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Gender-based leadership barriers: an exploratory study of the underrepresentation of women of color in technology

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Gender-based leadership barriers: an exploratory study of the underrepresentation of women of color in technology

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Gender-Based Leadership Barriers: An Exploratory Study of the Underrepresentation of
Women of Color in Technology
by
Emily M. Marty Soto

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Emily M. Marty Soto 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Emily M. Marty Soto certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Alison K. Muraszewski
Helena Seli
Jennifer L. Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
Although the technology industry has expressed a desire to address its longstanding diversity
issue, women of color remain underrepresented at the senior leadership level and virtually
nonexistent at the executive level (Bradberry & Dubrow, 2014; Conway et al., 2018). This study
uses the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to explore barriers preventing women of
color from advancing to senior leadership positions within the technology field. Organizational
influences were primarily investigated, and knowledge and motivation influences were
secondarily investigated. The primary stakeholder group for this qualitative study is women who
identify as women of color that hold or have held executive, director, or senior management
roles in a technology company. There were four notable findings that provide insight into why
women of color leave the technology field: (a) organizations lack commitment to increasing the
representation of women of color; (b) organizations do not have diversity and inclusion practices
and policies in place; (c) organizations do not have mentorship programs that are specifically
designed to support the career progression of women of color; and (d) organizations are not
investing in resources that incentivize women of color to remain with and promote within the
organization. This study makes recommendations for improving organizational performance by
the following: (a) increasing public commitment to advancing and supporting women of color;
(b) expanding and improving recruitment, retention, and promotion strategies; and (c) nesting
diversity, equity, and inclusion training with comprehensive strategies tied to organizational
performance goals. The findings and proposed recommendations of this qualitative study may
improve the representation of women of color in leadership.

v
Dedication
To my grandfather, may you rest in peace. At the age of seven you told me that one day I’d earn
a doctorate degree. I remember everyone laughing, thinking how could a man who had never met
an educated career woman see that kind of potential in a young girl, but you always saw
something special in me and made sure I knew it. Abuelito, you unknowingly inspired me to be a
strong, hardworking, educated, feminist.

To my parents, Papi and Mami, who left the beautiful island of Puerto Rico in search of a better
life. You both gave me everything you could with the little you had. Thank you to my father who
served faithfully in the U.S. Army and inspired me to follow suit. Thank you to my mother who
dedicate her entire life to educating children. You have both given me the passion to lead from
the front, to inspire change, and to fight for justice. Thank you for loving me and for always
supporting me.

To the women of yesterday, girls of today, and women of tomorrow, I dedicate this degree to you
as well. I admire your intelligence, courage, and dedication to create a clear path for powerful
determined women to rise. In the future, there will be no women of color leaders, there will be
just leaders and I vow to dedicate my life to help see that through.

vi
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for giving me guidance and strength to
achieve this lifelong goal. Words cannot even begin to describe how proud and honored I am to
be the first woman in my family to ever go to college and now the first to earn a doctorate. May
all the glory be to God alone.
To my parents, thank you for always pushing me to achieve everything I set out to do.
My confidence in my value, skills, and accomplishments comes from your never-ending support.
Even at this age, knowing that I have made you proud still makes me feel like I am on top of the
world.
This dissertation represents countless all-nighters filled with research, writing, editing,
and reflection. Over the past three years at the University of Southern California, I have been
blessed with amazing professors, colleagues, and experiences. The guidance and feedback of
received from my dissertation committee, Dr. Muraszewski and Dr. Seli, allowed me to complete
this meaningful research that I hope is one small step in the direction of making changes towards
increasing the representation of women of color in senior leadership roles. Lastly, to my
Dissertation Committee Chair, Dr. Phillips, you were absolutely essential to this journey in more
ways than one. You consistently offered patience and compassion all while challenging me to
find work life balance. Your words of wisdom and understanding have truly impacted my life.
Dr. Phillips, thank you for supporting me through my 18-hour workdays and medical hiatus; you
truly are a phenomenal role model.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1
Importance of Addressing the Problem .............................................................................. 2
Field Context and Mission .................................................................................................. 3
Performance Goal ............................................................................................................... 3
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 4
Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................ 6
Purpose of the Study and Question ..................................................................................... 7
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework ........................................... 8
Definitions of Terms ........................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 11
The Leaky Tech Pipeline .................................................................................................. 12
Perseverance and Achievement ........................................................................................ 13
Best Practices: Promoting a Path to Leadership ............................................................... 17
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influence’s
Framework ........................................................................................................................ 22
Stakeholder Assumed Influences ...................................................................................... 23
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 38

viii
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 42
Overview of Methodology ................................................................................................ 42
Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan ....................................................... 43
Ethics and Role of Researcher .......................................................................................... 49
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 51
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 52
Document and Artifact Analysis ....................................................................................... 55
Research Question 1: How Have Organizational and External Influences
Impacted Women of Color Leaders’ Pursuit of Senior Leadership Positions
Within Technology Companies? ....................................................................................... 55
Research Question 2: What Were the Knowledge and Motivational Influences
That Have Enabled Women of Color Leaders in Their Pursuit of Corporate Senior
Leadership Positions Within Technology Companies? .................................................... 77
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 85
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations ......................................................................... 87
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 87
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 96
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 97
Implications for Equity ..................................................................................................... 98
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 99
References ................................................................................................................................... 102
Appendix A: Information Sheet for Exempt Research ............................................................... 125
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 127
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol ................................................................................. 130

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Field Mission and Field Goal ........................................................................................... 7
Table 2: Organizational Influences ............................................................................................... 29
Table 3: Data Sources ................................................................................................................... 43
Table 4: Demographic Characteristics of Participants .................................................................. 54
Table 5: Pseudonyms and Race of Interview Participants ............................................................ 54
Table 6: Selection and Hiring Issues as Identified by Study Participants .................................... 58
Table 7: Promotion and Retention Issues as Identified by Study Participants ............................. 60
Table 8: Promotion and Retention Issues Related to Discrimination as Identified by Study
Participants .................................................................................................................................... 63
Table 9: Participants Comments About the Lack of Mentorship in Technology ......................... 67
Table 10: Participants Comments About Leaving the Technology Field .................................... 75
Table 11: Organizational Influences Findings .............................................................................. 77
Table 12: Specific Skills of Employing Ingratiation .................................................................... 83
Table 13: Participant Comments About Coping Strategies .......................................................... 85
Table B1 ...................................................................................................................................... 127

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Modified Conceptual Framework for Study ................................................................. 40

1
Chapter One: Introduction
Women account for nearly half of the U.S. population but less than 25% of the science,
technology, engineer, and mathematics (STEM) workforce (White & Massiha, 2016). In 2019,
the National Science Foundation reported 71% of the science and engineer occupations were
occupied by White men (51%) and White women (20%). As of 2018, women of color make up
11% of the STEM workforce and only approximately 4% of the technology workforce (Conway
et al., 2018). Considering the Census Bureau projects minorities will account for 56% of the U.S.
population by the year 2060, it is necessary to explore the underrepresentation of women of color
in STEM (Bradberry & Dubrow, 2014; Conway et al., 2018). Technology companies have
expressed the desire to increase diversity in their workforce, but women of color remain nearly
absent at the senior leadership level and nonexistent at the CEO level (Bradberry & Dubrow,
2014; Conway et al., 2018). This study explores the barriers preventing women of color from
advancing to senior leadership positions within the technology field.
Background of the Problem
The expression “of color” refers to groups of underrepresented women in technology that
identify as Black or African American, Hispanic or Latinx, American Indian or Alaska Native,
Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, Asians, and other (Hill et al., 2016). The first two
fiscal quarters of 2020 revealed only 6% of computing-related jobs within the technology field
are held by Asian women, 3% held by Black women, and 2% held by Latinx women (Daley,
2020). Experts predict the need for information technology and programming skills will increase
as much as 90% by the year 2033 (Bradberry & Dubrow, 2014; Conway et al., 2018). Research
shows that the technology field is growing at a rapid pace which is why experts recommend

2
technology companies cease to recruit and retain from a narrow pool and begin investing in and
attracting historically underutilized talent (Bradberry & Dubrow, 2014; Conway et al., 2018).
Over the past 25 years, the percentage of women in technology has greatly decreased, and
the situation is even more severe for women of color (Conway et al., 2018). Moreover, Black and
Latinx women are underrepresented in senior leadership ranks across all STEM fields (Alfred et
al., 2019). While 3.2% of Fortune 500 executive positions are held by women of color, 13.4%
are held by White women and 73.3% are held by White men (Alfred et al., 2019). The critical
absence of women of color in executive senior leadership positions exemplifies a leadership
crisis. Moreover, women of color hold only 4% of technical roles in technology companies and
are virtually nonexistent at the senior leadership level (Conway et al., 2018). The situation is
worse at the CEO level as there are not any Black or Latinx women serving as CEOs for Fortune
500 technology companies at this time (Conway et al., 2018). Despite having the necessary tools,
facilities, and processes to overcome gender and race inequality in technology, many companies
continue to approach the technology gender gap with a gender-neutral approach rather than
focusing on removing gender-based leadership barriers women of color face (Conway et al.,
2018).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The underrepresentation of women of color in technology is a problem that is important
to solve. Technology drives economic growth and plays a critical role in America’s economy and
workforce (Dutta et al., 2015). Increasing diversity and decreasing inequality has been linked to
strong financial performance across fields and provides women of color the opportunity for
career progression (Conway et al., 2018). According to the (2017) Bureau of Labor Statistics,
roughly 25% of the nation’s total economic output is produced by high technology industries.

3
Amongst the most economically lucrative and fastest growing occupations, the technology
workforce does not represent the diverse American population (McAlear et al., 2018). Studies
examining linkages between diversity and business performance have proved that for every
incremental percentage increase in Black and Latinx representation there is a 3% increase in
revenue (Thomas et al., 2016). Although women of color have entered middle and top
management levels, there is still a disproportionate representation of leadership in technology.
Field Context and Mission
This research focuses on occupations within the technology field, which includes the
production, development, design, maintenance, and management of computer networks,
hardware, and software (Alegria, 2019). The integration of technology and technical positions
across the technology fields causes the terms technology field, technology field, and high
technology to be loosely interchangeable throughout this study (Martin, 2018). There is an
inimitable opportunity to provide innovation, problem solving, product development, and capital
towards diversifying and improving America’s technology-driven economy (Martin, 2018).
In an effort to increase diversity and inclusivity throughout the technology field, major
technology companies have begun to share their annual diversity reports. Successful technology
giants, such as Google, have vowed to accelerate progress by focusing on development,
progression, retention, and organizational culture (Brown & Parker, 2018). For this study, the
sample population is focused on the technology field within the United States of America.
Performance Goal
The performance goal for this study is that women of color account for 40% of
technology senior leadership positions no later than the year 2027. To keep corporate America
on pace with the country’s growing demographics, the Alliance for Board Diversity (ABD),

4
which is a collaboration of four leadership organizations that advocate for greater gender and
racial board diversity, is demanding that companies fill strategic positions within corporate
America with women and minorities (Alliance for Board Diversity, 2019). Since technology
companies as a whole have not articulated a specific goal for increasing representation of women
of color in leadership positions, this exploratory study utilized the ABD’s goal to increase
diversity at Fortune 500 Companies as a baseline reference that supports the field and
performance goals for women of color in technology. Increasing the representation of senior
women of color in technology will transform the current technology ecosystem.
This goal many be accomplished by advocating for greater gender and racial diversity,
building the demand within companies for women and minorities, and showcasing the supply of
talented women and minorities to fill strategic needs within corporate America (Catalyst, 2017;
Alliance for Board Diversity, 2019). All in all, it is important to evaluate the technology field’s
performance in relationship to this overall goal for all technology companies. Nevertheless, if the
technology field fails to implement a strategic plan that aligns recruiting, retention, and cultural
competency, the number of women of color seeking careers in technology will continue to
decrease (Conway et al., 2018).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Companies throughout the technology field fail to reflect the demographic changes
occurring in America. According to studies conducted by the Alliance for Board Diversity
(2019), women of color will account for more than half of the American population by 2060. The
performance goal for this study is focused on increasing the number of women of color in senior
technology leadership positions. Increasing field diversity would enable women of color to

5
advance into senior leadership roles and would allow companies to expand networks and
broaden their knowledge base (Alliance for Board Diversity, 2019).
The representation of women of color in technology is impacted by numerous groups that
provide an inclusive and diverse culture that encourages promotion and retention. Initially, there
are four stakeholder groups. A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly
contribute to and benefit from the achievement of the organization’s goal or who work in the
field of focus in addressing the purpose and mission of the field (Sartas et al., 2018). Women
who identify as women of color that hold or have held executive, director, or senior management
roles in a technology company will be the primary stakeholder group for this study. The second
stakeholder group is women identifying as women of color in technology that aspire to achieve
leadership roles in a technology company. The third stakeholder group is recruiters responsible
for identifying potential employees. The fourth stakeholder group is hiring managers responsible
for the recruitment and hiring of new employees. The fifth stakeholder group contains the senior
leadership team that creates organizational policy, establish the organizational culture, and
provides resources to the organization. Each stakeholder group will play a role in increasing the
representation of women of color in technology.
Technology companies can draw on women of color studying computing and entering the
technology field to design better recruitment programs. Focusing on achieving at least 40%
representation of women of color through proactive recruitment and retention with stated goals
will avoid replicating the same gender imbalance seen in the technology field today (Conway et
al., 2018). Beyond recruitment and retention efforts, it is important to support and connect with
women of color that are currently working in the technology field. Technology companies can
use the experiences women of color in technology face to develop solutions that will improve

6
diversity and inclusivity within the technology field (Conway et al., 2018). Lastly, understanding
the generalizable attributes and influences that have impacted women of color attaining corporate
senior leadership allowed for an exploration and understanding of gender-based senior leadership
barriers women of color experience.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a complete analysis would involve the joint efforts of each stakeholder group, it is
critical to explore common barriers and assets that impact the promotion of women of color.
Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study were women of color in technology senior
leadership or who currently hold or have recently held these positions. Understanding the
generalizable attributes and influences that have contributed to women of color attaining
technology senior leadership positions was expected to help identify common barriers and assets
that impact the promotion of women of color who are still seeking these positions. Stakeholders
identified common barriers and assets that impact the promotion of women of color based on
their lived experiences. Data collected from these stakeholders informed this study further by
confirming or denying that the proposed KMO influences did in fact influence the promotion of
women of color. There was no specific stakeholder goal for this study given the nature of the
study and research questions. Table 1 further outlines the field mission and field performance
goal for the purpose of this study.

7
Table 1
Field Mission and Field Goal
Field mission
To increase the representation of women of color in technology senior leadership roles.
Field performance goal
By 2027, women of color will account for 40% of technology senior leadership positions.

Purpose of the Study and Question
The purpose of this study was to explore and understand the influence that organizational
barriers and gender and racial bias have on the promotion of women of color to senior leadership
positions in technology. The analysis also explored the degree to which the technology field is
able to achieve the field performance goal of increasing the representation of women of color in
technology senior leadership positions to 40%. A complete performance evaluation would focus
on all stakeholders, but for practical purposes, the stakeholder focused on in this study were
women of color who hold or have held executive, director, or senior management roles in
Fortune 500 technology companies. The analysis focused on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences of women of color in technology senior leadership positions.
The questions that guide this study are the following:
1. How have organizational and external influences impacted women of color leaders’
pursuit of senior leadership positions within technology companies?
2. What were the knowledge and motivational influences that have enabled women of
color leaders in their pursuit of corporate senior leadership positions within
technology companies?

8
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework is a systematic method that helps
clarify organizational goals and provides an analytical approach for addressing organizational
performance gaps. This approach was chosen based on the potential and probability for
organizational barriers existing within the field of technology that are assumed to be contributing
to the organizational performance gap. Assumed organizational influences that impact women of
color in technology senior leadership positions were generated based on content specific and
general learning motivation theory. This study applied the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework to determine gaps in organizational influences that impact women of color seeking
promotion into senior leadership roles at technology companies.
This study’s research methodology describes the appropriate framework for identifying
the probable issues specific to organizational barriers and bias that have affected the promotion
of women of color to senior leadership positions in technology. Data collected from interviews,
document analysis, and artifact analysis were expected to demonstrate organizational
performance gaps and provide appropriate research-based solutions for addressing any identified
gaps. The interview sample consisted of women of color that hold or have held executive,
director, or senior management roles in a technology company. The details of the study
methodology will be further expanded in Chapter Three.
Definitions of Terms
• Women of color is a phrase used to describe female people of color. For this study, the
phrase will refer to Black or African American, Hispanic or Latinx, American Indian or
Alaska Native, Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, Asians, and other.

9
• STEM senior leadership position refers to executive, director, or senior management
roles in Fortune 500 technology companies.
• Identity taxation is a phrase used to describe the increased pressure added to minorities to
represent diversity as tokens, advocates, and role models (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012).
• Cultural taxation refers to the distress minority members experience due to their racial
and ethnic background (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012).
• Triple jeopardy is a phrase used to describe how women of color in leadership roles are
victims of triple jeopardy because they face stereotypical threats associated with gender,
race, and ethnicity (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
• Concrete wall/sticky floor is a phrase used to describe the thicker barriers faced by
women of color that are produced by racism and sexism (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis,
2010).
• Technology is a term loosely interchangeable with the terms technology field, technology
industry, and high technology (Martin, 2018).
• Technology occupation is a phrase used to describe occupations focused on the
production, design, and maintenance of computer networks, hardware, and software
(Alegria, 2019).
• Technology field is a phrase that encompasses individuals in technical occupations in
addition to those non-technical occupations within technology companies (Martin, 2018).
• Technology pipeline is a phrase used to describe the underrepresentation of women of
color in technology as a result of structural, social, and psychological barriers (Martin,
2018).

10
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about increasing diversity and
inclusion in an organization. The field’s mission, goals, stakeholders, and the framework for the
project were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. Topics of social barriers for leadership development, invisible gender
barriers, implicit stereotypes, biases in recruitment and retention, and senior leadership
involvement will be addressed. Chapter Two also presents the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that were explored via the study. Chapter Three details the
methodology when it comes to the choice of participants, data collection, and data analysis. In
Chapter Four, the findings are presented. Chapter Five provides recommendations for practice
and for future research.

11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The purpose of this chapter is to examine literature related to the underrepresentation of
women of color in senior leadership positions within the technology field. Disparities in the
technology field extend beyond the lack of talent availability (Fernandez & Campero, 2017;
McAlear et al., 2018). The leaky tech pipeline framework draws upon social science research
and data to describe the lack of diversity in the technology pipeline (Martin, 2018; Rajenderan &
Zawawi, 2019). Furthermore, the framework identifies barriers and bias that limit high-growth
occupations for women of color (Martin, 2018; Rajenderan & Zawawi, 2019). Following the
general review of literature, this chapter focuses on three emerging topic areas. The first section
primarily focuses on the background of the problem to provide a brief overview of the challenges
women of color in technology senior leadership positions face. Subsequent sections examine the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to gender and racial
inequality in the technology field, specifically in senior leadership.
As discussed in Chapter One, the purpose of this study was to explore and understand the
effect that organizational barriers and gender and racial bias have on the promotion of women of
color to senior leadership positions in technology. This study utilized the gap analysis framework
to determine gaps between desired and current performance goals that impact women of color in
technology seeking promotion into senior leadership positions (Leggon, 2003). Clark and Estes
(2008) explained that the gap analysis framework generates effective solutions to existing
knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps. Through the utilization of the gap analysis
framework, this study highlights knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that have
contributed to women of color attaining senior leadership positions in technology companies.

12
The following sections of this chapter presents a review of literature aimed to provide additional
insights on the barriers women of color face in senior leadership positions.
The Leaky Tech Pipeline
Leaky tech pipeline is a phrase used to describe the lack of diversity and progressive loss
of qualified women in senior STEM disciplines (McAlear et al., 2018; Rajenderan & Zawawi,
2019). Women, especially women of color, are notably underrepresented in high technology
industries (McAlear et al., 2019; Resmini, 2016). According to Malcom et al. (1979), women of
color face unique combined and cumulative challenges of both racism and sexism within the
STEM fields; the authors describe the experiences as a “double-bind.” While the double bind has
led to disparities throughout the STEM pipeline, McAlear et al. (2018) assert the double bind for
women of color in the technology pipeline begins with access to education and culminates in
disparities of participation at all levels of the technology workforce.
Understanding the unique challenges women of color face in the workplace is critical to
understanding the complex experiences of women who serve in senior leadership roles within the
technology field (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). As the workforce becomes increasingly
diverse, more creative and diverse styles of leadership will be required (Sanchez-Hucles &
Davis, 2010). In order to overcome the concrete wall or the sticky floor, women of color must
demonstrate both agentic and communicable skills (Eagly et al., 2007). Despite the need for
leadership styles that women often exhibit, organizations tend to expect their leaders to be
dominant and assertive men (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Women of color are often at a
disadvantage when they lead with stereotypical male leadership styles (Bell & Nkomo, 2001).
The price of acceptability for minorities is often cultural assimilation, which Bell and Nkomo
(2001) believe is impossible for women of color to fulfill. Women of color maintain a strong

13
racial and cultural identity at work which Bell and Nkomo (2001) believe is what helps them
withstand the racism and sexism encountered throughout their career.
Perseverance and Achievement
Women seeking career progression manage multifaceted roles and responsibilities (Brue,
2019). Findings from a case study surveying STEM women leaders revealed women leaders
experience difficulty balancing work and personal roles and responsibilities (Brue, 2019).
Managing a myriad of demands from the role of a leader and from family responsibilities has
shaped how women of color experience STEM (Johnson, 2011). When testing the double bind
hypothesis against women and minorities in science and engineering, Brown (1995) found that
Latinx women experienced a conflict between the expectations of traditional gender roles and the
desire to pursue a career in STEM. Asian women, however, experienced conflict meeting
familial responsibilities and roles against their family’s expectations of them choosing a career in
science and engineering. Despite stereotyping and marginalization experienced in STEM,
women of color utilize their strong sense of racial and or ethnic identity to remain resilient and
climb the organizational ladder (Johnson, 2011).
Psychological Barriers
Women of color experience structural, social, and psychological barriers throughout the
technology pipeline (Martin, 2018). Of note, psychological barriers specifically foster bias
against women in leadership selection, placement, and promotion (Schein et al., 1996). Some
barriers include the psychodynamic between women and power, old boy networks and
maintaining the status quo, taxation, and tokenism (Oakley, 2000). While serving as a mentor
may not be required, women of color often feel obligated to serve as unofficial mentors and
advisors to other women of color in their workplace and field of expertise (Guillaume &

14
Apodaca, 2020). An overwhelming body of literature reveals women of color often make the
personal choice to take on these additional duties despite the impact on their promotion and
tenure endeavors or the fostered feelings of tokenization and isolation (Guillaume & Apodaca,
2020). Feelings of tokenism and isolation stem from the lack of diversity in the workforce and
feeling as though they are the representatives for their entire race, ethnicity, and sex (Ortega-
Liston & Rodriguez Soto, 2014). While women of color use emotional intelligence to navigate
through their career, they have reported overburdening through identity, cultural, and emotional
taxation (Casado Pérez, 2020; Padilla, 1994).
Blaming Women of Color
The document adapted from The Chronicle of the Problem of Woman of Color in a Non-
Profit by the Safehouse Progressive Alliance for Nonviolence, depicted the hiring process and
barriers women of color face in the workplace (Page, 2018). The author argues that women of
color are recruited and hired because of tokenization and not because of their skillset (Page,
2018). Given that women of color are underrepresented in the technology workforce, oftentimes,
the individuals conducting recruitment and hiring are White leaders (Page, 2018). As depicted in
the diagram, women of color tend to initially feel welcomed, needed, and content at the
beginning of the hiring process (Page, 2018). The Safehouse Progressive Alliance for
Nonviolence refers to the tokenized hiring process as the honeymoon phase (Page, 2018).
According to the original theory of tokenism, tokenism results whenever the underrepresented
group accounts for less than 15% of the organization (Kanter, 1977; Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;
Yoder, 1991). Rosenberg et al. (1993) believed tokenism is an indication that an organization is
resisting the inclusion of women. Data collected by Leibbrandt and List (2018) suggested that

15
token hires are perceived as regulatory and symbolic hires of racial minorities causing these
individuals to be hired simply because they are minority applicants and not by their own merits.
Following the honeymoon phase of a tokenized hire, women of color experience
repetitive injury and microaggressions (Page, 2018). Nadal (2011) describes microaggressions as
intentional or unintentional verbal, behavioral, or environmental communication that is perceived
to be hostile, derogatory, or negative towards an oppressed and underrepresented group of
individuals. Groups of oppressed and underrepresented individuals are often comprised of racial
and ethnic minorities, women, LGBTQIA (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer,
questioning, intersex, asexual, and agender) individuals, persons with disabilities, and religious
minorities (Sue et al., 2007).
Women of color receive verbal, nonverbal, and environmental insults when reporting
organizational issues and attempting to hold their organization accountable for its policies and
procedures (Page, 2018). Rather than working towards creating a work environment that
exemplifies diversity, equity, and inclusion, organizations deny accusations of microaggressions
and habitually ignore the issues being reported or place blame on women of color (Page, 2018).
Furthermore, emotional taxation is assumed by women of color as the organization expects them
to fix the issues being reported without organizational involvement (Page, 2018). As a result,
women of color are targeted as the issue and labeled as victims, unqualified, misfits, and
combative (Page, 2018). From the outside looking in, women of color are being allowed to enter
the organization after being hired as tokens and once they begin to identify organizational issues,
the organization does not work towards a resolution but rather targets and attacks women of
color (Page, 2018). The high turnover rates of women of color in organizations are a direct result
of the organization’s lack of response and action to gender and race barriers (Page, 2018).

16
Cultural Taxation
Cultural taxation describes the distress people of color experience as a result of their
racial and ethnic background (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). Hirshfield and Joseph (2012)
suggested the disparity between men and women in terms of productivity, recognition, and
compensation derives from the additional expectations and requirements placed on women.
Identity taxation is an expansion of Amado Padilla’s original phrase, cultural taxation, and
occurs when members of historically marginalized groups shoulder additional labor beyond what
is expected of their White peers and colleagues (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). In 2018, Catalyst
reported women experience an undue burden, a phrase synonymous with emotional taxation,
such exclusionary behaviors negatively impact their health and overall well-being (Travis et al.,
2016). Roughly 60% of Asian, Black, Latinx, and multiracial professionals surveyed by Catalyst
in 2018 reported they felt emotional and psychological distress in the workplace causing them to
have a constant guard and stronger drive to succeed (Catalyst, 2018; Travis et al., 2016).
Emotional taxation creates inequality in the workplace and prevents women from being granted
tenure and promotion (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012).
Women of color in senior leadership positions are considered double minorities because
of their gender and race (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). Double minority women experience issues
White women and men of color do not have to confront in the workplace (Hirshfield & Joseph,
2012). As a result, many experience emotional and psychological distress caused by the pressure
to maintain a symbolic role for their gender and ethnicity throughout the workplace (Hirshfield
& Joseph, 2012). While employees of color experience a large burden of identity taxation, there
is an increased pressure added to double minorities to represent diversity as tokens, advocates,
and role models (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). Ultimately, emotional and identity taxation creates

17
inequality in the workplace. The barriers women of color face cause a damaging link between
their emotional, and sometimes physical health, and the workplace (Catalyst, 2008).
Best Practices: Promoting a Path to Leadership
The underrepresentation of women of color in technology at the senior level is not
inevitable; organizations may aim to overcome disparities by improving diversity and inclusion
efforts in both recruitment and retention (Beyer, 2014; Sepulveda et al., 2018). Varma (2011)
suggested organizational and cultural forces shape the psychological variables that help explain
the dearth of women of color in technology. Generally, diversity leaders encourage organizations
to make diversity a priority through marketing, training, and awareness (Beyer, 2014).
Organizations aiming to improve recruitment efforts attract diverse applicants by
decreasing biases in the interview process (King et al., 2010). Furthermore, organizations
seeking a cultural change and elimination of gender bias in technology often have an advisory
board that reviews the recruitment process for equitable recruiting and hiring, advertisements for
available positions to ensure diverse applicant positions are being advertised, and the interview
process to decrease potential biases (King et al., 2010). Lastly, creating a supportive environment
that encourages the development and advancement of women has proven to increase retention
rates and long-term employment satisfaction (King et al., 2010).
The career pathways of women of color in technology encompass their ability to pursue a
career in technology and their motivation to employ that ability (Wang & Degol, 2017). A
comprehensive framework and analysis conducted by the Kapor Center for Social Impact
identified roughly 94% of technology leadership positions are held by either White or Asian
employees, 80% of which are held by men (Martin, 2018). White women and Asian women
participate in nearly equal rates across the technology workforce, yet Asian women are less

18
likely to hold leadership positions (Martin, 2018). Gender and racial biases embedded in
organizational recruiting and hiring practices prevent women of color from entering the
technology workforce and attaining senior leadership positions (Martin, 2018). Research on the
pathway to senior leadership for women of color reveals that hiring, retention, promotion,
mentorship, and sponsorship are critical areas requiring immediate action in order for the
technology field to achieve its diversity goals (Thomas et al., 2016).
Hiring and Promotion
In general, the technology field has poor hiring practices for women (Devillard et al.,
2018). Devillard et al. (2018) suggested the best way to address the absence of women of color
in senior leadership positions is to examine their career progression along the pipeline. Studies
reveal that hiring practices relying on social networks can produce gender and race inequality
whereas formal hiring practices are less likely to result in unconscious bias towards race and
gender (Simard, 2009). In their effort to identify the financial and economic returns to diversity
in technology. Thomas et al. (2016) conducted a case study that revealed applicants identifying
as women and minorities are rated significantly lower by hiring managers for competence,
hireability, and mentorship. Narrowly defined hiring and promotion practices may fail to
differentiate the prevalence of overt and covert forms of discrimination, sexism, and bias. A
research study on women in the workplace revealed women in technology tend to get stuck at
middle or senior management level and that the field as a whole, is particularly poor at hiring
women in general (Devillard et al., 2018).
Retention
Supporting the recruitment and retention of skilled women of color fosters a supportive
technology field capable of enabling women entrepreneurs as innovators and progressive leaders

19
(McAlear et al., 2018; Stewart, 2016). Building upon the evidence collected from their case
study on racial and gender discrimination amongst women in STEM fields, Alfred et al. (2019)
provided key points that contribute to the retention and professional growth of a women of color
in STEM. Considering the social environment has been found to be a barrier to the persistence
and retention of women in STEM careers, (Alfred et al., 2019) argue that organizational culture
and environment enable success. Evoking a sense of agency to persist marginalizing forces, the
authors suggest women of color bypass unsupportive advisors, use their networks to combat
isolation, create safe places, and focus on their passion for STEM (Alfred et al., 2019).
Influenced by societal messages in a male-dominated field, women of color lean on their family
and community, support other people of color, and focus on demonstrating and utilizing their
abilities to overcome doubt (Alfred et al., 2019).
Reducing Harm in the Remote Workplace
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic moved the technology field online and as a result, new
forms of workplace harassment and hostility arose (Hong et al., 2021). The study conducted by
Hong et al. in 2021 revealed Black and Latinx women experienced an insuperable number of
layoffs, limitless work expectations, insufficient mental health support, lack of caregiver support,
increased anxiety, and increased hostility and harassment in the workplace. Considering little
research has been conducted on how COVID-19 impacted race and gender discrimination in the
workplace, Hong et al. (2021) conducted a research study to analyze workplace experiences in
the technology field since the beginning of the pandemic.
Utilizing data equity and an intersectional lens, Hong et al. (2021) identified that the
people who experienced the most harassment, hostility, and anxiety in the technology workforce
during the pandemic were disproportionately Asian, Black, Indigenous, and Latinx women. For

20
an organization to counteract systemic problems, senior leaders need to understand that the
technology field was built on a foundation of inequity and exclusion that requires change and
support at its highest levels (Hong et al., 2021). Rather than emphasizing tasks and deliverables,
the organization needs to focus on support and resources that will help employees do their best
work (Mankins, 2017). Positive structural changes and cultural shifts must be supported and
modeled by senior leadership (Hong et al., 2021). Mankins (2017) argues that it is the
responsibility of the organization to create an effective and healthier workplace.
The report created by Hong et al. (2021) categorized harm as workplace harassment and
hostility because harm can be directed at individuals based on their identity, perceived identity,
and oftentimes, a combination of the two. Often, gender harassment was experienced by
marginalized groups (Hong et al., 2021). Approximately 25% of the survey respondents reported
experiencing more gender-based harassment than before the pandemic began (Hong et al., 2021).
When applying the intersectional lens, Hong et al. (2021) discovered that women of color were
more likely to experience race-based hostility than men of color. Most employees experienced
harassment over chat, email, and video meetings.
Organizations, whether by design or inadvertently, have increased work expectations on
their employees since COVID-19 (Hong et al., 2021). Many respondents reported feeling
overloaded, pressured, and anxious (Hong et al., 2021). Senior leaders have been blamed for
poor communication, transparency, and consistency (Hong et al., 2021). Furthermore, much
senior leadership used surveillance technology to track the effectiveness of their employees
working remotely, for example, keyboard strokes, multiple check-ins throughout the day, and
requesting screenshots from employees (Hong et al., 2021).

21
Occupational segregation has far-reaching economic and social consequences that have
contributed to the gender wage gap, racial wage gap, economic inequality, social inequality, and
inefficiencies in the labor market (Anker, 1997; Mandel & Semyonov, 2016; Petersen &
Morgan, 1995). Scholars across a wide range of fields have studied occupational segregation in
technology and determined that among the various occupations, segregation in technology is one
of the most evident (Parasurama et al., 2020). Hong et al. (2021) used their research to call
attention to the need and opportunity for systemic change to address power imbalances,
processes, hierarchies, and biases. Understanding that there is no playbook for solving these
systemic issues within the technology field, Hong et al. (2021) places the onus on each company
and leader to develop solutions that are tailored to their organization, circumstances, and
situation.
Mentorship and Sponsorship
Women in technology significantly benefit from mentors, sponsors, and coaches that
provide support and inspiration (Van Oosten et al., 2017). Furthermore, research shows that
women of color feel more connected to their organization and have reported a decrease in
workplace stress from receiving support and mentorship (Hewlett et al., 2013; Thomas et al.,
2016). Data collected from a 2020 case study on the economic impact of improving diversity in
the technology field revealed building mentorship into sponsorship programs increases retention
and promotion rates for people of color (Thomas et al., 2016). As a result of the consistent and
ongoing underrepresentation of women of color in technology, there is a lack of diverse role
models, mentors, and sponsors, which has shown to detrimentally impact exposure to and
interest in pursuing careers in technology (Martin, 2018). Additionally, lack of role models,

22
mentors, and peer networks has been linked to decreases in motivation, self-efficacy, and social
support (Stout et al., 2011).
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influence’s
Framework
This study is grounded in the Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences framework. Through this framework, this study sought to gain a better
understanding of organizational influences that have contributed to the underrepresentation of
women of color in senior leadership roles within the technology field. Both cultural settings and
cultural models were examined to evaluate performance gaps created by organizational culture
and context (Clark & Estes, 2008). The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis is a systematic and
analytical process for evaluating performance, utilizing the dimensions of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences. These influences were investigated by
defining measurable goals, determining performance gaps, hypothesizing causes for those gaps,
validating and prioritizing those causes, developing solutions, and evaluating outcomes. The gap
analysis was crucial to discovering and exploring real and root gaps in organizational influences
that may prohibit and prevent the success of women of color in technology. Lastly, the gap
analysis identified potential causes and solutions to performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008).
A thorough study of potential causes for performance gaps resulted in an implementation
and evaluation plan. The gap analysis is designed to eliminate negligence, misdiagnosing, and
hasty conclusion making. Ultimately, the gap analysis was the primary framework used in this
research study to investigate how organizational influences primarily, and knowledge and
motivation influences secondarily, impact performance gaps affect the sustainment and overall

23
underrepresentation of women of color in technology senior leadership. Assumed causes were
validated or discounted through the application of Clark and Estes gap analysis.
Stakeholder Assumed Influences
The overarching goal of the stakeholder is to attain senior leadership positions within the
technology field that they see as attributable to their own effort and qualifications. This study
does not identify assumed knowledge or motivation influences because this study was focus on
the organizational influences impacting the underrepresentation of women of color in senior
technology leadership positions. The primary stakeholder group identified for purposes of the
study are women of color who are currently in, or have previously held, senior leadership roles in
technology. The shortage of women of color in leadership positions within the technology field
is a complex problem that women of color who have already achieved such positions may help
overcome. Furthermore, the purpose of this section is to review various influences that are
significant to the stakeholder’s goals through a gap analysis that is stakeholder focused.
Understanding that a stakeholder focused analysis may appear to place onus of change or fault
upon the stakeholder, this study acknowledges the sensitivity given to the subject and
stakeholder. Taking into account that systemic barriers are expected to play a greater role, this
study begins by exploring the organizational influences that have led to the underrepresentation
of women of color in technology senior leadership.
Organizational Influences
Inextricably intertwined with one another, knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences determine a stakeholder’s ability to successfully perform their organizational roles
and achieve their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) claimed that
organizational influences can be rendered more practically useful in research and practice

24
through two categories, settings and models. Workplace settings and demands influence the
goals employees value (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Sarason (1972) defined a setting as an
occurrence of two or more individuals coming together to accomplish something. An
organization’s culture is created in settings, those moments in which employees come together to
carry out joint activity that accomplishes something they value individually and as an
organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The concept of organizational models
incorporates behavioral, cognitive, and affective components (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Organizational models are a shared normative understanding of how the organization operates
and how it should operate (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Furthermore, models encode
interpretations of what is valued, what is ideal, what should be enacted or avoided, who should
participate, and what the rules of interaction within the organizations should be (Cole, 1985;
D’Andrade, 1995).
The case study conducted by Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) refrained from making
claims of ethnic specificity but illustrates the linked problems of minority underachievement.
Their dynamic application of culture and its effect on individuals may be applied towards
understanding how settings and models can improve the achievement of women of color in
technology. This review of literature focuses on the organization related influences that are
pertinent to women of color in technology seeking promotion to senior leadership positions. The
organizational influences that will be reviewed in this section are both cultural models and
cultural settings.
Cultural Model 1: Technology Organizations Need to Value a Culture of Fairness
Technology organizations need to value a culture of fairness that incorporates inclusive
selection, retention, and promotion. Fairness created by top-level leaders encourages a culture of

25
fairness that will allow women of color to have increased opportunities (Hogue & Lord, 2007).
High level practices of organizational fairness develop organizational trust, acceptance, and
creates a liberalizing effect that permits agentic behavior produced by women of color in senior
leadership roles (Krosgaard et al., 2002). Heuristic forms of thinking may be promoted through
the engagement of counter-stereotypic gender role models, this engagement instills an impartial
and just senior leadership selection process (Leicht et al., 2014).
Historically, theoretical explanations for the underrepresentation of women in elite senior
leadership positions was associated with biases found in organizational senior leadership
selection (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). These organizational decisions have been linked to gender
stereotypes and incongruent beliefs, however, in more recent studies, data collected has shown
gender bias has become subtler (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). Institutionalized second-generation
forms of gender bias have formed invisible barriers to the advancement of women of color, this
coined term explains how biased organizational practices and structures are deeply embedded in
organizations structures and favor men (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). The selection, promotion, and
retention of women of color is dependent on interpersonal and intrapersonal facilitators (Lyness
& Grotto, 2018).
Cultural Model 2: Diversity and Inclusion Need to Be Seen As Essential to Business Growth
Technology organizations need to view diversity and inclusion as essential to their
business model and future growth. The link between organizational diversity and financial
performance has captivated scholars throughout the world (Carter et al., 2010). A study
conducted by Catalyst in 2009 revealed leading companies that have adjusted their diversity and
inclusion practices to minimize gender inequities and mitigated gender bias have increased the
financial success of their business (Warren, 2009). These findings highlight a positive correlation

26
between gender diversity and financial success (Dworkin et al., 2018). Demographic projections
indicate the marketplace is becoming more diverse (Carter et al., 2003). Organizations that match
the diversity of their workforce to the diversity of their potential customers increase their
probability to penetrate markets (Carter et al., 2003). Diversity increases the creativity and
innovation within an organization which produces more effective problem-solving techniques
(Robinson & Dechant, 1997).
Homogeneity across top-level management narrows the perspective of leaders, whereas
diverse top-level managers have a broader perspective (Carter et al., 2003). Technology
organizations can make or break diversity and inclusion initiatives, and the attitudes of key
leaders set the tone for the entire organization (Wynn, 2020). Organizations failing to integrate
diversity into their workforce incur substantial costs that are related to turnover and absenteeism
of dissatisfied women and people of color (Cox & Blake, 1991). Ultimately, organizations with
higher levels of employee diversity have demonstrated consistently a stronger financial
performance (Conway et al., 2018).
Cultural Setting 1: Eliminating Discriminatory Practices
Technology organizations need to actively recruit leaders in a manner that does not rely
upon a single senior leadership prototype. The commercial benefits of a diverse workforce will
generate greater awareness for employees and lead to an improved technology field (Tipper,
2004). Recognizing that technology companies of all sizes continue to draw from a narrow talent
pool that is primarily composed of White and Asian men from elite educational institutions
exposes the need to recruit leaders that are not consistent with a single senior leadership
prototype (Conway et al., 2018).

27
The performance potential of women of color is restrained when performance
requirements are shaped by group stereotypes where the prototypical leader is White and male
(Cook & Glass, 2014). Additionally, stereotype threat has a significant impact on the recruitment
process of employment (Amadieu & Roy, 2019). Correspondence testing conducted by González
et al. (2019) revealed gender bias in recruitment is reduced when women have higher
qualifications and increased when women have children. Discrimination based on descriptive
and perspective stereotypes contribute to discriminatory practices that distinguish candidates in
terms of qualifications and parenthood status (González et al., 2019). To widen the pool of
recruits, organizations must have an effective strategy to reach their target audience (Tipper,
2004). The absence of discrimination, bias, and a narrow talent pool eliminates gender and ethnic
hierarchy throughout the hiring process (Liebkind et al., 2016).
Cultural Setting 2: Technology Organizations Need to Have a Mentorship Program
Technology organizations need to have a mentorship program designed to support the career
progression of women of color. An employee’s career and personal development is enhanced
through mentoring relationships (Allen & Eby, 2003). According to the PEW research center,
STEM workers agree having a mentor increases their chances of career progression (Funk &
Parker, 2018). The composition and quality of mentoring programs are helpful to women
aspiring senior leadership roles in technology (Lyness & Grotto, 2018). The comparative study
conducted by Dreher and Ash (1990) provided linkages between extensive mentoring
relationships and employees receiving more promotions, higher incomes, and work satisfaction.
Ragins et al. (2017) proclaimed mentors from the same social identity group could potentially
help address challenges, negative effects of ambient discrimination, and offer a high-quality
relationship. While gender biases, lack of mentorship and sponsorship, and lack of access

28
continue to create challenges for women of color in technology and senior leadership positions,
developing an effective mentorship program would support the career progression of women of
color.
Cultural Setting 3: Technology Organizations Need to Invest Resources in Women of Color
Technology organizations invest resources in incentivizing women of color to remain
with and promote within the organization. Providing opportunities for growth and development
for women of color decreases the various challenges and barriers women of color face in the
corporate workplace (White & Massiha, 2016). A negative workplace culture disproportionally
affects underrepresented women of color and increases employee turnover while lowering
retention rates (Scott, 2017). The lack of equity and promotion processes negatively impacts
retention and exacerbates pay gaps (Martin, 2018). Technology organizations that incentivize
retaining and promoting women of color from within their organization reduce external stressors,
improve work life balance, and reduce bias in retention, promotion, and advancement (Martin,
2018). Table 2 identifies the five organizational influences reviewed that are pertinent to women
of color in technology seeking promotion to senior leadership positions.

29
Table 2
Organizational Influences
Organizational influence category Organizational influence
Cultural models Technology organizations need to
value a culture of fairness that
incorporates inclusive selection,
retention, and promotion.

Technology organizations need to
view diversity and inclusion as
essential to their business model
and future growth.
Cultural settings Technology organizations need to
actively recruit leaders in a
manner that does not rely upon a
single senior leadership prototype.

Technology organizations need to
have a mentorship program
designed to support the career
progression for women of color.

Technology organizations need to
invest resources in incentivizing
women of color to remain with
and promote within the
organization.

Knowledge and Skills Perspectives
This study does not have preconceived knowledge influences. As a result, this section
aims to examine literature surrounding knowledge and its influences on women of color who
have sought after and achieved promotion into senior-level and management positions in the
technology field. Oftentimes, people are unaware of their own lack of knowledge and skills,

30
which is why Clark and Estes (2008) suggested that it is crucial to determine whether or not
people understand how (and when, what, why, where, and who) to achieve their performance
goals. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that knowledge and skill enhancement are indispensable
for job performance when people do not understand how to accomplish their performance goals
and when they expect future challenges will require convergent thinking. This section of the
literature review focuses on the knowledge and skills perspectives of the identified stakeholders
based upon prior studies; this study seeks to add to the understanding of what knowledge and
skills have been helpful to women of color who have been successful from their own perspective.
There are four comprehensive categories for knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural,
and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). When a person does not recognize they lack factual,
conceptual, or procedural knowledge, they are less likely to make any effort to obtain or produce
new knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge refers to the fundamental components
people must know to be familiar with a discipline or to solve problems (Krathwohl, 2002).
Conceptual knowledge is the interrelationship between basic components within a larger
structure that permits them to function together (Krathwohl, 2002). According to (Krathwohl,
2002), there are three subcategories of knowledge under conceptual knowledge: knowledge of
classification and categories, knowledge of principles and generalizations, and knowledge of
theories, models, and structures. The methods of inquiry, understanding how to do something,
and the criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods fall under procedural
knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). There are also three subcategories associated with procedural
knowledge: knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms, knowledge of subject specific
techniques and methods, and knowledge of criteria for determining appropriate procedures
(Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge involves awareness and knowledge of a person’s

31
cognitive abilities (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive activity involves strategic knowledge,
knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Discussion follows of
the types of knowledge previous literature suggests stakeholders must possess to attain senior
leadership positions in technology.
Recognizing When Gender and Race Stereotypes Are Present
The ability to recognize when gender and race stereotypes are present in their work
environment is a knowledge influence that impacts women of color seeking promotions to
technology senior leadership positions. This knowledge influence is categorized as conceptual
knowledge. The intersectionality between race and senior leadership causes racial and sexual
stereotyping. Amongst all the presented barriers, female leaders reported stereotyping as the
most significant barrier to advancement (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Women of color in leadership positions are considered victims of triple jeopardy as
discussed in earlier portions of this study, facing stereotypical threats associated with gender,
race, and ethnicity (Taylor & Richards, 2019). Traditional workplace norms require women to
conform to European American prototypes to be selected for sponsorship and higher-level
positions (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Women of color represent a variety of racial
backgrounds and their leadership styles reflect self-confidence, independence, and directness -
leadership styles different from those of European backgrounds (Parker & Ogilvie, 1996;
Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Although women of color have entered middle and top
management levels, they are still reporting feelings of conformity, perfection, and isolation
(Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). Misperceptions associated with their gender roles, social norms,
and identities induce cultural and emotional taxation (Hirshfield & Joseph, 2012). Awareness
and recognition of gender and race stereotypes in the work environment is important but

32
empowerment with knowledge is what influences the path to a diverse workforce (Roseberry,
2017).
Implementing Coping Strategies
There is an overwhelming amount of literature that focuses on how women of color
utilize coping strategies to overcome health and financial issues and little attention is given to
how women of color in leadership positions overcome racism and sexism (Reynolds et al.,
2000). While racism and gender discrimination impact the lives of women of color at all stages
of their lives, this study focuses on how women of color in leadership positions have developed
coping strategies to navigate through these barriers in the workplace. Women of color, primarily
Black and Latinx women, rely heavily on their networks to cope with life’s challenges. The
reliance manifests through family, friends, and church, and though these networks may not
necessarily serve as a monetary resource, they provide ample social support to help overcome
stressors (Spates et al., 2020). Religion and spirituality were common coping strategies
employed by the majority of the participants. Holding onto the belief that God has the ability to
change one’s circumstances is a prominent coping mechanism amongst Black and Latinx women
(Banks-Wallace & Parks, 2004; Thomas et al., 2008).
Another knowledge influence that impacts a woman of color's ability to seek promotion
within the technology field is their ability to implement coping strategies to navigate gender and
race-based barriers in the workplace. This knowledge influence is categorized as procedural
knowledge. Understanding how women of color successfully navigate through gender and race-
based barriers creates supportive coping strategies for all women of color who are
underrepresented in technology (King Miller, 2017). Gender and race barriers are a chronic
stressor for women of color which is why they utilize coping mechanisms to overcome the

33
triangulation of race, gender and socioeconomic status (Brown & Keith, 2003; Hall et al., 2012).
Coping is described by Hall et al. (2012) as a process that involves four basic steps. The first step
is determining whether or not the situation is controllable and what the implications to one’s
well-being is (Hall et al., 2012). The second step involves an assessment of available resources
and determining how effective one’s coping strategy is. Executing the coping strategy is the third
step and the final step requires the individual to evaluate the effectiveness of the coping strategy
used (Hall et al., 2012).
While the unique construct of race and ethnic identification impacts the identity of
women of color, their ability to participate in STEM and achieve senior leadership and
management positions in their fields is a direct result of their successfully maneuvering through
hegemonic and misogynistic systems (King Miller, 2017). In 2017, King Miller conducted a
study of how Afro Caribbean women have navigated through STEM by overcoming barriers of
gender and race. The study revealed five foundational elements: strong family of origin and male
presence, strong cultural identity, transferable values, strategies and skills, self-confidence,
opportunity, and STEM attainment (King Miller, 2017). An analysis of emergent themes was
conducted during this study to determine if these foundational elements serve as strategies for
women of color in navigating through race and gender barriers to enter senior leadership roles
within technology. Ultimately, the manner in which disadvantaged group members perceive and
overcome discrimination in the workplace impacts their career trajectory (Ruggiero & Taylor,
1995).
Strategies to Overcome Taxation
Past research suggests taxation impacts a woman of color’s ability to seek a senior
leadership promotion in technology is their ability to reflect and develop strategies to overcome

34
taxation. This knowledge influence is categorized as metacognitive knowledge. Taxation is
linked to retention issues and is associated with threats to health and well-being (Thorpe-Moscon
et al., 2019). Taxation in the form of unequal expectations causes women of color to feel
rejected, unqualified, and unvalued (Joseph & Hirshfield, 2011). Being able to encourage
dialogue, promote expressions of difference, share experiences, and be open to being challenged
and accepting another person’s perspective helps women of color in the workplace overcome
taxation (Travis & Thorpe-Moscon, 2018).
The Role of Motivation
Similarly, to the knowledge influences, this study does not have any predetermined
motivational influences. Therefore, this section will examine the literature surrounding
motivation and its influences on women of color seeking promotion to senior-level and
management positions in the technology field. According to research collected by Clark and
Estes (2008), motivation influences how one chooses to work towards a goal, how one persists
until the goal is achieved, and how much mental effort one invests to achieve the goal.
Ultimately, motivation tells an individual how much effort should be expended to accomplish
work taste and goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
When examining what motivates women of color to seek senior roles, it is important to
take into consideration the mental effort they invest. Increased performance may be achieved
through: active choice, the intention to pursue a goal is replaced by an actual action; persistence,
despite distractions, an individual continues to pursue their goal; and mental effort, working
smarter and developing novel solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008). The following sub-sections
explore what past research has found regarding the role of self-efficacy theory, expectancy value
theory, and attribution theory for individuals in attaining promotion.

35
Self-Efficacy in Promotion
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s beliefs concerning their ability to successfully
perform a task, behavior, or goal (Betz, 2004). Bandura (1977), in his seminal work, posited that
self-efficacy affects whether or not a person will attempt certain tasks, behaviors, or goals.
Furthermore, self-efficacy determines the effort an individual expends and the level of
persistence they execute (Bandura, 1977). Outcome expectancies and personal efficacy
expectancies influence an individual’s behavior (Bandura, 1977). Craft & Hogan (1985) define
outcome expectancies as the belief that certain actions will lead to certain results. Conversely,
personal efficacy expectancies consist of the belief that an individual can successfully execute
the action in question (Craft & Hogan, 1985). While inefficacious individuals are likely to limit
their own behavior and exhibit strong self-doubt, efficacious individuals do not give up trying
and believe they can achieve the desired performance, ultimately persevering and mastering
desired levels of performance (Bandura, 1977).
Self-efficacy highlights that the confidence an individual brings to a specific task may be
pivotal or detrimental to their success (Pajares & Johnson, 1994). Although confidence and self-
efficacy are closely related, confidence is a catchword and not a construct in the theory of self-
efficacy (Dean et al., 2009). White and Massiha (2016) argued that confidence is a critical factor
in the persistence of women in STEM. Women of color that have managed to obtain senior
leadership roles in the leaky pipeline have displayed an ability to build on their senior leadership
skills and acquire the necessary confidence to achieve their strategic and professional goals
(Dean et al., 2009).

36
Valuing Career Progression Over Perceived Alternatives
In his original model, Atkinson (1957) defined the expectancy value theory as the inverse
of an individual’s expectancy for success, thus constraining the task value. In 1983 Eccles et al.
extensively elaborated on the task value construct. The expectancy value theory (EVT)
postulates that expectancy and value are interrelated (Smith et al., 2015). The model has three
components: a psychological component consisting of ambitions, interests, values, and
competence beliefs; a biological component consisting of the effects behavior and hormones
have on the development of skills, competence beliefs, and values; and a socialization
component consisting of the influences society and culture have on the development of beliefs,
ambitions, interests, and values (Wang & Degol, 2013).
According to the expectancy-value model, achievement-related choices and career
ambitions are psychologically influenced by ability, perceived competence, and subjective task
value (Wang & Degol, 2013). Wang and Degol (2013) believe subjective task value includes
interest value (satisfaction), utility value (value of the task for assistance in achieving personal
goals), attainment value (the connection between the task and one’s identity), and cost (the
expected psychological, economic, and social costs of tasks). Ultimately, individuals select,
persevere, and succeed in career fields they believe they will excel in (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
EVT suggests a woman’s motivation will similarly suffer if stereotype threat is present
(Smith et al., 2015). Understanding the role of value in the expectancy-value model is key to
understanding the motivation of women choosing and excelling in STEM (Wang & Degol,
2013). A career or task has utility value only when an individual perceives the task will afford
them the opportunity to achieve a short- or long-term goal (Wang & Degol, 2013). Considering
utility value is an extensive category, Wang and Degol (2013) focus on communal and agentic

37
utility to explain differences in gender norms and agency. Communal values refer to tasks that
are other-oriented, tasks that involve working with others, whereas agentic values refer to tasks
that provide power or autonomy (Wang & Degol, 2013). Women are deterred from pursuing
male-dominated disciplines as they are low in communal values (Diekman et al., 2011). Drawing
on EVT, career achievement related behaviors are related to expectations for success and the
value attached to options perceived as available (Wang & Degol, 2013). The value one attaches
to their career choice emerges with one’s confidence in their ability to succeed and personal self-
efficacy (Wang & Degol, 2013).
Women of Color Manage Feelings of Hyper Self-awareness Towards Being a Woman of
Color and Acknowledge the Role Their Own Effort Plays in Their Success
The attribution theory of motivation serves as the transition into cognitive perspectives
through the understanding of gender differences in achievement motivation (Meece et al., 2006).
Weiner (1985) highlighted the importance of the cognitive process and the role interpreting
success and failure experiences played in achievement situations. An individual’s success or
failure may be attributed to their aptitude or ability factor (Graham, 1997). According to Graham
(1997), the effort factor includes both short- and long-term exertion, ease of task, family and
cultural background, mood, luck, available assistance, and hindrance from others. The theory
focuses on three casual dimensions, locus, causes that are internal or external to an individual;
stability, causes that are constant or varying over time; and controllability, a dimension that
deciphers weather or not a cause is subject to volitional influence (Graham, 1997). The three
dimensions have psychological and behavioral consequences and while it may not encompass the
multitude of factors related to the motivation of women of color in technology, it does provide a
useful framework for weighing those factors.

38
Focusing on the controllability dimension of the attribution theory of motivation, this
motivational construct attempts to link emotions to subsequent behavior of women of color
seeking promotion to senior leadership positions in technology (Graham, 1997). The workplace
experiences and career paths of women and men entering the technology field quickly diverge
(Becker & Wright, 2011). Women tend to be reluctant to gain advancement in the workplace as a
result of self-confidence issues and their self-awareness of their own capabilities (Sturm et al.,
2014). Specifically, women of color tend to be hyper self-aware of their socio-identity (Ngunjiri
& Hernandez, 2017). Within the context of self-awareness, women of color are aware of the
color as a primary and confrontational presence (Ngunjiri & Hernandez, 2017). Women of color
managing their feelings of hyper self-awareness towards being a woman of color and
acknowledging their role in their own success decreases double consciousness and increases their
ability to excel (Ngunjiri & Hernandez, 2017). This study seeks to explore the motivation of
women of color career progression in senior management within the technology field.
Conceptual Framework
The goal of a conceptual framework is to group and define relevant concepts and map
relationships to them (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). Maxwell (2012) claimed the conceptual
framework serves a tentative theory designed to justify research. The conceptual framework may
be a visual or written product that provides narrative or graphical forms of key concepts,
according to Maxwell (2012) this framework is constructed and not found. As noted by Merriam
and Tisdell (2015), a weak or poorly articulated conceptual framework may result in a study
being rejected by a committee or publication. To help organize the conceptual framework, this
study incorporates relevant theories and empirical research (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009).

39
In this section, the study attempts to lay the foundation for the importance of the problem
statement and research questions (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis provides a systematic framework to build an understanding of the problem and
influencing factors. Through the gap analysis, this research study sought to gain a better
understanding of the relationship between KMO influences contributing to the severe
underrepresentation of women of color in technology. Moreover, this analysis intended to build
an understanding of the senior leadership barriers in the technology pipeline and its effects on the
advancement of women of color.
While the potential influences in the organizational influences of women of color in
technology are presented independently, they do not remain in isolation from one another. This
section presents the interaction between those influences for women of color in technology
seeking promotion to senior leadership positions. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the
conceptual framework illustrating the KMO influences required to achieve the field performance
goal.

40
Figure 1
Modified Conceptual Framework for Study

Women of Color Attain Senior Leadership Roles in Technology
Organization
Value a culture of
fairness that
incorporates inclusive
selection, retention,
and promotion
View diversity and
inclusion as essential
to business growth
Develop and maintain
a business model that
prioritizes diversity
and inclusion for
future growth
Examine biases in
recruiting, retention,
and promotion
practices
Design mentorship
porgrams that
support career
progression for
women of color
Motivation
(Exploratory)
Knowledge
(Exploratory)

41
Summary
Chapter Two provided a literature review on the organizational influences impacting
women of color in technology seeking promotion to senior leadership positions. These influences
presented cultural models on the need to value a culture of fairness and the role diversity and
inclusion play in business growth. The relationship between organizational influences and
cultural settings explored how eliminating discriminatory practices, establishing a mentorship
program, and investing in women of color could increase the representation of women of color in
senior leadership positions within the technology field. Chapter Three presents the
methodological approach for this study.

42
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter presents the methodology, which includes attention to the participants, data
collection, and analysis for this study. The purpose of this study was to explore and understand
the effect that organizational barriers and gender and racial bias have on the promotion of
women of color to senior leadership positions in technology. Furthermore, this study sought to
understand through qualitative methods how these barriers and bias translate into the KMO
influences that affect the fulfillment of the field performance goal. The questions that guided this
study are the following:
1. How have organizational and external influences impacted women of color
leaders’ pursuit of senior leadership positions within technology companies?
2. What were the knowledge and motivational influences that have enabled
women of color leaders in their pursuit of corporate senior leadership
positions within technology companies?
Overview of Methodology
Qualitative methods of research provide a deeper understanding through interviews than
quantitative methods through questionnaires (Silverman, 2013). Participants not willing to
openly discuss sensitive topics, such as race and bias in the workplace, prefer interviews over a
group setting (Gill et al., 2008). Considering the methodological approach and desired
population, interviews, document analysis, and artifact analysis are the methods of data
collection in this study. Table 3 includes the methods used to collect data for each study
question.

43
Table 3
Data Sources
Study questions Method 1: Interview Method 2: Document/artifact
analysis
What are the knowledge and
motivational influences of
women of color that
impact their pursuit of
corporate senior leadership
positions within
technology companies?
X

How do the organizational
and external influences
impact women of color
seeking corporate senior
leadership positions within
technology companies?
X X

Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis Plan
This study collected qualitative data through interviews of the available population and
willingness of participants. In addition to interviews, an analysis of documents and artifacts was
conducted. Documents on diversity and inclusion policies, processes, and procedures were also
be reviewed. Participants were solicited through LinkedIn and available networks through direct
messages and email. The participants selected for the study were women identifying as women
of color in technology that hold or have held executive, director, or senior management roles in a
technology company.
Understanding the importance of the sample size, nonrandom sampling methods were
used to identify individuals who meet the stakeholder criteria. Convenience sampling was used
to identify participants that met the criteria for the study by all available means and snowball

44
sampling was used to ask participants to identify friends and acquaintances that met the
stakeholder criteria (Emerson, 2015). The current global pandemic caused by the coronavirus
disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led to the Office for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS)
prohibiting direct in-person participant interaction. Following the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, all communication regarding interviews,
documents, and artifacts was conducted electronically and virtually. All interviews were
conducted using video teleconferencing and the data collection was completed in four phases:
1. Coding of transcripts to identify initial categories and themes.
2. Identification of open, axial, and selective codes.
3. Identification of themes through the review of categories, themes, and codes.
4. Thorough review of findings under each category and theme.
Method 1: Interviews
Qualitative interviews were categorized as unstructured, semi-structured, or structured
(Dicicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). This study utilized semi-structured interviews as a source for
qualitative data. Semi-structured interviews were scheduled in advance and were organized
around a set of predetermined questions (Dicicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). While there were a
set of open-ended questions, questions emerging from dialogue during the interview formulated
qualitative data. During the interview, as recommended and described by Bolderston (2012), I
was free to rephrase questions to explore areas of interest that emerged.
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholder group, as identified in Chapter One, consisted of women
identifying as women of color in technology that hold or have held executive, director, or senior
management roles in a technology company. The findings and recommendations in this study

45
were geared towards the organizations so that they may better support women by understanding
the generalizable attributes, influences, barriers, and assets that impact the promotion of women
of color in technology.
For this study, participants were chosen based on certain criteria. Selected participants
held or currently hold executive, director, or senior management roles in a technology company.
The desired interview participant sample consisted of three executives, three directors, and six
senior managers. Though the desired number of participants was not achieved, there were a total
of eight participants that agreed to participate in this exploratory study.
With the aim to solicit 12 participants, 50 formal invitations to participate in the study
were submitted through LinkedIn to individuals whose job titles appeared to fit the criteria
(Appendix A). The invitations outlined the purpose of the study, the conditions of their
participation, and a confidentiality statement. The identity of the participants was confirmed
through a Google and LinkedIn search. Participants for this study were asked to identify
additional potential participants. When data saturation was reached in the interview data, I ended
the interview portion of the study and transitioned to document and artifact analysis.
Instrumentation
Interviews were conducted to capture the experiences of each participant and to obtain a
profound understanding of their career paths. The interview included open-ended questions to
assess the organizational influences relating to the attainment of technology senior leadership
positions and to discern how these influences are shaped by gender-based societal rules and
expectations as perceived by the participants. The interview questions were created in a semi-
structured format to allow dialogue between the interviewer and interview participants. I utilized

46
a detailed list of questions to guide the semi-structured interview. The interview protocol is
provided in Appendix B.
Data Collection Procedures
The interviews were conducted through Zoom, a cloud-based video conferencing
software application (Norman, 2020). Interviews were conducted individually and lasted
approximately 45 minutes. Zoom enables users to store video and audio recordings directly to
their local device or on Zoom’s cloud (Archibald et al., 2019). Each interview was automatically
recorded under the interviewer’s user profile. All interview transcripts were transcribed using a
third-party provider. Zoom is a useful method for conducting qualitative interviews and is the
most preferred method in comparison to in person or telephone interviews (Archibald et al.,
2019).
Data Analysis
Data analysis for the qualitative interviews began following completion of all interviews.
Transcript protocol was utilized to minimize the chances of an incompatible transcript and
compromised or delayed data analysis (McLellan et al., 2003). Mergenthaler and Stinson’s
(1992) transcription principles were applied to each interview that was transcribed and coded.
The principles were applied during data analysis to preserve the naturalness of the transcription
and to preserve the naturalness of the transcription’s structure (Mergenthaler & Stinson, 1992).
Data analysis of each interview consisted of four phases to uncover and gather data (Harding,
2018). The first phases consisted of open coding the transcripts. The second phase is where
themes and categories were identified, after which data was compiled and placed into sections
and groups within the identified themes and categories. The final phase required me to review

47
codes and themes to determine effectiveness and to look for findings and assertions within each
theme and category.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative research is often criticized for failing to address issues of validity, reliability,
credibility, and trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Data collected during this study
revealed descriptions of each interviewee’s experiences. Credibility was achieved immediately
when the interviewees were able to immediately recognize the descriptions and interpretations as
their own (Sandelowski, 1986). Furthermore, the coding system devised to identify themes and
categories diminished the risk of fallacy (Miles & Michael Huberman, 1994). Individuals
unfamiliar with the subject and content of a study may provide additional validity to a study
(Burnard, 1991). For that reason, applicability and trustworthiness further enhanced this
qualitative study by asking two other women of color in senior leadership roles to read randomly
selected transcripts. It was extremely important for the overall success of this qualitative study
that the interview approach, design, data collection, and data analysis followed USC protocols to
ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of this project. The entire validity, reliability,
credibility, and trustworthiness of this study depended on the information provided by the
interviewees.
Method 2: Document and Artifact Analysis
During the process of qualitative research, qualitative documents and artifacts were
collected. Documents and artifacts were analyzed in order to examine the alignment between the
underrepresentation of women of color in technology senior leadership roles and the common
barriers and assets impacting their promotion. The systematic procedure for reviewing
documents that are printed and electronic is referred to as document analysis (Bowen & Others,

48
2009). Merriam and Tisdell (2015) referred to artifacts as physical things that reveal meaningful
data about research participants. Documents analyzed for the purpose of this study were solicited
and provided by participants. Data from multiple sources were collected to ensure the credibility
of the study’s findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Different data provided a possibility for
triangulation and assistance with ensuring validity of the study (Maxwell, 2012). Though often
overlapping, a thorough analysis of documents and artifacts illuminated the research questions
(Bowen & Others, 2009).
Data Collection Procedures
This study intended to conduct a review of documents and artifacts as a means to conduct
triangulation with interview data in order to identify gaps between the various interviews and
collected data (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). To ensure parallelism between research participants
and data collection, this study aimed to collect documents and artifacts from the companies and
organizations the participants belonged to. This collection strategy for the purpose of obtaining
documents regarded the organizational and external influences increasing barriers for women of
color seeking corporate senior leadership positions within technology. Altheide’s (1996) method
of qualitative document analysis was followed to conduct a systematic analysis of the collected
documents and artifacts. A specific problem was investigated in order to become familiar with
the source of information, categorize the items on a data collection sheet, develop a protocol, and
test the protocol by collecting data from several documents and artifacts (Altheide, 1996).
Documents and artifacts, such as public diversity reports and job advertisements for senior
positions from the participants’ companies, were analyzed. The data collection process of these
diversity reports focused on capturing the depth and quality of each technology company’s
diversity and inclusion initiatives.

49
Data Analysis
Qualitative document and artifact analysis emphasizes discovery and description to
identify patterns and processes (Altheide, 1996. Emergent coding was utilized to identify
relevant terms and topics upon review of the collected documents and artifacts. Triangulation
was achieved in this qualitative study through combining different kinds of qualitative methods.
The logic of triangulation in this study was based on the premise that a single qualitative method
cannot adequately solve the problem of practice (Patton, 1999). Combinations of interviews,
observations, document analysis, and artifact analysis increased validity and credibility by
diminishing the risk of data fallacy (Hubberman & Miles, 1994). The multiple methods of data
collection provided cross-data validity checks by combining different types of qualitative
methods, purposeful samples, and various perspectives (Hubberman & Miles, 1994). To ensure
credibility of data and to provide a rich picture, multiple sources were used to retrieve periodic
and annual reports, evaluation tools, charts, and job descriptions found on the aforementioned
company websites and the recruiting platform on LinkedIn. These various types of documents
and artifacts allowed me to triangulate emerging data, substantiate findings and assess the
organizational and external influences (Miles et al., 2014).
Ethics and Role of Researcher
Ethics play a prominent role in developing an ethical research study (Wolff & Hella,
2018). There may be potential ethical conflicts with how a researcher obtains access to their case
study participants, especially if the researcher has an effect on the selected participants (Orb et
al., 2004). Batchelor and Briggs (1994) believed researchers often fail to address potential and
existing ethical issues which causes researchers to be ill-prepared with unpredictable aspects of
their qualitative research. Furthermore, I was aware that my role as a senior leader in the

50
military, as a woman of color in human resource technology, may have an effect on the quality
of discussion regarding diversity, equity, and inclusion. Due to my positionality, I realized the
importance of transparency regarding my personal assumptions, values, and biases.
This study explored, examined, and described participants and the environment in which
they belong to. To ensure the relationship and power between the participants and myself was
ethical, the willingness of each participant to share depended on what they were willing to share.
As suggested by Batchelor and Briggs (1994), stopping an interview to provide participants with
possible solutions to reduce stress and vulnerability is key to an ethical qualitative study.
Throughout this study, I attempted to gain the trust of each participant. The information sheet for
exempt research (Appendix A) was provided to study participants during recruitment.
Summary
Chapter Three examined the methodology this study will employ to evaluate the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of women of color seeking senior
leadership positions in technology companies. This chapter outlined the procedures and
methodology used for the qualitative study which included interviews, document analysis, and
artifact analysis. Chapter Four will present study findings.

51
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore and understand the effect that
organizational barriers and gender and racial bias have on the promotion of women of color to
senior leadership roles within technology. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework
guided the analysis of challenges and barriers in the area of organizational culture. Following a
qualitative research approach, this study used interviews, document analysis, and artifact analysis
to collect data. However, as discussed below, the documents and artifacts provided by the
participants were not usable for the purpose of answering the research questions. As a result, the
data collected from interviews were the only data used to uncover how organizational
deficiencies contribute to the underrepresentation of women of color in senior leadership roles
within the technology field.
This chapter presents data collected that explore the assumed organizational causes
identified in Chapter Three that relate to the underrepresentation of women of color in senior
leadership roles within the technology field. A total of eight one-on-one semi-structured
interviews were conducted among a purposeful sample of women of color that have held or
currently hold senior leadership positions in the technology field. Interview questions (Appendix
B) were derived from the study’s research questions:
1. How have organizational and external influences impacted women of color
leaders’ pursuit of senior leadership positions within technology companies?
2. What were the knowledge and motivational influences that have enabled
women of color leaders in their pursuit of corporate senior leadership
positions within technology companies?

52
To obtain a dataset to help understand the problem, I conducted the interviews first and
captured an audio recording of the interviews through Zoom. Upon completion of each
interview, I transcribed the recordings and then reviewed the transcripts with ATLAS.ti.
ATLAS.ti is a data analysis software used by professionals and researchers across fields to
conduct data analysis in qualitative research (Soratto et al., 2020). The software was used to
search for common themes in the experiences of the women of color in senior positions being
interviewed. Following the interviews, documents were collected and analyzed to provide
supplementary information on current practices and issues in the technology field. This chapter
intends to present the findings generated by the analysis of the collected data. Chapter Four
includes discussions on demographics, research questions, and findings.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this qualitative study consisted of participants who identify
as women of color in technology who hold or have held executive, director, or senior
management roles in a technology company. Following University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, participants were solicited via email and LinkedIn as
described in Chapter Three to participate in interviews. While there were 80 participants solicited
for this study; eight agreed to participate in the interview process.
Demographics
The purpose of the demographic data is to describe the characteristics and attributes of
the interview participants. For this study, only data for race, gender, and job title were collected.
Each participant was a woman of color in technology that holds or had previously held a senior
position of leadership. This study’s participant population was composed of 25% Asian women,
25% Black women, and 50% Latinx women. The recruitment process unveiled a divide between

53
society’s perceptions of what a woman of color is versus an individual’s perception and personal
label. As described in Chapter One, a woman of color is a phrase used to describe women who
are Black or African American, Hispanic or Latinx, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native
Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, Asians, and other. However, nearly 30 participants
declined to participate in this exploratory study when recruited because they did not identify as a
woman of color although I purposefully recruited them based upon descriptions of them in
magazines, social media, and other business forums as women of color in the technology field.
Chapter Five will discuss the multiple intersectionalities in depth. Table 4 summarizes the
demographic composition of the interview participants, and Table 5 identifies how the
participants will be referred to for the purpose of data analysis in this chapter. Given the limited
number of women of color in these senior leadership positions within technology, demographic
data is aggregated or purposefully vague (e.g., age) to prevent the individuals from being
identified.

54
Table 4
Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 8)
Demographic data n of Participants
Race
Black 2
Latinx 4
Asian 2
Highest position held

Chief executive officer 2
Vice president 2
Senior manager 4

Table 5
Pseudonyms and Race of Interview Participants
Pseudonyms Race Age
Interviewee 1: Ms. Johnson Black Under 40
Interviewee 2: Ms. Brown Black Under 40
Interviewee 3: Ms. Lopez Latinx Under 40
Interviewee 4: Ms. Rodriguez Latinx Under 40
Interviewee 5: Ms. Padilla Latinx Over 40
Interviewee 6: Ms. Martin Latinx Over 40
Interviewee 7: Ms. Lee Asian Over 40
Interviewee 8: Ms. Robertson Asian Over 40

55
Document and Artifact Analysis
During the interview process, two separate interview participants provided documents for
further analysis. The participants believed these documents would be helpful during the data
collection process. Given that the documents provided were not specific to a particular
organization, information gathered from the provided documents were incorporated into the
literature review found in Chapter Two. Lastly, the public diversity reports and job
advertisements analyzed did not provide depth or quality to this study. As a result, document and
artifact analysis is not discussed further in Chapter Four.
Research Question 1: How Have Organizational and External Influences Impacted Women
of Color Leaders’ Pursuit of Senior Leadership Positions Within Technology Companies?
The first research question proposed by this study was intended to uncover the
organizational and external deficiencies that have contributed to the underrepresentation of
women of color in technology at the senior leader level. The threshold for identifying a theme for
the purpose of this research question was six out of the eight participants identifying a construct
or idea. Interview participants were asked to describe in their own words how organizational and
external influences have impacted their pursuit of senior leadership positions within their field.
All eight participants (100%) described organizational and external influences that have created
barriers and obstacles throughout their careers. It was important to apply a threshold that would
highlight themes that affected the majority of the participants. As a result, four themes relating to
Research Question 1 were identified.
During the interview process, the assumed organizational influences emerged as within
the technology field. The following four themes emerged in data analysis of the interview data: a
lack of organizational commitment to increasing representation of women of color to remain in

56
technology companies; diversity and inclusion practices and policies in technology companies;
perceptions of gender and race stereotypes present in technology companies; and cultural aspects
of technology that cause women of color to leave the technology field.
Technology Organizations Lack a Culture of Fairness That Incorporates Inclusive
Selection, Retention, and Promotion Practices
Participants for this exploratory study were purposefully selected to provide an in-depth
understanding of the barriers and bias that affect the promotion of women of color to senior
leadership positions in technology. All of these women shared their personal experiences in
attaining a senior leadership position within technology. All eight (100%) of the women
articulated a perception that their organizations lack a culture of fairness that incorporates
inclusive selection, retention, and promotion. Six of the eight participants specifically discussed
the culture of their organizations in relation to perceiving bias and discrimination in relation to
their gender, race, and ethnicity. Ms. Lopez and Ms. Rodriguez focused exclusively on gender-
based issues. Additionally, Ms. Lee articulated that she only became aware of the lack of
inclusive selection, retention, and promotion practices after they had children. The findings in
relation to this influence will be presented according to participants’ perceptions of their
organizations’ cultures in regard to selection, retention, and promotion practices.
Seven of the eight participants reported experiencing gender and racial selection and
hiring bias. Ms. Rodriguez shared that while she had observed lack of fairness throughout her
organization’s selection, retention, and promotion processes, she had never personally
experienced an issue with selection and promotion because she could sometimes pass as a White
woman despite being a woman of color. Six of the participants expressed frustration similar to
what Ms. Lee shared during her interview:

57
It feels like all the weight is always falling on the shoulders of each woman of color at
this organization to push for gender inclusion when it should be shouldered by those in
power. Truthfully, promotion is so incredibly nuanced. The ideal hire is probably a
unicorn and there is no way they’re ever going to find someone who hits all of their
requirements which makes it harder for us to be selected for promotion.
Table 6 highlights selection and hiring issues experienced by the participants. There were
two sub-themes identified; the frequency of these sub-themes refers to the code counts of these
sub-themes.

58
Table 6
Selection and Hiring Issues as Identified by Study Participants
Sub-theme Frequency Key quotes from participants
Underrepresented and isolated 7 At my first job I had issues while pursuing
promotion and trying to climb the
hierarchal ladder because the slightly
older white men did not take a liking to a
woman of color surpassing them. (Ms.
Johnson)

Unlike everyone else, I had to go through
several interview panels before I was
even chosen to interview for the actual
position. (Ms. Roberts)

Exclusive hiring practices 6 I’m glad I left that company because five
years later, I’m at higher position than
the individual that refused to hire me
because I didn’t ‘fit in’ with their
company. (Ms. Rodriguez)

There were hiring parameters for how
many women of color they wanted to
hire. (Ms. Lee)

Go back and actually change the recruiting
process so that women of color are
coming in and being hired. (Ms. Brown)

I would love for senior leaders to actually
make a more conscious effort to broaden
our organization. (Ms. Roberts)

Seven of the eight participants expressed that during the promotion and retention process,
they felt there was not a clear path of success for them. Ms. Martin shared that she did not think
“there is a fair landscape for women of color to walk on, they need to help build a path for many
more to continue to climb.” Ms. Padilla highlighted promotion concerns in her interview:

59
We do not see a lot of promotion of woman of color. They promote people that think like
them and look like them or people that are friends with them and then they pass us up for
promotion and tell us what we need to work on to be considered for promotion the next
time around. Not everyone thinks the same way and not everyone comes from the same
cultural background, so it’s obvious that the way we talk and express our opinions is
going to be different. So, when we don’t act or talk like them right out the bat, we’re
already experiencing bias.
All eight participants expressed that increasing the representation of women of color in
their organization would result in higher retention rates among women of color. Ms. Robertson
suggested that the technology field focus on selection from communities that would help close
both the gender and racial gaps. As Ms. Brown stated, “inclusive selection, retention, and
promotion practices may be achieved in the technology field if investments are made further
down the technology pipeline.”
Table 7 provides key quotes from participants that are related to promotion and retention
issues. There are four sub-themes highlighted in this table, and the frequency of these sub-themes
refers to the code counts and not the number of participants that referenced a sub-theme.

60
Table 7
Promotion and Retention Issues as Identified by Study Participants
Sub-theme Frequency Key quotes from participants
Need more organizational support 7 They have to consider the whole
person and the organization.
There’s no way to keep those
separate. (Ms. Lee)

It’s more than lip service. They have
to let us know they have our backs.
(Ms. Johnson)

I would love for senior leaders to
actually make a more conscious
effort to broaden our organization.
(Ms. Roberts)

Barriers to promotion 7 You’re not going to bully me again. I
will always fight back. I would have
never gotten promoted if I didn’t
confront them. This is a very male
dominated industry; it just is what it
is. (Ms. Martin)

We don’t see the promotion of women
of color a lot. (Ms. Padilla)

Chronic underfunding for retention 6 There’s no budget to invest in the
retention of women of color. (Ms.
Lopez)

Navigating through barriers 7 Promotion used to be all about
survival and now that’s become an
issue. I am smart enough now to
recognize that and know when it’s
time to move out of a situation.
(Ms. Padilla)

I would love for senior leaders to
actually make a more conscious
effort to broaden our organization.
(Ms. Roberts)

61
Sub-theme Frequency Key quotes from participants
It was and continues to be hard to
navigate through gender and race
barriers while trying to seek
promotion. (Ms. Johnson)

“What’s happening is that women of
color are being given crappy work
and eventually they get tired and
leave. (Ms. Martin)

All of the participants expressed how much pressure they felt to work long hours, and
seven of the participants shared that they felt their organization did not support their efforts to
balance work and family responsibilities. Despite feeling proud of their successful careers, six of
the eight participants shared that top management within their organizations lacked a
commitment to diversity and a willingness to help employees balance their work and personal
lives. Six participants expressed that their excessive workloads and long hours affect their
personal relationships and limited their time for personal interests. As a result of long workdays
and unsupportive workplace cultures, three of the participants reported they were divorced, four
reported they had never been married, and four reported they always wanted to have children but
there were major conflicts between work and personal desires. Two of the participants shared
how they had been discriminated against because of their ethnic origin and accent. Four of the
participants reported their perception that organizations are quick to linguistically profile
employees. During their interviews, the participants shared their experiences with accent bias
and how their organizations permitted accent-related biases even though it is a widely
acknowledged form of discrimination. In addition to already struggling to progress in their
careers as women of color, the two participants who discussed this issue believed the high

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ethnocentric attitudes they encountered further placed them at a disadvantage and pressured them
to conform to a certain demographic. Table 8 highlights key quotes from participants regarding
the discrimination they have experienced throughout their career as it relates to work life balance
and accent bias. It is important to note that the frequency of the sub-themes refers to the code
counts.

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Table 8
Promotion and Retention Issues Related to Discrimination as Identified by Study Participants
Sub-theme Frequency Key quotes from participants
Work life balance 7 I want to have a career, first. I never
wanted to have to choose between
my career and family, because I
know that I would always choose
my family and I knew a career was
important to me. (Ms. Brown)

I wanted to be financially stable so I
could live the life that I always
wanted, with no regrets about my
career before seeking to start a
family. (Ms. Brown)

It’s like some sort of suicide between
family and marriage life. (Ms.
Roberts)

“You always have to give up
something and for me, it was giving
up time with my family. (Ms.
Padilla)

“Okay, I can do this. If I want to take
care of my own kids, I’ll just
downgrade my drive of becoming
an executive.” (Ms. Martin)

Accent bias 6 “It’s been pretty difficult since the
beginning. I am the only woman of
color and I have an accent. It added
another element of complexity and I
had to work even harder to
overcome the perceived language
barrier. (Ms. Padilla)

“I force myself to speak in a way that
everyone can understand so that
they don’t think I have any kind of
accent. (Ms. Rodriguez)

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To explore and understand the effect that barriers and bias have on the promotion of
women of color to senior leadership positions in technology, it is necessary to uncover the
organizational influences that are impacting their pursuit to promotion. Data collected from each
interview revealed that the most significant barriers to their advancement were organizational.
The literature review conducted in developing the assumed Cultural Model 1 presented in
Chapter Two identified the need for organizational trust and acceptance to support the
advancement of women of color into leadership roles. There is a clear gap between women of
color in leadership and the level at which organizations value a culture of fairness. A lack of
fairness demonstrated by top-level leaders, as narrated through the experiences of these
participants, undermines the representation of women of color in leadership positions within
technology.
Lack of Organizational Commitment to Increasing Representation of Women of Color to
Remain in Technology Companies
The multiple aspects of a woman of color’s identity yield different experiences and
connections to an organization. In evaluating the literature in the field, assumed Cultural Model 2
uncovered a link between organizational diversity and stronger organizational financial
performance. At differing points in their careers, all of the study’s participants believed their
organizations lacked a commitment to increasing the representation of women of color. Ms.
Brown articulated the following ideas representative of the negative consequence of this lack of
commitment by technology companies:
There is a necessity of critical mass, and if we do not increase the representation of
women of color, the competition will come up even more between women of color
because there simply not enough women of color in this field.

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Both Ms. Johnson and Ms. Martin expressed their frustration with a lack of organizational
commitment. Ms. Lee explained how women of color have “come to recognize [their]
superpowers and what makes [them] special and that it is unfortunate that to this day, there are so
many organizations that cannot and will not recognize and support us.” Two sub-themes
materialized from data analysis and research findings in connection with the lack of
organizational commitment: organizations do not provide tools to combat racial and gender
discrimination and the heightened challenges women of color experience at the intersection of
racism and sexism. These two sub-themes are discussed in the sub-sections below.
Technology Organizations Do Not Provide the Right Tools to Combat Racial and Gender
Discrimination
This study explored the various challenges that women of color face in their quest to
achieve senior leadership positions in technology. Data collected from interviews conducted for
this study revealed thick barriers posed by racism and sexism have created an uneven path of
upward progression for women of color in technology. Participants in this study achieved
leadership positions after carefully maneuvering through complex paths as they tackled issues
associated with racism, sexism, and identity discrimination.
Six of eight participants reported that their organization does not provide diversity and
allyship training to combat racial and gender discrimination. Ms. Lopez was the only participant
to report that her organization takes into account the unique perspectives and experiences of
women of color. She was also the only participant to report that her organization provided
women of color in senior leadership positions opportunities to attend diversity, mentorship, and
sponsorship training. Ms. Padilla believed that diversity and allyship training would “give a big

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jump on helping with retention because a lot of leaders simply do not know how to manage, let
alone, how to manage people of color.”
Seven of eight participants expressed frustration with the lack of mentorship and
sponsorship training provided by their organizations. Ms. Lee shared how she was forced to use
coping strategies early on in her career because, unlike her other women colleagues who were
White, she did not have a mentor. It is absolutely important to provide employees and leaders
with the right tools to combat racial and gender discrimination in the workplace. As Ms. Martin
stated, “once the training is provided, it is the responsibility of everyone within the organization
to learn it, put it into implementation, act on it, observe change and eventually the organization
could become more inclusive.” The findings from the participants suggest that technology
organizations need to have a mentorship program; the need for mentorship programs is reflected
in the literature in Chapter Two, so the findings from the interview data indicate the assumed
Cultural Setting 2 is a gap. Table 9 provides key responses with example quotes from the
participants related to this organizational gap.

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Table 9
Participants Comments About the Lack of Mentorship in Technology
Participant Key quotes from participants
Ms. Lopez “Having a mentor in the company, even if it’s not your manager,
would have made me feel like I had someone in my corner to
advocate for me.”

Ms. Padilla “I needed someone to give me directions when I had questions,
hesitations, or doubt. I needed someone I could go to and
someone who could serve as a mentor or a sponsor that could
lead me to the right direction so that I could accomplish my
work and everything I needed to do. I could have used a
sponsor from the company, someone who could have
advocated for me.”

Ms. Lee “I felt for a very long time that I didn’t have the right leaders
and lacked true mentorship. No one understood what I was
going through.”

“When I was much younger, I did not have the self-awareness I
needed to evaluate my ability. I lacked mentorship. I was one
of the few rising female leaders that did not have a mentor.”

Ms. Johnson “When you get to this level, they assume you do not need
mentorship or guidance. They expect you to self-develop. It
gets very lonely.”

Ms. Rodriguez “Maybe if I had had a mentor or mentorship, I could have had
the opportunity to connect with other women like me but
there was no one to rely on or connect with.”

Women of Color Experience Heightened Challenges at the Intersection Sexism and Racism
Women of color serving in senior leadership positions within the technology field face
heightened challenges rooted in sexism and racism. Seven of the eight participants shared their
experiences with everyday sexism and racism. Ms. Brown highlighted, “microaggressions can
take be subtle while some are more explicit. We need to start talking about the challenges

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women of color in senior leadership are facing because they are much more different than the
challenges White women experience.” During her interview Ms. Johnson shared an intentional
microaggression that signaled disrespect from her colleague who was a White woman:
This is so simplistic and weird to admit but, discrimination based on my race and
discrimination based on my gender is my workplace reality. I always struggle to separate
when I’m experiencing something as a woman or when I’m experiencing something
because I am Black woman. For example, I had a random situation happen in the
lunchroom with a newly hired White woman. This woman didn’t even know me and
made an offhand comment about how Black people are lazy and that they’ve been lazy
since the day they got to this country. She kept doubling and tripling down.
Ms. Padilla also shared a personal experience where she experienced a distinct challenge that
was also discussed by five other participants. In her senior management meetings, Ms. Padilla
was the only woman and the only woman of color. However, there were several other men in the
same conference room, but she was always asked to take the minutes for the meetings even
though she held a higher position than the men in the room. Similarly, to the other participants,
Ms. Lee stated that as a woman of color, in order to face and overcome such obstacles that are
rooted in racism and sexism, “you have to find the willingness to continue despite the challenges
because success is an outcome of learning and overcoming challenges.” These successful women
of color never once complained about the barriers they faced throughout their careers, but they
did share how they overcame these barriers.

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Diversity and Inclusion Is Essential to Organizational Growth and Success
All eight (100%) of the participants identified policies and practices within technology
organizations in which they worked that demonstrated diversity and inclusion are not considered
essential to the business model and future growth of their organizations. Specifically, five of the
eight participants (62%) discussed a disconnection between public portrayal of diversity and
inclusion being essential to their organizations’ business models and actual organizational
practices. According to research, there are three overarching challenges technology companies
face when developing diversity and inclusion practices and policies:
1. Developing context-specific definitions
2. Including dimensions pertinent to the global context
3. Considering the impact, these policies and practices will have on performance
outcomes (Farndale et al., 2015).
Organizations that implement diversity and inclusion practices and policies promote an inclusive
organizational culture that gives employees a sense of belonging and workplace satisfaction,
which in turn, earns the commitment of employees (Findler et al., 2007). The key sub-themes
that emerged in relation to this influence are the following: a lack of diversity and inclusion
practices and policies within technology organizations; when such practices and policies are in
place, they are ceremonial and not adhered to; and women of color report being tokenized in that
they are selected to lead diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs simply because of their
race.
During their interviews, four participants identified that their organizations lack diversity
and inclusion practices and policies entirely. Ms. Lee shared that her company does not have a
company-wide diversity and inclusion strategy, nor does it have any formal policies. When Ms.

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Martin first became a senior manager, she had about 300 engineers reporting to her in one of the
largest organizations in the field. She shared that her organization at the time “did not feel the
need to build a diversity, equity, and inclusion program, which is something an organization
needs to grow an inclusive culture.” Ms. Rodriguez also reported that her organization does not
have any policies or programs, mostly because her organization is an older company that tries to
portray itself as a family-oriented organization when in reality it is a company that practices
nepotism over diversity. Ms. Brown summarized the lack of diversity and inclusion practices and
policies within her organization by stating that for many of technology organizations, the policies
are “window dressing,” meaning they are misleading and top management is at fault for not
promoting these efforts correctly.
Four out of the eight women did report that their organization had formal diversity and
inclusion practices and policies in place, but that they perceived the practices and policies to be
ceremonial in nature and not adhered to in practice. Ms. Lopez referred to her organization’s
written practices and policies as “lip service” because “on the surface level, the organization
appears to have strategic and cohesive policies in place but in reality, it’s just a good ol’ boys
club.” Ms. Roberts stated that from a human resources standpoint, her organization does have
these practices and policies in place but she “would love for them to actually make a more
conscious effort to increase diversity.” During her interview, Ms. Johnson openly shared that
“like many organizations, [her] diversity and inclusion practices and policies are a work in
progress.” She went on to share that her company focuses “more on the task at hand than
demonstrating that it is a progressive organization dedicated to increasing the representation of
women of color in leadership.” Unlike the other three participants, Ms. Padilla admitted the
potential for her own bias when sharing her thoughts on her organization’s practices and policies:

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I was the only minority in my organization so by default, I was tasked to lead the
diversity and inclusion efforts for my organization. There were five other women in
leadership positions, but I was the only person of color. It was only after I reported the
need for an official chief of diversity that my organization sought after one. Of course, I
was tasked to find and hire a chief of diversity because in their eyes, only a person of
color could actually identify what a good chief of diversity is and should be. Once the
hiring process was complete and they were in position, the diversity officer did formalize
some practices and policies, but to be honest, after nine years, I must admit that it’s not
really a program but rather some sort of formal curriculum.
As highlighted in the review of literature related to Cultural Model 2, there is a positive
correlation between increasing diversity and inclusion practices and the mitigation of gender bias
and minimization of gender inequities. Increasing gender diversity has been proven to also
achieve financial success for organizations (Dworkin et al., 2018).
Perceptions of Gender and Race Stereotypes Present in Technology Companies
To better understand the gender and racial imbalance in the technology field, past
research suggested it was important to examine gender and race stereotypes that are present in
technology companies (Trauth et al., 2016). Despite increased attention given to the
underrepresentation of women of color in technology, little attention has been given to the
women of color that are currently in the technology workforce aspiring to achieve senior
leadership positions (McGee, 2018). In this study, I approached the problem of practice from a
gender intersectionality perspective and examined the career progression of each participant,
observing both gender and race to provide greater insight into each participant’s journey towards

72
senior leadership. The existing scholarship in this field presented in Chapter Two informed my
approach.
Of the eight participants, seven shared information that indicated gender and racial
stereotypes promote prejudice and discrimination in their workplaces. During her interview, Ms.
Lee revealed that her organization expected her to have a softer skill set and to have a more
interpersonal approach towards situations:
I do think there is some gender stereotyping. They expected me to be attribute a certain
group of skills, skills that they believed women should hold. Interpersonal skills that were
often stereotyped as feminine.
She also revealed her perception that her organization expected her male counterparts to exhibit
more hands-on skills and the ability to solve complex problems than women. Separately, Ms.
Robertson divulged her frustration towards the assumption that Asian employees are viewed and
treated as the “model minority,” which is a racial stereotype that is not based on merit or
validated.
Black women are often targets of negative stereotyping and are referred to as the “angry
Black woman” (Ashley, 2014). Ms. Johnson shared her experience as a woman of color who has
a military background in the private field. My review of literature indicated that in the male-
dominant technology field, the reality of being a senior leader was problematized by gender and
racial identity (Manongsong & Ghosh, 2021). During her interview, Ms. Johnson shared that the
White men in her organization were praised for their military service, but she in turn was
ostracized:
I remember one time in a meeting someone mentioned that most women leave the
military because of sexual trauma and sexual assault. It was awkward because everyone

73
just starts looking at you, the only veteran in the meeting. I immediately proceeded to tell
everyone that it wasn’t true, but this woman was confident in her online statistics. I had to
play, both sides and the heaviness was a lot. As hard as it was, I had to show up in the
next executive meeting not showing my true emotions. Eventually, I left the company
because I couldn’t take it anymore.
The other employees and colleagues could not see beyond her combat veteran status and
associated her with aggressive, ill-tempered, overbearing, and hostile characteristics without
provocation. Ms. Johnson expressed her frustrations with the negative impact of the double
standard she experienced at the intersection of her veteran status, race, and sex:
We don’t talk about women veterans enough. There’s a lot of misperceptions of veterans
in general. I’ve had some difficult moments when I didn’t agree with a particular
strategy, and I informed everyone that my team would be taking a different approach and
then they would attack me for saying I can’t follow orders despite having once been in
the military. There have also been times where I’ve been openly treated differently
because of my military background, and I have broken down in front of the entire
company just talking about difficult it is to not display emotion. They think I’m this
emotional person that refuses to follow their orders but in reality, it’s difficult to hear my
colleagues talk about how when men leave the military, it’s a part of their identity yet
when women get out, it’s likely because they did something. So, am I going to stand up
for myself? Absolutely, yes!
All in all, women who express or appear to express anger in the workplace are more likely to be
penalized whereas men may be rewarded (Marshburn et al., 2020). The participants of this study
gave voice to the impact of this on their own careers and lives.

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Black women are generally regarded as aggressive or angry women whereas Latinx
women are stereotyped as spicy and loud women that are sassy and needy (Marshburn et al.,
2020). Five of the eight participants shared their quiet struggles as a result of the negative effects
of racial and gender stereotypes. Ms. Lopez and Ms. Rodriguez reported feeling sexualized in the
workplace as a result of biases they experienced in the workplace that appear to be driven by
racial stereotypes. Ms. Rodriguez explained that to push through these stereotypes, she needed to
be more lighthearted and fight to be accepted as “one of the boys.” She also shared her fear of
being perceived as trying to use sexuality to gain upward mobility within the organization
despite her professional interaction with male counterparts and leaders. Gender and race
stereotyping hurts all aspects of a woman’s work life and can lead to a lack of control, a lack of
power, and a lack of job satisfaction (Lindsay & Pasquali, 1993).
Cultural Aspects of the Technology Field Cause Women to Leave Profession
Research suggests that through gender-imbalanced leadership roles and overt use of
gender and racial stereotypes, technology companies create environments that dampen the
interest of women of color (Wynn & Correll, 2018). Interview responses from seven of the eight
participants in this study indicated women of color are dissatisfied and affected by the unfair
behavior and treatment they have experienced in their previous or current organizations. The
culture of an organization is a powerful system, and women of color in technology struggle to
advance in their careers due to unjust systems. This conclusion is evidenced by the data gathered
during interviews with eight women of color from various organizations across the nation. Table
10 summarizes their responses with example quotes related to leaving the technology field.

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Table 10
Participants Comments About Leaving the Technology Field
Participant Key quotes from participants
Ms. Roberts They make me feel like they’re always looking to fill my
position with someone else that fits their leadership mold or
like they’re trying to create an environment that will force
me to step down from my role and leave this role or the
organization.

Ms. Padilla I’ve actually heard insecure leaders blatantly yell ‘Get the hell
out!’ At that point, you have to leave. After a leader treats
you that way, there’s an issue you can’t avoid. I am glad that
I was smart enough to recognize that and to move out of that
situation before it was too late.

It wasn’t much about the salary or even much about the
promotions. The women I’ve seen leave, left because they
felt that they were not included in key decisions. At some
point, that becomes an issue after several years. Especially
when years go by and you’re a part of leadership team, yet
you’re the only one that keeps getting left out and never
included.

There are women like me that have moved a lot throughout
their career to be able to find a place where they can actually
become successful. There’s a lot of turnover associated with
women of color trying to get to the next place in hopes that
they will find an accepting culture.

Ms. Lee There were always underlying factors for why women of color
left the organization. The workplace culture really took a toll
on my relationships and my marriage.

As the only Asian American in a leadership position, I was
tasked to take lead on a project in China. I was told by my
colleagues that I wouldn’t be able to find the success the
company needed because I was a woman. I think there’s a
major mismatch between good intentions, poor execution,
and not understanding how we can make things work.

Ms. Brown I left the company because I couldn’t take it anymore. The
company just couldn’t get their stuff together. I was not
pleased with the organization, and I was tired of people
assuming that there was no way I could possibly be at such a

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Participant Key quotes from participants
senior level. So, I quit my job and decided that I’m taking
time off.

Ms. Rodriguez They wanted a yes man, and I just couldn’t do that. Others left
because the workplace was so negative. I felt bad for them
because they couldn’t really stand up for themselves.

Ms. Martin I left that organization and got a better job making $20,000
more. That’s when I realized not only were they abusing me,
but they were paying me so cheap that it was sad. I realized
that I was worth more.

That’s the thing about culture, you have to work to make it
very inclusive so that the organization can grow. All of the
companies I’ve worked for are just dry. They have no water,
they have no sun, and they cannot grow that way.

Summary of Research Question 1 Findings
The first research question sought to uncover the impact organizational and external
influences have on a woman of color’s pursuit of a senior leadership position within technology
companies. These influences were assessed through interviews with eight participants in
accordance with the gap analysis model approach identified by Clark and Estes (2008). The
resulting findings from the interview participants revealed there is a lack of organizational
commitment within the technology field to increasing the representation of women of color in
senior leadership roles. Table 11 highlights the summary of the organizational assumptions
presented in Chapter Two and findings in this study as a result of interview data analysis.

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Table 11
Organizational Influences Findings
Organizational influence
category
Organizational influence Asset or gap
Cultural model Technology organizations need to value a culture
of fairness that incorporates inclusive
selection, retention, and promotion.
Gap

Cultural setting Technology organizations need to actively
recruit leaders in a manner that does not rely
upon a single senior leadership prototype.

Technology organizations need to have a
mentorship program designed to support the
career progression for women of color.

Technology organizations need to invest
resources in incentivizing women of color to
remain with and promote within the
organization.
Gap

Gap

Gap

Research Question 2: What Were the Knowledge and Motivational Influences That Have
Enabled Women of Color Leaders in Their Pursuit of Corporate Senior Leadership
Positions Within Technology Companies?
The purpose of the second research question was to explore what knowledge and
motivational influences women of color perceived as important to their advancement into senior
leadership roles within the technology field. Unlike with Research Question 1 and the assumed
organizational influences, assumed influences were not presented for knowledge and motivation
influences in Chapter Two. The interview questions for Research Question 2 were exploratory in
nature, and a priori coding was not employed in the analysis of data. Themes were identified
when six of eight participants articulated a particular knowledge or motivation influence as

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enabling their advancement into senior leadership positions within the technology field. The
results of data analysis identified two themes: women of color perceive that employing an
influencing leadership style has enabled their success as leaders and women of color develop and
employ coping strategies to overcome barriers in the workplace. Information collected for
Research Question 2 did not provide any conclusive findings on self-efficacy or attribution as it
relates to motivational influences.
Women of Color Perceive Leadership Tactics Enable Their Success as Leaders
International research on cross-cultural leadership behavior has shown that the cultural
context in which a leader functions impact the managerial attitudes, values, behaviors, and
efficacy of a leader (Bass, 1996; Brown, 1992; Haire et al., 1966; Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede &
McCrae, 2004; Rao et al., 1997; Schmidt & Yeh, 1992). In analyzing the interview data in the
process of coding, I identified that key constructs the participants identified in relation to
procedural knowledge they employed aligned well to four of the nine leadership styles and
patterns identified by Pasa (2000).
None of the participants specifically named Pasa or the tactics Pasa identifies, but this
model will be used to elaborate on the interview data. Utilizing the nine leadership styles and
patterns that Pasa identified to investigate how women of color in leadership can employ an
influencing leadership style, the following tactics were reviewed: (a) consultation; (b) rational
persuasion; (c) inspirational appeal; (d) ingratiating tactics; (e) coalition tactics; (f) pressure
tactics; (g) legitimizing; (h) personal appeals; and (i) exchange tactics. According to the data
collected, the four tactics used most frequently by the participants aligned with the influencing
behaviors Pasa investigated in her 2000 case study on leadership influences: (a) consultation; (b)
rational persuasion; (c) inspirational appeals; and (d) ingratiating.

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Consultation
Consultation focuses on engaging others to develop a desired course of action (Yukl &
Tracey, 1992). Seven of the eight participants utilized the consultation tactic to solicit the
expertise of others to achieve an acceptable solution through a proposed activity or plan. This
was achieved by asking for input, probing for constructive criticism, encouraging others to
participate in the process of developing a course of action, and incorporating the ideas of others
to give them a sense of ownership. During her interview, Ms. Johnson shared how she was able
to pull others in, encourage them to suggest improvements, and seek their support:
I got to the point where I just knew I could on all of it. I just wanted to have more
influence. I realized that their incompetence could potentially negatively impact my
career trajectory and I knew I had to run it better. I began asking for input and
encouraging others to participate because I knew it would have a positive influence on
what my main function was.
Ms. Robertson shared her experience with finding the perfect opportunity to seek the expertise of
others and incorporating those ideas into a plant of action that encourages others to change for
the greater good:
If there’s a particular initiative, I am definitely the one to pick. I have always had the
bandwidth to volunteer to do certain things. I think it’s an opportunity for you to really
get your name out and gain experience but to also learn from the experiences of others as
you’re leading those groups and initiatives. The exposure you get as a leader and seeing
your organization really be successful is amazing.

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Persuasion
Yukl (2012) argued that persuasion is the most frequently used tactic because it uses
logic, rational, and evidence to show that a leader’s point of view is the most logical alternative.
Seven of the eight participants in this study reported the importance of persuasion and reasoning
when aiming to gain the commitment and respect of their employees. Leaders are able to employ
influencing leadership styles when they are enthusiastic and confident in their abilities (Yukl,
2012). Among the participants, there were different influence strategies used to gain employee
commitment. The two Black participants reported an inability to bargain, reason, and exhibit
assertiveness-authority because they believed they were often seen as aggressive whereas the two
Asian participants reported that assertiveness-authority and reason tactics were not well-received
because they believed their employees and organization expected them to be more passive and
friendly with their approach. During her interview, Ms. Lee shared her experience with failing to
meet their Asian stereotypes at her workplace.
The entire assumption that Asians are the model minority is a racial stereotype. It’s not
based on reality or even historical context. I was completely misunderstood by some
unrealistic bias and societal expectation. Ultimately, the model minority is a myth and I
validated that based on my own reality.
The influence of stereotypes on the work environment and barriers stereotypes presented from an
organizational perspective to these leaders was previously discussed in the data analysis around
Research Question 1; however, the knowledge of and navigation of these stereotypes clearly
influenced the decision-making processes of these four participants in regard to how they
navigated their own actions as leaders based on their self-reported behaviors.

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All eight participants reported challenges with convincing their employees, peers, and
leaders to comply with their requests. This challenge was especially seen at the beginning and
pinnacle of their careers. They developed varying strategies to overcome these challenges. Six of
the eight participants used a pressure-control strategy to target, demand, and control; this was
often achieved by relying upon and enforcing organizational policies, procedures, and objectives.
Seven of the participants shared that an active effort eventually led to active persuasion; one
participant, Ms. Padilla, shared that even with active effort, she was unable to influence
employees, peers, and leaders, which is why she left her organization.
Not everyone thinks the same way, just like not everybody comes from the same cultural
background. I was always big on helping with retention and bringing awareness but for
this type of population, it just wouldn’t happen and has not has not happened yet. After
several years, it became an issue; it stopped being about the salary and more about being
kind of invisible.
Inspirational Appeals
While persuasion is the most frequently used tactic, the most effective influence tactic is
inspirational appeals (Yukl & Tracey, 1992). According to Yukl (2012), inspirational leaders
utilize inspirational appeals to arouse emotions in others and gain their commitment. During her
interview, Ms. Lee shared the importance of understanding the perspective of others:
You really have to tap into those skills. For a lot of people, the challenge is not really
knowing what it is they can and should do and how they can thrive. I think as leaders, it
is a responsibility to help others do that. You have to tease out and help individuals
understand what they’re incredible at and help them create pathways. Perspective is
incredibly important in terms of being a good leader.

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As Ms. Lopez emphasized during her interview:
You can have power and influence in the workplace if you have the freedom and ability
to influence others by not only gaining their support but also getting them to accept and
understand your vision and values.
Ingratiation
Ingratiation is an influence behavior whereby individuals strategically increase perceived
likability from others to make them more receptive to their requests (Benton et al., 2020; Rai,
2009). The more a woman of color promotes her leadership ability, the more she might be
inclined to flatter her colleagues and leaders (Benton et al., 2020; Rai, 2009). However, research
suggests ingratiation tends to come with backlash, especially when a woman in a leadership
position appears to be needy or broadcasting her limitations through her self-promotion (Benton
et al., 2020; Rai, 2009). Six participants reported that ingratiation improved their social capital
and had a positive impact on leader-to-employee relationships. Specifically, Ms. Johnson and
Ms. Rodriguez reported that ingratiation helped improve relationships with White male
colleagues and superiors. There were two participants that did not discuss ingratiation. Table 12
captures specific skills employed by the participants as well as key quotes for each skill. It is
important to note that the frequency of each skill refers to the code counts.

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Table 12
Specific Skills of Employing Ingratiation
Sub-theme Frequency Key quotes from participants
Conformity in behavior 3 By the time I had left that
organization, I had changed a lot.
(Ms. Brown)

Self-presentation 4 Suddenly I realized, I did my hair a
certain way, I spoke a certain
way, and I even presented myself
a certain way, just to be more like
them. (Ms. Lopez)

Expression of humor 3 Just laugh about it. Actually, they’re
the ones that convinced me to just
laugh about it. (Ms. Padilla)

Instrumental dependency 5 Have that conversation with the
person you’re trying to close in
on. Go ahead and let them throw
meetings on your calendar. Let
them feel like they need you, like
they depend on you 100%. (Ms.
Brown)

Women of Color Developed and Employed Coping Strategies to Navigate Gender and
Race-based Barriers Within the Technology Field
During this case study, four participants shared their experiences with shifting behaviors
to counteract negative perceptions of their race and ethnicity. The phenomenon called shifting
may be used to describe how women of color portray one way of their life to men and White
women and another way in the presence of people of color (St Jean & Feagin, 2015). Pervasive
racism and sexism require women of color to live a double life (Jones & Shorter-Gooden, 2009).
For two of the participants, Ms. Padilla and Ms. Martin, English was their second language. They

84
each reported an urge to alter their speech to counteract negative perceptions of Latinx women.
This strategy has been reported in past research that has found that with an understanding that
education and professional training would not guarantee career progression for them, women of
color often choose to focus on what they can control, such as how they dress and their speech
patterns (Everett et al., 2010). Two of the participants, Ms. Rodriguez and Ms. Lopez, shared
how uncomfortable they felt wearing their natural hair which led them to alter their appearance
to counteract negativity. Table 13 highlights some key quotes from the participants as it relates to
the coping strategies they developed on their won to overcome obstacles and barriers in the
workplace.

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Table 13
Participant Comments About Coping Strategies
Participant Key quotes from participants
Ms. Rodriguez A lot of times I show up to work and it’s slicked back, and
they’ll ask me what’s wrong with my hair today. I often get
told I look Mexican when my hair is slicked back. They don’t
care to understand.

Ms. Padilla At one point I realized that I needed to overcome their feelings
and remarks about my accent. I needed to plow through and
not let them bother me. I need to keep trying no matter what.
I developed a certain defense mechanism that became my
coping mechanism. Whenever I would get teased about my
accent, I would make a joke about it. I would literally laugh
about it and lied to myself until I believed it was actually
funny that I mispronounced something or didn’t use the
correct word. What can I say? It got me through.

Ms. Robertson After a while, I just kind of shrugged them off and laughed
about it.

Conclusion
For this qualitative evaluation study, the data collected indicate the presence of pervasive
organizational barriers within technology companies obstructing the advancement of women of
color into senior leadership. According to participant data, there are still organizations that do not
have policies that enforce diverse recruiting, provide equal pay, and encourage an inclusive
workplace. The interview data showed that discrimination and biases at the intersections of
gender and race are still experienced in the highest echelons of an organization. It is apparent
that organizational influence is needed in order to increase the representation of women of color
in senior leadership positions, specifically in the technology field.

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Chapter Four provided the results and findings of the organizational influences. The
chapter also presented prominent themes found in the data analysis portion of this exploratory
study in regard to knowledge. Chapter Five will present recommended solutions for addressing
the problem of practice based on the basis of this study’s findings along with empirical evidence
and theoretical research.

87
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Chapter Four presented in detail the findings discovered as a result of the interview
responses collected by the case study participants. The data collected for this research study
revealed gaps in organizational influences that impact women of color seeking promotion into
senior leadership roles at technology companies. The purpose of this chapter is to identify
proposed recommendations that can be implemented throughout the technology in order to
increase the representation of women of color in technology amongst the senior leadership ranks.
Discussion of Findings
Each of the participants voiced their experiences as women of color who hold or have
held positions of leadership in technology. This section is presented in the format of a discussion,
taking into account the prominent themes that emerged during data analysis and the assumed
influences that were addressed in the literature that were later identified as organizational gaps in
findings. In evaluating the organization, one cultural model and three cultural settings were
examined to uncover key organizational gaps that hinder women of color seeking promotion into
senior leadership roles in technology. The first organizational gap identified under cultural model
looked at the need for organizations to commit to increasing the representation of women of
color to remain in technology companies. The second, third, and fourth organizational gaps were
identified under the cultural settings. The second organizational gap revealed a need for
technology companies to establish diversity and inclusion practices and policies. Subsequently,
the third organizational gap highlighted the need for technology companies to create mentorship
programs that are specifically designed to help support the career progression of women of color.
Lastly, the fourth organizational gap called attention to technology companies not investing in
resources that incentivize women of color to remain with and promote within the organization.

88
All four of the organizational gaps identified cultural aspects of technology that cause women of
color to leave the technology field.
Women of color in technology face issues of diversity on top of inequality. As a result,
women of color have developed coping strategies to navigate through barriers and bias in the
workplace. There are three categories that can describe the myriad coping strategies used by the
women of color that participated in this study: (a) shifting behaviors to counteract negative
perceptions of one’s race and ethnicity; (b) alter speech to counteract negative perceptions in the
workplace; and (c) alter appearance to counteract negativity in the workplace. The findings
indicate that women of color have mastered the ability to portray strength while concealing
trauma from being forced by organizations to appeal and conform to European American
leadership prototypes. While at times the coping strategies may be unconscious and unexamined
coping mechanisms, these strategies have been utilized at different stages of their lives to remain
resilient and climb the organizational ladder. All in all, the lived experiences of this study’s
participants bring light to the various sources of strength, forms of resiliency, and strategies that
women of color utilize to overcome racial and gender discrimination.
Diverse organizations develop more innovative, creative, and effective employees and
consistently demonstrate organizational growth (Conway et al., 2018; Robinson & Dechant,
1997). Over the past decade, organizations that have adjusted their diversity and inclusion
practices to minimize gender inequities and to mitigate gender bias have greatly improved their
financial performance (Carter et al., 2010; Warren, 2009). One hundred percent of the women of
color who participated in this study shared that at one point in their career, they worked for an
organization that did not consider diversity and inclusion essential to the business model and
future growth of their organization. Furthermore, 100% of the participants shared that they did

89
not believe their organization was committed to increasing the representation of women of color.
Organizational commitment to combating racial and gender discrimination will not only decrease
the heightened challenges women of color experience in the workplace but will also increase
financial success (Dworkin et al., 2018; Warren, 2009). Diversity and inclusion practices and
policies help organizations develop inclusive cultures that offer employees a workplace that
gives them a sense of belonging and ultimately, earns their commitment to the organization. In
addition to examining organizational commitment, practices, and policies, it is important to
examine gender and racial imbalances at the senior level. Detailed findings presented in Chapter
Four revealed that women are often penalized for not conforming to European American
prototypes (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Gender and racial stereotyping hurt all aspects of a
woman’s work life and can significantly decrease their interest in achieving a senior leadership
position within technology.
Recommendations for Practice
This section provides recommendations for making progress toward increasing the
representation of women of color in leadership throughout technology. Recommendations are
based on the literature reviewed and results from the qualitative study. Ultimately, the
recommendations provide resolution for Research Question 1 of the study: How have
organizational and external influences impacted women of color leaders’ pursuit of senior
leadership positions within technology companies?
Recommendation 1: Technology Organizations Need to Make Public Commitments to
Advancing and Supporting Women of Color to Which They Are Held Accountable
This study’s findings align with past research that has found that discrimination and bias
at the intersections of gender and race are experienced in the highest echelons of an organization.

90
Of the eight participants, seven reported experiencing everyday sexism and racism in the
workplace. Even though women of color have the willingness to continue in the face of
adversity, it is extremely important to explore why they have to face these obstacles at all.
Organizations must make an explicit commitment to advancing and supporting women of color
in technology in order to better support the advancement of women of color seeking senior
leadership positions. When considering recommendations to inspire organizations to increase
their commitment to advancing and supporting women of color, it is important to recognize that
women of color face more systemic barriers, a steeper path to leadership, see less opportunities
to advance and receive less support from their organizations (Burns et al., 2021). It is for that
reason that organizations must communicate their commitment to advancing and supporting
women of color at every level with an elucidation of why it is important to do so. As emphasized
by Clark and Estes (2008), the key ingredient to publicly committing to performance goals is
convincing the organization that barriers will be removed or neutralized. Organizations that
publicly commit to advancing and supporting women of color must foster a climate of trust,
honesty, equity, and fairness.
Turning commitment into action is critical to increasing the representation of women of
color in senior leadership positions throughout the technology field. Research suggests that when
organizations treat their commitment to diversity like the business priority it is, they are able to
take concrete actions that measure diversity targets and provide metrics (Burns et al., 2021).
Creating a foundation for change that provides employees throughout the organization with clear
goals, accountability, and rewards puts the organization in a position to truly drive systematic
change (Burns et al., 2021). Progress rests on measuring the advancement and representation of
women of color; organizations must be open about the progress that is or is not being made and

91
they must hold top leaders accountable (Devillard et al., 2018). Furthermore, to ensure that
diversity scorecards are more than just numbers, organizations should link results to significant
portions of management bonuses that will serve as incentives to increase diversity efforts across
the organization. Lastly, senior managers and executive leaders should also be held accountable
for annual leadership measurements that will provide feedback on how they are performing as
leaders which will include specific measures on diversity execution (Babcock, 2009).
Recommendation 2: Technology Organizations Need to Expand and Improve Recruitment,
Retention, and Promotion Strategies for Women of Color
As supported by key quotes from participants in Table 5 and Table 6 of Chapter Four,
this study found technology organizations lack a culture of fairness that incorporates inclusive
selection, retention, and promotion practices. Participants in this case study reported feeling
underrepresented and isolated during their pursuit of promotion. Biases in recruitment, selection,
retention, and promotion exclude women of color from progressing in the technology workforce
while facing negative workplace cultures, discrimination, harassment, inequitable pay, and bias
(Martin, 2018). To combat recruitment and retention barriers, the recommendation is that
organizations make inclusive selection, retention, and promotion practices a business priority.
This proposed recommendation addresses critical areas across the leaky technology pipeline that
may potentially strengthen the technology workforce of the future. Practical recommendations
for expanding and improving recruitment, retention, and promotion strategies for women of color
include the following: (a) actively broadening the talent pool; (b) identifying existing bias in the
organization; and (c) transparent metrics and workplace demographics.
When considering recommendations on how to encourage organizations to renew their
action plans to close recruitment, selection, retention, and promotion gaps, it is important to

92
explore attraction and recruitment, advancement and retention, work-life effectiveness, and
leadership accountability (Morgan et al., 2012). Creating a unique plan suited for technology
organizations can make significant and lasting change throughout the technology field. The
recommendation is to establish gender-neutral recruitment and selection methods by actively
broadening the talent pool and ensuring that hiring managers, as well as leaders, are training to
recognize unconscious biases in decision making. Research reveals multiple ways in which
organizations can implement numerous steps to manage the effects of bias. Organizations should
evaluate their recruitment, retention, and promotion programs by race, ethnicity, and gender to
look for patterns or areas affected by unconscious bias (Allen & Garb, 2016).
When women of color are underrepresented at senior levels within the technology field,
generating buy-in for gender diversity is key (Scott, 2017). Hidden biases cloud judgement and
can cause hiring officials and senior leaders to unconsciously treat women of color differently
(Hill et al., 2016). As a result, the United Nations Technology Innovations Lab (UNTIL)
recommends organizations struggling to discover existing bias should periodically administer the
Implicit Association Test (IAT) (Khatri et al., 2019). While the IAT will not reveal deep truths
about anyone’s core values, it can help leaders identify their own biases and find ways to
counteract them (Harvard University, 2011; Hill et al., 2016). Ultimately, the test serves as a tool
to project implicit bias and measures the attitudes and beliefs employees, and leaders may be
unwilling and unable to report in an open forum (Harvard University, 2011).
Since “what gets measured, gets done,” recruitment and retention metrics play a critical
role in an organization’s accountability and transparency (Lim et al., 2013). Implementing a
strategic plan that aligns their recruiting, retention, and cultural competency will provide an
organization with a framework to organize initiatives and comply with directives.

93
Communication drives movement towards a shared goal and supports an accountability system.
In addition to establishing clear and enforced rules, the organization is responsible for upholding
policies, tracking metrics, and meeting goals that will help the organization expand and improve
recruitment, retention, and promotion strategies that will increase the overall representation of
women of color in technology leadership positions. Clark and Estes (2008) found that
organizational barriers occur when organizations are missing tools or have faulty processes or
procedures. To ensure the organization is on the glidepath of compliance, the organization must
track demographic differences and identify potential barriers preventing women of color from
pursing and maintaining careers in technology. Organizations will be able to increase talent
attraction and retention through total transparency of their workplace demographics. All in all,
while the first component of the proposed recommendation is to examine biases, establish
values, and prioritize diversity efforts, the second component requires senior leaders to commit
to serving as advocates to establishing inclusive policies, hiring practices, codes of conduct, and
teams (Sánchez, 2019).
Recommendation 3: Nest DEI Training With Comprehensive Strategies Tied to
Organizational Performance Goals
Participant feedback revealed that 50% of this case study’s participants worked in
organizations that lacked diversity and inclusion practices and policies. While the remaining
50% of the participants shared that their organizations did have formal practices and policies in
place, they also reported that those practices and policies were not adhered to or practiced. Data
collected over the last decade by Tulshyan (2019) revealed that women of color do not benefit
from current DEI initiatives, and they are often alienated when the focus of DEI training is only
racial diversity. These programs are designed to reduce bias, but studies show that they can

94
actually activate bias rather than eliminate it (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016). Leaders must be
intentional about ensuring women of color have equal access to opportunities, pay, and
recognition. Organizations get better results when leaders are engaged in solving the problem,
increase their contact with underrepresented workers, and promote social accountability (Dobbin
& Kalev, 2016). Technology companies need to focus beyond the vague goal of advancing
women into senior leadership roles, they must make an effort to understand the unique
challenges women of color face in technology, monitor progress regularly, and write explicit
goals for progress (Kalev et al., 2016). When DEI training initiatives are established and
communicated throughout the organization, it shows employees that DEI is a business priority.
The recommendation is for technology organizations to incorporate DEI training into their
comprehensive strategies that are tied to organizational performance goals. Aligning DEI
training with strategic organizational goals may be accomplished by the following: (a)
developing training plans with long-range goals, policies, and programs and (b) developing
mentorship and sponsorship programs designed to help women of color.
In order for technology organizations to develop DEI training plans that lead to a more
inclusive culture that promotes diversity, equity, and inclusion, the recommendation is for the
organization to develop a comprehensive plan that establishes long-range goals, policies, and
programs rather than pursuing one-off training initiatives. Organizations should strive to build
DEI into daily operations to empower women of color with the tools they need to feel valued and
capable of excelling in their career. Lastly, the strategy should address specific areas in which
DEI efforts need to be increased and provide clear demographic representation metrics and goals
based on organizational-specific assessments of current areas of need within the organization
using research-based measurements and benchmarking. Most organizations are not goal-driven;

95
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that performance goal systems should be tied to an organization’s
business goals to measure the gap between current performance and desired performance.
Without an accurate measurement of the current performance at the organizational level, an
organization cannot clearly understand work goals nor can it conduct an accurate analysis of
organizational gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizations must periodically evaluate the
effectiveness of their training plans to ensure training is relevant and providing desired results
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Furthermore, the Kirkpatrick Model should be used by technology
organizations to evaluate the following: (a) how employees feel about the training being
provided; (b) what employees have learned or haven’t learned; (c) differences in employee
behavior after training; and (d) results of targeted outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008; Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Mentorship and sponsorship fosters learning in the workplace, helps employees advance
their careers, and provides both developmental and psychological support (Hansman, 2002). As a
part of the assessments and development of comprehensive strategies, it is important that
organizations develop mentorship and sponsorship programs that are designed to help women of
color aspiring to achieve senior leadership roles. Mentors and sponsors foster learning in the
workplace, help employees advance their careers and provide both developmental and
psychological support (Hansman, 2002). Senior managers and executives engaged in mentoring
can help their organizations become significant diverse (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016). They key to
effective mentoring programs is establishing a responsibility structure (Kalev et al., 2016).
Dobbin and Kalev (2016) encourage leaders to help with mentoring initiatives and work towards
measurable goals for underrepresented populations. Rather than asking for leaders to volunteer
as mentors, the recommendation is for the organization to appoint a manager with the

96
responsibility of developing a decentralized networking and mentorship program (Kalev et al.,
2016). While there is no assurance of a successful outcome, organizations that encourage
mentorship and sponsorship, create meaningful and powerful relationships that positively impact
the career development of employees (McDonald & Hite, 1998).
Diversity, equity, and inclusion are essential to the growth of the technology workforce.
A comprehensive strategy for diversity, equity, and inclusion that includes all aspects of a
technology organization must be implemented in order to strategically tackle barriers and bias
that limit the career progression of women of color in technology (Martin, 2018; Rajenderan &
Zawawi, 2019). Utilizing performance improvement strategies to eliminate organizational
barriers and bias will target root causes of organizational issues and increase organizational
performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Too often, strategies, planning, initiatives, and evaluations
are undervalued and overlooked (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study suggests that
Recommendation 1 and Recommendation 2 are integrated and measured as a part of the
comprehensive strategy. Ultimately, progress for each recommendation rests on measuring
progress made and holding both the organization and leaders accountable.
Limitations and Delimitations
The underrepresentation of women of color in technology senior leadership positions is a
complex problem and this study had several limitations. Willingness to participate in the study
and to be transparent during the interviews was an anticipated limitation but this study did not
anticipate a divide between societal perceptions racial and ethnic labels. All of the participants
were solicited through LinkedIn and available networks; of the 80 requests sent on LinkedIn,
only eight women of color agreed to participate in the case study. During the solicitation portion
of this study, several women that society perceives and labels as women of color revealed that

97
they did not identify as people of color. Another central limitation of this study was the global
COVID-19 pandemic. Originally, I planned to conduct face-to-face interviews to evaluate the
organizational influences. In March of 2020, the health crisis created by COVID-19 necessitated
social distancing. Understanding the concern for each participant's health and safety, all
interviews were conducted through Zoom.
To promote clarity, this study opted to center the literature review on the degree to which
the technology field can increase the representation of women of color within senior leadership
ranks. A notable delimitation was the decision to forgo a mixed methods approach with surveys,
interviews, document analysis, and artifact analysis. Triangulation refers to the application of
various research methods and the logic behind triangulation is that no single method fully solves
a problem (Patton, 1999). Therefore, triangulation is ideal because it provides multiple methods
for data collection which generates different types of data. In contrast, generalizability is a
concept used in qualitative research that refers to how the reader determines how they can apply
the findings to their life (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Oftentimes, connections between the
qualitative findings and the reader’s world occur and cause overgeneralization (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). Understanding the dangers of over-generalizing qualitative results, this study
sought to illuminate, understand, and extrapolate its findings (Golafshani, 2003). However,
findings were limited based on the participants and the information they shared during their
interviews.
Recommendations for Future Research
Expanding the discussion on this study’s research limitations and delimitations opens the
door to additional opportunities for future research. Future studies could be replicated and
include additional methods of data collection, to include both qualitative and quantitative

98
methods of analysis in a mixed-method approach. Further research could also include an increase
in the number of research participants, leveraging various combinations of generational groups.
This study focused on individuals who identify as women of color (other than White) that have
been or are currently employed by a technology company at the position of senior manager and
above. During participant solicitation, many women revealed that their skin color and racial
identity did not align. Future research could also include women who are White-passing or
White-adjacent but are not White and do not label themselves as White. Considering racial
identity is complex and how someone internally identifies might not match the color of their
skin, future research should include multiple intersectionalities and consider how labels impact
individuals.
Organizational gaps were investigated throughout this case study; however,
organizational level support was not investigated. Future research could also explore the
relationship between the support provider (mentor/sponsor) and support recipient
(mentee/sponsee) to determine if the perceived value of support and actual support received
impacts the career trajectory of a woman of color in technology. Beyond the support provider
and recipient relationship, it is important to determine the criteria women of color seeking senior
leadership roles in technology use when evaluating the value of support sources and the type of
support both needed and received.
Implications for Equity
Research collected from this exploratory study sheds light on the organizational
influences that impact women of color seeking promotion into senior leadership roles at
technology companies. There is an overwhelming amount of literature dedicated to the lack of
gender equality in leadership areas, but there is little research dedicated to exploring how women

99
of color in leadership positions have overcome racism and sexism (Reynolds et al., 2000).
Furthermore, little attention has been given to exploring how women of color in technology have
overcome those barriers and achieved senior leadership roles. The shared experiences of the
women of color that participated in this case study revealed organizational influences that have
led to the severe underrepresentation of women of color in technology senior leadership.
The technology field has the ability to dramatically shift the trajectory of women of color
entering, remaining, and excelling in the industry. The current organizational processes,
practices, and structures reported by the participants of this study make it difficult for women of
color to reach leadership positions within technology. This chapter provided recommendations
that could potentially help increase the representation of women of color in leadership
throughout the technology field, reduce visible and hidden organizational barriers at all levels,
and rebuild organizational structures and practices. While women of color in the industry face
inequities that impede their advancement, understanding their unique challenges and experiences
will help break the concrete wall.
Conclusion
The present research examined the impact organizational barriers and gender and racial
bias have on the promotion of women of color to senior leadership roles within technology.
Through the application of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, this study
addressed the organizational and external influences that have led to the underrepresentation of
women of color in senior leadership roles within technology. The qualitative data presented in
this study highlighted how women of color in leadership positions have developed coping
strategies to navigate through barriers and bias in the workplace. There is an overwhelming
amount of literature reporting that there is a damaging link between the emotional and physical

100
health of women of color in the workplace as a result of the inequalities they face (Catalyst,
2008). While the underrepresentation of women of color in technology is not inevitable, it is the
responsibility of the organizations to over overcome disparities by improving both their
diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts during the recruitment, selection, promotion, and retention
phases.
This study identified four major themes during data analysis that were used to determine
foundational elements for strategies that women of color utilize to navigate through gender and
race barriers: (a) a lack of organizational commitment to increasing representation of women of
color to remain in technology companies; (b) diversity and inclusion practices and policies in
technology companies; (c) perceptions of gender and race stereotypes present in technology
companies; and (d) cultural aspects of technology that cause women of color to leave the
technology field. This study is one small step in the direction of making changes towards
increasing the representation of women of color in senior leadership roles within the technology
field. The recommendations from this study can be used as a model for technology companies in
designing and implementing their diversity, equity, and inclusion policies and programs. As
these changes begin to gain traction, these companies will help increase the representation of
women of color in leadership across the technology field.
The severe underrepresentation of women of color in technology is not only a pipeline
issue—it is an organizational issue that must be addressed on multiple levels. The
underrepresentation of women of color in technology is a problem that is important to solve. To
understand the magnitude of this problem, one must take into consideration that women of color
hold only 4% of technical roles in technology, 3.2% of Fortune 500 executive positions, and that
there are not any Black or Latinx women serving as CEOs of Fortune 500 companies (Conway et

101
al., 2018). Technology companies have the opportunity to drastically shift the career trajectory of
women of color in technology during recruitment, promotion and retention phases. Achieving
diversity will not only result in increasing the number of women of color participating in the
technology workforce, but it would also increase the number of women of color retained. Lastly,
viewing diversity and inclusion as essential to business growth will not only increase the
representation of women of color in senior leadership roles but it will also provide new economic
opportunities for technology companies and create new career pathways.

102
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Appendix A: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
STUDY TITLE: Gender-based Leadership Barriers: An Exploratory Study of the
Underrepresentation of Women of Color in Technology

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Emily M. Marty Soto

FACULTY ADVISOR: Jennifer L. Phillips, D.L.S.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore and understand the influence that organizational barriers
and gender and racial bias have on the promotion of women of color to senior leadership
positions in technology. Current workforce demographics illustrate an underrepresentation of
women of color, particularly in senior management. I hope to learn and evaluate the influences
that impact diversity and inclusion efforts. You are invited as a possible participant because you
represent women of color in technology senior leadership roles.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Should you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one
Zoom interview with the researcher. The interview will last approximately 60 minutes and you
do not have to answer any questions you do not want to answer.

To ensure accuracy in the data collection and analysis process, the research will request your
permission to record audio. Please note that your full identity (name, position, and organization)
will not be disclosed in the recorded audio. However, the researcher will ask you to state your
position, race, and gender for purposes of the study. If you prefer not to be recorded, the
researcher will transcribe your responses on a laptop. A full transcript of your interview may be
provided to you if you wish to review the interview for clarity and feedback.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

All identifiable information obtained for this study will remain confidential. The researcher will
code your responses with a false name (pseudonym). Only your position, gender, and race will
be used for data analysis in this study. All data collected will be stored on a password protected
computer in the researcher’s office for a year after the study has been completed. After the full
twelve months have elapsed, the data will be removed.

No identifiable information will be published or discussed.

Investigator Contact Information

126
Principal Investigator Emily M. Marty Soto via email at martysot@usc.edu or Faculty Advisor
Dr. Jennifer L. Phillips via email at jlp62386@usc.edu.

IRB Contact Information
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower St #301, Los Angeles,
CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272, or upirb@usc.edu.

127
Appendix B: Interview Protocol

Participant population: women who identify as women of color (other than white) and
that have been or are currently employed by a technology company at the position of senior
manager and above. Table B1 provides the interview protocol for this study.

Table B1
Protocol Crosswalk

Question Research
question
(RQ)
K, M, O influence measured
What is your current professional
level?

General information

As a woman of color, how difficult
has it been, if at all, to reach a
leadership position in technology?
Probe: What challenges did you
face specifically?

RQ1
RQ2

General information
(participant answers
may inform various
influences)
(If participant is current technology
leader): How many women of
color work at your organization in
leadership positions?

General information

(If participant is former technology
leader): If you are no longer in a
leadership position in a technology
company, how many women
worked in your organization at the
time in leadership positions?
Probe: What percentage of your
technology department do or did
women of color account for?

General information

How do you define leadership?
Probe 1: How would you describe
the ideal leader?
Probe 2: How does your
description of an ideal leader align
with the type of leadership your
company seeks to promote?

RQ2
RQ1

Organization: Cultural
Setting 1

128
Question Research
question
(RQ)
K, M, O influence measured
How would you describe the culture
of gender inclusion in your current
(or previous) organization?

RQ2

Organization: Cultural
Model 1
How would you describe your
organization’s diversity and
inclusion practices and policies?
Probe 1: In what ways, if at all,
does (did) the organization
demonstrate diversity and
inclusion were essential to creating
a successful company?
Probe 2: Do you feel as though
your organization’s policies
demonstrated a commitment to
increasing the representation of
women of color into leadership?
Probe 3: If so, how satisfied are
you with the policies in place?
Probe 4: If not, are there any
policies that aim to help narrow the
minority female gap?
Probe 5: How could they be
improved, if at all?

RQ1

Organization: Cultural
Model 2
Please describe the recruitment
process in your organization for
leadership position. Probe: How
were you specifically recruited for
your leadership position?

RQ1 Organization: Cultural
Setting 1
What would a successful retention
program that incentivizes women
of color to remain with an
organization look like from your
perspective?
Probe 1: How does your
organization invest in the retention
of women of color, if at all?
Probe 2: If not, how could they
improve their retention process?

RQ1 Organization: Cultural
Setting 3

129
Question Research
question
(RQ)
K, M, O influence measured
How do you define gender and race
stereotypes?

RQ2

Knowledge
What gender and race stereotypes
exist (or existed) in your work
environment, if any?

RQ1 Organization: Model 2
What coping strategies, if any, did
you utilize to navigate through
gender and race-based barriers in
your pursuit of promotion?
Probe 1: How did you develop and
implement these coping strategies?
Probe 2: What challenges did you
face in your pursuit?

RQ2

Knowledge/motivation
How important was career
progression to you? How would
you describe the psychological,
economic, and social costs, if any,
of your career progression?
Probe 1: How satisfied are you
with the position you hold?
Probe 2: How did you persevere
and succeed in your career field?

RQ1

Organizational;
potentially all models
and settings
Is there anything I have not asked
today that you think it is important
that I understand about your path
to leadership in the technology
field as a woman of color?

RQ2
RQ1

130
Appendix C: Document Analysis Protocol
The documents that I sought analyze for this study included the following:
1. Job descriptions for technology senior leadership positions found on company
websites.
2. Job descriptions for technology senior leadership positions found on recruiting
platforms such as LinkedIn, Indeed, Monster, and Glassdoor.
3. Annual diversity reports for mega-cap technology companies found on company
websites such as Microsoft, Google, Facebook, and Apple.
4. Evaluation Assessment tools.
Job description prompts:
1. Does the job description display explicit or implicit biases? (RQ2)
2. Does the job description display unconscious bias? (RQ2)
3. Is there biased wording in the job description? (RQ2)
4. Does the job description display a gendered-term in the title? (RQ2)
5. Does the duty description contain any bias buzzwords that can turn away a
diverse candidate? (RQ2)
Diversity reporting prompts:
1. Does the company recruit, develop, and tertian underrepresented talent?
(RQ2)
2. What does the company’s intersectional workforce represent? (RQ2)
3. What percentage of senior leadership positions to women of color account
for? (RQ2)

131
4. What do the company’s hiring, progression, and retention trends reveal about
the company’s equity and inclusion initiative? (RQ2)
Evaluation tools prompts:
1. What do the company’s employee engagement and satisfaction data reveal
about the organization? (RQ2)
2. How are annual evaluations monitored, executed, and used to identify
employees for retention and promotion to senior management roles? (RQ2)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Marty Soto, Emily M. (author)

Core Title Gender-based leadership barriers: an exploratory study of the underrepresentation of women of color in technology

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 04/20/2022

Defense Date 04/08/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag concrete wall,cultural taxation,diversity,inclusion,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,sticky floor,Technology,technology pipeline,women of color

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer L. (committee chair), Muraszewski, Alison K. (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email emily.m.marty@gmail.com,martysot@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111037663

Unique identifier UC111037663

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Marty Soto, Emily M.

Type texts

Source 20220421-usctheses-batch-931 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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