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Personal and environmental influences on preparing for transition from sport: a social cognitive approach to exploring the collegiate experiences of Black former NFL players

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Personal and environmental influences on preparing for transition from sport: a social cognitive approach to exploring the collegiate experiences of Black former NFL players

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Personal and Environmental Influences on Preparing for Transition From Sport: A Social
Cognitive Approach to Exploring the Collegiate Experiences of Black Former NFL Players

by
Dawn M. Whitaker

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2022

© Copyright by Dawn M. Whitaker 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Dawn M. Whitaker certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Alan Green
Denise Kwok
Kimberly Hirabayashi, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv

Abstract
Every athlete will experience transition from sport at some point in their lives. For those whose
sport is their career, such as NFL players, the transition can be detrimental, as it may be
accompanied by loss of identity as well as income, status, and feelings of self-worth. Retirement
from sport may have damaging psychological effects on athletes during the transition process,
with some never successfully adjusting to life after sport. The majority of literature on this topic
centers on helping athletes during the transition process, however, less research is focused on the
preparation for transition and the factors which may hinder preparation. This problem has been
examined largely from a self-determination theoretical perspective, citing a lack of motivation as
a dispositional attribution responsible for the avoidance of preparation behaviors. The current
study takes a social cognitive approach in exploring the interplay between the person, the
environment, and behaviors, to inform the development of change interventions at the collegiate
level, for the betterment of athletes’ transition outcomes. A qualitative inquiry was conducted
exploring the collegiate experiences of former NFL players, assessing the influences at play
during that critical time in their lives. Findings from the study inform recommendations focused
on removing institutional barriers impacting athletes’ motivation to prepare for transition, with
an additional emphasis on psychological preparation for transitional adjustment through
cognitive reframing. This research aims to inform collegiate athletic institutions with movement
toward helping athletes better prepare for a successful transition to life after sport.
Keywords: athletic identity, transition from sport, career transition, NFL, Black athletes,
football, social cognitive theory, personal influences, environmental influences, preparation for
transition, NCAA, student-athletes

v

Dedication
To all of the athletes I have known personally and those I do not know, who have struggled with
transition to life after sport. Seeing the negative effects first-hand as they battled with finding
their identities once they were no longer athletes, troubled me. One former NFL player, in
particular, described his experience to me several years ago. He was young – still in his 20’s,
played football his entire life, did not prepare for anything else while he was in college, suffered
a career-ending neck injury, had no idea what he was going to do with the rest of his life, and
shared with me that he was “scared.” This conversation was the catalyst that inspired me to
pursue this unresolved issue and fueled my passion for finding solutions.

vi

Acknowledgements
I recognize the dedication and mental fortitude that was required to pursue this doctoral
degree and complete my dissertation, despite the world crashing down around us. Everyone had
to navigate the global pandemic and the anxiety that it induced, especially in the beginning when
there was so much uncertainty, dealing with the unknown. We all experienced it, but we did not
all experience it trying to pursue a doctoral degree or write a dissertation. Then there was George
Floyd’s murder (among others) and the impending social unrest. I remember trying to focus on
reading empirical articles and paying attention in class while my son was on the front lines of
protests, concerned that he might be smoke-bombed, or worse, by police. Worrying is one of the
biggest thieves of mental capacity, and mine was consistently on overload. The list of political,
social, and personal points of tension over the past three years is lengthy, but there is only so
much space on these two pages. I am humbly proud and give myself credit that I was able to
persist, despite it all. Nevertheless, I did not get here alone, by any means. I want to thank my
Dissertation Chair, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi for your expert guidance through this challenging
process, and my esteemed committee, Dr. Alan Green and Dr. Denise Kwok, whose collective
expertise in cognitive behavioral theory and athlete development, guided me in framing my
research. I want to thank the gentlemen who graciously participated in my study – sharing your
experiences allowed me to better understand your perspectives surrounding this issue. Together,
we were able to produce this essential body of work. Your voices were incredibly important to
this research, and I thank you. To my children, Tatiana, Patrick, Jade, and my “sister” Laurie. I
know you grew tired of hearing me say, “When I’m done with my dissertation,” in response to
any request for my time over the past couple of years. Thank you for your patience and support.
It was all worth it in the end and I’m finally done with my dissertation! I want to thank my

vii

cohort support family, Emily, Lizzy, and Trina. You were there every step of the way on this
journey from the very beginning, and I truly would not have made it through this without you.
You ladies are my lifeline, and I am so grateful for each and every one of you. And thank you to
my mom and dad. Your love and support allowed me the space to clear my mind and just write.
Thank you. If I have forgotten anyone, it was an omission of the mind (cognitive overload) and
not of the heart, I promise.

With Love and Gratitude,
Dawn

viii

Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem .............................................................................1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ...................................................................3
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................5
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................7
Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Literature Review .....................................................................................................9
Importance of Addressing Preparedness for Transition From Sport ...................................9
Contributing Factors ..........................................................................................................20
Transition and Adjustment Measurement ..........................................................................31
Strategies to Improve Transition and Adjustment .............................................................34
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................39
Chapter Two Summary ......................................................................................................41
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................43
Research Questions ............................................................................................................43
Overview of Methodology .................................................................................................43
Research Setting.................................................................................................................45
The Researcher...................................................................................................................45

ix

Data Sources ......................................................................................................................46
Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................................49
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................50
Credibility and Trustworthiness .........................................................................................51
Ethics..................................................................................................................................51
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................53
Participants .........................................................................................................................53
Findings..............................................................................................................................58
Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................................58
Research Question 2 ..........................................................................................................69
Research Question 3 ..........................................................................................................96
Chapter Four Summary ....................................................................................................111
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................113
Discussion of Findings .....................................................................................................113
Implications for Practice ..................................................................................................125
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................125
Limitations and Delimitations ..........................................................................................133
Recommendations for Future Research ...........................................................................135
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................137
References ....................................................................................................................................139
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................158
Appendix B: Sample Interview Confirmation Email...................................................................162
Appendix C: Information Sheet ...................................................................................................164
Appendix D: Figures ....................................................................................................................168

x

List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 44
Table 2: Participant Overview 54
Table 3: Social Environmental Influences on Preparing for Transition From Sport 73
Table 4: Participant Quotes About the Resources Provided by Their Institutions 86

Table 5: Resources or Programs Participants Wished Were Available to Them in College 95
Table 6: Participant Reflections About the Scope of Their Athletic Identity 98
Table 7: Participant Quotes Describing Their Perception of a Successful Transition 109

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Indicating the Triadic Reciprocal Relationship Between
Environmental, Behavioral, and Personal Factors During Black Football Players’ Collegiate
Experience Influencing Preparedness for Post-Career Transition From Sport 41
Figure 2: Student-Athlete Degrees Earned by Race 2019–2020 122
Figure D1: A Day in the Life of a Division I Football Player 168
Figure D2: Degrees Earned Among All Male Division I Student-Athletes for the 2019–2020
Academic Year 169
Figure D3: Degrees Earned by Sport Among White Division I Student-Athletes for the
2019–2020 Academic Year 170
Figure D4: Degrees Earned by Sport Among Black Division I Student-Athletes for the
2019–2020 Academic Year 171
Figure D5: Support Allowing Student-Athletes to Take Time Out-of-Season to Participate 172
Educational or Career Development Opportunity

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Transition to life after sport can be difficult for many athletes and retirement from sport,
in general, has been identified as a period of time when athletes are at high levels of risk for
experiencing psychological distress (Lapchick, 2002; Tshube et al., 2021). Professional football
players, in particular, have shorter than average careers as compared to athletes in other sports
and may experience transition from sport much earlier than anticipated. According to the NFL
Players’ Association (2019), the average NFL career lasts 3.3 years (Gough, 2019; Keim, 2016).
Within three years of retirement, 78% of NFL players experience extreme financial hardship, and
16% eventually file for bankruptcy, according to the National Bureau of Economic Research
(Carlson et al., 2015; Isidore, 2015). For many, the career they worked their entire lives to
achieve may end abruptly after only a few years. After finally making it to the NFL, athletes may
find themselves with a career-ending injury, replaced by younger, faster talent, or cut for any
other myriad of reasons not long after realizing their lifelong dream (Keim, 2016). This problem
disproportionately impacts Black males, who comprise the majority of the population
participating in revenue-generating sports (i.e., men’s football and men’s basketball) (Harper et
al., 2013; Lapchick, 2011), and have more difficulty with adjustment to transition from sport as
compared their White counterparts (Beamon, 2014; Harrison et al., 2011). Research conducted
by North and Lavallee (2004) found that 60% of athletes do not plan for life after sport,
contributing to difficulty with transition adjustment. The overarching problem addressed in this
study is the preparation for post-career transition from sport during the collegiate experience of
Black football athletes.
Context and Background of the Problem
2

Athletes with aspirations to become NFL players typically start at a very young age,
playing for Pop Warner football leagues in their community. As they hone their talent, often
persuaded by family and friends, they advance to become high school football stars. The most
talented are recruited to play in the top National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Division I colleges. There are 254 NCAA Division I football colleges or universities across the
United States (NCAA, 2020), and NCAA football is a revenue-generating sport, signifying it is a
profitable business for universities. In 2019, NCAA athletic departments generated $10.6 billion
in revenue, 96% of which was generated by Division I schools (NCAA, 2020). College football
athletes are considered important contributors to revenue-generating programs, where their
primary job is to “win championships and make it to the NFL” (K. Greene, personal
communication, November 7, 2019). Despite tremendous time and effort invested into reaching
the NFL, very few football athletes successfully make it there. According to data provided by the
NCAA organization, only 1.6% of NCAA-level college football players are projected to play in
the NFL (NCAA, 2020).
There are currently 32 NFL teams with rosters of 85 players each (NFL, 2020) for a total
of 2,720 athletes in the NFL, all of whom will inevitably experience post-career transition from
sport at some point (Keim, 2016). This transition can be detrimental to athletes, as many
experience identity crises, financial hardships, psychological challenges, and difficulties with
social relationships (Beamon, 2012; Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). In addition, when an athlete’s
termination from sport is involuntary, the negative impacts of transition are heightened, as they
are associated with feelings of failure, humiliation, and loss of control (Butt & Molnar, 2009).
In recent years, the NFL Player Engagement Department, a division of the NFL,
implemented programs offering resources and support for current and retired NFL players to
3

assist with their transitions from football (NFL, 2020). Although the programs have
demonstrated some success, challenges with this approach include reduced awareness of the
programs and willingness to participate (Albion, 2007; Lavallee, 2005).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to retrospectively explore the collegiate experiences of
Black former NFL players to understand the personal and environmental influences on
preparing for post-career transition from sport. Understanding the impact of these influences
was beneficial in the development of collegiate-level interventions and crucial environmental
adjustments designed to improve future transition outcomes for athletes.
The following questions, informed by a social cognitive theoretical framework, were
used to guide this study and explore the influences impacting preparation for transition from
sport during athletes’ collegiate experiences. Answers to these three research questions were
used to guide future research recommendations and inform recommendations for practice:
1. What personal factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
2. What environmental factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
3. What factors influenced the quality of Black football athletes’ post-career transition
and perceived adjustment to life after sport?
Importance of the Study
Addressing the problem of practice in this study involved understanding the personal and
environmental influences on preparing for post-career transition from sport. Several factors
contributed to the quality of transition from sport; however, this study’s focus was on football
4

athletes’ collegiate experience and the factors that influenced preparing, or the motivation to
prepare for post-career transition from sport.
This problem was important to address, as the transition to life after sport can be more
problematic for professional football players than athletes in other sports, contributing to
difficulty adjusting to life after sport. Professional football players typically encounter shorter
careers than athletes in other sports, have nonguaranteed contracts, unlike athletes in the MLB
(Major League Baseball) and NBA (National Basketball Association), and suffer lifelong health
impediments as a result of years of damage to the brain and body (Isidore, 2015). In a 2016 study
by the American Academy of Neurology, more than 40% of retired NFL players reportedly had
signs of long-term brain remodeling, indicating traumatic brain injury, and causing cognitive
dysfunction. As previously mentioned, the average NFL career lasts 3.3 years (Gough, 2019;
Keim, 2016), and athletes often find themselves unprepared for life after football. In addition, the
number of former professional football players retiring under the age of 31 has increased in
recent years, citing health or injury reasons for their departure (Gaines, 2016). These data
support the urgency to generate current empirical findings focused on improving transition
outcomes for football athletes.
During and after transition, athletes often experience financial, psychological, and
emotional difficulties. Financial strain following retirement can negatively impact families and
lead to compounding problems, such as divorce (Bishop, 2009). The divorce rate for NFL
athletes is estimated to be between 60% and 80%, compared to 50% for the general population
(Bishop, 2009). Also, NFL player divorces typically occur after retirement, with spouses
receiving half of the athlete’s net worth (Bishop, 2009; Torre, 2009). This major life event alone
5

can cause detrimental financial challenges, as former athletes no longer earn professional salaries
but have accumulated liabilities and expenses that are difficult to maintain (Torre, 2009).
Improving the quality of transition from sport was also critical to address because it has
negative implications for Black men, in particular. The majority of NFL players (70%) are Black
(NFL, 2020). Black athletes have higher levels of identity foreclosure, which precludes them
from exploring alternate career options, and they experience difficult transitions from football
more than their White counterparts (Beamon, 2014; Harrison et al., 2011). Therefore, the adverse
effects of a negative transition from sport, including psychological and emotional distress,
disproportionately impact Black men, as they are the predominant racial group comprising this
particular demographic of athletes.
Much of the extant literature focused on strategies to improve outcomes while athletes
are in the process of transitioning from sport (Erpič et al., 2004; Lavallee, 2005). However,
limited research addresses preparation for future transition from professional sport and even less
of the scholarship on this topic investigates the motivation to plan for life after retirement from
sport. The goal of this research study was to address this gap and contribute to the body of
research on preparation for transition from sport.
It was critical to understand the personal and environmental influences that supported or
hindered preparation for transition from sport during the collegiate experience, from the athletes’
perspectives, to develop strategies to improve future outcomes.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) was the framework that guided this study. Social
cognitive theory is based on the triadic reciprocal determinism model of the interplay between
person, environment, and behavior. Social cognitive theory was used to frame the problem of
6

preparation for transition from sport during the collegiate experience of Black athletes by
examining how one’s external environment, personal values and beliefs, and behaviors influence
one another. In analyzing this problem of practice, it was essential to understand how
environmental and personal reinforcements influenced motivation and behavior. By employing
social cognitive theory, environmental and personal factors were explored to determine the
influences that supported or were barriers to engaging in the desired behaviors. Identifying
supports and barriers to preparing for post-career transition from sport informed strategies,
resources, and interventions at the collegiate level designed to improve the quality of Black NFL
athletes’ future transition experiences.
A qualitative research approach is most effective when seeking to understand the
experiences and perspectives of a specific population (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This study
employs a qualitative phenomenological methodology using semi-structured interviews to
understand the perspectives and lived experiences of Black former NFL players. A non-
probability purposeful sample of five Black former NFL players made up the participants for this
study. The original intention was for all participants to be within 3 years post-retirement and
have played in an NCAA Division I collegiate football program. One participant, however, was
13 years since retirement, and one participant played for a Division II football program.
Including these slight deviations from the intended participant criteria provided different
perspectives that added richness to the data collected. These stakeholders’ perspectives are
appropriate to understand the experiences of Black professional football players during their
collegiate years and how those experiences impacted their preparation for transition and eventual
adjustment to life after sport.

7

Definitions of Key Terms
This section provides definitions of frequently used terms and constructs throughout the
study and dissertation.
● Athletic identity: The construct of athletic identity refers to the degree to which an
individual identifies with the athlete role and looks to others for acknowledgment of
that role, according to Brewer et al. (1993).
● Career motivation: The desire to exert effort to enhance career goals (Amorose,
2001; Beamon, 2012).
● Emotional intelligence: The ability to be cognizant of one’s own and others’ emotions
and use that awareness to inform thought and behaviors (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
● Identity foreclosure: The commitment to a single identity before exploring other
meaningful career options or not being exposed to alternatives (Harris et al., 2011).
● NCAA: The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a member-led organization
dedicated to the well-being and lifelong success of college athletes (NCAA, 2022).
● NFL: The National Football League is a professional American football league
consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference
and the American Football Conference (NFL, 2022).
● NFLPA: The NFL Players Association is the union that represents professional
American football players in the NFL (NFLPA, 2022).
● Post-career transition from sport: “The process of transition from participation in
competitive sport to another activity or set of activities” (Coakley, 1983, p.10)
● Pre-retirement planning: Pre-retirement planning includes vocational, psychological,
and financial planning. Planning for post-sport life includes psychological preparation
8

and having a clear goal outside of sport (Warriner & Lavallee, 2008; Young et al.,
2006). Research highlights pre-retirement planning as an effective strategy in
promoting a successful transition from sport (Coakley, 2006).
● Transition: Transition is defined as “an event or nonevent resulting in change”
(Schlossberg, 1981, p. 43)
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with
fundamental concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about career transition
from sport. The purpose, participants, and the framework for the study were introduced. Chapter
Two provides a review of the current literature surrounding the scope of the study, including
background and consequences, contributing factors, assessment, and strategies to improve the
quality of this transition. The conceptual framework guiding the study is outlined, focusing on
the concepts of role modeling, socialization, career planning and development, pre-retirement
planning, career motivation, and athletic identity. Chapter Three details the influences that were
examined as well as the methodology design used for selecting participants, data collection, and
data analysis. Chapter Four features a presentation of the findings from the data collected.
Finally, Chapter Five provides a discussion of the findings, recommendations for practice based
on data from this study and existing literature, limitations, and recommendations for future
research.

9

Chapter Two: Literature Review
The current body of research focusing on professional athletes’ transition from sport is
limited, and it is even more narrow, focusing on the transition experiences of NFL players in
particular. As such, the scope of the literature review was broadened to transition from sport, in
general. In reviewing the literature on the topic of transition from sport, four primary areas of
discussion emerged: the importance of addressing transition from sport, contributing factors,
transition and adjustment measurement, and strategies to improve the quality of transition. The
first section discusses the background of NCAA collegiate sports and in particular, football, as
well as the historical impact and consequences of transition from sport. In the next section,
contributing factors are discussed, as identified in the literature as those factors contributing to
the quality of transition. The third section provides a brief overview of the measurement tools
identified in the literature that have been used to assess personal factors impacting transition and
adjustment. The final section of this review discusses strategies identified in the literature as
useful in improving transition outcomes for athletes.
Importance of Addressing Preparedness for Transition From Sport
Background and Context
The NCAA is one of the largest athletic institutions, where nearly 500,000 student-
athletes compete in college athletics annually (NCAA, 2020). By nature, participation in
collegiate sports is demanding and time-consuming; with most time spent on their sport, athletes
have little time for much else. NCAA Division I intercollegiate football is a revenue-generating
sport, which supports an institution’s revenue generation from a successful sports program.
Many athletes spend their lives with aspirations to play professionally; however, fewer than 2%
of NCAA Division I athletes are drafted to play in the NFL (NCAA, 2020). With 53 players on
10

each of the 32 professional football teams, there are currently 1,696 players on NFL active
rosters (NFL, 2020). As the average career length in the NFL is 3.3 years (Gough, 2019; Keim,
2016), many athletes find themselves transitioning to life after sport sooner than expected.
Eventually, all athletes will face the inevitable event of post-sport career transition and will need
to be prepared for this impactful life change.
Retirement from sport is unique in that athletes are typically younger when they retire
than in other professions. Consequently, athletes experience psychological and occupational
adjustments as their identity shifts from being an athlete to being a former athlete (Hattersley et
al., 2019). Much of the research highlights negative consequences related to transition from sport
(Hattersley et al., 2019). In fact, in a study with all Black athletes (men’s college football and
men’s college basketball), every participant indicated experiencing a difficult transition
(Beamon, 2012). These findings suggest that the quality of transition may be contextually related
to revenue-generating collegiate sports platforms and perhaps, ethnicity. In a study conducted by
Manuel et al. (2002), Caucasian student-athletes had significantly higher career maturity than
African American student-athletes and were more inclined to prepare for future transition from
sport.
Earlier research on transition out of sport looked at transition from sport in general,
analyzing a wide variety of elite-level sports, with both male and female European participants
(Erpič et al. 2004; Lavallee et al., 1997). More recently, researchers have been looking to
understand the transition from the perspective of athletes who played in revenue-generating
sports (Beamon, 2012; Payne & Driska, 2020). This category contains a larger percentage of
Black athletes, as 70% of NFL players and 53% of NCAA Division I football players are Black
(NCAA, 2020; NFL 2020). Because research illustrates that transition from sport is more
11

difficult for Black athletes (Beamon, 2012; Payne & Driska, 2020), it is important to understand
the factors that contribute to the quality of transition for this group in particular and the
influences that may shape those factors.
Historically, transition from sport has been predominantly examined in studies conducted
outside of the United States, looking at elite and professional athletes in Europe and Australia
(Miller & Buttell, 2018). More recently, researchers have begun to look at sports in the United
States, in collegiate sports, revenue-generating collegiate sports, and even more infrequently, the
transition experiences of Black athletes (Beamon, 2012; Cummins & O’Boyle, 2015; Payne &
Driska, 2020). Research highlights the importance of preparing athletes for this transition before
it starts (Erpič et al., 2004; Wippert & Wippert, 2008). Minimal research exists on preparing for
post-sport transition during the athlete’s collegiate experience (Cummins & O’Boyle, 2015;
Miller & Buttell, 2018). North and Lavallee (2004) found that most athletes (60%) reported that
they do not engage in planning for life after sport (North & Lavallee, 2004).
There are approximately 74,000 athletes playing for NCAA football programs each year
(NCAA, 2020). Only a small percentage, however, go on to play professionally after college. In
the 2019 NFL draft, 254 NCAA football players were drafted to play for professional clubs,
representing 1.6% of the 16,380 draft-eligible players (NCAA, 2020).
Studies have shown that Black athletes experience difficult transitions from sport more
than their White counterparts, related to having higher levels of identity foreclosure (Beamon,
2014; Harrison et al., 2011). The literature on transition from sport suggests that the unique
consideration of identity foreclosure is important when examining experiences of the Black
athlete. These experiences include the level of resources provided, institutional support, and
institutional pressure from the University to perform at a high athletic level (Beamon, 2014). As
12

the majority (70%) of NFL players are Black (NFL, 2020), the adverse effects of a negative post-
career transition are, therefore, disproportionately impacting Black men, which is why it is
imperative to explore the experiences of this unique population.
In a study exploring the experiences of Black male former college athletes, all
participants reported having difficult transitions to life after sport (Beamon, 2012). In a study that
include varying sports and ethnicities, the percentage of athletes experiencing difficult transitions
was significantly lower (16%), and some even reported experiencing positive transitions
(Demulier et al., 2013). Therefore, the voices and experiences of Black football players are
important to explore this phenomenon and the influences that may be barriers to preparing for
transition from sport while still in college. Also, it is important to understand Black athletes’
definition of a successful transition to life after sport and the tools or resources that could have
better helped them achieve a successful transition, if implemented during the developmental
collegiate years.
Consequences associated with transition from sport have a disproportionately negative
impact on Black males, justifying the need to focus on the Black male experience in this study.
These athletes’ perspectives will provide the most insight into social and environmental
influences, and the supports and barriers to preparedness for this transition during the collegiate
experience.
Consequences of a Difficult Transition
Research on the transition from sport illustrates that retirement is a significant transitional
period that can cause stress and distress for athletes (Grove et al., 1998; Hatamleh, 2013;
Lavallee et al., 1997). The transition can negatively affect an athlete’s financial, social, and
psychological well-being, including distress due to loss of identity and status (Taylor & Ogilvie,
13

1998; Torre, 2009). The literature on this transition has grown and evolved over the past four
decades. In a review of the literature analyzing studies conducted between 1968 and 2010 on
career transition out of sport, common themes in the consequences of a difficult transition have
been identified (Park et al., 2013). Researchers acknowledge that former athletes commonly
experience distressful reactions as a result of retirement from sport (Allison & Meyer, 1988;
Lavallee et al., 1997; Ogilvie & Howe, 1986; Park et al., 2013; Torregrosa et al., 2003, 2004,
2005; Werthner & Orlick, 1986). In a majority of the studies evaluated, participants had career
transition difficulties, including feeling negative emotions related to loss and identity crises
(Baillie, 1992; Kerr & Dacyschyn, 2000; McKenna & Thomas, 2007; Park et al., 2013).
In this section, the negative consequences associated with a difficult transition from sport
are discussed. A limitation of the reviewed literature is that the majority of the research included
professional athletes from Europe and Australia, and very few studies explore the experiences of
NCAA athletes or are conducted in the United States (Schwenk et al., 2007). Much of the extant
literature focuses on transition from sport in general, with limited scholarship on the particular
nuances related to transition from revenue-generating sports. Some of the more recent research
has expanded to include the experiences of Black athletes and, in a limited capacity, the
experiences of athletes who participated in revenue-generating intercollegiate sports (Beamon,
2012; Cummins & O’Boyle, 2015; Donner, 2006; Payne & Driska, 2020) as well as athletes
retiring from the NFL (Schwenk et al., 2007).
The research suggests that there are stages of transition out of sport, and during the initial
stages following retirement, athletes experience many difficulties (Schwenk et al., 2007).
Negative consequences that we see in athletes transitioning from sport include maladaptive
coping skills (Park et al., 2013), financial and occupational difficulties (Marthinus, 2007;
14

Stronach & Adair, 2010; Torre, 2009), psychological distress, and social and emotional
difficulties (Stephan et al., 2003).
Maladaptive Coping Skills and Strategies/Behaviors
In a systematic review of 122 articles, retired athlete participants in 12 studies utilized
maladaptive coping skills, including avoidance, denial, alcohol consumption, smoking, and
suicidal ideation (Park et al., 2013). Several studies identified maladaptive coping strategies used
by retired athletes, including drug and alcohol dependence, increased smoking, and suicide
(Douglas & Carless, 2009; Koukouris, 1991; Mihovilovic, 1968; Schwenk et al., 2007; Sinclair
& Orlick, 1993; Taylor & Ogilvie, 1998; Wippert & Wippert, 2008). In a more recent study on
the use of coping strategies in athletes that suffered career-ending injuries, only one participant
used maladaptive coping strategies of substance abuse and denial; when active coping support
was available, in most cases the athletes avoided maladaptive coping strategies (Samuel et al.,
2015).
Financial and Occupational Difficulties
After transition from sport, many athletes experience occupational and financial
difficulties. In studies conducted by Marthinus (2007) and Stronach and Adair (2010), athletes
experienced vocational difficulties during career transition, which were attributed to low
educational attainment. Studies have shown that athletes who achieve a higher educational status
are more likely to find employment once their athletic careers end (Erpič et al., 2004; Vilanova
& Puig, 2016). Participants in Beamon’s 2012 study indicated having issues with not having an
alternate career to fall back on during their transition. Taylor and Ogilvie (1998) found in their
research that athletes may experience occupational and financial problems during the transitional
period. In a study conducted by Erpič et al. (2004), occupational difficulties were observed after
15

sport career termination. Similarly, Dimoula et al. (2013) also identified that retired athletes
often had occupational and financial difficulties after leaving their sport. In a recent study,
athletes who focused only on sport experienced severe and moderate difficulties, related to
finances than those who combined sport and a focus on occupational training (Barriopedro et al.,
2020).
Much of the extant literature on the second careers of athletes describes top performers’
or marquee players’ career paths, excluding the experiences of lesser-known athletes or those
who competed in less popular leagues (Carlson et al., 2015; Knights et al., 2016; Torre, 2009). In
conducting an online search, all references located were discussing the second careers of notable
athletes, such as Kobe Bryant, Magic Johnson, and Arnold Schwarzenegger (Bukszpan, 2011).
Among retired athletes, physical issues and injuries can present as barriers to second careers and
limit the possible options (Krapivin, 2019; Richardson & McKenna, 2020; Taylor & Lavallee,
2010). In a recent qualitative study examining career sustainability in and after professional
sports (Richardson & McKenna, 2020), the majority of athletes’ (ice hockey and rugby players)
second careers were in retail (25%) and health (21%). In the same study, the smallest
representation of second careers were in education (3%) and marketing (3%). The remaining
career fields, each representing 7% of study participants, were careers in sport, banking and
finance, hospitality, law, emergency services, and transportation (Richardson & McKenna,
2020).
Recent research suggests that the duration of the sports career is a determinant in
choosing the second career path (Metelski, 2021). In a 2021 online survey of European
basketball players, those whose professional sport careers lasted 10 years or longer (41%) were
16

more likely to work in the field of sport (e.g., coaching, sports media) after retirement, as
compared to those who played professionally fewer than 10 years (21%) (Metelski, 2021).
Personality traits of former elite athletes are also indicated in the literature as a driving
factor in second career paths (Steinbrink et al., 2020). Recent research exploring personality
traits and job fit, concluded that athletes are more likely to pursue and be successful in a career in
entrepreneurship after retirement from sport (Steinbrink et al, 2020). This finding is due to the
similarity in nature of the personality characteristics of elite athletes and of entrepreneurs, which
were primarily centered on extraversion, conscientiousness, and recording a higher propensity
for risk (Steinbrink et al, 2020).
Psychological Distress
It is important to note that psychological distress in retired athletes is typically related to
a loss of identity, which will be discussed in more detail later in this section (feelings of loss,
perceived stress, traumatic symptoms). Life transitions are considered a major risk factor for
developing mental health difficulties such as depression, anxiety, and suicidality (Rebiero &
Joiner, 2009; Silverman, 2014). In a study involving 40 German male and female athletes,
Wippert and Wippert (2008) measured traumatic symptoms and the level of perceived stress
caused by athletic career termination. Athletic retirement was the independent variable in this
quantitative study, and psychological difficulties were the dependent variable (Wippert &
Wippert, 2008). Researchers found that athletes reported a statistically significant experience of
stress and statistically significant post-traumatic stress reactions (Wippert & Wippert, 2008). In a
similar quantitative study, Erpič et al. (2004) also highlighted psychological difficulties as the
dependent variable aligned with the independent variable of athletic retirement. Study
participants were 85 former Slovenian athletes, both male and female (Erpič et al., 2004).
17

Additionally, psychosocial, organizational, and occupational difficulties were observed after
sport career termination (Erpič et al., 2004).
Schwenk et al. (2007) looked at depression and pain in professional football players in
one of the only relevant quantitative analysis studies assessing mental health symptoms in retired
American athletes. The study evaluated 1,617 former NFL players (Schwenk et al., 2007).
Findings revealed that the majority of the participants (84.5%) indicated feeling mild to moderate
depression, with 7% stating that depression was severe. More than half of the participants
reported chronic pain following transition. Since the results for depression were not statistically
significant for mental health symptoms, the researchers noted this population of athletes may be
more willing to report symptoms of physical distress than emotional distress, and they indicated
wanting assistance with distress tolerance (Schwenk et al., 2007). The authors concluded that
former NFL players are likely experiencing increased mental health symptoms, negatively
impacting their transitions to retirement (Erpič et al., 2004; Park et al., 2013; Schwenk et al.,
2007; Wippert & Wippert, 2008).
Stephens et al. (2003b) found that athletes expressed one of the anxiety-inducing
transitional difficulties of accepting a new lifestyle. In other studies, athletes reported feeling
anxiety and feeling lost, associated with removing training and competition from their routines
(Kerr & Dacyshyn, 2000; Schwenk et al., 2007). During the transitional period, athletes may
experience difficulty adjusting to non-sport life (Baillie & Danish, 1992; Taylor & Ogilvie,
1998). These adjustment difficulties may be associated with high levels of athletic identity
(Martin et al., 2014). During the transitional period, athletes may also experience
psychopathology (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1998). Those with higher athletic identity are more at risk
for depression upon becoming injured (Brewer, 1993; Manuel et al., 2002). The findings from
18

Lavallee and Robinson’s (2007) retrospective qualitative study revealed that, as a result of
dedicating their lives to their sport, athletes felt lost and helpless when they transitioned to
retirement (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007).
Social and Emotional Difficulties
During transition from sport, many athletes experience both social and emotional
difficulties which can enhance the negative feelings associated with this transitional stage. In a
longitudinal study involving 32 French athletes (Stephan et al., 2003), findings indicated that
transitional athletes in the first six months of retirement experienced increased feelings of crisis
regarding physical condition, perceived sports competence, perceived attractiveness, perceived
physical strength. Combined, these measures indicated a statistically significant low physical
self-worth throughout the first year of transition compared to active athletes (Stephan et al.,
2003). Transitional athletes also exhibited lower global self-esteem compared to active athletes.
The combination of low physical self-worth and lower global self-esteem is considered a crisis
stage in the transition process. This study further highlights difficulty during transition from
sport and points to the gap in assisting this population to improve the quality of this transition
(Baillie & Danish, 1992; Stephan et al., 2003).
In seven studies between 1968 and 2010, athletes experienced high levels of negative
emotions when they had forced retirements/did not have control (Blinde & Stratta, 1992; Butt &
Molnar, 2009; Fortunato & Marchant, 1999; Lotysz & Short, 2004; Lynch, 2006; McKenna &
Thomas, 2007; Zaichkowsky et al., 2000). Negative emotions included fear of social death or
dying (Blinde & Stratta, 1992; Fortunato & Marchant, 1999; Zaichkowsky et al., 2000) and
feelings of betrayal or social exclusion (McKenna & Thomas, 2007). During the transitional
period, athletes may experience social and family issues (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1998). In a
19

quantitative study, Erpič et al. (2004) also found evidence of family and social difficulties,
highlighting the psychological difficulties aligned with athletic retirement. In a recent study by
Barriopedro et al. (2020) Athletes who did not plan for their retirement reported moderate and
severe family difficulties than those who planned their retirement.
Loss of Identity / Delayed Identity Shift
Having a high athletic identity can contribute to a more difficult transition to retirement
and to more issues with adaptation to post-sport life (Alfermann et al., 2004). Researchers
suggest that the loss of athletic identity can make the post-retirement adaptation more difficult
(Alfermann et al., 2004; Lavallee et al., 2004; Smith & McManus, 2008; Ungerleider, 1997).
Athletes struggle with identity challenges when transitioning from sport (Brewer, Van Raalte &
Petitpas, 2000; Taylor & Lavallee, 2010). In several studies, athletes experienced feeling a loss
of identity due to involuntary retirement (Butt & Molnar, 2009; Lotysz & Short, 2004; Lynch,
2006). Studies found that retired athletes experienced a loss of identity when they had a strong
athletic identity at the time of career termination (Kerr & Dacyshyn, 2000; Lally, 2007).
Participants in a 2012 study indicated having difficulty with their loss of athletic identity and
associated status; losing their athletic identity made retirement even more challenging (Beamon,
2012). As discussed in a later section, role exclusivity can make transition from sport more
difficult as athletes must redefine both their social and self-identities (Beamon, 2012). Former
professional athletes experienced delayed identity shifts resulting from a lack of exposure to
experiences outside of sport which caused them to have difficulty dealing with situations outside
of sport (Kane, 1991; Muscat, 2010).
In summary, retirement from sport is a major life event that often results in difficult
transition experiences. The literature identified negative consequences resulting from a difficult
20

transition from sport. Retirement from sport is unique in that athletes are typically younger when
they retire than in other professions and consequently experience psychological, social, and
occupational adjustments as their identity shifts (Hattersley et al., 2019). Negative consequences
include maladaptive coping skills, financial and occupational difficulties, psychological distress,
and social and emotional difficulties (Grove et al., 1997; Lally, 2007; Smith & Hardin, 2018;
Torre, 2009: Wylleman et al., 2004). Having a high athletic identity can also contribute to a more
difficult transition to retirement and to more challenges with adaptation to post-sport life
(Alfermann et al., 2004). The literature suggests a focus on preparedness and the need for
institutions to take a more active role in preparing athletes for this transition (Miller & Buttell,
2019). The current study sought to fill this gap by exploring the personal and environmental
factors that influenced preparedness for transition and may have served as barriers to preparing
during athletes’ collegiate experiences. It was important to identify and explore the
interrelatedness between the environmental and personal influences impacting athletes’
preparation to mitigate barriers and support preparing for future transition.
Contributing Factors
In this section, the factors that researchers have identified as contributing to the quality of
transition from sport will be discussed. These include environmental, behavioral, and personal
factors. A limitation of the reviewed literature is that the majority of the research was conducted
in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Much of the extant literature focuses on transition from sport
in general, rather than addressing the very specific nuances related to transition from revenue-
generating sports: intercollegiate sports programs that generate revenue for institutions. Some of
the more recent research has expanded to include the experiences of African American athletes
21

and, in a limited capacity, the experiences of athletes who participated in revenue-generating
intercollegiate sports (Beamon, 2012; Donner, 2006).
Environmental Factors
The following section will describe the environmental factors that have been identified in
the literature as contributing to the quality of transition from sport. These include: (a) retirement
circumstances, (b) institutional sports culture, and (c) socialization of sport. Retirement
circumstances refer to the manner in which retirement occurs and whether the event is voluntary
or involuntary. Institutional sports culture includes the time demands of athletic programs as well
as expectation of athletic performance. Socialization of sport reviews the lifelong encouragement
and expectation to play sports rather than pursuing other avenues.
Retirement Circumstances
Having control over one’s retirement decision directly affects emotional outcomes as a
result of the transition. Athletes who retire at an expected time rather than as a result of injury or
other unexpected factors have more success in emotional adjustment to life after sport (Baillie,
1993). Involuntary retirement may complicate the adjustment process during transition to
retirement (Alfermann et al., 2004). Sudden retirement due to injury or inability to perform at an
elite level can compound psychological difficulties for athletes (Alfermann et al., 2004). In a
2008 systematic review, involuntary retirement was identified as one of the greatest contributors
to difficult transition from sport (Smith & McManus, 2008). Older athletes, those whose
retirements were by choice, and those who remained connected to the game in some form (e.g.,
coaching) were better able to adjust emotionally to retirement (Baillie, 1993).
Institutional Sports Culture
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As athletes become immersed in sports culture, the focus is on training, level of
specialization, and superior performance, making future separation from sport difficult (Petitpas,
1992). Intercollegiate football and basketball are revenue-generating sports that support
institutional advancement. Institutional advancement refers to an institution’s revenue generation
from successful sports programs in the form of television and radio contracts, merchandising,
ticket sales, concessions, corporate sponsorships, advertising during events, luxury skybox
rentals, intangibles like increased donations and enrollment applications, enhanced image and
marketing (Houston & Baber, 2017). Grounded in the commercialization of intercollegiate
football, Black athletes are pressured to achieve athletic success (Donner, 2006). As part of a
winning institutional sports culture, coaches pressure athletes to dedicate most of their time to
sport rather than academics or other areas (Donner, 2006). The average athlete in a revenue-
generating collegiate sport has become a means for institutional profit growth (Kelly, 2016).
Black male student-athletes are overrepresented in revenue-generating collegiate sports
(Beamon, 2008; Cooper, 2012; Hawkins, 2010) and do not achieve the same level of academic
success as their non-athlete counterparts (Eitzen, 2006). Only 2.8% of undergraduates at
universities with high profile sports programs are Black males, while the majority of the athletes
on revenue-generating sports teams are Black; 64.3% of basketball teams and 57.1% of football
teams (Harper, Williams, & Blackman, 2013). Research demonstrates that Black athletes’
academic underperformance has been attributed to a series of unique challenges they face,
including athlete exploitation, inadequate personal guidance, and racial discrimination (Beamon,
2008; Cooper, 2012; Hawkins, 2010). Additionally, research illustrates that Black athletes are
more likely to enter college unprepared which starts them on a trajectory for poor academic
performance (Sailes, 2010).
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Time demands of collegiate athletic programs can be excessive and restrict participation
in activities outside of sport. Although academic eligibility is required for student-athletes to
participate in competition, the athletes’ educational attainment and success are not the focus of
the coaching staff or administrators within the revenue-generating athletic program (Beamon,
2013; Benson, 2000). Researchers found that academic advisors often select athletes’ majors and
courses, steering away from those which may conflict with mandatory football program
obligations (Beamon, 2013; Benson, 2000). When scheduling conflicts arise, athletes are
expected to choose football-related activities over any others, making it difficult to pursue
interests outside of football (Beamon, 2013; Benson, 2000). Student-athletes in major football
programs are encouraged to enroll in easy courses that provide less demanding curriculum to
remain eligible and compete for the benefit of the institution (Donnor, 2006). Time demands and
sport performance expectations, both detract from an athlete’s ability to engage in planning and
preparation behaviors.
Socialization
The sport socialization experience is unique for Black athletes in that it is typically
lifelong and is underpinned by lower socioeconomic status and an opportunity to succeed for the
individual as well as their family or community. As early as in elementary school, once a Black
child has been identified as talented in sport, nothing else is expected of him beyond athletics
(Edwards, 1984). The majority of African American athletes in Division IA football programs
come from low socioeconomic backgrounds and athletic success is viewed as an opportunity for
upward mobility (Beamon, 2010; Hartmann, 2000, Huffman & Cooper, 2012). Poorer, urban
neighborhoods typically have sub-par educational systems, and athletes from these areas are
educationally disadvantaged, as compared to students from wealthier backgrounds (Harris, 2000;
24

Huffman & Cooper, 2012). Additionally, as a result of lifelong socialization, Black athletes tend
to have an expectation to become professional athletes. In a study conducted by Beamon and
Bell (2002), findings revealed that Black players had a stronger expectation to have a career in
professional sports (84%) as compared to White players (41%). In the same study, while Black
players indicated that professional sports were the best means to obtain economic success and
White players did not indicate so for themselves, White participants did express the belief that
professional sports were the best means to obtain economic success for Black players (Beamon
& Bell, 2002). This belief is likely due to the hyper-socialization of sport for Black males.
Behavioral Factors
The following section will describe the behavioral factors that have been identified in the
literature as contributing to the quality of transition from sport. These include: (a) career
planning and development, and (b) pre-retirement planning. Career planning and development
refers to planning behaviors that facilitate preparing for alternate careers such as participating in
training programs and internships. Pre-retirement planning includes vocational, psychological,
and financial planning.
Career Planning and Development
Research suggests that career planning can improve the quality of transition to retirement
from sport (Smith & McManus, 2008; Turner, 2010). In this context, career development refers
to taking concrete actions to prepare to work in another capacity, outside of playing football
(Turner, 2010). Researchers found that student-athletes generally do not engage in career
development activities (Blann, 1985; Murphy et al., 1996; Singer & Buford, 2010; Tyrance at al.,
2013). According to Reger et al. (1978), athletes “lack realistic life expectations” concerning
their educational and career planning (as cited in Petitpas, 1992, p. 384). A lifelong
25

preoccupation with superior athletic achievement often results in not developing other career
path alternatives (Baillie, 1993). Engaging in career planning has been identified as a behavior
necessary to facilitating a smoother transition to retirement from sport.
Pre-Retirement Planning
Pre-retirement planning includes vocational, psychological, and financial planning.
Research on pre-retirement planning indicated that pre-retirement planning is positively
associated with the quality of athletes’ career transitions (Coakley, 2006). Research also suggests
that pre-retirement planning and crisis preparedness can reduce traumatic symptoms and increase
resilience among transitioning athletes (Halpern & Tramontin, 2007; Nagy & Szamoskozi, 2013;
Park et al., 2013). Planning for post-sport life included psychological preparation and having a
clear goal outside of sport (Warriner & Lavallee, 2008; Young et al., 2006). Pre-retirement
planning was also related to former athletes’ career resilience, or the ability to transition to
another career (Coakley, 2006). The literature does not investigate, however, the motivation to
plan for life after retirement from sport. Pre-retirement planning is an effective strategy in
promoting successful transition from sport (Coakley, 2006). Because the research demonstrates a
positive relationship between pre-retirement planning and a successful transition, it is critical to
understand the factors that influence the motivation to plan for life after retirement from sport
and the personal or environmental barriers that may hinder preparing for transition from sport.
Personal Factors
The following section will describe the personal factors identified in the literature as
contributing to transition from sport include: (a) athletic identity, (b) role exclusivity, (c) identity
foreclosure, (d) career motivation, and (e) career maturity. Athletic identity is the degree to
which a player identifies with his role as an athlete and looks to others to acknowledge that role
26

(Brewer et al., 1993). When an athlete identifies too strongly with the role of athlete, at the
expense of other roles, they achieve role exclusivity. Identity foreclosure occurs when an athlete
settles on an identity without considering other options or possibilities. Career motivation refers
to the desire to exert effort to enhance career goals and career maturity refers to the readiness to
make career decisions.
Athletic Identity
Athletic identity is the degree to which a player identifies with his role as an athlete and
looks to others to acknowledge that role (Brewer et al., 1993). Athletic identity can be further
differentiated by self-identity, how one views themselves, and social identity, how others see
them (Brewer et al., 1993). The level of athletic identity one possesses can affect the type of
transition they experience when they leave their sport. Researchers suggest that the greater the
athletic identity, the more difficult the post-retirement adaptation (Lavallee et al., 2004; Smith &
McManus, 2008; Ungerleider, 1997). Environmental influences can shape the athletic identity
over time with positive reinforcement and attention. According to Yukhymenko-Lescroart
(2014), athletic identity reinforcement occurs in most social touchpoints during an athlete’s
collegiate experience (e.g., on campus, training and practice with teammates, notoriety, and
accolades during and after games). More recent literature suggests that the value placed on
athletic identity contributes to a difficult transition rather than high athletic identity itself (Payne
& Driska, 2020). Although it is possible to maintain multiple identities and roles (e.g., student
and parent), athletes relying on their athletic role at the expense of other roles have role
exclusivity.
Role Exclusivity
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Role exclusivity occurs when an athlete identifies too strongly with the role of athlete, at
the expense of other roles has difficulty managing roles other than that of athlete (Parham, 1993).
Athletes with role exclusivity experience more difficult transitions from sport as they are unable
to manage roles outside of sport. Managing alternate roles is especially challenging for student-
athletes, whose roles as student or athlete are often viewed as mutually exclusive (Beamon,
2012). Parham (1993) identified that the struggle to balance athletic and academic roles is a
challenge that is unique to student-athletes, compared to non-athletes. When facing competing
goals, polarity management theory dictates that individuals will choose the path where they have
the greatest level of motivation or reward (Johnson, 1996). With the status, notoriety, and
monetary value associated with a potential professional football career as incentive, most players
will choose to focus on the role of athlete, resulting in role exclusivity. Athletes believe that
“exclusive devotion” is necessary to reach a superior skill level in their sport (Petitpas, 1992, p.
385).
A 2012 study of African American males who played football or basketball at Division
IA colleges found that athletes’ self and social identities were composed almost exclusively of
being athletes (Beamon, 2012). This role exclusivity made their transitions from sport more
difficult as athletes needed to redefine both self and social identities (Beamon, 2012). The unique
frequency of role exclusivity with athletes, especially Black athletes, makes this an important
point to discuss in the literature. Researchers found that Black athletes are more likely than
Whites to see themselves only as athletes (Harrison et al., 2011; Murphy et al., 1996; Scales,
1991). Black athletes may also see themselves as having limited career options, compounded by
having few diverse role models (Beamon, 2014).
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Researchers suggest that the greater the athletic identity, the more difficult the post-
retirement adaptation (Lavallee et al., 2004; Ungerleider, 1997). However, more recent literature
suggests that the athletic identity that dominates an athlete’s life is not a hindrance, but rather the
value that is placed on the athletic identity may impede the development of alternate identities
(Payne & Driska, 2020). In a recent empirical study, Payne and Driska (2020) found that athletes
struggled with role balance when they placed a high value on their athletic identities, but not
when they simply had high athletic identities. Athletes who placed an equal or higher value on
their identity as a student as on their identity as an athlete had smoother transitions (Payne &
Driska, 2020). Athletic identity can develop in varying degrees and may influence the exclusive
devotion to the role of athlete, and the extreme manifestation of athletic identity can result in
identity foreclosure.
Identity Foreclosure
Identity foreclosure is regarded in the literature as contributing to the difficult transition
to retirement from sport, as it has both a negative impact on career maturity and necessitates the
restructuring of athlete identities (Beamon, 2012; Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). Identity foreclosure
is defined as “exhibiting ideological or occupational commitment to sports without considering
other possible futures” (Linnemeyer & Brown, 2010, p. 617). Researchers suggest that identity
foreclosure precludes the ability to focus on alternate careers (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017; Harris et
al., 2011; Linnemeyer & Brown, 2010; Scales, 1991). Identity foreclosure poses a challenge to
the motivation to plan for an alternate career and will hinder the exploration of meaningful
options outside of sports (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017; Scales, 1991). Although earlier research
focused on identity foreclosure and its impact on career maturity, more recent research suggests
that the psychological implications related to redefining identity make identity foreclosure
29

problematic for athletes transitioning from sport (Donner, 2006). Minority males in revenue-
generating sports (football and basketball) have been found to have the highest rates of identity
foreclosure due to an over-emphasis on athletic identity (Harrison et al., 2011; Scales, 1991).
The social and environmental reinforcement of athletic identity can hinder identity
transformation. Beamon (2012) found that athletes continued to have foreclosed identities even
after transitioning out of sport. The consistent valuation of their athletic identities from friends,
family, and society, made it difficult to redefine their identities outside of being athletes
(Beamon, 2012). Reinforcement perpetuating social athletic identity may come in the form of
accolades and praise, asking for sports-related advice, or recounting personal playing
experiences (Brewer et al., 1993). Although athletic identity foreclosure can inhibit engagement
in preparation behaviors, Beamon found that foreclosed identity itself can make the retirement
process more difficult for athletes. Researchers found that identity foreclosure contributes to
difficulty transitioning to retirement from sport due to a focus on a single identity without
exploring other options and limiting the ability to be open to alternative careers (Beamon, 2012;
Brewer & Petitpas, 2017). Several studies have identified a negative correlation between athletic
identity foreclosure and career maturity, resulting in a more difficult transition from sport (Adler
& Adler 1991; Beamon & Bell 2011; Brewer et al., 1993; Murphy et al., 1996).
Career Motivation and Career Maturity
Career motivation refers to the desire to exert effort to enhance career goals (Amorose,
2001; Beamon, 2012). Scholars have found that athletes with difficult transitions out of sport
have low career motivation (Amorose, 2001; Beamon, 2012; Tyrance et al., 2013). Researchers
have suggested there is a negative relationship between athletic identity and career motivation;
the greater the athletic identity, the less likely athletes were to prepare for an alternate career or
30

retirement (Beamon, 2012). Self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of reaching a specific
goal or completing a specific task (Bandura, 1986). Low self-efficacy in areas outside of sport
can be attributed to difficulties with transition to retirement. According to Tyrance et al. (2013),
collegiate athletes were less confident in their ability to adapt to future career changes if they had
a strong identification with their athletic role. Researchers found that athletes with more difficult
transitions, felt incompetent outside of sport (Sinclair & Orlick, 1993).
Racial discrimination plays a role in the lack of motivation to pursue careers outside of
sports for Black athletes. Rudman (1986) found that discouragement from historical and
pervasive racial discrimination in occupational attainment in the United States made playing
sports a more attainable and desirable career option for Black males. Rudman (1986) also noted
that Black athletes felt that meritocracy inherent within sports culture would allow their
advancement based on their athletic ability, whereas in careers outside of sport, they would not
be treated equitably. Consequently, Black males are more likely than White males to choose
sports as a career option because they have the opportunity to be treated fairly (Beamon & Bell,
2002).
Using Linnemeyer and Brown’s (2010) definition, career maturity refers to “the readiness
to make career decisions and to cope with vocational and educational developmental tasks” (p.
617). Having low career maturity can lead to a difficult transition to retirement from sport
(Beamon, 2012; Brown et al., 2000; Murphy et al., 1996). Athletes with higher levels of career
maturity have the competencies and attitudes necessary to make realistic career decisions
(Meeker et al., 2000). Researchers have found that, in general, student-athletes have low levels
of career maturity and have difficulty making career decision (Blann, 1985; Kennedy & Dimick,
1987; Murphy et al., 1996). Student-athletes with a lack of exposure to occupational information
31

may not be aware that they have an underdeveloped occupational identity (Hughley & Hughley,
2019). Athletes lacking career maturity cannot make decisions about career options outside of
sport, making their transitions to retirement more difficult. Once equipped with the knowledge
and readiness to make career decisions, planning behaviors are necessary to prepare for future
careers outside of sport.
In summary, several key factors are identified in the literature as contributing to the
quality of transition from sport. Environmental factors include retirement circumstances,
institutional sport culture, and socialization of sport. Behavioral factors are career planning and
development and pre-retirement planning. Personal factors include athletic identity, role
exclusivity, identity foreclosure and career motivation and maturity.
Transition and Adjustment Measurement
Studies on transition from sport have utilized various measurement tools depending on
the purpose and design of the study, the operational definition of what was measured, and how it
contributes to the literature. Instruments routinely used in this scholarship are the Athletic
Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS; Brewer et al., 1993), the COPE Inventory (Grove et al.,
1997), the Sports Career Termination Questionnaire (SCTQ; Erpič, 2001), the Athlete
Retirement Questionnaire (ARQ; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993), the Retirement from Sports Survey
(RfSS; Alfermann et al., 2004), the 12-Item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ; Goldberg,
1972), the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), British Athletes Lifestyle
Assessment Needs in Career and Education (BALANCE) Scale, and the Life After Sports Scale
(LASS; Harrison & Lawrence, 2002).
Measuring Athletic Identity
32

As athletic identity is a driving indicator of how well an athlete will fare during transition
(Lavallee et al., 2004; Smith & McManus, 2008; Ungerleider, 1997), researchers commonly
measure athletic identity level. The AIMS (Brewer et al., 1993) is a 10-item scale that measures
the degree to which an individual identifies as an athlete and has been widely used in sport
identity research (Brewer et al., 1993). In a systematic review of studies on career termination
from sport between 1968 and 2010, Park et al. (2013) identified that the AIMS (Brewer et al.,
1993) was the most frequently utilized questionnaire, used in nine studies (Blackburn, 2003;
Fraser et al., 2010; Grove et al., 1997; Harrison et al., 2011; Herman, 2002; Lavallee et al., 1997;
Selden, 1997; Shachar et al., 2004; Stronach & Adair, 2010; Zaichkowsky et al., 2000). The
degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete identity has a negative correlation with
the quality of transition (Lavallee et al., 2004; Smith & McManus, 2008; Ungerleider, 1997);
therefore, this measurement is important to gauge and has implications for developing
interventions for athletes.
Measuring Adjustment to Life After Sport
Instruments have also been used to assess adjustment to life after transition and to
measure coping skills and the athlete’s overall well-being. These assessments include the COPE
Inventory (Grove et al., 1997), the SCTQ (Erpič, 2001), the ARQ (Sinclair & Orlick, 1993), the
RfSS (Alfermann et al., 2004), the LASS (Harrison & Lawrence, 2002), the 12-Item GHQ
(Goldberg, 1972) and the SWLS (Diener et al., 1985).
Often utilized in the sport transition field of study is the COPE Inventory (Grove et al.,
1997), a 60-item assessment that measures the use of coping strategies. The SCTQ (Erpič, 2001)
is used to assess various characteristics of the sports career termination process (Dimoula et al.,
2013; Erpič et al., 2004; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993; Stambulova et al., 2007). Characteristics
33

evaluated in this assessment are the adaptation to life after sport, the transition period,
termination, and characteristics of the sport career.
The ARQ is a 34-item self-assessment instrument developed by Sinclair and Orlick
(1993), which measures athletes’ perception of their adjustment to transition from sport.
Variables that may have impacted adjustment are assessed, including coping strategies used,
reasons for retirement, and use of support networks (Dimoula et al., 2013; Erpič et al., 2004;
Stambulova et al., 2007). Sinclair and Orlick developed the ARQ after reviewing the transition
and sport science literature and conducting pilot interviews with elite athletes. The RfSS
(Alfermann et al., 2004) was developed for cross-cultural comparisons of retiring or retired
athletes and allows athletes to retrospectively describe their experience leaving competitive
sports (Alfermann et al., 2004; Dimoula et al., 2013; Erpič et al., 2004; Knights et al., 2016;
Sinclair & Orlick, 1993; Stambulova et al., 2007).
The GHQ is a self-administered screening assessment designed to detect a diagnosable
psychiatric disorder (Goldberg, 1972). It was originally developed as a 60-item questionnaire but
has gone through many iterations, resulting in abbreviated versions of the scale (e.g., GHQ-30,
the GHQ-28, the GHQ-20, and the GHQ-12). In the context of sports transition, the GHQ is used
to assess the mental health of athletes during transition and adjustment from sport.
The SWLS (Diener et al., 1985) is a narrowly focused assessment designed to measure
global life satisfaction. The SWLS has demonstrated favorable psychometric properties,
including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. SWLS correlates predictably
with specific personality characteristics and moderately to highly with other measures of
subjective well-being.
Measuring Attitudes Toward Preparation for Transition
34

The LASS (Harrison & Lawrence, 2002) assesses athletes’ perceptions of the post-sport
career transition process. This 58-item instrument examines seven different domains, both
qualitatively and quantitatively: (a) open-ended and visual narrative, (b) career transition, (c)
athletics, (d) academic, (e) social, (f) sentence completion, and (g) background information. The
LASS (Harrison & Lawrence, 2002) was developed based on relevant literature (Brown et al.,
2000; Brewer et al., 2000) and previous instruments that investigated athletic identity issues in
sport psychology and sport sociology and is useful in motivating athletes to consider their futures
outside of sports.
In summary, studies on transition from sport have utilized various measurement tools.
Instruments have also been used to assess adjustment to life after transition and to measure
coping skills and the overall well-being of the athlete. The degree to which an individual
identifies with the athlete identity has been found to have a negative correlation to the quality of
transition (Lavallee et al., 2004; Smith & McManus, 2008; Ungerleider, 1997). Therefore, this
measurement is important to gauge and has implications for developing interventions for
athletes.
Strategies to Improve Transition and Adjustment
Preparation for transition from sport in the form of strategies and interventions can
improve the quality of the transition for many athletes. Earlier research on post-sport transition
focused on the adverse effects of transition and strategies to mitigate difficulty during the
transition. More recent research highlights the need for athletes to prepare for this transition
preemptively during the collegiate experience and suggest interventions to improve outcomes
(Fuller, 2014; Smith & Hardin, 2018). Transition experiences can be more favorable for athletes
who prepare for retirement in advance (Fuller, 2014; Smith & Hardin, 2018). Research suggests
35

that tangible interventions increase athletes’ preparedness for retirement and improve the quality
of their transitions (Erpič et al., 2004; Grove et al., 1997; Lally, 2007; Lavallee, 2005; Lavallee
& Robinson, 2007; Park et al., 2013; Schwenk et al., 2007; Stephan, 2003; Terregrosa et al.,
2015; Wippert & Wippert, 2008). One of the approaches applied to the development of strategies
to improve transition, is transition theory (STT; Goodman et al., 2006; Schlossberg, 1981, 2011).
Transition Theory
Transition theory (STT; Goodman et al., 2006; Schlossberg, 1981, 2011) has been used to
understand how individuals experience transition. A transition is “an event or nonevent resulting
in change” (Schlossberg, 1981, p. 43). Events can either be anticipated (e.g., graduating from
high school) or unanticipated (e.g., an unexpected injury or accident). An expected transition that
does not occur is referred to as a nonevent. An example of a nonevent would be when a
collegiate athlete is expecting to play a sport professionally, but they do not get drafted;
therefore, the transition they are expecting, to play professionally, never takes place. As
individuals initiate, travel through, and complete the transition process, their reactions are the
conceptualization of the transition process (Schlossberg, 2011). According to this theory, four
areas of support or deficit (the four Ss) influence an individual’s ability to cope with transition:
(a) social supports (e.g., interpersonal network [or lack thereof] or peripheral sources), (b)
situation (e.g., an individual’s life context at the time of transition), (c) self (e.g., an individual’s
strengths and opportunities for growth), and (d) strategies (e.g., development of coping strategies
to navigate transition) (Schlossberg, 2011).
Interventions
Several strategies and interventions have been developed to assist athletes in preparing
for transition from sport. Five prominent interventions include the Five-Step Career Planning
36

strategy (Stambulova, 2010), therapeutic approaches (Bjornsen & Dinkel, 2017), life
development intervention (Lavallee, 2005; Park et al., 2013), CHAMPS/Life Skills Program
(Watt & Moore, 2001), and transferable skills education (Danish et al, 1993; Murphy, 1995; Park
et al., 2013; Stephan, 2003; Williams & MacNamara, 2020).
Five-Step Career Planning Strategy (5-SCP)
Stambulova (2010), a leading expert in the field of transition from sport, utilized STT
(Schlossberg, 1981; Schlossberg & Anderson, 2006; Schlossberg, 2011) to frame much of her
research and developed the five-step career planning strategy (5-SCP) counseling framework for
helping athletes with preparing for career transitions. Other researchers in the field concerned
with improving transition focus on tools to mitigate difficulty during the transition process,
rather than the more proactive approach of exploring preparation for transition (Fuller, 2014;
Smith & Hardin, 2018).
Therapeutic Approaches
Applying transition theory to intervention, Bjornsen and Dinkel (2017) highlighted
therapeutic approaches to assist student-athletes with mental health and wellness. These
approaches include counseling in preparation for impending shifts in identity and social support
networks during the transition from collegiate sports as well as stress management and the
development of coping strategies to help with adjustment (Murphy, 1995). Therapeutic
interventions address each of the constructs of STT: situation (role changes), self (strengths),
supports (interpersonal network), and strategies (coping mechanisms). Therapeutic approaches
can help athletes identify the barriers to a positive transition and adjustment from sport and
determine supports and resources to ease the transition process.
Life Development Intervention
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Applying Schlossberg’s transition model, Lavallee (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of
a life development intervention on career transition adjustment in retired professional athletes. A
life development intervention can assist athletes with their future transitions from sport by
increasing their ability to adapt to the transition to retirement more efficiently, including
developing coping skills and tools to promote psychosocial stability (Lavallee, 2005; Park et al.,
2013). Lavallee (2005) conducted the only peer-reviewed quantitative design on the impact of a
life development intervention on post-sport transition. The sample of participants in this study
consisted of 71 English and Scottish soccer players. The independent variable was the life
development intervention, and the dependent variable was career adjustment difficulties
(measured by the BALANCE scale and the transition coping questionnaire). Results showed no
statistical difference between the control group and the group that received the intervention
related to career transition adjustment difficulties. However, statistical significance was reported
in the intervention group in the four areas of adaptation to situation, personal characteristics of
self; support from others, and coping strategies, and results are attributed to elements of the life
development intervention (Lavallee, 2005). It is important to note that this study was conducted
with European subjects, and findings would need to be extrapolated to apply to the participant
group of the current study.
CHAMPS/Life Skills Program
University programs historically addressed bare minimum support for athletes, focusing
on only eligibility and graduation completion (Watt & Moore, 2001), but in 1994, the
CHAMPS/Life Skills Program was created to provide more comprehensive support (Baker &
Hawkins, 2016). The program, later replaced by the NCAA Life Skills Initiative, was developed
by the Division I Athletic Directors’ Association, in collaboration with the NCAA Foundation,
38

focused on commitments to academics, career development, personal development, service, and
athletics for the student-athlete.
Transferable Skills Education
Research highlights the importance of developing and educating athletes on the
transferability of skills they already possess that can assist them in their post-sport life (Danish et
al, 1993; Murphy, 1995; Park et al., 2013; Stephan, 2003; Williams & MacNamara, 2020). In a
qualitative study assessing the subjective well-being of French Olympic athletes during transition
from sport, the development of transferable skills was found to assist with the adjustment to a
new lifestyle and career path in transition from sport (Stephan et al., 2003). It is essential for
athletes to learn to recognize the skills and strengths they have developed through competitive
sport and apply to non-athletic career settings in order to facilitate the transition to life after sport
(Danish et al, 1993). Learning how to apply transferable skills in order to succeed in domains
outside of sport is an important component to improving transition from sport outcomes (Park et
al. 2013). In a recent study (Williams & MacNamara, 2020), findings suggest positive
experiences such as boosted self-confidence and determination among athletes, are built around
the development of transferable skills and behaviors.
In summary, preparation for transition from sport in the form of strategies and
interventions can improve the quality of the transition process for many athletes. Recent research
has highlighted the importance of preemptive preparation. Transition theory (Goodman et al.,
2006; Schlossberg, 1981) has been used in scholarship to understand how individuals experience
transition and has been applied to the development of intervention models for this transition.
Interventions discussed in this section are the 5-SCP (Stambulova, 2010), therapeutic approaches
(Bjornsen & Dinkel, 2017), and life development intervention (Lavallee, 2005). Other
39

preparation strategies that may improve the quality of the transition include retirement planning,
career planning and development, and transferable skills education. During transition, social
support systems have been found to mitigate negative feelings and complex adjustments.
Conceptual Framework
Bandura’s social cognitive theory posits that there is a dynamic relationship between the
person, environment, and behaviors, as these factors all influence one another (Bandura, 1986).
Drawing from social cognitive theory, the triadic reciprocal determinism model is the conceptual
framework that guided this study. The triadic reciprocal determinism model highlights the
influential interplay between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors. Using this
framework, the relationship between personal and environmental influences and behaviors
during athletes’ collegiate experiences were explored to understand the role that these factors
played in influencing motivation and engagement in behaviors supporting preparation for
transition from sport. The concepts from this model that I explored, in particular, were self-
efficacy, values and beliefs, outcome expectancy, observational learning, behavioral capability,
reinforcement, and choice of activity.
In the previous sections, I discussed some of these concepts as potentially influencing the
quality of an athlete’s transition from sport and preparedness for transition. Some of the
environmental influences that have been discussed in the literature are institutional sports
culture, socialization of sport, and role modeling, which may influence athletes’ sense of athletic
identity, motivation, and associated behaviors. This study explored the personal and
environmental influences during athletes’ collegiate experience, including the attitudes and
behaviors of people in their social environment (e.g., fans, family, teammates) which supported
or were barriers to preparing for transition. Additionally, this study explored the institutional
40

environmental influences during athletes’ collegiate experience, including the attitudes and
behaviors of people in their environment (e.g., coaches, athletic department administrators)
which influenced their motivation to prepare for transition or affected engagement in preparation
behaviors. Personal influences identified in the literature as having an impact on preparedness for
transition from sport included athletic identity, role exclusivity, identity foreclosure, and career
motivation and maturity. The athletic identity, or belief about who one is as an athlete, represents
the personal component of the triadic reciprocal determinism model and can be influenced by the
environment in the form of social reinforcement, which, in turn may influence the choice to
engage in preparation behaviors. The behaviors outlined in the literature as contributing to the
quality of an athlete’s transition from sport included career planning and development and pre-
retirement planning. This study sought to understand how environmental influences, personal
values and beliefs, and behaviors interacted to influence motivation, preparation behaviors, and
athlete preparedness for post-career transition from sport. By framing this study using the model
of triadic reciprocal determinism, environmental, personal, and behavioral concepts were
explored to understand how these factors interrelated to influence preparing for life after sport
during the collegiate experience of Black football athletes.
41

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Indicating the Triadic Reciprocal Relationship Between Environmental,
Behavioral, and Personal Factors During Black Football Players’ Collegiate Experience
Influencing Preparedness for Post-Career Transition From Sport

Note. Adapted from Social Cognitive Theory: Social Foundations of Thought and Action by A.
Bandura, 1986. Prentice Hall.

Chapter Two Summary
In reviewing the literature on transition from sport, contributing factors to the quality of
transition from sport were identified in terms of the environmental, behavioral, and personal
factors that influence transition and adjustment. Using Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1986),
42

this study explores the influences during Black athletes’ collegiate experiences that may be
supportive or barriers to preparedness for transition from sport. The literature demonstrated a
concentration on the transition from sport, in general, primarily European sports, and a lack of
insight into transition from revenue-generating sports (basketball and football) which have
higher percentages of Black athletes as compared to other sports. Although some research is
focused on the experiences of Black student-athletes (Beamon, 2012; Harper et al., 2013;
Harrison et al., 2011; Manuel et al., 2002; Payne & Driska, 2020), a focus on the collegiate
experiences of Black athletes who played professionally is not well represented in the literature
and demonstrates the gap in scholarship that this study will contribute toward. As 70% of NFL
players are Black (NFL, 2020), the findings from this study may provide insight to organizations
by identifying factors that may hinder athlete preparedness during the collegiate experience, and
the social and environmental influences that perpetuate those factors.

43

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to retrospectively explore the collegiate experiences of
Black former NFL players to understand the personal and environmental influences on preparing
for post-career transition from sport. Findings from the study contributed to the current body of
knowledge on preparation for transition, which can be used by athletic department administrators
to develop focused strategies and initiatives at the collegiate level to support preparedness among
Black football athletes. This chapter begins by reasserting the study’s main research questions,
provides an overview of the research methodology, outlines the specific demographics of the
participants, and describes the methods used in the collection and analysis of the data.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study, informed by social cognitive theory (Bandura,
1986), were
1. What personal factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
2. What environmental factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
3. What factors influenced the quality of Black football athletes’ post-career transition
and perceived adjustment to life after sport?
Overview of Methodology
This study employed a qualitative phenomenological methodology approach using semi-
structured interviews to understand the perspectives and lived experiences of Black former NFL
players. A qualitative research approach is most effective when seeking to understand the
experiences and perspectives of a specific population (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
44

Phenomenological methodology is well-suited to understand the lived experiences of football
players by making meaning of the influence of personal and environmental influences, which
impacted preparation for post-career transition from sport. This approach yielded the
proliferation of data used for thematic coding and analysis through various textual observation
techniques. Purposeful sampling was used in this study to ensure that the viewpoints of the
participants representing the population being studied were captured (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Interviews
What personal factors influenced preparing for post-career
transition from sport during Black football athletes’ collegiate
experience?
X
What environmental factors influenced preparing for post-career
transition from sport during Black football athletes’ collegiate
experience?
X
What factors influenced the quality of Black football athletes’
post-career transition and perceived adjustment to life after
sport?

X

45

Research Setting
The participants in this study are former NFL players who played for NCAA Division I
college football programs. Understanding the perspectives of those who played in the NFL
provides insight into the collegiate experiences of those who anticipated playing professionally,
which may be markedly different from those who did not expect to play beyond college. In a
recent study of former NCAA Division I football athletes, those who realized while still in
college that playing professionally was no longer an option planned for transition from sport
(Payne & Driska, 2020). In an empirical study, researchers found that the primary difference
between athletes who planned for retirement and those who did not, was a lack of awareness of
the need to prepare (Vilanova & Puig, 2014).
This study examines the social and environmental influences on preparing for transition
from sport during an athlete’s collegiate years. Researchers have identified the collegiate years as
a time of growth and change where roles and identities are established and developed (Erikson,
1968; Super, 1990). Researchers found that athletes’ transitions out of collegiate football are
smoother when they had previously engaged in career exploration (Payne & Driska, 2020). Thus,
focusing on athletes’ collegiate experiences is important to understand in the larger context of
preparedness for this transition. Research suggests that 60% of athletes do not plan for life after
sport (North & Lavallee, 2004), which makes awareness of the barriers to preparing during the
collegiate experience integral to enhancing the quality of athletes’ future transitions from sport.
The Researcher
My positionality as a Black female researcher informs my advocacy to contribute toward
the in-depth qualitative research available on the topic of transition from sport for Black athletes.
After previously conducting a study on this topic for my master’s degree thesis and interviewing
46

former NFL players, I can attest to a gap in preparation for transition, particularly among Black
football players, who anticipated playing professionally after college. My positionality informs
understanding of the problem as I identify and empathize with the plight of those faced with
inequities due to race and associated challenges, innate to structural racism and unconscious bias.
My personal experiences, combined with the study of critical race theory, have also shaped my
understanding of implicit bias, racial discrimination, and intersectionality. As a qualitative
researcher, my approach to research is informed by my advocacy for equity and centering the
voices of those most impacted by lack of preparedness for transition from sport: Black athletes.
My interpretation of the data was informed, in part, by my bias and personal knowledge of
athletes who struggled with adjusting to life after sport. My role in this study was restricted to
that of principal researcher. Any affiliation or rapport established with the participants was
secondary to the role of information gatherer (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Biases and assumptions
were mitigated by peer review, pilot testing of interview protocols, and frequent member
checking of participant responses during the interview phase.
Data Sources
The data source employed in this study was the utilization of semi-structured interviews
to explore the collegiate experiences of Black football athletes during their time in a Division I or
Division II football program. I contacted a purposeful target sample of five participants, who met
the selection criteria and were accessed through a combination of snowball and convenience
sampling, to participate in a semi-structured online interview protocol.
Interviews
This study employed in-depth semi-structured interviews with five participants,
purposefully selected from the population of retired NFL players I was able to access. Four
47

participants were involved in a two-part series of interviews; however, one participant was
unable to be reached for a second interview. The inductive-style approach of the interview
method was well-suited in seeking greater understanding of an existing social phenomenon and
generating an abundance of rich, descriptive data from a small sample (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). Interview responses also provided data that reflected the unique perspectives of the target
population as they pertained to the concepts of athletic identity, motivation, and personal and
environmental influences on preparedness. The personal narratives of Black former NFL players
describing their collegiate experiences provided greater depth and nuance to the extant research
on preparation for transition from sport by providing the perspectives of this unique
demographic.
Participants
The participants for this study consisted of five Black former NFL athletes who
previously played in NCAA Division I and Division II football program. Most of the participants
were within three years of retirement, however one participant had been retired for 13 years.
These stakeholders’ perspectives were appropriate to understand the perspectives and
experiences of Black professional football players during their collegiate years and how those
experiences may have impacted their preparedness for transition from sport.
To reach the intended participants, I recruited a non-probability purposeful sample of the
population being studied through a combination of snowball and convenience sampling methods.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that non-probability sampling is effective and is the method of
choice for qualitative research. Further, purposeful sampling is based on the desire to gain insight
and understand the experiences of a sample of participants meeting specific selection criteria
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I contacted former NFL football players and sports agents,
48

personally known to me, to access their networks of associates who met the sampling criteria. I
contacted potential interview subjects via email (Appendix B) and presented them with an
information sheet (Appendix C) describing the study’s purpose, my positionality, confidentiality,
and participant expectations, followed by a request for a Zoom (online video) interview. Also,
because the study participants were recruited through personal relationships there was an
underlying degree of familiarity, trust, and credibility, prior to beginning the interview process.
Instrumentation
The interview protocol instrument was drafted, peer-reviewed, and pilot-tested, drawing
on this study’s research questions and conceptual framework, resulting in a series of
demographic and background questions, and 31 open-ended interview questions. Appendix A
presents the interview protocol. Questions were divided into sub-categories: personal and
environmental influences on motivation to plan and prepare for transition, institutional influences
on preparedness, and the impact of preparing for transition during college on future transition
and adjustment, which provided the topical framework for the interview. Each sub-category was
comprised of targeted questions and a series of probes designed to elicit rich, detailed responses
about the collegiate experiences of former NFL players. Question types included demographic,
experiences, opinions and values, feeling, knowledge, and sensory (Patton, 2015). A semi-
structured interview protocol was preferable to a structured protocol or focus group, in this
context because of the overarching goal of the study: to gain insight into the collegiate
experiences of the sample population. The semi-structured format allowed for the question
sequencing to vary and the categories to act as a guiding outline versus a strict protocol that
restricted the conversational and exploratory nature of the participants’ responses (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The selected format also encouraged the natural flow of responses into other
49

categories of interest, minimized the repetition of questions, and nurtured the researcher-
interviewee rapport by not placing arbitrary constraints around the responses.
I adjusted the sequence of questions and probes in real-time as required by the situation,
based on the level of detail provided, the flow of the discussion, and the impact of any of the
preceding questions informing subsequent ones. By utilizing semi-structured interviews, I was
able to capture the narrative stories of participants for analysis of common themes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Specifically, the interviews were designed to retrieve information about athletes’
perspectives on the personal and environmental factors, which may have impacted their
preparedness for post-career transition from sport during their collegiate experience.
Data Collection Procedures
After receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval, I contacted participants via
email to schedule individual interviews. I conducted interviews over a four-week period from
December 2021 through January 2022. Each interview lasted between 45 minutes and 90
minutes, including the time required to review the information sheet for the study. I conducted
interviews one-on-one over the online video platform, Zoom. To ensure trustworthy data
collection, I captured data via Zoom recording and transcription service, and I used a secondary
recording device (iPhone) for backup recording, as suggested by Merriam and Tisdell (2016).
All of the participants had access to the Zoom application, so it was not necessary to
conduct any interviews via phone. I used audio and video recordings only with the explicit
permission of the participants. Once the recordings were no longer needed for this study, I
immediately destroyed them. The recording feature in Zoom was turned off by default at the start
of each interview until the information sheet was reviewed by the participants. I gave
participants the option to hide their names in the Zoom session to protect their identity further.
50

All of the participants were comfortable with recording the interviews during the Zoom sessions
and gave verbal consent. Transcripts of interviews were sent to participants via email to confirm
the accurate reflection of their perceptions.
Data Analysis
I analyzed participant responses to the interview protocol by coding and conducting
thematic analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I reviewed participants’ responses in conjunction
with the research questions and larger conceptual themes of athletic identity, personal influences,
and environmental influences on preparing for transition, and motivation, to accomplish theme
discovery through the inductive process. I first transcribed the raw data from recorded audio-
visual text, and video recordings and reduced them into manageable pieces. I transcribed the
interviews a second time, to ensure accurate capture of the perspectives of the participants. I
developed codes and themes through priori and a priori codes and compared them across the
sample group to reveal patterns of thought or ideas. Using the data analysis software ATLAS.ti, I
sorted and categorized the textual data according to themes and constructed a codebook to mark
instances of the key themes and patterns found in the data (Bernard et al., 2016). During coding,
I employed several techniques to strengthen the textual-thematic relationships. I scrutinized the
data for repetition, local or indigenous phrases, metaphors and analogies, naturally occurring
shifts in content, similarities and differences in pairs of statements about a topic, linguistic
connectors that suggested attributions or various causal and conditional relations, missing data,
and filtered theory-related material (Bernard et al., 2016).
After each interview, I created reflection memos and transcribed all interviews, scrubbing
the narrative for any identifying information (Maxwell, 2012). Through the research
methodology, I identified common themes in the data influencing preparing for post-career
51

transition and suggested interventions, which football athletes and college athletic departments
can utilize early in the collegiate experience. Mitigating personal and environmental barriers and
enhancing supports to preparing for life after sport can improve Black athletes’ future transition
and adjustment outcomes.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Peer review of the interview protocol along with modifications based on feedback
ensures maximum credibility of participants’ responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I had
discussions with my dissertation chair regarding the emerging findings, study process, and
congruence of data interpretation. To minimize researcher bias, I used member checking with
some participants to confirm whether their intentions and my interpretations of their experiences
were accurately reflected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I conducted data analysis simultaneously
with data collection to determine if saturation of data and emerging findings had been reached
(Ravitch & Carl, 2016). To maximize the credibility of data, I consulted my dissertation chair to
confirm that I had reached an acceptable level of saturation in terms of alignment of responses to
the research questions before closing interviews. I also preserved and stored a comprehensive
audit trail consisting of notes pertaining to the virtual environment and recordings of interviews
consistently so that the data can be traced to original sources.
Ethics
It is the researcher’s responsibility to employ strategies to protect the well-being of the
human subjects in research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I participated in the required IRB
training, obtained appropriate certification, and received guidance from my dissertation chair to
ensure IRB compliance. I clearly explained my positionality and the purpose of the study as
integral to improving preparedness for transition from sport for Black college football athletes. I
52

obtained informed consent in advance of and at the start of each interview via an information
sheet that I provided to all participants. The information sheet reiterated to participants that they
may have chosen not to continue with the interview at any time and were free to ask questions,
as recommended by Creswell and Creswell (2018).
I emphasized the voluntary nature of participation with all participants. I also reminded
participants that they may have chosen to leave the study at any time during the interview and
that they may have elected to skip any interview question. All audio-visual recordings, notes,
memos, documents, and artifacts were de-identified, and the names of participants changed to
pseudonyms. I scrubbed all transcriptions for identifying information and encrypted and secured
all data. I obtained permission to record at the beginning of interview sessions and stored the raw
data on a password-protected hard drive on a laptop computer, stored in a locked filing cabinet,
as recommended by Creswell and Creswell (2018) to ensure maximum credibility and
trustworthiness.

53

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative inquiry was to retrospectively explore Black former NFL
players’ collegiate experiences to understand personal and environmental influences on
preparing for post-career transition from sport, which is defined as “the process of transition
from participation in competitive sport to another activity or set of activities” (Coakley, 1983,
p.10). The problem of practice addressed in this research study is the preparation for transition
from sport during the collegiate experience of Black football players. As many athletes struggle
to adjust to life after sport (Taylor & Lavallee, 2010), supporting preparation for retirement
during the collegiate experience may help to enhance future transition outcomes.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings from this research study. The first
subsection provides an overview of the participants’ demographics and background. The
subsequent major sections of this chapter present the findings that answer the research questions.
Each section is organized by themes and subthemes that emerged during data analysis. Each
theme is then discussed in a separate subsection. Evidence for all findings is provided through
direct quotations from the data.
Participants
The five participants were Black former NFL players who played college football at an
NCAA institution on an athletic scholarship. As discussed in Chapter Three, the interviews were
conducted in an online format (Zoom) to comply with social distancing guidelines associated
with the COVID-19 pandemic. Three participants played professional football in the NFL for 4
years or less, with an average career length of 5 years. Participants’ ages at the time of this study
ranged from 27 to 43. Three participants indicated negative experiences with their transition
from football, and two had positive ones. Table 2 designates the participants’ relevant
54

demographic characteristics. Study participants were assigned pseudonyms to be used in the
presentation of findings throughout this chapter. Brief profiles of the participants are provided
below Table 2 to establish an overview of their experiences.

Table 2
Participant Overview
Pseudonym Age College
division
Degree major Years in
the NFL
Years since
retirement
Control
over
retirement
Theodore 29 Div I Business 4 3 Involuntary
Cedric 43 Div I Communications 8 13 Involuntary
Derrick 31 Div II Criminal justice 6 3 Voluntary
Warren 27 Div I Communications 2 3 Involuntary
William 28 Div I Hospitality
management
4 2 Voluntary

55

Based on their descriptions, participants were all injured during training camp or spring
training near the end of their NFL careers, which either directly or indirectly led to their
retirements. No findings indicated causality between control over retirement circumstances and
the quality of transition from sport. However, according to the data, the participants who
indicated having voluntary retirements had positive experiences, while those who had negative
experiences reported their retirements were involuntary. No participant indicated that they
prepared for transition from sport during college. The following section introduces the
participants to provide their unique stories and perceptions.
Theodore
Theodore played football in college as a tight end and graduated with a degree in
business. He played in the NFL for 4 years and retired 3 years ago under involuntary
circumstances due to an injury sustained during training camp. Theodore did not prepare for
transition while he was in college and shared that he did not feel prepared for life after sport at
the time of his retirement. Theodore participated in a two-part series of interviews for a total of
66 minutes. He generally talked in negative terms about leaving the sport, as he grappled with
identity transformation and depression. In general, Theodore felt that institutions do not do
enough to help football athletes prepare for life after sport, and the athletic department’s sole
focus on winning national championships takes precedence over helping athletes prepare for
other interests. Theodore is currently working in graphic design at a digital advertising agency
and is 29 years old.
Cedric
Cedric played college football as a center and graduated with a degree in
communications. He played in the NFL for 8 years and won a Super Bowl championship game
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with his team, which is the pinnacle of football accomplishment. Cedric retired 13 years ago
under involuntary circumstances due to an injury sustained during training camp. He did not
prepare for transition while he was in college and did not feel prepared for life after sport when
he retired. Cedric participated in a two-part series of interviews for a total of 134 minutes. He
generally spoke in negative terms about his leaving football and indicated feeling “frustration,
depression, confusion, and anger.” It is important to note that Cedric was the most far-removed
from his transition and held a different perspective than the other participants in some areas.
During the interviews, Cedric’s responses were focused on personal agency and taking
responsibility for his own future. Cedric’s interviews were the longest of all the participants’ as
he had much to say about the individual nature of the players’ responsibility in preparing for life
after football. Cedric currently works with former NFL players during their transition from sport,
helping them with the mental aspect of that life change and is 43 years old. As this research topic
aligned with his profession, Cedric occasionally responded to protocol questions in general
terms, presumably from his experiences working with former NFL players, and it was sometimes
challenging to get him to talk about his personal experiences.
Derrick
Derrick played collegiate football as a defensive end and graduated with a degree in
criminal justice. He competed in the NFL for 6 years and voluntarily retired 3 years ago after an
injury sustained during training camp. Derrick did not prepare for transition while in college and
shared that at the time of his retirement, he was optimistic but did not feel prepared for life after
sport. Derrick participated in a two-part series of interviews lasting 114 minutes. He generally
talked positively about his move out of sports and referred to it as a “positive, seamless
transition.” Derrick currently owns a business in the fitness industry and is 31 years old.
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Warren
Warren is a 27-year-old who was a dual-sport athlete in college, competing in both
football and track and field, and graduated with a degree in communications. Warren played in
the NFL for 2 years as a wide receiver and retired 3 years ago under involuntary circumstances
due to injuries sustained during spring training as well as major injuries sustained during college
that were lingering. He did not prepare for life after football in college and did not feel prepared
for life after sport. Warren was interviewed once for 75 minutes. He generally spoke in negative
terms about his transition and shared that it was depressing and very tough for him. Adding to his
depression was that it was painful for him to walk, making it difficult for him to engage in basic
life activities and limiting to the type of work he could perform. Warren shared that he “loved
aesthetics and beautiful things” and is currently working in film production and photography.
William
William played collegiate football as a wide receiver and graduated with a degree in
hospitality management. He played in the NFL for 4 years and voluntarily retired 2 years ago.
William participated in a two-part series of interviews totaling 116 minutes. Although he
sustained an injury during training camp his final year in the NFL, William reiterated that was
not the reason he retired, as he was more focused on preserving his well-being. William did not
prepare for transition during college but did engage in some preparation activities while he was
in the NFL and shared that at the time of his retirement, he felt “like I was prepared, but I wasn’t
100% sure” for life after sport. William generally talked positively about his move from the NFL
and described it as “pretty easy.” William is 28 years old and is currently working in sales and as
a freelance photographer.

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Findings
The interviews for this research study were comprised of 31 questions (Appendix A),
designed to explore the lived experiences of participants during their time in college as NCAA
football student-athletes. I analyzed participant responses to the interview protocol by coding and
conducting thematic analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I reviewed participant responses in
conjunction with the research questions and more prominent conceptual themes of athletic
identity, personal influences, and environmental influences on preparing for transition, and
motivation, with the goal of theme discovery through the inductive process. Once the data were
thoroughly analyzed, I focused on the participants’ shared experiences to identify detailed
findings. The findings discuss the particular themes that surfaced through the data analysis
process for each research question.
Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What personal factors influenced preparing for post-
career transition from sport during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?” Data analysis
yielded four themes: personal goals, developmental maturity, knowledge of resources and skills,
and emotional and mental health. Participants generally believed that their lack of post-career
preparation was primarily due to personal factors, although they mentioned environmental
influences that could have also contributed to lack of preparation, which will be discussed in the
following section. These four themes are discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following
subsections.
Personal Goals
Participants indicated that their personal goals negatively influenced their motivation to
prepare for transitioning from sport during college. The most salient goal they mentioned was
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having the sole objective of playing in the NFL. Four participants indicated that was their
singular focus during college. Theodore, for example, stated, “In college, I had no idea [what I
might do after football]. The goal was the NFL.” William did not explicitly mention the NFL as
his exclusive goal, but he mentioned that he was solely focused on football at the time. Many had
NFL aspirations for much of their lives, and it was a central focal point in their upbringing.
Cedric demonstrated this sentiment by stating, “That’s the decision I made when I was 7, so, by
the time I got to college, I didn’t even consider anything else.” Derrick indicated that his desire
to give others hope fueled his motivation to achieve his goal. Derrick explained, “I had too many
people that believed in me that I was going to give hope to, back in my hometown. That was my
motivation to make it to the NFL: I don’t want to let people down.”
Most participants expressed that having the exclusive focus of making the NFL hindered
their motivation to prepare for transition from sport. Having that singular goal encouraged
participants’ choice, effort, and persistence of behaviors and actions toward football-related
activities. Recounting his experience, Derrick stated,
At that time, my sole focus was the NFL because I knew I had a small window, and I
knew I had an opportunity to make it based on feedback I was getting. So, I was like, this
is all or nothing. I’m going all-in on the NFL training. I’m not worried about criminal
justice. I’m not worried about papers. [Football] is my main priority.
Focusing on reaching the NFL made it difficult for participants to devote mental effort to other
matters. Theodore explained, “To make it to the NFL, you have to live in that disillusion that
nothing is going to go wrong because once you start thinking about the end, there’s no way
you’re going to make it.” Cedric mirrored this sentiment by stating, “At any given time, there’s
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no more than 1,696 players in the NFL; that’s not a lot of jobs, so I can’t have my focus
fragmented if I want one of those spots.”
Cedric’s focus was so extreme that he could not entertain the thought of anything else.
Describing his sentiment, Cedric stated,
It’s just who I believed I was. It was a consecration of self. It’s like I decided who I was,
and every other action, belief, [and] communication with myself or others stemmed from
that greater belief that this is what I’m meant to do, this is who I am, and until that
changes, why would I entertain any other possibilities? To me, this is what I was here to
do. My goal was to leave [my university] as a [football] legend.
Overall, the participants indicated that they did not believe that preparing for life after
sport applied to them and, as a result, did not retain messages pertaining to preparing or seek out
resources to assist them with preparing. As an example, when asked what career preparation
resources were available at his college, Cedric responded, “I don’t know. I was going to the
NFL.” William provided a response that demonstrated this sentiment: “I just really didn’t dissect
it [message about planning for transition] and personalize it for me as much as I probably should
have. It’s not like it wasn’t told to us. I just didn’t take it and use it.”
Developmental Maturity
The previous theme focused on personal goals that influenced the motivation to prepare
for transition. Data associated with the present theme indicated that participants perceived their
level of maturity contributed to their lack of preparation. Participants shared that their immaturity
in mindset negatively impacted their motivation to prepare for transition from sport. The
participants were roughly 18 or 19 years old in college and held maturity levels in alignment
with being teenagers. Typical of most teenagers, they did not possess the level of maturity to
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plan for their futures at that time. When asked about preparing for life after football, participants
all referenced their age or maturity level when indicating that they were not thinking about the
future beyond football. Warren stated, “You being like 19 [or] 20, you really don’t think about
the future.” William described his lack of consideration for the future as a teenager:
Even though I feel like I had a good head on my shoulders, I was still a teenager. I was
still young, in college, having fun, playing football. When I had my time to myself to be
able to think about that stuff, I really did not think about it. Thinking about how little I
thought about what I wanted to do and how I was going to do it terrifies me right now.
Warren added to that sentiment that, as a teenager with limited life experience, he really did not
know any better:
At the end of the day, it was on me not personally going out there and seeking help, but at
the same time, I didn’t seek help because I didn’t know anything. I didn’t know any
better. I’m 18 [or] 19 years old. Looking back now, those things definitely deterred me
from being ready.
When asked about being presented with the idea of planning for a future after sport, Theodore
replied, “A college kid doesn’t really have the context to understand. I just was not forward-
thinking enough for that to really land and put as much stock into it.”
Knowledge of Resources and Skills
The previous theme focused on participants’ level of maturity as a contributing factor to
preparing for transition. The present theme was that participants perceived that they did not
possess the knowledge of resources and skills necessary to prepare them for transition from
football. In particular, participants expressed having either no knowledge or limited awareness of
available career development resources. When asked about career resources available at his
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college, Theodore replied, “I’m not sure, there may have been a class about it, but to my
knowledge, it doesn’t pop up.” When asked about the career resources offered by his college,
William said, “I did not really focus on using them, so I couldn’t even. It may be a lot more than
I’m even aware of.” Derrick indicated, “If I was not an athlete, just a student, I think I probably
would have taken more time to kind of dive into it and say, ‘what resources are available?’”
William added, “Outside of direct academic stuff for the school and stuff like that, I couldn’t
even articulate what we had that we could have had access to.”
Participants indicated that they did not have the procedural knowledge of how to network
during college, which they indicated would have helped prepare them for life after football.
Warren expressed, “I feel like a lot of people get the word networking mixed up sometimes, too.
A lot of people see it as an opportunist mindset instead of making a friendship.” Theodore added,
I don’t think I really knew what networking was at the time. We had a bowl game, and
we had this dinner, and it’d be a couple players sitting at a table, and there’d be a bunch
of fans or businesses that would be sitting at the table with us. I remember this guy gave
me his business card and I didn’t even understand why. I was like, “What am I going to
do with this?” Yeah, that would have been helpful as well, learning how to network.
There were a lot of just practical things that we didn’t learn.
Derrick mirrored this sentiment describing being invited to talk at radio stations: “I didn’t really
understand networking. Going in, it was like, hey, I’m gonna enjoy this night. Things are going
well. They wanna talk to me. They wanna get to know me, let’s go, from that standpoint.”
Participants expressed not knowing practical life skills that would have benefited them
after they stopped playing football and helped them to be better prepared. William explained that
any life skills knowledge he may have been exposed to in college was very surface level:
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I wish we did have programs focused on the importance of just the day-to-day things
preparing for life. I wish they would have put more emphasis on educating on financial
stability, really preparing. I think if they did, it was very surface level, but really figuring
out a way to explain and educate. When you’re in sports and [you realize] ok, the NFL is
not for me. Now I gotta go find a job, rent an apartment, or buy a house, or all of that
stuff. Do taxes. All that kind of stuff. If you’re not in a business degree or you’re not
taking those extracurricular courses on your own, you don’t have that knowledge.
Derrick also expressed that it would be helpful if colleges provided life skills training to apply
once you transition from sport into the real world:
If colleges could offer something where people can just be open and transparent about
what they went through going out of school because that’s a big step, you going from
being in school to the real world. That would help tremendously, from buying houses to
setting up bills, whatever that may look like for that individual. I think any of that’ll help.
William did, however, express that he had a coach who helped him understand the importance of
learning from failure and being able to adapt, which would help him later when he adjusted to
life after football. William explained,
He always told me to kind of stay true to who I was, on the field and off the field, and
everything would kind of fall into place, whether good or bad. Whatever’s meant to be, is
meant to be. To learn how to adapt. He helped me understand and be ok with the failure
that I was gonna have, and that is how I live my life now. Being ok with failure,
expecting it, trying to prepare for it, and whenever it happens, learning from it, and then
going forward with it, not really focusing too much on how you failed.
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The participants expressed that while in college, they lacked an understanding of the
importance of preparing for transition. When asked if anyone at his institution informed him of
the average NFL career length and the need to prepare for transition from sport, Theodore
recounted,
There was a guy who came in from the NFLPA (National Football League Players
Association) who gave this presentation, which I imagine they give to all the big colleges
across the country, giving a breakdown of the average career is 4 years, things about
money like don’t buy your mom a house, don’t do this, don’t do that, and that’s really all
the training that you get. So, if you successfully made it through your NFL career without
buying your parents a house or paying for all of your friends’ lifestyles, then you did
what they told you to do, which in the grand scheme of it, is nothing.
Participants indicated feeling that while they were in college, they did not know what the
reality of transitioning from football was like. Four participants mentioned that they wished that
they had a better understanding of what transitioning from sport was really like from former NFL
players, whom they would have considered relatable sources. Theodore said,
Honestly, I think talking to more guys whose careers were over would have been the best
way to actually see what that reality looks like. Being able to actually see and hear stories
from guys who had the average NFL career and hear about what they went through and
what they were looking at to do next would have been helpful because no one talks about
that. You never see what it really looks like.
William provided an overview of what a program would look like that he thought would be
beneficial for athletes to learn the reality of what transition is like. William explained,
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Educating is broad, but I think having guys that played in the NFL and guys that didn’t
play in the NFL but played in college [and] made the transition and kind of explain. I feel
like, as athletes, we listen more to guys that have been through it. [That is] not a bad
thing. It’s just you know what we’re going through, so if [colleges] could have players
come back. You have a panel. You have three guys that played in college, didn’t make it
to the league, transitioned out, guys that played for 4 years, 5 years, 15 years in the NFL
do the same thing, transitioned out, you can kind of have them just talk about reality.
What it’s really like. Here’s how it is if you don’t make it to the NFL, and here’s how it is
if you do make it to the NFL. To really give them a look at what it will be like because
you’re either gonna go one way or the other. Either way, you’re gonna transition. It’s just
a matter of time. I think that would be the best way to kind of get it through the thicker
skulls on the team because we all had guys that just didn’t want to listen, but I think it
would be a lot easier for them to retain that perspective if you have guys talk to them that
have been in their shoes.
William also shared that he had an idea of what transitioning from sport might be like from his
fifth-year wide receiver coach in college. William explained,
I learned how to kind of prepare for the next step because he had also played in the NFL,
so he was one of those pillars that kind of helped me really understand what the next
level was like for a guy like me, where I was at in college. He helped a lot with not just
preparing for the possible transition but [also] growing as a man.
The influence of coaches on participants’ knowledge as it relates to preparation for transition is
very important, which will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter.
Emotional and Mental Health
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The previous theme focused on participants’ knowledge of resources and skills as a
contributing factor to preparing for transition. Data associated with the present theme indicate
that participants perceived that their emotions and mental health affected their preparation.
Consistent across all interviews, participants experienced struggles with mental health or
depression, which may have negatively impacted their ability to prepare for transition from sport.
Participants’ fatigue increased cognitive load and negatively impacted their capacity to think
about preparing for life after sport.
Fatigue
Participants mentioned that the football program’s rigorous physical and time demands
left them mentally and physically fatigued. Theodore recalled, “It was difficult at times because
we would have early morning practices or workouts, and then I would have an 8:00 AM class,
and then sometimes in that class, I’m tired. I may fall asleep.” Cedric described the physical and
mental load required of a football student-athlete:
Preparation for football is different than football practice, but both of them require time,
and even if we were given the opportunity, I don’t know if I would have had the energy.
Even if I had time, I don’t know if I would have had the motivation and simply because
of all the work that goes into doing what you need to do academically, and then work in
the mind and then what you have to do physically. It’s not much left. You only got so
much gas in the tank.
A common belief among participants was that they were too tired to do anything else after
exerting themselves with football. Warren stated, “You’re working out, it’s tiring, so you kind of
just go on about the rest of the day like lazy in a sense.” Derrick described feeling a lack of
energy after a demanding schedule as a college football athlete:
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You have two practices a day, and you’re working out, and you’re going to class. Just
that, that’s pretty demanding on one’s body. After that, you gotta go eat, you gotta
shower, you gotta study, you gotta do homework. Well, you may not have energy, so you
might prioritize sleep over maybe homework or whatever it is.
Feelings of Self-Worth
In addition to describing feeling fatigue, some participants expressed having feelings of
low self-worth. Participants indicated that their self-worth was connected to their athletic self-
worth and, in some cases, athletic identity, which played a role in being prepared for transition
from sport. Cedric demonstrated this sentiment by stating,
I didn’t feel like a valued member of the group at home as a kid, but when I went outside
and was playing sports, all of a sudden, I matter. All of a sudden, I was valued for my
contribution. A lot of people think it was all about the game. No, I just wanted to like
myself. I just wanted to feel loved and like I mattered.
Participants’ feelings about their athletic performance or how well they did on the field also
impacted their performance in other areas. Theodore shared, “I think a lot of my athletic identity
was tied to where I was on the depth chart, which also tied into how I felt about myself, which
tied into how I performed in school.” In some cases, participants’ interaction with coaches
influenced their athletic self-worth, which will be discussed in more detail in a later section.
Participants indicated that losing supportive coaches or not having supportive coaches at
all negatively impacted their feelings of self-worth and emotional stability. Theodore described
his experience with losing supportive coaches and how it made him feel:
The coaches that recruited me out of high school got fired after my freshman year, so
there was now a whole brand-new group of coaches coming in who didn’t know me, and
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at that point, you’re not around people who brought you in. You’re kind of just trying to
prove yourself, so they keep you around.
Cedric’s experience with losing supportive coaches demonstrates the emotional impact it can
have on a young student-athlete. Cedric recounted,
I only have one scholarship offer coming out of high school, so first year, I redshirted,
and then [my head coach] resigned, and I freaked out. I felt like my dad was leaving all
over again. I felt like I was so close, I’m here, I got the scholarship, I’m on my way, and
then the person who’s supposed to be my Obi Wan Kenobi [to] help me become an NFL
Jedi just left. I freaked out. I was having panic attacks. I was hiding in the bathroom stall
like, “What am I gonna do?”
Feelings of Depression
The majority of the participants revealed that they experienced depression during their
collegiate experience. In some cases, these feelings of depression were influenced by
environmental factors, including interactions with coaches, which will be discussed in more
detail in a later section of this chapter. When asked how his coach’s disapproval of his athletic
performance made him feel, Theodore replied, “Like shit. I was depressed.” Theodore explained
that after a shoulder injury in college, “I wasn’t meeting their [coaches] standards or expectations
of me, and I wasn’t on the travel team anymore. I would spend most days after practice calling
my dad crying, and it was really tough.” Warren also noted that he suffered from depression
during college when speaking of distractions that hindered his contemplating life after football.
Warren shared, “My dad had a heart attack and stuff when I was in college. My grandmother had
cancer, so I had a few distractions, mentally. [I] went through depression sophomore year, so I
had things that actually came into play.”
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In summary, participants described their collegiate experiences as football athletes and
identified the significant factors that may have influenced their preparation for transition from
sport. The focus on making it to the NFL was the personal belief that hindered preparation across
all participants. Interviewees perceived their level of maturity contributed to their lack of
preparation. Participants expressed that they had limited knowledge about resources or skills
they felt would have helped them be more prepared, such as networking and practical life skills.
Participants highlighted that they experienced feelings of negative self-worth and depression
while playing collegiate football that adversely impacted their concentration and ability to focus.
Although participants primarily felt that their personal beliefs contributed to their lack of
preparation, environmental factors also influenced either their preparation or motivation to
prepare for transition from sport.
Research Question 2
The second research question asked, “What environmental factors influenced preparing
for post-career transition from sport during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?” Two
themes emerged in relation to this question: social environment and institutional environment.
This delineation is to simplify the presentation of findings in each of these two environments.
Within the social environment, three themes surfaced: the influence of friends, fans, and personal
relationships; the influence of non-coaching role models and mentors; and the influence of
family. Emergent themes within the institutional environment are the influence of coaches, the
athletic program’s time demands, and resources for career development and academics. The
following subsections discuss these two themes and six sub-themes in detail.
Social Environment
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This study explored the social influences during participants’ collegiate experience,
including the attitudes and behaviors of people in their social environment (e.g., fans, family,
friends, teammates), that impacted their motivation to prepare for transition or affected
engagement in preparation behaviors.
Influence of Friends, Fans, and Personal Relationships
Participants indicated that friends, fans, and personal relationships that primarily
encouraged them to pursue football, fueled their motivation to make it to the NFL and deterred
them from preparing for transition from sport. When discussing his circle of friends, Warren
stated,
Everything was just football-based. Everybody was talking about, “can’t wait to see you
in the NFL.” They weren’t really pushing the idea of what’s next for me other than track
and football. With your girlfriend, you’re not really thinking about the future other than
dating future or NFL future. Your homies, your friends, they’re thinking about football.
Theodore mentioned that his friends’ discussions of football players who signed lucrative
contracts discouraged him from preparing for life after sport and motivated him to focus on
getting drafted to the NFL so he could sign one of those contracts himself. Hearing about success
stories of people in his social circle made Theodore feel like it was attainable for him. He shared,
“Friends on the team were like, ‘Hey, I saw this dude. He just got a couple million dollar signing
bonus.’ So it’s possible.”
Participants indicated that social reinforcement of athletic performance from fans,
supporters, and others, influenced the value they placed on their athletic identity. Theodore
explained,
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Your identity is validated when you’re getting a lot of positive reinforcement for solely
what you do as an athlete. When it was my freshman year, I was on the front page of the
sports section of the Miami paper, and my teacher brought it up in class, and it was just
like, “Wow, that’s pretty cool.” It was the first time where I was really getting noticed
like that, so I kind of developed a little bit of an ego which got humbled the next year, but
it was fun. It was exciting.
Warren shared, “I think, in college, you like the idea of getting your ego stroked, everybody
saying what’s up to you and saying you’re the greatest and that’s cool, but now people don’t
really care about who you were.” Warren discussed how interactions and conversations with
people that were solely football-based limited his opportunities for potential careers outside of
athletics and reinforced the perception that he was just an athlete. Recalling football-only based
conversations with businesspeople he encountered, Warren stated,
Well, it [would] mean more if I could actually talk to them. They could have introduced
me to a new idea, and I could have grown and become something like an asset [to] the
company. That would be more meaningful than just talking about my jersey or some
small thing like that.
Cedric explained his perception that society as a whole influences the value placed on athletic
identity or athletic self-worth because of a desire for the notoriety that comes with being
recognized as a great athlete. Cedric shared,
I think everybody did [influence]. I think the world did. What I mean by that is something
that’s still prevalent in 2022 is the value society places on athletics. I would say
everyone, anyone who is a fan of sports. I mean, as a kid, you see people’s enthusiasm.
You see how happy they are. You see how they talk about your favorite players, how
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they talk about Rod Woodson, how they talk about Jerome Bettis, how they talk about
Kordell Stewart, and you want them to talk about you like that.
Participants indicated having very few social relationships or interactions that positively
influenced their readiness for life after the sport or encouraged them to think about other
interests. Theodore shared that having social relationships outside of football was helpful in
redirecting his focus to other interests:
I think I did a good job of making a lot of friends outside of the football team. I was well
rounded enough in my social group that I had a healthy balance of friends on the team
and then friends off the team and the friends off the team encouraged me to think about
other things.
Derrick was the only participant who indicated that he had no one in his circle of friends who
encouraged him to prepare for life after sport. When asked if anyone in his social network
encouraged him to prepare for transition, he simply replied, “No.”
Table 3 provides participants’ responses about the social influences in their environments
that may have impacted preparing for transition from sport.
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Table 3
Social Environmental Influences on Preparing for Transition From Sport
Interview question Participant Responses
What were some of the
social relationships that
you had in college that
encouraged you to
prepare or influenced
your motivation to
prepare for your future
transition from sport?
Theodore Friends off the team encouraged me to think
of other things outside of football.
[Friends] on the team talked about guys
that just got big signing bonuses in the
NFL.
Cedric I didn’t really have relationships that
weren’t related to the school.
Administrative people, academic
advisors, they’re assisting as much as
they can. I don’t know if they even
attempted. I might have just filtered that
out.
Derrick Encouraged? None
Warren Everything was kind of just football-based.

Influence of Non-coaching Role Models and Mentors
Role models can serve as impactful influencers in young peoples’ lives. When asked to
talk about their role models in college, participants described current or former NFL players.
Participants shared that they admired these role models for their athletic ability or status, which
further inspired their goal of reaching the NFL and discouraged them from preparing for
transition from sport. Warren mentioned having athletes, in general, as role models, stating,
“You look up to athletes sometimes, and you look up to them just cause like what they have, in a
sense, or what they’ve accomplished, but you don’t know anything about them.” Theodore
shared that seeing former teammates play in the league inspired him to invest his energy into
football but discouraged him from preparing for life after sport. Theodore explained,
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A big influence for discouraging you from preparing anything for outside of football is
seeing a bunch of people that you played with, spent years together, you see them go to
the NFL. You see that it’s possible, and that makes you want to put more of your focus
into getting to that place where I know I’ve seen people go.
Having role models who were former or current NFL players generally instilled high
expectations of success and longevity in the league by providing an example of what athletes
strive to be or the success they want to achieve. Cedric shared, “[My role model] played for 17
[or] 18 years. That was my model. That’s how I saw myself. I saw myself as the exception
because I modeled an exception.” Theodore shared the same sentiment:
In the spring, guys who were in the NFL would come back and work out at [my
university], so we would get to see their habits and see some of the other tight ends who
went to [my university] and were in the league now. They were kind of the role models
that would give us some knowledge, and it was just cool getting to see them for those
brief couple of weeks while they were down there working out. So, we had [current NFL
player]. He only played one year of college football, and he’s still playing to this day.
He’s just an incredible athlete, so it was just inspirational. I’m like, man, this dude is
really making it.
Having role models or mentors who were not solely football-based and provided a more
balanced, neutral influence, neither encouraged nor discouraged preparation for transition from
sport. Warren shared that his role model in college was more well-rounded and not solely
football-centric:
My friend [a former teammate] was a very levelheaded dude. He taught me everything he
knew. He’s a natural-born teacher. It’s the way he talks: very patient, very poised. That’s
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something that I always admired about him. Now, he’s coaching at a high school in
Texas. Teaching and coaching. He’s getting teacher-of-the-month type thing, so that’s
pretty dope to see.
Derrick shared a different perspective when asked to talk about his role models in college: “I
took positive qualities from lots of people. You could name any people in my life, and I could
tell you the positive qualities about them that I looked up to.” Derrick expanded on his outlook,
stating that he could even look at a homeless person as a role model:
It can be somebody homeless that I may, not aspire to be homeless and go through what
they’re going through, but the fact that they’re going through that and they have a
positive mindset. I would admire their hustle and their grind more than anything. Same
thing with a Fortune 500 CEO.
William also described having a mentor who was not solely football-based and provided more
balanced advice and guidance:
In college, my mentor [was] one of our quarterbacks. He was actually my host when I
was coming in as a freshman on my visit, and then he ended up being a good person.
Kind of like a bigger, big brother kind of thing. From a football standpoint, personal life,
spiritual standpoint, he was definitely kind of my mentor that I held a lot of care [for].
Derrick was the only participant who disclosed that he had no mentors in college and no one
supporting him in preparing for life after sport. Derrick shared, “As far as mentors, I didn’t really
have a mentor. You kind of had people who showed you the ropes, but it wasn’t anything
consistent.”
Influence of Family
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Participants indicated having very few family relationships that positively influenced
preparing for transition from sport. In some cases, family members encouraged participants to
think about other interests, such as academics. Some family members were generally supportive
but had no expectations of the participants’ playing football, and others expected them to play
football professionally, inspiring their goal of making the NFL and distracting from preparing for
transition from sport.
For some participants, family expectations were more fixed on academics than athletics.
Cedric explained that although his mother’s focus was on academics, it had no bearing on his
sole goal of making the NFL. His goal persisted as the main priority regardless of familial
influence. Cedric shared, “My mom was very supportive and loved to see me happy, but there
was no expectation at all. If anything, my mom’s a college professor, [so] she was all about
academics. The football thing, that was my thing.” Derrick mentioned that his wife, who was his
girlfriend at the time, helped him to stay balanced with academics. Derrick stated, “She was
more honed-in on academics than athletics. Her family pushed academics first and foremost over
everything, so that was a balance that helped me start to take school serious[ly].” Theodore also
shared that the expectations of his family were centered on academics:
[My family expected me] to just do the best I could. My dad played in the NFL, but he
never pushed me to even play football, so the main goal was to get to college and get my
education, get my degree. That was the only expectation they really had, and anything
after that was just a bonus, so I had great support in that respect.
William mentioned that his parents also encouraged him to have other interests outside of sport.
He shared, “They made sure that I was tapping into different areas creatively or educationally,
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placing my eggs in different baskets. I played piano in high school, [and] I was in certain groups.
That kind of stuff definitely influenced me.”
Some participants indicated having family members who did not have expectations of
them playing football professionally but were generally supportive. These relationships neither
encouraged nor discouraged preparing for transition from sport and were neutral in nature. When
asked about his family’s expectations of him as an athlete, Cedric replied, “Literally nothing. As
a matter of fact, my dad didn’t even know I was playing college football until I won two bowl
games.” Theodore expressed a similar sentiment, stating, “My mom told me to always know that
I was more than just an athlete.” Theodore recalled that his mother encouraged him to think
about his identity outside of being an athlete, although he said he did not have the frame of mind
at the time to understand what she was talking about. This reference ties back to his level of
maturity, as discussed earlier in this chapter. William indicated having family members who
were generally neutral in their support of athletics. When speaking of his parents, William stated,
“[They had] high expectations of me, but it was never overwhelming or suffocating where I [felt]
like, I have to do this because they expect it from me. They had a lot of faith in me.”
Some participants indicated having family members who had expectations of them
playing professional football. Warren shared, “They still want me to play ball right now. In
college, they were always at every game. My dad would be at almost every practice.” Warren
also mentioned his parents’ influence when discussing his lack of work experience: “My parents
told me, ‘Don’t get a job. Focus on football or whatever. You got all your life to get a job.’”
Derrick explained that his family members’ expectations changed once it became apparent that
he was a likely prospect for the NFL. Derrick stated,
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I want to say my sophomore, junior year, things start[ed] to look a little promising. I was
getting accolades: all-conference, all-American, [and] things like that. Coaches started
showing up; now, that’s what starts to show promise. Now people are like, “he really has
a chance. We can make this happen.” So, I think it switched from just being grateful for
the opportunity to get your education paid for to we can really make this happen [and]
change the trajectory of our lives.
Institutional Environment
This study explored the institutional influences during participants’ collegiate experience,
including the attitudes and behaviors of people in their institutional environment (e.g., coaches,
athletic department administrators, academic advisors), which influenced their motivation to
prepare for transition or affected engagement in preparation behaviors.
Influence of Coaches
Father Figures. As coaches often take the place of fathers in some athletes’ lives and
athletes spend a great deal of their time with coaches, they can become exceptionally influential
individuals. Some participants indicated that they looked to their coaches as father figures and
considered them to be significant leaders in their lives. Understanding the dynamic between
coaches and players can explain how coaches’ behaviors may heavily impact athletes’ emotions,
beliefs, perceptions, and feelings of self-worth. Providing insight into the importance of coaches
and the scope of their influence, Cedric shared,
[Coach] was my offensive line coach and by far the most influential individual, I might
even go as far to say in my life. Growing up in a situation where my dad wasn’t at home
for the majority of my life, one thing I did unconsciously throughout life was collect
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father figures: people who I saw had the temperament, the mindset in success that I
wanted to see for myself.
Derrick similarly described how he perceived the role of his coaches as father figures:
In that short 3 to 4 years of your life, they are our father figures. They are our parents.
We’re with them more than anybody else, other than our teammates. But as far as mother,
father figures, the coaches and coaches’ wives are who we are with, so our parents are
leaning on them to make sure that we are good as men, as students, and as athletes.
Influence on Emotional and Mental Health. Some coaches’ behaviors or interactions
negatively affected participants’ emotional and mental health, making it difficult to focus on
preparation for transition. Participants particularly talked about how feelings of depression, low
self-worth, fatigue, stress, and anxiety to perform, as discussed earlier in this chapter, were
influenced by their coaches. Coaches imposing unreasonable expectations or forcing participants
to play injured also negatively impacted participants’ emotional well-being. Thus, coach
interactions and acceptance affected athletes’ emotional health and feelings of self-worth.
Theodore shared that his coach’s decision to remove him from the travel team directly caused
him to have feelings of depression, as discussed previously in this chapter. William explained
that he transferred to a different school to complete his fifth year of college because of his coach:
“My position coach and I never clicked. I was producing when I was playing. I just wasn’t
getting a consistent opportunity [to play]. I wasn’t going to get the opportunity there with that
coach.” Other participants mentioned wanting to transfer because of negative interactions with
their coaches. Theodore stated, “I was working up the nerve to transfer, and then going into my
senior year, that offensive coordinator took a new job, and we got a new offensive coordinator
in.” Warren shared that his parents convinced him not to transfer: “I was about to transfer out
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sophomore year to go to a different school, and they just told me to stay because they heard
coach was about to get fired.” Theodore shared another example of coach-influenced emotional
status:
I was walking out to practice, and [my offensive coordinator] stops me, and he’s like,
“Hey, the coaches before said that you were going to be the guy, and I’m not seeing it.”
That was really hard, mentally, as I’m a young 19-year-old trying to figure out what I’m
going to do.
As discussed in a previous section, Theodore shared that his interactions with coaches, who
voiced that he was not meeting their performance expectations, caused him to feel depressed.
Warren also expressed feeling mistreated by coaches and that his coaches’ behavior had a
negative influence on his well-being and his ability to prepare for life after sport. Describing the
game in which he sustained his injuries, which he described as “broken pelvis, two torn groins,
torn labrum, so all of my hip, basically,” Warren recounted,
I caught a ball, and somebody hit me. [I] landed on my tailbone. Dude landed on my legs,
and my legs split open. My tailbone was hurting really bad the first 5 minutes, and then it
shot through my front side, and my legs locked up. I couldn’t really walk after that. I
scored a touchdown on that play, so coaches went from pounding me up and saying
“good job” or whatever to cussing me out 5 minutes later because I didn’t want to go on
the field because I couldn’t move.
Warren elaborated on his treatment from coaches in relation to his injury and said he felt
extorted: “They just [weren’t] taking care of me, saying if I didn’t play, they were gonna tell the
scouts I was soft so I wouldn’t get drafted. [So] they’d shoot me up with cortisone shots and
expect me to play.”
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Influence on Personal Goals. Some participants indicated that their coaches were also
their mentors. Coaches who encouraged participants to focus on playing in the NFL supported
behaviors in alignment with their personal goals, as discussed earlier in this chapter, and
discouraged behaviors related to preparing for life after football. Theodore mentioned,
Someone who I considered a mentor would have been my tight end coach. My senior
year, he was really encouraging, and he helped me figure out a way to get on the field
more and ultimately make it to the league.
Influence on Preparation for Transition. Some coaches’ behaviors were barriers to
preparing for transition from sport by not allowing participants time to explore other interests,
engage in career preparation activities, or take the classes they wanted. Outside of the normal
time demands imposed by the football program in general, as discussed in the previous section,
some participants detailed unreasonable time demands specifically imposed by coaches. For
example, Warren explained that his coach would not allow him to leave practice on time to get to
class. He recalled, “There was the whole idea of student-athlete, but they want you to be an
athlete first.” When asked what he meant by “athlete first,” Warren shared that his coach’s
unreasonable time demands negatively impacted his sense of autonomy and ability to make his
own decisions, which could have helped him be better prepared for life after football. Warren
revealed that he could not take his film class, an industry he had an interest in, because of his
coach’s demands:
He’d say student-athlete, but the way he demands. Even springtime, that’s when we have
the most time to go to the classes you can’t take in the fall because you got the season
going on. We had spring football, and we can’t even take the classes we were supposed to
take. I had a FTDM class, which is film, television, digital media class that was like 5:00
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o’clock in the afternoon. We had practice at 3. They keep us in practice until you miss
class and stuff like that. So, I’m not really gonna pass that class because I had to [attend]
practice. So, [my coach] didn’t really care to get you out of practice on time so you can
go to class.
When asked if his coach encouraged him to pursue other interests outside of football, Warren
replied that his coach “wasn’t a good player’s coach.” Elaborating on his statement, Warren
explained,
Even when we were doing FCA (Fellowship of Christian Athletes) stuff, one of my
teammates was very religious, and coach would do manipulative things. He would cuss
[us] out and say that he’s our God. He’s bigger than the real God and that he’s our God.
So he would do some Adolf Hitler kind of stuff, scary kind of stuff.
Theodore added his perception that coaches are not really interested in football players pursuing
anything outside football, only focusing on helping the coach win:
It’s even more so when you bring in a big coach. His measurement of success is him
winning a national championship, so he has to have everybody 100% bought in on
winning a national championship, not thinking about like, “Hey, what are your passions
outside of football?”
William expressed that he considered his wide receiver coach a positive mentor, in general, but
neutral in supporting preparing for transition from sport; he neither encouraged nor discouraged
that preparation. William shared,
His whole philosophy on coaching football was very wrapped up in real-life concepts, so
it correlated a lot with things that we would do in our regular life. He had a really good
way of metaphorically coaching us. He would be coaching us as players, but at the same
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time, if you’re really dissecting it, he’s also coaching you to be a better man and think
about things in a little bit more of a different light, so I learned a lot from him.
Derrick was the only participant who provided a slightly different perspective, indicating that he
had coaches who were supportive of preparing for transition. Derrick perceived that his coaches
would have allowed him to explore other interests if he chose to:
If it was a job opportunity or an internship, my coaches would care enough about you as a
man to say, “Alright, we need you here, but this is only offered this day then hey, you
gotta do it because the NFL isn’t guaranteed for everybody.”
Derrick clarified, however, that although he felt his position coach cared about him as a person,
he never explicitly guided him toward resources that could have helped him prepare for a future
after sport. Derrick recalled of his position coach,
He was always grades first, person first, football second. Now, with that being said, it
wasn’t “Alright, what job are you gonna do? Here’s this resource for you to take
advantage of. This is how you’re going to attack it.” As far as a true game plan, I can’t
say [he did] that.
Athletic Program Time Demands
The majority of participants indicated that the football program’s time demands were
barriers to preparing for transition. Not having ample time outside of football program
commitments limited participants’ sense of autonomy and behavioral choices. Even if they
wanted to engage in career preparation activities or pursue alternate interests, they did not have
the ability to do so because of the time demands imposed by the football program. When asked if
he had time to engage in activities intended to prepare him for life after football, Theodore
replied,
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Not really, based off the rigors of the college football schedule. We are up at like 5:30,
6:00 in the morning, practice meetings, and then you’re immediately going from your
practice to class. After class, you have your night meetings, and by the end of it, you’re
done at like 6:00. You then have to decide, do you study your [football] plays for practice
in the morning or for the game plan, or do you do homework? So, there wasn’t really a
lot of time to think outside of that. Even the most efficient time managers struggled with
that.
William also expressed that athletic program time commitments were demanding and limited his
ability to pursue career development opportunities: “If I wasn’t at a workout or practice, I was in
school. So, even when school was out, we had summer workouts. So, there wasn’t a ton of time
for me to personally take an internship opportunity.” Warren also described the long days
expected of athletes, leaving little time for anything else: “For me, being a dual-sport athlete. I’d
go to class, track practice, and then football training after that. So, I’d be there until like 7:00 at
night, and they’d be done at like 4 or 5.” When asked if the time expectations were the same for
scholarship athletes as they were for non-scholarship athletes, Warren shared that there was an
unwritten obligation to devote your time to the football program: “If you don’t [stay late at
workouts], you would probably get cussed out or have your scholarship hanging over your head.
It’s just like you’re expected to do this because you’re on scholarship.” Theodore added that
NCAA rules limit athletes’ time and negatively impact the ability to prepare for transition from
sport. Not having enough time to pursue alternate career interests limited football athletes’ sense
of autonomy and the choices they were able to make. As an example, Theodore shared,
The NCAA and the rules that they set impact your ability to prepare for life after sport
because college athletes, for a long time, were the only people that weren’t able to
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prepare for our futures. We had no time to do any sort of internships. So, even if we were
really interested in a subject outside of football, we had no time to explore that.
Theodore went on to express how the rigorous time demands hindered his ability to prepare for
transition by not allowing time to even ponder his future after football:
So much of your time and focus is dedicated to the sport. They want you to be 100%
invested in the mission of the football team, so you only have so much time to think
about school and even less time to think about what you want to do if this dream doesn’t
work out.
Cedric was the only participant who provided a different perspective, indicating that he felt the
time demands of the athletic program were reasonable for football success:
There [are] regulations in the NCAA, not that every school follows the rules, but there’s
only so much time that they can require of you to play football. I thought it was
reasonable, and I thought that it was what was necessary to have success in football.
Career Development and Academic Resources
Institutional resources that were barriers to preparing for transition from sport included
career preparation and exploration resources and their limitations as well as academic clustering
practices. In general, participants described institutional support as lacking and mentioned that
the lack of robust or available resources contributed to their inability to prepare for transition
from sport. Table 4 provides participants’ quotes about their institutions’ resources.

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Table 4
Participant Quotes About the Resources Provided by Their Institutions
Interview question Participant Responses
Tell me about the
programs or
resources provided
by the university
that supported your
preparation or
helped you prepare
for transition from
sport?
Theodore I’m really not sure if there were too many of
these programs available. I don’t think
there were any real programs that helped
you explore internships and all that.

Cedric You do have a lot of supports on what I call
surface level transition. You can have
different programs about how to do job
interviews or how to fill out a resume,
you can be taught about finances and
whatnot, and all those things are surface.
William Our academic center had a few resources
that we could use. I did not really focus
on using them so I couldn’t even [say], it
may be a lot more than I’m even aware
of.

Career Preparation Resources and Limitations. The lack of career preparation
resources or limitations to those resources were barriers to preparing for life after football.
Limitations mentioned included a lack of practical application and accessibility to career
preparation resources. Career preparation is defined as providing the resources, skills, and
experience to an individual to help prepare them for a career or field of work.
Career Preparation: Skills and Experience. Participants indicated that their institutions
may have offered more programs than they were aware of; because they did not have an interest
in preparing for transition and were not focused on that, they were not sure. To the extent that
they were aware, participants named internships, a mock business, and summer job opportunities
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as available career resources offered by their institutions. Cedric recalled, “As far as internships,
I know of football players that did internships. Now, how they got those opportunities, Black and
White players, I don’t know exactly how.” Derrick shared, “We had a nice business sector [with]
opportunities to go out and start your business. You can essentially run a business. There’d be
somebody over your head, but you’ll get the experience of somewhat being an owner.” Theodore
noted his lack of awareness of available resources, but recalled,
I’m really not sure if there were too many of these programs available. The only thing I
remember guys doing [was] like an internship [or job] where they would work the youth
camp that they would have over the summer for a week or two. Outside of that, I don’t
think there were any real programs that helped you explore internships and all that.
Participants indicated that a limitation to career preparation resources was their lack of
accessibility. In particular, internships, when there were any, were only available to those
pursuing certain majors, such as business. Warren shared that internships were not available to
football players at all at his institution, although they were available to athletes in other sports.
Warren stated, “My friend played basketball. She actually had a chance to do internships, actual
intern jobs, or whatever. Football players, we had no access to that at all.” Speaking about the
mock business opportunity at his institution, which was available to business majors only,
Derrick stated, “I wasn’t in business. I went to school for criminal justice, so that wouldn’t apply
to me.”
Participants indicated that career preparation resources lacked practical application and
were not beneficial in preparing them for life after sport. Specifically, the jobs they could hold in
college lacked practical application or did not provide constructive career preparation or
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experience that could help them in the future. Warren described the summer opportunities that he
participated in:
Sometimes, we had to go to a ranch and paint these little bars and stuff of one of the
alumni people, but just to make some extra money. I had a little small office thing where
you’re just filing papers, which is not even giving you experience for a real job, just ways
to make little small money.
Derrick shared a similar experience of a job opportunity through his institution that he would not
consider actual or robust career preparation: “They offered us a job, not so much a career. I
actually took two of them; I worked at a daycare and watched kids, and I worked at Sara Lee, a
meat factory, and packaged hot dogs.”
Theodore expressed that having entrepreneurship education would have been beneficial
for him while he was a student-athlete to help him prepare for a future career:
I would have liked for there to be a curriculum tailored toward entrepreneurship, helping
bring awareness to other opportunities that would naturally present themselves when you
are in that kind of a higher profile situation as someone who is young with a little bit of
money. Being able to help educate…maybe [an] introduction to real estate, stocks, [or]
setting up business plans. For me, the transition was so abrupt. I had a knee injury, and
that was it for me, and then it’s just “alright, now figure out everything” and you have
very little life experience in the business world.
Career Preparation: Tools and Knowledge. Participants indicated that career preparation
resources were lacking practical application, and most described them as surface level. Theodore
stated, “I wish that what I learned in business school had more life application to it. I learned a
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bunch of things that I didn’t know about, but none of it was applicable once I was done playing.”
Cedric agreed that institutional supports are generally surface level. Cedric explained,
You have a lot of supports on what I call surface level transition. You can have different
programs about how to do job interviews or how to fill out a resume, things that you
could be taught about finances and whatnot, and all those things are surface. What does
any of that matter when you’re dealing with a young man who’s got a scrambled brain
and a broken heart?
Cedric added that, if providing supports, more focus should be on the individual. Cedric
explained, “There’s a lot of different supports in the college institution, but they don’t really at
any point deal with the core of who this human being is and how what’s going on in this
institution plays into his life story.” William shared a similar sentiment, stating, “I wish the
higher-ups, knowing that that stigma was very present [with athletes], added more emphasis on
those things that really mattered for guys that struggled making that mental switch when football
was over.”
Career Exploration Resources and Limitations. The lack of available career
exploration resources or limitations to those resources were barriers to preparing for transition
from sport. Limitations to career exploration resources included lack of exposure to them and
lack of accessibility. Career exploration is defined as providing exposure to alternate career paths
and the knowledge of how to pursue alternate careers. William provided the only example of a
career exploration resource offered by his institution’s academic center, which was the
opportunity to take a one-day tour of a local broadcasting station:
I went to a broadcast station in their marketing area just to, not shadow, but walk around
the campus, talk to a few people about what they do and just get a better sense of what
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their day-to-day was. That was through a connection through some of our staff at the
academic center.
When asked if there was anyone at his institution who exposed him to alternate career paths,
Theodore replied, “No, nobody.”
Lack of accessibility was mentioned as a limitation to career exploration resources.
William mentioned that the 1-day tour of the broadcast station was only available in his major as
a component of a class, and he continued, “I’m not 100% sure if there was anything like that that
was outside of what was recommended for our studies.” When asked if all of his teammates had
access to the same resources, Derrick recalled, “No. Networking resources were available to the
well-known or marquee players. They may get an opportunity to meet with the owner of a
company and build relationships that may benefit them later when it comes to starting another
career.” Everyone else on the team had access to what Derrick referred to as “cookie-cutter
resources or generic networking.” Warren added that he wished they, as athletes, had access to
genuine networking opportunities. Warren explained, “[I wish we had] access to talk to alumni.
You met them in a way, but you don’t get to have one-on-one talks with them to see what they
do and how did they become successful.”
Little or no exposure to career exploration resources was another limitation participants
mentioned. They indicated that they did not have adequate exposure to alternate career paths,
which would have helped them discover what they wanted to do in the future. Warren recalled,
“It’s not really like we [were] introduced to internships or anything.” Warren added that he felt
the institution should have done more to help them explore alternate career paths outside of
football. Warren stated,
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I mean jobs are jobs, but I feel like [the institution] should have given us something that
interests us; hobbies that we can actually turn into a career. Something that’s engaging to
our minds, that would help us figure out what we really like outside of sports. I feel like
that would have been way more beneficial. It’d be good to have a hobbies class, just
introducing new ideas to us.
Theodore noted that what is offered does not matter if you do not have the time to take advantage
of those resources, as referenced in the previous section discussing football program time
demands. Benefitting from institutional resources requires having the time to invest in them,
which was a resource that participants, as football athletes, were not afforded. Theodore
explained,
[Being exposed to alternate career paths] would have been useful as long as there was
some time to actually connect with people who are in that space and learn more about it
as opposed to just hearing, “You have a business degree. You can go work in finance.”
What does that mean, though? What does that look like? What is that job? So, unless
we’re able to go a little further down the path and learn more about it, then it still
wouldn’t have mattered.
Theodore’s perception also represents the gap in knowledge of resources and skills discussed
earlier in the chapter that negatively influenced preparation for alternate careers.
Academic Clustering Practices. Academic clustering is defined as the steering of 25%
or more of a group of student-athletes into a central major to facilitate eligibility, but it does not
reflect the student-athletes’ academic interests (Case et al., 1987; Fountain & Finley, 2009).
Participants expressed that academic clustering was an observed practice that negatively
impacted athletes’ preparedness for transition from sport. In particular, they mentioned that
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institutions forced or pressured football athletes into lesser majors to maintain eligibility, and
many earned degrees that did not set them up for success after leaving their sport. Referring to
his teammates, Warren said, “I feel like nobody that graduated really used their degree.”
Theodore recalled,
Not necessarily at [my college], but I know that a lot of kids are forced into majors
because they fit around the football schedule. I didn’t want to go to [another college I was
recruited to] because I would have had to be either a sociology major or a criminal justice
major, and those majors aren’t necessarily set up for life after sport either. You got a lot
of guys funneled into academic programs that aren’t going to serve them well once
they’re done playing.
Warren indicated that he had first-hand experience with the institution changing his major. He
shared,
I actually came to the school to be an orthopedic surgeon. They changed that up quick.
They said my SAT score wasn’t high. My GPA was high in high school, so I didn’t really
care for my SAT, but they told me basically that my SAT score wouldn’t compete with
anybody in the school. I could have made it happen, but I know they used to always cut
corners. So, say if you did come in with a certain degree, if you’re doing good in that
degree, they’re gonna keep you there, but if you’re doing just alright, they’re gonna
switch you to a smaller general studies or communications degree so you can graduate to
make sure their graduation rate is good, you know? A lot of people that I know graduated
with general studies or criminal justice or some small degree like that so [the school]
could have a good graduation rate.
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William mentioned that he changed his major shortly after arriving at his institution, but he did
not state whether the athletic department influenced the decision or if it was his choice. William
shared, “I went into [my university] as a journalism major, but I got out of that quick.”
It should be noted that a couple of participants indicated that even if more resources were
available, they would not have taken advantage of them, as they were focused on their goal of
playing in the NFL. Derrick stated, “Even if [resources] were available, I probably wouldn’t
have taken the time out to get to know them at that point.” As someone who was the most
removed from his collegiate experience, chronologically, Cedric had a very different viewpoint.
When asked about the supports that were available at his college, Cedric offered the unique
perspective that it is not the institution’s responsibility to provide resources to athletes:
That’s to blame the institution, so I don’t know how to answer that question because they
have nothing to do with it. It was all me. It’s all about the individual. They gave me an
opportunity to go to school for free. They gave me a national stage to play on. They gave
me the opportunity to make my lifelong dream come true, so beyond that, I don’t know
what else they were supposed to do.
In summary, participants discussed environmental factors that may have influenced their
motivation to prepare for their transition from sport or posed as barriers to preparing. These
factors included the influence of friends, family, and social relationships that solely focused on
sports, which boosted their motivation to pursue the sole goal of playing in the NFL. In general,
family members were neutral in their support and neither encouraged nor discouraged preparing
for transition. Also, participants stated that they did not have anyone who explicitly helped them
or encouraged them to prepare for transition from sport in their social environments. In the
institutional environment, the primary barrier to preparing for transition from sport was the
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athletic program’s time demands. Participants also mentioned the influence of coaches, whom
they considered to be like family in some cases. More often than not, coaches encouraged
participants to pursue the NFL and did not influence or encourage preparation for life beyond
that.
Participants expressed that having NFL players as role models sometimes gave them
unrealistic expectations of success and longevity as professional athletes, which hindered
preparing for transition. The practice of academic clustering and being guided into majors that
did not serve them well after football, as well as having limited career development
opportunities, were mentioned by participants as negatively affecting being prepared for life after
sport. Table 5 provides participants’ quotes pertaining to the resources they wished were
available to them in college.

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Table 5
Resources or Programs Participants Wished Were Available to Them in College
Interview question Participant Responses
What resources or
programs do you wish
were available while
you were in college,
but were not?
Theodore I would have liked for there to be a curriculum
tailored toward entrepreneurship, helping bring
awareness to other opportunities that would
naturally present themselves when you are in
that kind of a higher profile situation as someone
who is young. with a little bit of money... maybe
[an] introduction to real estate, stocks, [or]
setting up business plans.

Cedric I don’t think they’re under any obligation to offer
anything.
Derrick Even if they were available, I probably wouldn’t
have taken the time out to get to know them at
that point.
Warren Having job training, I guess … even if it’s a job
fair or something like that or even access to talk
to alumni. You met them in a way, but you don’t
get to have one on one talks with them like, to
see what they do and how did they become
successful.

William I wish we did have programs focused on
educating, on the importance of just the day-to-
day things preparing for life. I wish they would
have put more emphasis on educating on
financial stability because I think if they did, it
was very surface level. [Like] rent an apartment,
or buy a house, do taxes, all that kind of stuff. If
you’re not in a business degree, you don’t have
that knowledge. We had the ability to give
student-athletes that access, so I wish the higher-
ups, knowing that that stigma was very present,
added more emphasis on those things that really
mattered for guys that struggled making that
mental switch.

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Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “What factors influenced the quality of Black football
athletes’ post-career transition and perceived adjustment to life after sport?” Data analysis of
interview transcripts, seven themes emerged: athletic identity exclusivity, identity transformation
and adaptability, emotional intelligence and acceptance, control over retirement circumstances,
strategic networking, having financial stability, and family support. These seven themes are
discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following subsections.
Athletic Identity Exclusivity
One of the influential factors that ultimately impacted the quality of participants’
transition from sport was having their identities defined exclusively by being athletes. Three
participants described experiencing negative transitions after retirement and indicated that their
entire identity was defined by who they were as athletes. When asked how much of his identity
in college was defined by his identity as an athlete, Cedric responded, “One hundred percent. It’s
been 100% since I was 6, 7 years old.” Warren indicated that his identity was also tied to being
an athlete and was very much influenced by others. Warren stated,
I’d say most of my identity [was defined by being an athlete] because I became very
successful, and everybody knew me [as] being the fastest or just a really good athlete.
Definitely, my identity was being a big athlete over there.
Theodore also indicated that his identity was encompassed by being an athlete. When asked how
much of his identity as an athlete defined who he was in college, Theodore responded,
Pretty much everything. Not only just as an athlete but my identity to where I was on the
depth chart was tied into that as well. It took retiring to be able to then figure out who I
was without football. Until then, my whole identity was wrapped into my status as an
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athlete, and then further, where I was: was I playing a lot or was I standing on the
sidelines?
Cedric discussed how athletic identity exclusivity contributes toward a negative transition from
sport. He shared, “It’s almost like that focus that got me there was a gift and a curse. That level
of focus actually makes the transition more difficult.”
Having an identity outside of being an athlete was helpful in participants’ eventual
adjustment to life after sport. Both Derrick and William expressed having positive transition
experiences and that their identities were not defined by being athletes. Derrick shared, “I was
very thankful I’ve never found my identity in football. I knew I had a purpose. I knew football
was what I did and not who I was.” When asked how much of who he was in college was
defined by his identity as an athlete, William responded,
I think very little. From others’ [perspective], maybe it was a lot. Maybe that was a part
of my identity to other people, but if I was out and about as a college student, I was a
college student. I didn’t really focus on portraying that I was an athlete.
Athletic identity exclusivity was identified as a factor contributing to the quality of transition.
The participants whose sole identity was that of an athlete reported negative transition
experiences, and those who did not have their identities tied to being athletes reported having
positive transitions. Athletic identity exclusivity did not seem to affect preparation, as none of
the participants reported preparing during their collegiate experience. Athletic identity
exclusivity makes it difficult to transition to a non-athletic role, leading to an inability to let go of
the past and extend the duration of time before successfully adjusting to life after sport. Table 6
provides participants’ quotes about the scope of their athletic identity.
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Table 6
Participant Reflections About the Scope of Their Athletic Identity
Interview question Participant Responses
How much of who you
were in college was
defined by your
identity as an athlete?
Theodore Pretty much everything
Cedric One hundred percent. It’s been 100%
since I was 6, 7 years old.
Derrick I am thankful that I never found my
identity in football.
Warren I’d say most of my identity
William I think very little

Identity Transformation and Adaptability
Participants expressed that many athletes experience an identity crisis when leaving sport,
associated with the transformation of their identity from athlete to non-athlete. Cedric provided
an explanation of the experience from the athlete’s perspective:
Our identity is defined by what we do, the value that we bring to the world. So, for a lot
of football players, here’s a young man who’s 27, 28, 29 years old and is now retired,
and it’s very difficult to find a complex equivalence of the locker room anywhere else in
life. We have somebody who’s got so much life left ahead of them, and as far as his
memory goes back, the only thing he’s ever done is play football, and that’s the one
thing he’s never going to do again. So, what we’re dealing with is identity crisis.
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Cedric added that retiring athletes have to “go through the process of reinventing your entire life
and everything that you believe to be true to this point.”
Participants explained that part of the difficulty with losing one’s identity as an athlete is
the loss of benefits associated with it. Cedric stated,
Once the pomp and circumstance is gone, when people aren’t comping you stuff in
restaurants, when you’re not in the club sitting in VIP and the whole place is looking at
you, we’re not being treated as special anymore.
Having the ability to adapt and shift identities from athlete to non-athlete resulted in
easier transitions for some participants. The ability to adapt to uncertainty or new situations was
an important characteristic for athletes to embody. As an example, Derrick discussed the
uncertainty related to a new life after sport by recounting how athletes’ lives change from
structured to unstructured. Derrick shared,
As athletes, our [lives are] structured. From 6 years old, my life has been structured. I
know what time I was going to practice, my lunch, the time I got to go take a nap.
Everything was structured, so when you’re done playing, it’s just like, holy crap, what do
I do? That can go either good or bad, depending on the individual.
Theodore shared a similar sentiment when describing his transition experience:
Depression became a big issue and then finding that identity was tough. Especially since
I saw some of my other teammates seemed like they found their next transition pretty
quickly. I felt like it took me a lot longer. And then just figuring out what I wanted to do
next.
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Having the ability to adapt to a new, non-athletic identity was identified as necessary for
adjustment to life after sport, but also as difficult for many athletes. William described how the
shift in identity and purpose is experienced for some athletes, stating,
Being able to realize that we’re done playing and kind of become, sounds like we were in
the military when I say it, but being a contributing citizen to society and it’s not on the
football field anymore. It’s tough for a lot of people that I saw.
Emotional Intelligence and Acceptance
Participants indicated that having a positive mindset helped them to accept that their
careers were over and facilitated a seamless adjustment to life after sport. Derrick shared, “I was
extremely grateful for football, whether I was on the bench or whether I was in the game, and I
think that helped me transition a lot.” Derrick also indicated that his faith guided him after
retirement, which helped him to eliminate worry and have a positive transition experience. He
expressed,
Based on how far I came, my faith would not allow me to go in that position to be
bothered in any bit where I’m worried, not knowing next steps, what its gonna look like. I
knew I was going to trust God, and whatever He had in store for me, I knew it was his
plan. I was gonna roll with it no matter what that was at that time and season of life.
Supporting the need to maintain a positive mindset during transition from sport, Cedric discussed
that one of the factors that makes adjusting so difficult is not having the emotional discipline to
deal with disappointment. Cedric explained,
Young men don’t have life experience of dealing with disappointment. Out of nowhere,
you’re not a football player anymore. Now, you can’t believe what’s happening. [What]
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would have made [my transition from football] better is if I would have been more
emotionally mature.
Cedric added, “So, if you don’t learn emotional discipline, you’re gonna kill yourself with your
thoughts; that’s what’s going to happen. And I’ve seen it, and I’ve almost lived it.”
Participants indicated that making the mental shift and accepting that the football career
is over contributed to having a positive transition and adjustment to life after sport. William
described his experience with acceptance and moving on with life. He shared,
I tried to force myself to switch it off as much as I could so that I could have a beneficial
transition, so I wasn’t hindering myself on getting to the next step and really making that
jump. January the season was over [and] I feel like middle of February, when I really got
into networking and things like that, is when I made the mental switch. It wasn’t super
hard to do that because I knew I gotta support myself, family, things like that, and I don’t
have time to just sit there and wish I could have played longer or anything like that. I
gotta make that switch and go.
Derrick indicated that his mental switch was immediate and recounted, “Personally, I felt like I
was good right away. The moment I made my decision, I felt like I was good. Now, I knew I had
things that I wanted to do, wanted to achieve. I knew the train didn’t stop there, but mentally, I
was good.
Cedric, who experienced a difficult transition, shared that getting to the point of
accepting the situation helped him to finally adjust to life after football. Cedric stated, “Adjusted,
to me, is more like when you’ve accepted that this is life now. Everything that happened in the
NFL, it’s all gone. It took [12 years] to where I felt spiritually, mentally, and emotionally fully
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adjusted.” Theodore shared that it took him nearly 3 years after retirement before he felt adjusted
to life after football. Theodore stated,
The beginning of last year, I felt that I finally got myself into a place where I thought I
was in control of my thoughts. I had a good plan for what I wanted to do moving forward,
and that definitely put me on a path towards making positive changes.
Lack of acceptance that their football careers are over or an inability to let go emerged as
a factor that extended the duration of a difficult transition and was often accompanied by
uncertainty, frustration, and depression. An example of this sentiment included the behavior of
continuing to work out in hopes of being selected by another team rather than moving forward
with the next phase of their lives. After being released from his NFL team, Theodore spent
several months working out and trying to get hired by other teams, to no avail. Theodore
described his experience as feeling like “mental limbo,” sharing,
For the next few months, my agent told me that there were a couple teams that said once I
felt I was ready to reach out, they would get me out there for a workout. So, I spent that
summer working out, and when I reached back out to my agent, he started reaching out to
teams, and no one got back to us. And it was like a month goes by, 2 months go by and
being in that kind of mental limbo because now I’m also starting to go through
depression. I don’t know what I’m gonna do with my life. And it was maybe 2 and a half
months where we didn’t hear anything, so I just told him that I was going to retire.
Warren shared a similar sentiment, expressing, “When I first came out of the league, I sat down
for 2 years trying to figure out what I wanted to do. It was very frustrating, very depressing.”
Some participants described their challenges with an inability to let go of football,
extending the state of mental limbo and adding to the difficulty of transition. Cedric explained
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how not letting go of the past hinders athletes from being able to move on with their lives. He
stated,
Once you decide that I’m done with struggling and I’m ready to thrive, that’s when it
happens. It’s just how quickly can I make the decision to let go of the past? The sooner
the individual makes that decision within himself, the faster the transition is. I’ve seen
people still struggling 25 years later, and it’s simply because they have not made the
decision to let go of the past.
In Cedric’s case, holding onto bitterness impacted his ability to accept that his football career
was over. Cedric shared that it took 12 years for him to feel that he had successfully adjusted to
life after sport and attributed the inability to let go to his emotions. Cedric said,
I don’t think I handled it right emotionally. I was still feeling kind of done wrong. Even
though you know, there’s nobody to blame, but it’s like, it’s not fair, I sacrificed. It was a
tough transition.
Control Over Retirement Circumstances
All five participants sustained injuries at the end of their careers, which was out of their
control. The difference in their experiences stemmed from whether they decided to retire on their
own or if the decision was made for them. Participants who decided to stop playing football
considered their retirements voluntary, retained control over their circumstances, and reported
experiencing positive transitions. Derrick’s decision to retire was focused on preserving his
health more than anything else. He shared,
When I made the decision, it was off an injury, and I wanted to keep going. [I] ultimately
made the decision [that] I’m not going to continue to run my body down. I got to the
point where I realized the league [doesn’t] care about you as a person. They care about
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what you can do for them. Once I realized that, it made my decision much easier. Even
though I’m making a lot of money, this isn’t healthy. I think that’s what makes
everything worthwhile. I left on my terms. I’m not bitter towards the game. I can watch
the game.
William also decided to stop playing football because he realized that the NFL was not
concerned about his health and well-being and that everyone playing is ultimately replaceable.
William recounted,
I had a few injuries the last 2 years I played. My last injury was a concussion, but it
wasn’t the reason I stopped playing. It was just knowing how the industry runs, knowing
how they circulate players in and out, and knowing where I was established on the totem
pole going into my fourth year. It was kind of a moment of clarity that I had. I ended the
season knowing that it was just time to hang it up and move on to the next phase of my
life.
Participants who were released from their teams due to injury, were not picked up by
another team, or were rejected in some other capacity, considered their retirements involuntary
and experienced negative transitions. Theodore described his retirement experience as being
drawn out due to injury, surgery, and recovery, all while having the stress of finding another
team, anticipating getting released because of his injury. Theodore shared,
Going into my fourth year with [my current team] I got hurt in the beginning of training
camp. I tore my meniscus where there are two options: you can either have it taken out,
which is a 6-week recovery, or you can have it repaired, which is a 6-month recovery. I
opted to have it repaired because having it taken out is like you’re guaranteed arthritis,
and if I were to just be out for 6 weeks I, just from knowing the NFL, once I was healthy
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enough, they would just cut me, and I would have been fighting to try to find another
team. Whereas that 6-month recovery gave me the security of being on injured reserve
for the year that would pay me my full salary, and I would be able to try to find a new
team at the beginning of the next season. When free agency came around, I went to go re-
sign with [my former team], and after the MRIs, their doctors said that my knee didn’t
look like it was healed and that they couldn’t sign me.
Ultimately, Theodore had no control over being injured, being cut from his team, or being re-
signed to another team. This lack of autonomy over the trajectory of his life, negatively impacted
his transition experience. Cedric described the end of his NFL career as a series of events that
began with his head coach retiring from his team and a new coach coming in, followed by
injuries:
I got released from [my team], and then after that, I went to [another team]. [I] played
there for a number of weeks, and that same season got released from there. I had a tricep
injury that I had operated on in December, then I signed with [another team], and then,
when we started training camp, I actually had injured my other tricep. I got an injury
settlement, and I never got another opportunity.
Warren’s retirement experience was involuntary, sudden, injury-related, and likely negatively
impacted his feelings of athletic self-worth. Warren described the experience:
It was spring training OTAs (organized team practice activities), and I pulled my
hamstring, but that goes back to my pelvis injury. So, I pulled my hamstring, and then the
coaches didn’t know I got released, but the GM said I got released. Coach said I should
be a starter somewhere. I should call other teams or whatever, but I got released because
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of that. They wanted to fill in a spot for camp, so I got released, and I didn’t get a call
back from anybody.
Cedric indicated that the lack of control he had over the nature of his retirement and the sequence
of events leading up to it, made his transition even more difficult. He explained, “It was a tough
transition because that experience that wasn’t fair really weighed on me for a long time. Because
it’s like where would my life be now if coach didn’t resign? So, that definitely made things
tougher.”
Strategic Networking
Participants felt that networking was particularly important in helping with transition and
adjustment to life after football as they were able to establish and develop relationships that
created opportunities for them. William expressed that networking helped make his transition
successful as he made connections that provided direction for him or could potentially lead to
new career prospects. William shared,
I was taking time to network with people that I’ve already networked with but also create
new networks and connections with people that I had in my circle. I was learning and
trying to figure out where I wanted to place myself in whatever industry I found. I was
really meticulous on what it was that I wanted to do, and the people that I talked with, sat
down and had coffee with, got on Zooms with, really helped me get a clearer picture of
how that looked and how I should go about it.
Derrick shared his thoughts on the benefits of networking, stating,
Without it, unless you’re super lucky, chances are that things aren’t necessarily going to
go just the way you want because it is about who you know. Sometimes, no matter how
many credentials, degrees, how much money you have, how hardworking you are isn’t
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everything. Sometimes it will just be “I know you. You own this company. Boom, I’m
in.”
Financial Stability and Effective Financial Habits
Participants indicated that having financial stability was paramount to having a successful
transition experience. Derrick attributed his modest lifestyle as contributing to his positive
transition from football. He explained, “We didn’t embody the whole, cliche NFL lifestyle,
where everybody got to have the biggest house, nicest car, jewelry, and designer this, designer
that. So, for that, I am thankful.”
Derrick indicated that having savings at the time of retirement helped ease his transition
by eliminating the urgency to find another source of income right away. He shared, “We do have
some money saved up, so we’re not rushed into making a decision. So, financially, we’re stable.
I can support my family [and] do the things that we want to do.” William added, “I was able to
maintain my finances. Have that stability.” Derrick stated, “Now, financially, if you know how
to manage your money, that will give you some level of comfort.” Theodore shared a similar
belief: “If you are able to leverage the money that you made during the NFL and have that carry
you into a next venture, then that’s a successful transition.” William shared, “From my
perspective, it was always hoping that I would be financially stable.” Derrick expressed that
understanding finances and how long your savings can sustain you can mitigate some of the
stress associated with transition:
I think especially coming out [of the NFL] it’s like alright, if I don’t find out what I need
to do for a year or 2 years, I know I have X amount of dollars. If my budget is $8,000 a
month, I know I can live off of this. I have enough money for $8,000 a month for 2 years,
whatever that may be. I think that’ll give you comfort, peace of mind, and that’ll kind of
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give you the bridge to get to wherever it is you want to go. So, that’s what I guess a
successful transition would look like for me.
Cedric added the perspective that financial stability is subjective because going from an NFL
profession to a non-NFL profession is a tremendous shift and adjustment in and of itself. Cedric
explained,
There [are] very few professions where you’re going to be able to make the same type of
salary as you did playing football. So, there’s a lot of adjustments in lifestyle that you
may make to become financially stable, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that you’re back
to where you were, if you will.
Theodore, who had difficulty adjusting to life after football, shared, “It wasn’t until last year,
where I learned better financial habits and that helped me start to feel more financially stable.”
Family and Social Support
Participants identified family members as foundations of support that they considered
beneficial to their transition to life after football. In describing influences that helped him during
his transition, Warren discussed support from his parents:
My parents let me stay at their house for years prior to me moving to [Los Angeles], so
they blessed me. I didn’t have to pay for rent at all, and basically just live at their house,
and they let me figure myself out. It was a blessing to have. Not everybody has that
opportunity, so they definitely helped me out for sure.
Derrick indicated that having the support of his wife was helpful throughout his football career,
and in easing the transition process after his career was over. Derrick shared,
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We were in it together since my junior year in high school, so she’s been with me since
college, through the training, the draft process, and ‘til now. So, it’s like, you know,
regardless of what happened, it was like, this is how we [are] gonna do it.
In this section, participants shared their experiences with transition from football and the
attributes that they felt influenced its quality. To establish context, participants were asked to
describe what a successful transition looked like to them. Table 7 provides participants’ quotes
describing their perceptions on this topic.

Table 7
Participant Quotes Describing Their Perception of a Successful Transition
Interview question Participant Responses
How would you describe a
successful transition and
adjustment to life after
football? What does that
look like to you?
Theodore I think a successful transition is being able to
find your next passion or next venture before
you encounter really dire mental health
issues...there’s guys who unfortunately
commit suicide, so I mean if you end up
making it to your next passion, then I’d say
that’s a successful transition.
Cedric Regain[ing] control of your life, your career,
your emotions
Derrick Happy, comfortable, [are] terms I would use.
Happy, comfortable, prepared, and I’ll put
thankful in there.
Warren A successful transition is kind of seamless,
getting your ducks in a row so whenever your
day is over you can go into what you want to
do in the future, whether investments, or
business owner.
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William Being able to realize that we’re done playing
and kind of become, sounds like we were in
the military when I say it, but being a
contributing citizen to society and it’s not on
the football field anymore.

In summary, participants discussed dominant factors that were influential in the quality of
their transitions and shared what they considered to have contributed toward both positive and
negative experiences. These factors included athletic identity exclusivity, identity transformation
and adaptability, emotional intelligence and acceptance, and control over retirement
circumstances. Other attributions mentioned as helping ease transition included strategic
networking, having financial stability, and the support of family. Participants generally talked
about the role of their athletic identities and how they influenced their personal values and
beliefs. Those with identities outside of being an athlete experienced smoother transitions after
retirement and those whose identities were exclusively defined by who they were as athletes,
experienced difficult transitions, indicating that athletic identity was a factor in transition quality.
Having a positive mindset was helpful to achieving a seamless transition and accepting that
football was over was imperative to moving on to the next chapter of their lives. Participants also
indicated that having control over the circumstances of their retirement was influential in the
quality of their transitions; those who retired under involuntary circumstances experienced
negative transitions, and those who voluntarily retired, experienced positive transitions. Strategic
networking was identified as valuable in developing relationships that could create opportunities
for athletes outside of football. Generally, having savings and good financial habits provided
some level of comfort for athletes facing retirement from sport and helped make the transition
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process less stressful. Having the support of family was described as a “blessing” for athletes
facing retirement from football. For context, study participants described their idea of a
successful transition from sport as having emotional and mental stability, being prepared for the
next career, and understanding financial management to support financial stability.
Chapter Four Summary
As they reflected on their collegiate experiences, the participants in this study, who were
all former NFL players, discussed the key factors shaping their motivation to prepare for
transition from sport and the environmental influences that were barriers to preparing during that
time. After playing in the NFL and retiring only a few short years later on average, participants
provided insightful perspectives on the journey from collegiate football to playing in the NFL,
and finally transitioning to life after sport. Despite understanding that the chances of playing
professionally were low and that the average NFL career lasts 3.3 years (Gough, 2019; Keim,
2016), they indicated that they did not prepare for post-career transition from sport while they
were in college. Participants attributed the sole goal of making it to the NFL as the personal
barrier preventing them from preparing for transition at that time. In hindsight and after
experiencing their own transitions from professional football, they indicated that they wished
they had taken steps to plan for life after sport while they were in college. Most participants,
however, recognized that even if they possessed the motivation to prepare during college, they
lacked the time to do so. The leading environmental constraint voiced by participants as a barrier
to preparing for transition was football program time demands, which hindered their ability to
participate in programs intended to prepare them for life after sport. Study participants also
expressed that some environmental factors further influenced existing personal barriers,
demonstrating the social cognitive interplay between one’s environment and their personal
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beliefs and values. Having NFL players as role models and social relationships with whom they
discussed only football, were factors driving their motivation to pursue professional football and
deterred preparing for transition from sport. Moreover, participants indicated that some
interactions with coaches adversely affected their emotional and mental health, demonstrating
that personal beliefs, values, and feelings were largely impacted by institutional influences.
Participants also discussed their own experiences with transition from the NFL and the factors
contributing to both positive and negative experiences. Athletic identity exclusivity surfaced as
an important theme which may have influenced the quality of participants’ transitions. Those
with identities defined by being an athlete experienced difficult transitions after retirement, and
those who did not find their identities exclusively in football, reported having positive transition
experiences. Participants discussed the quality of their experiences with retirement being
impacted by their mindset and ability to let go of the past. Having a positive mindset and
accepting that their football careers were over made the transition process smoother.
Control over circumstances surrounding their retirement emerged as influential in the
quality of participants’ transition experiences. Those who retired under involuntary
circumstances experienced negative transitions, and those who retired voluntarily had positive
ones. Engaging in strategic networking, having financial stability, and family support, were all
identified as factors that provided a level of comfort that eased the transition process. From the
study participants’ perspectives, ideal attributes to a successful adjustment to life after football
centered on having emotional and mental stability, being prepared for the next career, and
understanding financial management.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
This study aimed to understand personal and environmental influences on preparing for
post-career transition from sport by exploring Black former NFL players’ collegiate experiences.
Upon retiring from professional sport, individuals may experience psychological difficulties
related to finding a new, non-athlete identity and generally feel unprepared. This study was
important to conduct because understanding these personal and environmental factors can inform
strategies, resources, and interventions at the collegiate level to improve the quality of Black
athletes’ future transitions. Moreover, the participants’ perspectives may help mitigate influences
during athletes’ collegiate experiences that negatively impact their preparedness for life after
sport. A qualitative methodology was used to answer the research questions and involved
collecting data through semi-structured interviews. This chapter includes a discussion of the
findings and their correlation with literature on the topic as well as their alignment with the
conceptual framework. Following the discussion of findings are recommendations for practice,
study limitations, and recommendations for future research. Finally, this chapter culminates with
the study’s conclusions.
Discussion of Findings
The discussion of the findings in this section will confirm knowledge related to transition
from sport existing in the literature and add new insight on how personal and environmental
factors interrelate to influence preparation for transition from sport. Drawing from social
cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), the triadic reciprocal determinism model guided this study to
better understand individuals’ motivation and behaviors based on their unique perspectives and
environments. As voiced by the participants, personal and environmental factors that influenced
preparation for transition from sport were the primary topics that emerged from data analysis.
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The findings addressed this study’s problem of practice by generating a deeper understanding of
Black football athletes’ beliefs, values, expectations, and environmental factors impacting their
preparation for transition from sport. Despite understanding that the average NFL career lasts 3.3
years (Gough, 2019; Keim, 2016), and that the chances of making it to the NFL are slim, all
participants indicated that they did not prepare for post-career transition from sport while they
were in college. The goal of this qualitative inquiry was to understand why that was the common
response.
In general, the interplay between personal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors
serves a role in preparation for transition from sport. Overall, the participants perceived that
personal factors were primarily responsible for their lack of preparation during college. In
addition, however, they mentioned some environmental influences that may have shaped their
behaviors and personal beliefs, discussed later in this section. Understanding the personal and
environmental factors at play in the motivation to prepare or engage in activities intended to
prepare for transition from sport, are central components of reciprocal determinism and social
cognitive theory. Ten primary findings were identified as influential: (a) football program time
demands, (b) coaches’ unreasonable expectations and demands, (c) mental and emotional health
struggles, (d) having a single goal and the influence of role models, (e) resource and skill
knowledge gaps, (f) career development and entrepreneurship interests, (g) academic clustering;
(h) control over retirement circumstances and athletic identity, (i) emotional intelligence and
acceptance, and (j) financial stability, networking, and family support.
Football Program Time Demands
One of the most salient findings from this study was that participants identified the
football program’s time demands as the primary environmental barrier to preparing for transition
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from sport. This finding is substantiated by the literature, which indicates that collegiate athletic
program expectations hinder athletes’ ability to be prepared for life after sport (Tyrance et al.,
2013). Participants specified that time was a resource they were not afforded as a direct result of
their football programs’ rigors. A realistic look into a day in the life of a Division I football
player, as described by NCSA (Next College Student Athlete) head recruiting coach Zak Wallis,
totals roughly 10 hours of football-related activities per day (Frank, 2017). These activities
include breakfast, strength and conditioning, team meetings, showers, watching game film,
getting taped before practice, practice, training, and dinner with the team (Frank, 2017).
Appendix D provides a visual representation of this athletic time schedule. The NCAA (2016)
has rules restricting the time institutions are allowed to demand from athletes, however, these
rules do not apply to game schedules and excessive travel time, which may include a midweek
game ending at 9:00 p.m. at a location 2 hours away from campus (Solomon, 2017). These
schedules do not leave much room for rest and recovery before having to attend an early morning
class or football practice meetings. In a study by Rothschild-Checroune et al. (2012), participants
reported that football-related commitments made it difficult to find time for basic activities such
as sleeping, studying, eating, and attending class. In a study involving 59 Division I athletes,
86% reported missing class due to participation in athletically related activities (Ayers et al.,
2012). Notably, participants expressed that it would not have mattered how many interventions,
career workshops, or other transition preparation resources were available to them at the
institution if they did not have the time to participate in them.
Coach Expectations, Demands, and Mistreatment
Unreasonable expectations on athletes’ bodies, such as longer than reasonable workout
schedules and being forced to play injured, took a toll on athletes’ physical and mental capacity,
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making it difficult to focus on preparing for transition. Some participants expressed that their
coaches, in particular, were not supportive of them taking time outside of football activities to
pursue other interests or participate in internships. One participant recalled that his coach would
not allow him to leave practice in time to attend class, which hindered his ability to pursue his
creative passion outside of football: film and television. The NCAA’s Time Demands Survey
(2016) substantiates this finding, indicating that the majority of football coaches were not in
support of allowing time after the competition season has ended for football athletes to explore
educational or career opportunities (Appendix D). Conversely, 71% of football athletes indicated
that they wanted out-of-season time afforded to them to participate in activities beneficial for
preparation for their futures. Findings from the same study (NCAA, 2016) indicated that Athletic
Department Administrators and Athletic Directors were also in support (81% to 98%) of
allowing time during non-competition periods for athletes to pursue educational and career
interests, demonstrating misalignment between athletic department leadership and coaches’
beliefs. These findings suggest a need to address coaches’ accountability related to their time
demands of athletes outside of standard program requirements.
Some participants reported that their coaches exhibited disparaging, belittling, or
unscrupulous behavior, negatively impacting their mental and emotional health. An analysis
conducted by O’Brien (2021) indicated that college athletics have seen an increase in lawsuits
from student-athletes in the past 10 years related to mistreatment from coaches, citing
harassment, discrimination, and overall disparaging and disrespectful behavior. Based on a
statistical analysis of 59 federal and state court cases, player-coach interactions are the most
common cause of legal disputes involving harassment and abuse (LeRoy, 2021). Litigation
surrounding mistreatment and abuse from coaches among NCAA athletes has accelerated in
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recent years (LeRoy, 2021), demonstrating that this is an issue that needs attention, not only for
the well-being of the student-athlete, but also for athletic institutions to avoid costly litigation
and public embarrassment.
Mental and Emotional Health Struggles
Consistent across all interviews, participants indicated that they experienced struggles
with fatigue, feelings of low self-worth, and depression during college, which negatively
impacted their preparation for transition from sport. For some participants, coaches’ behaviors or
interactions with coaches negatively affected their emotional and mental health, making it
difficult to focus on preparing for transition. This finding aligns with the literature, which found
that athletes reported having depression, increased anxiety, eating disorders, anger, and
discontent due to the emotional abuse they endured from their coaches (Stirling & Kerr, 2013).
Additionally, fatigue has been found to inhibit athletes’ motivation and persistence (Bergland,
2021). According to the American Psychological Association (2017), depression is a serious
medical illness affecting how one feels, thinks, and acts. Symptoms of depression and anxiety
negatively influence functioning in multiple domains (e.g., relationships, academics,
employment), resulting in impaired performance (APA, 2017). In response to growing concern,
the NCAA published a best practices manual and multiple documents for athletic departments to
use when addressing athletes’ mental health needs (New, 2016). A longitudinal study examining
suicides among NCAA athletes found that the highest rate of suicide occurred in men’s football,
and football athletes had a statistically significant risk of committing suicide compared with
other male, non-football athletes, making mental health an important area of concern (Rao et al.,
2015). Receiving negative feedback from coaches was considered emotionally problematic for
participants, and Theodore mentioned that he felt the need to “prove himself” athletically.
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Research suggests that challenge stressors boost motivation to perform, which supports
participants’ feeling a need to work harder on athletic performance when getting negative
feedback from coaches (Lepine, 2005). Challenge stressors are attainable if the work is put in
to achieve a valuable goal, as opposed to hindrance stressors which deem goals unachievable
(Lepine, 2005). As behaviors are rooted in emotion, it is important to focus on football athletes’
emotional and mental health.
Single Goal of Reaching the NFL and the Role of Role Models
Participants all spoke about their primary focus on football and the goal of playing in the
NFL as a personal barrier that negatively influenced their motivation to prepare for transition.
This finding aligns with seminal research that suggests that role exclusivity occurs when the
motivation to pursue one goal is stronger than another (Johnson, 1996). All participants indicated
that they were solely focused on football or the goal of playing professionally, and they
attributed their lack of preparation for life after sport to this primary factor. This finding is
consistent with the literature that posits that a lifelong preoccupation with superior athletic
achievement often results in not developing other career path alternatives (Baillie, 1993). Having
only one sports occupational goal is uniform with the literature on identity foreclosure, defined
as “exhibiting ideological or occupational commitment to sports without considering other
possible futures” (Linnemeyer & Brown, 2010, p. 617). Identity foreclosure poses a challenge to
the motivation to plan for an alternate career and will hinder the exploration of meaningful
options outside of sports (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017; Scales, 1991). Participants expressed that
focusing on interests outside of football may detract from their ability to make it to the NFL,
consistent with research by Petitpas (1992), which posits that athletes feel that “exclusive
devotion” (p. 385) is necessary to reach a superior skill level in their sport. According to existing
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research, minority males in revenue-generating sports (football and basketball) have the highest
rates of identity foreclosure due to an over-emphasis on athletic identity (Harrison et al., 2011;
Scales, 1991).
Participants discussed that having NFL players as role models further enhanced their
motivation to pursue professional football only and hindered preparing for transition from sport.
Having NFL players as role models also reinforced a sometimes-unrealistic expectation of
success and longevity as professional athletes. This finding is consistent with the literature on
social cognitive and social learning theory which suggests that individuals learn through
observing the behavior of others (Bandura, 1986; Bandura & Walters, 1977). Applying this
theory to the findings from this study, role models who were NFL players served as symbolic
models that influenced participants’ learned behaviors. Additionally, research demonstrates that
Black athletes are more likely than White athletes to see themselves only as athletes (Harrison et
al., 2011; Murphy et al., 1996; Scales, 1991). This finding aligns with research by Beamon
(2014), who suggested that Black athletes may see themselves as having limited career options,
compounded by having few diverse role models.
Resource and Skill Knowledge Gaps
Participants expressed that knowledge of how to network, practical life skills, and an
understanding of the reality of transition would have helped them to be better prepared for
transition from sport. In collaboration with the NCAA Foundation, the Division I Athletic
Directors’ Association developed The NCAA Life Skills Initiative, focused on commitments to
academics, career development, personal development, service, and athletics for the student-
athlete (Baker & Hawkins, 2016). However, utilization and outcomes associated with this
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program are unclear. Participants also indicated that they had a general lack of awareness of
resources, which they attributed, in part, to their narrow personal goals and focus on football.
Career Development Limitations and Entrepreneurship Interests
When explicitly focused on the collegiate experience of football athletes in the
institutional environment, participants’ responses were generally negative or neutral, and no
participants indicated feeling directly supported in preparing for their futures after football.
Participants voiced their desire for additional resources, which they felt would have been
beneficial in preparing them for transition. Barriers to preparing for life after sport include
having limited career preparation and exploration resources. Participants generally described
institutional support as “lacking practical application” and “surface level,” indicating that the
lack of robust or available resources contributed to their inability to prepare for life after football.
Research suggests that student-athletes lacking exposure to occupational information may not be
aware of their underdeveloped occupational identity (Hughley & Hughley, 2019). Further,
athletes lacking career maturity cannot make decisions about career options outside of sport,
making their experiences in retirement more difficult (Hughley & Hughley, 2019). Research
suggests that career planning can improve the quality of transition to retirement from sport
(Smith & McManus, 2008; Turner, 2010).
Participants mentioned that a curriculum geared toward entrepreneurship would have
been beneficial for them to expand their understanding of business development, opportunities
for self-employment, and investments, to help them be better prepared for life after sport. Recent
research exploring personality traits and job suitability found that athletes are more likely to
pursue and be successful in a career in entrepreneurship after retirement from sport (Steinbrink et
al., 2020). This finding is due to the similarity of elite athletes’ and entrepreneurs’ personality
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characteristics and highlights the need for focused entrepreneurship education designed for
athletes (Steinbrink et al., 2020).
Academic Clustering Practices
Participants described academic clustering as a potential barrier to preparation for
transition from sport. Academic clustering is defined as when 25% or more players on a team are
in the same major (Case, Greer, & Brown, 1987). Placing athletes in degree fields that will not
serve them well after leaving football or set them up for success, is a disservice to athletes. Some
participants indicated having knowledge of teammates or other football players being subjected
to this practice. Others described their first-hand experiences with having to change their majors
or being discouraged from pursuing the academic fields in which they were interested. This
finding aligns with existing literature that found that academic advisors often select athletes’
majors and courses, avoiding those that may conflict with mandatory football program
obligations (Beamon, 2013; Benson, 2000). Research also suggests that student-athletes in major
football programs are encouraged to enroll in easier courses with less demanding curricula to
remain eligible to play football (Donnor, 2006). In a study involving 59 Division I student-
athletes, 22% reported being told to change their majors to meet the needs of their athletic
program (Ayers et al., 2012), substantiating the findings in the current study. These examples
demonstrate how athletics may be prioritized over academics.
Recent data released by the NCAA (2022) representing the 2019–20 academic year
(Appendix D) show that 32% of male student-athletes earned degrees in business, whereas 23%
of the general student population earned degrees in this field. This disparity was largely due to
the large percentage of general students who earned degrees in STEM (38%). When the data are
disaggregated by sport and race, the picture looks less promising (Appendix D). The rate of
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Black football student-athletes who majored in business was half that of White football student-
athletes (17% and 34%, respectively). Also, the percentage of Black football student-athletes
earning STEM degrees was less than half that of White football student-athletes (7% and 15%,
respectively). Compared to White football student-athletes, Black football student-athletes’
degrees were more concentrated in liberal arts/general studies, multidisciplinary,
communications, and social science majors, consistent with the findings in the current study. The
representation of football student-athletes’ degrees earned by race is represented in Figure 2.

Figure 2
Student-Athlete Degrees Earned by Race 2019–2020

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Business
STEM
Social Science
Communications
Health
Lib Arts/Gen Studies
Parks & Rec
Psychology
Multi-Disciplinary
Education
Black Football Student Athletes White Football Student Athletes
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Athletic Identity Exclusivity and Control Over Retirement Circumstances
Athletic identity was identified as a driving component in the quality of participants’
transitions. Three participants expressed that their identities were tied exclusively to whom they
were as athletes, and all experienced difficulty with transition from sport. Those participants who
did not define their identities as being athletes, experienced positive transitions and having an
identity outside of being an athlete facilitated this process. The findings of this study suggest that
the value placed on athletic identity may play a major role in the post-career transition process of
NFL players. This finding is consistent with recent research by Payne and Driska (2020), who
indicated that a strong athletic identity is not a hindrance, but rather the value placed on it may
impede the development of alternate identities. In the same study, researchers found that athletes
had difficulty with role balance when they placed a high value on their athletic identities, but not
when they simply had high athletic identities. Participants in this study also stated that social
interactions influenced their athletic identities, and they enjoyed receiving praise and accolades
for their athletic performance. This finding aligns with research by Yukhymenko-Lescroart
(2014), who found that positive reinforcement, such as attention or praise, occurs in most social
interactions during an athlete’s collegiate experience, which can shape the athletic identity.
Participants discussed that control over circumstances surrounding their retirement was
influential in the quality of their transitions. Those who retired under involuntary circumstances
experienced negative transitions, and those whose retirement was voluntary experienced positive
transitions. This finding aligns with the literature, which asserts that normative (predictable)
transitions are easier and non-normative (unpredictable) transitions are more difficult
(Schlossberg, 1981; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). Also, involuntary retirement complicates the
adjustment process (Alfermann et al., 2004). Sudden retirement due to injury or inability to
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perform at an elite level can compound psychological difficulties for athletes (Alfermann et al.,
2004). In a 2008 systematic review, involuntary retirement was identified as one of the leading
contributors to a difficult transition from sport (Smith & McManus, 2008).
Emotional Intelligence and Acceptance
Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to be cognizant of one’s own and others’
emotions and use that awareness to inform thought and behaviors (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Having emotional intelligence, in particular, a positive mindset, was integral to acceptance that
participants’ football careers were over and a supporting factor to a seamless move into life after
sport. Participants highlighted that making the mental switch and accepting that the football
career is over, contributed to a positive transition. Existing literature has equated this transition to
the stages of emotions when experiencing death, ranging from denial and isolation, anger,
bargaining, depression, and finally, acceptance (Kubler-Ross, 1969). Moreover, the literature
suggests that having a positive attitude, in general, helps athletes to repair their lost esteem,
associated with losing their identities as their sport careers end (Holstein, 2014).
Financial Stability, Strategic Networking, Family and Social Support
Participants indicated that financial stability was paramount to having a successful
transition experience. Conversely, research illustrates that many athletes experience extreme
financial hardship after retirement (Beamon, 2012; Brewer & Petitpas, 2017; Carlson et al.,
2015; Isidore, 2015), making it understandable that having financial stability would promote a
positive transition. Networking was particularly important in assisting with transition and
adjustment to life after football, as athletes were able to establish and develop relationships that
created opportunities for them. This finding is consistent with existing research (Brown et al.,
2018), which found that “those who were willing and able to ask for help, for example, by
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networking and seeking support to develop their career after sport found it easier to adjust to life
in retirement” (p.23). Finally, participants identified family members as sources of support that
they considered beneficial during the transition phase. Research demonstrates that family
members may play a critical role in terms of emotional support and career opportunities for
athletes experiencing retirement from sport (Brown et al., 2018; Kadlcik & Flemr, 2008;
Werthner & Orlick, 1986).
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study address the problem of practice by offering valuable insight
into the personal and environmental barriers during the collegiate experience that negatively
influence preparation for transition from sport. Implications of findings are to inform collegiate
athletic institutions and associated stakeholders in developing programs to mitigate obstacles,
promote preparation, and improve overall outcomes among Black football athletes.
Recommendations for Practice
This study’s findings are derived directly from former NFL players who explicitly
identify the barriers to preparing for transition during college and the resources that would have
been beneficial for their future life after sport had they been available or accessible. The
recommendations for practice in this section are grounded in these findings. The literature and
findings from this study have implications for stakeholders at NCAA collegiate programs
associated with student-athletes’ well-being. Recommendations are provided for these
stakeholders to help mitigate personal and environmental obstacles in order to elevate student-
athlete preparedness for transition from sport. Recommendations are designed based on the three
components of social cognitive theory and the interrelationship between personal, behavioral,
and environmental influences.
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Restructure the Time Demands of the Football Program
One of the most important elements that emerged from this study was the participants’
expression that football program time demands were excessive and did not enable them to
participate in activities aligned with interests outside of sport. The NCAA allows a maximum of
20 hours per week of countable athletically related activities (CARA) for student-athletes.
However, the organization’s GOALS study results (NCAA, 2019) revealed that athletes reported
spending 40 to 45 hours per week on athletically related activities. The activities currently listed
as CARA are competition, practice, strength and conditioning, supplemental workouts, and film
review (NCAA, 2016). Survey results demonstrated that the majority of student-athletes (67%)
felt that three additional activities should be included in the CARA list, which currently are not:
“travel to and from competition, compliance meetings, and organized team promotional
activities” (NCAA, 2016, p.8). Conversely, the majority of head coaches and athletic department
administrators did not believe these three activities should be countable against the maximum
weekly time allowance (NCAA, 2016). To address the excessive time demands of the football
program, it is recommended that collegiate sports institutions lobby the NCAA to add the three
proposed sports-related activities to the current CARA list without increasing the total maximum
CARA hours allowed weekly. Alternatively, athletic department leadership could implement
institutional-level policy, counting the three indicated activities towards total CARA hours. This
would reduce the overall time demands of the football program and allow athletes more time to
pursue educational, career, or other interests. Additionally, athletic department leadership should
mandate time after the competition season to allow for football athletes’ educational and career
pursuits and mentorship program participation.
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Reallocating football program time will allow for athlete participation in the
recommendations provided in the following subsection of this chapter. It will be necessary to
find a healthy balance between football-related activities and activities intended to promote
athletes’ overall well-being and preparedness for transition from sport.
Employ On-Site Players ’ Advocate
Study participants revealed that they experienced mistreatment from coaches in the form
of medical mistreatment, being forced to play injured, verbal harassment, or disallowing time
outside of practice to attend class. Recent litigation proposes an NCAA employment model that
holds schools accountable for psychological and physical injuries to athletes, precipitated by the
current upsurge in reports of coaches’ racism and mistreatment (LeRoy, 2021). However, policy
alone is not the solution. As Cedric stated, “The NCAA has rules, not that every school follows
the rules.” Having an on-site players’ advocate could ensure players’ equitable treatment. That
individual could also monitor time requirements and ensure that time demands are reasonable,
not, as Cedric stated, “necessary to have success in football,” but for the benefit of the human
being playing the sport. The proposed recommendation is for the NCAA to employ at least one
on-site player’s advocate at each Division I and Division II college as an accountability
mechanism to ensure rule adherence and athletes’ equitable treatment. Mistreatment by coaches
should be identified and addressed immediately, and additional accountability mechanisms
should be put in place to discourage repeated behaviors and protect athletes’ overall well-being.
Provide Mental Health Resources
Some participants struggled with depression and feelings of low self-worth, which
negatively impacted their emotional well-being and performance in all areas of their lives.
According to research by Moore (2016), athletes and athletic administrators believe that there are
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insufficient mental health resources available to student-athletes on campus. The proposed
recommendation is for each NCAA football program to employ a mental health professional in
the football organization, paying special attention to addressing needs related to depression,
fatigue, and feelings of negative self-worth. This initiative is currently an NFL requirement and
has been in place on the professional level since 2019 (McJimpsey, 2022; NFL Total Wellness,
2020). Aligned with social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), all practitioners working with
athletes should utilize the NCAA’s (2016) best practices for mental health guidelines. The
NCAA (2016) guidelines include providing student-athletes with professional mental health care,
having procedures to help them find mental health professionals, screening them for mental
health disorders, and promoting and advocating for mental health.
Implement Mentorship Program for Collegiate Football Athletes
This study’s findings revealed that participants’ mentors focused on improving football
performance only and did not provide support in preparing for life after sport. In terms of gaps in
knowledge, all participants mentioned that they failed to retain messaging if it was delivered by
someone they considered unrelatable or who had not shared similar experiences. Participants
also suggested that the person delivering the message or training should be a former football
athlete or someone they can relate to, which would help with retention. The motivation aspect of
any change initiative needs to be addressed before the knowledge aspects for information to be
retained (Clark & Estes, 2008). Aligned with social cognitive theory, modeling should be
delivered by credible, relatable sources when applicable. In this context, messages should be
delivered by former NFL players whom the college athletes find relatable and credible because
they likely share experiences, challenges, and thought processes.
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Mentoring is a transition management tool that has been shown to help entrance into new
environments or settings (Dawson, 2014; Noe et al., 2010). Implementing mentoring early in
athletes’ careers in preparation for transition, can mediate issues associated with adjusting to life
after sport (Ungerleider, 1997). To address gaps in knowledge, modeling to-be-learned strategies
or behaviors will improve self-efficacy, learning, and performance (Denler et al., 2014).
Research shows that behavior is more likely to be adopted if the model is credible, similar (e.g.,
gender, culturally appropriate), and the behavior has functional value (Denler et al., 2014), which
supports having former NFL players as mentors. Additionally, goal-setting and strategic plan
development have been found to be useful tools for athletes in preparation for career transition
(D’Onofrio, 2021; Villanova & Puig, 2016; Yusof et al., 2021). To expand the reach of the
mentorship program, biweekly check-ins will be performed via Zoom, and additional training
content will be delivered via online learning environment. Video-based learning is a learning
process designed to acquire skills, knowledge, and competence with the systematic utilization of
video resources and has been proven to be effective (Giannakos et al., 2016).
Training provided through mentorship should be geared toward addressing knowledge
gaps and strategic goal setting to mitigate goal exclusivity, which was present across all
participants. The proposed recommendation is for collegiate athletic departments to implement a
mentorship program with additional online and video-based access that provides mentorship
guidance, workshops, and staff support. The program’s goal is to prepare college football
athletes for life after sport by offering guidance in the areas of understanding the reality of
transition from sport, developing a strategic plan for future goal setting, practical life skills, and
financial management strategies.
Implement Entrepreneurship Education Program
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Study participants expressed a desire to have robust entrepreneurship programs available
to them where they could learn practical knowledge and skills that would help them launch their
own business ventures. Although Theodore majored in business, he expressed that the education
he received lacked practical application for life after football. As previously mentioned, research
demonstrates that elite athletes are more likely to pursue and be successful in careers in
entrepreneurship after retirement from sport, largely due to their personality characteristics
mirroring those of entrepreneurs (Steinbrink et al., 2020). Entrepreneurship education programs
have been found to provide the business knowledge necessary to enable athletes to develop
business ideas and successfully pursue self-employment as a second career choice (Steinbrink et
al., 2020). In alignment with social cognitive theory, modeling should be delivered by former
NFL players who are credible and relatable sources to foster retention and engagement among
participants. The proposed recommendation is for collegiate athletic departments to implement a
robust entrepreneurship education program for college football players, including training on
business plans, setting up LLCs and S-Corps, investments, real estate, stocks, and networking
opportunities. Related to this program, athletes should have the ability to take a hobbies
workshop, as Warren expressed, to expose athletes to interests “that we can actually turn into an
actual career.” This recommendation is supported by research in career management, which
found that there is a growing population of amateur hobbyists who are able to successfully
convert hobbies into businesses (Demetry, 2017).
Provide Collaborative Academic Counseling
Study participants indicated a prevalence of academic clustering, either among
teammates or through their own experiences with being forced to change majors. In a recent
study investigating the propensity for academic clustering, findings show that clustering occurs
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at a similar rate at both Division I and II schools (Miller, 2021). Moreover, clustering still
persists, despite the implementation of the NCAA’s Life in the Balance Initiative intended to
improve the academic experiences of Division II student-athletes (Miller, 2021). The proposed
recommendation is for the institution to pair football athletes with academic advisors outside of
the athletic department to strategically select majors in alignment with athletes’ career interests
as identified by the utilization of interest inventories/assessments (Hanson, 2000). This practice
will ensure that football athletes enroll in majors of their choice that are more likely to benefit
them in life after sport, rather than majors that merely fit into the football schedule or are less
challenging, to facilitate eligibility. Athletic department administrators and academic advisors
should collaborate with coaches to manage the athletes’ football schedules to facilitate the
completion of classes and coursework necessary for their desired majors.
Provide Psychological Preparation for Role Transformation
According to this study’s findings, all participants whose identities were encompassed by
being athletes experienced difficult transitions to life after sport. Not having the unilateral
identity of athlete was helpful to other participants in experiencing a smoother transition process.
Also, participants who had control over their retirements and considered them voluntary
experienced positive transitions, and those who had involuntary retirements experienced negative
transitions. Although retirement circumstances cannot be predicted, preemptive coping strategies
and the ability to adapt to challenging situations can be developed through psychological
preparation (Bejar & Butryn, 2016; Samuel et al., 2016). Research illustrates that supporting the
development of emotional intelligence competencies eases athletes’ transition experience (Lane
et al., 2009), and psychological preparation has been shown to result in a more positive transition
experience (Warriner & Lavallee, 2008; Young et al., 2006).
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Research also suggests that pre-retirement planning and crisis preparedness can reduce
traumatic symptoms and increase resilience during transition from sport (Halpern & Tramontin,
2007; Nagy & Szamoskozi, 2013; Park et al., 2013). Cognitive reframing, grounded in the
cognitive-behavioral framework, is an evidence-based technique used to prepare athletes for the
mental adaptation from athletic identity, necessary to successfully transition from sport (Barlow,
2014). Seminal research by Super (1990) and Erikson (1968) discovered that the dynamic
establishment of roles and identities occurs between ages 18 and 22, making the collegiate
experience an opportune time for intervention focused on identity and role management. The
proposed recommendation is for collegiate athletic departments to provide psychological
preparation for role transition, delivered through a series of monthly cognitive reframing
workshops that include mental adaptation and identity transformation, crisis preparedness, and
emotional intelligence competencies. These recommended workshops can help athletes develop
role management strategies for healthy identity balance, reducing the prevalence of athletic
identity exclusivity and identity foreclosure. Workshops should be administered by licensed
sports psychology professionals.
In summary, seven recommendations for practice were presented based on the findings of
this study, which were derived from the lived collegiate experiences of Black former NFL
players. The recommendations are founded on the three primary components of social cognitive
theory and the triadic model of reciprocal determinism, which focuses on the person, behaviors,
and the environment. The overarching recommendations were to restructure football programs’
time demands, employ on-site players’ advocates, and provide mental health resources,
mentorship programs, entrepreneurship education, collaborative academic counseling, and
psychological services. All recommendations are contingent upon having the time available to
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participate in programming. Moreover, considering the personal barriers at play, it may be
advisable to mandate some participation in programming intended to prepare athletes for
transition from sport. Finally, as athletic programs likely have varying environmental factors at
play, recommendations should be developed on an institutional level. For example, higher
ranking football programs may have stricter time expectations or requirements, resulting in
limited opportunity to participate in preparation pursuits. As such, athletic department resources
and programming recommendations should be customized on the institutional level after
evaluating existing resource offerings.
Limitations and Delimitations
This qualitative methodology was designed to elicit detailed information and narratives
from a small subgroup pertaining to athletic identity, motivation, and factors influencing
preparation for transition from sport. Like any study, there are limitations and delimitations that
should be acknowledged. Limitations in research refer to design constraints and external factors
that the researcher cannot control, and the study design cannot mitigate, while delimitations are
the deliberate parameters and boundaries of the group or phenomena being studied (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
A limitation of this study was that the population of focus is more likely to report
physical distress than emotional distress (Schwenk et al., 2007) and, therefore, may have been
less transparent with revealing details of emotional concerns. Another limitation was
environmental disruption. Interviews were conducted virtually, and the researcher had no control
over the participants’ immediate environments. Also, due to the low number of participants and
the qualitative design of the study, broad generalizations of findings are not applicable. High
levels of homogeneity were expected among the target population, given that the participants’
134

collegiate experiences were likely similar because all were former student-athletes in revenue-
generating sports programs.
A degree of homogeneity was expected as a result of snowball and convenience sampling
but was minimized due to the five participants being derived from four unrelated sources.
Recruiting interviewees through multiple sources was designed to diversify potential
participants’ experiences and avoid saturation in the interview phase. However, some degree of
homogeneity of the sample group, based on having similar athletic career paths, may have
limited the broadness of responses in the resulting data. Finally, by conducting a retrospective
study, I relied on participants’ memories, some of which may have been impacted by
concussions, other injuries, and the passage of time, which may have affected the thoroughness
and accuracy of the data. One participant, in particular, seemed to struggle with recollection,
despite having been in college only a few years prior to this study.
The primary delimitation for the interviews was the restrictive participant inclusion
criteria: Black former NFL players who played in an NCAA Division I college football program
and were within 3 years post-retirement from sport. My decision to restrict the criteria limited the
availability of participants from a population that is inherently difficult to access. As a result, I
included two participants outside of the original inclusion criteria: one participant played for a
Division II college program rather than Division I, and one participant had been retired from the
NFL for 13 years at the time of the interviews, while the remaining participants were within 3
years of retirement. Having one participant who was far removed from his transition provided
considerable insight into the length of time it may take athletes to feel adjusted to life after sport.
I potentially would not have been privy to that information by limiting participants to those
within 3 years of retirement. These deviations from the original criteria provided richer
135

experiences and added diversity to the data. Additional delimitations included population
parameters limited to only Black football athletes. Including White participants in the sample
could have provided data useful in comparing the differences in experiences between the two
racial groups. However, by including only Black participants, this study did not generate
comparative data. Without further research, including White football athletes, it is impossible to
assess whether experiences like mistreatment by coaches are isolated to this racial group.
Recommendations for Future Research
Based on this study’s findings and conceptual framework, there are four different
recommendations for future research. The limitations and delimitations of this study were also
considered in generating recommendations for future research. The first recommendation is to
explore the concept of athletic identity further, using a mixed-methods or quantitative study to
measure correlations between athletic identity and transition quality. I initially embarked upon
this study, with the belief that preparedness directly correlated with the quality of transition from
sport, based on data gleaned in the literature review process. However, this study’s findings
suggest that the quality of transition has more to do with the degree to which one’s identity is
encompassed by being an athlete than with preparation. Participants who did not find their
identity in being an athlete experienced positive transitions. This study did not provide the data
to make this assertion, but it is a concept that should be further explored. Utilizing identity
discrepancy theory to frame future scholarship might aid in exploring the integral identity-related
aspect of transition from sport.
The next recommendation is to broaden the scope of the current study by conducting a
qualitative comparative analysis of the collegiate experiences of former NFL athletes, being
mindful to include different college divisions, races, and football positions played. Correlational
136

data on position, college division, race, and collegiate experiences, as they relate to preparation
for transition would provide noteworthy findings. Also, as some of the data on barriers (e.g.,
mistreatment, academic clustering) were reported primarily by athletes who attended NCAA
colleges in the southern region of the United States, future studies should include geographical
location to compare athletes’ experiences in different regions.
Another recommendation for future research is to conduct a cross-sectional longitudinal
study comparing the transition experiences of NCAA college football players and NFL players.
The benefit of a longitudinal design is that it allows for exploring the various stages of transition
in real time. Moreover, identifying clear, definitive issues as they occur can provide the data to
fortify athletes with the resources, skills, or education they need to overcome obstacles at an
earlier point in their athletic careers.
Current data on the quality of NFL player transition experiences are scant and most
recent researchers use the same datapoint of 78% of NFL players experiencing extreme financial
hardship in the first 3 years of retirement. The final recommendation is to conduct an updated
study on this population’s more contemporary experiences to gauge potential improvement in
recent years. The general societal consensus is that things have gotten better, yet there is limited
data to support that perspective. The recommended study would fill that gap. Inquiry design
should be large-scale and quantitative or mixed methods so the data can be generalizable and
useful for future strategies to improve retiring athletes’ transition experiences. Additionally, it is
vital to measure the transition experiences of athletes of different races on a large scale so that
support can be targeted and customized, considering cultural idiosyncrasies. This
recommendation would provide a current, high-level, comprehensive overview of the transition
experiences of former NFL players.
137

Conclusion
The voices of the participants in this study contribute the unique viewpoints of NCAA
collegiate football players who pursued a professional career in football, played in the NFL, and
subsequently retired, providing insight at each of these stages of their football careers. These
distinctive perspectives provide valuable reflective insight on what football athletes would have
done differently or wished was available to them during their time in college. Now that they have
retired from the NFL, participants were positioned to describe the challenges they had to
overcome; challenges that could have been mitigated by preparing for retirement while in
college. The findings from this study offer unique perspectives, as most participants are only a
few years removed from college, reflecting a relatively current assessment of the collegiate
landscape for football athletes. Understanding the lived collegiate experiences of former NFL
players contributes valuable perspectives to support the enrichment of programs and resources
available to collegiate athletes at the institutional level. These first-hand assessments deliver a
rich, descriptive look at what it was like being a collegiate football athlete while trying to
navigate sports, academics, and life, given personal and environmental constraints.
The findings of this study add the unique lived perspectives of Black former NFL players
to the literature on transition from sport. These findings can inform future research and provide
intercollegiate athletic practitioners with insight into developing effective strategies and
resources to better prepare athletes for life after sport. It is critical for all institutional
stakeholders to accept accountability and consider the findings and recommendations presented
in the study to affect organizational change in collegiate athletics.
Athletes’ personal values and beliefs play a role in the motivation to prepare for transition
from sport. From a social cognitive perspective, more attention should be paid to the elements in
138

the environment and institutional barriers that shape or reinforce those beliefs. As previously
mentioned, one of this study’s primary findings is that participants lacked the resource of time to
participate in programs and services to prepare them for future transition. Eliminating this barrier
is imperative for athletes to benefit from other preparation-focused initiatives or resources.
Additionally, given the negative impact of mistreatment by coaches and the growing cases of
coach misconduct, institutions need more robust efforts to mitigate these environmental
influences hindering preparedness for transition. Finally, as athletic identity exclusivity may
contribute to difficulty with transition from sport, college football athletes would benefit from
acquiring psychological role management skills to balance personal and athletic identities.
NCAA college football programs that benefit significantly from elite athletes’ talent and athletic
performance can positively impact the lives of these young people while they are under the
institution’s care and beyond. This research provides first-hand insight into the collegiate
experiences of Black former NFL players, supporting the design and implementation of
programs to help athletes become better prepared and ultimately experience successful
transitions to life after sport.
139

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158

Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research questions:
1. What personal factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
2. What environmental factors influenced preparing for post-career transition from sport
during Black football athletes’ collegiate experience?
3. What factors influenced the quality of Black football athletes’ post-career transition
and perceived adjustment to life after sport?
Background questions:
1. What is your age?
2. What is your ethnicity?
3. Where did you play College Football and for how many years? (Probes: Were you on
athletic scholarship? What position did you play?)
4. What professional Team or Teams did you play for? (Probes: Did you play the same
position professionally that you did in college? How many years did you play
professionally in total?)
Interview Questions:
1. How would you describe a successful transition and adjustment to life after football?
What does that look like to you?
2. You mentioned that you played professional football for ____ years? What were the
circumstances around when you stopped playing?
3. Was it voluntary or involuntary?
159

4. If you sustained injuries, how did they affect your football career?
5. Tell me a little bit about adjusting to life after playing football. What was that
transition like for you?
6. If difficult, what were the challenges? If easy, what made your transition easier?
7. What was your major? (Probes: Do you feel like your major or even your degree was
ultimately useful to you in your next phase after football? How?)
8. If you had a difficult transition, what would have made the transition easier?
9. How long after retirement would you say it took for you to feel like you had
successfully adjusted?
10. How long after retirement would you say it took for you to feel like you had
financial stability?
11. And what do you do now, for work?
I want to shift gears a little bit and in thinking about the college itself or the athletic department
and football program in particular, and I am going to ask you about the things that influenced
how prepared you were for post-career transition.
12. Do you feel like you were prepared for life after football? (Probes: What steps had
you taken (or not taken) that made you feel that way?)
13. What institutional factors do you feel may have gotten in the way of you being
prepared for transition from football? (Probes: How did they impact your
preparedness or ability to prepare? What were some of the other things that you feel
may have gotten in the way of you preparing for transition from football?)
160

14. Tell me about the programs or resources provided by the university that supported
your preparation/helped you prepare for transition from sport?
15. Did you take advantage of those programs or resources? (Probes: If not, what were
the barriers/what stopped you from taking advantage of those programs?)
16. How much time were you given in college to engage in activities meant to prepare
you for your future transition from sport? (Probes: Tell me more about that)
17. What resources or programs do you wish were available while you were in college,
but were not? (Probes: How do you feel they would have benefitted you?)
18. Were the time demands of the football program the same for all of your teammates?
(Probes: If not, how did they differ? For whom? Why do you think that is?)
19. Did you and all of your teammates have access to the same resources?
20. Do you feel your experiences in college were different from other football players
who weren’t Black? How? (Probes: Tell me more about that.)
21. While you were in college, what did you expect that you would do as a career after
you stopped playing football? (Probes: If you prepared while you were in college for
that alternate career path, what kinds of things did you do to prepare?)
Now let’s talk a little about your motivation to prepare for post-career transition.
22. While you were in college, what were some of the things that either motivated you to
prepare or discouraged you from preparing for life after football? (Probes: How did
those things affect you? Tell me more about that.)
23. Do you feel like you were exposed to or were aware of alternate career paths?
161

Now I want to talk about the social relationships you had while you were in college. By that I
mean the relationships you had with teammates, coaches, peers, role models, students, fans,
agents, or anyone who may have influenced you.
24. What were some of the social relationships in college that influenced your motivation
to prepare or encouraged you to prepare for post-career transition from sport?
(Probes: How did they influence your motivation to prepare for post-career
transition? What were some of the things they said or did in particular that influenced
your motivation to plan for post-career transition? How did you feel about that?)
25. What were some of the social relationships in college that influenced your motivation
to prepare or discouraged you from preparing for post-career transition from sport?
26. During college was there anyone that you considered a role model? Tell me about
them.
27. Did you have anyone that you would consider a mentor? Tell me about them.
28. How much of who you were in college was defined by your identity as an athlete?
29. What were other roles that you identified with if any (e.g., student)?
30. Thinking back to when you were in college, who or what were some of the people or
things that may have influenced your athletic identity or the value you placed on
being an athlete?
31. What was your family’s expectation of you as an athlete and how did they influence
your athletic identity? (Probes: How did that make you feel?)

162

Appendix B: Sample Interview Confirmation Email

Dear [Participant First Name],

Thank you for your interest in participating in my research study. I very much appreciate your
willingness to share your experiences with me.

As previously mentioned, my name is Dawn Whitaker, and I am a doctoral candidate at the
University of Southern California. I am working directly with Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi and the
USC Rossier School of Education. My dissertation work requires that I conduct one-on-one
interviews with individuals. My research focuses on understanding influences during the
collegiate experience of Black athletes that may impact preparing for post-career transition from
sport.

Please review the attached information sheet to help you better understand the details of this
study so that you can make an informed decision as to whether you would like to participate.

The interview will last approximately 60 minutes, using the Zoom online platform.

Confidentiality: Your personal information will be de-identified for confidentiality; a pseudonym
will be assigned in place of your name.

Voluntary Participation and Withdrawal: Your participation in this research is voluntary and you
are free to withdraw or refuse to answer any questions at any time without negative
consequences.

Should you agree to move forward with participation in this research study, please provide the
time options that work for your schedule on the following dates:

Option 1: Monday, December 6
Option 2: Tuesday, December 7
Option 3: Wednesday, December 8
Option 4: Thursday, December 9

Once we confirm the date and time, I will send you an outlook calendar request that will include
the Zoom link and all pertinent information.

After the first interview, I may ask you to do a second interview to cover any questions we don’t
get to, or new topics that may come up that we want to further explore.

Again, I truly appreciate you taking the time to share your experiences with me to help me better
understand the nuances surrounding this very important topic.
163

Sincerely,

Dawn M. Whitaker | 310-567-1311
USC Doctoral Candidate
164

Appendix C: Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

Study Title: Supports and Barriers to Preparing for Post-Career Transition From Sport: A
Narrative Analysis of the Collegiate Experiences of Former NFL Players

Principal Investigator: Dawn M. Whitaker

Faculty Advisor: Kimberly Hirabayashi, PhD

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

INTRODUCTION

Transition to life after sport can be difficult for many athletes. Professional football players, in
particular, have shorter than average careers as compared to athletes in other sports. According to
the NFLPA (2019), the average NFL career lasts 3.3 years (Gough, 2019; Keim, 2016). Within
three years of retirement, 78% of NFL players experience extreme financial hardship, and 16%
eventually file for bankruptcy, according to the National Bureau of Economic Research (Carlson
et al., 2015; Isidore, 2015). For many, the career they worked their entire lives to achieve may
end abruptly after only a few years. After finally making it to the NFL, athletes may find
themselves with a career-ending injury, replaced by younger, faster talent, or cut for any other
myriad of reasons not long after realizing their lifelong dream (Keim, 2016). Research conducted
by North and Lavallee (2004) found that 60% of athletes do not plan for life after sport,
contributing to difficulty with transition adjustment. This problem disproportionately impacts
Black males, who comprise the majority of revenue-generating sports (Harper, Williams, &
Blackman, 2013), and have more difficulty with adjustment to transition from sport as compared
to their White counterparts (Beamon, 2014; Harrison et al., 2011). The overarching problem
addressed in this study is preparing for post-career transition from sport during the collegiate
experience of Black football athletes.

The Principal Investigator for this study is Dawn Whitaker, a doctoral candidate at the University
of Southern California, working directly with Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi and the USC Rossier
School of Education. This qualitative research focuses on understanding the social and
environmental influences on preparedness for post-career transition from sport during the
collegiate experiences of Black athletes. This topic will be explored through one-on-one
interviews with participants who meet the selection criteria.

165

KEY INFORMATION

The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the collegiate experiences of Black former NFL players to
understand the personal and environmental influences on preparedness for post-career transition
from sport. Findings from the study will contribute to current knowledge on preparedness for this
transition, which can be used by sports organizations to develop focused strategies and
interventions at the collegiate level to support preparedness among Black student-athletes. You
are invited as a possible participant in this study because you played football at an NCAA
Division I college, you played professionally in the NFL, and you identify as Black or African
American.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you decide to take part, you will be asked to do the following:
PROCEDURES
1. Participate in a one-on-one online interview with the researcher. If possible, a follow-up
interview will be requested to discuss any topics we may not have covered during the
first interview, or new topics that may have arisen.
2. Prior to the interview, the researcher will seek your permission to record the online
meeting. You may decline to be recorded. (Duration: 30 seconds)
3. Each interview will be scheduled for one 60–90-minute period.
4. For the duration of the 60–90-minute interview, data collection will occur including
notetaking, Zoom video recording and auto transcriptions of the interview. Additionally,
a back-up recorder will capture the audio portion of the interview.
5. The semi-structured, open-ended interviews will be conducted online using the Zoom
platform, allowing for face-to-face conversation, and creating a forum that is familiar and
conducive to privacy, personalization, and is easily accessible.
6. You will be asked fifteen (15) interview questions, following a short series of
demographic and background questions. (Duration: 60-90 minutes)
7. Once the interview has concluded, you will be asked if you have any further questions.
You will be informed of the next steps which include: (a) receiving a copy of the
transcript via email from the researcher to check for accuracy; (b) receiving the
researcher’s contact information for any further questions you may have.

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Possible risks and discomforts you could experience during this study may include emotions
related to embarrassment, sadness, frustration, anger, depression, anxiety, or other unanticipated
feelings. The intention of the study is to explore the lived experiences of athletes to better
understand how organizations can assist in helping athletes to become better prepared for post-
career transition from sport, during their collegiate experiences.
166

Several safeguards are established throughout the study protocol to ensure confidentiality is
exercised. After the transcripts and recordings have been coded, all will be destroyed to further
protect your privacy.

Surveys/Questionnaires/Interviews: Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or
embarrassed. You can choose to skip or stop answering any questions you don’t want to answer
at any time.

BENEFITS
There is no direct benefit to you for participating in this research study.

PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. Efforts will be
made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information, including research study
records, to people who are required to review this information. We may publish the information
from this study in journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name.

The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Human Subject’s
Protections Program (HSPP) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

OUTSIDE RESOURCES
Below is a list of resources for former NFL players:

NFLPA
Resources for Education, Career, and Finances
https://nflpa.com/former-players/education-career-finances

The Trust
Business and Career Development
https://playerstrust.com/

Professional Athletes Foundation
Body/Education/Mind/Money/Relationships Support
https://www.yourpaf.com/

PAYMENTS / COMPENSATION
You will not be compensated for your participation in this research.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
It is your choice to participate in this research study. If you choose to participate, you may
change your mind and leave the study at any time. If you decide not to participate, or choose to
end your participation in this study, you will not be penalized or lose any benefits that you are
otherwise entitled to.
167

WITHDRAWAL FROM STUDY INSTRUCTIONS
Your participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw or refuse to answer
any question at any time without negative consequence to you. If you volunteer to participate,
you may still withdraw at any time, again, without negative consequence to you. If you wish to
withdraw from the research study at any point, please email your first and last name to the
researcher, Dawn Whitaker, dwhitake@usc.edu. You need not provide a reason or rationale from
withdrawing from the study.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dawn Whitaker at
dwhitake@usc.edu or 310.567.1311, or you may contact Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi at
hirabaya@usc.edu, University of Southern California Rossier School of Education.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at
(323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

168

Appendix D: Figures
The following figures provides a visual representation of the typical schedule for a
Division I football athlete and rates of college degree graduates among student-athletes and the
general college graduate population.

Figure D1
A Day in the Life of a Division I Football Player

Note: This figure demonstrates the in-season time demands required of a typical Division I
football athlete. Image from A Day in the Life of a Division I Football Player by Next College
Student Athlete, n.d. (https://www.ncsasports.org/blog/2017/10/03/day-life-division-football-
player)
169

Figure D2
Degrees Earned Among All Male Division I Student-Athletes for the 2019-2022 Academic Year

Note: From Division I Diploma Dashboard by NCAA, n.d. Copyright 2022 by NCAA.
(https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/5/15/division-i-diploma-dashboard.aspx)

170

Figure D3
Degrees Earned by Sport Among White Division I Student-Athletes for the 2019-2020 Academic
Year

Note. From Division I Diploma Dashboard by NCAA, n.d. Copyright 2022 by NCAA.
(https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/5/15/division-i-diploma-dashboard.aspx)

171

Figure D4
Degrees Earned by Sport Among Black Division I Student-Athletes for the 2019-2020 Academic
Year

Note: From Division I Diploma Dashboard by NCAA, n.d. Copyright 2022 by NCAA.
(https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/5/15/division-i-diploma-dashboard.aspx)

172

Figure D5
Support Allowing Student-Athletes to Take Time Out-of-Season to Participate in an Educational
or Career Development Opportunity

Note: From NCAA Time Management Survey by NCAA, n.d. Copyright 2022 by NCAA.

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Whitaker, Dawn Michelle (author)

Core Title Personal and environmental influences on preparing for transition from sport: a social cognitive approach to exploring the collegiate experiences of Black former NFL players

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-05

Publication Date 05/06/2022

Defense Date 04/12/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag athletic identity,Black athletes,career transition,environmental influences,Football,NCAA,NFL,OAI-PMH Harvest,personal influences,preparation for transition,social cognitive theory,student-athletes,transition from sport

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Kwok, Denise (committee member)

Creator Email drdawnwhitaker@gmail.com,dwhitake@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111271662

Unique identifier UC111271662

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Whitaker, Dawn Michelle

Type texts

Source 20220506-usctheses-batch-939 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu