The video-recordings were made with a Canon DC100 video disc camera.
Judges and scoring. The recordings of the tests were scored by a panel of
independent judges, who were recruited from a candidate list of instrumental music
teachers with a minimum five years’ experience teaching in the Los Angeles area.
All three judges are accomplished musicians and have experience teaching and
working with young instrumentalists from elementary grades through the high school
level. Prior to the scoring session, these judges were trained by the researcher on the
test’s scoring system. The script for this training session is found in Appendix E.
This training insured a high inter-judge reliability, as reflected in Chapter 4.
63
The judges first scored all the audio recordings, in order to determine melodic
pitch accuracy. Most of this was accomplished in one sitting, with the remaining
items being scored shortly thereafter. The video was viewed after this, for the
purpose of determining whether the trained procedure was used by each participant
in the testing situation. The students’ identity and group affiliation (Group I or
Group II) were not made known to the judges, but each participant’s recorded
performance was given an identification code for record keeping purposes only as
well as to keep a track of completed and uncompleted tests. None of the participants
are identified in this report.
On the MSRAT, each test item was divided into the tonal patterns contained
therein, and these patterns were marked by brackets on the judges’ copy. The
student received two points for each correctly played pattern within each melody test
item. Within each pattern, one note played incorrectly meant a loss of one point. If
two or more notes were played incorrectly, all points (two) were lost for that pattern.
Only the melodic pitch accuracy was assessed; the sound quality, articulation, or
rhythmic accuracy was not evaluated. The total pitch accuracy scores were gathered
for each student on the pre-test and the post-test. The gain scores were calculated as
the difference between the pre-and post-test scores.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
In order to simplify judging criteria, the participants were judged only on
pitch accuracy and not on any other aspects of their performance. To answer the
64
second research question, the pre-sight reading behaviors of each participant taking
the post-test were documented through viewing of the video, as described in Chapter
4. Data analysis was conducted on pre- and post-test scores, as well as on gain
scores between the two (results presented in Chapter 4). Data collection took place
during the spring semester of a traditional American calendar school year
(September through June). The pre-test was administered in February, and the post-
test was administered during the last week of April.
Experimental Validity
A few threats to internal and external validity were identified. The study
population appeared typical of students at the fourth and fifth grade level in this
geographical region. This did not appear to be an extraordinary population in any
obvious way. Natural maturation may have occurred in the students, although
probably to a minimal extent, considering that the treatment took place over a short
eight-week period. The threat of history is another possibility, including specific
external events that might have occurred during the study period. For example, some
participants might have received additional musical instruction outside of the
instrumental class, such as sight-singing instruction in the school choir or in general
music class, or in music lessons at a community school. The transience rate at urban
schools posed a mortality threat which was realized amongst this study population
and is explained in Chapter 4. In order to prevent the threat of experimenter bias,
independent judges were called upon to verify the teacher’s equal enthusiasm for the
65
treatments being compared by viewing a number of video-recorded lessons. These
same independent judges were also called upon to score the pre- and post-tests. The
researcher approached the study from a neutral perspective, with an unbiased
intention to determine the value of two different instructional approaches to
developing sight reading skill. In wanting to avoid any students being denied
instruction in sight reading, it was decided not to use a control group. Each class
included in the study received a treatment of one kind or another. This lack of a
control group is a practical limitation.
The external validity of this study is limited, and the results might possibly be
generalized only to a population similar to the sample of participating students:
fourth and fifth graders who have demonstrated consistently good work habits, who
are enrolled in Title I schools within a large urban school district, and who are in
beginning instrumental music classes which incorporate a rote-to-note approach and
vocal activities for developing basic musicianship and literacy.
The study did not pose any threats, physical or otherwise, for the research
participants.
66
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
This chapter begins with the reiteration of the research question, the null
hypothesis, and the supplementary question. A profile of the study’s sample follows,
including the randomized assignment of intact classes, classified by school,
participant grade level, and instrument. A paragraph explains how inter-judge
reliability was established, and this is followed by the results of the pre-test, post-
test, and gain scores. To illustrate the results, tables have been included. The results
of statistical testing are included, with significance determined at p< .05, as well as a
report on the pre-sight reading behaviors of the participants on the post-test. The
chapter concludes with a summary of all the results.
Research Questions and Null Hypothesis
The research question posed by this study was: Is there a significant
difference in the Grutzmacher (1985) Melodic Sight Reading Achievement Test gain
scores between the group that used a solfège approach (Experimental Group I) and
the group that used an intervallic approach (Experimental Group II) in their guided
sight reading practice? A supplementary question was: When taking the post-test,
how many participants actually used the guided reading process in which they were
trained? The hypothesis, stated in the null format, was that there would be no
significant difference in the MSRAT gain scores between Experimental Group I and
Experimental Group II.
67
Sample Profile
The study participants (n=52) are classified in Table 1 by school and by class.
In order to avoid disrupting the instructional setting, the students’ intact classes were
randomly assigned to either Experimental Group I or Experimental Group II. These
assignments are shown in Table 2. Table 3 lists the number of participants in each
experimental group, pertaining to instrument and grade level. There were 31 fourth
graders and 21 fifth graders in the study. A total of 19 intact classes were randomly
assigned into the experimental groups: 8 classes into Group I and 11 classes into
Group II. Experimental Group I had 25 participants, and Experimental Group II had
27. The random assignment was obtained through use of the Research Randomizer
website (http://www.randomizer.org). The researcher performed a stratified random
assignment, in which the first year classes were randomly assigned to either
Experimental Group I or Experimental Group II, and the second year classes were
similarly randomly assigned to either Group I or Group II.

Table 1

Study Participants by School and by Class
Class School
A
School
B
School
C
School
D
School
E
Strings* 6 3 5
Winds* 3 2 2
Flute 2 1 2
Clarinet 1 3 2 2
Violin 4 5 2 4
‘Cello 3
*Beginners in their second year of study
68

Table 2

Stratified Random Assignment of Intact Classes
Class School
A
School
B
School
C
School
D
School
E
Strings* II I I
Winds* II II I
Flute II II I
Clarinet II II II II
Violin I I II I I
‘Cello II
*Beginners in their second year of study

Table 3

Number of Participants per Group
Cello Clarinet Flute Violin
Grade 4 Experimental Group I 15
Experimental Group II 3 8 4 1

Grade 5

Experimental Group I

1

1

1

7
Experimental Group II 2 3 6

Inter-Judge Reliability
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was used to determine inter-judge
reliability (r=.98, p<.01) (Table 4). The raw scores for the tests are presented in
Appendix F.
69

Table 4
Inter-Judge Reliability
J1 J2 J3

J1

1

.99(**)

.97(**)

J2

.99(**)

1

.98(**)

J3

.97(**)

.98(**)

1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Pre-Test Results
Out of a total perfect score of 86 points, the overall pre-test mean score was
14.74, with a standard deviation of 10.84. The mean for the raw pre-test scores of
Experimental Group I was 11.27, with a standard deviation of 7.34. For
Experimental Group II, the pre-test scores had a mean of 17.95, with a standard
deviation of 12.59. The sample size of each experimental group was less than 30
subjects. Therefore, to determine equality between the two groups based on the pre-
test scores, a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted. ANOVA
was chosen for its ability to compare the variance of individuals’ scores between the
groups as well as the variance of individuals’ scores within each group (Gall, Gall &
Borg, 2003). Table 5 indicates an F ratio of 5.35 at p<.05. Consultation of the F
Distribution table determined that the two groups are significantly different (Best &
Kahn, 2006, p. 488).
70

Table 5

Pre-Test Scores and ANOVA
M SD df MS F Sig.
Group I 11.27 7.34
Between
Groups
1 572.92 5.35 .03
Group II 17.95 12.59
Within
Groups
50 108.33

Post-Test Results
Out of a total perfect score of 86 points, the overall post-test mean was 34.52,
with a standard deviation of 22.24. The post-test mean for Experimental Group I
was 32.68, with a standard deviation of 27.18, and the post-test mean for
Experimental Group II was 36.22, with a standard deviation of 16.77. Further
analysis of the group difference on the post-test scores is prohibited by the group
inequalities on the pre-test.
Gain Scores
The overall gain score mean was 19.78, with a standard deviation of 20.43.
The gain score mean for Experimental Group I was 21.41, with a standard deviation
of 25.69. The gain score mean for Experimental Group II was 18.27, with a standard
deviation of 14.31. The overall distribution of the gain scores was slightly skewed.
The distribution of the gain scores by Experimental Group I was negatively skewed,
71
while the distribution of the gain scores by Experimental Group II had a more
normal distribution. The non-parametric Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, an
alternative to a paired samples t-test, was used to compare the difference between the
pre-test and post-test mean scores within each group due to the small sample size and
the unequal variance between the groups. The results are shown in Table 6. The
difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of Experimental Group I is
significantly different. Similarly, the difference between the pre-test and post-test
scores of Experimental Group II is also significantly different.

Table 6

Comparison of Pre- to Post-Test Scores for Group I and Group II
Group n M SD Z
(a)
p
I 25
Pre-Test 11.27 7.34
-3.04 .002
Post-Test 32.68 27.18
II 27
Pre-Test 17.95 12.59
-4.28 .000
Post-Test 36.22 16.77
(a)
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test on Gain Scores within Groups

A Mann-Whitney U test was performed to compare the mean gain scores
between Experimental Group I and Experimental Group II. This non-parametric test
was employed due to the slightly skewed distribution of the scores and the small
sample size. The results are shown in Table 7. The difference in the gain scores
between Group I and Group II is not significant. This outcome accepts the null
hypothesis.
72

Table 7

Comparison of Gains for Experimental Group I and Group II
n Mean Rank Z
(a)
p
Group I 25 26.18
-.147 n.s.
Group II 27 26.80
(a)
Mann Whitney U Test

Pre-Sight Reading Behavior of Students
During the post-test, a variety of behaviors were observed in the participants:
humming the notated music, staring at the score, scanning while going through the
fingerings, identifying the individual pitches, looking at the first few notes, looking
at the starting note, doing a quick scan of the melody, and not appearing to go
through any pre-sight reading processes. Table 8 outlines the frequencies of each
behavior within each group. Overall, sixteen students did not appear to go through a
pre-reading process, thirteen did a quick scan of the melody to be read, two looked at
only the starting note, three looked at the first few notes or the first measure, eight
verbally identified the individual pitches for most of the melody, two scanned while
going through the fingerings on their instrument, seven stared at the score, and one
hummed the notated music.

73
Table 8

Pre-Sight Reading Behaviors on Post-Test
Group I Group II
No pre-sight reading 5 11
Quick scan 7 6
Named pitches 4 4
Looked at first measure 2 1
Established starting note 1 1
Scanned & fingerings 2
Stared at the score 5 2
Hummed the melody 1

A summary of the pre-sight reading behavior of the participants, within each
experimental group, is as follows. In Experimental Group I, one participant
identified the starting note only then proceeded to play, five participants just stared at
the music, and none of the participants scanned the music while going through the
fingerings. Seven participants did a quick scan, four named the individual pitches,
one hummed, and two looked at only the first measure. In Experimental Group II,
one participant identified the starting note, two just stared at the music, two scanned
the music while going through the fingerings, six did a quick scan, and eleven
participants did not appear to go through a pre-sight reading process at all. Four
students named the individual pitches, one looked at only the first measure, and none
of the participants in this group hummed the music.
None of the students used the entire process in which they were trained, but
eight of them used a portion thereof. One student from Experimental Group I
74
hummed the melodies before playing. Before playing, the starting note of each
melody was established by one person from Group I and one from Group II, and the
notes of only the first measure were established by two people from Group I and one
participant from Group II. Two people from Experimental Group II went through
the fingerings while scanning the melodies.
Summary of Results
The sample in this study consisted of fourth- and fifth- grade beginning
instrumentalists (n=52) from five schools within a large urban school district. The
intact classes to which the study participants belonged were randomly assigned to
one of two experimental groups. Experimental Group I had 25 participants, and
Group II had 27. The raw scores on the pre- and post-tests yielded a high inter-judge
reliability (r=.98) at the p<.01 level.
In the overall pre-test scores the distribution of scores for each group yielded
different variances, and a one-way ANOVA determined significant difference
between the two groups. The overall distribution of the gain scores was slightly
skewed. The distribution of the gain scores by Experimental Group I was negatively
skewed, while the distribution of the gain scores by Experimental Group II had a
more normal distribution. A related samples Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test was used to
compare the pre-test mean scores and the post-test mean scores within each group,
and a significant difference was determined, showing that significant improvement in
sight reading accuracy scores occurred in Group I (p=.00, Z=-3.04) and in Group II
75
(p=.00, Z=-4.28) after the treatments. A Mann-Whitney U-test was performed to
compare the mean gain scores of each group, and its results reveal the difference was
not significant. This outcome accepts the null hypothesis. On the post-test, the
following behaviors were found to be the most prominent: Sixteen of the
participants did not employ a pre-sight reading study process and thirteen did a quick
scan of the melody to be read, and eight identified the individual pitches. None of
the participants used the entire processes in which they were trained, but eight used
only a portion of the routines. Four participants in Experimental Group I used a
portion of the routine in which they were trained, and four in Experimental Group II
did so as well. The students with the highest post-test scores and the highest gain
scores either did a quick scan of the music or did not use a pre-sight reading process.
76
Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion and Conclusion
Summary
The specific problem addressed by this study was, within the context of a
rote-to-note instrumental music methodology, the challenge of helping the beginner
transfer to the instrument the music reading skills that have been nurtured through
vocalization. If expertise in sight reading requires audiation, interpretation of
notational symbols, and technical proficiency on an instrument, then there is a need
to evaluate the effects of different instructional approaches that use some or all of
these aspects. The purpose of this study was to compare relative gains in sight
reading ability by two groups of elementary students when compared to each other
after 8 weeks of treatment. The principal research question was: Is there a
significant difference for performance on a test of melodic sight reading following
musical treatment, one treatment being a solfège approach (Experimental Group I)
and the other an intervallic approach (Experimental Group II)? A supplementary
question was: When taking the post-test, how many participants actually used the
guided reading process in which they were trained? The hypothesis, stated in the
null format, was that there would be no significant difference in the gain scores
between Experimental Group I and Experimental Group II. The study employed a
pre- and post-test, two-group quasi-experimental design, with intact classes
randomly assigned to either Group I, which used a solfège approach, and Group II,
which used an interval recognition approach. The sample for the study consisted of
77
52 fourth- and fifth-grade beginning instrumental music students. The study
included one independent variable: the type of approach to instrumental sight
reading; and one dependent variable: the participants’ gain scores, from pre- to post-
test, on a sight reading performance task. The post-test scores were determined to be
significantly higher than the pre-test scores in each of the two experimental groups,
showing that student sight reading accuracy improved significantly after treatment.
The gain score mean for Experimental Group I was slightly higher than that of
Experimental Group II, but the difference was not statistically significant. On the
post-test, sixteen participants did not employ a pre-sight reading study process,
thirteen did a quick scan of the melody to be read, and eight identified the individual
pitches. The students with the highest post-test scores and the highest gain scores
either did a quick scan of the music or did not use a pre-sight reading process.
Overall, none of the participants used the entire procedures in which they were
trained, but eight of them used a portion thereof. These were four participants from
Experimental Group I and four participants from Experimental Group II.
Discussion of Outcomes
Acceptance of null hypothesis. The answer to the main research question is
that there is no significant difference in the sight reading gain scores between
Experimental Group I, which used the guided reading with solfège approach, and
Experimental Group II, which used the guided reading with interval recognition
approach. The study’s outcome accepts the null hypothesis. However, the
78
significant improvement in sight reading scores within each of the groups indicates
that there are diverse teaching approaches that can be used to improve sight reading
accuracy in young instrumental students. This corresponds with the studies by
Dunlap (1989) and Bernhard (2004). In the Dunlap study (1989), there was no
significant difference between the sight reading performance of the solfège group
and that of the group that did not use solfège. The experimental group in the
Bernhard study (2004), which examined the use of solfège within tonal pattern
training, performed better than the control group on the sight reading measure, but
not significantly so.
Analysis of raw scores. In the overall pre-test scores the distribution of
scores for each group yielded different variances, and a one-way ANOVA
determined significant difference between the two groups. The disproportionate
number of wind players in each groups, which was a consequence of the random
assignment of intact classes, could explain this difference. At the onset of the study,
the wind players were found to be at a slightly more advanced stage in their sight
reading than the string players. Dividing each experimental group into sub-groups of
low and high pre-test scores was not feasible due to the small sample size. The
difference between groups on the pre-test scores also prohibited any further analysis
of the post-test scores.
Supplemental research question. The supplemental research question
investigated whether, on the post-test, the participants used the pre-sight reading
79
routines in which they were trained. The answer to the supplemental research
question is that, on the post-test, none of the participants used the entire pre-sight
reading routine in which they were trained, but eight of them used a portion thereof.
Four of these participants were from Experimental Group I, and four were from
Experimental Group II. The participants with the highest scores either did not use a
pre-sight reading routine at all or they simply did a quick scan of the music about to
be read. The students who were observed to have quickly scanned the melodies may
have mentally sung the melodies, silently identified the pitches they were about to
play, or merely looked for obstacles, but these thought processes could not be
confirmed. The eight students who needed to identify the individual pitches
represent the less skilled readers, from the model by Wolf (1976), whose short term
memory stores were filled with discrete details. These results correspond with those
of the McPherson study (2005) which found less use of mental strategies during sight
reading testing situations in the earliest years of study.
Discussion of procedures. The study was very carefully planned during the
proposal stage. Some things went according to plan, but there were some difficulties
that presented themselves along the way.
Sample. The recruitment of participants was one of the bigger challenges.
The students were generally eager to participate, but many of them, although they
had been accustomed to playing tests of rehearsed music, shied away upon finding
out that the tests involved in the study would be on music sight reading. There were
80
a number of parents who would not allow their children to be audio or video
recorded, and consequently, these students could not be recruited as study
participants. A very low number of participants were initially recruited, so the study
had to be repeated the following year in order to acquire additional participants. The
sample was not immune from mortality, as seen in the attrition reported in Chapter 3.
Instruction during the study period. The curricular context in which the
study took place consisted of a range of activities, and it was designed so that
different learning modalities could be accommodated. During the study period itself,
however, the researcher/instructor felt restricted by the assignment of intact classes
into one guided reading process or the other. When it became clear early on that
certain students were not benefiting from the treatment to which their classes had
been assigned, a change to a different or mixed-methods approach in the guided
reading practice could not take place until after the study period was over.
Testing. The tests were administered individually in the room or space where
music lessons were normally held, and each student was scheduled during the same
time of day as their music lesson. This was done in order to follow the schedule to
which the students were accustomed. At the onset, the administration of each pre-
test took longer than planned. The procedures for summoning and getting each
student ready had to be streamlined to insure a more effective use of time. The
general directions were read to a group of participants at a time, instead of
individually, in order to save time. On the post-test, the participants were entitled to
81
a 30-second study period of each melody, but for the purposes of saving time, they
were allowed to proceed sooner if they looked ready before the time was up. The
novelty of the post-test might have had a disruptive effect on some of the
participants, possibly causing them to become nervous, forego the pre-sight reading
process, and want to complete the test quickly. Since a large percentage did not
think to rely on the trained routine, scheduling regular practice tests during the study
period might have minimized the novelty effect and yielded better results. On the
other hand, it is suggested that those who did not go through a pre-reading routine
might have been comfortable enough with the music notation that they felt they did
not need to go through a process.
Observation of student behavior. As part of the post-test, a video recording
of each participant’s pre-sight reading behavior was observed, and these behaviors
are summarized in Chapter 4. In seeking answers to the question of whether the
students used the process in which they were trained, their behaviors while they were
sight reading on their instruments could be a source of information. A look at what
they actually played could be revealing. Although a discussion of the errors made by
the participants is beyond the scope of this study, two types of errors on the post-test
were found to be worthy of attention as they may shed some light on the students’
reading process. In the first type, a group of three or four notes were played
incorrectly. After the first incorrect note, however, the other notes in the group
followed the intervals and melodic direction of the written notes. Some students
82
from Experimental Group II, the group trained in the interval approach,
demonstrated this behavior. In the other type of error, a participant from
Experimental Group I, the group which used the solfège with movable Do approach,
played in the key of D major a melody that was written in G major. These behaviors
suggest that the processes in which the students had been trained may have been in
use during the sight reading in these particular cases. Another area of concern is the
fact that, on the post-test, very few of the participants appeared to use the procedures
in which they were trained. While this corresponds with the McPherson (2005) study
that young students in the earlier years of study use less mental strategies in sight
reading tests than they do in later years, the researcher suggests that the stress of the
testing situation might have contributed to this. If testing practice were incorporated
with the treatment, it may have reduced the novelty effect of the post-test video-
taping. Perhaps a simulation of the testing conditions during some of the guided
reading practice time, in which students are actively encouraged to use the trained
procedures, would impact their use of the strategies in further testing.
Judges and scoring. The scoring of the tests was scheduled late in the spring
semester, a time when music educators are typically busy preparing for their own
students’ performances. Hence, the recruitment of independent judges was yet
another challenge. After a considerable number of requests were made to music
teachers throughout the city, three agreed to serve as judges. A training session was
held to prepare them for the task, and this did not take long, since specific, step-by-
83
step directions had been written out and read to them. Three melodies were used for
scoring practice, and they discussed each one so that their understanding of the
scoring process could be confirmed. Consistency among the judges’ scores was
established, and they then proceeded to score the participants’ tests. All the
materials needed by judges were prepared in advance, and the score sheets, which
differed by instruments, were arranged in the same order as the recordings to
facilitate the process. The pre-tests and post-tests were scored all at once, and this
took longer than planned. A six-hour scoring session had been scheduled, with a
five-minute stretch break at the end of each hour, and a thirty-minute snack break
halfway through the session. At the end of the scheduled session, there were 21 tests
that had yet to be scored. The researcher provided each judge with a disc copy of the
remaining tests so that they could be scored on another day.
Discussion of independent variable. The treatments used with both
experimental groups invested generous amounts of class time in guided sight reading
practice. The amount of time afforded to each approach, together with the apparent
effectiveness of each approach may explain the significant increase in sight reading
accuracy within each group after treatment, balanced against the insignificant
difference between the gain scores of the two groups. Other studies that had yielded
a similar outcome draw a parallel scenario (Price, Blanton, et al., 1998; McBride,
1993; Laverty, 1995; Ferrin, 2003; Barlar, 2010). The experimental and control
groups in these studies all had either sight reading practice or an intense amount of
84
work with music notation, and this could explain the insignificant difference in their
sight reading post-test results.
Discussion of the dependent variable. The distribution of the post-test
scores and the gain scores spanned a wide range. The variance in the post-test was
wider than in the pre-test, which could be interpreted as a bigger range of
achievement or lack thereof. This supports the expression, “one size does not fit all,”
or one type of instruction will not benefit all types of learners. The treatment
received by Group I relies on aural skills, and the instructional activities that
contribute to the development of inner hearing must be kept up consistently in all
lessons. With a class that meets only once a week, a certain amount of learning
decay occurs from week to week, thus making the challenge even greater.
Participants who performed poorly. Out of all the participants, there were
eleven who either showed no improvement or performed worse on the post-test.
Nine of these students were from Experimental Group I, and two of them were from
Experimental Group II. It appears that the guided reading procedure in which they
were instructed did not help these few students at all. Considering the varied learning
styles of different students, it is suggested that an alternative approach might have
served these particular students more effectively. The very low scores of certain
students might be more clearly explained if other factors were taken into
consideration, such as the students’ technical proficiency on the instrument
(Hayward & Gromko, 2009; McPherson, 1993); their home musical environment,
85
academic achievement, and musical aptitude (Gromko, 2004; Karas, 2005; McBride,
1993). The use of a repeated measures design within a longer study period, during
which each of the groups switched to the other guided reading approach, also might
possibly have shed better light on the effectiveness of either treatment on the
students who performed poorly.
Implications for Music Education
The information gathered by this study has direct applications to teaching
practice. The outcomes of this study reveal what could possibly be a large span of
needs among learners. In the instrumental classroom setting where rote-to-note
instruction takes place and the sound-before-symbol approach to the developing of
music literacy is practiced, the educator must continue to explore ways to make a
smoother transition to instrumental sight reading. Additional drills in pitch
identification, to the point of automaticity, are necessary for those who are not as
proficient. More training is needed on musical concepts so that students are better
able to draw from the vocabulary that is acquired from those lessons. As supported
by Kopiez and Lee (2006), the instructional strategy used in the classroom must
shift, depending on the task at hand. Furthermore, incorporating practice testing
situations into the program would likely reduce the stress associated with testing and
could be used to actively encourage students to remember the use of their trained
procedures.
86
The treatment employed with Experimental Group I, which relies on aural
skills, should be very carefully infused with a well-planned instrumental curriculum.
The incorporation of vocal activities, ear playing, dictation, and other activities to
develop inner hearing, must be kept consistent throughout all the lessons in order to
facilitate the learner’s ongoing progress.
The observation and discussion on the types of errors made suggest that the
inclusion of qualitative techniques in assessing student progress would be a very
useful tool in directing instruction.
The study could be considered as a successful field testing of the guided
reading procedures since the majority of the participants (79%) made improvements
in their instrumental sight reading. The two guided routines take up only about 5 to
7 minutes of class time, so they can very easily be incorporated into each lesson.
Recommendations for Further Research
A replication of this study, but with a larger sample, may yield a more
conclusive outcome. Furthermore, extending it across different cities in different
states might increase the generalizability of the results. Lengthening the time period
of instruction may also yield more conclusive results. Based on the inequality in the
pre-test scores of the two groups from this study, the researcher recommends an
investigation that would compare how beginning readers and those who are slightly
more advanced might benefit from different guided reading strategies. The
importance of students experiencing diversity in approaches to reading instruction
87
was mentioned in a previous paragraph. Thus, a repeated measure alternate
treatment design, where the students experience first the one instructional approach
and then the other, might be an option for further investigation, as illustrated here:
Group 1: { O X
1
O X
2
O }
Group 2: { O X
2
O X
1
O }
The inclusion of practice tests as part of the treatment would also be useful in order
to eliminate any testing anxiety that the participants may experience when the actual
tests are administered. Furthermore, a mixed methodology study, which explores the
types of errors made by the students along with a quantitative study of their test
scores, might also give us more clarity.
Conclusion
The results of this study appear to have confirmed that the development of
sight reading skill may be improved when approached from different possible angles
in a well-balanced instructional program. For example, the ongoing development of
aural skills, visual processes, and familiarity with musical concepts, as well as the
ability to relate these to instrumental technique, are all important ingredients. Each
of the two guided reading routines incorporated aspects that earlier studies deemed
necessary for learners to acquire music sight reading skills, and they should help
beginners make the transition from rote learning to fluent sight reading. While both
groups increased their sight reading skill, the fact that no significant difference was
found between them indicates that there are diverse approaches that can aid students
88
in developing sight reading skills. The results, which indicated that both
experimental groups improved in their sight-reading ability, confirm that both of the
guided reading procedures used in this study appear to be effective. Ongoing
research into teaching approaches for aiding students in developing their sight
reading skills will continue to inform us on effective means for developing student
musicianship.

89
Bibliography
Azzara, C. (1993). Audiation-based improvisation techniques and elementary
instrumental students’ music achievement. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 41 (4), 328-342.

Barlar, N. E. (2010). The effect of sight-reading instruction on the language reading
fluency and music sight-reading ability of middle school band students
(DMA dissertation, Boston University). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT No. 3405960)

Banton, L. J. (1995). The role of visual and auditory feedback during the sight-
reading of music. Psychology of Music, 23, 3-16.

Bastien, J. (1976). Sight reading, level 1. San Diego, CA: Kjos Music Company.

Bernhard, H. C. (2004). The effects of tonal training on the melodic ear playing and
sight-reading achievement of beginning wind instrumentalists. Contributions
to Music Education, 31(1), 91-107.

Best, J. W. & Kahn, J. V. (2006). Research in education. Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Bluestine, E. M. (2007). A comparative study of four approaches to teaching tonal
music reading to a select group of students in third, fourth, and fifth grade
(PhD dissertation, Temple University). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3288133)

Bowyer King, M. (2001). Teaching piano with the Kodály method as developed by
Katinka Scipiades Daniel (Master’s thesis, University of Southern
California). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT No. 1407913)

Burton, J. B. (1988). A study to determine the extent to which vocalization is used
as an instructional technique in selected public school, public junior college,
and state university band rehearsals. Journal of Band Research, 23(2), 30-35.

Byo, J. L. (1992). Effects of barlines, pitch, and meter on musicians’ rhythm reading
performance. Journal of Band Research, 27(2), 34-44.

90
Casey, J. W. (1991). An analysis of band conductor sight-reading behavior and
ensemble preparation for sight-reading. Journal of Band Research, 27(1),
66-74.

Choksy, L. (1981). The Kodály context. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Choksy, L. (1988). The Kodály method, 2
nd
edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Ciepluch, G. M. (1988). Sightreading achievement in instrumental music
performance, learning gifts and academic achievement: a correlation study
(PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 754047061)

Colwell, R. (1969-1970). Music Achievement Tests. Chicago: Follett.

Colwell, R. J. and Goolsby, T. W. (2002). The teaching of instrumental music, 3
rd

edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Cresswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Davis, L. M. (1981). The effects of structured singing activities and self-evaluation
practice on elementary band students’ instrumental music performance,
melodic tonal imagery, self-evaluation, and attitude (PhD dissertation, Ohio
State University). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 8128981)

Dunlap, M. P. (1989). The effects of singing and solmization training on the musical
achievement of beginning fifth-grade instrumental students (PhD dissertation,
University of Michigan). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 9013890)

Earney, M. E. (2008). The effects of aural rhythmic dictation on the sight-reading
abilities of seventh and eighth grade band students (MMuEd thesis,
University of Kansas). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 1459804)

Ekstrom, R., French, J., Harman, H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Kit of Factor-
Referenced Cognitive Tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

91
Elliott, C. A. (1982). The relationships among instrumental sight reading ability and
seven selected predictor variables. Journal of Research in Music Education,
30(1), 5-14.

Emanuele, R. (2000). The effect of singing on the development of music reading
skills in young piano students. (Master’s thesis, Michigan State University).
Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT No.
1399621)

Feldstein, S. and Clark, L. (2003). The Yamaha Advantage: A Complete Curriculum
for Band Instruction. New York: Carl Fischer.

Feldstein, S. and O’Reilly, J. (1977). Alfred’s Basic Band Method. New York:
Alfred Publishing Company.

Ferrin, C. E. (2003). Music reading calisthenics: the effect of a consistent regimen
of sightreading and the effect of educational kinesiology upon the music
sightreading skills of high school music students (PhD dissertation,
University of Utah). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (UMI No. 3100977)

Fridley, J. D. (1993). A comparison of the effects of two learning sequences on the
acquisition of music reading skills for the guitar: traditional vs. Kodály-
based (EdD dissertation, University of the Pacific). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT No. 9326243)

Fritts, C. N. (1991). The historic development of the concept of comprehensive
musicianship in school bands (DMA dissertation, Catholic University of
America). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT No. 9123083)

Froseth, J. O. (1984). The comprehensive music instructor: Listen, move, sing, and
play for band. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc.

Froseth, J.O. (1985). A longitudinal study of the relationship between ear-to-hand
coordination and selected indices of music achievement at the University of
Michigan School of Music. Unpublished research report to the Dean and
Executive Committee of the School of Music, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.

Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., and Borg, W. R. (2003). Educational research: an
introduction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
92

Galyen, S. D. (2005). Sight-reading ability in wind and percussion students: a
review of recent literature. Update – Applications of Research in Music
Education, 24(1), 57-70.

Gamble, D. K. (1989). A study of the effects of two types of tonal pattern instruction
on the audiational and performance skills of first-year clarinet students (PhD
dissertation, Temple University). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses database. (AAT No. 8912430)

Goolsby, T. W. (1994). Eye movement in music reading: effects of reading ability,
notational complexity, and encounters. Music Perception, 12(1), 77-96.

Goolsby, T. W. (1994). Profiles of processing: eye movements during sightreading.
Music Perception, 12(1), 97-123.

Gordon, E.E. (1965). Manual: Musical Aptitude Profile. New York: Houghton
Mifflin Company.

Gordon, E.E. (1970). Manual: The Iowa Tests of Musical Literacy. Iowa City: The
University of Iowa Press.

Gordon, E.E. (1988). Musical Aptitude Profile. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.

Gordon, E.E. (1989). Advanced Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA
Publications.

Gordon, E. E. (1993, 2003). Learning sequences in music: skill, content and
patterns. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc.

Gordon, E.E. (1995). Musical Aptitude Profile Manual. Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc.

Gordon, E. E. (1999). All about audiation and music aptitudes. Music Educators’
Journal, 86(2), 41-44.

Gordon, E. E. (2004). The aural/visual experience of music literacy. Chicago: GIA
Publications, Inc.

Gromko, J. E. (2004). Predictors of music sight-reading ability in high school wind
players. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(1), 6-15.
93

Grunow, R.E. and Gordon, E.E. (1989). Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series for
Winds and Percussion. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc.

Grutzmacher, P. A. (1985). The effect of tonal pattern training on the aural
perception, reading recognition and melodic sight reading achievement of
first year instrumental music students (PhD dissertation, Kent State
University Graduate College). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses database. (AAT No. 8514172)

Grutzmacher, P. A. (1987). The effect of tonal pattern training on the aural
perception, reading recognition and melodic sight-reading achievement of
first-year instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 35(3), 171-181.

Haston, W. A. (2004). Comparison of a visual and an aural approach to beginning
wind instrument instruction (PhD dissertation, Northwestern University).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT No.
3132535).

Hayward, C. & Gromko, J. (2009). Relationships among sight-reading and technical
proficiency, spatial visualization, and aural discrimination. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 57, 26-36.

Heim, A.J. (1983). Rote-to-Note Band Method. Cedar Grove, IA: Musigraph
Publications.

Hickman, D.R. (1979). Music Speed Reading. Century City, CA: Wimbledon
Music.

Hodges, D. A. (1992). The Acquisition of Music Reading Skills. In R. Colwell
(Ed.), Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, (pp. 466-
471). New York: Schirmer Books.

Holmes, A. V. (2009). Effect of fixed-Do and movable Do solfege instruction on the
development of sight singing skills in 7- and 8-year old children (PhD
dissertation, University of Florida). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
and Theses database. (AAT No. 3367428)

Holzman, P. (1954). The relation of assimilation tendencies in visual, auditor, and
kinesthetic time-error to cognitive attitudes of leveling and sharpening.
Journal of Personality, 22, 375-394.
94

Hoover, H., Dunbar, S., Frisbie, D., Oberley, K., Bray, G., Naylor, R., Lewis, J.,
Ordman, V., and Qualls, A. (2003). The Iowa Tests. Itasca, IL: Riverside
Publishing.

Howard, P. M. (1996). Kodály strategies for instrumental teachers. Music
Educators’ Journal, 82, 27-33.

Karas, J. B. (2005). The effect of aural and improvisatory instruction on fifth grade
band students’ sight-reading ability (PhD dissertation, University of
Nebraska). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(UMI No. 3199697)

Kendall, M. J. (1990). A review of selected research in elementary instrumental
music education with implications for teaching. Journal of Band Research,
25, 64-81.

Kendall, M. J. (1988). Two instructional approaches to the development of aural and
instrumental performance skills. Journal of Research in Music Education,
36(4), 205-219.

Killian, J. N. and Henry, M. L. (2005). A comparison of successful and unsuccessful
strategies in individual sight-singing preparation. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 53(1), 51-65.

Kinyon, J. (1993). Mini-Score Series for Band. Van Nuys, CA and Ajax, Ontario:
Alfred Publishing.

Kodály, Z. (1941). 333 Elementary exercises in sight singing. (City): Boosey &
Hawkes.

Kopiez, R. and Lee, J. I. (2006). Towards a dynamic model of skills involved in
sight reading music. Music Education Research, 8(1), 97-120.

Kretchmer, D. L. (1998). Phenomenological instructional techniques employed in
beginning instrumental materials (Master’s thesis, California State
University Fresno). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 1394586)

LAUSD (2010). www.lausd.net, accessed on July 5, 2010 (specific URL not listed
to protect the privacy of the school sites).

95
Laverty, J.M. (1995). The development, implementation, and evaluation of a
sequentially organized instrumental method of sight-reading (PhD
dissertation, Florida State University). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI 9526748)

Lee, S. R. (1996). The effects of vocalization on achievement levels of selected
performance areas found in elementary musical bands (Master’s thesis).
Retrieved from Salem-Teikyo University. (ED 418 030)

Lehmann, A. C. & McArthur, V. (2002). Sight reading. In R. Parncutt & G. E.
McPherson (Eds.), The science and psychology of music performance (pp.
135-150). New York: Oxford University Press.

Luce, J. R. (1965). Sight reading and ear playing abilities as related to instrumental
music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 13(2), 101-109.

MacKnight, C. B. (1975). Music reading ability of beginning wind instrumentalists
after melodic instruction. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23, 23-
34.

Mainwaring, J. (1951). Psychological factors in the teaching of music: Part II:
Applied musicianship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 21(3),
199-213.

Mann, R. G. (1991). The use of Kodály instruction to develop the sight-reading
skills of undergraduate flute students (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State
University). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT No. 9124822)

McBride, J. M. (1993). The effect of sequentially organized sight-reading pieces on
the sight-reading achievement of intermediate school instrumental music
students (Master’s thesis, California State University Fullerton). Available
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT No. 1352839)

McPherson, G. E. (1993). Factors and abilities influencing the development of
visual, aural and creative performance skills in music and their educational
implications (PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia). Available
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database). (AAT No. 9317278)

McPherson, G. E. (1994). Factors and abilities influencing sight reading skill in
music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(3), 217-231.

96
McPherson, G. E. (2005). From child to musician: skill development during the
beginning stages of learning an instrument. Psychology of Music, 33(1), 5-
35.

McPherson, G. E. and Gabrielsson, A. (2002). From sound to sign. In R. Parncutt &
G. E. McPherson (Eds.), The science and psychology of music performance
(pp. 135-150). New York: Oxford University Press.

Medford, C. D. (2003). Teaching musicality from the beginning of a child’s
instruction: the GBYSO Intensive Community Program and how it
incorporates the philosophies of Kodály, Orff and Suzuki (DMA dissertation,
Boston University). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 3084848)

Miller, R. E. (1988). Contributions of selected music skills to music sight reading
achievement and rehearsed reading achievement. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section A. Music, Music Education, 50(02), 295.

Mixon, K. (2007). Reaching and teaching all instrumental music students. Lanham,
MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Mora, L. (2007). The effects of tonal pattern training on intonation of sixth grade
instrumental music students (Master’s thesis, California State University
Fullerton). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT No. 1442215)

Nitti, A. (2003). Intervallic Sight-Reading. Bass Player, 14(7), 84-85.

O’Reilly, J. & Williams, M. (1997). Accent on achievement: a comprehensive band
method that develops creativity and musicianship (conductor’s score). Van
Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc.

Pearson, B. T. (1993, 2004). Standard of excellence: comprehensive band method,
book 1 conductor score. San Diego, CA: Kjos Music Company.

Peretz, I. and Zatorre, R. J. (2005). Brain organization for music processing. Annual
Review of Psychology (Electronic version), 56, 89-114. doi:
10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070225

97
Price, H. E., Blanton, F. and Turner Parrish, R. (1998). Effects of two instructional
methods on high school band students’ sight-reading proficiency, music
performance, and attitude. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 17(1), 14-20.

Research Randomizer. http://www.randomizer.org

Rogers, G. L. (1991). Effect of color-coded notation on music achievement of
elementary instrumental students. Journal of Research in Music Education,
39(1), 64-73.

Schleuter, S. L. (1997). A sound approach to teaching instrumentalists. Kent, OH:
Kent State University Press.

Schön, D. and Besson, M. (2002). Processing pitch and duration in music reading: a
RT-ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 40, 868-878.

Scripp, L. R. (1995). The development of skill in reading music (EdD dissertation,
Harvard University). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
database. (AAT No. 9534633)

Shehan (Campbell), P. K. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on
rhythm learning and retention. Journal of Research in Music Education,
35(2), 117-126.

Sloboda, J. A. (1974). The eye-hand span—an approach to the study of sight-
reading. Psychology of Music, 2, 4-10.

Sloboda, J. A. (1976). Visual perception of musical notation: registering pitch
symbols in memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 28, 1-
16.

Sloboda, J. A. (1977). Phrase units as determinants of visual processing in music
reading. British Journal of Psychology, 68, 117-124.

Smart Music Studio (2004). (Version 8.4) [Computer Software]. Make Music! Inc.

Starr, C. (1981). The music road: a journey in music reading, book 1. Van Nuys,
CA: Summy-Birchard, Inc., c/o Alfred Publishing Co.

Stewart, L.; Henson, R.; Kampe, K.; Walsh, V.; Turner, R.; and Frith, U. (2003).
Brain changes after learning to read and play music. Neuroimage, 20, 71-83.
98

Sweetnam, P. (2008). Effects of applying an aural participation procedure while
note reading and learning unfamiliar music excerpts (DMA dissertation,
University of Southern California). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations
and Theses database. (AAT No. 3311125)

Tevis, R. (2006). Instrumental connections. Kodály Envoy, 32(2), 34.

Truitt, F. E.; Clifton, C. Jr.; Pollatsek, A.; and Rayner, K (1997). The perceptual
span and the eye-hand span in sight reading music. Visual Cognition, 4(2),
143-161. doi: 10.1080/713756756

Watkins, J.G and Farnum S.E. (1954). Watkins Farnum Performance Scale.
Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.

Watkins, J.G. and Farnum, S.E. (1962). The Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale.
Winona, MN: Hal Leonard Music.

Wolf, T. (1976). A cognitive model of musical sight reading. Journal of
Psycholinguistic Research, 5(2), 143-171.

Wöllner, C. (2003). The effects of distracted inner hearing on sight-reading.
Psychology of Music, 31(4), 377-389.

Zemke, L. (1977). The Kodály concept—its history, philosophy and development.
Nashville: Mark Foster Music/Shawnee Press.
99
Appendix A:
Site Permission Letter

[PRINTED ON RESEARCH SITE’S LETTERHEAD]

[DATE]

UPIRB Chair
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB)
3601 Watt Way – GFS 306
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695

RE: ASUNCIÓN OJEDA
A COMPARISON OF TWO GUIDED READING STRATEGIES AND
THEIR EFFECTS ON BEGINNING INSTRUMENTALISTS’
MELODIC SIGHT PLAYING ABILITY

Dear UPIRB Chair:

This letter is to convey that I have reviewed the proposed research study entitled “A
Comparison of Two Guided Reading Strategies and Their Effects on Beginning
Instrumentalists’ Melodic Sight Playing Ability” being conducted by Asunción
Ojeda from the University of Southern California. I understand that research
activities as described in the proposed research study will occur at [NAME OF
SITE]. I give permission for the above investigator to conduct her study at this site.
If you have any questions regarding this permission letter, please contact me at
[SITE TELEPHONE NUMBER].

Sincerely,

[SCHOOL or DISTRICT ADMINISTRATOR]
[TITLE]
100
Appendix B:
Parents’ Informed Consent Form

University of Southern California
Department of Music Education, Thornton School of Music

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
PARENTAL PERMISSION

********************************************************************

A COMPARISON OF TWO GUIDED READING STRATEGIES
AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BEGINNING INSTRUMENTALISTS’
MELODIC SIGHT PLAYING ABILITY

Your child is asked to participate in a research study conducted by myself, Asunción Ojeda,
from the Department of Music Education, Thornton School of Music, at the University of
Southern California because your child is studying instrumental music. The results of this
study will become part of my doctoral dissertation. Your child was selected as a possible
participant in this study because he/she is in fourth or fifth grade, is learning how to play an
instrument, and is studying how to read music notation. A total minimum of 100 subjects
will be selected from all of my instrumental music students to participate. Your child’s
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about
anything you do not understand. Please take as much time as you need to read the
information. If your child decides to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You
will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will compare two different guided reading activities and their effectiveness in
helping fourth- and fifth- grade beginning instrumentalists become more proficient at sight
reading.

PROCEDURES
If your child volunteers to participate in this study, we would ask your child to do the
following things:

1) Take a music reading and playing test. This will take about ten minutes. His/her
performance on this test will be audio-taped, then scored at a later date by independent
judges.

2) Your child’s class will be randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups. Each
group will engage in guided music reading activities, as part of the weekly music lesson, for
eight weeks. These activities should take about five to seven minutes of each class session.
101
One group will use a solfège approach that incorporates aural and sight-singing skills, while
the other group will use an approach which concentrates on the recognition of intervals.

3) Take a music reading and playing test for the second time. This will take between ten to
fifteen minutes. His/her performance on this test will be video-taped, then scored at a later
date by independent judges.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
The study does not pose any risks, physical or otherwise, for the research participant.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
This research project has the potential to determine which activities work better for helping
beginning instrumental music students read music. These activities will then be used more
often in order to assist other music students in improving their music sight reading skills.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You or your child will not be paid for participating in this research study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with
you or your child will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or
as required by law. Only members of the research team will have access to the data
associated with this study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s home in a locked file
cabinet and a password protected computer. The audio- and video-recorded performances,
as well as the test scores, will be identified by code numbers, and only the researcher will
have access to the names of the individual participants assigned to each code. These
recordings will be destroyed as soon as all the necessary data have been collected from them.
The data will be stored for five years after the study has been completed and then destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information
will be included that would reveal your child’s identity.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to have your child be in this study or not. If you volunteer your
child’s participation in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of
any kind. You or your child may also refuse to answer any questions you or your child does
not want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw your child
from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so. For example, if your child
is absent more than once during the study period, or if your child misses the appointment for
the first playing test, then he/she would have to be withdrawn from the study. If this were to
happen, your child will not be penalized. S/he will still be able to continue with musical
studies.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
You and/or your child’s alternative is to not participate in the testing. S/he may still
continue attending the music classes and participating in all the class activities.

102
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your child’s participation without penalty. You are not waiving any
legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you
have any questions about your rights and/or your child’s rights as a study subject or you
would like to speak with someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to
questions about the research, or in the event the researcher cannot be reached, please contact
the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact me,
Asunción Ojeda, at my cell telephone: (323)447-9541, or by e-mail at: aojeda@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF PARENT

I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been given
a chance to ask questions. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree
to participate in this study and/or have our child(ren) participate in this study. I have been
given a copy of this form.

□ I agree for my child to be audio and video-taped

□ I do not want my child to be audio or video-taped

Name of Subject

Name of Parent

Signature of Parent Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the subject and his/her parent(s), and answered all of their
questions. I believe that the parent(s) understand the information described in this document
and freely consents to participate.

Name of Investigator

Signature of Investigator Date
103
Appendix C:
Participant Recruitment Script

University of Southern California
Department of Music Education, Thornton School of Music

Information Script for Recruiting Participants

Page 1 of 2

ANNOUNCEMENT SCRIPT FOR
PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT

A COMPARISON OF TWO GUIDED READING STRATEGIES
AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BEGINNING INSTRUMENTALISTS’
MELODIC SIGHT PLAYING ABILITY

1. My name is Asunción Ojeda.

2. We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn
more about how music students can become more proficient at reading music.
We will be trying out two different ways of helping students “sight read,” or play
an unfamiliar melody from music notation.

3. All of the instrumental music students will participate in the guided reading mini-
lessons, and each of these mini-lessons will take up about 5 to 7 minutes of the
weekly music class. If you agree to be in this study, you will take a playing test
at the beginning and at the end of the project. The test will involve reading
music notes, and we will compare your second score against the first to see if the
guided reading activities helped you improve. This is not a competition against
other students. The test at the beginning will be audio-recorded, and the one at
the end will be video-recorded. If you do not want to take the tests, you can still
participate in all of the music class activities.

4. Your participation in this research project will not put you at risk of getting hurt
physically or emotionally.

5. Your participation in this research project will give you the opportunity to see,
from looking at your scores, how much progress you are making in your music
104
reading skills. The project will determine which activities work better for
helping students read music. These activities will then be used more often in
order to help you and other music students become better readers.

6. Please talk this over with your parents before you decide whether or not to
participate. We will also ask your parents to give their permission for you to take
part in this study. But even if your parents say “yes” you can still decide not to
do this. Please take as much time as you need to read this form. You may also
decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you
will be asked to sign this form.

7. If you don’t want to be in this study, you don’t have to participate. Remember,
being in this study is up to you and no one will be upset if you don’t want to
participate or even if you change your mind later and want to stop. You can still
continue with the weekly music lessons even if you don’t want to be part of this
research project.

8. You can ask any questions that you have about the study. If you have a question
later that you didn’t think of now, you can ask me the next time you see me or
you can ask your parents to call me on my cell phone at (323)447-9541.

9. If you have any questions about your rights as a study participant or you would
like to speak with someone who isn’t part of the research team to answer
questions about the research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached,
please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research
Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

105
Appendix D:
Melodic Sight Reading Achievement Test – Clarinet

106
Appendix D (cont’d)
Melodic Sight Reading Achievement Test – Violin

107
Appendix E:
Directions for Administering and Scoring the
Melodic Sight Reading Achievement Test (MSRAT)

The following guidelines are for the administration of the MSRAT.

Pre-Test Directions. The person administering the test will say to the participant: “You are
now going to take the Music Sight Reading Achievement Test. This means that you will
play each melody on the test at first sight. Not all fingerings, rhythms, and notes might be
familiar to you. You will be allowed ten seconds to look at each melody before you play it.
During this time, look at the key signature, the meter signature, and locate familiar notes,
patterns or scales. Decide whether or not you will be able to play this melody. Your
instructor will then set the tempo of each melody by counting out loud two measures like
this: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, ready, play. Once the test begins, you will not be allowed to ask any
questions, but must proceed directly through the test melodies.” The test then begins, the
instructor pushes the record button, says the participant’s ID number, then says, “Melody 1,”
pushes the pause button, silently counts 10 seconds, waits for the student to say whether or
not he/she will perform the melody, then releases pause button. Instructor counts off, “1, 2,
3, 4, 1, 2, ready, play…,” has the student play through the melody, counts 4 after the student
finishes, then says, “Melody 2,” and repeats the procedure.

Post-Test Directions. The person administering the test will say to the participant: “You are
now going to take the Music Sight Reading Achievement Test. This means that you will
play each melody on the test at first sight. Many of the fingerings, rhythms, and notes will
be familiar to you. You will be allowed thirty seconds to look at each melody before you
play it. During this time, look at the key signature, the meter signature, and go through the
sight-reading procedures you were taught in class. Decide whether or not you will be able to
play this melody. Your instructor will then set the tempo of each melody by counting out
loud two measures like this: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, ready, play. Once the test begins, you will not
be allowed to ask any questions, but must proceed directly through the test melodies.” The
test then begins, the instructor pushes the record button, says the participant’s ID code name,
then says, “Melody 1,” waits for no more than 30 seconds while the student goes through
pre-sight-playing routine, and waits for the student to say whether or not he/she will perform
the melody. The instructor then counts off, “1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, ready, play…,” has the student
play through the melody, counts 4 after the student finishes, then says, “Melody 2,” and
repeats the procedure.

The script below is based on the test author’s directions (Grutzmacher, 1985, p. 132-135),
with some modifications. The first, second, ninth and tenth melodies on the test were added
by the researcher for this study, and these will be scored similarly. These scripted guidelines
were read to and made available to the judges during the training session for orientation
purposes.

1. Thank you very much for agreeing to be a judge for this project. You have been
asked to participate as a judge because of your qualifications: each one of you is a
108
highly skilled musician who has been teaching for a minimum of five years in the
Los Angeles area.
2. The objective of this judging session is to assess the melodic accuracy of beginning
instrumentalists’ sight reading performance. Your competent aural skills will be
called upon for this task.
3. You will listen to, and score, recordings of several sample performances before the
actual scoring of the participants’ performances. Inter-judge reliability will be
determined before proceeding any further.
4. Grutzmacher had meant for the scoring of this test to measure the student’s ability to
sight read melodically, as isolated from other aspects of sight reading. You are to
evaluate only the pitches played correctly in each of the melodies. Rhythm,
articulation, or sound quality will not be evaluated.
5. You are provided with a copy of the test melodies for each participant. This copy
will serve as your scoring sheet.
6. Each test item or melody has been divided into tonal patterns, as marked by the
brackets. The student receives two points for each correctly played pattern within
each melody. A student who correctly performs all of the melodies would receive a
total of eighty-six (86) points.
7. On the score sheet, you will mark the number of points scored for each of the tonal
patterns, give a total score for each melody, then add up and write at the top of each
test copy the grand total score for that student.
8. Within each tonal pattern, one note played incorrectly means a loss of one point. If
two or more notes are played incorrectly, all points (2) are lost for that pattern.
9. If a student makes a melody error, but immediately perceives the error and corrects
it, no point should be lost.
10. All students are expected to play in the correct range. Thus, if a flutist fingers a note
correctly, but fails to perform the note in the proper octave, it is a point lost. The
same holds true for all other instruments.
11. If notes are added by the student but do not exist in the melody, subtract a point for
each note added. No more than 2 points could be lost for each tonal pattern,
however. If a student repeats a note in an effort to get a better sound or a clearer
tone, these shall not be counted as extra notes.
12. If an adjacent string is bowed in addition to the melody, no point shall be lost since
this is an issue of instrumental technique.
13. Each test item is constructed in a specific key, and in either the major or minor
mode.
14. If any other problems arise, you are allowed to discuss it and arrive at a consensus as
to how to resolve that problem. On the score sheet, please make a note of the
problem and its resolution.
15. When all the performances have been scored, your responsibility as judges will be
complete. Once again, thank you.

109
Appendix E (cont’d)
MSRAT – Flute, with Tonal Pattern Indications

Subject ID # _________ Judge’s Signature: _____________________

___/8 pts

___/10 pts

___/8 pts

___/8 pts

___/8 pts
110
Appendix E (cont’d)
MSRAT – Flute, page 2, with Tonal Pattern Indications

___/8 pts

___/10 pts

___/8 pts

___/10 pts

___/8 pts

Total Points _____/86

Post-Test Only: Did the student use a pre-sight-playing routine? Yes No

Briefly describe what student did: ______________________

111
Appendix F:
Raw Scores for Pre- and Post-Tests
Code Name(s) Pre-Test Post-Test EG Instrument Gr. School
J1 J2 J3 J1 J2 J3
20 / U of San Diego 18 19 20 66 69 67 1 Cello 5 E
UC Santa Barbara 12 15 16 52 50 51 2 Cello 4 A
Cal State LA 9 8 10 0 0 0 2 Cello 4 A
SUNY Buffalo 16 20 20 22 23 18 2 Cello 4 A
10 / Rutgers 18 20 17 34 39 39 2 Clarinet 5 C
17 / Drake 14 16 16 65 67 71 1 Clarinet 5 E
31 / Uof Washington 53 50 45 46 51 52 2 Clarinet 5 D
Tulane 37 35 39 46 51 52 2 Clarinet 4 D
Seattle Pacifiv Univ 25 27 28 46 44 49 2 Clarinet 4 D
USC 29 28 21 46 46 47 2 Clarinet 4 E
U-Conn 34 39 39 62 68 70 2 Clarinet 4 C
NYU 7 9 8 28 29 21 2 Clarinet 4 C
Cal Tech 7 6 7 22 23 25 2 Clarinet 4 A
Univ of Montana 7 9 9 23 24 25 2 Clarinet 4 C
Sonoma State Univ 28 29 30 46 51 49 2 Clarinet 4 E
2 / CSUN 29 34 28 25 27 29 2 Flute 5 C
11 / UC Davis 26 30 27 38 44 37 2 Flute 5 C
14 / Mills College 8 10 14 7 7 6 1 Flute 5 E
30 / Oregon State 11 15 20 55 59 55 2 Flute 5 D
UCLA 26 24 23 28 30 27 2 Flute 4 B
Duke 18 20 17 34 32 31 2 Flute 4 B
Indiana Univ 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 Flute 4 B
Univ of Alabama 7 6 8 14 12 13 2 Flute 4 D
1 / Brown 29 26 34 49 59 57 2 Violin 5 C
3 / Smith 12 13 12 56 56 50 2 Violin 5 C
4 / Mt. St. Mary’s 0 0 0 43 44 51 2 Violin 5 C
5 / Yale 11 12 12 43 44 36 2 Violin 5 C
7 / Chico State 0 0 0 21 22 36 2 Violin 5 C
9 / Humboldt State 7 6 6 20 25 19 2 Violin 5 C
15 / UT Austin 8 13 6 45 51 57 1 Violin 5 E
18 / CSU Long Beach 12 11 15 69 72 81 1 Violin 5 E
19 / Vassar 3 7 2 68 73 80 1 Violin 5 E
23 / Princeton 6 5 5 17 16 18 1 Violin 5 E
32 / UC Riverside 11 12 15 5 7 10 1 Violin 5 D
33 / Bennington 13 11 12 69 73 79 1 Violin 5 D
34 / Howard 18 20 17 68 72 81 1 Violin 5 D
Harvard 16 18 18 21 25 24 1 Violin 4 B
Stanford 12 11 9 43 43 45 1 Violin 4 B
Univ of Michigan 13 12 10 41 41 43 1 Violin 4 B
Notre Dame 5 4 2 1 1 2 1 Violin 4 B
UC Berkeley 33 30 25 29 29 20 1 Violin 4 D
Columbia 21 19 17 59 57 59 1 Violin 4 A
Dartmouth 7 8 7 2 1 1 1 Violin 4 A
LMU 16 11 14 18 15 17 1 Violin 4 A
McGill 8 7 8 25 27 29 1 Violin 4 E
UNLV 13 11 12 47 47 43 2 Violin 4 A
Univ of Oregon 29 28 21 14 16 13 1 Violin 4 D
Amherst 4 5 3 21 22 26 1 Violin 4 B
UC Irvine 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Violin 4 B
UC Santa Cruz 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 Violin 4 E
Juilliard 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 Violin 4 E
Cal State Sacramento 7 6 6 21 23 27 1 Violin 4 E

112
Appendix G:
Pre-Sight Reading Behavior of Students on Post-Tests
Code Name(s) Pre-SR Behavior Pre-SR pSR
20 / U of San Diego No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
UC Santa Barbara Quick scan Quick scan 2
Cal State LA Stared at first measure Stared 7
SUNY Buffalo Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
10 / Rutgers Quick scan Quick scan 2
17 / Drake Scanned; identified first few pitches First measure 4
31 / Uof Washington No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
Tulane No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
Seattle Pacifiv Univ Quick scan Quick scan 2
USC No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
U-Conn No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
NYU Scanned, identified first pitch Starting note 3
Cal Tech Quick scan Quick scan 2
Univ of Montana Established start note, identified pitches, went
through fingerings
Scanned and
fingerings
6
Sonoma State Univ Quick scan Quick scan 2
2 / CSUN Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
11 / UC Davis Scanned, went through fingerings Scanned and
fingerings
6
14 / Mills College Stared at the music; stared at each note Stared 7
30 / Oregon State Scanned for pitches, tapped rhythms Named pitches 5
UCLA No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
Duke Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
Indiana Univ Stared at first measure Stared 7
Univ of Alabama Scanned, identified first few pitches First measure 4
1 / Brown No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
3 / Smith No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
4 / Mt. St. Mary’s Quick scan Quick scan 2
5 / Yale No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
7 / Chico State No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
9 / Humboldt State No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
15 / UT Austin No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
18 / CSU Long Beach Quick scan Quick scan 2
19 / Vassar Quick scan, identified first pitch Quick scan 2
23 / Princeton Stared at each note Stared 7
32 / UC Riverside Stared at the music Stared 7
33 / Bennington No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
34 / Howard No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
Harvard Looked at starting note Starting note 3
Stanford Scanned Quick scan 2
Univ of Michigan Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
Notre Dame Scanned from beg to end Quick scan 2
UC Berkeley Quick scan Quick scan 2
Columbia Quick scan Quick scan 2
Dartmouth Hummed Hummed 8
LMU Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
McGill Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
UNLV No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
Univ of Oregon Scanned, identified pitches Named pitches 5
Amherst Quick scan Quick scan 2
UC Irvine No pre-SR No pre-SR 1
UC Santa Cruz Stared at first measure Stared 7
Juilliard Stared at first measure Stared 7
Cal State Sacramento Looked at first few notes only First measure 4
113
Appendix H:
Curricular Context

Lesson Template—each of the lessons followed the following format:
Objective(s)

CA Standard(s)

Warm-Up
(10 minutes)
IT*-ongoing reinforcement of fundamental skills, such as long
tones or articulation exercises for wind instruments, bowing
pattern exercises for string instruments
MC*-included any of the following: echo singing or echo playing
to reinforce material previously studied; sing or play tonal patterns
from flash cards; sing or play song that contains a musical element
about to be introduced

Review/
Assessment
(15 minutes)
IT-review or assess recently learned scales or melodic patterns;
rehearse/review/assess recently learned musical selection
MC-review or assess previously studied material through two of
the following activities: read, perform (either vocally or
instrumentally), create, write, listen, ear training
While the study was being conducted, the guided sight reading
practice took place during this part of the lesson.

Introduction of
New Material
(10 minutes)
IT-introduce a new technique, or a new pitch, fingering, or position
on the instrument
MC-present a new musical element or concept through a familiar
song or exercise

Perform
(10 minutes)
Rehearse/polish previously learned pieces that have now become
part of the class’ repertoire

IT = instrumental technique
MC = musical concept

114
Appendix H (continued)
Sequence of tonal content:
Tone Set Tonal Patterns
{Mi So La} (Voice only)
So-Mi; Mi-So; So-Mi-So; So-La-So; So-Mi-So-La;
So-Mi-La-So; La-So-Mi; La-Mi-La
{Do Mi So La} (Voice only)
So-Mi-Do ; Do-Mi-So ; So-So-Do ; Do-So-Do;
Do-So-La-So; Mi-La-Mi-So; Do-Mi-So-La; So-La-So-Do
{Do Re Mi} (From this point on: voice, then instrument)
Do-Re-Mi; Mi-Re-Do; Do-Re-Do;
Mi-Re-Mi; Re-Do-Re; Do-Do-Re; Do-Mi-Re; Do-Re-Mi-Re;
Re-Mi-Re-Do; Re-Mi-Do
{Do Re Mi So La} Do-Mi-So; So-Mi-So; Do-So-Do; Do-So-La-So; La-So-Mi;
Mi-La-Mi-So; So-Mi-Re-Do; Do-Re-Mi-So-La;
La-So-Mi-Re-Do
{Do Re Mi Fa So} So-Fa-So; So-Fa-Mi; Mi-Fa-So; Mi-Fa-Mi-So; So-Fa-Mi-Re-Do;
Do-Re-Mi-Fa-So; Do-Mi-Re-Fa; So-Mi-Fa-Re
{La, Do Re Mi So} Do-La,-Do; La,-Do-Re-Mi; Mi-Do-La,; Do-Mi-La,;
La,-Re-La,-Do; La,-Do-Re-Mi-So
{La, Ti, Do Re Mi} Do-Ti,-Do; Do-Ti,-La,; La,-Ti,-Do; La,-Ti,-La,; Ti,-Do-Ti,-La,;
La,-Ti,-Do-Ti,-La,; La,-Do-Mi; La,-Ti,-Do-Re-Mi ;
Re-Do-Ti,-Do; Mi-Re-Do-Ti,-La,
{Si, La, Ti, Do} La,-Si,-La; Ti,-La,-Si,-La
{So La Ti Do’} Do’-La-So ; Do’-Ti-La-So ; Do’-So-Do’ ; Do’-So-La-So;
So-La-Ti-Do’
Major scale
Natural minor scale

Literacy activities (in addition to guided reading practice):
Experimental Group I Experimental Group II
Before the study
period
Pitch flash cards:
Identify individual pitches

Tonal pattern flash cards:
Sing (solfege), then play

Pitch flash cards:
Identify individual pitches

Tonal pattern flash cards:
Sing, then play

During the study
period
Pitch flash cards:
Identify individual pitches

Tonal pattern flash cards:
Sing (solfege), then play
Pitch flash cards:
Identify individual pitches

Tonal pattern flash cards:
Identify interval (step, skip, jump),
melodic direction (up or down), then
play

115
Appendix I:
Melodies Used for Guided Sight Reading Practice
The eight melodies used during the treatment period are notated below.
Since there were more students of the violin among the subjects than any other
instrument, the melodies shown are in the keys in which the violin students played.
The table here lists the various keys used for each melody and for each instrument.

Instrument
Melody Number and Key for Each One
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Flute-1
st
yr
G F e C d B flat g Eflat
Flute-2
nd
yr
Bflat Bflat c Bflat g Eflat d F
Clarinet*
C C d C a F e G
Trumpet*
C C d C a F e G
Trombone
Bflat Bflat c Bflat g Eflat d F
Violin
D D e D d G b A
Cello
D D e D d G b A
*Transposed keys, not concert keys, are indicated here.

Melody 1 (Zoltan Kodály)

Melody 2 (Zoltan Kodály)

116
Appendix I (continued)
Melody 3 (Zoltan Kodály)

Melody 4 (Traditional)

Melody 5 (Palestinian Folk Dance)

Melody 6 (composed by researcher)

117
Appendix I (continued)
Melody 7 (composed by researcher)

Melody 8 (composed by researcher)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare relative gains in sight reading ability by two groups of elementary students when compared to each other after 8 weeks of treatment and to determine whether or not the participants used the pre-reading routine in which they were trained during testing. The study sample included fourth and fifth grade students (n=52) enrolled in urban public schools who attended weekly instrumental music classes. The curricular context was that of rote-to-note instruction coupled with the incorporation of literacy development through vocal activities. The study employed a pre- and post-test, quasi-experimental two-group design, with a treatment period of eight weeks. Experimental Group I employed a solfège-based melody reading approach, and Experimental Group II employed an intervallic sight reading approach. In order to insure that all the participants had access to guided reading instruction, no control group was employed. Each of the groups demonstrated statistically significant improvement in sight reading accuracy in the post-tests, when compared with pre-test scores (p<.05). The differences in the mean gain scores for the groups were not statistically significant. In the testing situation, none of the participants appeared to use the entire procedure in which they were trained, but eight used a portion thereof. The results indicate that improvements in sight reading can be achieved in beginning instrumentalists through diverse teaching approaches, and that neither of the two approaches investigated here showed evidence of being significantly more valuable that the other in terms of impacting sight reading skills.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The effect of a solfège-related tactile indicator on pitch accuracy in the retention of a vocal song in visually impaired elementary and secondary students

PDF

A case study of teacher’s perception of experiences in a teacher-training program at LA Opera

PDF

Student and director perception of non-musical outcomes in suburban school band programs

PDF

Case study of constructivist philosophy and policy implementation for music teaching and learning in two elementary schools in Los Angeles

PDF

Forming relationships: investigating social capital in a low socio-economic school music program

PDF

Composing in groups: creative processes of third and fifth grade students

PDF

Examination of the long-term psychosocial and functioning effects of a healthy living, life management behavior intervention for older adults

PDF

Rachmaninoff in music lexicons, 1900–2013: toward a history of the composer's reception

PDF

Development of postural strategies for the control of forward momentum

PDF

Examining the use of mnemonic devices in instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school students with learning disabilities

PDF

Pathomechanics of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome: utilizing subject-specific modeling approaches to investigate the influence of hip joint morphology and neuromuscular control

Asset Metadata

Creator Ojeda, Asunción (author)

Core Title A comparison of improvements in sight reading pitch accuracy in beginning instrumentalists after treatment

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Music Education

Publication Date 09/13/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag beginning instrumental music,elementary school music,guided reading practice,melodic sight reading,Music,OAI-PMH Harvest,sight reading

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Woodward, Sheila C. (committee chair), Helfter, Susan (committee member), Simms, Bryan (committee member)

Creator Email aojeda@usc.edu,asuncion_ojeda@sbcglobal.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3438

Unique identifier UC1249008

Identifier etd-Ojeda-4116 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-383432 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3438 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Ojeda-4116.pdf

Dmrecord 383432

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Ojeda, Asunción

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu