University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Senior managers maintaining employee engagement during a crisis: analyzing success and opportunity

(USC Thesis Other)

Senior managers maintaining employee engagement during a crisis: analyzing success and opportunity

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Senior Managers Maintaining Employee Engagement During a Crisis:
Analyzing Success and Opportunity
by
Daniel Robert Reitz, Jr.

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Daniel R. Reitz, Jr. 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Daniel R. Reitz, Jr. certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Eric Canny
Adrian Donato
Jennifer Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this project was to explore the capacity of senior managers to maintain employee
engagement in the face of crises. The analysis focused on senior managers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to fostering an environment where employees
are engaged during times of crisis. Qualitative interviews were conducted with eight AAC senior
managers from each of the business units within Quality. The interview was designed to
understand the competencies required to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. A
review of the literature and available research was conducted to validate findings and provide
potential recommendation to identified gaps. The researched intended to uncover gaps in
knowledge, motivation, and organizational settings and models. The research uncovered two
gaps for AAC senior managers. The first gap was providing adequate crisis management and
intervention training for AAC’s senior managers. The second gap was a lack of formal
communication knowledge and the need to provide training on creating an effective formal
communication plan for AAC’s senior managers’ teams. The study resulted in two
recommendations. These recommendations are linked together in a sequenced comprehensive
training plan to include a two-day crisis management training workshop with follow on quarterly
booster activities in conjunction with a 90-minute communication workshop training. Job aids
are provided to design and deploy an individual communication plan for each of AAC’s senior
managers. These recommendations represent an opportunity for AAC’s senior managers to be
more effective at maintaining employee engagement during times of crisis.

v
Dedication
To my husband, Jerry Trinidad Sale, I could not have achieved this without your love and
support. Your protection of my time, ensuring that I had access to the internet while traveling the
world, and making sure I had breakfast every Saturday morning between classes for three years
made this goal a reality. I have been blessed to have had your unconditional love and support.
Thank you.

To my father, Daniel Robert Reitz, Sr., thank you for your belief in me. I have long known that
you and mom thought I could do anything. Although I wish she were here to see this day, I know
you carry her with you, every day. To see my successes through your eyes, makes me proud to
be your son.

vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my Cohort-14 Saturday warriors, Cyndee, Carla, Adrienne,
and Jorge. Our posse made Saturdays bearable and together we persevered.
I would also like to thank my amazing committee, Dr. Donato and Dr. Canny. Your
guidance and instructions made me think more clearly, understand more fully, and turn your
teaching into practical practice in my day job.
Finally, I want to acknowledge Dr. Jennifer Phillips. Her guidance was critical in making
it through the USC Rossier OCL program. Without her, I would not have succeeded. She was an
anchor, a lifeline, and a mentor.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication (Optional) ..................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations (Optional) .................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Importance of Addressing the Problem .............................................................................. 3
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 4
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................ 5
Description of the Stakeholder Group ................................................................................ 7
Stakeholder Group and Stakholder Performance Goal ....................................................... 8
Purpose of the Study and Questions ................................................................................. 10
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework………………..……....... 10
Definitions…………………...……………….…………………………………………. 11
Organization of the Project………………………………………………………………11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature………………………………………………………….13
Employee Engagement ..................................................................................................... 13
The Nature of Crisis………………………...…………………………………………....17
Crisis Management in the Aerospace Industry…………………………………………..21
Clark and Estes’s Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Influences………...……29
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences…………………...29

viii
Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………………..43
Summary………………………………………………………………………………..45
Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………………...47
Research Questions……………………………………………………………………..47
Overview of Methodology……………………………………………………………...48
Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan ………………………………….50
Ethics and Role of the Researcher……………………………………………………...56
Chapter Four: Findings…………………………………………………………………………58
Participant Stakeholders………………………………………………………………..59
Research Question 1……………………………………………………………………61
Research Question 2……………………………………………………………………80
Summary……………………………………………………………………………….86
Chapter Five: Recommendations………………………………………………………………88
Discussion of Findings…………………………………………………………………88
Recommendations for Practice………………………………………………………....91
Limitations and Delimitations……………………………………………...………….102
Recommendations for Future Research……………………………………………….103
References……………………………………………………………………………………..107
Appendix A: Interview Protocol………………………………………………………………114
Appendix B: Document Analysis Protocol……………………………………………………121
Appendix C: Information Sheet for Exempt Research………………………………………..122

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Goal, and Stakeholder Goal 9
Table 2: Components of Employee Engagement 16
Table 3: Components of Effective Crisis Management 28
Table 4: Assumed Knowledge Influences 35
Table 5: Motivational Influences 38
Table 6: Organizational Influences 42
Table 7: Data Sources 48
Table 8: Participant Profile 58
Table 9: Conceptual Understanding 65
Table 10: Documented Formal and Informal Communication Plans 68
Table 11: Identified Strengths and Areas of Opportunity 71
Table 12: Identified Participant Resources 78
Table 13: Breakdown of Influence Assets and Gaps 81
Table 14: Recommended Cadence Communication Flow 88
Table 15: Crisis Engagement Training Recommendations 91

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 44
Figure 2: The New World Kirkpatrick Model 93

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
A crisis is defined as a time of intense difficulty, trouble, or danger. Crisis management
refers to identifying a threat to an organization and its stakeholders to mount an effective
response to it (Benaben et al., 2016). Crisis management has evolved substantially over the last
30 years. Unforeseen crises rapidly damage an organization’s reputation, financial performance,
and employee engagement (Jaques, 2010). Traditionally, organizations rely on delegating crisis
management and employee productivity to middle-level management while corporate image and
messaging fall to senior executives (Jaques, 2010). Crisis management is a growing area of
research, relatively new, that emerges from a series of crises in the 1980s, including the space
shuttle Challenger explosion, the Bhopal gas leak, and the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Penuel &
Hagen, 2013).
Employee engagement is a pivotal element within an organization navigating a crisis.
Maintaining employee engagement is defined as actively performing work duties with no
deviation from the standard (citation). When a crisis happens, a gap almost immediately occurs
in performance standards. Additionally, crisis interrupts natural workflow, which causes anxiety
in the employee. This anxiety exacerbates the potential for gaps in performance standards
(Fragouli & Ipidapo, 2015). This study explored gaps caused by a crisis and the senior manager’s
role in maintaining engagement.
McConnell (2011) asserted that there are insufficiently detailed research criteria where
outcomes can be effectively measured when evaluating crisis management related to employee
engagement. In contrast, Coombs (2007a) synthesized research and broke crisis management
into three primary phases: (a) pre-crisis, (b) crisis response, and (c) post-crisis. Within these
phases, organizations must create a crisis management plan, a crisis management team, identify
2

spokespersons, pre-draft messages, and establish communications channels (Coombs, 2007a).
When organizations fail to respond to an imminent crisis strategically, performance gaps occur,
employee engagement wavers, and reputations are damaged (Barbu & Nastase, 2010). This study
explored how leaders perceive crisis; their responsibility in protecting the employee during a
crisis; and what environment they need to provide to allow the employee to remain engaged,
meet work standard performance, and grow and thrive through a crisis.
Background of the Problem
Numerous studies in the last 30 years on crisis management suggested the need for
organizational crises management strategies has never been more vital (Pearson & Clair, 1998;
Falkheimer & Heide, 2006; Coombs, 2007a, 2007b; Penuel et al., 2013; Halkos & Bousinakis,
2017). In 1970, The Health Department of Cincinnati faced many internal issues; dissident
employees and systemic process failures severely compromised the city’s relationship with the
community (Goodstein & Boyer, 1972). This crisis caused Cincinnati’s mayor to hire external
consultants to help diagnose and understand the current problem and determine what steps were
required to resolve them.
Crisis management became part of the public zeitgeist in 1982 in the United States with
the Johnson & Johnson Tylenol incident. The case was caused when the tampering and
poisoning of more than 270 bottles of their acetaminophen analgesic forced the company to
remove the product from store shelves. The incident significantly damaged their brand (Heath et
al., 2009). On August 12, 1985, Japan Airlines (JAL) flight 123 had a rear pressure bulkhead
failure resulting in the complete loss of a Boeing 747. The cause was due to a faulty repair of the
bulkhead seven years earlier by the Boeing Company’s specialty repair team. The loss of 520
souls severely damaged the reputation of both JAL and Boeing. Public confidence faltered, and
3

the original repair team was banned for life from Japan on the threat of arrest and prosecution for
negligence (Haitao, 2016). In 1986, reactor number four failed in the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant near Pripyat, Ukraine. The accident released a large amount of radiation into the
atmosphere and is widely regarded as the worst nuclear incident in history. This incident sent
crisis shockwaves throughout Europe (Falkheimer & Heide, 2006).
Traditional approaches to managing a crisis are well documented and point to a range of
strategies centered explicitly on how organizations delegate the responsibility to middle
management (Jaques, 2010). Additionally, research shows communication plays a critical role in
navigating employee engagement during a crisis. Situational crisis communication theory
(SCCT) is often cited as a benefit in protecting an organization’s reputational assets and
maintaining productivity during critical events (Coombs, 2007b). Coombs (2007b) posited that
SCCT can provide a framework for understanding how stakeholders react to crises and project
how an emergency will impact corporate reputation and performance. Senior managers’
communication framework is vital in maintaining employee engagement during a crisis.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of senior managers maintaining employee engagement during a crisis is
necessary to solve for various reasons: employee satisfaction during a crisis is vital, senior
manager communication is crucial, and the organization’s solvency is at stake (Bekdash, 2019).
As a result of a crisis disruption, employees are often filled with fear and uncertainty
(Pfaffenberger, 2000). Halkos and Bousinakis’s (2017) research asserted that uncertainty added
job stressors directly impacting performance. These factors include fear related to safety, the
uncertainty of job security, and doubt about the organization’s future. Senior managers’ response
and decision-making are essential, mainly when there is limited time or access to information
4

(Sayegh & Perrewe, 2004). How senior managers communicate the nature of the crisis and how
the team will navigate it is key (Coombs, 2007a). Finally, while navigating the crisis, employee
engagement is critical to the organization’s solvency (Pillai, 2013). If employee engagement and
productivity falter during times of crisis, then the organization is at risk.
Crisis management is a critical organizational function. If senior managers fail to address
the crisis, it can harm stakeholders, result in potential negative productivity and performance,
and a lack of employee engagement (Coombs, 2007a). Additionally, crisis communication is an
essential component of how senior managers respond to the situation during and after the crisis.
If they fail to have a clear framework on how to respond internally, uncertainty grows. SCCT
asserts that senior managers need to have an evidence-based framework to understand how to
minimize the fallout, mitigate disruption, and maintain employee engagement to ensure
productivity is not negatively impacted (Coombs, 2007b). Organizations are best served when
they implement a structure to address crises and what resources are available to their senior
managers to maintain employee engagement and align to the organization’s strategic mission in
the context of a crisis (Christensen, 2016).
Organizational Context and Mission
The Airdan Aerospace Corporation (AAC, a pseudonym) is a global aircraft
manufacturing company. Airdan’s global footprint includes suppliers in 19 countries and
currently employs ~140,000 people, including subsidiaries. The composition of the employee
base contains both represented workers and exempt employees. The company’s commercial
airline division consists of three production facilities to produce its fleet of aircraft and their
derivatives. Its workforce contains three primary divisions: manufacturing operations, quality,
5

and engineering. AAC’s corporate website details the company’s mission, vision, and values.
AAC’s mission is to connect and explore the world through aerospace innovation.
AAC’s vision is people working together as a global enterprise for aerospace industry
leadership. AAC’s stated values are integrity, quality, safety, diversity and inclusion, trust and
respect, corporate citizenship, and stakeholder success. AAC leverages its values when working
with employees, customers, and suppliers. AAC knows the power of working together, which is
why its core values place diversity and inclusion on equal footing with corporate citizenship and
stakeholder success to achieve AAC’s strategic organizational goals.
AAC, much like many companies, has been severely impacted by the COVID-19 crisis.
Health and safety requirements forced the shutter of all production factories resulting in
furloughs for a significant portion of the employee base. Before the Covid-19 pandemic, AAC
faced a customer satisfaction crisis and insufficient product line quality. Both commercial and
government customers grew increasingly impatient with repeated failures in meeting
expectations around foreign object debris (FOD), escapements of defects with in-service aircraft,
and inadequate pilot training on new software enhancements. These repeated findings required
extensive rework by employees to meet contractual and regulatory requirements. Required
overtime and added inspections dramatically impacted employee engagement to fix the
problems. Often senior managers experienced increased employee absences, further burdening
the remaining employees to complete the rework. The Covid-19 pandemic compounded the
company’s struggles, particularly in maintaining employee engagement.
Organizational Goal
AAC’s goal is that by year-end 2025, the company will have zero injuries, be defect-free
in its production system, and innovate technology to a single Quality Management System
6

(QMS). The implementation of the standardized QMS is a direct response to the failure of two of
AAC’s in-flight aircraft, resulting in loss of life, grounding of the fleet, and significant disruption
to the production system. These crises sent shock waves through the employee base resulting in a
substantial increase in employee uncertainty and doubt. Executive leadership established goals
centered on stabilizing the QMS in June 2020 after a dramatic restructuring in the C-suite and a
realignment of Program Directors.
Simultaneously, AAC leadership was presented with an audit from three external
consultants. Each consultant group demonstrated safety, quality, systems integration, and
technology expertise. The consultants’ findings showed the baseline metrics of AAC’s current
state in each goal category. Throughout a three-day working session, leadership outlined and
documented the company’s key performance indicators (KPI), restruck production rates,
established a defect burndown schedule, and weighed the investment required to implement the
technological improvements. The session culminated with an Enterprise-wide charter
establishing AAC’s goals of a single QMS that drives quality, safety, and technological
innovation. A signed commitment letter from each senior divisional Executive was produced and
subsequently published and made public.
Safety and quality metrics are shared in a monthly SQDCIP (safety, quality, delivery,
cost, innovation, and people) leadership meeting. Projects with the most significant impact are
evaluated for sponsorship and resource support at the appropriate corporate level. The board of
trustees is provided a quarterly executive overview of progress on each of the defined goals. It is
vital to explore the progress on achieving these goals for the Airdan Corporation to remain
competitive in the marketplace, retain and attract employees, and gain a global industrial
champion (GIC) status in aerospace innovation.
7

Description of Stakeholder Groups
Three primary stakeholder groups influence the success of AAC’s corporate initiative.
The first is the board of trustees. The trustees align and approve all capital expenditures (CapEx)
for the entire company. The company uses CapEx funds to acquire, upgrade, and maintain
physical assets such as property, plants, buildings, technology, or equipment. CapEx is often
used to undertake new projects or investments at the enterprise level. The board of trustees is
accountable to the shareholders. Disruption in production due to a crisis negatively impacts
shareholder value and performance. The board has a fiduciary responsibility to the shareholders
by maintaining earnings per share and adequately responding to crises to mitigate performance.
The second stakeholders are the Executive Vice Presidents (EVP) of each of the three
business units. These EVP leaders are responsible for building the long-range business plans
(LRBP) in their respective organizations each annum. Those LRBP budgets dictate the alignment
of resources, including people, dollars, and infrastructure, to the approved projects and
successfully achieve their established KPIs. When a crisis strikes, impacting the production
system and aircraft delivery, revenues are compromised. Revenue drives CapEx, staffing, supply
chain management, and innovative investments in the LRBP. EVPs are required to reallocate
resources in the LRBP to address the impending crisis and adapt the plan to protect critical
functions, investments, and staffing needs.
The final stakeholders are the senior managers within the EVP organizations. These
senior managers lead the first-line managers who provide the actual work in accomplishing the
established goals. They lead the teams to produce or prevent defects in the production system
and utilize the technology to do their daily work burden-free. When employees experience
heightened stress due to an imminent crisis, morale, productivity, and performance are
8

negatively impacted (Halkos & Bousinakis, 2017). As uncertainty grows, employee engagement
wains. How senior managers communicate the nature of the crisis, how the organization will
respond to it, and precisely how it will impact the individual contributor is the lynchpin to
ensuring employee engagement remains high.
Stakeholder Group and Stakeholder Performance Goal
All stakeholders contribute at their level of influence to accomplish the goals of using
innovation to be defect and injury-free by year-end 2025. However, it is necessary to focus on
the area that delivers on the established KPIs within the LRBP. Therefore, the stakeholders of
this study will be AAC’s senior managers. Senior managers establish the work statement, drive
daily performance, and leverage resources to solve their team’s problems. They engage their
employees, drive safety into the value stream, and inspect the level of quality workmanship
produced.
A crisis interrupts the ability of employees to perform standard work effectively,
negatively impacts employee emotional response, and dramatically increases performance gaps.
The performance gaps reflect the inability for the employee to sustain their engagement during a
crisis. Senior executives within AAC measure employee engagement by the ability of senior
manager’s teams to perform at levels equal to pre-crisis standards. The stakeholders’ goal is to
maintain employee engagement and performance standards during a crisis. Additionally, when
senior managers face issues beyond their span of control, they are accountable for escalating the
issue to senior executives to ensure engagement is not compromised. Senior managers are also
expected to establish clearly defined performance metrics that are reviewed regularly in
employee one-on-one meetings and conduct performance reviews to maintain employee
engagement. Senior managers within AAC need to create a work environment where employees
9

take pride in the quality of the daily work they perform, particularly in high-stress situations
where gaps are more likely to occur.

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal, and Stakeholder Group’s Performance Goal
Organizational mission
AAC’s mission is to connect and explore the work through aerospace innovation.
Organizational performance goal
AAC’s goal is that by year-end 2025, it will have zero injuries, be defect-free in its
production system, and innovate technology to a single Quality Management
System (QMS).
Senior Manager’s goal
The senior managers’ goal is to maintain 100% employee engagement during a crisis.

10

Purpose of the Study and Questions
The purpose of this project is to explore the capacity of senior managers to maintain
employee engagement in the face of crises. The analysis focused on senior managers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to fostering an environment where
employees are engaged during times of crisis.
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivation are needed for senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
2. What are the organizational settings and models available to senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model is a systematic, analytical method that
helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact
AAC’s senior manager’s performance in maintaining employee engagement during times of
crisis will be generated based on both context-specific research and general learning and
motivation theory. The methodological framework is a qualitative case study consisting of
individual interviews and document analysis.

11

Definitions
• Defect is any work that deviates from the established standardization outlined in the
production system, causing re-work and injecting waste into the value stream.
• GIC (Global industrial champion) is an industry-standard performance metric that
distinguishes the organization and classifies it as most admired in its industry.
• QMS (quality management system) is defined as a formalized system that documents
processes, procedures, and responsibilities for achieving quality policies and objectives.
A QMS helps coordinate and direct an organization’s activities to continuously meet
customer and regulatory requirements and continually improve its effectiveness and
efficiency.
• QoS (quality operating system) is a systematic, disciplined approach that uses
standardized tools and practices to manage the business and achieve ever-increasing
customer satisfaction levels.
• SCCT (Situational crisis communication theory) is a framework for understanding how
stakeholders react to a crisis and project how an emergency will impact corporate
reputation and performance.
• SQDCIP stands for safety, quality, delivery, cost, innovation, and people.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in discussing compliance with the standard
production system. The organization’s mission, goals, stakeholders, and the framework for the
project were introduced. Chapter 2 provides a review of the current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. Topics of employee engagement and crisis management will be addressed.
12

Chapter 2 also presents AAC’s senior managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that will be explored via the study. Chapter 3 details the methodology regarding the
choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter 4, the data is assessed and
analyzed. Chapter 5 provides recommendations for practice and future research.
13

Chapter Two: A Review of the Literature
This chapter explores the historical concepts and drivers of employee engagement and
crisis management. Specifically, this chapter looks at the literature centered on the historical
elements of employee engagement and effective and detrimental crisis management approaches.
Finally, the airline and aerospace industry has experienced multiple crises over the decades. This
chapter questions what types of crises occur and what impact those crises have on employee
engagement.
Employee Engagement
The concepts surrounding employee engagement have steadily grown over the last thirty-
plus years. Employee engagement drives and promotes the integration of an individual, their
sense of satisfaction, their commitment to the company, and is realized by continuous
improvement in job performance (Dagher et al., 2015). Employee engagement is a crucial term
in comprehending and quantifying the nature of an organization’s connection with its employees
(Albrecht, 2018). The following sub-sections will provide a historical overview of employee
engagement in management studies followed by an overview of the drivers of engagement based
on literature.
Historical Concepts in Employee Engagement
The first appearance of the term engagement, in the literature, appeared in the Academy
of Management Journal article, “Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and
Disengagement at Work’’ (Kahn, 1990). Dagher et al. (2015) asserted that employee behavior is
reinforced through several motivational drivers, such as financial reward, that increase job
satisfaction and foster the cycle of continuous improvement to repeat (Dagher et al., 2015). Saks
(2006) stated that engaged employees display an emotional connection while performing their
14

job responsibilities and will demonstrate a deliberate commitment while performing these duties
(Saks, 2006). Management’s behavior has long contributed to employee satisfaction and
engagement, dating long before the current literature shows (Shuck & Wollard, 2009).
Managers are accountable for the performance of their people. Wren (1972) stated that
management as a function always existed to facilitate their people’s efforts within an
organization and foster cooperation to achieve their goals. Wren’s comments demonstrated that
manager behavior had long acknowledged the necessary characteristics to integrate the
individual’s engagement with the company’s objectives long before the term employee
engagement was coined (Heames & Breland, 2010). Kemp (2013) credited this linkage between
management characteristics and employee engagement with Fredrick Taylor’s pioneering work
as the father of scientific management. Taylor (1919) asserted that when maximum prosperity is
a component of leadership characteristics, the company is buoyed and employees demonstrate
excellence so much that prosperity can be made permanent.
Taylor’s (1919) scientific management concepts continue to be relevant for today’s
leadership and can be seen as commonplace in current management principles. Shuck and
Wollard (2009) posited that scientific management’s major components of standardizing and
specializing skill sets provide meaning for workers. Additionally, the alignment of the
appropriate skill with performance-related pay ensures workers would be induced to
continuously improve their skills (Shuck & Wollard, 2009). Garber pointed out that today’s
leaders’ primary principles of providing clear expectations, inspecting what they expect, and
giving feedback are essential to ensure effective employee engagement (Garber, 2012). Taylor’s
approach stressed greater employee willingness to perform and improve their skills by rewarding
those improvements, thus motivating the worker and increasing the desire to improve
15

continuously (Schachter, 2010). Mazanek (2016) maintained that leadership’s ability to maintain
high employee engagement levels and continuous improvement is compromised when an
organization faces unforeseen stress, threats, or imposed crises. Mazanek (2016) stressed that
leaders must be drivers in identifying solution proposals to maintain cohesiveness, unity, and
productivity within their teams, particularly during times of crisis or significant external
pressures. Leaders understanding the drivers of employee engagement, particularly during high-
stress situations, is key to continuous improvement.
Drivers of Employee Engagement
Extensive literature surrounding the drivers associated with employee engagement exists.
Bedarkar and Padita (2014) evaluated a wide range of studies and research centered on employee
engagement drivers. The top five engagement drivers for 2010 were career advancement,
allegiance to a brand, employee recognition, people practices/human resource policies, and
reputation (Bedarkar & Padita, 2014). Various additional studies show variations on a theme;
Britt (2001) discussed commitment level for advancement, Hewitt (2004) emphasized employees
need to strive for successes, and the Institute for Employee Studies (2004) explored the need for
total reward as a driving component for employee engagement to mention a few.
Table 2 provides an overview of the components of engagement from research.

16

Table 2
Summary: Components of Employee Engagement
Author Study scope Study findings
Britt et al. (2001) Employee commitment related to
performance
Predicted employee
involvement and commitment
as engagement drivers
Hewitt (2004) Predictors of employee engagement Employees who strive for success,
stay engaged, and speak up
more readily
Institute for Employee Studies
(IES) (2004)
Employee engagement predictor
research
Found leadership, relationships at
work, total reward, recognition,
work-life balance, and the work
itself to be key components in
engagement
IES (2005) Employee engagement predictor
research
Found job satisfaction, feeling
valued and involved, equal
opportunity, health and safety,
length of service,
communication, and
cooperation as predictors
Seijit (2006) Explored the components of
employee engagement
Identified the 10 Cs: Connect,
Career, Clarity, Convey,
Congratulate, Contribute,
Control, Collaborate,
Credibility and Confidence
Wallace et al. (2006) Study of the elements of employee
engagement
Outlined contributions,
connections, growth, and
advancement as engagement
drivers
Watson (2009) Study of employee engagement
predictors
Identified 3 predictors: rational
(knowledge of
roles/responsibilities),
emotional (degree of passion at
work), and motivational (how
willing is the employee)
Mani (2011) Study of employee drivers in
engagement
Predicted 4 drivers: employee
welfare, empowerment,
employee growth, and
interpersonal relationships
Bhatla (2011) Study of employee engagement and
its effects on employee
performance
Identified organizational culture
and organizational
communication as a prominent
driver
Halkos et al. (2017) Study of the impact of stress on
employee engagement
Found that increases in stress,
chaotic environments, and
crises drive incongruent
behaviors associated with
employee engagement
17

In summary, the research indicated several consistent themes in what drives employee
engagement and how, especially during high stress or crisis, engagement can be compromised.
As Seijit (2006) stated, employee engagement is about connection. Wallace et al. (2006)
expanded connections to include contributions to the employee’s greater good or mission.
Watson (2009) added that passion and discretionary investment on behalf of the employee drive
the realized degree of engagement. Mani (2011) outlined how employee welfare, especially
during increased stress, is crucial in maintaining employee engagement and ensuring that the
organization retains its established performance levels. In all cases, the research is clear. High-
stress environments and crisis events significantly impact the level of engagement by employees.
It is critical to understand the nature of the crisis and how to manage it if employee engagement
is to be maintained effectively.
The Nature of Crisis Management
Organizational research has focused on crises and crisis management for decades. Some
researchers focused on crisis antecedents while others focused on outcomes and managing crisis.
Bundy et al. (2017) stated that organizational crises are any event perceived by stakeholders as
highly unexpected and potentially disruptive and can threaten the organization’s goals resulting
in a profound impact on stakeholders. Bundy and Pfarrer (2015) asserted that stakeholders, in
this context, are anyone directly linked to the crisis, particularly managers and employees who
are identified as prime targets for adverse outcomes. When a crisis impacts an organization, the
level of disruption can negatively impact management, employee engagement, and productivity
(Bundy & Pfarrer, 2015).
Crises have four primary characteristics: (a) crises are sources of fear, uncertainty,
disruption, and change (Bundy & Pfarrer, 2015; James et al., 2011; Kahn et al., 2013); (b) crises
18

threaten organizational stakeholders who often have conflicting agendas (Fediuk et al. 2012;
James et al., 2011; Kahn et al., 2013); (c) crises are a behavioral phenomenon in that the
literature recognized that crises are socially constructed by the stakeholders and are not a
function of objective factors within the environment (Coombs, 2010; Gephart, 2007; Lampel et
al., 2009); and (d) crises are parts of large, multidimensional processes rather than discrete
individual occurrences or events (Jaques, 2009; Pearson & Clair, 1998; Roux-Dufort, 2007).
Additionally, crisis management is directly linked to organizational leaders’ actions and the
communication structures and processes that attempt to minimize crisis, strive to limit harm from
a crisis, and competently restore order following a crisis event (Bundy & Pfarrer, 2015; Kahn et
al., 2013; Pearson & Clair, 1998).
The research shows a connection between crisis management, employee engagement, and
communication (Jaque, 2009). Bundy and Pfarrer (2015) stated that fear during a crisis can
immobilize employees. Senior leaders are required to have a thoughtful communication plan
where employees are empowered with information to maintain performance levels when facing
the uncertainty of a crisis (Coombs, 2010). When addressing a crisis, effective communication
from organizational leadership has a direct correlation to the levels of employee performance
(engagement), their sense of security, and the ability to sustain performance standards across the
organization (Kahn et al., 2013; Pearson & Clair, 1998). Organizational leaders’ behaviors and
actions, and the environment they foster, will determine an effective response to crisis
management. The following sub-sections address both effective and detrimental approaches to
crisis management. In addition, the sub-section explored crisis events specifically within the
airline and aerospace industry.

19

Effective Crisis Management Approaches
Much of the research reviewed showed that organizational leaders’ pre-crisis readiness is
highly dependent on maintaining relationships with their stakeholders to reduce the likelihood of
a crisis occurring in the first place (Clair & Waddock, 2007; Coombs, 2007; Pfarrer, et al., 2008;
Ulmer, 2001; Ulmer & Sellnow, 2002). Clair and Waddock (2007) asserted that a total
management approach was critical in recognizing an organization’s responsibility to employee
stakeholder engagement to enhance prevention and early crisis detection. The earlier employees
are engaged in crisis management, the more effective the outcomes become, and the employees
are more likely to maintain a sense of ownership (Alpaslan et al., 2009). Kahn (2013) used
similar theories centered on relational cohesion, flexibility, and open communication with
internal employee and external supplier stakeholders to prevent and drive early crisis resolution.
Ulmer et al. (2011) asserted that active and open communication with employee stakeholders at
the earliest stages of a crisis would buoy the organization and empower employee stakeholders to
act, which was essential in maintaining long-lasting employee engagement and continuous
improvement. Coombs (2015) summarized that stakeholders are necessary and should be part of
the prevention and resolution thinking process. When stakeholders help identify and mitigate, it
significantly reduces the risk of organizational and external stakeholder damage from a crisis
(Coombs, 2015).
Additionally, the ability for leaders to make decisions and take actions quickly when
responding to a crisis is fundamental (Cameron et al., 2004). Employees need to see that
leadership is in command during a crisis to maintain engagement with employees (Crandall et
al., 2014). Calm, decisive action establishes the tone in managing the crisis. Senior managers
need to have the confidence and autonomy to communicate effectively and such action
20

(Falkheimer & Heide, 2006). In each of the studies, several themes emerge. The nature of
relationships, open and transparent communication, decisive action, and employee inclusion are
identified as necessary components to manage a crisis effectively.
Detrimental Crisis Management Approaches
In contrast to the positive results of effective communication and stakeholder engagement
during a crisis, research showed the adverse effects of contrary leadership behaviors. Mishina et
al. (2010) found that prior positive organizational performance increases stakeholders’
expectations for future positive performance. Organizations may engage in illegal conduct to
meet these expectations, which results in a crisis when such behavior is discovered (Mishina et
al., 2010). Lehman and Ramanujam (2009) asserted that in a desire to maintain performance
levels, leaders risk abusing processes, policies, and people and inadvertently create the
organization’s crises. Greve (2010) referred to this social performance pressure and named it
strain theory, which posits that leaders and stakeholders find themselves engaging in misconduct
if they fear they cannot meet established key performance metrics using legitimate processes or
procedures. The pressure to meet expectations can encourage organizational behaviors that can
cause a crisis.
Additionally, researchers have studied how negative relationships with senior leaders can
trigger a crisis in the form of retaliatory actions, including protests, activism, boycotts, and
lawsuits (James & Wooten, 2006; Lind et al., 2000; McDonnell & King, 2013). James and
Wooten (2006) explored how negative relationships impacted discrimination lawsuits where
significant organizational, legal resources were required at a substantial financial cost resulting
in permanent brand damage. In contrast, McDonnell and King (2013) explored the impacts of
negative organizational relationships, resulting in consumer boycotts that significantly damaged
21

the corporate brand and profitability. Lind et al. (2000) asserted that poor leadership behavior
that violates established norms not only generates crises to occur but often prevents stakeholder
engagement from contributing to the solution and recovery from the crisis.
Kahn (2013) asserted that effective crisis management relies on and is rooted in classic
engineering mandates of identifying systemic problems in inputs and correcting those inputs and
operations that lead to ineffective outputs. Kahn pointed out that ineffective crisis leadership
clearly reflects leaders’ limitations to identify a problem that exists. Contrary to Kahn,
alternative research asserts that truly effective crisis management requires more than problem-
solving. For example, James et al. (2011) stated that relying solely on problem-solving as the
crisis management technique will leave much of the systemic issues unresolved. The crisis will
inevitably repeat itself in one form or another. James reflected much of what Clair and Waddock
(2007) asserted on a total management approach that emphasizes if the stakeholder fails to
identify all the components contributing to the crisis, the leader will not adequately resolve the
situation. Brockner and James (2008) stated that when leaders do not communicate crisis in the
context of opportunity, they fail at driving the desired outcomes; when a leader communicates a
crisis as a threat, that lends itself to a negative emotional response from the stakeholder. In
summary, a leader’s lack of ability to identify a crisis, ineffective communication skills, and a
failure to address the entire environment during a crisis are all detrimental approaches to
successful crisis management.
Crisis Management in the Aerospace Industry
In over one hundred years in aviation history, airlines and airline manufacturers have
faced multiple crises. Terrorist attacks, aircraft failures resulting in the loss of life, and, most
recently, a pandemic have dramatically impacted the aviation sector. The September 11, 2001,
22

terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon resulted in creating the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Hunter and Lambert (2016) stated that the creation of
DHS and subsequently the Transportation Security Authority (TSA) had a profound effect on the
aerospace industry. Protocols had to be changed and security measures implemented to secure
aircraft while in flight. Airlines and manufacturers cannot avoid crises, and they were unprepared
to cope with the psychological damage extreme crises caused (Gerken et al., 2016). Soubrier
(2016) pointed to Germanwings flight 9525, where an emotionally compromised co-pilot
deliberately caused the aircraft’s crash, killing all 144 passengers and six crew members.
Currently, the Covid-19 pandemic has had a devastating impact on airlines and
manufacturers. Vlnod (2020) identified the financial hardship the industry experienced due to
restricted travel and canceled aircraft orders. Revenues were negatively impacted, travel was
decimated, and significant layoffs were required to survive. Internationally, travel bans and
quarantine protocols created expected revenue losses totaling over $100 billion through
2021(Kabadayi, et al., 2020). This significant reduction of air travel forced airlines to cut routes
and suspend service to markets where demand plummeted. Josephs (2021) reported that airlines
canceled over a thousand aircraft orders from aircraft manufacturers’ backlogs, which cost
hundreds of billions of dollars and compounded the global problem. These are only a few
examples of how a crisis impacts the airline industry. Terrorist attacks, in-flight aircraft failure,
and intentional suicide events all are evidence of the need for strong organizational structures
and the importance of senior managers’ leadership during crisis events. Moreover, the ability for
senior managers to maintain employee engagement when facing a litany of crises has a direct
impact on employee satisfaction and warrants study.

23

Terrorist Attacks and Leadership Responses
The September 11, 2001, terrorist attack on New York City, Washington D.C., and
Pennsylvania still impacts air travel today. TSA regulations remain in place, but it is only one in
a long line of terrorist attacks since commercial air travel became mainstream. October 10, 1933,
is thought to be the first proven act of air sabotage in commercial aviation history. A bomb, most
likely nitroglycerin, was used to detonate the device. A gangland murder in Chicago was
suspected, but the case was never solved. It’s thought to be the first case of commercial aviation
air sabotage (Johnson, 2015).
As air travel grew throughout the mid-twentieth century, bombings increased. Seven
additional recorded events occurred from 1933 to May 22, 1962, when a plane exploded near
Centerville, Iowa, in the United States. Investigators discovered that Thomas G. Doty, one of the
passengers, had carried a bomb onto the plane after acquiring a life insurance policy. The Iowa
crash was the first time a jet airplane was bombed in flight (Vasigh et al., 2018).
In the 1980s, Middle Eastern terrorists began seeing the viability of commercial air travel
as a weapon. The decade saw twelve terrorist air attacks. One tragedy was a turning point related
explicitly to Libya: a bomb detonated aboard a jumbo jet flying from Frankfurt to New York
through London, killing all 224 souls on board and 11 on the ground as significant portions of
the plane fell into residential areas of Lockerbie, Scotland. High-grade chemical explosives were
used to make the bomb and were hidden within a radio cassette player. Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, a
Libyan intelligence officer, was found guilty of the attack (Galloway, 2011).
Returning to 2001 and the aftermath of September 11, 2001, the institutionalization of the
DHS and TSA altered how society traveled by air. Passengers are now screened and often
physically searched along with their belongings. On December 22, 2001, Richard Reid, an al-
24

Qaeda operative, was apprehended by passengers on a flight going from Paris to Miami after
failing to explode plastic explosives hidden in his shoes. The worldwide security measures put in
place have positively impacted this type of warfare. Since September 11, 2001, there have been a
total of eight attempts by terrorists, whereby only two resulted in significant loss of life and
property (Jager, 2018).
Most businesses associate catastrophe preparedness with business continuity, but the
events of 9/11 revealed some unexpected truths regarding employee engagement and crisis
management. Castillo (2004) asserted that senior management is traditionally in charge of
keeping business operations running after a disaster by protecting people and physical
infrastructure. The trauma employees experienced having their product used as a weapon of war
left behind varying levels of post-traumatic stress. Business continuity plans were required in
response to the situation (Castillo, 2004). These business continuity plans were designed to
benefit employees, customers, stakeholders, and the community (Cameron et al., 2004).
The plans, related to employees specifically, outlined the role of relationships and
communication as central in identifying resources and were especially important when
considering how individuals and organizations respond to a crisis. The plans identified the
relationship role senior leaders needed to play to build resiliency with their employees after the
crisis (Weick, 2003). Worline et al. (2004) asserted that resiliency is the maintenance of positive
adjustment while under extraordinary stresses or crises. Along with the role of relationships, the
plans outlined the necessary communication elements required to positively cope, maintain
engagement and sustain business continuity within the organization (Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003).
In conjunction with a strong relationship with senior managers, these communication strategies
were crucial in building the necessary social, emotional, and moral support to maintain
25

organizational resilience. These processes enabled the maintenance of positive social employee
engagement at work (Ryff et al., 2002).
In-Flight Disasters and Leadership Response
The crash of Lion Air flight 610 and Ethiopian Air flight 302 within five months of each
other shook the air travel world to its core. The impact of these aircraft failures on the airline and
the aircraft manufacturing industries was catastrophic. Both incidents were the same make and
model of aircraft. The popular single-aisle, narrow-body plane was a customer favorite and
dominated short-haul flights worldwide. It was a reliable standard-bearer (Mongan & Kohli,
2020). The mechanical failures in both planes had a worldwide impact on consumer confidence
and route availability. The failures resulted in significant financial hardships for both the airlines
and the airline manufacturer (Cusumano, 2020).
Lion Air and Ethiopian Airlines experienced mechanical failure with an in-flight software
system, the Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS). On October 29, 2018,
Lion Air experienced a catastrophic failure. The pilots could not maintain their attitude due to the
nose repeatedly being pushed down. One hundred and eighty-one passengers and eight crew
members lost their lives when it crashed into the Java Sea (Fang, 2020). Fang continued stating
that the investigations revealed serious flight control problems on Lion Air’s previous flight and
signs of the angle of attack (AoA) sensor failures, all of which were linked to a design flaw
involving the MCAS (Travis, 2019). The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration issued warnings
and training instructions to the manufacturer and pilot operators to prevent similar tragedies from
being caused by the MCAS. These cautions were not properly followed, and design flaws are
thought to have played a role in the Ethiopian Airlines Flight accident.
26

On March 10, 2019, Ethiopian Airlines had a scheduled international passenger flight that
flew from Ethiopia’s Bole International Airport to Nairobi, Kenya’s Jomo Kenyatta International
Airport using Lion Air’s same make and model. The airplane crashed six minutes after takeoff
near the town of Bishoftu, killing all 157 people on board (Travis, 2019). This catastrophic event
was the same model aircraft in less than five months to fail after the Lion Air crash in Indonesia
on October 29, 2018. Herkert et al. reported that the pilots worked hard to keep the aircraft under
control by shutting down critical systems. The plane’s nose continued to plunge, and the aircraft
continued to lose altitude. The MCAS was reactivated, causing the nose to drop considerably
lower. After that, the pilots switched off the electrical trim tab system, turning off the MCAS
software. They were not successful. This second crash brought the death toll to 346 souls
(Herkert et al., 2020).
Wendel (2019) outlined how these critical crises resulted in an extensive investigation by
the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), who grounded the aircraft while design
modifications could be implemented. Wendel stated that it drew into question relationships
between the manufacture and the FAA. After a 16-month grounding, the additional production
and pilot training changes were approved, and the model is currently cleared for ticketing in the
United States.
The airline industry’s leadership response to in-flight disasters varies based on the
circumstances of the incident. Often the response is centered around image repair. Benoit (2014)
asserted two key assumptions offered for image repair theory; communication is a goal-directed
activity, and maintaining a favorable reputation is the singular goal of communication (Benoit,
2014). External and internal communication is critical in maintaining image and morale
(Coombs, 2018). Like responding to a terrorist attack, effective communication from leadership
27

is critical in maintaining employee engagement (Coombs, 2018). Lion Air and Ethiopian
Airlines’ failures heightened the demand for organizational transparency (Mamaril, 2021).
Mamaril (2021) continued to outline the levels of transparency and authenticity by senior leaders
when communicating internally with employees to maintain followership. Publicly
acknowledging the mistakes that were made was the first step. Mamaril concluded that hard,
truthful conversations were necessary to bring employees to the table and solve the problem
collectively. This concept was not immediately employed.
When disaster strikes, it is usually because of complex organizational and systemic
circumstances. Ethics invariably play a role in identifying what happened and what responses are
required. In the case of Lion Air and Ethiopian Airlines’ failures, there was little initial internal
transparency in the company’s response. Englehardt et al. (2021) found that image overruled
transparent communication, which directly impacted levels of engagement within the company.
Englehardt et al. continued to posit that this lack of transparency created a moral crisis of
conscience for many employees. That crisis of conscience resulted in employees leaking instant
messages and emails to the media that raised leadership concerns long before the crashes
occurred. Englehard et al. asserted that leadership’s failure to implement a deliberate and
authentic internal communication plan is what disengaged employees, causing them to retaliate,
resulting in the removal of several key leaders. Herkert et al. (2020) asserted that this act by
employees was the driving factor in changing the company’s response to the incidents and was
the lesson learned to rebuild employee confidence and engagement. These realizations helped
new leadership identify the necessary framework to move forward.
Extensive research related to effective crisis management techniques were reviewed. The
scope of the studies ranges from; crisis prevention, organizational resources, and employee
28

engagement. A total management approach where relationships are crucial were common
elements in the findings when maintaining employee engagement effectively. Table 3 identifies
the scope and findings of the research around effective crisis management.

Table 3
Summary: Components of Effective Crisis Management
Author Study scope Study findings
Alpaslan (2009) Organizational resources,
engagement climate, and
employee engagement
Early employee engagement has
more effective crisis outcomes
Clair et al. (2007) Enhanced prevention and crisis
detection
A total management approach is
required in identifying an
organizations responsibility to its
employee
Coombs (2007) Pre-crisis organizational readiness Maintain relationships with
employees to reduce the risk of a
crisis occurring in the first place
Coombs (2015) Crisis prevention and resolution Engaged employees are necessary
and should be part of the
prevention and resolution
thinking process
Ulmer et al. (2011) Study of the elements of
employee engagement
Active and early communication
with employees sustains the
organization and empowers
employees during a crisis

29

Clark and Estes’s (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences’
Framework
This study’s conceptual framework is based on a gap analysis model. After defining
organizational goals, Clarke and Estes (2008) identified gaps between actual and planned
performance. Measurable goals are methodically defined by establishing a baseline of current
performance and gaps compared to planned key performance indicators. Upon identifying
possible causes for the gaps, the organization develops and executes solutions and evaluates the
outcome. This is a continuous cyclical procedure with the purpose of closing performance
disparities in a repeatable manner for continuous improvement. Gap analysis focuses on three
areas of impact that could be the source of performance differences: knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The gap analysis methodology is used to find inconsistencies in the data to drive
performance improvement (Clark & Estes, 2008). This process limits providing solutions that do
not address the root cause. Data-driven performance improvement enables a realistic gap
assessment, driving positive outcomes and limiting one-step problem-solving. The systematic
approach to gap analysis aids in solving the right problem reducing unintended consequences.
The gap analysis process concludes with a review of the solutions that have been implemented.
This analysis is repeated to drive continuous improvement throughout the value stream, ideally
until the system is defect-free.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The study’s purpose was to uncover the capacity of senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis. Stakeholder goals and competencies were defined based
on the available literature centered on knowledge, motivation, and organizational impacts that
30

affect stakeholder capacity to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. This study
explored those assumed influences.
Knowledge Influences
Leading employees during a crisis necessitate senior managers to employ skill sets that
may differ widely from leading during daily activities. When employees do not know how to
achieve performance goals or when future problems will require creative problem solving,
knowledge and skill growth are essential for job performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). This
required growth, particularly during a crisis, puts added pressure on senior managers to maintain
employee engagement. The literature on knowledge-related factors was examined to determine
what knowledge and skills AAC senior managers require to maintain employee engagement
during a crisis. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized the significance of people knowing who,
what, when, where, why, and how expectations are met. During a crisis, expectations often
change. Individuals are frequently unaware of gaps in knowledge, which negatively impacts
engagement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Understanding the business issues that affect organizational performance requires a clear
understanding of what knowledge influences are needed during a crisis. Bandura (2003) posited
that knowledge factors lay the groundwork for any leader’s future success in their career. There
must be goal-oriented learning and development that helps to overcome any crisis with
organizational alignment (Bandura & Locke, 2003; Pintrich, 2003).
Examining AAC’s senior managers’ knowledge also aids AAC in responding more
successfully to crises by building ideal conditions for leadership development. Organizations
must dispel stereotypes about organizational learning, such as learning being a duty rather than a
31

strategic business necessity (Kalmuk & Acar, 2015). Most crises are not able to be foreseen.
AAC’s senior managers and their support mechanisms need to be clearly defined.
The research showed that knowledge can be identified in four categories: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson et al., 2001). Of the four categories,
this study looks at three: conceptual, procedural, and metacognition . AAC’s senior managers
need to understand the conceptual elements of the problem being faced and possess the necessary
metacognition related to their role in leveraging their skills to address the crisis. Additionally,
senior managers need to know how to communicate during a crisis to maintain employee
engagement effectively.
Conceptual Knowledge Influences: Leading Through Crisis and Communication
Anderson et al. (2001) defined conceptual knowledge as understanding classifications,
categories, principles, theory, models, and structures. This study examined two conceptual
knowledge influences related to leadership during a crisis. The first conceptual knowledge
influence was to explore what leadership concepts are necessary to lead through a crisis. The
second conceptual knowledge influence was to explore what principles of effective
communication are needed before deploying a crisis management plan. (Coombs, 2015).
Diagnosing AAC’s senior managers’ understanding of crisis management strategies and the
necessary communication elements while leading through a crisis helped identify potential gaps
and recommended solutions.
Models and Theories of Crisis Management. Successful AAC’s senior managers need
to understand the available models, theories, and principles of crisis management before
developing a crisis response plan. Barbu et al. (2010) asserted that senior managers need to know
what organizational models and settings are available when engaging with their team. The
32

existing environment that the senior manager creates will either lend itself to dealing with the
crisis successfully or impede the senior manager’s ability to maintain employee engagement
while deploying solutions (Barbu et al., 2010). This study examined what AAC’s senior
managers know related to available models, theories, and principles of employee engagement
and crisis management as outlined in Table 2 and Table 3.
Principles of Effective Communication. As seen in Table 2, the research showed a
consistent identification of communication skill sets required in influencing employee
engagement during a crisis. Although there are several other relevant findings that were explored
under the first conceptual knowledge influence, adept communication skills are essential and rise
as a top priority for senior managers. The senior manager needs to know what effective
communication elements need to be in place based on the environment they create (Coombs,
2018). Mehra (2011) outlined three key elements related to the role of a business leader and
communication during times of high stress, anxiety, and crisis: (a) a formal communication
cadence for flow down of information, (b) an informal communication at the individual
employee level to assess the impact of a crisis on individual employees, and (c) clear
communication of what expectations have changed based on the emergent crisis. These three
requirements, in equal importance, are foundational in aligning and maintaining individual and
team performance in highly stressful situations. This study focused on these three principles and
how they aided or detracted from employee engagement during a crisis.
Additionally, teams’ needs vary widely and are dependent on the nature of the crisis they
face (Fragouli et al., 2015). Doorley et al. (2015) suggested that senior leaders consider how their
employees need to hear information, understand how to rely on their leader, and what their role
in resolving the crisis is to move forward as a team. Coombs (2007) asserted that senior leaders’
33

need to know what role they play in identifying the communication needs and direction the
employee requires before implementing a recovery plan. Coombs (2018) asserted that it is vital
to be overt in what employees need to see, hear, and do and what they expect from leadership.
AAC’s senior managers need to know themselves, the resources available to address the crisis,
and their employees’ specific needs to maintain an engaged workforce. Leaders need to have a
well-thought-out communication plan that outlines the roles and responsibilities of all
stakeholders (Coombs, 2018). Consistent with existing research, this study explored AAC’s
senior managers’ understanding of the required communication strategies to maintain employee
engagement during crises effectively.
Procedural Knowledge: Communication
Procedural knowledge is the ability to perform specific functions in a specific order as
outlined in processes, procedures, and work instructions to accomplish a goal (Hurrell, 2021). It
also aids in effectively navigating a crisis and provides the foundation for crisis response.
Senior managers need to know how to communicate in a crisis to maintain employee
engagement effectively (Christensen et al, 2016). A senior manager understanding what
communication processes to rely on when addressing a crisis that impacts employee performance
is fundamental to crisis resolution and regaining operational stability (Nizamidou & Vouzas,
2020). Senior managers relying on communication procedural knowledge is essential in helping
employees navigate their way in uncertain times. Additionally, it is the role of the senior
manager to know when and what to communicate to maintain employee engagement and
productivity (Caulfield, 2018).
Procedures vary in every organization. This study explored the extent to which AAC’s
senior managers know and can implement the communication procedural resources available to
34

them during a time of crisis. Additionally, it explored at what point innovation and deviation
were required and the impact of that deviation. Harwood (2017) asserted that leaders need to
understand what documented processes are available to them. Leaders need to know what
playbooks, handbooks, job aids, and standard work instructions are available to establish a
baseline. AAC’s senior managers should know if these resources are readily available and how
to use them to maintain productivity during challenging times. Harwood also found that leaders
need to continually evaluate opportunities for improvement, particularly after a challenging event
or a crisis.
Metacognitive Knowledge: Leadership Strengths and Opportunities
Anderson et al. (2001) defined metacognitive knowledge as the strategic thinking, self-
awareness, and knowledge related to cognitive tasks. The most fundamental definition of
metacognition is ‘‘thinking about thinking’’ (Benton, 2014, p.1). Knowledge and regulation are
the two components of metacognition. Lai (2011) stated that metacognitive knowledge contains
information about oneself as a learner and the circumstances that may influence performance and
information about tactics and when and why to utilize them. Lai asserted that planning activities,
knowledge of comprehension and task performance, and evaluating the usefulness of monitoring
procedures and methods are all examples of metacognitive control.
To measure metacognitive knowledge, this study explored the degree to which AAC’s
senior managers are aware of their strengths and areas of opportunity related to employee
engagement and crisis management. AAC’s senior managers require knowledge centered on the
concepts of the crisis they face. Understanding the issue’s breadth, depth, and magnitude is
crucial to building a crisis engagement plan (Crandall et al., 2014). AAC’s senior managers also
need to know what communication components and support elements are available from the
35

organization. Finally, AAC’s senior managers must be deliberately self-aware (Benton, 2014).
Table 4 shows the knowledge influences and types required for AAC senior managers.

Table 4
Assumed Knowledge Influences and Type
Knowledge influence Knowledge type Relevant literature
Senior managers need to understand
the concepts necessary to lead
through a crisis while maintaining
employee engagement.
Conceptual (C1)
Barbu et al. (2010)
Bekdash, 2019

Senior managers need to understand
the principles of effective
communication before deploying a
crisis engagement plan.
Conceptual (C2)
Coombs (2007)
Coombs, 2015
Mehra (2011)

Senior managers need to know how to
communicate in a crisis to maintain
employee engagement effectively.
Procedural
Caulfield, 2018
Harwood (2017)
Hurrell (2021)

Senior managers need to evaluate
their strengths and areas of
opportunity in developing a crisis
engagement plan.
Metacognitive
Benton (2014)
Crandall et al. (2014)
Lai (2011)

36

Motivational Influences
Motivation is the third influence in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis. This study
explored the literature related to the assumed motivational influences and their impact on senior
managers leading through crisis. Pintrich and Schunk (1996) stated that motivational gaps are
more difficult to identify than knowledge influences. Motivation is the internal, psychological
process that drives an outcome (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Clark and Estes (2008) identified
motivation as an intrinsic quality born from inspiration and has three critical aspects. The first is
choosing to work toward a goal. The second is maintaining persistence, and the third is the
mental discipline required to complete the task (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Self-Efficacy and Leadership: Decision Making in Crisis
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their ability to complete specific tasks (Elliot et
al., 2017). Bandura (1977) discovered that self-efficacy was a better predictor of threat behavior
than previous performance. Self-efficacy learned from past experiences more adequately
predicted performance on difficult tasks that were never attempted before (Bandura, 1977).
Bandura continued with how self-efficacy expectations influence performance by increasing the
intensity of effort by the leader, resulting in more effective outcomes. A leader’s ability to
execute decisions during a crisis directly impacts employee perception and level of engagement
in crisis resolution (Oroszi, 2018).
During times of crisis, senior managers must make swift judgments under urgent time
constraints (Bienkowska et al., 2020). Leading during a crisis requires a strong ability of making
decisions on-demand, with little information (Goniewicz et al., 2020). The ability of a leader to
make swift judgments is a vital skill in crisis management, as Brandebo (2020) asserted, but
cautioned that leaders need to be sensitive to employee perceptions to avoid appearing
37

unsympathetic. Leaders are under tremendous pressure to make swift decisions with immediate
and long-term implications, and they must have faith in their skills to do so, to lead effectively,
without fear of retribution (Hirudayaraj & Sparkman, 2019). Maintaining an image of being in
control and making decisions without the need of prior approval is a critical component in
leading a team (DuBrin, 2013). In engageing employees, the capacity to be decisive and make
quick judgments with limited knowledge is considered as a desired attribute by employees
(Howitt & Leonard, 2009; Kaiser, 2020).
Self-Efficacy and Leadership: Confidence in Engaging Employees
Bandura (1978) put self-efficacy at the center of motivational influences. How an
individual perceives themselves directly correlates to that individual’s belief in their task-specific
efficacy and response to a situation (Bandura, 1978). In the context of employee engagement, the
leader’s belief systems weigh heavy on their ability to navigate a crisis while seeking the input of
their employees (Mann & Harter, 2016). Self-efficacy is a strong predictor of behavior; it
directly impacts the degree of successful outcomes (Bienkowska et al., 2020). As Clark and
Estes (2012) explained, people who have a positive belief structure often have better results, as
seen in the placebo effect with medications. AAC’s senior managers need confidence in their
abilities to make critical decisions in a crisis.
AAC’s senior managers are expected to lead by example. The expectation is that all
leaders model self-awareness and confidence in leading a team even during challenging times.
Goniewicz et al. (2020) said leaders must promptly respond to the emergent crisis. Kaiser (2020)
stated that leaders need to rapidly and confidently respond to crises to assure employees that the
crisis is well in hand. Kaiser (2020) also stated that senior leaders need to have confidence in
their abilities to address the crisis and ensure team cohesion. AAC’s senior managers need to
38

demonstrate a sense of self-awareness and confidence to maintain employee engagement during
a crisis. Table 5 shows the motivational influences and types required for AAC senior managers.

Table 5
Motivational Influences
Motivation influence Motivation type
Senior managers need confidence in their abilities
to make critical decisions in crisis.
Self-Efficacy
Senior managers need confidence in their abilities
to engage employees during a crisis.
Self-Efficacy

39

Organizational Influences
In addition to understanding the knowledge and motivation required to achieve
organizational goals, organizational influences must be in place to support the stakeholder in
achieving their performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2012). This study reviewed the literature on
organizational influences impacting leaders’ ability to maintain engaged employees during
crises. Clark and Estes’s (2012) gap analysis framework posited that organizational infrastructure
related to policies, procedures, and processes produces either obstacles or helpful resources.
Obstacles, such as lacking the tools to do the job, ineffective processes, or inadequate
manufacturing facilities, can produce a poor outcome (Clark & Estes, 2012). Two organizational
constructs impact performance: organizational models and organizational settings. Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001) defined organizational models as establishing the organization’s identity,
shared culture, and an understanding in how the organization works. Organizational settings are
defined when people’s common values and beliefs are reflected in their demonstrated behaviors
(Gallimore and Goldenberg, 2001). Organizational settings are necessary because they reflect an
organization’s mission, vision, and values. These structures provide the framework for
understanding what mechanisms are available for AAC’s senior managers to maintain employee
engagement during a crisis successfully.
Schein (2017) defined culture as to how people interact. Behavioral regularities are
critical in how groups function. The language used identifies the cultural norms in the
organization. Schein (2017) asserted that the climate that leaders create provides the group with
the physical space and how members of the organization network. It is also necessary to
document the espoused common values around quality, leadership, and safety to define the
boundaries of the organizational culture. Do the demonstrated leadership behaviors align with
40

the espoused values in the culture? (Schein, 2017). Connor and Smith (2012) asserted that
culture is centered on experiences, which form belief systems. When a crisis occurs,
organizations can shift their culture and adjust to the new demand of their employees. Much like
Schein, Connor, and Smith (2012) asserted that when there is incongruence between espoused
values (what we say) and leadership behavior (what we do), it creates conflict in the organization
and negatively impacts the ability to respond to crisis and engage employees.
Organizational Models: Culture and Decision Making
During a crisis, organizations need to allow senior managers the ability to make decisions
and demonstrate that the organization will support those decisions. A culture of empowerment is
critical in leaders maintaining engagement during a crisis (Coyle, 2018). Kamarulzaman et al.
(2011) showed that employee engagement increases when leaders are empowered to make
independent decisions quickly. Coyle et al. (2015) asserted that leaders who do not have
autonomy in decision making fail if they are hesitant to take quick action during a crisis. Their
research also asserted that this lack of responsive action builds anxiety with employees,
detracting from engagement. To effectively support a manager through a crisis and maintain
employee engagement, an organization must provide a hierarchy of authority and autonomy to
support decisive decision-making without fear of retribution (Fragouli et al., 2015). This study
examined the degree to which the organization values a culture of empowerment where AAC’s
senior managers believe they can make decisions quickly to maintain engagement in a crisis.
Organizational Settings: Crisis Management and Engagement Resources
Rose et al. (2015) maintained that an organization’s resource allocation is central to
successful outcomes. The sustained competitive advantage of the organization is leveraged based
on management’s ability to generate valuable inter-organizational resources. Albrecht and Marty
41

(2018) asserted that aligning resources to support job performance directly impacts a senior
manager’s ability to address employee engagement and satisfaction. The research also showed
that having access to the necessary tools, such as tooling/supplies, training, counseling services,
and communication structures are vital to adequately respond to a crisis and maintain employee
engagement (Albrecht et al., 2018; Castillo, 2004; Coombs, 2007; Crandall et al., 2014). When
faced with stress or crisis, the absence of resources has a direct, negative effect on employee
morale and, consequently, performance (Kamarulzaman et al., 2011).
Organizations need to be prepared to allocate resources commensurate with the
magnitude of the crisis being addressed (Gurianova & Mechtcheriakova, 2015). During a crisis,
leaders can become overwhelmed, and employee engagement may suffer as a result (Halkos,
2017). Gurianova and Mechtcheriakova (2015) stated that when faced with competing priorities,
leaders often become confused on how to access the appropriate resources needed to cope with a
crisis. The organization needs to ensure that resources are easily accessible by management. This
study explored whether the necessary organizational resources and tools are available to support
AAC’s senior managers to maintain employee engagement in a crisis. The study explored what
the cultural elements related to senior managers leading during a crisis. Table 6 outlines the
organizational influences and the type to provide the resources and culture to maintain employee
engagement during a crisis.

42

Table 6
Organizational Influences
Organizational influence Organizational type
The organization needs to value a culture of
empowerment to allow senior managers to
engage employees in a crisis without fear of
retribution.
Organizational model
The organization needs to provide the necessary
resources and tools to support senior managers to
maintain employee engagement during a crisis.
Organizational setting

43

Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is a rationale for conducting a study on a problem of practice.
Clark and Estes (2012) maintained that performance improvement is dependent on closing gaps
in knowledge, motivation, and organizational structures. The framework identifies the current
state of existing research, what gaps are causing the problem and what current findings may
show that warrant continued research (Varpio et al., 2020). A conceptual framework is the
visualized model related to approaching the problem. The framework is constructed following a
comprehensive review of existing literature and should represent the concepts and theories that
support the literature (Bharti & Sharma, 2015).
This study explored the existing research related to leaders maintaining employee
engagement during a crisis. The Clark and Estes (2012) knowledge, motivation, and organization
(KMO) gap analysis theoretical framework applied AAC’s senior managers’ understanding of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational structures related to crisis response. The study asserts
that all three elements of the theoretical framework must be evaluated collectively to adequately
address the problem of practice (Clark & Estes, 2012). Previous research and the KMO
theoretical framework inform the conceptual framework in Figure 1.

44

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework: Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

Figure 1 illustrates the process to adequately address the gaps in knowledge, motivation,
and organizational structures for AAC’s senior managers during a crisis. The conceptual
framework outlines the stages required to implement a crisis response plan. According to Clark
and Estes (2008), there are six steps to successfully maintaining employee engagement during a
crisis:
1. Identify the current state and contain.
2. Identify performance gaps.
3. Create and test potential interventions.
4. Deploy crisis engagement plan.
5. Evaluate and adapt success measures.
6. Stabilize employee performance.
45

The first step is identifying the current state and implementing containment measures as needed.
The second step is to perform a thorough gap analysis. Once the gaps are clearly defined, the
process requires developing solutions. The solutions are tested to determine effectiveness in
adequately solving for the gap. Once proven solutions are determined, an implementation plan is
deployed. Finally, throughout the process, performance measures are monitored to validate
progress. This process is sequential and repeatable for continuous improvement throughout the
value stream.
Summary
The aerospace industry has experienced multiple crises. There have been terrorist attacks,
equipment failures, and a worldwide pandemic shaking the industry and questioning its survival.
The research has shown resiliency in all instances, and the industry returned to being the premier
form of transportation following these events. The research also showed that effective leadership
is vital when navigating a crisis and maintaining employee engagement during highly stressful
situations. Ineffective communication strategies can negatively impact outcomes. The literature
review examined the necessary knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences required to
maintain employee engagement while addressing crisis management effectively.
Knowledge influences center on concepts and metacognition. The research explored the
leader’s ability to understand the required concepts related to crisis management and employee
engagement and how to leverage those concepts in a crisis. Additionally, the research explored
the necessary communication concepts and what strengths, and areas of opportunity leaders
bring to address a crisis. It is important to also examine senior managers’ self-awareness from a
metacognitive perspective and their ability to make quick decisions in response to engaging their
46

employees during a crisis. Finally, the literature reviewed the organizational settings and models
required to manage through a crisis with engaged employees effectively.

47

Chapter Three: Methodology
AAC has experienced several recent crisis events, including the shuttering of aircraft
manufacturing due to the Covid-19 pandemic. This study explored the ability of AAC’s senior
managers to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. AAC’s senior managers are a crucial
linchpin in the production system and represent the most influential stakeholder in maintaining
performance to established organizational KPIs. This qualitative study questioned senior
managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to maintain engagement during
crisis events. The chapter outlines the research questions, methodology, data collection,
instrumentation, analysis, ethics and the role of the researcher, and limitations and delimitations
of the study.
Research Questions
The research questions that inform this study are listed below:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivation are needed for senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
2. What are the organizational settings and models available to a senior manager to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?

48

Overview of Methodology
This study produced qualitative research of a defined sample of AAC’s senior managers
to uncover gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to maintaining
employee engagement during a crisis. The methodology comprised interviews and document
analysis. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that ‘‘we interview people to find out from them
those things we cannot directly observe…We cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions’’
(p.108). Creswell and Creswell (2018) defined the qualitative method related to interviews as a
group of six to eight interviewees that involves unstructured, generally open-ended questions to
elicit the participants’ views. Additionally, document analysis was conducted. AAC has
conducted several employee engagement surveys, and third-party crisis investigations have been
completed. These documents were reviewed. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that additional
data, once located and authenticated, must be assessed and functions much like interviews or
observations. Recommendations of the findings are presented in chapter 5. Table 7 details the
data source material that will be analyzed.

49

Table 7
Data Sources
Research question Interviews Document analysis
What knowledge, skills, and
motivation are needed for
senior managers to
maintain employee
engagement during a
crisis?
X X
What are the organizational
settings and models
available to senior
managers to maintain
employee engagement
during a crisis?
X X
What are the recommended
knowledge and skills,
motivation, and
organizational solutions?

50

Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan
Data collection for this study came from multiple resources to answer the research
questions related to maintaining employee engagement during a crisis. First, interviews were
conducted with AAC’s senior managers. The interview uncovered the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational drivers in dealing with crisis and employee engagement. Second, document
analysis gathered data on what elements exist to assist senior managers in successfully
navigating crisis management with their teams.
Method 1: Interviews
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that interviews are categorized on a continuum:
highly structured, semi-structured, and unstructured. Highly structured interviews contain
predetermined verbiage designed to obtain demographic data and function much like an oral
form of a survey. Semi-structured interviews contain a mix of structured questions meant to be
flexible. Finally, unstructured interviews are very informal, comprised of open-ended questions,
and are used when the researcher does not know enough about the situation. This study used a
semi-structured interview protocol. The purpose of the interviews was to answer the research
questions and for the researcher to understand the stakeholder’s feelings, thoughts, and beliefs
related to leading engaged employees during a crisis. Additionally, the study uncovered the gaps
in knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements to inform recommendations.
Participant Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders for the interviews are a purposeful sample of six to 12
AAC’s senior managers in the Quality organization. For this study, there were several criteria
that participants must meet for inclusion in the interview sample. Establishing criteria for the
purposeful sample limits the stakeholder group and narrows the specific data collected (Merriam
51

& Tisdell, 2016). First, the senior managers have had to be in a leadership position for a
minimum of 10 years at AAC. Second, the senior managers need to have been in their current
role for a minimum of two years. Finally, they needed to have 25 or more employees in their
organization, including first-line managers and individual contributors. Between six and twelve
Quality senior managers will be selected to participate in the interviews with the approval of
their senior executive.
Instrumentation
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that the most common way in deciding which type of
interview to conduct is to evaluate the degree of structure required. Appendix A outlines the
interview protocol. The protocol is a list of semi-structured questions to be asked in no
predetermined order. The protocol allows for maximum flexibility in primary and follow-on
probing questions. The questions were designed to uncover the gaps in AAC’s senior managers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational structures related to maintaining employee
engagement during a crisis. The interview inspected the demographics of the stakeholder group,
belief systems on crisis management and employee engagement, and their perceived attributes of
successful leadership during a crisis.
The interview fostered an in-depth discussion centered on crisis events, how employees
respond and what is required to keep them engaged. The questions were designed to uncover to
what degree AAC’s senior managers understand their role in crisis management, their capacity to
maintain engaged employees, and to what degree the organization supports senior managers to
engage their employees during a crisis. Additionally, the questions uncovered past experiences
with crisis, what lessons the managers believe they have learned, and what practices they believe
52

are effective to leverage moving forward. Finally, the interview built a composite of how AAC’s
senior managers in the Quality organization cope with crises.
The interview protocol drove an understanding of whether the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences identified through the literature review exist with the
stakeholder group related to crisis management. The interview provided data on what successes
or areas of opportunity exist in achieving the stakeholder goal. Once the gaps in KMO are
analyzed, potential solutions can be created. The proposed solutions are presented as
recommendations for consideration to close the data identified gaps in chapter 5.
Data Collection Process
AAC’s Quality organization comprises eight divisions, including airplane programs and
functions like regulatory, supply chain management, and fabrication. I gained the approval of
AAC’s Sr. Vice President of Quality, obtained a Conflict of Interest (COI) waiver, and the
approval of the Ethics and Compliance organization within AAC’s Human Resources
Department. Upon approval of the study with AAC’s leadership, I identified applicable
candidates in the eight Quality business units. I invited participants via email. The email
contained the nature and scope of the interview, the assurance of confidentiality, and the context
of what data I am seeking to uncover. Upon accepting the invitation, I scheduled the session at a
mutually agreed time. Interviews were conducted outside business hours. Before the interview, I
provided the interviewee with documentation related to the purpose of the study and the
Information Sheet for Exempt Studies. The packet was intended to assure the participant of their
rights and privacy. Due to Covid-19 restrictions and protocol requirements, the individual
interviews were conducted and recorded via a video platform. The captured interview were
stored in a secure drive with password protection. The individual interviews were up to one hour
53

each. I took field notes, the video will be transcribed for coding purposes, and all identifiers
related to the participant will be removed. The six to 12 participant interviews were conducted
over three weeks following the study’s University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board approval. All video data will be destroyed upon completion of the study.
Data Analysis
Upon completing the interviews, I analyzed the transcripts to remove any identifying
information. The transcript and the field notes provide adequate data sources for analysis
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I used a priori coding based upon the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences in the NVivo12 coding software system. Additionally,
the open coding schema identified themes in the respondents’ feedback related to knowledge,
motivation, and organizational settings and models when managing through a crisis. The coded
data was analyzed and aligned to answer the established research questions (Gibbs, 2018). The
synthesis of the codebook provided the necessary analysis to offer recommendations.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined credibility as validity. Ensuring qualitative research
has validity and reliability is heavily dependent on investigating in an ethical manner. Merriam
and Tisdell assert that the researcher must be explicit in understanding their role and relationship
to the study and the stakeholders. I provided a copy of the transcript to the stakeholder, ensuring
accuracy. Additionally, the researcher needs to be overt in how the study is conducted and why
the problem of practice is essential to explore. As outlined, the research should be on a worthy
topic, conducted with rigor and sincerity, and resonate with various audiences (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
54

Method 2: Document Analysis
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that using documents or artifacts in qualitative
research is fundamentally identical to conducting interviews or fieldwork observations. Finding
relevant material for analysis is a systematic process and evolves based on discovery. I kept an
open mind when discovering relevant documents and artifacts. Determining the authenticity of
the documents is part of the research process. In determining the relevance of documentation, the
researcher must also identify if the data is primary or secondary sources. Primary sources
recounted by the originator, such as interviews, are valuable data inputs. Secondary sources
needed an extra level of scrutiny.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation of data collection is limited to available resources. Approved AAC
internal documents and any voluntary stakeholder documentation were examined. Additionally,
any relevant third-party documents that become available throughout the process was explored.
The purpose of exploring relevant documentation is to uncover what organizational settings and
models relate to crisis management and employee engagement. The document protocol in
Appendix B provides the document analysis questions and their alignment to the research
questions.
Data Collection Process
Access to documentation will come from multiple sources in the AAC organization. First,
a request was made to senior leadership in the company’s Document and Administration group.
The Document and Administration group is housed under the Regulatory, Quality, Security
Organization (RQSO). The RQSO is the governing body of processes and pros which dictate
regulatory conduct, including during a crisis. Additionally, a request was made to the Senior
55

Director of Human Resources for access to current Employee Engagement data. Historic
Employee Engagement data is available on the AAC’s intranet website. Finally, the researcher
requested the Global Equity Diversity and Inclusion (GEDI) organization for the current release
of EEO-1 data on demographics. During the interview process, the participants were asked to
provide any personal documents related to managing a crisis and maintaining employee
engagement for data analysis. Documentation includes, but is not limited to, team directives,
process flow documentation, or personal leadership strategies and approaches. Stakeholders are
under no obligation to share any documentation.
Data Analysis
Coding is how one defines what the data being analyzed is about (Gibbs, 2018). All
electronic documents obtained were loaded into the In-Vivo software in the same manner as the
interview transcripts. Electronic copies were open coded in the same a priori method as outlined
in the participant data analysis section. Where possible, coding was aligned with the codes
established in the qualitative interview analysis. The interview participants were selected from
seven distinct Quality functions: four airplane manufacturing programs and three support
functions, including supplier quality, fabrication, and regulatory affairs. The diverse program
and function interview analysis along with the document data analysis helped triangulate the data
and identify themes. Triangulation is necessary to build validity to defend potential
recommendations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The document analysis did not adequately
answer the established research questions of the study. Ultimately, document and artifact
analysis did not guide recommendations related to maintaining employee engagement during a
crisis due to lack of data collected.

56

Ethics and Role of Researcher
When conducting research, ethics and the role of the researcher are critical to producing a
valid analysis and informed recommendations. The researcher’s ethical compass and value
systems are crucial to protecting participants’ anonymity (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Participation in a study should be voluntary, have informed consent, and include privacy
assurances. Participants should be guaranteed that they will be treated professionally and with
respect and confidentiality (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that the researcher must build trust in an
environment free of distraction, judgment, or retaliation. The researcher must have a process for
classifying any biases so as not to negatively impact the outcome. The researcher is required to
remain neutral throughout the entire process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Before each interview, I
assessed any biases that may impact the interview. I did not compel any answers to the interview
questions and did not lead the participants to conclusions. Merriam and Tisdell are clear that
transparency related to data collection is vital. A transcript was provided to each participant to
validate its accuracy before coding.
The participants were provided the Information Sheet for Exempt Research, which details
the purpose of the study and the guidelines for confidentiality. The study had the approval of the
University of Southern California Internal Review Board (IRB), which provided added
protection for the participants. The researcher sought out AAC’s Human Resources department
to ensure that all the participants are employees in good standing and ensure their study
eligibility. Finally, the interview protocol was presented to AAC’s Ethics organization for
approval to ensure all the necessary protections are in place.
57

Good researchers are continually aware of their positionality, their bias, conscious of
their ethical center and remain as neutral as possible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In the case of
this study, I may have been perceived to be in a leadership position. I am close to senior
leadership, which requires an extra level of sensitivity when conducting the interviews. I needed
to go to great lengths to assure the participants are in a safe environment and can trust that they
can speak freely without any fear of retribution. I asked the participants if they are in a secure
location and feel comfortable in their surroundings before beginning the interview. I presented
IRB, Ethics, and HR documentation with a signed confidentiality clause to mitigate participant
hesitation.

58

Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative study collected data from eight interviews and available document and
artifact analysis. The findings for research questions 1 and 2 are found in chapter 4, and research
question 3 is found in chapter 5, recommendations. A finding was an asset if the interview data
from five or more participants, 62.5% of the sample, demonstrated the understanding or mastery
of particular knowledge or motivational influence. If the interview data revealed fewer than five
participants who demonstrated, at a minimum, an understanding of a defined knowledge or
motivational influence, then it was identified as a gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). The limited sample
size requires that the threshold exceed 50% to be significant, requiring five participants to
demonstrate the influence of 62.5%. The research was conducted to understand the assets and
gaps of senior managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational models and settings to
maintain employee engagement during a crisis at the Airdan Aerospace Corporation. Included in
the research was an analysis of any stakeholder provided documentation supporting the
influences. In the context of the document analysis, the participants provided little objective
documentation. What was provided will be included below when relevant to the findings.
As described in chapter 2, Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework was used to
explore the assumed influences. The gap analysis framework provided the context of
understanding the capacity of AAC’s senior manager’s knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to maintaining employee engagement during a crisis. The data
was collected virtually using the Zoom platform, on camera, and recorded. The 18-question
interview consistently averaged 52 minutes. All transcriptions were provided by third-party
software, scrubbed of any identifying information, and validated for accuracy with the
participant.
59

Participant Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were AAC senior managers. The stakeholder pool of
qualified participants within AAC’s commercial Quality organization was 464 individuals who
met the selection criteria. The sample was comprised of mid-level senior managers and junior
director-level superintendents. None of the participants are in executive positions. As outlined in
chapter 3, a purposeful sample from each of the six programs and two functions within AAC
were identified. Twenty senior managers were invited to participate in the study. A total of eight
senior managers elected to participate and represented each of the respective business units (BU).
The demographic of the sample resulted in six males, 75%, and two females, 25%. Five
participants, 62.5%, identified as White, and three participants, 37.5%, identified as non-White.
Tenure for the participants ranged from 12-31 years with the company. The demographics of the
participant group are roughly consistent with the demographics of the larger Quality
organization. The sample is slightly higher on non-White participation percentages compared to
the larger population. Table 8 provides a breakdown of the participants.

60

Table 8
Participant Profile
Pseudonym Female/Male Non-White
P1 F Y
P2 M Y
P3 M N
P4 M N
P5 M N
P6 F N
P7 M Y
P8 M N

Document and Artifact Findings
When made available by the participants, documents and artifacts were collected as a
secondary data analysis method. Two participants provided documented, tiered meeting
structures for communicating with employees through the value stream. In both cases, the
document analysis will be aligned with the findings and influences related to the research
questions. Additionally, one participant provided documents related to a former employee
engagement plan. This plan was referenced to identify senior managers’ ability to conceptualize
and implement structures when engaging employees during a crisis. Finally, formal Covid-19
guidance from the organization was reviewed. The Covid-19 organizational guidance was
discussed with each participant during the interview. Only three participants, 37.5%, provided
documentation, which does not meet the established threshold.

61

Research Question 1: What Knowledge, Skills, and Motivation Influences Are Needed for
Senior Managers to Maintain Employee Engagement During a Crisis?
The knowledge, skills, and motivation, influences identified in the findings demonstrate
either an asset or a gap where recommendations are offered for consideration. To be coded as an
asset, the participants needed to demonstrate competency or mastery of the influence at 62.5% of
the sample. Any influence that did not meet the 62.5% threshold is identified as a gap.
Recommendations for identified gaps are provided in chapter 5 for consideration. The findings
for the assumed knowledge influences, followed by the assumed motivational influences, are
presented below.
Knowledge Influences’ Findings
Assumed knowledge influences were explored to identify strengths and potential gaps for
AAC’s senior managers in maintaining employee engagement during times of crisis. The study
evaluated the stakeholders’ conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge competencies
based on assumed knowledge influences presented in chapter 2. Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework provided the structure for analyzing knowledge influences. The framework
seeks to answer the degree with which there are assets or gaps in the following influences:
understanding the concepts necessary to maintain employee engagement during a crisis,
understanding the principles of effective communication before developing a crisis management
engagement plan, knowing how to communicate in a crisis to maintain engagement, and
understand their strengths in maintaining employee engagement during a crisis.

62

AAC Senior Managers Understand the Concepts Necessary to Lead Through a Crisis While
Maintaining Employee Engagement
The data evaluation identified that AAC’s senior managers understand the concepts of
maintaining employee engagement during a crisis. Understanding the concepts linking leadership
engagement with employee engagement, particularly during a crisis, was critical in crisis
mitigation and employee satisfaction. The study uncovered the level of knowledge among
stakeholders to understand the nature of crisis management. Additionally, the study uncovered
stakeholders understanding of the importance of employee engagement during times of high
stress or crisis. The questions were designed to help the participants articulate their level of
knowledge, comfort, and competency in driving a crisis engagement plan focusing on employee
engagement.
Interview Findings. The first theme that emerged from the study confirmed that senior
managers understand the concepts of leading through a crisis and the importance of maintaining
employee engagement when crisis strikes. The concept of having a leadership framework to
work within was discussed. Participants were asked what key concepts are necessary to
understand while leading through a crisis. In all eight interviews, 100% of the participants cited
numerous examples of leadership concepts and how those concepts are applied with their teams
to maintain engagement during a crisis. P1 mentioned that ‘‘Teams can freeze when hit with a
crisis. Leaders need to know how to keep their people focused on what is in front of them and
not get pulled into the chaos. Leaders need to stay focused.’’ The primary stand-out finding was
participants’ understanding of the need to establish and work within a leadership framework.
63

Having a framework that clearly defines leadership principles, mainly when dealing with
a difficult situation or people is critical. Participant P6 referenced this framework in their
interview:
I have been a leadership coach for a long time. I took a leader teaching leaders class years
ago; I think it was Achieve Global. I still have the card. The six basic principles of
leadership; they are, focus on the situation, issue, or behavior and not the person.
Maintain the self-confidence and self-esteem of others. Maintain constructive
relationships. Take initiative to make things better. Lead by example. Think beyond the
moment. I use this to this day. I have to remind myself about basic principle number two
all the time.
They went on to talk about how, for them, it is always about his people. They expanded on the
work-life balance and how often leaders ignore a fundamental element of leadership.
Participant 3 mirrored those comments ‘‘The concepts of leadership are all tied to my
people. Do they have the tools they need? Do they have balance?’’ This theme was echoed by
four other participants who shared their leadership principles. P4 stated, ‘‘I have always known
that keeping my people focused when we are under pressure is critical.’’ Whereas P8 stated, ‘‘It
is really important that a leader knows how transparent to be with their employees. It is a balance
of information.’’ Participant 2 said, ‘‘When we are in crisis, keeping my people informed only
with what they can control is the balancing act we walk as senior leaders.’’ Finally, P1 asserted,
‘‘It is different with each team you lead. Knowing them as individuals is key to knowing what
they need to work through a challenge.’’ All eight were equally articulate related to transparency,
maintaining relationships, and modeling the desired leadership attributes.
64

The second theme that emerged was identifying a leader’s role in maintaining employee
engagement during high-stress events. Five participants commented on understanding the
concept of removing barriers for employees, allowing them to remain or to re-engage during
highly stressful times. Removing barriers for employees is a necessary function of leading
through a crisis. Related to their role in removing obstacles, P3 said, ‘‘What I saw with the team
was, having that enabling function of just making it so that they could do their jobs. It’s really
knocking down walls. Giving them the grace that they needed.’’ They expanded on this by
adding that knowing what each team member needed was necessary and understanding that
people carry crisis with them. Seven of the participants, 87.5%, elaborated that the recent Covid-
19 restrictions impacted how their followers work, how they parent, and how they show up. P4
said, ‘‘That is one thing we (as leaders) really need to understand. People are still scared.” All
eight participants, 100%, shared that it is the role of the senior manager to understand the crisis
and how it impacts the individual at work, at home, and personally. Five participants, 62.5%,
mentioned it is about their role in navigating and providing the path for their people to follow. P2
said, ‘‘It is about navigating true north.’’ This concept was shared by many.
The third theme uncovered a gap in the organizational supports available within AAC.
Although seven of the eight participants pointed to specific employee engagement training and
events, such as company reach-out programs used by all senior managers, none pointed to
specific crisis management training. In each instance, understanding the concept of crisis
management response was based on prior experience. Crisis management training is an effective
tool for leaders when engaging their employees in stressful times. None of AAC’s senior
managers were provided any crisis intervention training provided by the company. Participant P5
summed it up best, ‘‘I think that a lot of leaders, including seniors, aren’t aware of all that’s
65

available to us…and it’s not like there’s an ongoing class that you can jump into…there isn’t a
set schedule.’’
Summary. Leaders need to clearly understand their resources when dealing with crisis
management, specifically related to engaged employees. It is clear from the data that senior
managers feel that they understand the concepts of crisis management and employee
engagement. In one form or another, each of the leaders demonstrated their degree of
competency knowing what available resources existed within AAC through Human Resources
and the Employee Assistance Programs (EAP). In contrast, the leaders were unclear if any
available crisis management or crisis intervention training was available. They remarked that
providing that training would be a valuable development opportunity for their personal growth.
P6 commented, ‘‘You survive in this world long enough; you gain experience and learning that
you can apply.’’ They went on to say that it would be nice not to have to rely on experience
alone to learn how to deal with a crisis. It was evident that understanding the concepts of
maintaining employee engagement is an asset for AAC’s senior managers. The findings
uncovered an organizational gap aligned to the assumed organizational setting presented in the
research question 2 section of this chapter, which will be addressed in Chapter 5.
AAC Senior Managers Understand the Principles of Effective Communication Before
Deploying a Crisis Management Engagement Plan
Leaders need to understand the role communication plays in responding to a crisis.
Communication is critical when deploying a crisis management plan where employees remain
engaged. The data evaluation showed the stakeholders’ understanding of communication flow,
timing, and method. AAC’s senior managers understand the importance of the principles of
66

effective communication during a crisis. The findings showed that understanding this conceptual
influence is identified as an asset.
Interview Findings. Eight participants, 100%, identified the importance of effectively
and regularly communicating with their teams, especially during a crisis event. The first theme in
this finding centers on the need for informal communication. All eight, 100%, commented on
their extensive informal communication structures, making this finding an asset. Related to
findings on formal structures for communication during a crisis, only four, 50%, discussed
having a formal communication plan in place, which identifies this finding as a gap. Formal and
informal communication strategies are necessary to effectively maintain employee engagement
during a crisis.
In each interview, the participants were clear on how communication impacts team
performance and engagement. P6 commented, ‘‘I talk about this every year. It’s typically a tough
score on an employee survey; it’s communication.’’ They explained that ineffective
communication reinforces employee disengagement, specifically during difficult times. P6 said,
quoting an employee, ‘‘Well, we don’t know what’s going on.’’ They continued saying that it is
a direct cause of annual low employee engagement scores. The concept of connecting employee
engagement scores with effective leadership communication was discussed with five
participants, 62.5%, making the knowledge of this concept an asset. All five mentioned the
importance of this concept when crisis strikes.
Additionally, the findings showed that how communication occurred was crucial. The
method of communication matters to how employees perceive their value. As P7 said, ‘‘We want
more communication, and what do we do? Oh, I’ll send you more emails, I’ll build more power
67

points, and there you go.’’ P7 continued to describe that how the message is delivered is as
important as what the message is. As P2 stated,
It’s very cliché; you cannot emphasize enough how important it is for you to
communicate the actual state of the company to the people. It’s equivalent to a health
diagnosis. Sometimes waiting for that diagnosis is so much more difficult than actually
what it actually is.
All the participants went on to say that it is about the personal connection, timing, and knowing
the difference between a message in a group setting versus one on one. Each participant
articulated the layers and timing of how effective leadership communication looks.
Another finding was the role of the senior manager versus the company in how
communication is disseminated. Corporate communications address public image, while
leadership communications directly impact employee performance in a crisis. Six participants,
75%, differentiated what employees need to hear from an official company communication and
what they need to hear from their leader. Two participants, 25%, confined their comments to
their own personal, informal communication approaches and style. The majority of participants
shared how they understand official communications as an asset to get the conversation started.
P4 commented,
I think that it requires a couple of different levels of communication. My experience is
that employees really like to see their leaders out front in a public setting where you can
have the whole team there, listening to the same message and asking questions.
P3 stated that ‘‘We purposefully went looking for gaps in communication. I was surprised;
sometimes, we did have a few disconnects.’’ He went on to say that it was the personal
68

interaction by the leader that identified gaps. The gaps would have been missed had he relied
solely on the corporate announcement.
Summary. Three key elements related to the role of a business leader and
communication during times of crisis are necessary. The participants articulated all three
elements; formal communication, informal communication, and clear communication related to
expectations. The data showed that most of the participants understood the concepts of all three
communication elements. P8 stated it clearly when he identified his role when responding to a
crisis, ‘‘Making sure that I’m honest and open with them… maintaining those lines of
communication, enabling opportunity for questions from the team making yourself available.’’
They said that having a daily tag-up is necessary to ensure employees get what they need. In the
final analysis, the findings show that AAC’s senior managers understand the concepts necessary
to communicate to maintain employee engagement in a crisis effectively. The next question is if
they have the procedural knowledge to implement the concepts. Table 9 reflects which
participants understood the need for formal and informal communication.

69

Table 9
Conceptual Understanding of Communication Plans
Pseudonym Formal evidence Informal evidence Expectations
P1 X X X
P2 X X X
P3 X
P4 X X
P5 X X
P6 X X X
P7 X X
P8 X X X

Note. Communication foundation of formal, informal, and expectation setting (Mehra, 2011).
70

AAC Senior Managers Do Not Know How to Formally Communicate While in a Crisis to
Maintain Employee Engagement
Leaders need a documented process to guide crisis response and communication. It is
necessary to understand the importance of formal communication and understanding
expectations during times of crisis. AAC’s senior managers demonstrated varying degrees of
competency with this influence during the interviews. Although some articulated mastery of the
procedural influence, the evidence did not show that they were aware of any tools or training
available to them on how to communicate effectively to maintain engagement during a crisis.
Not demonstrating how to create or deploy a formal communication plan is a gap.
Interview Findings. Knowing how to build and deploy a formal communication plan is
essential when managing crises while engaging employees. All participants understood the need
for informal communications within their organizations. P1 shared that ‘‘I’ve got one-on-one
meetings with my team members as needed, but with my teams, I have a meeting monthly.’’
Whereas P6 said, ‘‘When I do cross talks, you’ll hear ‘well I don’t know what’s going on.’
Sometimes that perception, not reality.’’ Five participants, 62.5%, did not have or did not see the
need for formalizing or documenting their communication plans, which makes this influence a
gap. P5 said, ‘‘No, we are really informal in this team. If they have questions, they will ask.’’ P8
acknowledged that they had been on teams that structured communication, but in the current
environment with Covid-19, it was more important to be less formal. They said, ‘‘Things keep
changing, and people just need to know what they need to know, when they need to know it,
that’s my job.’’ This gap will be explored in Chapter 5.
Three participants, 37.5%, identified a formal operational communication cadence for
information flow-down with their employees. P2 shared a formal communication plan. They
71

said, ‘‘I have set up daily meetings with the team, mainly task-specific…daily meetings just to
make sure that they get the support that they need. Also, in the weekly team meeting, we
formally do flow-down from my senior leader meetings.’’ P2 shared that this forum was critical
to their team during the latest Covid-19 restrictions. They mentioned, ‘‘In uncertainty, there is
fear. Having the meetings on everyone’s calendar grounds the team in how they run their week.’’
The stability of the operational cadence grounded his team in a time of high stress when dealing
with suppliers. After each interview, documentation was requested on any formal
communication plans the participants had developed. One participant provided artifacts for
review. P1 shared that she follows a linear communication plan, from one-on-ones to full team
meetings, to participation in all employee meetings as a team, complete with a debrief and Q&A.
Document Analysis. Participant P1 provided PowerPoint slides outlining her
communication plan with a prior team she managed. They also shared their current master
calendar to include one-on-ones, weekly staff meetings, and executive-level engagement. Over
the prior two years, those meetings were conducted virtually due to the restrictions placed on the
organization due to Covid-19 protocols. They stated, ‘‘Maintaining a disciplined meeting
cadence was never more important to keep the team together and focused. Especially because
everyone was alone, working from home.’’ As the protocols relaxed, one-on-ones returned to in-
person, six feet apart, while larger meetings utilized WebEx. Their documentation included the
formal communication structure and open-door time where employees can share a cup of coffee
or tea and a little something to eat. They use this informal communication structure much like a
professor would use office hours. They provided donuts, coffee, and tea with an open door
weekly.
72

Summary. Leaders need a structured processes to maintain productivity and achieve a
goal. Those structures include a well-documented communication plan from leadership. Senior
managers need to know that communication is essential and know how to operationalize the
process, particularly during high-stress situations. The process is relied upon to maintain
engagement. AAC’s senior managers did not sufficiently demonstrate the ability to
operationalize their procedural knowledge. AAC’s senior managers may have confidence in their
abilities to lead in a crisis, but they lack the necessary tools to put the procedures into practice.
This procedural influence is a gap to be addressed in the recommendations from the findings in
chapter 5. Table 10 identifies the degree to which formal, documented plans exist.

Table 10
Documented Formal and Informal Communication Plans
Pseudonym Formal documents Informal plans
P1 X X
P2 X X
P3 X
P4 X
P5 X
P6 X X
P7 X
P8 X

73

AAC Senior Managers Evaluate Their Strengths and Areas of Opportunity in Developing a
Crisis Engagement Plan
Exploring the metacognitive components required for successfully leading a team during
a crisis is crucial. Understanding the issue’s breadth, depth, and magnitude is critical for a senior
manager to maintain employee engagement. Understanding a leader’s strengths and
opportunities gives the leader a clearer picture of how to respond to a crisis. AAC’s senior
managers demonstrated an ability to assess their strengths and areas of opportunity in the
interview.
Interview Findings. A leader’s self-awareness of their strength and areas of opportunity
provides them perspective on responding in a crisis. The study uncovered AAC’s senior
managers’ ability to evaluate strengths and areas of opportunity in developing a crisis
management plan. In evaluating this assumed metacognitive knowledge influence, the findings
determined this influence to be an asset. Seven participants, 87.5%, indicated that they reflected
on prior crisis experiences to identify strengths they bring to a crisis. More importantly, all eight
participants, 100%, mentioned areas that they continue to work on when developing their
leadership skills.
Prior experience was a theme in six, 75%, of the interviews. P6 frankly said, ‘‘Well, I’ve
got a lot of experience because I’ve exercised bad judgment, gotten the experience, and learned
from that. That is the wisdom that I would not have had in my first five years.’’ Additionally,
five participants, 62.5%, identified that storytelling helped connect with their employees and was
a strength on how their people responded to their approach. P4 shared a story as a young
manager:
74

I was angry. I was young. I had an employee who was underperforming. We were under
tremendous pressure and had slid our deadline several times. She had missed each one
and didn’t seem engaged in doing good work. I went to the floor to address the problem,
and in my anger, I dressed her down and gave her corrective action. When she started
crying, I realized that all her coworkers were standing there, watching. I grew up that day
as a leader. I was a bad example.
They went on to share how their poor choice of dealing with a high-stress situation impacted the
rest of their team. They mentioned that it took a long time to rebuild his team’s trust in them.
Comportment and control are essential characteristics for leaders when addressing crisis
management with their employees. Knowing to demonstrate calmness was a recurring theme in
the interviews. Most leaders articulated it is an essential trait to navigate highly stressful or
difficult times. P3 began with,
I’m very casual. A lot of people interpret that as calm. I’ve learned to respect people’s
opinions and listen. I’m getting better at listening. I think that being someone who’s
casual and not overly formal makes me approachable, and that is necessary in a crisis.
The act of self-regulation related to exhibiting calmness was evident in P1’s comments. They
said,
I would approach it in a way where we really understand the situation, understanding and
putting calmness in a way where we can look at everything objectively without any
emotions. I know we’ve got to take out the emotions of what’s going on and really
understand what we’re there to solve for.
The participants understood the composure required if employee engagement is leveraged during
a crisis.
75

In addition to self-regulation, the theme of authenticity during a crisis was commonly
discussed. P2 said,
I try to be as open as possible, share as much information as possible. So, I feel like it’s
my strength, and I’m hoping that the team will consider that as me being authentic and
really not trying to hide anything or have any ulterior motives or agenda.
They mentioned how challenging that could be when information is not appropriate to share with
an employee. P8 took a broader view in saying, ‘‘Be honest and transparent, be authentic, which
I think is challenging for a lot of leaders. I feel like we don’t do that collectively as good as we
probably should.’’ The overall tone from AAC’s senior managers represented a sense of
humility. The participants did not shy away from the question and, in many cases, underplayed
their strengths to focus on their areas of opportunity.
Summary. Senior managers need to be overtly self-aware of who they are and how they
respond, including regulating their comportment. AAC’s senior managers were specific in their
answers related to their strengths and areas of opportunity. It is notable how the use of reflection
reveals how each leader is motivated. This level of metacognitive knowledge is a vital asset.
Table 11 describes demonstrated self-awareness.

76

Table 11
Identified Strengths and Areas of Opportunity
Pseudonym Experience
impacts
future
action
Required calmness

Identified
opportunities
P1 X X X
P2 X X X
P3 X X X
P4 X X
P5 X X
P6 X X X
P7 X X
P8 X X X

Note. The table identifies which leaders shared information related to the influences.

Motivational Influences’ Findings
Assumed motivational influences were explored to identify assets and potential gaps for
AAC’s senior managers in maintaining employee engagement during crises. The assumed
influences were explored through a qualitative interview process. Clark and Estes (2008)
conceptual framework grounded the study of motivational influences. Document analysis was
not used to assess the motivational influences.

77

AAC Senior Managers Have Confidence in Their Abilities to Engage Employees During a
Crisis
Self-efficacy was a strong predictor of behavior on challenging tasks. Self-efficacy, at its
core, is believing in oneself to accomplish a task-specific outcome. When a crisis strikes, a
leader’s self-efficacy is central to maintaining engagement with their team. Participants were
asked about their self-efficacy related to engaging employees during a crisis. Leaders need to
feel in command and model that behavior for their employees. Leader’s belief and confidence in
handling a crisis directly impacted a successful outcome. The leader needs the confidence to set
the tone. Also, senior managers need to have confidence in their autonomy to make decisions
and communicate their directives effectively to maintain employee engagement during
extraordinary stressful circumstances.
In evaluating this assumed motivation knowledge influence, the findings determined this
influence to be an asset. Seven participants, 87.5%, indicated that they were confident in their
abilities in engaging employees during a crisis. P6 said,
As a life coach, you need to know what is going on. You need to remember your lessons
you have learned from before, remain calm and directly address the situation. You need
to be observant, read body language, and be prepared to answer and ask questions.
They went on to say that over his 36 years at the company and has faced many crises:
It doesn’t actually get easier to deal with trauma or crisis. You still have the same
instincts, but your experience becomes your coping mechanism so that you can be for
your people who they may not be prepared to be themselves. You must engage, or you
are in the wrong role.
78

The participants demonstrated confidence in their responsibilities to their employees during
crisis events.
Six participants, 75%, said that it was their responsibility to the employee, the team, and
the organization to maintain engagement during difficult times. This sentiment appeared central
to their leadership attributes. P1 firmly said,
It is the price of admission into management and turns you into a leader. As you deal with
more, it gets easier because you have more tools, and you are less gun shy in facing what
is in front of the team. I am confident in what the team needs when we are facing a tough
situation.
She shared an early leadership story where, as a young female minority, she was hesitant to
speak up or speak out. Her story showed her confidence journey in dealing with crises and
keeping her teams engaged. P1 added, ‘‘They always must be part of the solution to the problem
we are trying to solve.’’ The participants demonstrated a sense of responsibility and resiliency to
their employees even when faced with hardship.
Four participants, 50%, stated that maintaining employee engagement was frequently the
most challenging part of the job; this data point aligned with senior managers’ tenure. Each of
the four participants who expressed this sentiment was in the lower third in years of service.
While the senior employees expressed their experience as a shield and a sword in addressing the
crisis, these four shared stories of the crises caused. They each detailed the adverse effects on the
team and how they were still working on having difficult discussions confidently. P7, who had
14 years with the company, recounted the first crisis he had to manage as a leader. They said,
In 2012, we had just had an issue with the plane. A component was a fire risk and
affected the entire fleet, resulting in the plane’s grounding. Every customer was
79

impacted. It became a fire drill, a finger-pointing activity. A senior leader threw a chair
across the room at me in front of my team. It was brutal.
They explained that he was not prepared to have productive conversations with his team. They
had to ask for significant overtime of the team and weekend work. Although he did engage, it
left them with battle scares that he still shares. They finished by saying, ‘‘I am not that same
leader as I was ten years ago.’’
They discussed how this event informed how he views leadership today. They said that
the confidence that the situation taught them means they are not the same leader they were, and
they are stronger because of it. P7 stated, ‘‘I do not shy away from difficult situations anymore.
It is part of the daily work. Time brings confidence and a sense of resilience that I didn’t have
first starting out.’’ AAC’s senior managers demonstrated their confidence growth journey in
sharing their stories. They are confident in their abilities to lead during challenging situations.
They also understand the critical role employee engagement plays in working through hardships
as a team.
AAC Senior Managers Have Confidence in Their Abilities to Make Critical Decisions
Engaging Employees During a Crisis
Participants were asked questions to assess their self-efficacy in their ability to make a
critical decision during a crisis and maintain employee engagement in the process. All eight
participants, 100%, indicated that they felt confident in their ability to make critical decisions. As
this exceeds the 62.5% threshold, this influence is identified as an asset. AAC’s senior managers
felt that this was when they were most engaged as leaders. P5 shared, ‘‘When we are facing a
deadline, or the production line has been negatively impacted, and it is all hands on deck, that is
when I am most dialed in. Being able to think through the situation quickly, engage my team to
80

identify options, and then make the call.’’ He shared that often the decision isn’t popular, but it is
the right decision.
Participant P1 recounted a time when there was a suppler issue with damaged wing sets.
‘‘I had to make the call. Do I hold the set, or do I pass significant rework to the factory?’’ They
continued and shared how they went to their team to prepare them for the consequences of their
decision. Both choices would disrupt the production system, and both choices would put
tremendous pressure on the team. They held the delivery and said, ‘‘I hope I taught my team that
in times of high stress, with safety and quality at risk, you need to do what is right, not what is
easy.’’ Participant P1 was confident in fulfilling the role their employees needed them to play
and what actions were required as a leader.
Finally, P6 made a salient point about engaging one’s team in the process, but the
decision rests with the leader. They said,’’
I have long coached other leaders to turn to their teams for input. Put on the listening-
only hat. Listen to everyone, pull it out of each member. Evaluate the options in the
following order: What is best for the company? What is best for the team? And finally,
what is best for the individual? But once you make the call, the call is yours alone. You
shelter the team.
AAC’s senior managers demonstrated more than self-efficacy in answering these questions; they
demonstrated a sense of pride in their confidence in making critical decisions.
Research Question 2: What Are the Organizational Settings and Models Available to
Senior Managers to Maintain Employee Engagement During a Crisis?
The organizational influences identified in the findings demonstrate either an asset or a
gap where recommendations are offered for consideration. To be coded as an asset, 62.5% of the
81

participants needed to demonstrate the presence of the organizational influences available to
them to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. Any influence that did not meet the
62.5% threshold is identified as a gap where recommendations for consideration are provided in
chapter 5. The findings for assumed organizational settings and models are presented below. The
participants provided no additional documents for analysis related to the organizational
influences, so only interview data are presented.
Organizational Influences’ Findings
Two assumed organizational influences were explored to identify strengths and potential
gaps for AAC’s senior managers in maintaining employee engagement during times of crisis.
The first influence explored is if AAC provides senior managers the necessary resources and
tools to maintain engagement during a crisis. The second influence explored is if AAC provides
a culture of empowerment, allowing senior managers to engage their employees without fear of
retribution. Both organizational influences define senior managers’ level of successfully
engaging their employees with the necessary resources and authority to succeed.
AAC Does Not Provide the Necessary Resources and Tools to Maintain Employee
Engagement During a Crisis
The data evaluation identified that AAC’s senior managers do not perceive that they are
provided the necessary resources and tools to engage their employees during a crisis from the
company effectively. From training to leadership development programs, organizational support
is critical in leaders engaging their employees and successfully navigating crises. The study
uncovered the degree to which AAC’s senior managers were aware of the training, leadership
development, and additional resources at their disposal in helping navigate a crisis while
engaging their employees.
82

Interview Findings. In evaluating this assumed organizational influence, the findings
determined this influence to be a gap. Participants were asked what crisis management resources
or training were available to them. Zero of the eight participants cited any available crisis
management training provided by AAC to address past and current crises or training on how to
engage their teams. Participant P5 said, ‘‘No, that comes from life. We have all had to deal with
crisis in our own way. You learn by the crisis you face in the moment.’’ Participant P1
mentioned, ‘‘There is no crisis training that I am aware of or have been told about, and I have
been here 29 years and seen a lot of tough things go down. We are just in the moment,
firefighting our way through the drama.’’ Participant P7 cynically guffawed, ‘‘Ha! Wouldn’t that
be nice to get ahead of an issue and have some crisis management resources to lean on?’’
In all eight interviews, 100% of the participants cited in detail the company’s Employee
Assistance Program (EAP). In total, EAP was cited 21 times in the interviews. In four of the
responses, 50%, of the senior managers discussed the role of their Human Resources Generalist
(HRG) when engaging with their teams in a crisis. In each of these examples, the senior manager
detailed how they incorporated their HRG into their teams, providing specific EAP resources to
ensure their employees remained engaged when facing hardship. Participant P6 stated, ‘‘EAP,
which is a service integrator, for lack of a better term…and is a channel that I have used
regularly.’’ Participant P1 stated, ‘‘Our HR support, I feel like we have the support we need.’’ P2
related the leverage of his HRG in terms of the Covid-19 pandemic. They said, ‘‘The last
pandemic was before most of our lifetimes…identifying how do we respond to that…AAC was
hit with a double whammy.’’ They went on to say that leaning on Human Resources is critical
when addressing a crisis and being able to provide his people the necessary support to stay
83

engaged was critical. Understanding your role as a leader and utilizing existing organizational
resources is necessary for managing a crisis.
Six of the leaders, 75%, identified the Injury and Incident Free (IIF) initiative AAC
embarked on in 2010 as a successful model to benchmark and institutionalize crisis management
and employee engagement. P4 said, ‘‘Look at IIF and what we did there, and it is still going
strong. Our injury numbers have flatlined, near misses are up, but it is still a miss, not an injury.
People changed.’’ They went on to say that it started with the executive tier of the company
making a public commitment. Each C-suite signed a commitment letter and poster live on video
to attest their dedication to an injury and incident-free workplace. They dedicated resources and
budget to the initiative and hired a third-party vendor. The vendor’s contract included extensive
two-day training driven by powerful stories. The plan had re-commitment built into the process,
was measured with data, and had internal marketing support to drive messaging. Most senior
managers remarked that the initiative is alive today because of every employee’s personal
commitment. AAC is replete with crises. As the P1 noted, ‘‘It isn’t about if the next crisis
strikes, it is simply when it strikes.’’ This approach models the communication and resource
allocation required to foster effective change.
Summary. The importance of organizations, particularly in high-risk industries,
formalizing a crisis and safety plan that includes training and certifications and regular re-
engagement of senior leaders to ensure preparedness when crisis strikes is essential. Participant
P2 mirrored this sentiment when he said, ‘‘Even with the latest event with gaps in the fuselage,
that is just the latest crippling issue. What did we do ahead of time to prepare for that? What are
we doing right now to prepare for the next drama coming our way? Nada.’’ Preparation and
crisis management planning are a cornerstone in any company’s disaster recovery plan,
84

particularly in the aerospace industry. Table 12 outlines participants’ responses to AAC
resources made available to them.

Table 12
Identified Organizational Resources Available to AAC Senior Managers
Pseudonym Crisis management
training*
EAP training HRG crisis resources
P1 X X
P2 X X
P3 X
P4 X X
P5 X
P6 X
P7 X
P8 X X

Note. None of the eight participants were able to identify crisis management training available
through AAC.
85

AAC Senior Managers Have an Environment that Empowers Employee Engagement Without
Fear of Retribution
Outlining the necessity for organizational structures to be in place with a clear chain of
command to lead effectively is key; this includes the autonomy to make decisions quickly
without fear of reprisal. AAC’s senior managers demonstrated a strong belief that the company
and its leadership empower them to make the necessary decisions in a timely manner. This
autonomy to take action without retaliation strengthens AAC’s senior managers’ ability to lead
through a crisis and maintain their employees’ engagement.
Interview Findings. In evaluating this assumed organizational influence, the findings
determined this influence to be an asset. Eight participants, 100%, indicated that they felt
empowered to lead their teams and execute decisions without any fear of retribution or
retaliation. Participant P6 said, ‘‘With 36 years with the company and at my level, that is what
they are paying me to do. I am the guy that makes the tough calls.’’ P1 asserted, ‘‘Sometimes we
need to take the call and at times, give cover to our first lines, so they don’t get blowback. That is
the role of a superintendent.’’
An additional finding was the conviction of six participants, 75%, who expressed their
sense of autonomy in their decision-making. These six were animated in their responses. They
not only committed that it was their responsibility as entrusted to them by the organization but
had a tremendous passion around their role and how it impacts their employees. P8 said, ‘‘Job
one is safety. We want our people going home to their families just like they came in the door.
That is on us. We are in charge and are accountable for their lives in some cases. You can’t
hedge when making decisions. Sometimes lives are at stake.’’ In keeping with safety, P1
mentioned the safety initiative the company embarked on several years earlier. She said,
86

The injury and incident-free workshops were a success. The whole company did it. As
leaders, we had the authority to socialize it through our teams. We really saw a decrease
in injury and near misses in Fab. That is how we should approach leading in a crisis.
Travis (2019) echoed both participants’ perspectives, who said that when leaders are not given
the authority and are fearful for their security, disasters strike. The participants in this study felt
they had the authority they needed.
Summary. Autonomy and accountability measures are linked. Both must be in place to
see effectiveness in decision-making. The findings show that AAC’s senior managers have
strong feelings that the organization provides them autonomy and authority to make decisions
without fear. In all cases, they perceive that decision-making is a duty. In six interviews, 75%,
the participants discussed the ability to make decisions related to the safety and well-being of
their people. AAC’s senior leaders are confident in the decisions they make every day as senior
leaders. P7 said, ‘‘It is why we climb the latter, to make a difference in our people’s lives, and
our decisions are our bond.’’ AAC’s senior managers feel that they have the authority and
autonomy to make decisions without the fear of reprisal.
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences’ Findings
Table 13 summarizes the finding from each of the influences. The table establishes the
asset or gap related to each Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational finding. AAC’s senior
managers have the capacity to leverage their assets in leading their teams during times of crisis
and maintain their employee’s engagement in the process. Identified gaps will form the basis for
recommendations in chapter 5.
87

Table 13
Breakdown of Influence Assets and Gaps
Influence Type Asset Gap
Senior managers need to understand the concepts
necessary to lead through a crisis while
maintaining employee engagement.
Knowledge
Conceptual 1
X
Senior managers need to understand principles of
effective communication before deploying a
crisis engagement plan.
Knowledge
Conceptual 2
X
Senior managers need to know how to effectively
communicate while in crisis to maintain
employee engagement.
Knowledge
Procedural
X
Senior managers need to evaluate their strengths
and areas of opportunity in developing a crisis
engagement plan.
Knowledge
Metacognitive
X
Senior managers need confidence in their
abilities to engage employees during a crisis.
Motivation
Self-Efficacy
X
Senior managers need confidence in their abilities
to make critical decisions when engaging
employees during a crisis.
Motivation
Self-Efficacy
X
The organization needs to provide the necessary
resources and tools to support senior
managers to maintain employee engagement
during crisis.
Organizational
Settings
X
The organization needs to value a culture of
empowerment to allow senior managers to
engage employees in a crisis without fear of
retribution.
Organizational
Models
X

88

Chapter Five: Recommendations
The purpose of this project was to explore the capacity of senior managers to maintain
employee engagement in the face of crises. It leverages the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework to identify gaps in Airdan Aerospace Corporation (AAC) senior managers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational settings and models to maintain employee
engagement during a crisis. The guiding questions for the study were:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivation are needed for senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
2. What are the organizational settings and models available to senior managers to maintain
employee engagement during a crisis?
3. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
This chapter will focus on research question three by discussing findings from the research and
recommendations for consideration to mitigate the identified gaps in the knowledge and
organizational influences. No gaps were identified in the motivation influences in this study.
Discussion of Findings
This qualitative study produced data from structured interviews. The interview protocol
can be found in Appendix A. Additionally, a limited amount of document and artifact analysis
was conducted. The documents provided by the participants were not sufficient to be relevant,
but the data collected were discussed in chapter 4 where applicable. The interviews comprised
eight senior managers within AAC’s Quality organization, including all four Programs, three
Functions, and OpEx. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences derived
from the literature review were explored to identify the degree to which AAC’s senior managers
89

can maintain employee engagement during times of crisis (Clark & Estes, 2008). The threshold
to identify an influence as an asset was 62.5%. Any finding below that threshold was identified
as a gap. Although leveraging assets helps offset gaps, the following recommendations focus on
gap closure. The study identified two gaps to address. The first gap was that senior managers
lack adequate crisis management training to lead through a crisis while maintaining employee
engagement effectively. The second gap was that senior managers did not consistently
understand how to communicate when dealing with a crisis effectively.
Discussion of Knowledge and Motivational Findings: Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked what knowledge, skills, and motivation are needed for senior
managers to maintain employee engagement during a crisis? This question aims to uncover the
level of competency AAC’s senior managers have related to the concepts of leadership,
communication, crisis management, and maintaining employee engagement. Table 13, in chapter
4, breaks down each of the competencies as an asset or a gap. Of the eight identified influences,
one gap was uncovered.
The gap is a procedural knowledge gap centered on communication. AAC’s senior
managers possess the necessary conceptual knowledge related to communication in that they
understand the need for communication flow and how critical communication is during a time of
crisis. There was a strong understanding of how communication with employees can negatively
or positively impact engagement. According to Albrecht et al. (2018), this understanding is
essential during a crisis. Many of AAC’s senior managers were engaged in crisis mitigation at
the time of the interview. Program leaders were in recovery while having a grounded fleet,
suspended supplier parts resulted in significant delays in deliveries, and all leaders were facing
the Covid-19 pandemic. These current crises resulted in a rich discussion in the interviews.
90

All eight, 100%, of the senior managers, demonstrated competency in informal
communication; this is an asset and resulted in no recommendations in Chapter 5. Their
individual, informal communication plans aid in maintaining engagement during high-stress
times and strengthen communication flow. Two participants, 25%, could produce a formal
communication plan that they had created, as is seen in Table 10 in chapter 4, which presents a
gap. This procedural knowledge is a critical skill when unforeseen crises strike (Sayegh et al.,
2004). It provides a secure framework that employees can rely on during times of high stress or
significant disruption to workflow. A documented, publicly available plan is the foundation of
team cohesion; it is the responsibility of senior managers to create these plans, the production of
which requires procedural knowledge.
Discussion of Organizational Findings: Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asks what are the organizational settings and models available to
senior managers to maintain employee engagement during a crisis? The study explored what
training and resources are available to AAC’s senior managers to lead through a crisis and
maintain employee engagement effectively. The findings identified from the study are that the
assumed organizational influence is a gap. AAC’s senior managers’ prior crisis experience
produced extensive situational knowledge related to maintaining employee engagement during a
crisis, but none had received any formal training from AAC. Leading a team through a crisis can
mean the success or failure of the entire organization (Sayegh et al., 2004). This senior leader
skill determines the degree of organizational resilience during a crisis (Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003).
Leaders who are provided ongoing development opportunities are more successful at navigating
a crisis returning stability to the environment and its employees (Nizamidou & Vouzas, 2020).
The provision of this training is a clear organizational responsibility that AAC is not meeting.
91

AAC’s senior managers had no access to crisis management or crisis intervention
training. Several participants mentioned their desire to have a comprehensive crisis management
training initiative. P3 said, ‘‘It would be nice if we put the same emphasis on crisis management
that we do with both our employee engagement and safety efforts.’’ This comment was echoed
by other participants who said being able to focus on crisis management while strengthening
engagement with their people could only benefit the manager and the employee.
Recommendations for Practice
The study informed two recommendations for practice for AAC’s senior managers to be
more impactful when engaging their employees during a crisis. The recommendations address
procedural and organizational gaps found through interviews conducted with eight AAC Quality
senior managers across the business unit. The first recommendation is to provide AAC’s senior
managers with formal crisis management and intervention training. The second recommendation
is to provide training in crisis communication to maintain engagement that is reinforced with a
standard operational communications cadence of all senior managers within AAC. These two
recommendations work together to establish the necessary environment to assist senior managers
and their teams in navigating crisis events while maintaining employee engagement.
Recommendation 1: Invest in Enterprise-wide Crisis Management Training
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that organizations need to provide the necessary resources,
tools, and job aids to support senior managers in maintaining employee engagement during times
of crisis. All eight, 100%, of AAC’s senior managers articulated their desire to have the training
and continued education on crisis mitigation. Several mentioned that their interview for the study
made them look at productivity in a new way. They said tying safety to crisis management to
92

intervention to employee engagement was a hole in their leadership development (Halkos &
Bousinakis, 2017). This recommendation seeks to fill that gap in leader development.
Successfully addressing crisis management while maintaining employee engagement
requires a comprehensive effort. The effort must be sponsored by senior Executives, funded and
resourced appropriately, reinforced for sustainment, and measured regularly (Albrecht, 2018;
Antonacopoulou & Sheaffer, 2010; Castillo, 2004; Crandall et al., 2014). Recommendation
number one builds on this research and AAC’s existing Injury and Incident Free (IIF) initiative.
There is one exception in that this recommendation is to bring the design, development, and
deployment of an employee engagement and crisis management initiative in-house. Much like
IIF, the crisis engagement plan begins at the top with a commitment letter and a public display of
support. That commitment should extend to the individual employee. The curricula should lean
heavily on storytelling, including personal, organizational, and Enterprise-wide crisis events that
AAC has experienced over the last 50 years. Denning (2011) asserted that telling the right story
for the right purpose fosters trust and leaders should lean heavily on crafting stories with
intention. Chapter 2 provides the beginning of source material to build stories related to crisis
management events in the aerospace industry. The stories connect the mind and the heart when it
comes to a crisis. The training intends to make crisis response personal.
Senior managers should walk away from the initial training with a toolkit to build out
their team’s crisis engagement plan centered on engaging their employees. Clark and Estes
(2008) asserted that having job aids and toolkits are an effective way to help organizations and
teams function. Upon completing the toolkit, all leaders will add an action item into the
performance management system as an annual priority that must be measured. Accountability is
an essential element to ensuring what gets measured gets done (Latham, 2013). The performance
93

ranking is already tied directly to merit increases and the bonus structures for senior managers,
directors, and executives.
The dedicated internal team providing this training should be led by a professional with a
crisis management, psychology, or employee engagement background. A degree is preferred in
the discipline according to past research (Antonacopoulou &Sheaffer, 2010; Crandall et al. 2014;
Parnell, 2014). The remainder of the team should be right-sized with employees who are
passionate about developing others. A dedicated transformation team with no other job
responsibilities increases the likelihood of success (Latham, 2013). This initiative should be their
only statement of work (SOW), and the project will be funded to include Human Resources,
Legal, Ethics, Marketing, and Corporate Communications resources.
Recommendation 2: AAC Should Provide Communication Training and Job Aids Tied to
Performance Measures
As mentioned in chapter 2, Table 3, Ulmer et al. (2011) asserted that active and early
communications with employees empower them to act and be part of sustaining the organization
during times of crisis. Coombs (2007) discussed how pre-crisis organizational readiness is a
necessary step in insulating teams and the organization before a crisis strikes. Coombs (2015)
said that a reliable communication plan supports the employee not only to address crises but also
to help prevent them from the start. The research shows that effective communication structure
mitigates crisis events by engaging the employee to lean into the issue and, in many cases,
enhances crisis prevention (Clair et al., 2007). The AAC managers are the leaders responsible for
developing formal crisis communication plans for their teams, but they also need organizational
support and accountability in implementing those plans.
94

Eight of AAC’s senior managers interviewed, 100%, did not have formalized training or
job aids available to them on how to build and deploy a formalized communication plan.
Although all eight, 100%, understood and leveraged common informal practices, there was no
standardization to the operational cadence of communication through the value stream. Manole
et al. (2011) stressed that aligned communication is critical to successfully engaging employees
as part of any crisis resolution. AAC should provide communication training and job aids for
senior managers to effectively build and implement a formal communication plan within their
teams. It is recommended that this training be presented as a 90-minute workshop where the
critical elements of communication are presented, how communication impacts employee
engagement, and tie back to recommendation number one related to crisis management
intervention. It is also recommended that this training with job aids be sequenced and follow the
abovementioned crisis management intervention training. This recommendation will increase
employee engagement so that when a crisis strikes, the senior manager and the team have the
necessary communication plan to respond.
P7 said, ‘‘If it doesn’t get measured, it doesn’t get done.’’ This comment alludes to levels
of accountability. A mandate that is not measured is not a mandate at all. It is merely a
suggestion. This recommendation further requires standardization of how communication flows
through all levels of the organization (Coombs, 2018). It is also recommended that the
effectiveness of a senior manager’s communication plan be a measurable component in the
performance management system during annual senior manager assessments and is tied to merit
increases. Senior managers should be provided a communication score related to their
effectiveness in engaging with their teams. The communication plan considers executive level,
organizational level, team level, and individual level communication with accountability
95

measures at each level of the organization (Coombs, 2007; Falkheimer & Heide, 2006). The
recommended communication plan is a cascading flow-down with context-specific information
being shared with the appropriate person at the appropriate level. This standardized approach
will guide AAC’s senior managers, providing structure and a rubric for communication
leadership. Table 14 provides an example recommendation for a communication cadence for the
Airdan Aerospace Corporation. As Table 14 illustrates, there is a clear communication flow from
the executive to the employee with multiple touchpoints for information sharing and level setting
of expectations at each level. The executive level is managed through Corporate
Communications, Legal, and Ethics. The director level is managed in conjunction with their
Business Operations focal, Executive Office Assistant, and the Chief of Staff. The senior
manager level is managed with their internal business analyst resources. The FLL is a replication
of the senior manager meeting brought to the level of the employee based on what information is
relevant to the front-line worker. The FLL manages their individual plan.

96

Table 14
Recommended Rubric for Communication Job Aid
Level Type Frequency Measurement
Executive *Business Unit
Website
Weekly Corp. Comms
Executive *Newsletter Monthly Corp. Comms
Executive *All Emp. Mtn. Quarterly Corp. Comms
Executive *Email On-demand Corp. Comms
Director *Newsletter Monthly Annual Performance
Management
(PM)
Director Staff Mtn. Weekly (rotation) PM
Director People Mtn. Weekly (rotation) PM
Director Special Attention
Mtn.
Weekly (rotation) PM
Director *Rotate: All Emp. w/
Roundtable chats
Monthly PM
Director *GEMBA (go-see) Daily PM
Director *Email News Flash As Needed None
Director One-on ones As Needed None
Senior Manager *Staff Mtn. (all) Weekly PM
Senior Manager *One-on-ones Weekly PM
Senior Manager *GEMBA (go see) Daily PM
First Line Leader (FLL) *Staff Mtn. (all) Weekly PM
First Line Leader (FLL) *One-on-ones Weekly PM
First Line Leader (FLL) *GEMBA (go see) Daily PM

Note. Some Executive level communications are currently in place. ‘‘*’’ represents employee
engagement in the meeting/communication.
97

Table 15 identifies a proposed integrated training approach that combines the two
trainings presented in recommendations one and two. The training proposal is designed to open a
discussion with the design team around structure, frequency, and training sustainability. It is a
working document intended to be customized. The initiative should be chartered with executive-
level active sponsorship by a chair. A regular report out to executive leadership is required for
status, updates, and required help needed. Progress is measured in a master phasing plan (MPP),
where milestones are celebrated.

98

Table 15
Crisis Engagement and Communication Training Recommendations
Training Intent Outcomes Measurement Considerations Gap/Asset
Crisis
Engagement
Workshop
(2- day)
To understand the
concepts of
crisis
management
and its
impact on
employee
engagement
To create and
apply a formal
crisis
engagement
plan with
every team
• In-
session
survey
(L1)
• Employe
e survey
at 6, 9,
and 12
months
(L3)
• Story-driven
• Leader-led
• Stand and
commit
• Level 3
Kirkpatrick
assessment (3,
6, 9-month
pulse
survey/intervie
ws)
Gap- Senior
managers are
not provided
the necessary
crisis
management
training
CE Boosters
(Quarterly)
To reflect and
remind
around the
concepts and
levels of
engagement
seen in
practice
To produce
objective
evidence of
crisis
management
events and
levels of
employee
engagement
• In-
session
survey
(L1)

• Story-driven
• 2 hours
• Leader-led
• Level 3
Kirkpatrick
assessment (3,
6, 9-month
pulse
survey/intervie
ws)
Gap- Senior
managers are
not provided
the necessary
crisis
management
training
CE Recommit
(Web-
based)
To remind and
reinforce
concepts
from the 2-
day
workshop
Document
individual
commitment
s for further
team
discussion
• Certifica
te of
completi
on on
record
(L2)
• Annual
• Video-based
• Mandatory
• Level 3
Kirkpatrick
assessment
(annual, web-
based module)
Gap- Senior
managers are
not provided
the necessary
crisis
management
training
Communicatio
ns Training
To understand the
concepts of a
formal
communicati
on plan
Build a formal
communicati
on plan with
the use of job
aids
• In-
session
survey
• Employe
e pulse
• 90-minute,
hands on
workshop
• Instructor-led
Gap- Senior
managers
lack
procedural
knowledge
99

survey at
6, 9, and
12
months
(L3)
• Level 3
Kirkpatrick
assessment
(annual
inspection of
communication
plan during
PM)
of formal
communicati
on in crisis.

100

Measurement and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) is referenced in Table 15 as the analysis
mechanism related to training impact. The New World Kirkpatrick Model establishes four levels
of training assessment. Specifically, this model looks at impact measures. Starting with the end
in mind, Level four establishes the desired results. The results ground the intended goal of the
training and should align to an organizational purpose. Culture is about behavior and changes in
behavior to establish the desired environment. Level three centers on people’s behavior. What is
being observed in the workplace? Has behavior shifted to the desired state? The desired
behaviors demonstrate a clear communication flow within the senior managers’ teams and model
the principles of crisis management interventions as outlined in the training. Level two is testing
the ability for the training content to be assimilated. What knowledge, skills, internalization of
meaning, and level of commitment that the participants experience? And finally, Level one
centers on the initial reaction to the training. Was there an initial impact? Was it engaging? Did it
have personal meaning to the participant? Figure 2 shows the construct of the Kirkpatrick model
and its application (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
This study will evaluate the effectiveness of both results and behaviors as outlined in the
Kirkpatrick model. As seen in Table 15, Level 3 crisis management behaviors will be evaluated
with pulse surveys and interviews at three-, six-, and nine-month intervals. These surveys and
interviews will be geared toward understanding the effectiveness of the two-hour training and the
booster activities related to behavior. The annual web-based recommit will maintain a record of
individual understanding of the key crisis management concepts in application. Level 4 results
will be measured with utilizing the annual employee engagement survey. This evaluation aligns
to the stakeholder goal of maintaining employee engagement during a crisis and the
101

organizational goal of AAC’s goal to have zero injuries, be defect-free in its production system,
and innovate technology to a single Quality Management System (QMS).

102

Figure 2
The New World Kirkpatrick Model

Note: The four levels of The New World Kirkpatrick Model by Kirkpatrick, J.D., and
Kirkpatrick, W.K. (2016), Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation, ATD Press, p.11.

Summary
This study proposed two recommendations for consideration to provide AAC’s senior
managers additional resources to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. The first
recommendation: Enterprise-wide training, where in-depth crisis management training is
provided to AAC’s senior managers and above to positively impact employee engagement and
provide the necessary tools for leaders to lead through a crisis. The two-day training and
quarterly boosters should outline the principles of crisis management. The training should
present how effective crisis management impacts employee engagement and the desired
leadership behaviors required to make those connections. The second recommendation is training
103

on designing a formal, documented, consistent communication plan that AAC’s senior managers
use and are measured to within their current performance management system. This 90-minute
training should include job aids for the senior managers to build the communication plan to the
individual needs of the senior manager’s team. These two recommendations are not in isolation
but congruent and part of an overall attempt to improve the working environment and employee
engagement. This initiative will capitalize on former successes in safety and extend the corporate
awareness around crisis management, and the role employees play in engaging in resolution.
Limitations and Delimitations
Research limitations are conditions beyond the researcher’s control. Although great effort
can be taken to mitigate limitations, they cannot be avoided. Delimitations are within the
researcher’s control, such as the types of questions asked and the approach taken during data
analysis (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2018). Both limitations and delimitations are critical
considerations when conducting research.
A key limitation that the study encountered during data collection was a lack of
documentation for review. This limitation of documentation made triangulation between
participant interviews and organizational documents impossible. Another limitation may have
been the desire for participants to answer the interview questions with what they think they
should say or what they wanted me to hear. Creswell and Creswell (2018) refer to this social
desirability. My positionality as a leader with access to the executive tier could have been
another limitation. My self-efficacy is unavoidably part of the research. I have a broad and deep
understanding of the organization and its people, which can be prone to unconscious biases. I
may unwillingly make judgments in favor or against a particular answer (Bandura, 1978). How I
want to be perceived, if not moderated, can subtly insert itself into the research.
104

There are multiple elements of delimitation within this study. First, the decision to use
qualitative data only versus mixed-method or quantitative data shapes what the data will present.
The lack of quantitative data means the research may have been less grounded in concrete
metrics. Another delimitation is related to my relationship to the organization. I chose to use my
own organization for the senior manager sample. I am part of AAC, which risks objectivity.
Creswell and Creswell (2018) asserted that past experiences could influence the research. The
connections between the researcher, the participants, and the organization can influence the
research process.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was limited to the Quality function of AAC. It utilized the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to reveal gaps
limiting AAC senior Quality managers from achieving their stakeholder performance goal.
Recommendations were developed and presented in this chapter to address those gaps. Further
research beyond the Quality function may yield different findings. Additionally, using an
alternative conceptual framework may reseat the study’s conclusions. The study was qualitative.
Broadening future research with a mixed method where a survey is conducted with a broader
stakeholder group followed by panel discussions may yield additional findings to explore.
Currently, AAC’s annual employee engagement survey does not include any specificity
related to crisis management. Another recommendation for future research is to include such
verbiage. This will help AAC understand what impacts are being made over time with regard to
crisis and employee engagement. These trends, when understood, can then be acted upon by
senior leaders.
105

Additional research is also recommended as the Covid-19 crisis passes and new crises
present themselves. A post-Covid-19 world impacts work locations and job satisfaction. If AAC
returns to an in-office environment, how will that impact employee engagement after two and a
half years of working virtually? How will that impact retention? The interviews uncovered the
senior manager’s frustration with the current ability to hire new talent. That was not explored in
this study. How is AAC’s handling of crisis perceived to the hiring public? How can these
recommendations be marketed to make AAC a desired workplace? Any of these questions are
worthy of further study.
Conclusion
Crisis in aerospace can be deadly. This problem of practice stemmed from several crisis
events that resulted in significant loss of life. Those crises impacted hundreds of passengers and
thousands of family members. As the research progressed several other crises events occurred
that impacted the research, namely, Covid-19. Employee engagement and morale are invariably
linked to all these crisis events. Effectively leading through a crisis can mean the difference
between success or failure for an organization. It impacts employee morale and employee
engagement (Crandall et al., 2014). AAC is in a high-risk industry where crises are regular and
repeat occurrences. Crises range from intense, short-lived firefighting activities to catastrophic
events resulting in loss of life. Being a highly regulated company injects risk into the system.
Recent events have made the need for crisis management even more critical. Employee retention
has faltered, and senior managers said that employee engagement numbers are down as teams
struggle to navigate daily disruptions in the production system, not to mention Covid-19
restrictions and employee illness. The strain on AAC is apparent.
106

The purpose of this project was to explore the capacity of senior managers to maintain
employee engagement in the face of crises. The study relied on Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap
analysis model as its framework. The study looked at assumed influences in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational settings and models (KMO) to uncover gaps where
recommendations can be provided. The study comprised a literature review on the topics of crisis
management and employee engagement. A series of structured interviews were conducted over
Zoom with AAC’s senior managers. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and the data was
open-coded using NVivo.
The study produced findings related to assets and gaps in the senior managers’
knowledge. It also uncovered gaps in organizational resources available to the senior manager
and how they lead through a crisis while maintaining employee engagement. The study produced
two findings where recommendations were provided. There is a gap in procedural knowledge
that needs to be addressed. An organizational gap was identified where a comprehensive
recommendation was made.
The first gap centered on crisis management. Although it was clear from the interviews
that each participant possessed a wide range of experiential knowledge, there was no formal
crisis management training for AAC’s senior managers. This gap also prevents the senior
managers from measuring effectiveness related to employee engagement during a time of crisis.
The first recommendation is to provide senior managers intensive, measured, and sustained
training on crisis management and specifically how to leverage employees in the crisis
intervention.
The second gap centered on communications. AAC’s senior managers understand the
concepts of effectively communicating with their teams and the importance of a regular cadence.
107

They understand how communication impacts employee performance and engagement (Clark&
Estes, 2008). It was clear that the concepts of transparency when communicating with their team
were important, especially during a crisis. They did not understand how to operationalize a
formal communication plan and how to measure its effectiveness. There was no training or
resources for AAC’s senior managers to leverage. This lack of training resulted in
recommendation two. AAC needs to provide training on the importance of effective
communications, develop a personalized plan with available job aids, measure effectiveness in
their annual performance management system, and provide a communication score.
AAC will have a more robust senior manager population if these two recommendations
are utilized. The environment they create will leverage employees in the crisis management
process. The increased communication flow will limit uncertainty and produce a more
collaborative work environment where employee engagement is high. Additionally, as crises are
a regular occurrence for AAC, this plan should mitigate future crisis events and, in some cases,
prevent them due to increased communication flow. Finding issues before they become a crisis
will strengthen the entire Enterprise.

108

References
Albrecht, S., Breidahl, E. and Marty, A. (2018), ‘‘Organizational resources, organizational
engagement climate, and employee engagement’’, Career Development International,
Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 67-85. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-04-2017-0064
Antonacopoulou, E., & Sheaffer, Z. (2010). Learning in crisis: rethinking organizational learning
in relation to crisis management. Academy of Management Proceedings, 2010(1), 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2010.54493681
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy,
1(4), 237-269.
Bandura, A., & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 88(1), 87.
Bandura, A. (2010). Self-efficacy. The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
Barbu, M., & Nastase, M. (2010). Change leadership and the worldwide crisis. Review of
International Comparative Management, 2(1), 129-138.
Bekdash, M. O. (2019). Leadership and decision-making style for airline crisis management in
emerging markets. EuroMed Journal of Management, 3(2), 89-108.
Benaben, F., Lauras, M., Truptil, S., & Salatge, N. (2016). A Metamodel for Knowledge
Denning, S. (2011). The leader’s guide to storytelling: Mastering the art and discipline of
business narrative. John Wiley & Sons.

109

Management in Crisis Management. IEEE International Conference on System Sciences,
Proceedings, 126-135.
Benoit, W. L. (2014). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: Image repair theory and research.
SUNY Press.
Benton, C. (2014). Thinking about thinking: Metacognition for music learning. R&L Education.
Bharti, K., Agrawal, R., & Sharma, V. (2015). Literature review and proposed conceptual
framework. International Journal of Market Research, 57(4), 571-604.
Cameron, K. S., Bright, D., & Caza, A. (2004). Exploring the relationships between
organizational virtuousness and performance. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(6), 766-
790.
Castillo, C. (2004), ‘‘Disaster preparedness and Business Continuity Planning at Boeing: An
integrated model,’’ Journal of Facilities Management, 3(1), 8-26.
Christensen, T., Andreas Danielsen, O., Laegreid, P., & H. Rykkja, L. (2016). Comparing
coordination structures for crisis management in six countries. Public
Administration, 94(2), 316-332.
Coombs, T. (2018). Crisis communication. Encyclopedia of Strategic Communication (pp. 1-12).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and
application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation
Review, 10(3), 163-176.
Cowan-Sahadath, K. (2010). Business transformation: Leadership, integration, and innovation –
A case study. International Journal of Project Management, 28(4), 395-404.
Coyle, P. T., & Foti, R. (2015). If you’re not with me you’re...? Examining prototypes and
110

cooperation in leader–follower relationships. Journal of Leadership & Organizational
Studies, 22(2), 161-174.
Crandall, W. R., Parnell, J. A., & Spillan, J. E. (2014). Crisis management, SAGE.
Doorley, J., & Garcia, H. F. (2015). Reputation management: The key to successful public
relations and corporate communication. Routledge.
Dreibelbis, R. C., Martin, J., Coovert, M. D., & Dorsey, D. W. (2016). The looming cybersecurity
crisis and what it means for the practice of industrial and organizational psychology.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 11(2), 346-365.
Englehardt, E., Werhane, P. H., & Newton, L. H. (2021). Leadership, engineering and ethical
clashes at Boeing. Science and Engineering Ethics, 27(1), 1-17.
Falkheimer, J., & Heide, M. (2006). Multicultural Crisis Communication: Towards a Social
Constructionist Perspective. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 14(4),
180-189.
Fragouli, E., & Ibidapo, B. (2015). Leading in crisis: Leading organizational change & business
development. International Journal of Information, Business, and Management, 7(3), 71.
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational
Psychologist, 36(1), 45-56.
Galloway, G. R. A. E. M. E., & Mallett, X. (2011). The Lockerbie bombing, December 21,
1988. Disaster Victim Identification: Experience and Practice, 76, 89.
George, B. (2010). Leading in crisis. Leader to Leader, 20(55), 24-29.
Gurianova, E., & Mechtcheriakova, S. (2015). Design of organizational structures of
111

management according to strategy of development of the enterprises. Procedia
Economics and Finance, 24, 395-401.
Haitao, W. A. N. G. (2016). Aviation Accident and Principle of Reliance in Criminal Law: A
Case Study of the Air Crash of JAL Flight 123. Journal of Beijing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics Social Sciences Edition, 29(1), 42.
Halkos, G., & Bousinakis, D. (2017). The effect of stress and dissatisfaction on employees
during crisis. Economic Analysis and Policy, 55, 25-34.
Herkert, J., Borenstein, J., & Miller, K. (2020). The Boeing 737 MAX: Lessons for engineering
ethics. Science and engineering ethics, 26(6), 2957-2974.
Jager, A. (2018). The ‘‘shoe bomber’’ Richard Reid. His radicalization explained. International
Institute for Counter-Terrorism, 1-14.
Johnson, O. V. (2015). ‘‘ Shot to Earth like a Blazing Comet’’: the mysterious Chesterton,
Indiana, plane crash of 1933. Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History, 27(2), 4-18.
Kamarulzaman, N., Saleh, A. A., Hashim, S. Z., Hashim, H., & Abdul-Ghani, A. A. (2011). An
overview of the influence of physical office environments towards employee. Procedia
Engineering, 20, 262-268.
Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: the empirical
encounter of two traditions. Journal of personality and social psychology, 82(6), 1007.
Ki, E., & Nekmat, E. (2014). Situational crisis communication and interactivity: Usage and
effectiveness of Facebook for crisis management by Fortune 500 companies. Computers
in Human Behavior, 35, 140-147. 10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.039
Lai, E. R. (2011). Metacognition: a literature review research report. Research Reports, 41, 68-
72.
112

Latham, J. R. (2013). A Framework for Leading the Transformation to Performance Excellence
Part II: CEO Perspectives on Leadership Behaviors, Individual Leader Characteristics,
and Organizational Culture. The Quality Management Journal, 20(3), 19-40.
Ley, B., Pipek, V., Reuter, C., & Wiedenhoefer, T. 2012). Supporting improvisation work in
inter-organizational crisis management. Paper presented at the 1529-1538.
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2208617
Lukás Mazánek. (2015). Leadership during Crisis: Threat Identification and Solution
Proposal. Trendy Ekonomiky a Managementu, 9(24),
61. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1770209788
Mann, A., & Harter, J. (2016). The worldwide employee engagement crisis. Gallup Business
Journal, 7, 1-5.
Manole, C., Alpopi, C., & Colesca, S. E. (2011). The strategic role of human resources
development in the management of organizational crisis. Economic Management, 14(1),
207-221.
Mamaril, E. (2021). Effective followership impacting transparent leadership. In transparent
and authentic leadership (pp. 161-183). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Maznek, L. (2016). Leadership during crisis: threat identification and solution proposal. Trends
Economics and Management, 9(24), 61-70.
McConnell, A. (2017). Success? Failure? Something in-between? A framework for evaluating
crisis management. Policy & Society, 30(2), 63-76.
Mehra, P. (2011). Communicating in a crisis and the role of a business leader: the case of Jet
Airways. Journal of Case Research, 2(2), 133-147.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
113

implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
Oroszi, T. (2018). A preliminary analysis of high-stakes decision-making for crisis
leadership. Journal of business continuity & emergency planning, 11(4), 335-359.
Parameshwar, S. (2006). Inventing higher purpose through suffering: The transformation of the
transformational leader. JAI Press.
Penuel, K. B. (2013). Encyclopedia of crisis management. Sage reference.
Pfaffenberger, B. (2000). The rhetoric of dread: Fear, uncertainty, and doubt (FUD) in
information technology marketing. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 13(3), 78-92.
Sayegh, L., Anthony, W. P., & Perrewé, P. L. (2004). Managerial decision-making under crisis:
The role of emotion in an intuitive decision process. Human Resource Management
Review, 14(2), 179-199.
Liu, S., Brewster, C., & Shaw, D. (2013, May). Ontologies for crisis management: A review of
state of the art in ontology design and usability. In ISCRAM (pp. 1-10).
Sutcliffe, K.M., & Vogus, T. (2003). Organizing for resilience. In K.S. Cameron, J.E. Dutton, &
R.E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New
Discipline (pp. 94-110). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Theofanidis, D., & Fountouki, A. (2018). Limitations and delimitations in the research
process. Perioperative nursing, 7(3), 155-163.
Tony Jaques. (2010). Reshaping Crisis Management: The challenge for organizational
design. Organization Development Journal, 28(1),
9. https://search.proquest.com/docview/197998144
Travis, G. (2019). How the Boeing 737 Max disaster looks to a software developer. IEEE
Spectrum, 18(6), 26-44.
114

Varpio, L., Paradis, E., Uijtdehaage, S., & Young, M. (2020). The distinctions between theory,
theoretical framework, and conceptual framework. Academic Medice Journal of the
Association of American Medical Colleges, 95(7), 989-994.
Vasigh, B., Fleming, K., & Tacker, T. (2018). Introduction to air transport economics: from
theory to applications. Routledge.
Wendel, W. B. (2019). Technological solutions to human error and how they can kill you:
Understanding the boeing 737 max products liability litigation. J. Air L. & Com., 84, 379.
Weick, K. E. (2003). Positive organizing and organizational tragedy.‖ In Cameron, KS, Dutton,
JE, and Quinn, RE (Eds.), Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New
Discipline (pp. 66-80).
Worline, M.C., Dutton, J.E., Frost, P.J., Janov, J., Lilius, J., & Maitlis, S. (2004). Creating fertile
soil: The organizing dynamics of resilience. Working paper, University of Michigan
School of Business
(Bienkowska et al., 2020).
(Goniewicz et al., 2020).
Brandebo (2020)
(DuBrin, 2013; Howitt & Leonard, 2009; Kaiser, 2020).

Hirudayaraj & Sparkman, 2019

115

Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the Interview:
Greetings, my name is Dan Reitz, and I am a graduate student at USC pursuing a
doctorate in Organizational Change and Leadership. I am also part of the AAC Core Quality
organization. I would like to thank you for taking an hour out of your hectic day to spend with
me in an interview. I understand the pressures we all have and am grateful for the opportunity to
speak with you today. The purpose of my study is to explore how senior managers maintain
employee engagement during a crisis. What do they know? What motivates them to engage?
What resources are available for senior managers to lead during a crisis? I assure you; all
responses are strictly confidential, and all identifying information will be deleted from the record
to protect your privacy and anonymity. You will only be identified as number 1xxx. Are you
comfortable in moving forward and participating in the study?
Before we begin, are there any questions you have for me that I can answer?
Thank you, I will begin the recording now.

116

Table A1
Interview Protocol

Interview
Questions
Potential
Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
Type
Share a little about
yourself and
your team.
Tell me more
about how
they work
together.

What
challenges
them?

N/A N/A
How do you
define a crisis?
Other than
Covid-19,
what
examples
have you
experience
d, if any,
related to a
crisis in
the last ten
years or
so?
1 N/A
How do you
define
employee
engagement?
1 N/A
What do you see
as your role in
maintaining
employee
engagement
during a
crisis?
1 Conceptual (C1) Knowledge
What key
concepts are
necessary to
understand
1 Conceptual (C1) Knowledge
117

while leading
through crisis?

What does
effective
leadership
communicatio
n look or
sound like
when dealing
with a crisis?
1 Conceptual (C2)

Knowledge
How have you
implemented
these
communicatio
n concepts, if
at all?

How has your
communic
ation
practices
impacted
your
employees
’
engagemen
t, if at all?
1 Procedural Knowledge
What processes,
procedures, or
resources do
you use when
you are
communicatin
g during a
crisis?
1

2
Procedural

Setting

Knowledge

Organizational
What do you
perceive are
your strengths
in engaging
your
employees,
particularly
during times
of high stress?
What areas, if
any, would
you say
you need
to continue
to work
on?

Do you have
an
engagemen
t plan?

Can you share
what are
the
component
1 Metacognition

Knowledge
118

s of your
plan and
why?

If you’re
comfortable,
could you
share a
personal
experience of
dealing with a
crisis and how
you engaged
your
employees?
How do you
feel they
responded?

Has that
experience
informed
how you
address or
plan to
address
crisis and
employee
engagemen
t now? If
so, how?
1 Metacognition

Knowledge
How have earlier
crises
informed your
approach to
leading
through
Covid-19?
How do your
employees
respond to
that
approach?
1 Metacognition Knowledge
What are you
most confident
about, if
anything, in
your ability as
a leader to
keep your
employees
engaged
during tough
times?

What is one
area you
struggle
with, if
anything,
or are
working
on?

1 Self-efficacy Motivation
What resources,
such as
training,
courses,
seminars, or
workshops,
2 Organizational
Settings
Organizational
119

has AAC
provided to
you related to
crisis
management,
if any?
What AAC
processes
exist, if any, to
help you
maintain
employee
engagement
during crisis?
2 Organizational
Model
Organizational
What are you
most confident
about when
making critical
decisions as a
leader?
Related to
making
decisions,
is there
anything
that you
struggle
with, if at
all?

Do you feel
that AAC
empowers
your
ability to
make
independe
nt
decisions?

How or how
not?

1

2
Self-efficacy

Organizational
Models
Motivation

Organizational
In what ways, if at
all, do you
think AAC
empowers you
as a leader
when dealing
with a crisis?
How does this
impact
your team
morale or
engagemen
t?

Can you
describe a
2 Organizational
Models
Organizational
120

time, if at
all, when
you feared
retribution
for a
decision
you made
in crisis.
Why did
you feel
this way?

Can you share any
final thoughts
you have
related to your
leadership, the
culture, the
nature of
empowerment,
and how the
last two years
have impacted
employee
engagement.
N/A N/A N/A
Do you have any
documents,
processes,
business
guides, or
artifacts that
you can share
for my review
in the study?
N/A N/A N/A
Are there any
questions that
you would
have liked me
to ask that I
missed?
What are those
additions?
N/A N/A N/A

121

Conclusion to the Interview:
This ends our time together today. I want to sincerely thank you for taking this hour to
share with me your thoughts. Your responses, along with other participants, will be analyzed to
make recommendations to leadership on effectively engaging employees during a crisis. It will
also help inform leadership on what resource gaps may exist. As I shared earlier, this interview
will be transcribed, and all identifying markers will be removed, and a personal identification
number will be added to protect your anonymity. I will provide you a completed transcript for
your review before my analysis to ensure accuracy. Do not hesitate to contact me with any
additional thoughts you may have regarding this topic. Have a good day. Thank you.

122

Appendix B: Document Analysis Protocol

Document Analysis Protocol Worksheet
1. Type of document
o Policy
o Procedure
o Public Statements
o Training Documents
o Infographic
o Participant Provided
o Other: _________________________

2. Author/Source
o Regulatory
o Archived
o Public Record
o Media
o Other: _________________________

3. Date of Document
o ____________________________

4. Audience
o Management
o Employee
o Government
o Other: _________________________

5. Key elements related to crisis management:

6. Key elements related to employee engagement:

123

Appendix C: Information Sheet for Exempt Research

STUDY TITLE: Senior Managers Maintaining Employee Engagement During a Crisis:
Analyzing Effectiveness

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Daniel R. Reitz, Jr

FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Jennifer Phillips

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to understand how senior managers maintaining employee
engagement during a crisis. You are invited as a possible participant because you are currently a
qualified senior manager in the Quality organization.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
This study is entirely voluntary and confidential. This study consists of a one-hour, recorded (via
Zoom) interview.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There will be no compensation for participation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

The interview will be transcribed, and all identifying information will be removed and replaced
with a confidential code. The participants will have the opportunity to review their transcript for
accuracy. The transcripts will be coded based on emergent themes. The recording and transcripts
will be destroyed after the analysis is complete. No further participation is expected after
reviewing the participant transcript for validity.

Participants have the right to opt-out of the study at any time, and any collected data will be
immediately destroyed.

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to schedule a one-hour session at your convenience
outside of normal business hours.
124

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Daniel R. Reitz, Jr. reitzdan@usc.edu
319-321-4770

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this project was to explore the capacity of senior managers to maintain employee engagement in the face of crises. The analysis focused on senior managers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to fostering an environment where employees are engaged during times of crisis. Qualitative interviews were conducted with eight AAC senior managers from each of the business units within Quality. The interview was designed to understand the competencies required to maintain employee engagement during a crisis. A review of the literature and available research was conducted to validate findings and provide potential recommendation to identified gaps. The researched intended to uncover gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational settings and models. The research uncovered two gaps for AAC senior managers. The first gap was providing adequate crisis management and intervention training for AAC’s senior managers. The second gap was a lack of formal communication knowledge and the need to provide training on creating an effective formal communication plan for AAC’s senior managers’ teams. The study resulted in two recommendations. These recommendations are linked together in a sequenced comprehensive training plan to include a two-day crisis management training workshop with follow on quarterly booster activities in conjunction with a 90-minute communication workshop training. Job aids are provided to design and deploy an individual communication plan for each of AAC’s senior managers. These recommendations represent an opportunity for AAC’s senior managers to be more effective at maintaining employee engagement during times of crisis.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Leadership in times of crisis management: an analyzation for success

PDF

Building employee engagement through human resources transition planning in mergers and acquisitions

PDF

Big-four consulting firm female senior manager engagement, retention and productivity in pursuit of the partner level

PDF

Achieving high levels of employee engagement: A promising practice study

PDF

An analysis of online engagement of secondary teachers at high need schools during COVID-19 shutdowns

PDF

Managers’ roles in supporting employee engagement in Jewish nonprofit organizations

PDF

Winning the organizational leadership game through engagement: a gap analysis

PDF

Impact of training on leader's ability to effectively lead during a crisis

PDF

Exploring mindfulness with employee engagement: an innovation study

PDF

Gender-based leadership barriers: an exploratory study of the underrepresentation of women of color in technology

PDF

Middle-management's influence on employee engagement in the ambulatory practices

PDF

Employee satisfaction factors and influences: an evaluation study

PDF

Development of employee well-being initiatives to improve engagement and performance: an innovative study

PDF

Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting senior living performance goals to reduce antipsychotics: an innovation study

PDF

Management preconditions to mitigate virtual employee burnout

PDF

A strategy to thrive during a crisis for nonprofit organizations

PDF

Employee retention and the success of a for-profit cosmetics company: a gap analysis

PDF

Mitigating low employee engagement through improved performance management: an evaluation study

PDF

The Army’s process to evaluate costs versus benefits: a case study on the change of command ceremonies

PDF

Remote learning and parent engagement during a crisis

Asset Metadata

Creator Reitz, Daniel Robert, Jr. (author)

Core Title Senior managers maintaining employee engagement during a crisis: analyzing success and opportunity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 04/20/2022

Defense Date 04/13/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Aerospace,Crisis,employee engagement,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair)

Creator Email dreitz@gmail.com,reitzdan@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111037673

Unique identifier UC111037673

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Reitz, Daniel Robert, Jr.

Type texts

Source 20220421-usctheses-batch-931 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu