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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
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Content
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on K–12 Public School Districts in Southern
California: Responses of Superintendents, Assistant Superintendents, and Principals
by
Diana Eloisa Cisneros
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2022
© Copyright by Diana Eloisa Cisneros 2022
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Diana Eloisa Cisneros certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Gregory Franklin
James Elsasser
Rudy Castruita, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022
iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12
Southern California public school districts and to understand what superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals learned from their experiences and their decision-making
responsibilities in managing the crisis. This study implemented a mixed-methods approach in
which 23 Southern California public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents,
and principals completed a survey and also participated in a structured interview. Through the
process of triangulation, the study’s findings indicate that the CARES Act funding met the school
districts’ funding needs and provided them with additional staffing, technology support, and
safety equipment. The findings also show that the guidance provided to school districts by
federal, state, and local health agencies caused frustration and confusion and affected reopening
plans. Furthermore, the findings reveal that negotiations with unions were a major player in the
reopening of schools, and negotiations were effective because of the already-set relationships
between the districts and labor unions. Lastly, the study’s findings bring to light how
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals maintained frequent communication
with the parent community and addressed their main concerns about technology, safety,
nutrition, and mental health. Overall, this study provides a guide for future leaders in crisis
situations.
v
Dedication
To my husband. I could not have achieved this degree without your unconditional love and
support. This degree also belongs to you. Thank you for being my rock.
To my angel in heaven Leah. You started this program with me and continued to inspire me
every step of the way.
To my daughter Lynna. Thank you for coming into this world to share and celebrate this
achievement with me.
To my parents. Thank you for your example and all your support throughout my entire life.
To my sister. Thank you for always being there for me.
To my uncle Oscar. Thank you for inspiring me to take on this challenge.
To my cousins Rocio and Marisol. Thank you for your continuous encouragement and support.
To my secret sister friends. Thank you for your unconditional friendship, love, and support.
To all the educational leaders I have worked with. Thank you for your guidance and support.
To my past, present, and future students. You inspire me to make a difference as an educator.
vi
Acknowledgements
The past 3 years have been a period of intense learning for me, not only in the
professional level, but also on a personal level. I would like to reflect on the people who have
supported and helped me so much throughout this time.
I would first like to thank my family. My parents, Rogaciano and Eloisa, who taught me
the value of hard work and pursuing an education. My husband, Leobardo Horacio, who
encouraged me along the way and gave me the time and space to be focused on completing this
doctorate. To my children, Leah and Lynna, who inspire me and guide me. Without their love
and support, this dissertation would not have been completed.
Second, I appreciate the support of my research partners, chair, committee members, and
those that participated in this study. My research partners, Kathleen and Brennan, were
wonderful team members that motivated and guided me throughout this process. My chair, Dr.
Rudy Castruita, provided me with the tools, guidance, and encouragement to complete this
dissertation and was always willing to answer my questions. My committee members, Dr.
Gregory Franklin and Dr. James Elsasser, made themselves available and contributed valuable
advice to successfully complete this dissertation. The participants who agreed to be interviewed
made the time to voice their experiences as educational leaders. Without their guidance, support,
and commitment, this dissertation would not have been completed.
Finally, I want to thank my cohort and professors. They supported me when I felt
discouraged or faced obstacles, they inspired me to go out and become an educational change
agent, and they role modeled what excellent and dedicated leaders resemble.
vii
Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored. While jointly authored
dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a collaborative effort is reflective of
real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing highly skilled practitioners equipped
to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School and the USC Rossier School of
Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between three doctoral candidates:
Diana Eloisa Cisneros, Kathleen Marie Johns, and Brennan James Pope. We three doctoral
students met with 23 K–12 Southern California public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals to understand the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12
Southern California public school districts and what superintendents, assistant superintendents,
and principals learned from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in
managing the crisis. The process for dissecting and acquiring a thorough constructive perspective
from the selected participants was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three
dissertations produced by our inquiry team collectively examined the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on Southern California school districts.
viii
Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv
Dedication ............................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi
Preface ............................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ...................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .....................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................3
Significance of the Study .........................................................................................3
Research Questions ..................................................................................................4
Limitation and Delimitations ...................................................................................5
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................5
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................11
Chapter Two: Review of Literature ...................................................................................12
History and Background of Pandemics ..................................................................13
COVID-19 Pandemic .............................................................................................13
School Leadership Facing Crises ...........................................................................34
Conclusion .............................................................................................................38
Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................................40
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................40
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................40
Research Questions ................................................................................................41
ix
Research Team .......................................................................................................41
Research Design .....................................................................................................42
Sample and Population ..........................................................................................44
Instrumentation and Conceptual Framework .........................................................47
Data Collection ......................................................................................................49
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................50
Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................51
Summary ................................................................................................................51
Chapter Four: Findings ......................................................................................................53
Participants .............................................................................................................54
Demographic Data .................................................................................................55
Research Question 1 ..............................................................................................57
Research Question 2 ..............................................................................................67
Research Question 3 ..............................................................................................78
Research Question 4 ..............................................................................................86
Summary ................................................................................................................99
Chapter Five: Discussion .................................................................................................101
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................101
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................102
Research Questions ..............................................................................................102
Methodology ........................................................................................................103
Sample and Population ........................................................................................103
Data Collection ....................................................................................................104
Discussion of Findings .........................................................................................104
Limitations ...........................................................................................................110
x
Implications for Practice ......................................................................................111
Recommendations for Future Research ...............................................................115
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................115
References ........................................................................................................................117
Appendix A: Letter of Invitation .....................................................................................132
Appendix B: Letter of Invitation ......................................................................................134
Appendix C: Letter of Invitation ......................................................................................136
Appendix D: Superintendent Survey ...............................................................................138
Survey Items ........................................................................................................138
Closing .................................................................................................................140
Appendix E: Assistant Superintendent Survey ................................................................142
Survey Items ........................................................................................................142
Closing .................................................................................................................144
Appendix F: Principal Survey ..........................................................................................145
Survey Items ........................................................................................................145
Closing .................................................................................................................147
Appendix G: Superintendent Interview Protocol .............................................................148
Introduction ..........................................................................................................148
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................150
Appendix H: Assistant Superintendent Interview Protocol .............................................151
Introduction ..........................................................................................................151
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................153
Appendix I: Principal Interview Protocol ........................................................................154
Introduction ..........................................................................................................154
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................156
xi
List of Tables
Table 1: School District Demographic Information 56
Table 2: Participant Demographic Information 57
Table 3: Survey: Financial Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic 59
Table 4: Survey: Federal, State and Local Health and Safety Guidelines of the COVID-19
Pandemic 70
Table 5: Survey: Union Negotiations of the COVID-19 Pandemic 80
Table 6: Survey: Addressing the Concerns of the Parent Community 88
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 49
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
The COVID-19 pandemic has been both rapidly evolving and lingering. This is unusual
for the types of crises schools more typically face, which tend to be either immediate, like an
active shooter, or persistent, like underachievement (Gainey, 2009). The pandemic prompted
schools to close on very short notice under “hold harmless” guidelines from state agencies
overseeing education, except for school closures lasting several weeks (Fensterwald, 2020).
However, the complete and partial school closures caused by COVID-19 have continued to
impact school districts for over 1 year. As the pandemic lasted, the issues facing school leaders
and their school communities became more complex.
Federal and state governments assisted school districts financially to help address the
challenges of distance learning and safety. Governmental agencies also provided rules, guidance,
and protocols to help schools operate in these new circumstances. While these were sometimes
helpful, they were also often contradictory and difficult to enforce, which caused problems for
school districts. As these rules and regulations evolved, so too did the roles and expectations of
district employees. Unions renegotiated fundamental aspects of working conditions to keep
members safe and express how the pandemic impacted their work.
The pandemic also heavily impacted parents and guardians as students stayed home to
learn. Parents and guardians often rely on schools not just for education but also for childcare,
food, as well as social, emotional, and medical care for their children. With children staying at
home, parents and guardians had to readjust their own professional lives and their personal lives
to accommodate their children being home. These stakeholder concerns drastically changed the
role of school leadership, both at the district and site levels. School leaders became crisis
managers to see their organizations through this tumultuous time of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2
Background of the Problem
Throughout U.S. history, natural disasters, high-profile violent events, and infectious
diseases have caused unrest within society, but specifically for this study, a disruption in
education. Pandemics such as the Spanish Flu (i.e., the Flu Pandemic of 1918), Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Swine Flu (H1N1 influenza virus of 2009), and the current
coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), have forced school leaders to face the difficult decision
on whether to have the schools remain open and continue to serve the community or to close
their doors to limit the spread of the virus (Braunack-Mayer et al., 2013; Stern et al., 2009; Viner
et al., 2020).
In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the most recent
global health crisis, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This ongoing disease has caused
tremendous suffering, death, and disruption of everyday life worldwide. Because of the COVID-
19 pandemic, the school closures impacted students and their families in K–12 education
(Hebebci et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2020). When the COVID-19 was declared a pandemic in
March 2020, public school districts across California shut down to align with state-mandated
social distancing protocols. The decision to close schools impacted student instruction and many
community social structures. School closures have required consistent and clear communication
between school officials, government agencies, health agencies, and the school and families.
The current pandemic exacerbated inequalities within the education system and among
disadvantaged families (Baptiste et al., 2020; Combe, 2020; Kantamneni, 2020). Technology
access became crucial, as did access to other school supports, such as food, housing, and safe
employment. Eventually, California schools reopened to limited in-person instruction in spring
2021, many after being closed to most students for more than 1 year. The pandemic would
3
forever change the way educators would deliver education, and, as it turns out, educational
leadership was critical in finding solutions for all, including those students who are considered
the most marginalized. It remains unclear what the long-term impacts of COVID-19 on students,
educators, and leaders will be. Further exploration is needed on how educational leaders dealt
with the pandemic and the long-term effects on all stakeholders.
Statement of the Problem
The COVID-19 pandemic presented a disruption in Southern California K–
12 public school districts, causing unforeseen consequences within the education system and
highlighting financial implications, the impact of agencies, negotiations with unions, and the
impact on students and the community. COVID-19 shifted the roles and scope of schools and
school leaders beyond instructional leaders and transforming them into crisis managers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
Southern California K–12 public school districts and understand what district and site
administrators have learned from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in
managing the crisis. This study brings to light the impact of the pandemic on students, families,
leaders, schools, and districts. Most importantly, this study examines how district and school
leadership influences administrative practices, student achievement, financial responsibility,
union leadership, and community/parent support as they respond to the COVID-19 crisis.
Significance of the Study
This study is significant as it will add to the body of knowledge about the evolving roles
and responses of Southern California public K–12 public school superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 shifted the roles and
4
scope of schools and school leaders beyond instructional leaders by transforming them into crisis
managers. This unprecedented event in history forced educational leadership to quickly make
changes in a strategic way to support students and families. Educational leadership was on
display in California, from the Governor’s office to K–12 school educators and classified staff
members who prioritized student safety at the expense of academic excellence. Difficult
decisions had to be made to support a myriad of student needs throughout school closures. By
analyzing how leaders on the frontline (i.e., superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals) took action, the study will provide insight into prevention and implementation as
future crises occur in education. If a pandemic ever arises again, this study will support how the
crises would be addressed through the systems in place by school leaders, educators, boards of
education, and community stakeholders that are meant to reimagine and revolutionize a new
educational landscape that is committed to building a culture of equity to repay the educational
debt.
Research Questions
The study was guided by four research questions:
1. What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on
K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and how have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed these
implications?
2. What, if any, has been the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12
public school districts in Southern California, and what strategies have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the
suggested guidelines?
5
3. How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 Southern California
public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
4. How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California public school districts leadership teams
comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed the
concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack
of technology, academic standing, and how and when to reopen schools due to the
COVID-19 pandemic?
Limitation and Delimitations
There are some boundaries of the study beyond the control of the research team that may
affect internal validity. Limitations of this study include the following: the ongoing disruptions
caused by the COVID-19 pandemic on public education; the participants are only from Southern
California public schools; surveys are self-reported; interview questions may contain researcher
bias; interviews were conducted virtually, and the sample may not accurately represent all school
districts in California. The following steps would include a similar process to include a larger
representation from different districts throughout California or the United States.
In addition, delimitations of the study relate to the generalizability of the findings and are
associated with the availability of time and resources. To narrow the focus of this study, the
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals selected for this study are current
leaders in large urban public school districts in Southern California who were willing to
participate in the study.
Definition of Terms
• Assembly and Senate Bill 86: This bill provides $2 billion as an incentive for schools
that have not already done so to offer in-person instruction beginning April 1, 2021,
6
starting with the earliest grades. The legislation also allocates $4.6 billion for all
school districts regardless of whether they meet the timetable Gov. Gavin Newsom
called for in his “Safe Schools for All” plan (Jones & Freedberg, 2021).
• Assembly and Senate Bill 129: A landmark state budget agreement that adds a year of
school for all 4-year-olds, significantly expands Cal Grants and middle-class
scholarships for college students, and provides record funding for pre-K–12 schools
anxious to use billions in one-time funding to bounce back from a 15-month
pandemic (Fensterwald et al., 2021).
• Asynchronous learning: Asynchronous learning occurs without direct, simultaneous
interaction of participants, such as pre-recorded videos featuring direct instruction of
new content students watch on their own time (California Department of Education,
2020).
• California Department of Education (CDE): Governmental body that oversees the
state’s diverse public school system, which is responsible for the education of more
than six million children and young adults in more than 10,000 schools with 300,000
teachers. Specifically, they oversee enforcing education laws and regulations and
continuing to reform and improve public school programs (California Department of
Education, n.d.).
• California Department of Public Health (CDPH): A public agency that focuses on
infectious disease control and prevention, food safety, environmental health,
laboratory services, patient safety, emergency preparedness, chronic disease
prevention, and health promotion, family health, health equity and vital records and
statistics (California Department of Public Health, 2021).
7
• California School Employees Association (CSEA) is the largest classified school
employees’ union in the United States, representing more than 250,000 school
support staff throughout California. CSEA members perform a wide range of
essential work in our public schools and community colleges, including security, food
services, office and clerical work, school maintenance and operations, transportation,
academic assistance, paraeducator services, library, and media assistance, computer
services, and more (California School Employees Association, 2021).
• Center for Disease Control (CDC): Nation’s health agency that “conducts critical
science and provides health information” and responds to health crises (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2021; n.d.).
• Cohort is a group of individuals who have something in common, such as the same
grade level or specific student groups such as English Language Learners
(EdGlossary, 2013).
• Collective bargaining agreement (CBA): The primary activity of a union is to
represent the teachers in negotiating the terms of employment contracts, called
collective bargaining. Under the Rodda Act, passed in 1975, the school board and the
union must review the terms of the existing agreement at least once every 3 years.
This negotiation determines the salaries and benefits, hours, calendar, and most
aspects of teachers’ working conditions. Negotiators can also discuss problems and
address new issues that have arisen during the contract period. This can be especially
significant when the Legislature and governor have passed new laws regarding
COVID-19 safety measures, school finance, or teacher training and evaluation. A
8
district can implement these laws only after the impact has been collectively
bargained (EdData, 2021).
• The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act) was passed by
Congress on March 27, 2020. This bill allotted $2.2 trillion to provide fast and direct
economic aid to the American people negatively impacted by the COVID-19
pandemic. Approximately $14 billion was given to the Office of Postsecondary
Education as the Higher Education Emergency Relief Fund (California School
Employees Association, 2021).
• COVID-19: A novel strain of coronaviruses that shares 79% genetic similarity with
SARS-CoV from the 2003 SARS outbreak. COVID-19 was declared in March 2020
by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a global pandemic (World Health
Organization Coronavirus Dashboard, 2021; Xiong et al., 2020).
• Distance learning: Instruction in which the pupil and instructor are in different
locations and pupils are under the general supervision of a certificated employee of
the local educational agency (California Department of Education, 2020).
• Elementary and secondary school emergency relief (ESSER) was established in the
CARES Act to provide emergency relief funds to address the impact the COVID-19
pandemic has had on elementary and secondary schools across the Nation (U.S.
Department of Education, 2021).
• Essential workers are those who conduct a range of operations and services that are
typically considered necessary or essential to continue critical infrastructure
operations (National Conference for State Legislatures, 2021).
9
• Free and appropriate public education (FAPE): A civil right for students ages three
to 22 to receive a free public education that meets their educational needs. They have
a right to participate in school life, including after-school activities. (Exceptional
Lives, 2019).
• Hybrid (blended) learning: Combination of in-person and distance learning
(California Department of Education, 2020).
• In-person: Learning that takes place live and in-person with teachers and other peers
(CA Safe Schools for All, 2021).
• Learning loss: “Refers to any specific or general loss of knowledge and skills or
reversals in academic progress, most commonly due to extended gaps or
discontinuities in a student’s education” (Edglossary.org, 2013).
• Pandemic: The International Epidemiology Association’s Dictionary of
Epidemiology defines a pandemic as “an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a
very wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large
number of people” (Singer et al., 2021).
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) is equipment worn to minimize exposure to
hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses. These injuries and
illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical,
mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include
gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, coveralls,
vests, and full-body suits (United States Department of Labor, 2021).
10
• Social-emotional learning (SEL): Reflects the critical role of positive relationships
and emotional connections in the learning process and helps students develop a range
of skills they need for school and life (California Department of Education, 2020).
• Stakeholders: Refers to anyone who is invested in the welfare and success of a school
and its students, including administrators, teachers, staff members, students, parents,
families, community members, local business leaders, and elected officials such as
school board members, city councilors, and state representatives. Stakeholders may
also be collective entities, such as local businesses, organizations, advocacy groups,
committees, media outlets, and cultural institutions, in addition to organizations that
represent specific groups, such as teachers’ unions, parent-teacher organizations, and
associations representing superintendents, principals, school boards, or teachers in
specific academic disciplines (e.g., the National Council of Teachers of English or the
Vermont Council of Teachers of Mathematics). Stakeholders have a “stake” in the
school and its students, meaning personal, professional, civic, or financial interests or
concerns (Edglossary.org, 2014).
• Synchronous learning takes place in real-time, with the delivery of instruction and/or
interaction with participants such as a live whole-class, small group, or individual
meeting via an online platform or in-person when possible (California Department of
Education, 2020).
• Williams Compliance Act: The 2000 Eliezer Williams et al., vs. the State of California
et al. (Williams) case was a class action suit against the State of California and state
education agencies. The plaintiffs included nearly 100 San Francisco County students
who claimed that these agencies failed to provide public school students equal access
11
to instructional materials, safe and decent school facilities, and qualified teachers. The
case was settled in 2004, resulting in the state allocating $138 million in additional
funding for standards-aligned instructional materials for schools and another $50
million for implementation costs. Now known as the Williams Compliance Act, the
settlement was implemented through legislation adopted in August 2004: Senate Bill
(SB) 6, SB 550, Assembly Bill (AB) 1550, AB 2727, AB 3001. Up to 2.3 million
California public school students may benefit from the Williams case settlement
(California Department of Education, n.d.).
• World Health Organization (WHO): A team of more than 8000 professionals that
includes the world’s leading public health experts, including doctors, epidemiologists,
scientists, and managers. Together, WHO coordinates the world’s response to health
emergencies, promotes well-being, prevents disease, and expands access to health
care (World Health Organization, 2021).
Organization of the Study
This research study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One introduces the study, the
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, four research
questions, limitations and delimitations, and the definitions of key terms. Chapter Two reviews
the existing literature relevant to the problem under study. Chapter Three presents the research
design methodology, sampling and data collection procedures, instruments designed for data
collection, and data analysis procedures. Chapter Four details the findings and significant themes
of the research and analyzes the data. Chapter Five provides a summary of the study’s findings, a
conclusion, an examination of possible implications for further research, and recommendations
for future research.
12
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
Different types of chaos have disrupted the American education system in moments
throughout United States history. This chapter, presented in seven sections, examines the crisis
of pandemics affecting school districts. The first section reviews the history and background of
previous pandemics. This section also discusses the impact of the current COVID-19 pandemic
on school districts and reviews research related to school closures. The second section describes
the preparation and training of school districts before and during the pandemic. The
implementation of school closures forced school districts to distribute resources to oversee
training for the new learning models. The third section reviews research related to the roles of
outside agencies that were guiding school districts. Districts followed federal, state, and local
health agency guidelines to respond to the coronavirus. The fourth section reviews the impact of
union negotiations with school districts during the recent pandemic. School districts returned to
the bargaining tables to revise collective bargaining agreements that allowed more flexibility in
implementing remote learning. The fifth section reviews literature related to the impact of the
pandemic on schools and children. COVID-19 impacted school’s financial capacity,
technological infrastructure, and home-school relationships. Likewise, the pandemic affected
children’s academic achievement, learning, mental health, and nutrition. The existing literature
details how the pandemic exacerbated educational inequities for marginalized populations. The
sixth section reviews literature about the role and response of leadership in crises and introduces
frameworks that districts and school leaders may use to respond to crises. The last section
presents a synthesis of the literature and conclusion.
13
History and Background of Pandemics
Pandemics such as the Spanish Flu (i.e., the Flu Pandemic of 1918), Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Swine Flu (H1N1 influenza virus of 2009), and the current
coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) forced leaders and society to make challenging decisions.
The Spanish Flu was a deadly influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. It was
one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, which lasted from February 1918 to April
1920, with a death toll of 20 to 50 million people. SARS, first identified in November 2002,
affected over 8,000 people from 29 distinct countries and had a death toll of 774 people
worldwide. The Swine Flu lasted from January 2009 to August 2010 and caused approximately
284,000 deaths. And finally, COVID-19 was first identified in December 2019 and has spread
worldwide, leading to an ongoing pandemic. Pandemic outbreaks have forced public health
officials to implement health measures such as social distancing, home isolation, and school
closures as immediate responses to the pandemic. School officials faced the dilemma of whether
to maintain the schools open and continue serving the community or close the schools to mitigate
the spread of the virus (Braunack-Mayer et al., 2013; Stern et al., 2009; Viner et al., 2020). The
following section discusses in greater detail the COVID-19 pandemic.
COVID-19 Pandemic
In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the most recent
global health crisis, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 is a contagious
respiratory illness with a clinical spectrum of mild to moderate disease first detected in
December 2019 (Ministry of Health, 2020). This disease caused tremendous suffering, death, and
disruption of everyday life worldwide. The COVID-19 pandemic impacted most aspects of
human life and education, health, economy, environment, and tourism. The high number of
14
deaths, lockdowns, school closures, quarantines, social distancing, border closures, and
unemployment has led to global unrest (Hebebci et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2020). In response to
the COVID-19 pandemic, countries worldwide have implemented school closures to reduce the
transmission of the virus.
School Closures
Educational leaders instituted school closures during the 2009 Swine Flu (H1N1
influenza virus) in countries like Australia and the United States as crucial measures to limit the
spread of the virus. School leaders initially implemented their general emergency plans as
schools were closed and then relied heavily on the guidance of public health officials and
government officials as they managed the closures. Schools dispersed relevant information to the
families and community through diverse systems they had in place, such as school assemblies
and email (Braunack-Mayer et al., 2013; The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health, 2020). The
sudden school closures affected students harshly and prevented them from accessing proper
academic instruction, essential health and food services, technology, adult supervision, and a safe
environment. The current COVID-19 pandemic, which caught schools by surprise, has caused
country-wide school closures in about 190 countries, affecting 1.5 billion students. And as a
result of the ongoing nature of the pandemic, children continue to suffer from the lack of access
to services provided by their schools, such as complimentary breakfast and lunches or clean
water (The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health, 2020; Walters, 2020).
Preparing and Training the School Community Facing the Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic forced schools to transition into distance learning. According
to Diliberti et al. (2020), districts and schools with various indicators before the pandemic, such
as using a learning management system (LMS) and providing devices, were better positioned to
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transition to distance learning during the pandemic successfully. For example, those schools
were quick to provide devices to students who needed them, train teachers to deliver online
instruction, teach staff and students to use a learning management system (LMS), provide fully
online or blended courses, and establish plans to offer education during prolonged school
closure.
Once the school closures occurred because of the COVID-19 pandemic, schools began to
implement changes to meet their current needs and pivot resources. School officials administered
technology surveys to determine device and internet accessibility and changed their technology
infrastructure. For example, free or discounted internet was made available to the school
community (Diliberti et al., 2020; Malkus et al., 2020a). Additionally, meal distribution was a
significant and urgent change made by school districts. Schools had to quickly mobilize to
mitigate meal loss for many students nationwide who relied on school meals (Kinsey et al., 2020;
Malkus et al., 2020a). School closures and social distancing guidelines required school districts
to implement meal distribution plans that eliminated barriers to access (Kinsey et al., 2020;
Malkus et al., 2020b; McLoughlin et al., 2020). Distribution plans included grab-and-go meals,
meal delivery sites, and home delivery. School leaders implemented changes to the school
learning structures as well. They implemented new learning models such as total distance
learning and hybrid programs throughout school districts. The learning models incorporated
synchronous and asynchronous learning, web-based platforms, independent virtual school, and
televised instructional content (Diliberti et al., 2020; LAUSD, 2021; Malkus et al., 2020a).
School officials added a new category of school supplies to the existing list of supplies. Hand
sanitizers, temperature scanners, plexiglass barriers, hands-free paper towel dispensers, gloves,
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masks, and protective coveralls were all added to the list of essential school materials needed at
each school site (EdSource, 2020b).
The learning mode was another significant consequence of school closure due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. What felt like overnight, classes transitioned online. Remote learning
requires a specific set of skills, and preparation is the key to success in online teaching. Much of
the instructional training was made available from various sources for educators, leaders, and
parents amidst the remote learning model. Public, local, private, and non-profit resources were
made readily available. School districts and the California Department of Education (CDE)
provided public and local training while publishing companies provided private training. Non-
profit associations such as the Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) and the
Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) have also provided training related to remote learning.
According to Goddard et al. (2000), increasing teachers’ collective efficacy can be achieved
through instructional support. This idea is critical as teachers’ sense of effectiveness is crucial for
effective remote teaching.
Leaders receive training from their district and guidance from the local and state
government. The district leadership training is tailored to meet the needs of the leaders from
different schools and communities. Likewise, school leaders require practical training and
support to guide students and staff in remote learning. Although recent research highlights some
best practices that leaders can take to help their organizations navigate the pandemic crisis,
further research into leadership during the problem is needed to create better training and
guidance (Schwartz, 2020; Fernandez & Shaw, 2020).
Parents and guardians were also affected in that they had to become stand-in teachers.
These newly-minded teachers experienced difficulties with their child’s mental health,
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technology issues, connectivity problems, disruptions in routines, and keeping their child
engaged in learning. As such, they required training. Districts and schools collaborated to
provide different ways to support parents and guardians during remote learning. Schools have
taken the appropriate measures to keep parents and guardians informed by sending daily
reminders, posting information on social media platforms, and involving them in educating their
children (Bhamani et al., 2020).
Role of Government and Healthcare Agencies Used by School Districts
During the COVID-19 pandemic, California school districts have relied on external
agencies such as government and healthcare agencies. Multiple guidelines and resources to guide
and support school districts were provided by organizations like the Office of the Governor of
California (OGCA), California Department of Public Health (CDPH), California Department of
Education (CDE), Los Angeles County Department of Public Health (LACDPH), Los Angeles
County of Education (LACOE), and Association of California School Administrators (ACSA)
provided school districts with multiple guidelines and resources. Government and health care
agencies provided guidelines on safety measures for students and staff, distance learning, and the
reopening of schools.
A primary focus of school districts during the COVID-19 pandemic has been the safety
of students and staff. State agencies, as well as local agencies, created guidelines to assist school
districts. For example, the OGCA indicated that schools must implement frequent COVID-19
testing for all students and staff, including weekly COVID-19 testing at schools in communities
with high transmission rates. The agency also indicated that all personal protective equipment
(PPE), such as masks, must always be worn while on campus by all students and staff. The
CDPH also provided guidelines for safety via different resources: the “Blueprint for a Safer
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Economy” designed to reduce COVID-19 in the state; the “California Safe Schools for All Plan”
focusing on ensuring careful implementation and building confidence to return students to
campus safely; the COVID-19 guidance for schools that assist school districts with the planning
process to for the safe reopening of school in the fall of 2020; and the school reopening
framework designed to help school communities determine when and how to implement safe in-
school instruction for the 2020–2021 school year. The CDE addressed school safety during the
pandemic through a new State of California Safe Schools for All Hub, which provided vital
resources and information for school administrators, staff, and parents. Likewise, the agency
provided school districts with a guidebook for a safe reopening of schools titled Stronger
Together, which included a comprehensive checklist for reopening schools and ensuring mental
health and well-being. The LACDPH provided resources, information, and guidelines to promote
health and safety for all county stakeholders during the COVID-19 pandemic. LACOE has also
ensured the safety of all students, staff, and community members by following best practices
guidelines in the areas of infection control practices, cleaning practices, and protective
equipment (CDE, 2021; CDPH, 2021; LACDPH, 2021; LACOE, 2021; OGCA, 2021).
Distance learning has been another focus of school districts during the COVID-19
pandemic. The CDE provides school districts with information, guidelines, and resources for
designing optimal distance learning opportunities for all students. The plan includes
considerations to ensure equity and access for all students, a continuum of options for students,
and modifications for English Learners and students with disabilities. LACOE also provides a
high-quality instructional program by following best practices guidelines, curriculum selection
and instructional delivery models, assessment practices and policies, services to special
populations, access and use of instructional technology, and expanded learning opportunities.
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In response to the pandemic, the Office of the Governor of California issued Executive
Order N-26-20, which states that even if schools close temporarily because of COVID-19, local
education agencies (LEA) will continue to receive state funding for those days. Schools would
continue delivering high-quality education opportunities to students through distance learning or
independent study. Later, the California legislature adopted AB-10 regarding pupil instruction
through in-person or distance learning. The bill authorizes local agencies throughout the state to
provide education to pupils in kindergarten and grades 1–12. It requires an LEA to offer in-
person instruction to the greatest extent possible and authorizes these agencies to provide
distance learning (CDE, 2021; LACOE, 2021; OGCA, 2021).
School districts have relied on the guidance of state and local government agencies and
health care agencies for the reopening of schools. The direction has changed several times during
the pandemic, therefore adding pressure on school administrators (Burke, 2020; Tadayon, 2021).
For example, California’s four-tiered color-coded system, which ranks counties by the average
daily number of new COVID-19 cases, impacted the ability of some schools to safely reopen for
in-person instruction. The CDE has also provided a comprehensive checklist for the reopening of
schools via a guidebook titled Stronger Together. The guide details information on health and
safety, instructional programs, professional relationships and learning, communication and
community engagement, and school services. The CDPH provides resources for the reopening of
schools in the school reopening framework and is a resource created with the OGCA called
“California Safe Schools for All Plan”. The plan details the funding process for schools, safety
and mitigation procedures, and oversight and assistance measures. The “Rising to the Challenge
of COVID-19: A Planning Framework for the 2020–21 School Year” is a resource available
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through LACOE. The LACOE’s framework focuses on five areas: instruction, safety and health,
social and emotional support, family and community, and operations.
LACDPH facilitates weekly conference calls with superintendents to support them with
current information and guidance for the safe reopening of schools. The agency detailed the five
key measures that must be in place for school leaders before bringing students back onto campus.
Those five areas include the following: workplace policies and practices to protect employee and
student health; measures to ensure physical distancing; standards to ensure infection control;
communication with employees, students, and families; and measures to ensure equitable access
to critical services. ACSA has provided information on advocacy, distance learning, budget,
coronavirus resources for schools, labor management, and reopening of schools (ACSA, 2021;
CDE, 2021; CDPH, 2021; LACDPH, 2021; LACOE, 2021; OGCA, 2021).
Information from the state and local governments is constantly changing. Equitable
access to technology, curriculum and instruction, physical and mental health, and overall safety
have significantly been impacted by the continuously changing directions of the various
stakeholders. The multiple guidelines have created a balancing act between securing the health
and safety of the school’s students and staff and considering equitable access to quality
instruction for all students.
Roles of Certificated and Classified Unions
In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced school districts to impose immediate
school closures to minimize the transmission of the virus and roll out remote learning plans. In
some cases, the plans conflicted with provisions found in collective bargaining agreements
(CBAs) negotiated between teacher unions, classified employee unions, and district
administrators. Consequently, with both the teacher unions and classified employee unions,
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school districts had to negotiate temporary changes to the collective bargaining agreements to
support student instruction during the pandemic (Hemphill & Marianno, 2020).
Teacher unions, also called education unions, are organizations established to protect and
advance the collective interests of teachers and other education workers. This group may also
include members in noneducational roles and industries. Teacher unions are organized at local,
regional, and national levels. Some examples of these unions are the National Education
Association (NEA), the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), the California Teacher
Association (CTA), and the California Federation of Teachers (CFT) (McCollow, 2017). Over
time, unions have set the working conditions for their members and set rules for the educational
system, gaining power and success in collective bargaining across the nation. Unions are vocal
about changes to evaluations, raising members’ wages, school conditions, and tenure (Coulson,
2010; Mader, 2012; McCollow, 2017). Unions have also taken more substantial positions in
political campaigns. According to the Center for Responsive Politics, NEA and AFT have spent
more than $56 million on political contributions since 1989 (Coulson, 2010).
Many problems immediately became evident once school closures were implemented and
teachers shifted to remote learning. Teachers reported issues with access to facilities, internet
problems, instruction planning and implementation, and collaboration with parents (Fauzi &
Sastra Khusuma, 2020). As a result, school districts returned to the bargaining table with teacher
unions negotiating short-term fixes to CBAs. School districts formally altered contract language
in response to COVID-19 by signing a memorandum of understanding with teacher unions to
address the temporary situation. Contract changes focused on several areas of the CBAs, such as
working conditions, instructional time, workload, grading procedures, special education, student
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support, non-teaching duties, technology, compensation, and teacher evaluations (Hemphill &
Marianno, 2020).
Classified employees offer essential services to the school community and play a vital
role in providing students’ care, safety, and success. Classified employee unions include
paraprofessionals, clerical and administrative services, transportation services, food and nutrition
services, custodial and maintenance services, security services, student health services, technical
services, and skilled trades. Classified employee unions advocate for fair wages, benefits,
workplace health and safety, job training, regular work hours, and other work-related issues.
Examples of these unions are the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial
Organizations (AFL-CIO), the American Association of Classified School Employees, California
State Employees Association (CSEA), and Service Employees International Union, Local 99
(SEIU Local 99).
Custodians, maintenance workers, food service crews, health clerks, and other classified
employees were considered essential during the COVID-19 pandemic and found themselves on
the front lines. Although classes were remote, facilities were still operating in many school
districts, and classified employees had to show up to work. Custodians had to clean, disinfect,
and seal classrooms. Foodservice staff had to prepare hundreds of grab-and-go meals daily. Bus
drivers ran meal sites and made breakfast deliveries. Tech workers were busy setting up devices
and assisting with internet issues, and teacher aides supported students and teachers with remote
education (Mahnken, 2020a; Weingarten, 2020a, 2020b).
Employees are entitled to work in a safe environment, especially during a pandemic.
Hence, school districts had to address the health and safety of school workers by altering contract
language through a memorandum of understanding. The contract changes addressed needs such
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as recognition pay, emergency paid sick leave, healthcare for frontline workers, and safety
protocols (SEIU Local 99, 2021).
Impact of Pandemic on Schools and Children
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on schools and children has been varied and
extensive. The pandemic impacted schools’ finances and technological infrastructure, the
relationship between the home and the school, children’s academic achievement and learning,
mental health, and nutrition. The pandemic exacerbated educational inequities for marginalized
populations. The following sections further discuss each of these impacts on schools and
children.
Financial Implications
School districts have faced intense financial challenges since the 2008 Great Recession,
and before the COVID-19 pandemic, school districts already faced significant challenges with
rising costs, declining revenues, and greater student needs. The pandemic has dramatically
aggravated the financial situation of school districts (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021).
COVID-19 has imposed tremendous additional costs on school districts. The Council of
Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) has estimated that school districts have had between $158
billion and $245 billion in additional costs as they transitioned into remote instruction. They had
to comply with health and safety measures and provide services needed for teachers, students,
and families to engage in schooling (Gordon & Reber, 2020). The sudden closure of schools
forced school districts to fund additional technology, connectivity, and meals off-campus
immediately. School districts also had to reconfigure and incur new costs as they prepared for
remote learning and safe in-person learning. Schools unexpectedly had to invest in student
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technology, personal protective equipment (PPE), hand sanitizers, transportation, and additional
custodial and nursing staff (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021).
School districts have faced declining revenues since 2008. What is more, as the costs of
schools have begun rising, the revenues have been declining. School districts attain revenue from
federal aid, state aid, and local taxes, with local revenues from property taxes being the primary
source of income for school districts. The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the market value
and decreased the potential revenues directly supporting school districts. The pandemic has also
affected state tax revenues so that school districts will face additional budget pressures. As such,
the school districts that rely on state funding (i.e., smaller local tax funding) will face more
significant financial challenges (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021). The COVID-19
increased costs, and the state and local revenue losses have exacerbated the need for federal aid
for school districts.
Thankfully, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act has
distributed billions of dollars to schools. The CARES Act funding helped school districts close
gaps in expenses and focus efforts on in-person learning (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al.,
2021). These often-temporary funds are currently alleviating some of the financial burdens on
school districts as they continue to mitigate this crisis; however, schools may require more
funding depending on the state of the pandemic as it relates to students’ needs.
Technology
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted school districts’ technological capacity and
infrastructure. The implementation of school closures as a response to the pandemic forced
schools to quickly figure out how to educate millions of children at home. School districts
adopted the distance learning model that entails a computer-based teaching method in which the
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interaction between the teacher and the students occurs through a digital platform (Hebebci et al.,
2020). As schools scrambled to move to online instruction, the technological limitations for
educators and students became evident, with the lack of student access to technology being the
most significant challenge.
Educators were unprepared for this kind of disruption in the education system and found
themselves with minimal training to teach online. Although online learning has grown
tremendously over the past 20 years in K–12 schools, research has found that online teaching
requires different teaching skills that many face-to-face teachers do not possess. On the one
hand, teacher preparation programs have been slow to adopt teaching strategies for online
education. Still, on the other hand, many preservice teachers did not choose to take courses that
would have prepared them with the skills needed to teach online. For many teachers, the only
experience they had with online learning was as online students themselves (Borup &
Evmenova, 2019). Because of the profound limitations of classroom technology, schools had to
quickly create plans to deliver instruction, communicate with families, distribute devices, and
provide internet access to students. Schools partnered with local broadcasting systems such as
PBS to provide education and connect with students and families via phone calls. Teachers and
administrators rapidly went into action by distributing devices to students and making Wi-Fi
access for students through hot spots or Wi-Fi-enabled school buses. Teachers used platforms
such as Zoom, Google Classroom, and Instagram Live to teach virtually (Herold, 2020).
According to Herold (2020), schools have faced many barriers as they attempt to use
technology to continue keeping the education system up and running. He notes that the effort has
been chaotic and uneven at the national level because many gaps in the nation’s broadband
infrastructure have left millions of families without reliable internet access. In addition, many
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schools do not have enough devices available for their students. Teachers and students reported
various disadvantages with online learning, such as network access, interaction or engagement
with one another, the inadequacy of lessons, and loss of motivation (Hebebci et al., 2020).
Home and School Relationships
School sites support community resilience by distributing social welfare services,
promoting human development, providing care for children, stable employment, and
strengthening democratic solidarity (Fay et al., 2020). First, schools offer health education
services such as vaccination, vision, dental, mental, and nutrition education. They also provide
therapeutic and social services like speech and physical therapy. Second, many schools offer
families parenting and English as Second Language classes. Third, meal access is a significant
function of schools (Fay et al., 2020). According to Dunn et al. (2020), with help from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA), National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast
Program, and Child and Adult Care Program, schools serve nearly 35 million children daily.
Fourth, schools are also vital partners in the shared work of child development. Schools are the
primary sites of formal academic, social-emotional, civic, and vocational learning for many
children. Schools provide children with the opportunity to develop friendships and other
meaningful relationships. Fifth, childcare is part of every state’s infrastructure through public
schools since schools are the sources of stable, safe, and dependable childcare for many families.
Sixth, schools strengthen the economic life because they are sources of employment. Millions of
people serve schools as teachers, custodians, bus drivers, cafeteria staff, and teacher aides. And
finally, schools strengthen social ties within a community through holiday concerts, sports
events, school plays, and graduations. Schools contribute to democratic solidarity by serving as
polling sites, hosting town meetings, and providing adult literacy and citizenship classes. The
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COVID-19 pandemic induced disruptions to schools as a source of community resilience and has
impacted the partnership between families and schools as schools struggled to provide the
support and services that are generally available (Fay et al., 2020).
School closures have made it extremely difficult for schools to support communities.
Many families rely on school meals, but although the schools provide grab-and-go meals, many
eligible families have been unable to pick up food because of a lack of transportation or essential
work schedules. Also, students do not have access to intervention or therapeutic services,
counselors, or nurses. The loss of dependable childcare has been overwhelming for families.
Some parents had to navigate work responsibilities while providing care for their children,
alternate work hours, find care elsewhere, or stop working. Finally, the pandemic has deprived
communities of gatherings such as prom, graduations, and sports championships (Fay et al.,
2020).
Research shows that partnerships between the home and school setting are crucial
elements of student success in traditional school settings (Garbe et al., 2020). The lack of
communication can undermine partnerships between families and school staff. Educators
emphasize the need for robust education systems that deliver information and updates to families
and engage them in two-way communication (Garbe et al., 2020; Ondrasek, 2020). The COVID-
19 pandemic had disrupted the home and school partnerships, and the long-term effects remain
unknown. According to Martin (2020), the transition to online learning because of the pandemic
made the need for home and school partnerships more necessary than ever for student success.
The pandemic forced parents and caregivers to take on new and unfamiliar roles and
responsibilities. Due to school closures, the transition to remote learning shifted much of the
burden of schooling onto overwhelmed parents and caregivers. Parental sentiments toward
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remote at-home education varied as some parents felt more connected to their child’s schoolwork
while others saw it as an additional burden (Garbe et al., 2020). According to Garbe et al. (2020),
challenges that may impact parent involvement in online learning settings include lack of
economic resources, internet access, motivation to use technology, and digital self-efficacy.
Children’s Academic Achievement
In the spring of 2020, most schools shifted to remote learning as schools halted face-to-
face instruction due to COVID-19. Many districts provided teachers with remote learning
designs that included formal curriculum, assignments, progress monitoring, and access to public
education resources. Unfortunately, few schools could support students who needed additional
accommodations or special education services. Teachers wrestled with how to virtually deliver
special education services such as occupational and speech therapy (Ondrasek, 2020). Teachers
shared concerns about not being able to provide one-on-one attention to students having
difficulty understanding concepts. Although many teachers made themselves available online,
numerous students lacked the connectivity and technology devices to access the online
instruction and materials from home (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). According to a nationwide survey by
Education Week (Kurtz, 2020), in April of 2020, 39% of teachers reported that most student-
teacher communication occurred over email. They only interacted with their students about once
a day. Although teachers tried to reach students through video conferencing platforms such as
Zoom and Google Meet, teachers reported that about 21% of their students were not logging in
or making contact (Kurtz, 2020). In all likelihood, students who did not attend remote classes
may not have received any instruction.
School districts that have served students during the pandemic through remote learning
have seen a dramatic surge in failing or near-failing grades. Wong (2020) states that class failure
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rates have surged in school districts nationwide. Those failing grades tend to be concentrated
among low-income students of color, English Language Learners, and students with disabilities.
The lack of reliable access to the internet or devices, sporadic attendance, disengagement, and
missing assignments are associated with the dramatic increase of students receiving failing
grades. Distance learning also hindered teacher’s ability to effectively build relationships with
students and assess student learning (Sawchuk, 2020).
Learning Loss
Bodies of literature have attributed learning loss to summer breaks, weather-related
closures, natural disasters, and student absenteeism (Borman, 2020; Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
Research on summer learning loss shows that students lost about a month of learning over the
summer break. According to Borman (2020), students forget lessons that they learned during the
school year during the summer break. Whether or natural disasters have also impacted student
achievement and growth. Snow day closures have been linked to null effects on mathematics and
reading achievement overall in places like Colorado and Massachusetts. The displacement of
students from classrooms because of Hurricane Katrina led to high drops in academic
achievement. The high number of absences while school is in session has adverse effects on end-
of-year test scores (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). According to Kuhfeld et al. (2020), an examination of
prior research on student learning loss due to spending significant amounts of time out of school
will help evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on student achievement.
School closures and transition to remote learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic are
linked to student learning loss. The loss is associated with the minimal experience teachers and
students had with online instruction and the gaps in technology access (Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
According to Dorn et al. (2020), learning loss will most likely be more significant for low-
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income, Black, and Hispanic students because they were less likely to have access to high-
quality remote learning, a quiet learning environment with minimal distractions, high-speed
internet, devices for themselves, and parental academic supervision. How much student learning
loss occurred during the school closures will depend on the quality and access to remote
learning, home support, and the degree of engagement (Dorn et al., 2020). There is good reason
to believe that students did not learn what they needed to know during the school closures and
may have lost some of what they had learned before the pandemic (Borman, 2020).
Mental Health
According to Combe (2020), schools are the largest providers of mental health services
for children. School closures lead to limited services provided to students by school counselors,
psychologists, and social workers. The lack of social interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic
has led to unprecedented hazards to mental health globally. According to Xiong et al. (2020), the
COVID-19 pandemic caused high psychological distress among the general population. The
study’s findings reveal stress, anxiety, and depression as the main symptoms of mental health
disorders. Mental health includes an individual’s emotional, psychological, and social well-
being. It can affect how people feel, think, and act as they go about their daily lives. Positive
mental health allows people to cope with stress factors and work productively, while people
dealing with negative mental health issues may experience sleep and eating disorders and feel
helpless and hopeless.
Health and financial hardships in the family structure during the COVID-19 pandemic
have put individuals at more significant risk for developing psychological symptoms. Children
may show signs of anxiety and depression when they see members of their family and
community suffering physically or financially (Jones, 2020; Xiong et al., 2020). Difficulty with
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concentration, sleep, social isolation, academic performance, eating, and suicidal thoughts are
some of the signs of stress that have been identified among students (Son et al., 2020). These
patterns can become long-term psychological problems.
Teachers also experience psychological distress because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Teachers may feel anxiety and stress because of their own family and community issues and the
ongoing teacher-student interaction in a stressful atmosphere (Zhou, 2020). Teacher stress can
also be associated with remote learning and all the technical problems related to distance
learning. Teachers have to cope with their mental health issues as they try to support the mental
health of their students.
Nutrition
The COVID-19 pandemic has augmented food insecurity for many families. In the
United States, one in four families does not have reliable access to food. Food insecurity has
escalated because of loss of employment, school closures, suspensions of out-of-school
programs, and transitions to remote learning (Poole et al., 2021). Many low- and middle-income
families rely on free school meals daily. School meals and snacks are their primary food source
and fulfill up to two-thirds of their nutritional needs for many children. Therefore, the unforeseen
school closures implemented by school districts as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic
impacted the nutrition of many students (Dunn et al., 2020; Mayurasakorn et al., 2020; Ntambara
& Chu, 2021; Poole et al., 2021).
Before the pandemic, federal nutrition programs such as the National School Lunch
Program (NSLP), the School Breakfast Program (SBP), and the Child and Adult Care Food
Program (CACFP) supported meals provided in educational settings. The pandemic exposed just
how much families relied on schools as their primary means of food security. According to Poole
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et al. (2021), about 30 million children lost access to food because of school closures. As a quick
response to the need of children and families, Congress authorized the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) to approve waivers for schools, childcare centers, and government agencies
to use different methods to make meals accessible to families. The Families First Coronavirus
Response Act included provisions for nutrition assistance (Dunn et al., 2020). For example,
school districts opened grab-and-go meal centers that included three meals: breakfast, lunch, and
supper. According to Weingarten (2020b), over 150,000 students in the Los Angeles Unified
School District (LAUSD) were provided meals daily through their grab-and go-program.
Families benefited from the Pandemic Electronic Benefits Transfer (P-EBT) program, which
provided funds equivalent to the cost of the meals children would have received had they been
on campus. These benefits only cover the cost of meals consumed during the school week
throughout the school year.
The pandemic has created a significant risk of childhood malnutrition. There is an
anticipation of an upsurge of undernutrition and underweight in children due to declines in
household incomes, availability of nutritious foods, and access to healthcare. There is a surge in
overweight and obese children due to the implementation of social distancing measures and
school closures. Childhood malnutrition can have short-term effects on children’s physical and
mental health and long-term consequences such as diabetes, hypertension, heart diseases, and
cancer (Ntambara & Chu, 2021).
Impact of Pandemic on Marginalized Populations
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed and magnified many pre-existing inequities in access
to work and needed services. The pandemic disproportionately affected individuals from
marginalized populations; it revealed health, wealth, and educational disparities among
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marginalized groups, that is, those who live on the fringe of mainstream America (Baptiste et al.,
2020; Combe, 2020; Kantamneni, 2020). Baptiste et al. (2020) point out that health inequities
among vulnerable populations are nothing new because many ethnic and racial minority groups
often experience this vulnerability due to structural racism, segregation, discrimination, and
marginalization. Therefore, many marginalized students and their families have limited access to
quality health care and, consequently, minimal access to mental health care.
Exposure to COVID-19 infections is more prevalent among people of color because they
are more likely to be frontline workers, live in multi-generational households, and have limited
access to pharmacies (Baptiste et al., 2020; Combe, 2020). According to Fofaria (2020), wealth
disparities between Black and white families are evident as Black households have about
$800,000 less net worth than the average white household. As a result, lower-wealth homes have
less access to higher-quality and higher-level education opportunities. Combe (2020) remarks
that structural and systemic barriers in the United States leave students of color in poorly
resourced schools. The lag in academic performance is attributed to inadequate coursework, lack
of access to high-level courses, inexperienced teachers, and lack of access to guidance
counselors. Before the pandemic, undeserving minority students, particularly students of color,
had been the norm.
The sudden switch to remote learning has created academic setbacks for student
populations like low-income students, students of color, English Language Learners, and special
education students. Access to connectivity and educational content are two areas. Fofaria (2020)
points out that when schools stopped in-person instruction, the vast digital divide in devices and
internet connection between students of color and white students became noticeable. Half of the
students of color did not have access to a device, and 40% did not have access to the internet
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(Walters, 2020). According to Horowitz (2020), there have also been differences in the number
of online instruction students receive, and the experiences vary by income level. For example,
51% of upper-income parents surveyed noted that their children received much online instruction
since the closures, while only 38% of lower-income parents said the same. Because many parents
of color were more likely to leave for work out of the house, they could not be present to support
remote learning from home and their children (Fofaria, 2020). More significant anxiety for
students of color during the pandemic is linked to the digital divide, the lack of adult support in
homes, and nutrition challenges.
The abrupt school closures and the severe economic consequences of the pandemic also
exacerbated the food insecurity for marginalized populations. Millions of children depend on
daily school meals provided through the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), National
School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, and Child and Adult Care Program (Combe,
2020; Dunn et al., 2020). Fofaria (2020) notes that many students relied on being in school to
receive at least two meals per day.
School Leadership Facing Crises
A crisis is an unpredictable event or urgent situation that requires immediate and decisive
action by the organization’s leadership (Smith & Riley, 2012). Emergencies occur at schools in
one way or another, no matter how efficiently leaders manage the situation. They can be short-
term crises, sudden in arrival and swift in conclusion, or long-term crises, which develop slowly
and continue for a long time without a clear resolution. School leaders’ leadership characteristics
and skills in times of crisis are different from those needed during the regular school period.
Strong and effective leadership is an essential component of dealing with an emergency (Smith
& Riley, 2012). Leaders respond to crises in various ways. The approach taken can vary based
35
on the leadership style, the leader’s experience, or the demands of the situation. The experiences
and responses of leaders in previous crises such as Hurricane Katrina, the 2011 Alabama
tornadoes, and the 2018 Paradise campfires provide some insight into the different leadership
responses.
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall along the Mississippi Gulf Coast. The hurricane
caused severe damage or destruction to businesses, homes, and schools. Dealing with the
aftermath of the devastation was a tremendous challenge for school leaders. Many of them had
experienced hurricanes, but none to the magnitude of Hurricane Katrina. Many students and
educators were displaced from their homes. Leaders had to shift their priorities from student
achievement to the welfare of the students, their families, the community, and the staff.
According to one superintendent, he had to focus on student achievement on hold to deal with
teachers having catastrophic losses and assisting families in need. District leaders understood the
difficult circumstances faced by families and staff members. They were responsive by relaxing
school policies such as dress codes and homework requirements, adding personal leave days for
staff members, setting up food pantries and clothing distributions spots in schools, and ensuring
staff members continued to be paid, and ensuring that counseling and support were available for
children and staff members suffering from post-traumatic stress. District leaders also had to
expand their roles as they were pushed into positions that extended their authority beyond the
schools in the community. For example, the superintendents knew the needs of the communities.
They decided which buildings would be opened as shelters and took on the responsibility to
operate them until the Red Cross or other volunteers arrived to assist. The superintendent acted
decisively, creatively, and in innovative ways to lead their school districts through the changes
brought about by Hurricane Katrina (Gouwens & Lander, 2008).
36
In another example, on April 27, 2011, Alabama was hit by sixty-two tornadoes. The
number of tornadoes on that day broke all previous records and accounted for about two and a
half times the yearly average. The record-breaking tornadoes in rural Alabama left a wide path of
destruction in the state, including K–12 schools (Bishop et al., 2015). Researchers documented
the experiences and the response of school leaders during this crisis. School leaders stated that
they had to make several rapid and practical decisions after the tornadoes, such as developing a
plan to complete the school year, identifying alternative locations, and securing educational
supplies to conduct classes. According to Bishop et al. (2015), this decision-making process
requires leaders to show initiative and resilience. Leaders responded to the community’s needs as
crisis managers focused on the emotional needs of people, coordinated resources, and
communicated with other relevant folks for help. Leaders demonstrated care and compassion as
they focused on the emotional needs of students and staff. For example, a school administrator
who experienced the loss of a teacher and two students delayed reopening the school until after
the families had completed the funeral services. They also provided post-crisis support through
counseling services to those in need. Leaders undertook purposeful actions in the best interests of
students and teachers and trusted their instincts and experiences (Bishop et al., 2015).
And finally, in 2018, campfires spread through Paradise, California, forcing school
leaders to close schools for 154 days. Thousands of families lost their homes and had to be
relocated. Paradise School District lost five of its nine schools in the fires (Lardieri, 2019).
During that particular crisis, the school leaders responded using a situational approach.
According to Northouse (2019), the premise of the situational approach is that different
situations demand different kinds of leadership; an effective leader must adapt their style to the
demands of the situation. The leader of the Paradise School District adopted this approach as
37
they focused on meeting the needs of the students. For example, they relocated elementary
students to a safe and empty school, relocated seventh through twelfth-grade students to portable
buildings in a strip mall, and set up additional facilities in an empty warehouse near the airport.
The Paradise School District also managed the crisis by leading with emotional intelligence.
According to Goleman (2004), emotional intelligence leads in times of complexity and change.
The Paradise leaders exemplified emotional intelligence by putting the needs of people first and
by reacting to the needs of the people. For example, the district provided counseling and other
mental health services to help the community heal. The leaders remained flexible and alerted the
community to available resources that allowed the students to return to school sooner (Lardieri,
2019).
In times of crisis, difficult decisions are made, and school leaders need to be decisive.
According to Smith and Riley (2012), leadership in times of crisis is primarily about dealing with
events, emotions, and consequences in the immediate present in ways that minimize harm to the
school community. He notes that successful school leadership references crisis management,
which entails detecting the crisis, preparing for the situation, responding to the problem, and
recovering from the crisis. But because there is minimal research about the response to
emergencies by K–12 educational leaders, it is difficult to elicit a consistent theory of effective
leadership in times of crisis. Therefore, further exploration of the experiences and responses by
educational leaders is needed to inform and potentially help others prepare for future disasters.
Leadership Frameworks
Effective leadership is essential for driving change and innovation in schools and
resolving difficult circumstances. Situational leadership, adaptive leadership, and crisis
management are a few of the leading themes aligned to leaders’ responses during times of crisis.
38
According to Northouse (2019), the situational approach is one of the more widely recognized
approaches to leadership. The theory’s premise is that different situations demand different kinds
of leadership. This approach requires that leaders match their style to the competence and
commitment of followers and change the degree to which they are directive and supportive to
meet the needs of followers. Leaders can apply this approach in times of crisis because it is
practical and easy to implement.
Adaptive leadership, a follower-centered approach, encourages people to face and deal
with problems, challenges, and changes. The leader assists people who need to confront difficult
situations and helps others adjust to new circumstances. Adaptive leaders mobilize, motivate,
organize, and guide because their goal is to encourage people to change and learn new ways of
living to effectively face their challenges and grow (Northouse, 2019).
Crisis management involves a three-phase approach: prevent, respond, and recover. This
crisis management strategy can be cyclical because the learning involved in dealing with the
current crisis revolves back to enhancing how the leader detects, prepares for, contains, resolves,
and recovers from any future crisis they may encounter (Smith & Riley, 2012). Crises are
generally unexpected and unpredicted situations. Therefore, leadership responses need to be
clear, decisive, and appropriate because leading the recovery of a school community requires
sensitivity to the needs of those impacted by the crisis and a rapid return to the standard
operating routine of the school community.
Conclusion
As stated previously, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant suffering, death,
and disruption worldwide. The pandemic has impacted school districts as school closures were
implemented and shifted to remote learning models. School district leaders had to bargain with
39
unions representing certificated and classified members to negotiate the implementation of the
learning models and follow the guidance of federal, state, and local health agencies to meet the
required safety protocols. The review of the relevant literature details the impact of the pandemic
on the financial capacity of schools and their technological infrastructure and academic
achievement, mental health, and nutrition of children. The literature also highlights the
educational inequities aggravated for marginalized populations during the pandemic. This study,
further described in the following chapters, will examine the response and experience of school
leaders during the pandemic. Many leaders used the disruption of the pandemic as an opportunity
for innovation. These changes can be the blueprints for school leaders to create a new vision for
schools after the pandemic.
40
Chapter Three: Methodology
The preceding chapters provided an overview of the study, the research questions guiding
the study, and a review of the literature that is relevant to the topic under discussion. This chapter
begins by reviewing the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research
questions. It outlines the design of the research study, provides an overview of the methodology,
identifies the participants, and explains the instruments used to conduct the research. It concludes
with an explanation of how data will be collected and analyzed, including a summary of this
chapter.
Statement of the Problem
The COVID-19 Pandemic presented a disruption in Southern California K–12 public
school districts, causing unforeseen consequences within the education system and highlighting
financial implications, the impact of agencies, negotiations with unions, and the impact on
students and the community. COVID-19 shifted the roles and scope of schools and school
leaders beyond instructional leaders and transforming them into crisis managers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
Southern California K–12 public school districts and understand what district and site
administrators have learned from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in
managing the crisis. This study brings to light the impact of the pandemic on students, families,
leaders, schools, and districts. Most importantly, this study examines how district and school
leadership influences administrative practices, student achievement, financial responsibility,
union leadership, and community/parent support as they respond to the COVID-19 crisis.
41
Research Questions
The study was guided by four research questions:
1. What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on
K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and how have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed these
implications?
2. What, if any, has been the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12
public school districts in Southern California, and what strategies have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the
suggested guidelines?
3. How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 Southern California
public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
4. How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California public school districts leadership teams
comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed the
concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack
of technology, academic standing, and how and when to re-open schools due to the
COVID-19 pandemic?
Research Team
Dr. Rudy Castruita led the research team from the University of Southern California
(USC) Rossier School of Education. The dissertation group was composed of twenty-two
students, with Dr. Castruita as the project’s principal researcher and supervisor. The dissertation
group, which began meeting in spring 2021, contributed to the literature review bibliography,
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, research questions, conceptual framework,
42
and data collection instruments. Our research team is made up of three researchers. Due to the
many group aspects of the thematic process, there may be some similarities in the dissertations.
Research Design
This study was designed as a mixed-methods study, utilizing qualitative and quantitative
methods to collect and analyze the data. A mixed-methods approach was selected to establish
triangulation so that findings can be confirmed through multiple methods, thereby creating a
more holistic approach (Maxwell, 2013). Lochmiller & Lester (2017) state that triangulation
establishes evidence across multiple data points to support the claims made in the study.
Collecting data through interviews and surveys enables triangulation across the results, which is
crucial for cross-checking the data collected and supporting the study’s findings (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In the qualitative portion of the study, semi-structured interviews were conducted
to collect open-ended responses. In the quantitative portion of the study, closed-ended surveys
were used to collect data. The participants for both methodologies included school
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals of Southern California K–12 public
school districts.
Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research aims to interpret how individuals make sense of a process and
describe how they interpret what they experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In qualitative
research, the researcher is the primary data collection and analysis instrument. Qualitative
researchers collect descriptive data in their natural settings and are often interested in
comprehending how people interpret their experiences and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). They use an inductive process to understand from the
perspective of the study participants (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
43
Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative methods allowed researchers in this study to uncover how district and
school leaders made decisions and addressed challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
researchers conducted 23 interviews for this qualitative portion of the study. The semi-structured
interview protocol developed by the research team consisted of 14 questions, not including
follow-up and probing questions. Separate interview protocols with some vocabulary changes
but similar questions were created for superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
to accommodate their different roles and experiences. The interview protocols can be found in
Appendices G, H, and I. The researchers conducted the interviews via Zoom and took an average
of 35 minutes to complete. The interview protocol was followed consistently throughout the
interviews, and additional questions were asked when necessary. Via the interviews, the
researchers gathered data that reflected the participants’ opinions, decisions, and knowledge.
Quantitative Methods
Quantitative research describes patterns, trends, and relationships using numerical data.
Quantitative research usually collects data using instruments such as assessments, surveys, and
existing datasets. The most commonly used protocol for gathering quantitative data is a survey
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Surveys allow the researcher to obtain information from the
participants and then easily convert the responses to quantitative data values to be analyzed
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). For this study, quantitative data were collected using a self-
administered 26-item survey via Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com; see Appendices D, E, and
F). The survey questions were developed based on the four research questions. The survey was
designed to gather data that reflected the school leaders’ experiences, views, decisions, and
knowledge about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Southern California K–12 public
school districts. Separate surveys with some vocabulary changes but similar questions were
44
created for superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals to address their different
roles. The continuing survey items utilized a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree). The surveys took, on average, 15 minutes to complete. The survey link was
emailed to all 23 Southern California K–12 public school district leaders: nine superintendents,
seven assistant superintendents, and seven principals. The survey included a cover letter (see
Appendices D, E, and F), the survey items, and closing instructions. Participants completed the
survey using Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com), which tabulated the number of responses
returned.
Sample and Population
The target population for the study was leaders of Southern California K–12 public school
districts; superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals. Convenience sampling and
purposeful sampling were utilized in selecting the school districts and the superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals who participated in this study. Convenience sampling
happens when the researcher selects individuals based on their proximity and accessibility rather
than specific criteria (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Purposeful sampling occurs when the
participants are selected based on specific criteria (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). This research study included purposeful selection to ensure that all participants
worked in public Southern California K–12, K–8 elementary and high school districts in the
superintendent, assistant superintendent, or principal roles. The selection criteria to participate in
the study included the following:
• Participants must be currently employed at a traditional public Southern California
K–12, K–8, Elementary, or High School district
45
• Participants must currently hold the title of the superintendent, assistant
superintendent, or principal
• Participants must have worked in their current role for at least 1 year
• Participants must have served in their current positions during the 2020–2021 school
year
• The student population of the district where participants work is at least one thousand
• The minimum sample size for the interviews was set at nine participants, and the
minimum sample size for the survey responses was set at nine participants.
Superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals selected for this study
played a role in supporting school districts and school sites during the COVID-19
pandemic. The results from the interviews and surveys collected will be compared to
the results collected by other research team members.
Setting and Researcher Roles
Data for this study was collected from nine Southern California School Districts.
Researcher one collected data from districts A, B, and C. Researcher two collected data from
districts D, E, and F. Researcher three collected data from districts G, H, and I.
School District A serves about 6,000 students in grades kindergarten through sixth grade
(EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 5,500 (EdData,
2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 35% of the student population are English Language
Learners, and 80% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District B serves about 9,700 students in grades kindergarten through sixth grade
(EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 9,500 (EdData,
46
2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 10% of the student population are English Language
Learners, and 22% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District C serves about 5,300 students in grades kindergarten through sixth grade
(EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 5,000 (EdData,
2021, 2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 17% of the student population are English
Language Learners, and 50% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District D serves about 25,000 students in grades kindergarten through twelfth
grade (EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 24,000
(EdData, 2021). According to EdData (2021), 13% of the student population are English
language learners, and 40% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District E serves about 26,000 students in grades kindergarten through twelfth
grade (EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 25,000
(EdData, 2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 18% of the student population are English
language learners, and 34% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District F serves about 23,500 students in grades kindergarten through twelfth
grade. The average daily attendance for School District F is approximately 22,600 (EdData,
2021). According to EdData (2021), 16% of the student population are English language
learners, and 46% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District G serves about 8,000 students from kindergarten through twelfth grade
(EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 7,000 (EdData,
2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 26% of the student population are English Language
Learners, and 85% receive free or reduced-price meals.
47
School District H serves about 17,600 grades in ninth through twelfth grade (EdData,
2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 15,600 (EdData, 2021).
According to EdData (2021), nearly 12% of the student population are English Language
Learners, and 64% receive free or reduced-price meals.
School District I serves about 16,500 students in grades kindergarten through twelfth
grade (EdData, 2021). The district has an average daily attendance of approximately 15,700
(EdData, 2021). According to EdData (2021), nearly 11% of the student population are English
Language Learners, and 33% receive free or reduced-price meals.
Both the survey and interview protocols included an explanation of the purpose of the
study (see Appendices D, E, F, G, H, and I). The participants were informed that the process was
voluntary and that confidentiality would be maintained throughout the entire process. The names
of the school districts, schools, or participants were not utilized to protect the confidentiality of
those involved in the study.
Instrumentation and Conceptual Framework
After analyzing the current literature and identifying gaps in research, an interview
protocol and a survey were designed to address the research questions guiding this research
study. The researchers first surveyed and then interviewed the participants. The interview and
survey questions were field-tested beforehand to ensure they were concise and that the results
addressed the four research questions.
Interviews took place virtually because of the safety protocols in place due to the
COVID-19 pandemic and out of consideration of the time constraints of the participants who
were still leading the school through a pandemic. All the interviews were recorded with the
48
participants’ permission. The researchers also took notes during the interviews. Appendices G,
H, and I contain the interview protocol that all the researchers used for different participants.
The survey instruments were administered to 23 Southern California K–12 public school
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals. Email addresses were collected from
participants, and then the link to the survey questions was emailed to the 23 participants that
were interviewed. Reminders were sent out to take the survey. Appendices D, E, and F contain
the survey sent to each participant.
The conceptual framework (see Figure 1) utilized for this research study was based on
three theoretical frameworks. The three frameworks assist in developing an understanding of the
theories that impact school leadership and how they can be adapted to the current situation of
managing the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. The four frames, political, structural, human
resources, and symbolic, described by Bolman and Deal (2017), provide school leaders (at both
site and district levels) the roadmap to navigate the different aspects of leadership and how
leaders’ actions and habits can impact the organization. Fullan’s (2014) The Principal: Three
Keys to Maximizing Impact goes deeper into the specific role of principals as enacting change at
the site level through being a lead learner, district and system player, and a change agent.
Westover’s (2020) framework provides the guiding principles that districts can enact to create an
organization that can move together through change and create systems for continuous
improvement. These three frameworks together provide K–12 school districts with steps to
persist, at all levels of leadership, even in a crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic.
49
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Data Collection
The data collection process through surveys and interviews began during the spring 2022
semester after obtaining approval from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB). District superintendents were contacted via email in a formal written
request, followed by a phone conversation to obtain permission for the study and gain access to
assistant superintendents and principals. Once permission was granted, participants were
50
contacted for participation in the study via email. The email included a summary of the research
study, a request to participate, and a link to the survey (see Appendices A, B, and C). In addition,
participants were contacted by phone to encourage responses to the surveys and to request
interviews.
The surveys were conducted through an online format, Qualtrics
(https://www.qualtrics.com), so that participants could complete them at their own time and
discretion. Participants spent, on average, 15 minutes completing the online survey. The semi-
structured interviews took place via Zoom and took 35 minutes to complete on average. All
interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission. A professional transcriber
transcribed the recordings from the interviews.
Data Analysis
This mixed-methods study used qualitative data from interviews and quantitative data
from surveys. After the data was collected, the qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed
separately based on the four research questions delineated in the study. The qualitative data
collected from the interviews were organized and analyzed to identify common themes. The
researcher read through each interview transcript and coded the text by themes. Common themes
and patterns were identified to understand the impact of the pandemic on schools, students, and
leaders and how school leaders managed the crisis.
The quantitative data collected by the survey instrument was compiled and analyzed
using Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com). Each participant’s responses were separated and
organized using the Likert-scale values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The average score from each question
was calculated for each participant and included one overall average score across all questions
for each participant. Responses were evaluated to determine commonalities and differences.
51
Ethical Considerations
The research process demands that researchers think cautiously about the interaction with
others and the consequences of those interactions. Likewise, ethically responsible agents place
the voice of the oppressed at the center of inquiry and use that inquiry to reveal the change and
activism needed to help people. An important aspect of ethical research is the focus on respect
for the individuals and the community (Denzin, 2016; Glesne, 2011; Lochmiller & Lester, 2017;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Throughout the design and implementation of this research study, all
ethical considerations were followed. All guidelines and procedures for the University of
Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) were reviewed and implemented
throughout the entire research study. To ensure the study was conducted ethically, all
participants were informed of the purpose of the study, and it was clearly stated that their
participation in the study was voluntary. Participants were also informed that their identities and
responses would be kept secure and confidential, and the data would be handled carefully, safely,
and anonymously. During the interviews, explicit permission was requested to record the
sessions. The participants were made aware of how the findings would be published as a doctoral
dissertation in the University of Southern California program.
Summary
Chapter Three restated the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the
research questions. The research design, which included details of the research methods,
including the sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis, was also
presented. Emphasis was made that the data collection began after the researcher obtained
approval for IRB. This study used appropriate tools and followed all ethical guidelines to ensure
52
the validity and reliability of the study. The research findings of this study and in-depth analysis
will be presented in the following chapter.
53
Chapter Four: Findings
Chapter Four includes an analysis of data collected from a mixed-methods study. The
purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Southern California
K–12 public school districts and understand what district and site administrators learned from
their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in managing the crisis. This study
brings to light the impact of the pandemic on students, families, leaders, schools, and districts.
Above all, this study examines how district and school leadership influences administrative
practices, student achievement, financial responsibility, union leadership, and community/parent
support as they responded to the COVID-19 crisis. Using a 5-point Likert scale to rank
statements, an online survey was administered to collect quantitative data, and semi-structured
virtual interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data. The survey and interview questions
fell under four main topics: financial implications, health and safety guidelines, union
negotiations, and community concerns. This mixed-methods approach established triangulation
for more accurate findings (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework utilized for this research
study was based on three theoretical frameworks: four frames, three keys to maximizing impact,
and coherent systems. The three frameworks assist in developing an understanding of the
theories that impact school leadership and how they can be adapted to the current situation of
managing the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. The findings in Chapter Four are the results of the
online survey and interviews. The following four research questions guided the study:
1. What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on
K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and how have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed these
implications?
54
2. What, if any, has been the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12
public school districts in Southern California, and what strategies have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the
suggested guidelines?
3. How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 Southern California
public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
4. How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California public school districts’ leadership
teams comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition, distance
learning, lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to re-open
schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic?
Participants
For this study, researchers selected participants who were superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals from nine Southern California K–12 public school districts. All
nine school districts serve demographically diverse students in grades K–12. Nine
superintendents, seven assistant superintendents, and seven principals completed the survey and
participated in the virtual interviews (see Table 1). The participants met the selection criteria,
which included the following:
• Participants must be currently employed at a traditional public Southern California
K–12, K–8, Elementary, or High School district
• Participants must currently hold the title of the superintendent, assistant
superintendent, or principal
• Participants must have worked in their current role for at least 1 year
55
• Participants must have served in their current positions during the 2020–2021 school
year
• The student population of the district where participants work is at least one thousand
All the participants met the criteria, responded to the survey, and participated in the
virtual interview. The school districts were renamed to protect the identities of school leaders
involved and ensure anonymity.
Demographic Data
The experiences of district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and school
principals during the COVID-19 pandemic were critical for this research study. The selected
participants had to work in their current role for at least 1 year, serving in the position of
superintendent, assistant superintendent, or principal during the 2020–2021 school year and
having a student population of at least one thousand. The 23 participants from Districts A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, and I were asked two demographic questions: how many years have they served in
the leadership role, and how many years have they served in the leadership role in their current
district. As shown in Table 2, all 23 participants served as a Southern California K–12 public
school district superintendent, assistant superintendent, or principal during the COVID-19
pandemic. Three of the 23 participants have served in their current roles for over 10 years. Six
have served in their current roles for 6 to 10 years. Seven have served in their current role for 3
to 5 years. Five have served in their current role for 1 to 2 years, and two have served less than 1
year (see Table 2).
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Table 1
School District Demographic Information
District Grade span Student
population
Average
daily
attendance
English
language
learners
Free and
reduced-
price meals
District A
District B
District C
District D
District E
District F
District G
District H
District I
K–6
K–6
K–6
K–12
K–12
K–12
K–12
9–12
K–12
6,000
9,700
5,300
25,000
26,000
23,500
8,000
17,600
16,500
5,500
9,500
5,000
24,000
25,000
22,600
7,000
15,600
15,700
35%
10%
17%
13%
18%
16%
26%
12%
11%
80%
22%
50%
40%
34%
46%
85%
64%
33%
57
Table 2
Participant Demographic Information
Participant Southern California
district leader in
2020–2021
Years in position Years in position in
current district
Superintendent A Yes 6 to 10 6 to 10
Superintendent B Yes 3 to 5 3 to 5
Superintendent C Yes 6 to 10 6 to 10
Superintendent D Yes 6 to 10 1 to 2
Superintendent E Yes 6 to 10 6 to 10
Superintendent F Yes Over 10 Over 10
Superintendent G Yes Over 10 Over 10
Superintendent H Yes 1 to 2 1 to 2
Superintendent I Yes 6 to 10 6 to 10
Assistant
Superintendent A
Yes
1 to 2
Less than 1
Assistant
Superintendent B
Yes
1 to 2
1 to 2
Assistant
Superintendent C
Yes
6 to 10
6 to 10
Assistant
Superintendent D
Yes
1 to 2
1 to 2
Assistant
Superintendent F
Yes
3 to 5
3 to 5
Assistant
Superintendent G
Yes 3 to 5 Over 10
Assistant
Superintendent I
Yes 6 to 10 6 to 10
Principal A Yes 3 to 5 Less than 1
Principal B Yes 1 to 2 1 to 2
Principal C Yes 3 to 5 3 to 5
Principal F Yes 3 to 5 3 to 5
Principal G Yes 3 to 5 3 to 5
Principal H Yes 6 to 10 3 to 5
Principal I Yes 3 to 5 3 to 5
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked the following: What, if any, are the financial implications that
the COVID-19 pandemic has had on K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and
58
how have district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed these
implications?
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, school districts already faced challenges with rising
costs, declining revenues, and more significant student needs. The COVID-19 pandemic
aggravated the financial situation of school districts and imposed tremendous additional costs on
school districts (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021). The first research question was
designed to assess the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on school districts and to
learn how school districts used the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES)
funds.
The CARES Act has distributed billions of dollars to schools to help school districts close
gaps in expenses and focus efforts on in-person learning (Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al.,
2021). Five survey statements were designed to address how the CARES Act funds met the
funding needs of school districts and schools in the areas of personnel, personal protective
equipment (PPE), technology, professional learning and/or training, and facility upgrades. All
participating superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals rated their level of
agreement about the survey statements using a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree). Statements in the survey related to financial implications include:
• The CARES Act met my district’s funding needs in the area of personnel.
• The CARES Act met my district’s funding needs in the area of personal protective
equipment (PPE).
• The CARES Act met my district’s funding needs in the area of technology.
• The CARES Act met my district’s funding needs in the area of professional learning
and/or training.
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• The CARES Act met my district’s funding needs in the area of facility upgrades.
Table 3 shows the cumulative statement responses from the participating superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals. Of the twenty-three participants surveyed, 8.69%
strongly agreed, and 69.56% agreed that the CARES Act met their district’s funding needs in the
area of personnel, while 8.69% disagreed (13.04% neither agreed nor disagreed). When asked if
the CARES Act met their district’s funding needs in the area of PPE, 39.13% strongly agreed,
52.17% agreed, and none disagreed (8.69% neither agreed nor disagreed). In addressing the third
statement, 21.73% strongly agreed, and 60.86% agreed that the CARES Act met their district’s
funding needs in the area of technology, while 4.34% disagreed (13.04% neither agreed nor
disagreed). When participants were asked if the CARES Act met their district’s needs in the area
of professional learning and/or training, 8.69% strongly agreed, and 65.21% agreed, while 4.34%
disagreed (21.73% neither agreed nor disagreed). In addressing the last statement, 8.69%
strongly agreed and 52.17% agreed that the CARES Act met their district’s funding needs in the
area of facility upgrades, while 13.04% disagreed (26.08% neither agreed nor disagreed).
Table 3
Survey: Financial Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
The CARES Act
met my
district’s/school’
s funding needs
in the area of
personnel.
0.00% 8.69% 13.04% 69.56% 8.69%
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Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
The CARES Act
met my
district’s/school’
s funding needs
in the areas of
personal
protective
equipment
(PPE).
0.00% 0.00% 8.69% 52.17% 39.13
The CARES Act
met my
district’s/school’
s funding needs
in the area of
technology.
0.00% 4.34% 13.04% 60.86% 21.73%
The CARES Act
met my
district’s/school’
s funding needs
in the area of
professional
learning and/or
training.
0.00% 4.34% 21.73% 65.21% 8.69%
The CARES Act
met my
district’s/school’
s funding needs
in the area of
facility upgrades.
0.00% 13.04% 26.08% 52.17% 8.69%
Note. Cumulative responses from participating Southern California K–12 public school
district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals.
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Four interview questions addressed Research Question 1 and provided participating
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals with the opportunity to discuss the financial implication of the COVID-19 pandemic
on school districts and how superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed
the implications. Responses to the four questions provided the researchers with significant
information to better understand each district and school’s financial situation and decision-
making process throughout the COVID-19 pandemic crisis.
Additional Staffing
Southern California K–12 public school districts were able to purchase PPE, technology,
student materials, and personnel using the additional allocation funds. When surveyed, 69.56%
of the participating superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals agreed, and 8.69%
strongly agreed that the CARES Act met their district’s/school’s funding needs in the area of
personnel. Additional personnel were funded to support extracurricular activities, reduce class
size, add social workers, run intervention programs, add counselors, teach full-day online school,
and perform custodial duties. Participating superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals shared that due to a labor shortage, filling personnel positions were challenging for
some school districts but not for others.
Superintendent A shared the challenges faced by their district while trying to fill
additional positions by saying, “The substitute shortage might factor in there. The fact that we
can’t find substitutes, and we have a labor shortage.”
Superintendent B spoke about their experience with the labor shortage. The
superintendent shared, “We could use it to provide additional staff for additional programs. But
finding staff, nobody can find staff anywhere.”
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Superintendent C stated that they planned to use the additional funds to expand learning
opportunities but struggled to fill those positions. The superintendent shared, “We put money
into the program, we can’t find staff to even run the program. So, that has really, really hampered
us.”
Superintendent G also dealt with labor shortages and difficulty filling positions included
in the original pandemic plan. The superintendent said,
We’ve actually done a lot to address learning loss and social-emotional needs of our
students. We have added learning loss mitigation teachers and a learning loss mitigation
team. The problem is finding staff at this point in time, but the allocation is two
additional full-time, fully credentialed teachers per site, one to focus on language arts and
one to focus on math, pulling small groups of students to provide additional supports to
address learning loss.
Principal A stated similar concerns related to staffing additional positions during the
labor shortage. The principal went on to say, “We’re working on trying to add more
extracurricular activities. The only problem is that personnel, it’s hard to get people with
COVID.”
Principal C echoed similar concerns related to filling additional positions. The principal
shared,
We can get more aides; we can get behavior support; we can get all these things because
of this funding. But there was no people for all of it. So, the hopes of it was like, here’s
all this money, so we can help with, you know, getting everything together. But if it
required people power, there were no people willing to come during the pandemic, even
still now, to come and work for some of these positions, and the reasons vary.
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Superintendent E stated they used the additional funds to hire intervention teachers for
elementary and secondary. The superintendent shared, “Supports for secondary finding an
additional intervention teacher, an intervention teacher in elementary and proportionally for our
high schools.”
Assistant Superintendent F echoed that their district was able to hire additional teachers
and counselors. The assistant superintendent stated, “We’ve done a variety of things from
lowering class sizes at the secondary level to hiring intervention teacher leads and MTSS leads,
counselors at every school and increased our mental health providers.”
Superintendent I felt the pandemic funding was adequate from both state and federal
funding resources and scrambled to create positions that could support student needs. Because
the funding is short-term, however, they worry about the long-term prospects of these newly-
created positions. The superintendent said,
The harsh reality of when these funds go away, and some of the things that we’ve gotten
used to, is going to be challenging. One of the things that the legislature could look at
doing is extending some of these funds to keep these nursing positions, social-emotional
health professionals, and school social workers that are so important right now.
Technology Support
When asked about how funding was used to meet students’ needs, a common theme
emerged among participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals: technology support and upgrades. Districts were
grateful for the additional funds to support students instructionally and with technology. When
surveyed, 60.86% of the participants agreed, and 21.739% strongly agreed that the CARES Act
met their district’s/school’s funding needs in the area of technology. District superintendents,
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assistant superintendents, and principals spoke about the availability of devices and internet
connectivity for the families and the technology enhancements made on campuses.
Assistant Superintendent A expressed that the additional funding helped the school district
meet the technological needs of students. The assistant superintendent shared, “They are able to
access more digital resources. The funding really allowed for digital platforms, digital resources,
devices, all of that. So, that was wonderful. Being able to increase the infrastructure of
connectivity.”
Assistant Superintendent C shared how the school district was able to provide families
with technology when the pandemic first hit. The superintendent shared,
We purchased enough devices to go one-to-one. And then, we purchased hundreds of
hotspots to be able to support internet at home. We would not have been able to keep all
the students learning at home if we didn’t have those funds to get Chromebooks and
iPads, and hotspots. I mean, that was critical and had to be something that we were able
to do right away. And luckily, there were funds to do that.
Principal A stated that they were already a one-to-one (one device for every student)
school prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, but that they were able to upgrade laptops and
smartboards. The principal said, “The district was able to come in and say we want you to have
all new fresh technologies. We are going to go ahead and refresh the whole school.”
Principal G explained the decision their district made to give two devices to TK–2
students once in-person learning began, along with many technology enhancements for all
students. The principal shared,
We’ve been able to purchase technology. So, our devices are two-to-one in TK through
second grade and one-to-one in the upper grades. The reason why we did two-to-one in
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the lower grades was so younger students wouldn’t have to worry about bringing their
device back and forth to school. We’ve been able to purchase technology platforms and
products that help the kids better interact with our teachers and learn at home. So, we
really have put our dollars into student learning and student achievement.
School Safety
The COVID-19 pandemic imposed additional costs on school districts as they were trying
to reopen schools with improved safety protocols and measures. Participating Southern
California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
expressed that they received a lot of support in terms of funding, and therefore they were able to
purchase the necessary equipment and materials to implement and maintain a safe learning
environment for students and staff. When surveyed, 52.17% of the participants agreed, and
39.13% strongly agreed that the CARES Act met their district’s/school’s funding needs in the
areas of PPE. Personal protective equipment and filtration systems were purchased using the
additional funds provided. Districts also used the funds to implement COVID testing.
Superintendent F stated that the most significant financial issue was getting the initial
PPE. The superintendent stated,
We installed thermometers in every classroom. We bought everybody those alcohol
sanitizers. We installed an air purifier unit in every classroom and workspace. We bought
bottled water until we could install those filling stations everywhere. All told, I think in
that first few months, we spent about five million dollars on stuff that we wouldn’t have
bought if it weren’t for the pandemic.
Superintendent A stated that they used part of the additional funds to install air purifiers
on all campuses. The superintendent went on to say, “Air purifiers were installed in every office,
66
every classroom. Every single classroom has air purifiers and the best air conditioning filtration
systems we can get. They’re called MERV 13 or HEPA certified.”
Superintendent B echoed how the funding was used to purchase PPE and implement
COVID testing. The superintendent shared,
The implementation of testing has been a costly piece. Our school district implements
COVID testing for our employees. We have been implementing COVID testing for our
students during the surge. Extra things, from barriers to sani-guns to masks, all of those
were costs as well.
Principal C shared how the additional funds provided allowed them to purchase all the
necessary PPE to reopen their school safely. The principal said, “We were able to get all of the
PPE necessary in order to protect our kids and then our staff here on campus as well.”
Principal H believes the funds helped their school purchase safety materials they could
not have bought years prior. Because of these increased safety measures, Principal H believes
more students were willing to return to in-person school. The principal stated,
When students could return to school for hybrid learning, our ability to provide the tents
and other safety features, I think, encouraged a lot of kids to return. The fact that we
could demonstrate how we were specifically providing increased safety measures, which
we did with the air scrubbers, masks, PPE, the hand sanitizer, and the frequent testing, I
think encouraged kids to return to school which we think was necessary for many kids.
Some kids thrived on distance learning, but many of our kids needed that in-person
approach. So, I think that encouraged people. And I think once kids did return; it also
allowed us to keep kids safe to a large degree.
67
The findings on Research Question 1 regarding the financial implication of the pandemic
on Southern California K–12 public school districts revealed three distinct themes: additional
staffing, technology support, and school safety. COVID-19 imposed tremendous additional costs
on school districts as they had to unexpectedly invest in additional staff, technology, and PPE
(Gordon & Reber, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021). According to the findings, the additional funding
allocation provided by the CARES Act supported all three areas: staffing, technology, and safety.
The survey results show that the majority of Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals agreed or strongly agreed that the
CARES Act met their district’s funding needs in the areas of personnel, PPE, technology,
learning, and training, and facility upgrades.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked the following: What, if any, has been the impact of federal,
state, and local health agencies on K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and what
strategies have district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to
address the suggested guidelines?
Superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals worked closely with various
government agencies in various ways. Federal and state government departments provided
financial support to school districts to address the challenges of distance learning and safety
(EdSource Staff, 2020a). Federal, state, and local government agencies, such as the Center for
Disease Control (CDC), the California Department of Public Health (CDPH), and county public
health offices, also provided rules, guidance, and protocols to help schools operate under rapidly-
changing COVID-19 pandemic health data. While these health and safety protocols were
68
sometimes helpful, they could also be contradictory, quickly changing, and challenging to
interpret.
Early on in the pandemic, it was shown that school shutdowns could support social
distancing and stay-at-home mandates, which have been proven to slow the spread of COVID-19
(Bhamani et al., 2020; Kurtz, 2020a). So, schools closed to in-person learning and worked
closely with Federal, state, and local health agencies to monitor COVID-19 infection rates and
safety advancements (EdSource Staff, 2020b; Garbe et al., 2020). However, due to the evolution
of COVID-19 and its unpredictable trajectory for the 2020–2021 school year, many districts in
California had to create multiple plans for returning to school, including a full-time return,
hybrid schedule, or entirely online program, either through a live video conference or learning
management system (LMS), such as Blackboard (Herold, 2020b; Kurtz, 2020a; Lieberman,
2020). By spring 2021, COVID-19 vaccinations and lower infection rates prompted many
Federal, state, and local agencies to allow California schools and districts to return to in-person
learning (Blume, 2021a).
Three survey statements were designed to address how guidance from Federal, state, and
local health agencies affected the school district’s return to school plans for the 2020–2021
school year. All participating superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals rated
their level of agreement about the survey statements using a Likert scale (1 = strongly
disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Statements in the survey related to federal, state, and local health
and safety guidelines include:
• The federal, state, and local health guidelines were clear in providing information to
support the safe reopening of schools.
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• I understood how to safely bring back staff during the fall of 2020 to work sites based
on the public health guidelines.
• The health guidelines impacted our district’s return to school plan in the spring of
2021.
Table 4 shows the cumulative statement responses from the participating superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals. The survey results demonstrate that 39.13% of the
participants agreed, and 8.69% strongly agreed that the federal, state and local health guidelines
were clear in providing information to support the safe reopening of schools, while 21.73%
disagreed and 17.39% strongly disagreed (13.04% neither agreed nor disagreed). Regarding staff
returning to campuses, 52.17% agreed, and 13.04% strongly agreed that they understood how to
bring back staff members safely for the 2020–2021 school year based on the public health
guidelines, while 30.43% disagreed (4.34% neither agreed nor disagreed). When questioned
about how the guidelines impacted the district’s return to school plan in spring 2021, 52.17% of
the participants agreed, 34.78% strongly agreed there was an impact, and 4.34% disagreed
(8.69% neither agreed nor disagreed).
70
Table 4
Survey: Federal, State and Local Health and Safety Guidelines of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
The federal, state
and local health
guidelines were
clear in
providing
information to
support the safe
reopening of
schools.
17.39% 21.73% 13.04% 39.13% 8.69%
I understood how
to safely bring
back staff during
the fall of 2020
to work sites
based on the
public health
guidelines.
0.00% 30.43% 4.34% 52.17% 13.04%
The health
guidelines
impacted our
district’s return
to school plan in
the spring of
2021.
0.00% 4.34% 8.69% 52.17% 34.78%
Note. Cumulative responses from participating Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals.
Four interview questions addressed Research Question 2 and provided the participating
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
71
principals with the opportunity to discuss the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies
on K–12 public school districts in Southern California and the strategies district superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the suggested guidelines. Responses
to the four questions provided the researchers with significant information to better understand
the impact of agencies on each district and school throughout the COVID-19 pandemic crisis.
The interview responses of school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals expanded on the themes found in the literature.
Guidance Given to Schools by the County
As the pandemic ensued, the details of interpreting and collaborating around the most
current health and safety guidelines for schools and districts were provided at the county level,
either by the county health office or the county office of education. The county received its
support for the guidance based on the data provided at the state and federal levels, but, for the
most part, direct state and federal input came only as additional relief funds. Much of this county
guidance was provided to district leaders during a weekly call with the county health office,
which provided the most recent COVID health and safety information and also allowed
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals to ask specific questions and give input
on decisions. Most superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals felt this
communication was beneficial in keeping them up-to-date on rapidly-changing COVID-19
developments.
Superintendent H explained their routine for gathering COVID-19 information from
Federal, state, and local sources. The superintendent shared,
The Federal and state governments don’t offer collaboration to local school districts. So
that one was easy. We met almost every week as a superintendent group in my county,
72
and most of the time, there was either the public health officer or his deputy there, as
well. We were having regular conversations with the county public health office, so I feel
like, locally, we had an opportunity to express to the public health folks what schools
need and what they didn’t need.
Assistant Superintendent A stated that constant meetings and collaboration helped the
district manage the constantly changing protocols and guidelines. The assistant superintendent
said, “Those meetings were so frequent because there were so many updates and changes. And
then, the county offices were constantly meeting with outside agencies. So, I felt there was a lot
of collaboration.”
Superintendent D echoed the sentiments of constant meetings and collaboration. The
superintendent said, “We had superintendents’ weekly meetings with the county department of
education and the county health care agency. They would be on our Zoom meetings every week,
helping us with the latest COVID numbers, trends and guidelines.”
Guidance Caused Frustration and Confusion
While the county-provided guidance was beneficial to school district leaders, there were
some components of this process that caused frustration and confusion. First, federal and state
guidance were often announced on a national scale, which meant that county and school district
leaders had little time to interpret the guidance before they had to create the correct guidance for
their particular location. The guidance announced in the news was not always the guidance that
applied to school settings since certain types of organizations (like schools) follow a different set
of guidelines. This confusion caused frustration amongst superintendents, assistant
superintendents, principals, teachers, staff members, students, parents, and community members
who relied on this information to keep their students safe. Equally frustrating was when county
73
guidance was provided after a similar state or federal guidance had been given weeks earlier.
Timeliness can be a delicate balance when dealing with student welfare; taking a wait-and-see
approach might be the wrong move on some guidance, while making immediate shifts could be
in the best interests of students and staff. Finally, the most frustrating part shared by
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals was that the guidance changed so
frequently because the COVID-19 data was also changing rapidly.
In some cases, guidance was mandated, then changed drastically and re-mandated
multiple times, giving opposite guidance in some cases. While district leaders were empathetic to
the evolving nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, a great source of frustration was the confusion
caused by these competing guidelines and the fallout when responding to it with concerned
faculty members, students, parents, and community members. One superintendent mentioned
how they were used to making decisions and dealing with whatever response came from the
community and staff. However, during this time of COVID-19 and ever-changing guidance, a
superintendent could make a decision and then have it reversed by a higher authority, effectively
taking away their ability to make crucial decisions as a superintendent. According to the survey
results, 47.82% of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals agree that the
federal, state and local health guidelines were clear in providing information to support the safe
reopening of schools, while 39.12% disagree. Regarding staff returning to campuses, 65.21%
agree that they understood how to bring back staff members safely for the 2020–2021 school
year based on the public health guidelines, while 30.43% disagree.
Superintendent A mentioned the frustration regarding the constant changing and
conflicting guidelines. The superintendent shared, “State and federal support has been
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frustrating, constantly changing conflicting guidelines. And the federal and state guidelines are
often in conflict with each other. And they also often conflict with Cal OSHA.”
Superintendent C echoed the frustration regarding the continuous changes in protocols
and guidance. The superintendent shared,
It’s been an extremely frustrating process working with the Department of Public Health
in the sense of them constantly changing their protocols. When we just came back in
January, we had a good plan. And then, literally the next week, they change it.
Assistant Superintendent F noted that weekly meetings with the county department of
health have been helpful. The assistant superintendent said,
It is kind of the blind leading the blind. They don’t have a whole bunch of answers, and
they’re not school system people. So, they don’t necessarily get the challenges from the
medical field or from even the government as to some of their decisions and how they
influence and lack of clarity. That’s been a challenge.
Assistant Superintendent I reflected on why the process would take so long, which caused
a lot of frustration. The assistant superintendent said,
When the CDC would come out with whatever their guidelines are, there appeared quite
often to be a delay, on California’s part, to adopt certain guidelines. And I do understand
why they probably didn’t jump on certain CDC guidelines right away. Obviously, they’re
taking a look at their own state’s COVID data, and they’re looking at what’s best for their
own state; I see that. And then, when CDPH would update their guidelines, then we
would wait on the county public health to update their guidelines. So, as you can see,
from the Federal to the state to the local, none of it was ever really immediate.
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Superintendent H explained the process for obtaining COVID-19 information and then
making decisions on returning to in-person learning based on that information. The
superintendent shared,
I think the county health office has been very conservative, so to speak, and that they’ve
actually typically been a little more restrictive than the state’s guidance. One of the things
is you can be more restrictive, just not less restrictive, so, I think the public health
department in our county took a very conservative approach. I feel like that actually
worked to our advantage because when we did come back to school, at least until we had
this latest variant, we had an extremely low rate of cases for staff and students for a
district of our size-until we got to this January with the Omicron. So, I feel like their
guidance was reasonable, and it was something we could achieve.
Principal G expressed the difficulties of working with the county office to secure
information and then having to deal with the frustration of two-way communication and lack of
support. The principal said,
The health agencies, in particular, have been disastrous and generally have provided little
to no help. They have burdened us with regulations that are ridiculous. Recently, we were
calling in contact tracing, which we’re required to do, and they told us, “We don’t have
the people to do it,” and hung up the phone. So, they loaded us with all these
requirements, and they can’t even support themselves.
Guidance Affected Reopening Plans
The health and safety guidance provided by the state of California did affect school
district timelines for in-person reopening in April of 2021, but the financial incentives for
returning to in-person learning in April 2021 were not a significant factor. The communication
76
from federal and state to the specific district or site had to adhere strictly to the guidelines and
could not be lenient on particular aspects; profound interpretation and collaborative input from
the staff and community became critical elements in finding ways to reopen schools for in-
person learning safely. All along the way, the guidance affected whether schools were open for
in-person learning, and when schools finally did start to reopen in spring 2021, the health and
safety guidance did affect the health and safety protocols that were put in place. When
questioned about how the guidelines impacted the district’s return to school plan in spring 2021,
86.95% agreed there was an impact, and 4.34% disagreed.
Superintendent A shared that they were already planning to reopen after the winter break,
so the financial incentive for reopening did not influence their decision. The superintendent said,
We were already planning to reopen right after winter break 2021. So, we were right in
line with that incentive funding, the reopening incentive funding. So, we were all ready to
go, already had worked with our labor organizations, our teachers.
Assistant Superintendent G believes having a plan ahead of time was the driving force
behind their reopening, not state funding. The assistant superintendent shared, “Our opening was
determined before there was any contingency for funding on the reopening. Our timeline was our
timeline. We were going to reopen when we felt that it was safe for our students and staff.”
Superintendent H utilized communication with the community and the county’s guidance
to develop a plan for reopening school campuses across multiple cities within their district. The
superintendent said,
Our parents expect us to be the experts, and they expect us to do the right thing on behalf
of their children. Furthermore, we cannot let our community down. We had a lot more
interest in certain areas to come back to school earlier. This is a talk I had with
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superintendents because we didn’t want to bring some areas of our district back and have
other areas stay at home. So, for us, it’s important that, across a large district, everybody
gets the same opportunities. We were tracking the virus rates by zip code, and it was only
when all the zip codes came down to a reasonable rate that we said, “Okay, I think we’re
ready to try and come back.” I feel very fortunate that our community was really with us
in the best interests of kids. And that’s not the case everywhere.
Assistant Superintendent I relied on the guidance from the local health agencies and used
those guidelines to implement re-openings and various safety protocols. The assistant
superintendent shared,
Our district has been very consistent, to the best of our ability, with doing exactly what is
required of school districts. In other words, we weren’t doing more, such as requiring
students to vaccinate, and we weren’t doing less, as in mask choice. We were doing
exactly what the guidelines required. And I feel that allowed our trustees and our district
leadership to just remain consistent and not step into anything one way or another. Just
make sure you’re doing exactly what the guidelines require. Don’t do more, don’t do less.
And that has been our approach.
Principal C believes the incentive helped them with their reopening plan. The principal
shared,
We were able to tap into the extra funding to open up early back when we were first able
to open. And our kids with the highest needs were the first ones that we brought back.
Because of the financial resources that were there, we were able to get all of the PPE
necessary in order to protect, one, our kids and then our staff here on campus, as well.
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The findings on the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12 public
school districts in Southern California and the strategies district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals followed to address the suggested guidelines revealed three
distinct themes: guidance was beneficial, guidance caused frustration and confusion, and
guidance affected reopening plans. According to the findings, the county provided most of the
COVID-19-related health and safety information based on information provided by the state and
Federal governments. Superintendents held weekly meetings with the county office of public
health to obtain these updates and used this information to inform their decisions on reopening
plans. Some of the guidance caused frustration and confusion because the COVID-19 data
changed frequently.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked the following: How, if at all, have union negotiations played a
role in K–12 Southern California public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
As seen throughout Research Questions 1 and 2, the COVID-19 pandemic brought on
new challenges that local education agencies (LEAs) and their superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals had to face. Among those challenges were the unions’
negotiations, both classified and certificated. Classified unions advocate for supporting staff
members in classifications such as paraprofessionals, bus drivers, office workers, custodians, and
maintenance workers. Certificated unions are organizations established to protect and advance
the collective interests of teachers and other education workers.
Governor Newsom announced agreements between teachers, classified employees, and
school system management to support student instruction during the COVID-19 outbreak. This
announcement paved the way for all stakeholders to work together and provided guidelines on
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how local unions could proceed. All parties’ primary concern is the well-being of the students
(Office of Governor Gavin Newsom, 2020). Three survey statements addressed how union
negotiations impacted school district decisions. All participating superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals rated their level of agreement about the survey statements using a
Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Statements in the survey related to
union negotiations include:
• Negotiations with certificated unions influenced the way my district effectively
responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
• Negotiations with classified unions influenced the way of my district effectively
responding to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
• Negotiations with the teacher’s union impacted the quality of instruction offered to
students during distance learning.
Table 5 shows the cumulative statement responses from the participating superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals. Of the twenty-three participants surveyed, 13.04%
strongly agreed, and 43.47% agreed that negotiations with certificated unions influenced the way
my district effectively responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families, while
21.73% disagreed, 4.34% strongly disagreed with the statement (17.39% neither agree nor
disagree). When asked if negotiations with classified unions influenced the way of my district
effectively responding to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families, 4.34% strongly
agreed, and 47.82% agreed. Although an overwhelming majority agreed with the statement, it
should be noted that 26.08% disagreed and 4.34% strongly disagreed (17.39% neither agree nor
disagree). Lastly, 17.39% strongly agreed, and 43.47% agreed that negotiations with the
teacher’s union impacted the quality of instruction offered to students during distance learning.
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While 17.39% disagreed and 4.34% strongly disagreed with the statement (17.39% neither agree
nor disagree).
Table 5
Survey: Union Negotiations of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither
agree nor
disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
Negotiations with
certificated unions
influenced the way
my district effectively
responded to the
COVID-19 pandemic
for students and
families.
4.34% 21.73% 17.39% 43.47% 13.04%
Negotiations with
classified unions
influenced the way of
my district effectively
responding to the
COVID-19 pandemic
for students and
families.
4.34% 26.08% 17.39% 47.82% 4.34%
Negotiations with the
teacher's union
impacted the quality
of instruction offered
to students during
distance learning.
4.34% 17.39% 17.39% 43.47% 17.39%
Note. Cumulative responses from participating Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals.
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Four interview questions addressed Research Question 3 and provided the participating
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals with the opportunity to discuss negotiations with classified and certificated unions
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Responses to the four questions provided the researchers with
significant information to better understand the union negotiations and decision-making process
within each district and school throughout the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. The interview
responses of school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals expanded
on the themes found in the literature.
Memorandums of Understanding
Due to the school closures and constant changes in protocols during the COVID-19
pandemic, school districts and labor unions had to continuously develop memorandums of
understanding (MOU). They became a significant player in the reopening of schools during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Superintendent C shared that several memorandums of understanding have been
established throughout the pandemic. The superintendent said,
We do have a lot of MOU in place with our teachers to support what we're doing. For
example, we have an online program right now. And we just did an MOU to help where
one teacher needs to do three grade levels instead of two because it's like a class of 12.
Superintendent E noted that they did not negotiate contracts with the unions but rather
signed MOUs that would ensure all were treated fairly during this unprecedented time. The
superintendent said,
For example, when everyone was at home from March to June, we would have our
custodial staff still on campus. And then finally, we're like, this seems unfair. We're
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having to come to work, no one else is, and so, then we would work with them and say,
‘Okay, we'll tell you what you can come to you can come three days a week and you can
have two days at home.’ We have to make allowances and be very flexible.
Superintendent I stated that their reopening plans had to be negotiated with the unions,
and specific agreements had to be made before teaching staff returned to campuses. The
superintendent shared,
We wrote an agreement with our teachers' union, which was amazing. The teachers
agreed to be able to flip back and forth between virtual learning and in-person learning;
they agreed to support students at home. While maybe 50% of their class was in person,
they were zooming to students at home as well so that students who were quarantined
could still see and hear the presentation and be a participant in some level in the class.
Our teachers made that agreement. That was huge because students that were quarantined
were not absent from their teacher for two weeks, so that was big. And we still actually
have that agreement in place now.
Assistant Superintendent C mentioned that their district spent more time bargaining with
unions during COVID than ever before, and they developed many memorandums of
understanding.
So, I will tell you that I spend more time with the unions during COVID. So many
MOUs, memorandums of understanding that we did with both units. Through COVID,
there became teachers that only worked with kids that are at home. And so, we had to do
an MOU for our scholars at home program and kind of set up the parameters because we
never had that before.
Job Description Changes
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Classified jobs are essential to running all school systems and school sites. There would
not be custodians, secretaries, bus drivers, and food and health workers without the classified
positions filled. While some of these positions rose to importance during the COVID-19
pandemic, others needed to find new ways to support the various Southern California K–12
public school districts. This change required classified employees to work beyond their job
descriptions.
Assistant Superintendent A shared that the district repurposed staff to avoid layoff and
provide additional support for students. The assistant superintendent said, "They right away
repurposed staff. They didn't lay off people. So, for CSEA, that was a big deal that their staff felt
valued. For example, bus drivers that weren't needed were repurposed to help support students."
Principal B shared that the job descriptions for classified staff had to be reworked
and negotiated. The principal said, "Their job description solidified. They had to rework their job
description. And they had to negotiate. Our campus supervisor changed. They had a different
category."
Assistant Superintendent D noted that working collaboratively around job descriptions is
what made potential issues nonexistent. The assistant superintendent stated, "Agreeing on
flexibility and assisting where needed was a whole team collaborative effort. There were little to
no issues due to multiple people having a seat at the table where they could be heard constantly.
Collaboration was key."
Relationships
Relationships helped hold so many negotiations, communities, and faculties together
during these more than trying times. Without relationships, educational leaders had no base to
build trust upon. During this time, superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals from
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Southern California K–12 public school districts relied upon the trust they had built up in the
community and within their staff to help them get through these difficult times.
Superintendent A shared that negotiations with the union were a positive and
collaborative process built into their bargaining process before the COVID-19 pandemic. The
superintendent said,
We have such a great relationship. What I did is I formed a collaborative with both union
leadership teams and the cabinet here at the district office. And we just worked out
problems monthly. One thing we did with negotiations is pre-COVID. We went to
interest-based bargaining. It's this positive approach. And we follow it.
Superintendent B echoed a collaborative approach already in place in their district. The
superintendent shared, "Again, really collaborative structure that we have started prior to COVID
and then continued with that."
Superintendent C shared that union negotiations are effective because they already had a
positive relationship with their teachers' union and classified union. The superintendent stated,
"So I just have to start by saying I have a good relationship with our teachers and our classified,
so that helps."
Superintendent F noted that the teachers coming together and their input helped develop
instructional practices that worked. It was the relationships between everyone that made it work.
The superintendent shared, "By bringing teacher leaders in and we make instructional decisions
together with teacher leaders."
Superintendent G believed it was their long-standing tenure in the district and ability to
forge relationships at all levels that proved helpful when it came time to have union employees
back on campus for in-person learning. The superintendent stated,
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We have a great relationship with both of our unions. So, I have to say we did not have
some of the contention that other districts had. We truly came together, and I think it
helps that I've been here for a long time. I know everybody; I walked in their shoes for a
lot of years.
Assistant Superintendent C echoed the positive relationships between the district and the
labor unions. The assistant superintendent shared, “Number one, the relationship between the
unions and the district are really positive. I'm not saying it was perfect, but there was a lot of
collaboration.”
Principal A mentioned the positive relationship and communication between the labor
unions and the superintendent. The principal said, “We have a pretty good relationship with our
teachers' union and the superintendent. So, they work things out really critically; from what I
hear, there's a lot of communication happening at that level.”
The findings of Research Question 3 regarding implications of the certificated and
classified unions during the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 Southern California public school
districts revealed three distinct themes: MOUs, job description changes, and relationships. Using
the already established relationships, the superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals asked those around them to work together outside of their job descriptions, to
creatively find new ways to teach and reach students through the COVID-19 pandemic, and to
ensure safety for all. The results demonstrate how Southern California K–12 public school
district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals' decisions were influenced by
the COVID-19 pandemic and union negotiations.
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Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked the following: How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California
public school districts leadership teams comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents,
and principals addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition,
distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to reopen schools
due to the COVID-19 pandemic?
The COVID-19 pandemic induced disruptions to schools as a source of community
resilience and has impacted the partnership between families and schools as schools struggled to
provide the support and services usually available. Many families relied on schools for meals,
childcare, and intervention or therapeutic services (Fay et al., 2020). The implementation of
school closures as a response to the pandemic forced schools to quickly figure out how to
educate millions of children at home and provide meals to families. District leadership teams had
to find alternative ways to communicate with the parent community and provide information
about grab-and-go meals, safety protocols, technology support, distance learning, academic
progress, and the reopening of schools.
Seven survey statements were designed to address how participating school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed the concerns of the parent
community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing,
and how and when to reopen schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic. All participating
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals rated their level of agreement about the
survey statements using a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Statements
in the survey related to the communication with the community and addressing their concerns
include:
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• My district maintained good communication with families during the pandemic.
• My district met the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition.
• My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology
(computers/devices).
• My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology (internet
service).
• My district met the needs of students and families in the area of social, emotional, and
well-being.
• My district met the needs of students and families in the area of health and safety.
• My district met the academic needs of students.
Table 6 shows the cumulative statement responses from participating superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals. Of the twenty-three participants surveyed, 39.13%
strongly agreed, and 60.86% agreed that the district maintained good communication with
families during the pandemic, while none disagreed (0% neither agreed nor disagreed). When
asked if the district met the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition, 69.56%
strongly agreed, 30.43% agreed, and none disagreed (0% neither agreed nor disagreed). In
addressing the third statement, 69.56% strongly agreed, and 30.43% agreed that the district met
the needs of students and families in the area of technology (computers/devices), while none
disagreed (0% neither agreed nor disagreed). When participants of this study were asked if the
district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology (internet service),
43.47% strongly agreed, and 47.82% agreed, while none disagreed (8.69% neither agreed nor
disagreed). When asked if the district met the needs of students and families in the area of social-
emotional and well-being, 4.34% strongly agreed, and 73.91% agreed, while 4.34% disagreed
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(17.39% neither agreed nor disagreed). In addressing the sixth statement, 26.08% strongly
agreed, and 69.56% agreed that the district met the needs of students and families in the area of
health and safety, while none disagreed (4.34% neither agreed nor disagreed). In addressing the
last statement, 0% strongly agreed, and 65.21% agreed that the district met the academic needs
of students, while 8.69% disagreed (26.08% neither agreed nor disagreed).
Table 6
Survey: Addressing the Concerns of the Parent Community
Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither
agree nor
disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
My district/school
maintained good
communication
with families
during the
pandemic.
0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 60.86% 39.13%
My district/school
met the needs of
students and
families in the area
of nutrition.
0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 30.43% 69.56%
My district/school
met the needs of
students and
families in the area
of technology
(computers/devices
).
0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 30.43% 69.56%
My district/school
met the needs of
students and
families in the area
of technology
(internet service).
0.00% 0.00% 8.69% 47.82% 43.47%
My district/school
met the needs of
students and
0.00% 4.34% 17.39% 73.91% 4.34%
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Element Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neither
agree nor
disagree
Agree Strongly
agree
families in the area
of social emotional
well-being.
My district/school
met the needs of
students and
families in the area
of health & safety.
0.00% 0.00% 4.34% 69.56% 26.08%
My district/school
met the academic
needs of students.
0.00% 8.69% 26.08% 65.21% 0.00%
Note. Cumulative responses from Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals.
Two interview questions addressed research question four and provided participating
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals with the opportunity to discuss how the district gathered input from the community,
how they communicated with families, and how they addressed the concerns of the parent
community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing,
and the reopening of schools during the COVID-19 crisis. Responses to the two questions from
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals provided the researchers with relevant
information to better understand the communication process within each district and school. The
interview responses of school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
expanded on the themes found in the literature.
Frequent Communication
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Participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals shared that they had to continuously communicate with families
and provide updates on the current safety guidelines and district protocols. When surveyed,
60.86% of the participants agreed, and 39.13% strongly agreed that their district/school
maintained good communication with families during the pandemic. Some school districts used
their advisory committees to gather input from parents and provide families with regular updates.
Other school districts depended on their parent involvement liaison to gather input from the
parent community and provide regular updates to the families. In some cases, school districts
used different communications tools such as Parent Square, virtual meetings, or newsletters to
keep the community informed. The continuous communication with families helped alleviate the
confusion caused by the constant change in health and safety protocols.
Superintendent A stated that the district provided the parent community with regular
updates and gathered parent input through the parent involvement liaison. The superintendent
shared,
We have a parent involvement liaison at every school site. They are like a backbone of
our district. So, they really get that parent input and that parent communication piece.
And then updates, regular, frequent updates. We did parent surveys.
Superintendent B commented that the district gathered a lot of input from the parent
community through different kinds of meetings and a communication tool called Parent Square.
The superintendent stated, “We use Parent Square. I’m sure you have heard of that tool. And so,
it is kind of like school district Facebook. We had different kinds of meetings like coffee with the
superintendent and coffee with the principal.”
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Superintendent C shared that constantly communicating with families really helped their
district. The superintendent said,
I communicate with our families every Friday. So, every Friday, I put a message out to
our families. I’ve been doing that since the pandemic started to keep them updated on the
protocols, so they know what is going on. And I think that has really helped the success
of our parents knowing in advance.
Principal H showcased a specific communication tool that allowed him to share his
message with a variety of students at the height of the stay-at-home orders. The principal stated,
YouTube Live was a really great way for us to connect. I probably had 3500 live viewers
on the English feed and about 1000 on the Spanish broadcast. We’d have a moderator in
the comments who would tell me there was an interesting question. I could answer the
question live. We had the public health folks come on a couple times to provide updates
over last year. YouTube Live was a really a great untapped resource for us that we use
pretty successfully.
Principal A said that their district tried to communicate with families as much as possible
using distinct communication digital and written tools. The principal shared,
The district tries to pump out as much communication to our families as much as
possible. You know, every now and then, people might be confused as to what the latest
protocols are. We try to update our families as much as we can with our technology
communication programs that we have to deliver information. A lot of stuff we have
posted online. We now have something called Parent Square that we push out
information as much as we can. We send flyers home with students as best we can. We
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have a parent involvement liaison at every single site. And our involvement parent
volunteers and tries to call our families just to check in and seeing what their needs are.
Principal B mentioned the use of an email platform, monthly meetings, and a newsletter
to inform parents of any changes in protocols. The principal shared,
So, we used Parent Square, which is just the email platform. So, anytime there was a
change in the protocols, which is like every other day, we sent emails to parents or used
our platform Parent Square to really communicate there and back. And we held a
monthly meeting with the principal. So, parents are welcome to jump in and ask about
any of the protocols. And then I have a newsletter every Sunday.
Principal C shared that they kept the community up to date on the protocols and changes
and provided families with a platform for parents to provide feedback. The principal said,
The biggest community outreach for us on the local level was always with our parents.
Keeping them up to date with any changes that would ever happen in a protocol. We had
monthly meetings in terms of communicating everything that was going on for the school
when it came to all the programs and everything that we were doing. We had high
attendance.
Superintendent G took the two-way feedback from the community and opened an
independent study school for those who were not ready to return to in-person school. They
conducted all of their face-to-face time on Zoom, and students completed work independently.
The school is still in operation, even months after other students have returned to school for in-
person learning. The superintendent stated,
We have a very large independent study program because some parents aren’t ready to
send their kids back. We started out with 800 students in our independent study, which
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would be equal to an independent study school with a principal and assistant principal.
And I think we started with like 25 teachers to address the independent study needs
because we have a lot of parents that weren’t ready to send their kids back. And we didn’t
want to just say your kids are going to be on their own. So, we are providing face-to-face
instruction. All-day, every day. They are in a classroom that is a virtual classroom for
independent study students. So, that has been a huge financial commitment and personnel
commitment. But I think it’s an important commitment.
Technology, Safety, and Nutrition Concerns
Participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals shared that the most common concerns expressed by the parent
community dealt with technology, safety, and nutrition. Challenges with access to devices and
connectivity were issues raised by the parent community. Technology support for parents was
also a concern in some communities. The safety protocols being enforced by the school districts
and nutrition were also topics of concern expressed by the parent community. School district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals shared that they met the needs of
students and families in the areas of technology, safety, and nutrition. When surveyed, 30.43% of
the participants agreed, and 69.56% strongly agreed that their district met the needs of students
and families in the area of technology (computers/devices). When asked about meeting the needs
of students and families in the area of technology (internet service), 47.82% of the participants
agreed, and 43.47% strongly agreed that their district met the needs. Regarding meeting the
needs of students and families in the areas of health & safety, 69.56% of the participants agreed,
and 26.08% strongly agreed that their district/school met the needs. When asked about meeting
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the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition, 30.43% of the participants agreed, and
69.56% strongly agreed that their district met the needs of students and families.
Superintendent B shared that access to the internet was a significant concern because of
the geographic location of the community they serve. The superintendent said,
Access to the internet was the biggest challenge. We are in a very hilly area, so access to
the internet is not about not being able to afford it. It’s more about not being able to
access it because of the geography of your location. For those that could not afford it, we
came up with hubs. We gave out and things like that.
Assistant Superintendent B stated that internet connectivity was a concern because not all
families had access, so the district was able to support those families with hotspots. The assistant
superintendent said,
We did a lot of work with the community and a couple of cell phone providers to provide
internet hotspots and connectivity to families. We have some areas that don’t have quite
the same resources as some of our families. So, we were able to support some of those
areas.
Assistant Superintendent C echoed similar concerns related to connectivity access and
added that parents also required support with technology. The assistant superintendent shared,
We diversified our hotspots. So instead of getting them all from AT&T, we got some
Verizon ones, some AT&T ones because certain canyons work better on one network
than the other. So, we really tried to kind of have availability for that. The other one
would be the technological prowess of the parents. Some of them really struggled
because they don’t typically use technology in their day.
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Superintendent B stated that complying with the safety protocols has been challenging
and the perspectives of the parent community are opposed. The superintendent shared, “For us,
what it’s been is the complete utter division between those that want masks and those that don’t.
Those that want vaccines and those that don’t. Those that want testing and those that don’t.”
Assistant Superintendent C shared how the district had to work through the parent
community concerns regarding masking and social distancing. The assistant superintendent said,
“So we had to work through the concerns of wearing masks all day. We also had to work through
the concerns of, you know, the whole social distancing thing and the psychological piece to
that.”
Principal B shared that the parent community expressed concerns about masking and
social distancing. The principal said, “In our community, it continues to be masking and social
distancing. Those are the biggest concerns. We have a huge anti-masking community.”
Assistant Superintendent G saw nutrition as a major concern in their district and was
proud that they provided more than one million meals to students and families. Those are meals
that those students may not have received otherwise. The assistant superintendent said,
We felt strongly that meal service needed to continue. It required a massive effort for our
nutrition services staff to serve meals nonstop; they usually provided two or three days of
supplies. Parents would come and pick up four large grocery bags and put them in their
trunk for three days for the family. We broke the million-meal mark, I don’t know what
the final count was that was served, but we’re still doing the pickup for independent study
families right now. Our nutrition services workers worked every day of that pandemic out
on the frontline serving meals, and we just felt that was a critical need for our
community.
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Principal H felt that their site was able to support the nutrition concerns of the community
by providing free meals to all. The principal shared,
We continued with our lunch program during the pandemic, and it was community-wide.
So, it wasn’t just for our parents and students, but anybody in the community could come
and receive food. It was big boxes of food. We did it twice a week, and we tried to vary
the hours because sometimes it wasn’t easy for our families to get here during the day.
So, we did a lot of evening things, as well. I think our district did a good job of providing
boxes of food to people who could get here.
Mental Health Support
Participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals shared that the input provided by the parent community conveyed
the need for mental health support. Parent survey questions regarding the impact of COVID-19
provided districts with information regarding families frightened by the pandemic and dealing
with loss. School district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals shared that
they met the needs of students and families in the area of social-emotional well-being. When
surveyed, 73.91% of the participants agreed, and 4.34% strongly agreed their district met the
needs of students and families.
Superintendent A stated that families were dealing with loss, and therefore the district
responded to the needs by increasing the mental health support and social-emotional learning.
The superintendent stated,
We have parents who are petrified over COVID. We’ve had tragedy, you know, left and
right. We have children that were through virtual learning would tell their teacher, oh, my
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dad died; this weekend, my grandma died. So that’s why we really ramped up the mental
health support and the social-emotional learning.
Principal A shared how they funded mental health support for their students and families.
The principal mentioned,
One of the things we put money into is our mental health programs. So, we’ve increased
the support for mental health. Every parent has access to something called Care Sola,
which is a free mental health support. Which gets our parents connected to case carriers
to get them with the help that they need with any kind of mental health support.
Principal C said their school used a behavior support specialist to help with the emotional
needs and to help children adjust to returning to the campus. The principal shared,
We have one behavior support specialist on our site to go around and help with kinders
adjusting to the new grade levels or just all the emotional needs that we would see from
kids being out for so long.
Principal I sees a strong push for more mental health resources in schools and has taken
the initiative to make supporting SEL at their site a priority for meeting student needs. The
principal said,
We’re likely in the same place as all schools across the country; the benefits of spending
are going to come from addressing the kids’ needs and primarily the social and emotional
needs of the students so that they can begin to focus on the academics, following
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Assistant Superintendent I explained the decision to have their district support SEL with
the additional COVID funds. The assistant superintendent stated,
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We’ve been able to hire additional counselors. So, when you talk about student needs
around social-emotional learning, let’s look at the ratio of counselors to students. By
hiring additional counselors, you’re obviously now providing a great deal more support
to students, and we weren’t able to, prior to the pandemic, without that money. Without
that emergency relief money, you wouldn’t be able to bring on additional counselors at
the elementary and secondary levels. And we’ve been able to do that.
Superintendent G also believed the additional COVID-19 supports should be used to
focus on student social-emotional needs. The superintendent shared, “We’ve increased our
counseling staff. To address some of the social-emotional needs, we have contracted with some
organizations to focus on social-emotional.”
The findings on how Southern California K–12 public school districts gathered input
from the community, how they communicated with families, and how they addressed the
concerns of the parent community during the COVID-19 crisis revealed three distinct themes:
frequent communication, technology, safety, and nutrition concerns, and mental health support.
As school districts scrambled to move to online instruction, school district leadership
continuously maintained contact with families through frequent communication and addressed
technology, safety, nutrition, and mental health concerns with support services. The survey
results show that the majority of Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals agreed or strongly agreed that their districts maintained
good communication with families during the pandemic, met the needs of students and families
in the areas of nutrition, technology, social-emotional and well-being, health and safety, and
academics.
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Summary
Chapter Four presented the analyzed data and findings from surveys and interviews
designed to answer four research questions. Several themes emerged that were supported by the
literature, and the findings add to the body of existing literature surrounding the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on nine Southern California K–12 public school districts and the role of
leadership in managing the crisis.
Research Question 1 examined the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic
had on nine K–12 public school districts in Southern California and how nine district
superintendents, seven assistant superintendents, and seven principals addressed these
implications. The findings indicated that school districts received substantial funds that allowed
school districts to purchase additional teaching and support positions, but due to the current labor
shortage, filling those positions has been a great challenge for some school districts. The findings
also reveal that school districts could meet the technology and safety needs of students and
families thanks to the additional funding received through the CARES Act. Research Question 2
addressed federal, state, and local health and safety guidelines. The findings revealed that the
county health office and county office of education worked together to guide the local
communities based on Federal and state data. This guidance was confusing and frustrating for
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals but was also extremely helpful,
especially when students began to return to campus for in-person learning. Research Question 3
examined the impacts that the certificated and classified unions had on the nine K–12 public
school districts in Southern California during the COVID-19 pandemic and how nine district
superintendents, seven assistant superintendents, and seven principals addressed these
implications. The findings showed majority support for how the superintendents, assistant
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superintendents, and principals handled and managed both the certificated and the classified
unions. However, it should be noted that nearly 20% or more for each survey question did
disagree or strongly disagree. The findings express that there is still room for improvement in
dealing with the certificated and classified unions, but steps and actions were made in the correct
direction. The final research question addressed how school districts communicated with families
and how they addressed the concerns of the parent community. Findings indicate that districts
conducted frequent updates using various tools to keep the families informed of the constantly
changing policies and protocols. The findings also show that families required technological and
mental health support. Families expressed concerns about implementing the safety protocols
such as masking and social distancing and their nutritional needs.
Chapter Five will further discuss the implications of these findings, limitations of the
research, and recommendations for further research around the topic of the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on Southern California K–12 public school districts and the role of
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals in managing the crisis.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
The COVID-19 pandemic imposed great demands and decision-making dilemmas on
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals. As reported in Chapter Four, school districts were provided additional funds to
support school safety and health protocols, and superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals had to make rapid financial decisions in short time frames to meet the needs of
students and families. They also had to implement diverse strategies to address the suggested
guidelines from the federal, state, and local health agencies, consider union voices, and
relationships, as they made safety and academic decisions. Southern California K–12
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed the concerns of the parent
community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing,
and school re-openings. Throughout all their decision-making, they had to keep in mind the
needs of at-risk groups such as marginalized populations, English Language Learners, and
special education students. This chapter summarizes the study and then discusses implications
for practice and recommendations for further study.
Statement of the Problem
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted Southern California K–12 public school districts,
causing unforeseen consequences within the education system and highlighting financial
implications, the impact of agencies, negotiations with unions, and the impact on students and
the community. COVID-19 shifted the roles and scope of schools and school leaders, beyond
instructional leaders and transforming them into crisis managers.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
Southern California K–12 public school districts and understand what district and site
administrators have learned from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in
managing the crisis. This study brings to light the impact of the pandemic on students, families,
leaders, schools, and districts. Most importantly, this study examines how district and school
leadership influences administrative practices, student achievement, financial responsibility,
union leadership, and community/parent support as they responded to the COVID-19 crisis.
Research Questions
The following four research questions guided the study:
1. What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on
K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and how have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed these
implications?
2. What, if any, has been the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12
public school districts in Southern California, and what strategies have district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the
suggested guidelines?
3. How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 Southern California
public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?
4. How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California public school districts leadership teams
comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals addressed the
concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack
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of technology, academic standing, and how and when to reopen schools due to the
COVID-19 pandemic?
Methodology
This study was designed as a mixed-methods study, utilizing qualitative and quantitative
methods to collect and analyze the data. In the qualitative portion of the study, semi-structured
interviews were conducted to collect open-ended responses. In the quantitative portion of the
study, closed-ended surveys were used to collect data. The participants for both methodologies
included school superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals of Southern California
K–12 public school districts.
Sample and Population
The target population for the study was leaders of Southern California K–12 public
school districts; superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals. The selection criteria
to participate in the study included the following:
• Participants must be currently employed at a traditional public Southern California
K–12, K–8, Elementary, or High School district
• Participants must currently hold the title of superintendent, assistant superintendent,
or principal
• Participants must have worked in their current role for at least 1 year
• Participants must have served in their current positions during the 2020–2021 school
year
• The student population of the district where participants work is at least one thousand.
• The minimum sample size for the interviews was set at nine participants, and the
minimum sample size for the survey responses was set at nine participants.
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Superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals selected for this study played a
role in supporting school districts and school sites during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results
from the interviews and surveys collected were compared to the results collected by other
research team members.
Data Collection
The data collection process through surveys and interviews began during the spring 2022
semester after obtaining approval from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB). District superintendents were contacted via email in a formal written
request, followed by a phone conversation to obtain permission for the study and gain access to
assistant superintendents and principals. Once permission was granted, participants were
contacted for participation in the study via email. The email included a summary of the research
study, a request to participate, and a link to the survey. In addition, participants were contacted
by phone to encourage responses to the surveys and to request interviews.
Discussion of Findings
The findings in this study were based on the data collected and analyzed by the three
researchers. This section will interpret the combined qualitative and quantitative data results and
link the findings back to the literature. Key findings based on data analysis from Chapter Four
are presented below in order by research question. The research questions looked at the impact of
the COVID-19 pandemic on students, families, leaders, schools, and districts in Southern
California.
Research Question 1 asked, “What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-
19 pandemic has had on K–12 public school districts in Southern California and how have
district superintendents, assistant superintendents and principals addressed these implications?”
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It was evident from the survey and interview questions that the participating Southern California
K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals believed
the following:
1. The CARES Act funding met their districts’ needs in personnel, PPE, technology,
learning and/or training, and facility upgrades.
2. The additional funding allocations came with many restrictions and timelines with
minimal support for designating expiring funds.
3. The additional funding is a short-term remedy for issues and resources that need long-
term funding.
The findings indicated that Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals believe the additional funding
allocation provided by the CARES Act supported the need to fund additional staff, purchase and
upgrade technology, and the need to purchase safety equipment. The findings demonstrated that
additional personnel were funded to support extracurricular activities, reduce class size, add
social workers, teach full-day online school, and perform custodial duties. Due to a labor
shortage, filling personnel positions was challenging for many school districts. According to
Herold (2020a), schools faced multiple barriers as they attempted to use technology to keep the
education system running since many schools did not have enough devices available for their
students. The findings demonstrated that technology needs were a universal sentiment. Districts
that were not a one-to-one device school district could provide at least one device to all students
because of the additional funds provided through the CARES Act. Districts that had already
implemented a one-to-one program could upgrade their technology because of the additional
funding allocation.
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School districts had additional costs as they complied with health and safety measures.
Schools unexpectedly had to invest in PPE, such as masks, hand sanitizer, shields, and
equipment (Gordon & Reber, 2020). The findings show that school districts felt the CARES Act
met their needs in the area of PPE. The findings also demonstrate that districts felt they could
protect their students and staff because of the health and safety measures that were put in place.
Participating K–12 Southern California superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
shared that the expiring funds came with many restrictions and timelines that forced them to
make hasty decisions. They believed that this additional funding was a short-term remedy for
issues that will continue to be necessary until funding runs out.
Research Question 2 asked, “What, if any, has been the impact of federal, state and local
health agencies on K–12 public school districts in Southern California, and what strategies have
district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals followed to address the
suggested guidelines?” The COVID-19 pandemic effects are widespread (Colizzi et al., 2020;
Herold, 2020b; World Health Organization Coronavirus Dashboard, 2021). The health and safety
guidance given by California (as guided by the CDC, a federal agency) created the pathway to
California’s stay-at-home order and mandated social distancing policies. Because the restrictions
in these orders would not allow for in-person schooling, schools and districts found creative new
ways to reach their students and conduct online opportunities for learning (Herold, 2020b). The
changing role of educators is highlighted here, as school staff had to bring their entire school
online in a short period of time while still following state-mandated social distancing protocols.
In an attempt to return to normalcy, the rush to online, hybrid, and in-person learning may have
been implemented before educators were ready, highlighting the changing role of educators
during this time (Bubb & Jones, 2020; Ferlazzo, 2020; Kurtz, 2020a; Lieberman, 2020). Parents
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were also tasked with evolving roles as they had to be more involved with their children’s
schoolwork and learning, which took place at home (EdSource Staff, 2020a; Garbe et al., 2020).
All of these changing roles, from school districts to schools to classrooms to online learning
environments to staff and student homes, allowed learning to continue within the confines of a
restrictive, state-wide stay-at-home order (Herold, 2020b). The analysis of the study data
revealed the following findings:
1. The guidance provided by federal, state, and local health agencies regarding the safe
reopening of schools was confusing and conflicting but also beneficial.
2. Educational leaders’ roles changed to crisis managers as they were responsible for
implementing state and health guidelines.
3. The health guidelines impacted districts’ reopening plans. Nearly one-third disagreed
that they knew how to bring back staff safely in the fall of 2020, based on state and
county guidance, but they did it anyway.
The findings on the impact of federal, state, and local health agencies on K–12 public
school districts in Southern California and the strategies district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals used to address the suggested guidelines demonstrated three
distinct themes: the federal, state and local guidance caused frustration and confusion but was a
vital source of evolving COVID-19 information; educational leaders’ traditional roles shifted to
crisis managers; and the federal, state and local guidance affected school districts’ reopening
plans. According to the findings, the county provided most of the COVID-19-related health and
safety information based on information provided by the state and Federal governments.
Superintendents held weekly meetings with the county office of public health to obtain these
updates and used this information to inform their decisions on reopening plans. Some of the
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guidance caused frustration and confusion because the COVID-19 data changed frequently and
developments and responses were often conflicting. Ultimately, school districts utilized this
COVID-19 data to inform their reopening plans and make health and safety decisions, even
when they did not fully understand the guidance.
Research Question 3 asked, “How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12
Southern California public school districts’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic?” The results
from the survey and interview questions indicated that the participating Southern California K–
12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals believed:
1. The keys to effective bargaining are two-way communication and relationship
building.
2. A collaborative approach to union negotiations played a prominent role in the way
districts effectively responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
3. Classified unions were open to changes in job descriptions so members could
continue employment during the pandemic while meeting the needs of students.
4. Negotiations with the teachers’ union impacted the quality of instruction offered to
students during distance learning.
The findings gathered for Research Question 3 showed three distinct themes:
memorandums of understanding (MOUs), job description changes, and relationships. Using
relationships already established, the superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
asked those around them to work together, outside of their job descriptions, to creatively find
new ways to teach and reach students through the COVID-19 pandemic and to ensure safety for
all. Although classes were held remotely, facilities were still operating in many school districts,
and classified employees had to show up to work. Custodians had to clean, disinfect and seal
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classrooms, food service staff had to prepare hundreds of grab-and-go meals daily, bus drivers
ran meal sites and made breakfast deliveries, tech workers were busy setting up devices and
assisting with internet issues, and teacher aides were supporting students and teachers with
remote education (Mahnken, 2020; Weingarten, 2020a, 2020b). The results demonstrate how
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals’ decisions were influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic and union negotiations.
Research Question 4 asked, “How, if at all, have K–12 Southern California public school
districts leadership teams comprised of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding safety, nutrition, distance learning,
lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to reopen schools due to the COVID-
19 pandemic?” The findings from the survey and interview questions indicated that the
participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals believed:
1. School districts maintained good communication with families during the pandemic.
2. Safety and technology were the main concerns expressed by the parent community
during the pandemic.
3. Schools acted as lifelines for communities as they provided support in the areas of
nutrition, health, social-emotional well-being, and academics.
Overall, how Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
superintendents, and principals communicated with families, gathered input from the
community, and addressed the concerns of the parent community during the COVID-19 crisis
revealed three distinct themes: there was adequate communication; technology and safety were
significant community concerns; and schools became lifelines for many students and families,
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addressing immediate nutrition concerns, academic learning supports and mental health needs.
Research shows that partnerships between the home and school are a vital element of student
success in traditional school settings (Garbe et al., 2020). The lack of communication can
undermine partnerships between families and school staff. As such, educators emphasize the
need for robust education systems that deliver information and updates to families and engage
them in two-way communication (Garbe et al., 2020; Ondrasek, 2020).
As school districts scrambled to move to online instruction, school district leadership
continuously kept families informed through frequent communication and addressed technology,
safety, nutrition, and mental health concerns with support services. The COVID-19 pandemic
has impacted the partnership between families and schools, as schools have struggled to provide
the support and services that were usually available (Fay et al., 2020). The survey results show
that the majority of participating Southern California K–12 public school district
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals agreed or strongly agreed that their
districts maintained good communication with families during the pandemic and met the needs
of students and families in the areas of nutrition, technology, social-emotional well-being, health
and safety, and academics.
Limitations
Limitations of this study include the following: the ongoing disruptions caused by the
COVID-19 pandemic on public education; the participants are only from Southern California
public schools; surveys are self-reported; interview questions may contain researcher bias;
interviews were conducted virtually, and the sample may not accurately represent all school
districts in California. The following steps would include a similar process to include a more
extensive representation from different districts throughout California or the United States.
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Implications for Practice
The findings of this study imply that state and federal financial support can allow for
necessary additional services to support student needs, especially in the areas of nutrition, social-
emotional, diverse academic learning opportunities, technology, and health and safety.
Additional funds were given to districts to increase safety measures and equipment, as well as
provide mental health and student learning supports outside regular, in-person school hours, such
as tutoring (Blume, 2021b, 2021c; Cowan, 2021; EdSource Staff, 2021; Fay & Ghadimi, 2020;
Hemphill & Marianno, 2020). Research Question 1 analyzed the use of CARES funding, and the
vast majority of participating Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents,
assistant superintendents, and principals agreed that CARES funds were helpful in the
purchasing and distribution of technology, hiring additional personnel to address social-
emotional and academic needs, introducing safety equipment and cleaning protocols and
addressing other immediate needs related to COVID-19. Conversely, many participating
Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals did not know how to fund these positions after the state, and federal COVID-19 funds
expire over the next few years though the need will still be there. The findings imply that
lawmakers should recognize these funds are essential and continue to support social-emotional
needs, nutrition services, paraeducators, librarians, and other essential services, not go backward
and remove the funds when there is still a great need.
The findings from Research Question 2 imply how the roles of educators changed to
crisis managers, utilizing the guidance from federal, state, and local health agencies. During the
COVID-19 pandemic, the data could fluctuate rapidly or from region to region. As such, the data
provided to Southern California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant
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superintendents, and principals fluctuated rapidly, which caused frustration and confusion among
the district leaders tasked with interpreting and implementing the guidance in their schools.
Participating K–12 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals agreed that this
same guidance impacted their decisions when considering when to reopen schools for in-person
learning. While this shows hope that health and safety guidance could be utilized even though it
was confusing, one survey finding indicated that more than 30% of participating Southern
California K–12 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals did not understand the
guidance provided by the state of California even when preparing for reopening for in-person
learning in fall 2020. These crisis managers had to trust the guidance and rapidly respond to
issues as they arose. However, the levels of uncertainty and unease with the ever-changing
guidance made the COVID-19 pandemic an even more challenging crisis to manage for Southern
California K–12 public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals.
The findings from Research Question 3 imply that collaboration amongst the most
relevant stakeholders influenced the reopening of schools. California unions made their stance on
returning to schools clear in a seven-page handbook titled Classroom Learning and Safe Schools
for Employees and Students (CLASSES, 2021; Fensterwald, 2021). This handbook provided a
pathway to returning to schools safely and was used by local certificated and classified unions
when conducting negotiations to create instructional thresholds based on tiers, priority access to
vaccinations, a phased-in approach to returning to schools, and a variety of added health and
safety standards (Fay & Ghadimi, 2020; Fensterwald, 2021; Hemphill & Marianno, 2020). Staff
members in both classified and certificated unions were ready to return to work but needed to
have these health and safety protocols in place to assure the safety of all. These agreements led to
MOUs that were drafted between employers and unions. The survey results show that more than
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60% of participating Southern California K–12 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals believed that these negotiations with unions impacted the quality of instruction offered
to students during distance learning. Collaboration was the necessary component when working
to have schools reopen for in-person learning.
Research Question 4 implies that superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals collaborated closely with parents and community members during the pandemic,
notably when planning to return to on-campus, face-to-face learning. These district leaders had
to find creative ways to reach all parents and listen to and address community concerns about
how to return to in-person learning safely. In a study conducted with parents of students involved
in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, Garbe et al. (2020) found that parents dealt
with a variety of challenges and successes, but school-parent communication proved to be a core
element in helping parents feel supported at home (Garbe et al., 2020). In many interviews in this
study, participating Southern California K–12 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and
principals discussed the diametrically opposed viewpoints of various community members who
either wanted in-person learning or did not want in-person learning. The theme of
communication and collaboration seemed to be how many participating Southern California K–
12 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals were able to respond to significant
concerns from stakeholders. One participating Southern California K–12 district heard parent
concerns about social-emotional learning and brought in additional counselors at all school sites.
In contrast, another district had many parents who were not ready to have their children return to
in-person learning, so the district created an entirely online school. The survey results of this
study also indicate that an overwhelming majority of participating Southern California K–12
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals had good communication with families
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during the pandemic and met the nutrition, technology, social-emotional, health and safety, and
academic needs of their students and families during the pandemic.
The findings imply that COVID-19 guidance followed a top-down leadership strategy.
The collaboration did not occur between districts and federal, state, and county health agencies.
State and federal government agencies mandated guidance to maximize public safety measures,
such as social distancing and wearing masks when in public (Anderson, 2020; Blume, 2021b,
2021c; Cowan, 2021; Garbe et al., 2020; Herold, 2020b; Malkus et al., 2020b, 2020c). These
mandates evolved as new information and research provided new insights into COVID-19, and it
frequently changed, forcing educational leaders to make decisions for their district or schools
based on fluctuating information (Blume, 2021b, 2021c; Cowan, 2021; EdSource Staff, 2020b;
Kuhfeld et al., 2020; Kurtz, 2020a; Will et al., 2020). The data often changed and caused
frustration and confusion amongst Southern California K–12 districts attempting to follow the
most recent guidance.
The findings imply collaboration could have been a valuable tool to support schools
rather than leaving them frustrated and confused with frequently changing data and mandates.
The top leadership, such as the California governor’s office of Gavin Newsom, California
Department of Public Health, California Department of Education, and county health and
education offices, provided the guidance that superintendents were expected to comply with
(Cowan, 2021). The superintendents then ensured their organizational leaders, such as principals,
directors of programs, and assistant superintendents, enacted the efforts to assure the guidance
was followed; from there, these various district leaders communicated to the staff, families,
students, and communities the guidance and how they expected to meet these guidelines
(Anderson et al., 2020; Blume, 2021b, 2021c; Canlé, 2020; Cipriano & Brackett, 2020; Cowan,
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2021; Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020). Because of the rapidly evolving information during
the pandemic, this process occurred many times in districts across California (Blume, 2021a,
2021c; Cowan, 2021). According to interviews with superintendents, most of these county health
office meetings involved one-way communication with an opportunity to ask questions at the
end of the presentations.
Recommendations for Future Research
Due to the scarcity of available research and the limited findings in this study, further
empirical studies about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on marginalized groups and
school funding are recommended:
1. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the health, nutrition, social-emotional
well-being, and unfinished learning of marginalized groups.
2. The impact on student services when the CARES Act allocation used to fund
additional support personnel is no longer available.
Conclusion
On Friday, March 13, 2020, the educational landscape changed forever. This study adds
to the scarce body of literature regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 public
school districts in Southern California. The literature and data revealed the unprecedented impact
the COVID-19 pandemic had on students, faculties, and communities, as well as an unknown
lasting impact that will only reveal itself with time. Additionally, K–12 Southern California
superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals were forced to become crisis managers
overnight and invent creative ways to align with ever-changing guidance. The data finds that
while the CARES funding met the current needs of the participants in the study, there is a grave
concern for when the additional allocation runs out. Moreover, this study is intended to guide
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future educational leaders in similar crises who must make quick financial decisions, interact
with federal, state, and health agencies at one time, and focus on their relationships with the
unions while also balancing the needs of students and families. Ultimately, this study revealed
that collaboration with staff, families, and agencies must be helpful, consistent, beneficial,
accessible, and include the voices of all stakeholders.
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Appendix A: Letter of Invitation
Date
Dear Superintendent _____________,
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME] and I am currently completing my doctoral
dissertation at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education under the
guidance of Dr. Rudy Castruita. I am writing to invite you to participate in a 15-minute survey
and 35-minute virtual interview. In addition, I am also requesting your permission to administer
a survey and conduct an interview with an assistant superintendent and principal in your district.
Within the survey is a place for you to recommend an assistant superintendent and a principal
from your district to participate in this research. Collecting data from highly effective leaders
such as yourselves would be greatly appreciated and is essential for the success of this study.
The ultimate purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
K–12 school districts. We aim to understand what district and site administrators have learned
from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in managing the crisis.
This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research (IRB). The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and
rights. Please be assured that your participation and answers will be kept confidential and
anonymous. The results will be analyzed solely for this dissertation and no identifying
information will be used.
Please click on this survey link to participate.
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at -----------@----. Thank you
very much for your time and assistance.
133
Sincerely,
[researcher’s name]
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
134
Appendix B: Letter of Invitation
Date
Dear Assistant Superintendent ___________,
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME] and I am currently completing my doctoral
dissertation at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education under the
guidance of Dr. Rudy Castruita. I am writing to invite you to participate in a 15-minute survey
and 35-minute virtual interview. Collecting data from highly effective leaders such as yourself
would be greatly appreciated and is essential for the success of this study.
The ultimate purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
K–12 school districts. We aim to understand what district and site administrators have learned
from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in managing the crisis.
This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research (IRB). The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and
rights. Please be assured that your participation and answers will be kept confidential and
anonymous. The results will be analyzed solely for this dissertation and no identifying
information will be used.
Please click on this survey link to participate. If you have any questions, please feel free
to contact me at -----------@----. Thank you very much for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
[researcher’s name]
135
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
136
Appendix C: Letter of Invitation
Date
Dear Principal ___________,
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME] and I am currently completing my doctoral
dissertation at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education under the
guidance of Dr. Rudy Castruita. I am writing to invite you to participate in a 15-minute survey
and 35-minute virtual interview. Collecting data from highly effective leaders such as yourself
would be greatly appreciated and is essential for the success of this study.
The ultimate purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
K–12 school districts. We aim to understand what district and site administrators have learned
from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in managing the crisis.
This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research (IRB). The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and
rights. Please be assured that your participation and answers will be kept confidential and
anonymous. The results will be analyzed solely for this dissertation and no identifying
information will be used.
Please click on this survey link to participate. If you have any questions, please feel free
to contact me at -----------@----. Thank you very much for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
[researcher’s name]
137
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
138
Appendix D: Superintendent Survey
Thank you for participating in this research project. The goal is to understand how the
COVID-19 pandemic affected K–12 school districts, and in doing so, transformed the role of
district and school site leaders into crisis managers. You were chosen to participate in this survey
because you demonstrated leadership as a superintendent during the COVID-19 crisis.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity, position, and any
identifying information about your district will be anonymized to secure confidentiality. Thank
you again for your participation. We also invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview
to be scheduled at your convenience after the survey.
Survey Items
1. How many years have you served as a superintendent?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
2. How long have you been superintendent at your current district?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
139
The continuing survey items utilized a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree):
3. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personnel.
4. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personal protective
equipment (PPE).
5. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of technology.
6. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of professional learning
and/or training.
7. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of facility upgrades.
8. The federal, state, and local health guidelines were clear in providing information to
support the safe reopening of schools.
9. I understood how to safely bring back staff during the fall of 2020 to work sites based
on the public health guidelines.
10. The health guidelines impacted our district's return to school plan in the spring of
2021.
11. Negotiations with certificated unions influenced the way my district effectively
responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
12. Negotiations with classified unions influenced the way of my district effectively
responding to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
13. Negotiations with the teacher's union impacted the quality of instruction offered to
students during distance learning.
14. My district maintained good communication with families during the pandemic.
15. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition.
140
16. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology
(computers/devices).
17. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology (internet
service).
18. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of social emotional
well-being.
19. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of health & safety.
20. My district met the academic needs of students.
21. The board of education supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
22. District administrators supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
23. District facilities and operations teams supported my district’s response to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
24. Teachers supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
25. Classified staff supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
26. Families supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Open Ended
27. I recommend the following assistant superintendent from my district to participate in
this study:
28. I recommend the following principal from my district to participate in this study:
Closing
We appreciate your willingness to participate in the survey. Your responses will help us
better understand the perspectives of district Superintendents during the COVID-19 Pandemic
and experiences as crisis-managers.
141
We will be in touch to invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview to be
scheduled at your convenience.
Thank you for participating in this survey.
142
Appendix E: Assistant Superintendent Survey
Thank you for participating in this research project. The goal is to understand how the
COVID-19 pandemic affected K–12 school districts, and in doing so, transformed the role of
district and school site leaders into crisis managers. You were chosen to participate in this survey
because you demonstrated leadership as an assistant superintendent during the COVID-19 crisis.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity, position, and any
identifying information about your district will be anonymized to secure confidentiality. Thank
you again for your participation. We also invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview
to be scheduled at your convenience after the survey.
Survey Items
1. How many years have you served as an assistant superintendent?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
2. How long have you been assistant superintendent at your current district?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
143
The continuing survey items utilized a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree):
3. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personnel.
4. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personal protective
equipment (PPE).
5. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of technology.
6. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of professional learning
and/or training.
7. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of facility upgrades.
8. The federal, state, and local health guidelines were clear in providing information to
support the safe reopening of schools.
9. I understood how to safely bring back staff during the fall of 2020 to work sites based
on the public health guidelines.
10. The health guidelines impacted our district's return to school plan in the spring of
2021.
11. Negotiations with certificated unions influenced the way my district effectively
responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
12. Negotiations with classified unions influenced the way of my district effectively
responding to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
13. Negotiations with the teacher's union impacted the quality of instruction offered to
students during distance learning.
14. My district maintained good communication with families during the pandemic.
15. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition.
144
16. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology
(computers/devices).
17. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology (internet
service).
18. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of social emotional
well-being.
19. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of health & safety.
20. My district met the academic needs of students.
21. The board of education supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
22. District administrators supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
23. District facilities and operations teams supported my district’s response to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
24. Teachers supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
25. Classified staff supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
26. Families supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Closing
We appreciate your willingness to participate in the survey. Your responses will help us
better understand the perspectives of district assistant superintendents during the COVID-19
pandemic and experiences as crisis-managers.
We will be in touch to invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview to be
scheduled at your convenience.
Thank you for participating in this survey.
145
Appendix F: Principal Survey
Thank you for participating in this research project. The goal is to understand how the
COVID-19 pandemic affected K–12 school districts, and in doing so, transformed the role of
district and school site leaders into crisis managers. You were chosen to participate in this survey
because you demonstrated leadership as a principal during the COVID-19 crisis.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity, position, and any
identifying information about your school will be anonymized to secure confidentiality. Thank
you again for your participation. We also invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview
to be scheduled at your convenience after the survey.
Survey Items
1. How many years have you served as a principal?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
2. How long have you been a principal at your current district?
Less than 1 year
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 10 years
Over 10 years
146
The continuing survey items utilized a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree):
3. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personnel.
4. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of personal protective
equipment (PPE).
5. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of technology.
6. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of professional learning
and/or training.
7. The CARES Act met my district's funding needs in the area of facility upgrades.
8. The federal, state, and local health guidelines were clear in providing information to
support the safe reopening of schools.
9. I understood how to safely bring back staff during the fall of 2020 to work sites based
on the public health guidelines.
10. The health guidelines impacted our district's return to school plan in the spring of
2021.
11. Negotiations with certificated unions influenced the way my district effectively
responded to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
12. Negotiations with classified unions influenced the way of my district effectively
responding to the COVID-19 pandemic for students and families.
13. Negotiations with the teacher's union impacted the quality of instruction offered to
students during distance learning.
14. My district maintained good communication with families during the pandemic.
15. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of nutrition.
147
16. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology
(computers/devices).
17. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of technology (internet
service).
18. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of social emotional
well-being.
19. My district met the needs of students and families in the area of health & safety.
20. My district met the academic needs of students.
21. The board of education supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
22. District administrators supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
23. District facilities and operations teams supported my district’s response to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
24. Teachers supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
25. Classified staff supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
26. Families supported my district’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Closing
We appreciate your willingness to participate in the survey. Your responses will help us
better understand the perspectives of school principals during the COVID-19 Pandemic and
experiences as crisis-managers.
We will be in touch to invite you to take part in a virtual 35-minute interview to be
scheduled at your convenience.
Thank you for participating in this survey.
148
Appendix G: Superintendent Interview Protocol
Interviewer: _____________________________________ Date: _________________________
Interviewee: _____________________________________ Location: _____________________
Job Title: _______________________________________ Contact Information: ____________
Length of Time in Your Position: __________________________________________________
Introduction
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about the COVID-19 pandemic and your
experience as a superintendent during this time. The ultimate goal of this study is to better
understand leadership during a crisis.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to
ensure the accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to
review responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents.
The information recorded will remain secure and anonymous. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 35 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
Section A
What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on K–
12 districts and how have district leaders addressed these implications?
1. What have been the biggest financial implications of the pandemic on your district?
2. In what ways, if any, would more spending flexibility/structure have benefitted your
district?
149
3. In what ways has COVID-19 related funding been used to meet student needs in your
district?
4. To what extent, if any, did financial incentive influence your district’s reopening
plan/timeline?
Section B
What, if any, have been the impact of Federal, State and Local Health agencies on K–12
school districts, and what strategies have districts followed to address the suggested guidelines?
5. In what ways did your district collaborate with federal, state, and local government
agencies and community organizations to support your school district during
COVID?
a. PQ: What agencies or organizations?
6. To what degree, if any, did the various agencies align COVID-19 guidance for
schools?
7. What strategies have been effective for your district in implementing health
guidelines/policies?
8. Who in your district was primarily in charge of interpreting and implementing the
health guidelines/policies?
Section C
How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 district’s response to the
COVID-19 Pandemic?
9. What were the most important issues negotiated with your teachers union and how
were they resolved?
150
10. What were the most important issues negotiated with your classified union and how
were they resolved?
11. In what ways, if any, were instructional programs influenced by union negotiations in
your district?
12. In what ways, if any, were safety protocols influenced by union negotiations in your
district?
Section D
How, if at all, has your district addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding
safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to
open schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic?
13. In what ways did your district gather input from and communicate to the community?
14. What were the biggest concerns from your district’s community and how were they
addressed?
a. PQ: Were there any safety concerns?
b. PQ: Were there any nutrition concerns?
c. PQ: Were there any academic concerns?
d. PQ: Were there any technology concerns?
e. PQ: Were there any re-opening concerns?
Conclusion
Thank you for your time and willingness to meet with me and for all the valuable
information you provided for this study.
151
Appendix H: Assistant Superintendent Interview Protocol
Interviewer: _____________________________________ Date: _________________________
Interviewee: _____________________________________ Location: _____________________
Job Title: _______________________________________ Contact Information: ____________
Length of Time in Your Position: __________________________________________________
Introduction
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about the COVID-19 pandemic and your
experience as an assistant superintendent during this time. The ultimate goal of this study is to
better understand leadership during a crisis.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to
ensure the accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to
review responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents.
The information recorded will remain secure and anonymous. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 35 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
Section A
What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on K–
12 districts and how have district leaders addressed these implications?
1. What have been the biggest financial implications of the pandemic on your district?
2. In what ways, if any, would more spending flexibility/structure have benefitted your
district?
152
3. In what ways has COVID-19 related funding been used to meet student needs in your
district?
4. To what extent, if any, did financial incentive influence your district’s reopening
plan/timeline?
Section B
What, if any, have been the impact of Federal, State and Local Health agencies on K–12
school districts, and what strategies have districts followed to address the suggested guidelines?
5. In what ways did your district collaborate with federal, state, and local government
agencies and community organizations to support your school district during
COVID?
a. PQ: What agencies or organizations?
6. To what degree, if any, did the various agencies align COVID-19 guidance for
schools?
7. What strategies have been effective for your district in implementing health
guidelines/policies?
8. Who in your district was primarily in charge of interpreting and implementing the
health guidelines/policies?
Section C
How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 district’s response to the
COVID-19 Pandemic?
9. What were the most important issues negotiated with your teachers union and how
were they resolved?
153
10. What were the most important issues negotiated with your classified union and how
were they resolved?
11. In what ways, if any, were instructional programs influenced by union negotiations in
your district?
12. In what ways, if any, were safety protocols influenced by union negotiations in your
district?
Section D
How, if at all, has your district addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding
safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to
open schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic?
13. In what ways did your district gather input from and communicate to the community?
14. What were the biggest concerns from your district’s community and how were they
addressed?
a. PQ: Were there any safety concerns?
b. PQ: Were there any nutrition concerns?
c. PQ: Were there any academic concerns?
d. PQ: Were there any technology concerns?
e. PQ: Were there any re-opening concerns?
Conclusion
Thank you for your time and willingness to meet with me and for all the valuable
information you provided for this study.
154
Appendix I: Principal Interview Protocol
Interviewer: _____________________________________ Date: _________________________
Interviewee: _____________________________________ Location: _____________________
Job Title: _______________________________________ Contact Information: ____________
Length of Time in Your Position: __________________________________________________
Introduction
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about the COVID-19 pandemic and your
experience as a principal during this time. The ultimate goal of this study is to better understand
leadership during a crisis.
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to
ensure the accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to
review responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes between the various respondents.
The information recorded will remain secure and anonymous. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 35 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
Section A
What, if any, are the financial implications that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on K–
12 districts and how have district leaders addressed these implications?
1. What have been the biggest financial implications of the pandemic on your school?
2. In what ways, if any, would more spending flexibility/structure have benefitted your
school?
155
3. In what ways has COVID-19 related funding been used to meet student needs in your
school?
4. To what extent, if any, did financial incentive influence your school’s reopening
plan/timeline?
Section B
What, if any, have been the impact of Federal, State and Local Health agencies on K–12
school districts, and what strategies have districts followed to address the suggested guidelines?
5. In what ways did your school collaborate with federal, state, and local government
agencies and community organizations to support your school during COVID?
a. PQ: What agencies or organizations?
6. To what degree, if any, did the various agencies align COVID-19 guidance for your
school?
7. What strategies have been effective for your school in implementing health
guidelines/policies?
8. Who at your school was primarily in charge of interpreting and implementing the
health guidelines/policies?
Section C
How, if at all, have union negotiations played a role in K–12 district’s response to the
COVID-19 Pandemic?
9. What were the most important issues negotiated with your teachers union and how
were they resolved?
10. What were the most important issues negotiated with your classified union and how
were they resolved?
156
11. In what ways, if any, were instructional programs influenced by union negotiations at
your school?
12. In what ways, if any, were safety protocols influenced by union negotiations at your
school?
Section D
How, if at all, has your district addressed the concerns of the parent community regarding
safety, nutrition, distance learning, lack of technology, academic standing, and how and when to
open schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic?
13. In what ways did your school gather input from and communicate to the community?
14. What were the biggest concerns from your school’s community and how were they
addressed?
a. PQ: Were there any safety concerns?
b. PQ: Were there any nutrition concerns?
c. PQ: Were there any academic concerns?
d. PQ: Were there any technology concerns?
e. PQ: Were there any re-opening concerns?
Conclusion
Thank you for your time and willingness to meet with me and for all the valuable
information you provided for this study.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 Southern California public school districts and to understand what superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals learned from their experiences and their decision-making responsibilities in managing the crisis. This study implemented a mixed-methods approach in which 23 Southern California public school district superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals completed a survey and also participated in a structured interview. Through the process of triangulation, the study’s findings indicate that the CARES Act funding met the school districts’ funding needs and provided them with additional staffing, technology support, and safety equipment. The findings also show that the guidance provided to school districts by federal, state, and local health agencies caused frustration and confusion and affected reopening plans. Furthermore, the findings reveal that negotiations with unions were a major player in the reopening of schools, and negotiations were effective because of the already-set relationships between the districts and labor unions. Lastly, the study’s findings bring to light how superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals maintained frequent communication with the parent community and addressed their main concerns about technology, safety, nutrition, and mental health. Overall, this study provides a guide for future leaders in crisis situations.
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K-12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
Asset Metadata
Creator
Cisneros, Diana Eloisa
(author)
Core Title
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2022-05
Publication Date
05/04/2022
Defense Date
03/30/2022
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
COVID-19,Crisis,distance learning,learning loss,OAI-PMH Harvest,pandemic,synchronous learning
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Castruita, Rudy (
committee chair
), Elsasser, James (
committee member
), Franklin, Gregory (
committee member
)
Creator Email
decisner@usc.edu,decisneros@yahoo.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111259411
Unique identifier
UC111259411
Document Type
Dissertation
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application/pdf (imt)
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Cisneros, Diana Eloisa
Type
texts
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(batch),
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
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Tags
COVID-19
distance learning
learning loss
pandemic
synchronous learning