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Sustaining success toward closing the achievement gap: a case study of one urban high school

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Sustaining success toward closing the achievement gap: a case study of one urban high school

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SUSTAINING SUCCESS TOWARD CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: A CASE
STUDY OF ONE URBAN HIGH SCHOOL

by

Kimberly Elizabeth Cabrera

___________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2010

Copyright 2010 Kimberly Elizabeth Cabrera
ii
DEDICATION
This body of work is lovingly dedicated to my husband, Stephen, Sr. and my
children, Brianna and Stephen, Jr. who have endured countless hours of mommy’s work,
study, and class time to be able to achieve the highest degree of education and greatest
legacy that I can pass along.
And, for my Aunt Rachel O. Templeman, my fellow Trojan. Your perseverance
toward pursuing higher education while working, in addition to being a mother and a
wife, and, your dedication to educating young women in East Los Angeles was truly
inspirational. Finally, your hard fought battle with cancer was proof of your enduring
spirit and resilience. Your legacy has pushed me through this point. I will miss you.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
How would I possibly be here without acknowledging my God and King, Jesus
Christ, through Whom ALL things are possible…even this. Thank you, Lord, for
listening to my countless prayers and tears of fear and frustration.
Stephen, my husband, you have been so patient and dedicated to helping me get
through my doctoral program. You’ve taken care of the kids on the weekends while I was
in class, poured my coffee on late nights while I studied, listened to me babble about
everything I have read and studied, and lovingly encouraged me to pursue this mission. I
promise you that I’m done going to school. It’s time to start saving for the kids’ college
education.
Brianna and Stephen, my babies, thank you for encouraging mommy to get her
papers done and understanding the importance of pursuing a higher education. I only pray
that mommy has been able to show you how important it is to continue learning.
Mom and Dad, you are the inspiration for pursuing education as my career and
my passion. Mom, you’re the original “achievement gap closer”. The many times that
you took us to your classroom to prepare for the start of school, or took us to school with
you when we had days off, provided the foundation for becoming a teacher. Greater than
that, however, you showed us how to truly love students and share with them the wealth
that we enjoyed, but was so far from what they had. You spent countless hours teaching
children to read who were so far behind grade level. But, magically, you got every one of
them caught up. You’re the one that should have written this dissertation based on your
experience. Dad, you too have dedicated your life to teaching in East Los Angeles,
coaching them, and showing them how to be healthy and prosperous. Thank you for the
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many times that you and Mom took the kids so that I could read and write my papers.
Thank you for the times you made dinner when I was too tired. You and Mom have made
me what I am today.
My sister, Nicole and her husband, Rob—I guess my excuses for not visiting have
come to and end. Thank you for your encouragement and understanding as I’ve endured
this program. I know it seemed as if I was studying or writing a paper every time you
called…because I was. But, I hope that we can enjoy more time together now that it’s
over. Nicole, you are a phenomenal teacher, and now, it’s your turn to continue your
education!
Jerry, you’re a great brother, and an awesome uncle. Thank you for picking up the
kids, taking them to school, and hanging out with them while I’ve been trying to get
through this part of my education. Like Nicole, now it’s your turn to continue. Get
crackin’!
For all of my friends and neighbors who have taken care of my children for a few
hours or a few days—the Bontempos, the Dubois Family, the Herreras, the Byers, the
Ruberts, and the Zeltmans. You have all been great friends and such a great help for the
past couple of years.
To my Yahoos at the District Office, Diane, Swanny, Kim, Susan, and Sue, thank
you for all of your encouragement and laughter. I couldn’t have asked for a better job and
a better group of people to become friends with and to grow close to while I was going
through this program. As for Bonnie Cardinale and Vicki Broberg, my bosses, thank you
for your encouragement and the opportunity to work for two of the most amazing
administrators in the Chino Valley Unified School District. You have both taught me so
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much just by example. I hope that someday I will be able to do as good a job as a
principal, director, and, eventually Superintendent!
Dr. Heatley, thank you for challenging me to enter the doctoral program. I had no
intentions of going back to school, but I never let a challenge pass me by. I learned so
much from you as a mentor. I look forward to being a superintendent someday.
Dr. Shawna Petit-Dinkins, thank you for your encouragement, especially when I
was ready to quit after dealing with that professor. You inspired me to keep going
through the program. I’m glad that I didn’t quit.
Carl Hampton, you goofball, you’ve been an understanding boss and have
allowed me to spread my wings. I’ve enjoyed working for you as a teacher and now as an
administrator. I won’t make you call me “Doctor” until I become YOUR boss.
Debbie and Ron—I can’t think of a better team of administrators. You both are
teaching me so much everyday. There is no better feeling than to come to work and be
amongst friends.
My Chino Hills High School family—You are the greatest group of people to
work with and to work for. I am honored to be a part of your world. Your love for kids is
evident, and I am confident that together we will do great things.
Dr. Lansford—when I was at APU and brought Brianna to meet you when she
was born, you told me not to stop until I got my doctorate. In your words, there weren’t
enough women seeking that highest degree of education. While I know you are now with
our precious Lord, I just want you to know… I did it!
Dr. Gothold—You are one amazing teacher! It truly has been such an honor to
work with you, and to learn from you. You are a gifted educator and have contributed so
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much to the world of education. Thank you for your dedication and support. May God
continue to use you mightily.
To my Orange County Cohort—We have made it. Thank you for all the laughter.
Tracy, Amy, and Michael Titus, I have enjoyed getting to know you as colleagues and as
fellow students. It was fun to challenge one another, tease each other, and just plain laugh
together.
Michael Titus…we did it. It has been a pleasure to ride with you to all of our
dissertation meetings and talk about Stu, “the man”.
Sandy—my prayer partner and dear friend. I admire your courage and your faith.
I’ve greatly appreciated your friendship, and I pray that someday we will have the
opportunity to work together.
And, finally, last, but certainly not least, Michael Vaughn. I can’t tell you how
much I enjoyed riding to OC every other weekend with you. You’ve been a friend,
colleague, and mentor to me. I even, at times, think of you as a dad. Your sense of humor
and practical approach to life, work, and this program have all been a great
encouragement to me. I always appreciate your wisdom and your perspective. It has been
an honor completing this program with you!
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION........................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ x
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1: THE PROBLEM: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ...............................1
Statement of the Problem.............................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................4
Research Questions......................................................................................5
Significance of the Study.............................................................................5
Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................6
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………..8
Organization of the Remainder of the Study……………………………..12

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................14

An Historical Perspective on Education and Public Policy.......................14
Accountability and the Evolution of NCLB ..............................................19
The Achievement Gap Defined .................................................................24
Practices that have been Shown to Reduce the Gap ..................................35
Leadership......................................................................................36
Collaborative Culture.....................................................................40
Curriculum and Instruction............................................................45
Summary....................................................................................................48

Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.........................................................51

Research Study Framework and Model.....................................................54
Research Design.........................................................................................55
Sample and Population ..............................................................................57
Instrumentation ..........................................................................................61
Document Review..........................................................................62
Observations ..................................................................................64
Surveys...........................................................................................66
Interviews.......................................................................................67
Data Collection ..........................................................................................67
Validity and Credibility .............................................................................67
viii
Data Analysis.............................................................................................68
Summary....................................................................................................68

Chapter 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ...............................69

Overview of the Case Study ......................................................................69
Summary of Findings by Instrumentation .................................................71
Observations ..................................................................................71
Senator Training: Link Crew .............................................71
Freshman First Day............................................................74
Leadership Camp ...............................................................79
Data and Doughnuts...........................................................82
Period by Period Staff Development .................................87
Classroom Observations ....................................................91
Tutorial...............................................................................97
Surveys...........................................................................................98
Document Analysis......................................................................109
Interviews.....................................................................................116
Emergent Themes from Data Collection .................................................127
Summary of Findings by Research Questions.........................................130
Cultural Norms.............................................................................131
Practices .......................................................................................135
Programs ......................................................................................139
Discussion of Findings Around the Four Frames ....................................141
Discussion of the Findings.......................................................................144

Chapter 5: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION......................................................149

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................149
Summary of the Findings.........................................................................151
Implications..............................................................................................156
Recommendations....................................................................................158
Summary..................................................................................................160

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................162

APPENDICES
A. DOCUMENT REVIEW MASTER LIST--CATEGORIZED ............168
B. SCHOOL OBSERVATION FORM/GUIDE......................................170
C. OBSERVATION LOG .......................................................................173
D. STAFF INPUT SURVEY...................................................................178
E. CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................185
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Student Demographics for Wrightwood High School...............................58

2. School API Data from 2003-2004 to 2008-2009.......................................59

3. API Comparison Data for Significant Subgroups in State of California v.
Wrightwood High School (WHS) from 2005-2006 to 2008-2009 ............60

4. Statewide Rank and Similar Schools Rank from 2003-2009.....................60

5. Summary of Survey Results for Research Question #1.............................99

6. Summary of Survey Result for Question #2............................................100

7. Summary of Survey Results for Question #3 ..........................................106

8. Numbers of Students Passing Advanced Placement Courses per the
Number of Students Tested from 2002-2007...........................................110

x
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Gap Analysis Process Model .....................................................................54

2. Model of the Conceptual Framework for the Current Study.....................55

xi
ABSTRACT
Since the introduction of the Coleman Report (1966), the focus on closing the
achievement gap has been a critical component of educational policy for political leaders
and field research by educators. The economic crisis which California and the nation at
large currently face creates a challenging situation in attempting to narrow the gap.
Cultural and economic implications are huge if public schools continue to fail in fully
preparing minority and socioeconomically disadvantaged children.
This study focuses on an outperforming urban high school that has sustained
success toward closing the gap for more than 5 years. This school, which includes a
largely Hispanic and socioeconomically disadvantaged population, was chosen for its
accelerated and sustained student achievement. The research questions used in this study
were developed by a thematic dissertation team of nine doctoral students from the
University of Southern California.
The study is a qualitative case study using a triangulation approach to identify the
cultural norms, programs, and practices being used to close the achievement gap and
sustain success. The data collection instruments include document analysis, interviews,
surveys, and observations.
The study revealed 11 findings that contribute to the sustained success of the
school narrowing the achievement gap. The findings were 1) Data-driven decision
making; 2) A consistent and clear message that failure is not an option; 3) Shared
leadership; 4) Support of teacher leaders; 5) Getting the right people on the bus and in the
right seats; 6) Collaborative culture; 7) Intervention by invitation is not an option;
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8)College-going culture; 9) Rigor, relevance, and relationships; 10) Assessment for
learning; 11) Strict focus on student needs.
Questions raised for additional research include studying a school that would be
more demographically equivalent in its black, Hispanic, and White populations; the role
of teacher efficacy in forming a collaborative culture; teacher efficacy as a result of
forming a collaborative culture versus good hiring practices; how the practices of
successful urban high schools influence higher education; the effect of narrowing the gap
in high school on higher education; and a comprehensive meta-analysis of trends that
sustain success of narrowing the gap from K-12.

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CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Education has entered a new age of accountability. The No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001 (NCLB) vows “[t]o close the achievement gap with accountability,
flexibility, and choice, so that no child is left behind” (2002). Data from the National
Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) and Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT)
traced back to the 1970s through the 1990s shows a picture of a bifurcated pattern of
Black-White and Hispanic-White achievement, first narrowing into the late 1980’s and
widening again into the present (Lee, 2002). The achievement gap has been defined by
various researchers and scholars as the measured disparity in academic achievement
between Whites and their racial and ethnic peers evidenced by test scores from state or
national achievement tests (Anderson, Medrich, & Fowler, 2007; Chenoweth, 2004;
Lee, 2002; and Lynch, 2006). However, the achievement gap is not only defined by test
scores, but is also measured in the comparison of high school dropout rates, the relative
number of students who enroll in college preparatory and honors level coursework, take
Advanced Placement exams, and are admitted to two-year, four-year, graduate and
professional colleges (Ferguson, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Lee, 2002; Noguera,
2008). With the advent of NCLB, other groups, such as the socioeconomically
disadvantaged, English Language Learners (ELL), and special education students are
also highlighted.
Robert C. Johnston and Debra Viadero (2000) reveal the necessity of addressing
the gap, citing that of the 3.4 million children who entered kindergarten in 2000,
researchers forecast very different futures. Based on race alone, trends in achievement
2
over the previous two decades will predict success in school, college-going rates, and
professional earnings that are greater for white students than their African-American,
Hispanic, and American-Indian classmates. The growth of the Hispanic population and
other ethnic groups have reshaped the problems in education adding more complex
issues, including English as a second language (Johnston &Viadero, 2000). Currently,
African-Americans, Hispanics, and American-Indians compose more than half of the
public school K-12 population. Projections estimate this population to increase to
approximately two-thirds by 2015 (Johnston & Viadero, 2000).
According to a study conducted by the consulting firm McKinsey & Company,
if the achievement gaps were closed in the United States, the yearly gross domestic
product would increase by $3 billion to $5 billion more per day (Hernandez, 2009).
“For the nation as a whole, the economic and cultural implications of a continued
failure to fully prepare millions of minority children for a complicated and technology-
driven economy are huge” (Johnston, 2000, p. 1). The globalization of our economy has
made formal education a necessity. In his 2009 State of the Union Address, President
Barack Obama (2009) expressed that “…three quarters of the fastest-growing
occupations require more than a high school diploma”(p. 7). The United States,
however, has one of the highest dropout rates of any industrialized nation, leading to a
loss of our country’s competitive edge over like nations, and leading to an economic
decline (Obama, 2009).
Harris and Herrington (2006) cite that education is the great American equalizer.
The achievement gap as we know it today is more than just an educational inequality, it
has created a socioeconomic inequality within the population. The problem must be
3
addressed as a societal goal. The allowance of lagging performance amongst our poor
and minority students will have “a negative impact on the country that exceeds that of
the current recession” (Hernandez, 2009).
In terms of strengthening our nation socioeconomically, and driving our global
competitiveness, the achievement gap between whites and racial minority groups must
be addressed. Harris and Herrington (2006) posit that the widening of the achievement
gap seen in the 1990’s and 2000’s coincides with changes in education policy that
moved from a concentration on standards to federal and state accountability. Higher
standards consisting of more time in school, access to core academic curriculum and
increased course requirements have improved academic rigor, leading to increased
student achievement especially within the African-American and Latino populations.
However, today, the gap in achievement between whites and racial minorities remains.
Statement of the Problem
With the introduction of the Coleman Report (1966), the focus on closing the
achievement gap has been a critical component of educational policy for political
leaders and field research by educators. Despite seeing a decline or narrowing of the
gap through the 1980’s, the tide turned and achievement gap trends began to widen
through the 1990’s and into the present.
Despite these trends, some urban high schools have made significant gains in
narrowing the achievement gap. The literature is rich with strategies that have been
shown to close the gap. The most evident strategies that researchers have noted are the
necessity of a vision for success with high expectations for all students (Cowley &
Meehan, 2002; Lynch, 2006; Parker & Soper, 2003; Schwartz, 2001; Sherman, 2008);
4
the accessibility of college preparatory curriculum for all students (Haycock, 2001;
Noguera, 2008; Parker & Soper, 2003; Schwartz, 2001); a challenging curriculum that
is aligned to standards with accountability tied to benchmarks and frequent classroom
assessments (Haycock, 2001; LaRocque, 2007; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Schwartz,
2001; Whitman, 2008); and the use of data-driven decision making (Cowley & Meehan,
2002; Haycock, 2001; LaRocque, 2007; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Parker & Soper,
2003; Schwartz, 2001; Whitman, 2008). These strategies can be categorized into three
major areas that include, but are not limited to, leadership, school culture, and
curriculum and instruction.
What have yet to be fully studied are factors that have contributed to sustain
success toward closing the achievement gap in urban highs schools. It is unclear to what
degree such factors as leadership, collaborative culture, and curriculum and instruction
successfully narrow the achievement gap over a period of time. It is unclear how
cultural norms, practices, and programs have allowed urban high schools to narrow the
achievement gap. Literature is lacking in defining factors that have contributed to the
sustained success of schools that are narrowing the achievement gap for a period of
three or more years.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to identify urban high schools which have
succeeded in reducing the achievement gap, and have sustained success over time. The
study also examined cultural norms of the school community; practices, both inside and
outside of the classroom; and, programs employed by the school that have allowed them
to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success.
5
Research Questions
The study addressed three research questions:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices (schoolwide and classroom) that have been employed
by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
Significance of the Study
In an era of increased accountability, public schools have the responsibility to
ensure challenging academic curriculum that prepares all students for postsecondary
opportunities. As the literature suggests, the racial academic disparity is a result of an
education debt that has accumulated over hundreds of years of inequitable resources
(Ferguson, 2004; Lee, 2002; Lynch, 2006; Marx, 2008). As a result, students of color
and of low socioeconomic status are typically discouraged from engaging in
academically rigorous coursework, lack quality teachers in their classrooms, and lack
leadership and guidance in their schools (Ferguson, 2004; Haycock, 2001; Lynch,
2006). As a nation, the United States can no longer afford to allow 50% of its students
to drop out of high school, or earn a high school diploma while only able to read at a
third or fourth grade level (Education Trust, Inc., 2006).
Currently, there are urban high schools with large subpopulations of racial and
ethnic minorities, socioeconomically disadvantaged students, English Learners, and
students with disabilities who have exceeded expected outcomes, and have sustained
6
success in closing the achievement gap over a period of 3 or more years. By uncovering
the factors to their success, other schools and districts may gain valuable insight into
closing the gap with similar populations.
This case study was one of 9 thematic dissertations within a cohort group of
doctoral students studying factors, including cultural norms, practices, and programs,
which may contribute to the academic success in a high-performing urban high school.
Together with the cohort group, this study examines factors that sustain success in
narrowing the achievement gap in an urban high school setting, while other members of
the group examined elementary and middle school settings as well. Together, these case
studies contribute to a developing body of research, which include cultural norms,
programs, and practices that are linked to increased levels of student achievement in
urban high schools. School practitioners, both at the site and district level, may discover
these findings are applicable to their campuses or districts.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations recognized in the study:
1. The sample size was small, limited to only one urban high school.
2. The only significant ethnic minority subgroup for this urban high school was
Hispanic/Latino. The subpopulations for African-American students and American-
Indian students were too small to be significant.
3. The findings were limited to one urban high school, and may not be
generalized. The study did not allow comparing or contrasting the urban high school
studied with other urban high schools of similar demographics and achievement.
7
4. Observations, surveys, and interviews were conducted over a limited period
of time equaling four months, not allowing the researcher to be able to observe
dynamics that may have occurred during the second portion of the school year.
5. Observations were subject to the researcher’s interpretation and inherent bias.

6. The researcher was led to assume that all participants were truthful and
forthcoming in their answers.
7. The validity of the study was only as reliable as the instruments used.
Delimitations recognized in the study:
1. The school site was purposefully selected based upon pre-determined criteria
including: (1) immigrant/minority students, English Language Learners, low
socioeconomic status, at least 40% of the school population receiving free and reduced
lunch, and Title I status, (2) the school included significant minority subgroups of 100
or more students or 15% or more of the population, (3) the selected school met or
exceeded state averages for a period of 2 or 3 consecutive years or had had progress
toward an API of 800 for 2 to 3 years.
2. The study was confined to one urban high school in Los Angeles County,
California.
3. Although this study is one of 9 case studies conducted by a doctoral cohort at
the University of Southern California, transferability of the findings for this study is
limited.
4. While surveys were given to the entire staff, less than all were returned, and
therefore the sample may not represent the opinions and views of the staff as a whole.
8
5. Interviews were conducted with a sample of administrators and teachers and
may not represent the views or opinions of the entire staff.
Assumptions recognized for this study include:
1. Data collected via the California Department of Education were accurate and
valid regarding the school’s API, free-reduced lunch participants, and state and similar
schools ranking.
2. Data collected via the district website and Student Accountability Report Card
(SARC) were accurate and valid regarding the school’s demographics.
3. Data collected from administrators and teachers are valid representations of
participants’ experiences.
4. The researcher assumed that factors such as cultural norms, programs, and
practices contributed to student achievement.
Definition of Terms
• Academic Performance Index (API). A method of summarizing test scores
results into one number ranging from 200 to 1000, with 800 being the state-
defined goal. The “API score” is then used to rank schools among all others in
the state of the same type (elementary, middle, high) and, separately, among the
100 schools most similar in student demographics, teacher qualifications, and
other factors (EdSource, 2007).
• Accountability. The notion that people or an organization should be held
responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or
sanctioned for their success or lack of success in doing so (edsource.org, 2009).
9
• Achievement Gap. A consistent difference in scores on students’ achievement
tests between certain groups of children and children in other groups. There is a
strong association between poverty and students’ lack of academic success as
measured by achievement tests. And, while poverty is not unique to any
ethnicity, it does exist in disproportionate rates among African Americans and
Hispanics, and among English learners. The reasons behind the achievement gap
are multifaceted. They do to some degree stem from factors that children bring
with them to school. However, other factors that contribute to the gap stem from
students’ school experiences (Edsource.org, 2009).
• Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). A set of indicators used to determine whether
schools, districts, and the state are on track to meeting the goals of having 100%
of students proficient on certain state academic content standards by 2013-14. In
California, the indicators are 95% participation rate on state tests; specified
percentages scoring proficient and above on tests of English and math content
standards; API scores: and for high schools, graduation rates (EdSource, 2007).
• California English Language Development Test (CELDT). A test for students
whose primary language--as reported by their parents--is not English. The exam
is taken upon initial enrollment and annually thereafter until it is determined that
they have mastered English (Edsource.org, 2009).
• California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE). A state exam that California
public high school students, beginning with the class of 2006, must pass in order
to graduate. It is a pass-fail exam divided into two sections: English language
arts (reading and writing) and mathematics. The test is taken by sophomores,
10
juniors, and seniors. Once students pass a section of the test, they do not take
that section again (Edsource.org, 2009).
• Civil Rights Act of 1964. Legislation that prohibits discrimination on the basis
of race or ethnicity by any program or activity that receives federal financial
assistance (Edsource.org, 2009).
• Content Standards/Standards. Standards that describe what students should
know and be able to do in core academic subjects at each grade level
(Edsource.org, 2009).
• Critical Race Theory (CRT). CRT has defined racism as “not the acts of
individuals, but the larger, systemic, structural conventions and customs that
uphold and sustain oppressive group relationships, status, income and
educational attainment” (Taylor, 2006, p. 73).
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The federal law affecting K-
12 education, originally enacted in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty. It was
created to support the education of the country’s poorest children. Congress
must reauthorize it every six years, with NCLB being the latest and most
dramatic revision since its creation (Edsource.org, 2009).
• English Learner/English Language Learner (EL/ELL). Students whose home
language is not English and who qualify for extra help (EdSource, 2004).
• Free-Reduced Lunch. A federal program that provides food, typically breakfast
and/or lunch, to students of low-income families. The number of students who
participate in the National School Lunch Program is often used to measure the
poverty level of a school or district population (Edsource.org, 2009).
11
• Individualized Education Plan (IEP). A plan developed for a specific student
that outlines what that student needs to learn in a specified period of time and
what special services need to be provided based on the student’s ability
(Edsource.org, 2009).
• National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). A national test that is
given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A small
sample of students, representative of the state, is tested. NAEP scores can be
compared to national averages (Edsource.org, 2009).
• No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Federal legislation enacted in January 2002
and the most recent version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of
1965. It requires that states receive specified funding to hold schools
accountable for state academic content standards. Schools receiving Title I Basic
Grants and that do not make “adequate yearly progress” (AYP) for two
consecutive years enter Program Improvement (PI) (EdSource, 2007).
• Program Improvement (PI). An intervention program for schools and districts
that fail to make “adequate yearly progress” (AYP) for two consecutive years.
The interventions become more severe if the school/district continues failing to
make AYP, to the point where some restructuring can be required (EdSource,
2007).
• Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). A test administered by the national College
Board and used throughout the country as a college entrance examination.
National and state averages of scores from the SAT I Reasoning Test (formerly
12
called the Scholastic Aptitude Test) are published annually (Edsource.org,
2009).
• School Accountability Report Card (SARC). An annual report on specified
aspects of a school’s operation, which is required as part of Proposition 98.
Other state legislation and the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) also
require SARCs (Edsource.org, 2009).
• School Site Council (SSC). Parent, students (high school students only),
teachers, and other staff selected by their peers to prepare a school improvement
plan and to assist in seeing that the planned activities are carried out and
evaluated. Such a council is required when a school received funding for a
School Improvement Program (SIP) or through Title I (Edsource.org, 2009).
• Socioeconomically Disadvantaged. Students whose parent do not have a high
school diploma or who participate in the free/reduced price meal program
because of low family income (Edsource.org, 2009).
• Title I. One of ten sections in NCLB that provides funds for educationally
disadvantaged students, include the children of migrant workers. Funding is
based on the number of low-income children in a school and is intended to
supplement state and district funds (Edsource.org, 2009).
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
This study is divided into 5 chapters. Chapter II is a review of the literature and
related research. Also presented is an historical context of the United States
government’s role in providing funding for children of low socioeconomic status and
developing accountability measures that would be tied to federal funds; the findings that
13
would suggest an achievement gap; and practices that have been shown to reduce the
gap. Chapter III explains the research design, conceptual framework and model,
descriptions of the sample population, and a description of the process used for data
collection and analysis of the data. Chapter IV describes the findings of the study,
including an analysis and interpretation of the findings. Chapter V includes a summary
of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations for future research.

14
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this study is to examine factors that allow urban schools to
narrow the achievement gap and sustain their success over time. The study also
examined cultural norms of the school community; practices, both inside and outside of
the classroom; and, programs employed by the school that have allowed them to narrow
the achievement gap and sustain success.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine factors associated with
closing the achievement gap in urban high schools. This begins with an examination of
the history on education and public policy and the major reform efforts to impact public
schools over the last 60 years. The review continues with accountability and the
evolution of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and its influence on how we view
the achievement gap today. The review addresses how the achievement gap is defined
and factors that have been shown to close the achievement gap, specifically leadership,
collaborative culture, and curriculum and instruction. At the core of the literature review
is a discussion of practices that may positively impact student achievement in terms of
closing the gap in urban high schools.
An Historical Perspective on Education and Public Policy
Education is a public fundamental right as defined by the Constitution of the
United States and the federal government, but remains an autonomous duty of each
state; yet, educational attainment of the nation’s people has long been a federal political
interest. In his book, Political Education: National Policy Comes of Age, Cross (2004)
creates an historical account of the shaping of national education policy from the early
15
1950’s to the present. As early as 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower, then president of
Columbia University, ran a presidential campaign that featured education as a key issue.
With a classroom shortage that resulted from the baby boom of the 1940’s, Eisenhower
argued that the federal government had the duty to provide funds to build more
classrooms, comparing school construction to the aid given to states for the building of
state infrastructure; and, that building classrooms did not violate state autonomy since
the federal government would not dictate what would be taught inside of the those
classrooms (Cross, 2004). Although Eisenhower became the thirty-fourth president of
the United States, he won no immediate victories on the issue of education.
When Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was announced in 1954, it
changed the course of education, promising the end of inequality of resources available
for Black children (Cross, 2004). However, the landmark decision created great
procedural and legal difficulties in the passage of key legislation that would aid in the
construction of new schools (Cross, 2004). Housing patterns, especially in the Southern
states, had created, for all intents and purposes, the segregation of Black and Whites,
resulting in the same patterns for school populations thus bringing about court-ordered
desegregation (Cross, 2004). The need for 176,000 classrooms by 1960 called for
federal support of a construction bill that became politically complex when civil rights
proponents in both the House and Senate lobbied for language to be attached to the bill
in accordance with the Brown decision. The funding to build schools would require
state certification of school desegregation. The Cooper bill, as it was known, was
defeated each time it went to legislation in 1955, 1956, and 1957 (Cross, 2004).
16
Cross (2004) recounts that weeks after the defeat of the Cooper bill in 1957, the
Soviet Union launched Sputnik into space, creating a national panic. Eisenhower, in a
nationally televised address, professed that the U.S. had a shortage of qualified
scientists and engineers, resulting in a focus away from the construction issue toward
the development and push of greater post-secondary coursework that focused on
science, math, and foreign languages. In 1958, Congress passed the National Defense
Education Act (NDEA) which changed the support of public school aid in K-12 and
higher education (Cross, 2004).
The presidential election of 1960, once again brought education to the spotlight
as a federal interest. John F. Kennedy highlighted science and education as a priority of
his candidacy, gaining support of teachers and the National Education Association
(NEA) (Cross, 2004). Winning by a narrow margin, President Kennedy created the
Hovde Task Force on Education, headed by Frank Hovde, president of Purdue
University, and included educators, Francis Keppel, dean of Harvard University’s
School of Education (“Francis Keppel”, 2008), and John Gardner, President of the
Carnegie Foundation (“John W. Gardner”, 2009). Their report called for the immediate
legislative actions that would provide funds focused toward the educational
improvement of public schools, including research, experimental programs,
construction of new schools, and more federal aid to promote teacher education (Cross,
2004). The proposals were costly and controversial, ultimately being pushed aside, with
Kennedy, instead, taking his first attempt at an elementary and secondary education
proposal to Congress in 1961 (Cross, 2004). However, the political mire that ensued
over the lack of aid to nonpublic schools from a Catholic president and the tension of
17
desegregation, kept Kennedy’s education bills from passing through Congress (Cross,
2004). The lack of action to create improvements in public education during this pivotal
point in United States history, when desegregation was at the political forefront, may
have contributed to the disparity in academic achievement seen today between racial
ethnic subgroups, students in low socioeconomic urban schools, and their White, more
affluent counterparts.
Upon the assassination of President Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, vowed to
carry on the Kennedy legacy by passing an elementary and secondary education bill
(Cross, 2004). The landmark bill signed into law by Johnson, the Civil Rights Act of
1964, forever shifted the focus of the federal role in education away from public school
aid to desegregation, creating opportunities for the African-American community and
building support for Johnson’s Great Society Proposal of 1965 (Cross, 2004). As a
former educator and product of public education, Johnson believed that education was
the key to bringing equity to all and releasing people from the grips of poverty. Johnson
quickly appointed Gardner to head an education task force, which included Keppel.
After four months of deliberation, the Gardner task force centered on providing federal
aid to educate children of poverty. Placing education at the top of his presidential
agenda and laying the groundwork for Title I of his Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), Johnson professed that all students should have the
“opportunity to learn” (p.24), citing that children of poverty are those with the greatest
need for “intensive educational services”(Cross, 2004, p. 24), yet often get less. These
words would be echoed by Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush in decades to
come.
18
The 1980’s brought another era of educational reform under President Ronald
Reagan. The U.S. was suffering from the aftermath of the Vietnam War and its worst
economic period since the Great Depression of the 1920’s. With this economic crisis,
the federal government had no choice but to place tighter reigns on federal money, and
call for stricter accountability measures for the money it was spending. Reagan’s
strategy for tighter spending and strict accountability included 3 major components:
eliminating the U.S. Department of Education, consolidating programs, and reducing
spending by giving back to states the local control over education, resulting in fewer
federal dollars being passed along (Cross, 2004).
Reagan’s secretary of Education, Ted Bell, headed up the National Commission
on Excellence in Education (NCEE). The NCEE created a 36-page report entitled, A
Nation at Risk which formulated a picture of the demise of the U.S. as a competitive
global economy and its loss of status as a technological and military leader due to the
rising mediocrity of the education of its people (Cross, 2004; Guthrie & Springer, 2004;
Harris & Herrington, 2006). Nation at Risk was a national call for increased standards
and graduation requirements with accountability that included consequences for low
performance (Harris & Herrington, 2006). To further increase accountability, Cross
(2004) recounts that Bell began to rank each state’s education system by analyzing
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Test (ACT) scores, as well as
“poverty rates, teacher salaries, average per pupil expenditures, and dropout rates” (p.
81). With this data, he created the, now infamous, Wall Chart which ranked states by
performance, further convincing state political leaders to support the collection of
19
student achievement data through a national assessment known as the National
Assessment of Educational Progress, or the NAEP.
Accountability and the Evolution of NCLB
Educational achievement has been a federal political interest since as early as
World War I. Smyth (2008) cites that the U.S. Army Alpha assessment was an
instrument used to sort recruits and place them in the most suitable jobs based on
intellect and ability. With this as a model method of evaluation, educators have adapted
standardized testing and, more recently, criterion-referenced assessments to analyze
education and measure performance of student achievement.
In the mid 1960’s under the Kennedy administration, the Hovde task force
pushed for educational improvement in public schools. Epstein (2005) cites Francis
Keppel, the Commissioner on Education, approached John Gardner to propose the
creation of a national assessment that would report student test scores at the state,
district, and school level to be used as leverage to raise the quality of education.
Gardner, however, was of the position that a national assessment should be used to
develop national standards and aid in the formation of public policy. The two men
employed Ralph Tyler, a respected leader in educational testing, to develop the National
Assessment. With his acceptance of the task, Tyler believed that he was to create an
assessment instrument that would provide “census-like data” (p. 11) that would inform
the public of educational attainments of the nation’s children, youth, and adults. The
National Assessment would provide data on how sub-populations performed on specific
objectives, and thus, was launched in 1969 testing seventeen-year-olds in the areas of
science, citizenship and writing (Epstein, 2005).
20
Epstein (2005) recounts that the 1970s was an era marked by a crippled
economy that was wounded by inflation, the Vietnam War, and high taxes. Title I of
ESEA continued to provide public schools with federal money to aid in the equality of
education for the underprivileged. With federal resources becoming scarce, President
Nixon called for additional accountability measures in education, marking the back-to-
basics movement and the establishment of minimum competency tests at the state level.
While the NAEP served as a model for state testing, in 1978 it was passed into law via
The Education Amendments of 1978 to be used as an instrument of educational research
by the National Institute of Education, or NIE (Epstein, 2005). It was at this time,
according to Epstein (2005) that the NIE had contracted with a private company the
Educational Testing Service (ETS) to produce an assessment that could be used to
politically direct education policy.
The release of A Nation at Risk and the pledge to reduce federal spending by
Ronald Reagan called for further implementation of accountability for education.
Together with the publicity of Bell’s Wall Chart and a lack of valid state educational
data, ETS expanded the NAEP to the state level. In 1988, Congress passed the
Hawkins-Stafford Amendments which required the first state-level NAEPs to be
conducted in grades 4 and 8 in reading and mathematics (Epstein, 2005). With the
passing of the Hawkins-Stafford Amendments and the development of the National
Assessment Governing Board, NAEP became known as The Nation’s Report Card.
NAEP spotlights the disparity in academic achievement between African-
American students, Latino students, and their White counterparts, as well as the
disparity between poor and nonpoor students in reading and mathematics. Current
21
NAEP results show that African-Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans have
proficiency rates lower than 18% in grade 4 Reading, compared to their White and
Asian counterparts who score 40% proficient (Education Trust, 2006). Grade 8
mathematics results are more disparaging, revealing less than 12% proficiency for
African-American, Latino, and Native American subgroups, compared to 37% and 47%
proficiency for White and Asian subgroups, respectively (Education Trust, 2006). The
disparity between poor and nonpoor students is also evident in Grade 4 reading
achievement in which the average scaled score for nonpoor students is approximately
25 points higher than that of poor student (Education Trust, 2006). The gap defined for
nonpoor versus poor students in Grade 8 mathematics is close to 20 points as well
(Education Trust, 2006).
Continuing with Reagan’s push for educational reform, President George H.W.
Bush called an education summit of the nation’s governors that would focus on the
improvement of public schools and spotlight the enhancement of America’s
international competitiveness, holding educators and policymakers accountable (Cross,
2004). Evolving from the summit was a task force of White House staff, including
Lamar Alexander, newly appointed secretary of education and a small group of
governors, led by Arkansas governor, Bill Clinton, to create national educational goals.
The task force was later named the National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB).
And, the result was the development of America 2000, which was later named Goals
2000: Educate America Act, and signed into legislation under the country’s next
president, Bill Clinton (Cross, 2004; Epstein, 2005).
22
Under the umbrella of ESEA, Goals 2000, no longer focused on the education of
just the underprivileged, but directed its spotlight on the education of all children. The
most significant objective of Goals 2000 became its third goal which calls for the
“demonstrated competency in challenging subject matter, including English,
mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts,
history, and geography…” (Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 1994). The NAGB
further defined cut scores and categories of basic, proficient, and advanced level of
competency for which student progress toward standards would now be reported
(Epstein, 2005). Under Clinton, there was a call for a national test in reading and
mathematics however the NAEP was not named officially as the national assessment
instrument. The Clinton administration ensured that federal funds would not be
connected to the participation of states in national tests, only to be changed by President
George W. Bush who mandated that Title I funding would be tied to state participation
in state-NAEPs (Epstein, 2005).
According to McGuinn in his book, No Child Left Behind and the
Transformation of Federal Education Policy, 1965-2005 (2006), there was bipartisan
agreement that the public education system was broken and in need of fixing. The
political time was ripe for a bargain to be made that would increase federal education
funding and flexibility while expanding accountability for school performance.
President Bush’s work with Senator Edward Kennedy, a conservative Republican
president and staunchly liberal Democratic senator, respectively, ensured that the
education bill would be a truly bipartisan vision of educational reform. The new bill
however, was not easily passed in its original language, leading to further compromise
23
from the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives. The increased amount of
funding had become an issue as had the language added to the bill by the House
regarding “adequate yearly progress” (AYP) which had set unattainable goals for the
improvement of student outcomes; meanwhile, language added by the Senate seemed to
be “too complex to be workable” (McGuinn, 2006, p. 176).
Following the attacks on the U.S. on September 11, 2001, Congress had agreed
that it was important to support the president and attend to the business of the people.
To pass the bill, compromise was made on behalf of the Senate and the House to allow
states to create their own definitions of student proficiency, while maintaining that all
states must show that students have attained proficiency within twelve years (McGuinn,
2006). The new bill was passed with language that included “teacher quality, testing,
and accountability” (McGuinn, 2006, p. 177). McGuinn (2006) further notes that the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2002, or NCLB, allowed public schools greater flexibility in
federal spending, while creating requirements such as adopting academic standards with
statewide assessments aligned to those standards to be given to all students grades 3-8
and once in high school; test results would have to be made public and show
disaggregated data for major racial and ethnic groups, students of low socioeconomic
status, students with disabilities, students who claim English as their second language,
and migrant students.
Furthermore, states would have to administer the NAEP every other year to a
sample of students in grades 4 and 8 to check the effectiveness of standards and their
comparability across states. Accountability of NCLB also ensures that school districts
24
publicly release report cards that identify schools that fail to meet AYP, and are
designated in need of “‘program improvement’”(p. 178). These accountability reforms
openly required states to use data to track efforts of the school community to close the
achievement gaps traditionally identified with racial, ethnic, and low socioeconomic
groups (McGuinn, 2006).
The Achievement Gap Defined
The 1954 court judgment, Brown vs. Board of Education, was a landmark
decision for the advancement of civil rights, ending the segregation of schools with the
intent of equalizing educational opportunities for Black children. Brown highlighted the
racial inequities of schools that were relevant to achievement, leading to passage of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 which mandated studies such as the Coleman Report (1965).
As a result of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the United States Commissioner of
Education had requested a survey and report of the unequal distribution of educational
opportunities by race, color, religion, or national origin. The survey was to address four
major questions: the extent of racial segregation in public schools, educational equality
in terms of input, educational equality in terms of student achievement, and the quality
of student achievement based on the kind of schools they attend (Coleman, 1965). The
survey was conducted covering a sample of only 5% of the public schools in the United
States with sampling more heavily taken from high minority areas. Students in the 1
st
,
3
rd
, 6
th
, 9
th
, and 12
th
grades were given aptitude and achievement tests as well as
questionnaires. In addition to student questionnaires, principals, teachers, and
counselors were also administered questionnaires.
25
Findings of the Coleman Report (1965) suggested that students of color, which
at that time included African-American, Puerto Rican, Mexican-American, Native-
American, and Asian students received unequal educational opportunities in comparison
to their white counterparts which included, but were not limited to: greater class sizes,
inadequate facilities for teaching advanced courses, teachers who are not qualified to
teach in their academic subject area, and an increasing gap of minority to white student
achievement from grades 1 to 12. Furthermore, students of different racial and
socioeconomic backgrounds enter school with different resources and educational
experiences. Students with greater socioeconomic resources often enter school with
opportunities and knowledge that enrich the schooling experience (Coleman, 1967).
Data from the NAEP and SAT traced back to the 1970s through the 1990s
shows a picture of a bifurcated pattern of Black-White and Hispanic-White
achievement, first narrowing into the late 1980’s and widening again into the present
(Lee, 2002). In the article “Racial and Ethnic Achievement Gap Trends: Reversing the
Progress Toward Equity?”, Lee (2002) details a closer examination of the achievement
patterns, showing that between 1971 and 1988, Black-White test scores on the NAEP in
reading and mathematics narrowed. Black students had made significant gains, while
White students’ achievement had flattened. In contrast, the Hispanic-White gap did not
narrow as much as Black-White, but as a group, Hispanic students made the greatest
gains by 1982. Similar trends were found for college-bound students taking the SAT.
The reverse of these trends became evident in the mid 1990s (Lee, 2002).
Since Coleman’s report, the focus on closing this gap has been, and continues to
be, one of the most critical education policy challenges faced by educators and political
26
leaders. The achievement gap has been defined by various researchers and scholars as
the measured disparity in academic achievement between Whites and their racial and
ethnic peers evidenced by test scores from state or national achievement tests
(Anderson, Medrich, & Fowler, 2007; Chenoweth, 2004; Lee, 2002; and Lynch, 2006).
With the advent of NCLB, other groups, such as the socioeconomically disadvantaged,
English Language Learners (ELL), and special education students are also highlighted.
As suggested, however, by researchers and scholars, including Coleman (1966), the
achievement gap is not only defined by test scores, but is also measured in the
comparison of high school dropout rates, the relative number of students who enroll in
college preparatory and honors level coursework, take Advanced Placement exams, and
are admitted to two-year, four-year, graduate and professional colleges (Ferguson,
2004; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Lee, 2002; Noguera, 2008).
Current discrepancies in educational achievement are evident in statistics
provided by the Education Trust (2006) which show that, based on the NAEP, only 12%
of African-American 4
th
graders and 14 % of Latino 4
th
graders reach proficient and
advanced levels in reading, while a staggering 61% and 57%, respectively, are below
basic. Achievement in mathematics looks no more promising, as 7% of African-
American 8
th
graders and 9% of Latino 8
th
graders are proficient or advanced in
mathematics, with 61% and 60% falling below the basic level, respectively. The data
further show that African-American and Latino students will have the equivalent
reading skills of White middle-schoolers by the time they finish high school.
Factors that have led to what is defined as the achievement gap today, have been
addressed by Ladson-Billings (2006) as an education debt which began as an historical
27
and sociopolitical debt manifesting in an exclusion of people of color from the civic
process. While the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas was a landmark
decision in desegregating schools, it did not ensure equity of resources and school
finance (Ferguson, 2004). The literature suggests that the education debt is further
described as the accumulation of educational deficit for people of color over many
hundreds of years causing intergenerational effects that have led to the present
achievement gap through a combination of racism and colorblindness (Lee, 2002;
Lynch, 2006; Marx, 2008), socioeconomic and family differences (Lee, 2002; Lynch,
2006), and disparities in institutional quality and practices, as well as teacher quality
(Ferguson, 2004; Lee, 2002; Lynch, 2006).
Researchers have identified multigenerational patterns of racism and
colorblindness as a key contributor to the academic achievement gap, citing conventions
of the Critical Race Theory (CRT) as the framework (Marx, 2008; Noguera, 2008;
Taylor, 2006). Racism is viewed as a permanent, structurally endemic condition of the
United States in which advantage and privilege is given to Whites, while
disadvantaging people of color. CRT has defined racism as “not the acts of individuals,
but the larger, systemic, structural conventions and customs that uphold and sustain
oppressive group relationships, status, income and educational attainment” (Taylor,
2006, p. 73). This type of racism continues to exist whether or not we admit to it or
agree to it. Simply not talking about it, or acknowledging its true existence has been
termed as “colorblindness”, which can further limit our progress toward racial equality
(Ladson-Billings, 1994; Marx, 2008).
28
In the same vein, Ladson-Billings (2007) has done extensive research on the
educational debt of America that has accumulated over time due to the “neglect and
denial of education to entire groups of students” (p. 321), bringing attention to racial
and ethnic realities of education. She argues that the achievement gap is a result of the
cumulative education deficit that began in the early history of the United States when
freedmen’s schools were created for African Americans but continued with a purpose to
maintain a servant class. Schooling in the South for African Americans was limited to 4
months due to the need for farm labor, and resources were limited to second-hand
textbooks that were discarded by White schools. The stratified system of schooling was
not only experienced by Blacks, but by Latinos and Native Americans as well. This
separation, legalized by the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, widened the education
deficit for students of color. By the time the Brown decision of 1964 ended segregation
and universal secondary schooling became available to Black student in the South in
1968, the education deficit had accumulated to such a large debt that servicing the debt
has become insurmountable. The investments that are made daily by educators are
being used to pay the debt rather than forging ahead with true academic achievement.
The education debt, however, does not only apply to African Americans, but has
also been experienced by Native Americans and Latinos who have endured disparities
in education. Early mission schools were used to exploit Native American Indian labor
to advance the church. Educating the Indian and assimilating him to White culture was
necessary to save him from his “savage self” (Ladson-Billings, 2007). Once assimilated,
the Native American Indians were not able to fit back into reservation life, and yet were
unable to attend traditional White colleges, which caused them to attend historically
29
Black colleges where they were taught trade and vocational curricula (Ladson-Billings,
2006). Cases such as Mendez v. Westminster (1946), in which plaintiffs claimed that
children of Mexican and Latin descent were being segregated and forced to attend
separate schools for Mexican students, and the Lemon Grove Incident, an attempt of
local segregation of Mexican immigrant children supported by state efforts through the
failed Bliss Bill, further lay out the inequities of high-quality education afforded to
Latinos (Alvarez, 1986; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Mendez v. Westminster, 2007).
While these historic events seem to mark a turning point for ethnic minority
education, racism and colorblindness persist in our institutions beginning with the
placement of minority students into less than rigorous courses and filtering into the
classrooms via teacher expectations. As we examine trends in school enrollment for
ethnic minority students and their White or Asian peers, we see a true disparity in the
educational opportunities that are being offered. Ethnic minority students are typically
discouraged from enrolling in rigorous coursework often because the educators guiding
them don’t believe that these students have the qualities to accomplish educational
success. Students of color often report that they are discouraged from enrolling in
advanced placement or honors courses, and instead being placed in occupational or
general education classes that impede them from gaining access to a postsecondary
education (Marx, 2008; NCES, 2006; Noguera, 2008). Data from the National Center
for Educational Statistics (NCES) on the Academic Pathways, Preparation, and Career
Performance (Planty, M., Bozick, R., Ingels, S.J., & Wirt, J., 2006) of high school
students support these beliefs by showing that among high school graduates of 2003-
2004 only 25% of Hispanic and 16% of Black students earned any advanced placement
30
(AP)/International Baccalaureate (IB) credit, compared with 53% Asian and 33% White
student populations. Further support for the disparity is evidenced by the lower than
average amount of academic course credit earned by Black, Latino, and American
Indian students as well as students of low socioeconomic status compared to the higher
occupational course credits earned by these groups (Planty, et al., 2006). And, with
these areas of enrollment, we see evidence of lower mean grade point average with the
occupational programs, which are below 3.0 on a 4.0 scale (Planty, et al., 2006).
The pedagogical pulpit is not demographically equivalent to its audience. Data
from the NCES (2001) show that the teaching population is unequivocally White (90%)
and female (79%), bringing into the classroom cultural values and perspectives that are
vastly different from the ethnic minority students who sit in these classrooms. When
faced with the cultural and ethnic differences in beliefs and behaviors between students
and the classroom teacher, these differences clash, setting a roadblock to learning in the
classroom and successful teacher-student relationships. According to Ladson-Billings
(1994), teachers are uncomfortable acknowledging student differences, especially racial
differences. This discomfort may be a result of the need to acknowledge the atrocities of
slavery and the years of injustice done to our ethnic minority populations. Open
discussion and acknowledgement of these issues provoke resistance by White members
of the education community being criticized as inherently racist itself, provoking what
has been termed as “colorblindness”(Ladson-Billings, 1994). She identifies
colorblindness as “an attempt at ‘dysconscious racism’” (p. 31) by refusing to challenge
the current inequities and accepting the existing order of society as the status quo. By
claiming “colorblindness”, a teacher does not acknowledge the very background,
31
history, and identity that make a child different. The notion of equality causes the
classroom teacher to associate equality with sameness, when we know that not all
children are the same. Ladson-Billings (1994) argues that the needs of a gifted student,
English language learner, and a visually impaired student are each different, but as a
classroom teacher, we wouldn’t think of treating them the same educationally. Racial
differences and cultural backgrounds also need to be identified and addressed so that
educational needs can be met with best pedagogical practices.
In his book, Closing the Racial Academic Achievement Gap, Lynch (2006)
describes socioeconomic and family factors that contribute to the achievement gap.
Today, over 63% of African-American children come from a single-parent home in
which there is no male role model. While, he contends, that African-American women
can be capable and successful caregivers, young boys are at particular risk to fail in
school, or to face disciplinary action during their school days when there is no father in
the home. Furthermore, time and financial constraints on the single parent, whether
male or female, often make it difficult to fulfill the needs of the children at home, which
are left to care for each other and for younger siblings.
The literature supports the idea that differences in home environments and
socioeconomic conditions are correlated to student achievement. Currently, in the
United States, 12.5% of the American population lives at or below the poverty level
(Information Please database, 2007). Of these, 21.5% are Hispanic, 24.5% are African-
American, 10.2% are Asian, and 8.2% are White. (Information Please database, 2007).
It is evident that, based on this data, African-American children are more likely to live
in poverty than their White counterparts. In addition to living in poorer urban
32
neighborhoods, they tend to have fewer educational resources and role models of
educational and economic success (Lynch, 2006). In their research on childhood
literacy, Hart and Risley (2003) performed a longitudinal study to discover the possible
cause in the difference in vocabulary rates amongst four-year-olds. They studied 42
families of mixed socioeconomic status (13 high, 10 middle, 13 low, and 6 on welfare)
over a period of 2 1/2 years. African-American families were in each socioeconomic
category roughly reflecting the local area demographics. The study found that in
professional families children were exposed to 215,000 words of language experience,
the working-class families’ children were exposed to 124,000 words, and the child
whose family was on welfare experienced 62,000 words of language experience. Within
four years, the gap between a child from a professional family and that of a family on
welfare would be approximately 13 million words of cumulative experience. Further
study showed that the language experience also differed in the number of encouraging
words versus prohibitions. Their data showed that a child in a professional family would
receive 12 affirmatives and 7 prohibitions an hour, or a 2 to 1 ratio, compared to the 5
affirmatives and 11 prohibitions experienced in a welfare family, or 1 to 2 ratio. Hart
and Risley (2003) concluded from their study that the cumulative language and diverse
cognitive experiences rising from their schemas allowed children to seek out new
experiences and choose new opportunities, and that by the age of 4, the word gap and
the gap of cumulative experience is so large that even the best of intervention programs
would be insufficient to keep these children from falling behind.
The socioeconomic factors of the achievement gap do not stop in the home, but
rather continue into the schooling system itself beginning with inequitable funding
33
which further leads to poor institutional quality, in terms of leadership and guidance,
and teacher quality. School funding gaps show evidence that urban schools where
children are more likely to be poor and of ethnic minority are funded $10,000 less on
average compared to their suburban counterparts (Ladson-Billings, 2007). Ladson-
Billings (2007) suggests that the pattern of inequitable funding has had an effect on the
earning ratios of Blacks and Latinos. Based on estimates provided by NCES (2006), it is
evident that Blacks and Latinos who have completed a Bachelor’s degree earn
approximately $12,000 more per year than they would have earning just a high school
diploma. However, the rates at which Blacks and Latinos graduate from high school are
just above 50% (Edtrust, 2006). Furthermore, college graduation rates nationwide show
that only 41% of African–American students and 44% of Latinos that entered college
graduate with a Bachelor’s degree (Edtrust, 2006).
The disparity in high school graduation rates and college-going/graduation rates
have been attributed to institutional practices, such as tracking and ability grouping, and
teacher quality. Based on data already presented, it is evident that Black and Latino
students are more typically tracked into lower level courses than their White and Asian
peers, resulting in classroom environments that are more homogeneous by race and
socioeconomic status than not (Ferguson, 2004). While school administration may
argue that no child is forbidden from taking any course at any level, race, gender, and
socioeconomic imbalances typically develop. The justification of these imbalances
usually lies upon proficiency levels, advice received from guidance counselors and
teachers, or the preference of students to simply be with their friends (Ferguson, 2004;
Haycock, 2001). Student interviews have revealed that counselors and administrators
34
constantly underestimate their potential, thereby placing them in lower-level courses,
and dismissing their concerns such that they have little or no say in their education
(Haycock, 2001). In their study of school accountability and improved student
performance, Hanushek and Raymond (2005) support the eradication of tracking that
leads to homogeneous grouping especially for Black students. Their findings indicate
that Black students are negatively impacted in schools with higher minority populations,
in particular Black student achievement decreases with a higher Black population
concentration, yet, these findings are not supported for Whites or Hispanics.
In his analysis of narrowing the achievement gap, Ferguson (2004) argues that
students who are placed into homogeneous groupings in lower level courses also
receive lower quality instruction, further harming minority students who have been
placed into those tracks. Student interviews reveal the existence of a lower curriculum
and set of expectations that tend to bore students and lead to behavioral problems in the
classroom (Haycock, 2001). Teachers at predominantly African-American schools tend
to perform lower on standardized tests, lack the appropriate credentials to teach in their
subject area, or do not have either a major or minor in the subject area being taught
(Ferguson, 2004; Lynch, 2006; NCES, 2004). However, it would be wrong to assume
that placing students into more heterogeneous grouping would improve learning
outcomes. Ferguson (2004) cites research which shows that minority students placed in
higher achieving classrooms may still continue to receive inferior instruction due to
teacher bias. Teacher-student classroom interactions, such as eye contact, praise for
success, informative feedback, and nonverbal communication amongst others, have
additionally been identified as factors to positively affect student achievement.
35
However, teacher bias toward minority students in the classroom has allowed fewer of
these types of interactions to occur and their insufficiency has been identified as a
barrier to minority student achievement (Ferguson, 2004; Lynch, 2006).
Based on the review of the literature, factors that contribute to the achievement
gap include the inequity of educational opportunities, racism and colorblindness, and
socioeconomic and family factors. Though the factors that have created the gap are
historically and culturally deep, the advent of accountability through NCLB has forced
educators and educational researchers to analyze these factors, closely look at the
groups that have been disenfranchised, and begin to develop ways to attack and close
the achievement gap.
Practices that have been Shown to Reduce the Gap
The literature is rich with strategies that have been shown to close the
achievement gap. Of the articles and books that I examined, the most evident strategies
that researchers have noted are the necessity of a vision for success with high
expectations for all students (Cowley & Meehan, 2002; Lynch, 2006; Parker & Soper,
2003; Schwartz, 2001; Sherman, 2008); the accessibility of college preparatory
curriculum for all students (Haycock, 2001; Noguera, 2008; Parker & Soper, 2003;
Schwartz, 2001); a challenging curriculum that is aligned to standards with
accountability tied to benchmarks and frequent classroom assessments (Haycock, 2001;
LaRocque, 2007; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Schwartz, 2001; Whitman, 2008); and
the use of data-driven decision making (Cowley & Meehan, 2002; Haycock, 2001;
LaRocque, 2007; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Parker & Soper, 2003; Schwartz, 2001;
36
Whitman, 2008). These strategies can be categorized into three major areas that include,
but are not limited to, leadership, school culture, and curriculum and instruction.
Leadership
Research on student success and school reform (Blankenstein, 2004; LaRocque,
2007; Noguera, 2007; Porter & Soper, 2003; Marzano, 2003) indicates that strong
leadership is the key to school success. School leaders must create a vision for success
by building capacity through collaboration that supports the vision with a reform
process.
In his book, Failure is not an Option, Blankenstein (2004) explains that public
schools are the gateway to economic and life success for the underserved population.
Students who do not graduate high school earn substantially less than those who do.
Students who are not functionally literate are far more likely to be incarcerated as adults
than their peers who are able to read (NCES, 2003). The consequences of our children
failing and dropping out of school are too great for educators to ignore (Blankenstein,
2004).
In his writing, Blankenstein (2004) discusses courageous leadership as knowing
that the fear to act is more costly than the fear of failure, therefore acting upon personal
conviction even at the risk of loss or failure. These leaders make a commitment to
children and the school community. Their actions are due to their values and the pledge
they have taken to protect, nurture, and develop successful young men and women.
Blankenstein (2004) likens courageous leadership to highly reliable
organizations (HROs). Like HROs, these leaders create a vision for success through
reframing the organizational meaning. As an organization, all actions taken by the
37
school are assessed based on its vision, continuing to press on with what is working,
and discarding that which isn’t. When faced with obstacles, these leaders also know
how to investigate ways that other schools or districts are tackling similar issues to use
and adapt for their own success. When a vision is shared amongst a school community,
all stakeholders are able to maintain clarity of purpose on which to make decisions.
Furthermore, as they build upon their interdependence based on their vision, all staff
will begin to share in a belief that success is critical and that failure to achieve their
goals would be disastrous (Blankenstein, 2004).
In his meta-analysis of school-level factors that affect student achievement,
Marzano (2003) notes that strong administrative leadership is among the top factors
influencing school reform. Research shows that effective schools can increase student
achievement by more than one full year (Marzano, 2003). While not implicitly stated as
a school-level factor in and of itself, strong administrative leadership impacts the
implementation of a “guaranteed and viable curriculum” (p.20) in addition to
“challenging goals and effective feedback” (p.20). Furthermore, strong leadership
provides a clear mission and goals that cultivates an overall school climate that
encompasses the attitudes and classroom practices of teachers, organization of
curriculum, and the students’ opportunity to learn.
Marzano (2003) clearly states, additionally, that effective leadership involves a
small group of educators with the principal working as a cohesive group. While the
principal is the visible head of the school, it is necessary for the teachers to be involved
in the decision-making that affects the daily activities of instruction. As teachers exit the
38
isolation of their classrooms to move toward a culture of shared decision-making, they
can begin to lend their expertise to a strong leadership team.
Similar to Blankenstein (2004), LaRocque (2007) examines the role of
leadership in closing the achievement gap in the middle school. Her study focused on an
urban middle school in Florida, centered in an economically disadvantaged community
with a culturally and linguistically diverse population. This particular middle school
showed high performance on its state assessments, prompting the study of factors and
practices that contribute to school success in closing the gap. In her qualitative study,
the school principal, teachers, parents, and community partners completed
questionnaires, interviews, and submitted artifacts as evidence of student achievement.
The results of the study showed that school improvement on the Florida Comprehensive
Achievement Test, or FCAT, of two letter grades (D to B) were related to the changes
made in the school. Such changes included principal leadership for school
empowerment, “parent and community partnerships, data-based decision making, and
the celebration of cultural and ethnic diversity” (p. 158).
In her findings, LaRocque (2007) concludes that principal leadership was the
key to the school’s success. The principal was swift in action and moved quickly to
implement strategies to improve student achievement. Furthermore, the principal, as a
leader, implemented a shared vision and hosted a collaborative and respectful culture
with heavy involvement of teachers in school decision making. The team approach
taken by the principal provided valuable input from stakeholders regarding a wide range
of issues including personnel, use of resources, and curriculum planning to name a few.
The findings of LaRocque (2007) confirm research based strategies highlighted by
39
Blankenstein (2004) and Marzano (2003) that cite how strong administrative leadership
is key to school effectiveness, while strong teacher leadership heavily influences
students’ possibilities of success.
A publication on Comprehensive School Reform by Porter and Soper (2003)
focuses on reform in struggling urban schools of high poverty, poor leadership, ill-
equipped classrooms, and lacking qualified teachers—typical characteristics of schools
in which the achievement gap is most evident. They posit that piecemeal reforms such
as class-size reduction, as evidenced by the Tennessee STAR project and adopted by
schools in California, cannot change the overall culture and academic climate of
troubled schools. According to Porter and Soper (2003) the key to creating a
comprehensive school reform begins with a vision that will shape the school and fully
address its needs, in particular, the transformation of the academic climate, school
culture, and curriculum. Utilizing the strengths of a strong principal leader who must
build school capacity, in the form of curriculum and instruction, school culture, parental
involvement, and school management, and support for the reform process, all decisions
to be made are based on this vision. This plan, or vision, must include a systematic
approach to improvement that includes curriculum and instruction, as well as school
management.
Noguera (2007) addresses leadership in his lecture for the 28
th
Annual Charles
H. Thompson Lecture-Colloquium Series, Creating Schools Where Race Does Not
Predict Achievement: The Role and Significance of Race in the Racial Achievement
Gap. Upon his analysis of two urban school districts with racially and ethnically diverse
populations, he points out the implicit role of district leadership in closing the
40
achievement gap. He posits that educational leaders must openly address the
relationship between race and student achievement. Furthermore, educational leaders
must have a strategy in place to change the discourse about the relationship between
race and achievement from being focused on who is to blame to taking responsibility
for raising achievement. This type of discourse can promote educational equality and be
able to equalize opportunity for our students who are the products of public education.
Noguera’s (2007) assertions echo those of Ladson-Billings (1994), in which she
describes the need to rid education of colorblindness. Educators must openly address
the racial differences of their students much like they would address the learning needs
of a gifted student, hearing-impaired student, and a second-language learner.
Educational leaders must accept the challenge to ensure the education of all students,
while addressing racial and cultural differences.
In sum, the principal must be the driving force behind purposeful change and
school improvement. Principals create and shape the culture of their school by example,
invoking a collaborative leadership effort with teachers and parents.
Collaborative Culture
The literature consistently targets a collaborative culture with a common vision
for school effectiveness as essential to closing the achievement gap (Cowley & Meehan,
2002; Lynch, 2006; Marzano, 2003; Porter & Soper, 2003; Schmoker, 1999; Schwartz,
2001). Specifically, school effectiveness begins with a professional learning community
(PLC) framework with a foundation consisting of a mission, vision, values, and goals;
collaborative, interdependent teams that work to achieve common goals; and a focus on
results with continuous improvement (Eaker, DuFour, & DuFour, 2002). The shared
41
vision must also specifically include challenging academic goals for all students
(Haycock, 2001;Lynch,2006; Noguera,2007; Porter & Soper, 2003; Schwartz, 2001;
Whitman, 2008); recognition of diverse student populations with different needs,
behaviors and learning (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2007; Schwartz,
2001); and a safe and orderly school environment (Marzano, 2003; Whitman, 2008). In
total, these factors help to create effective structures that will lead to measureable
results (Schmoker, 1999).
Cowley and Meehan (2002) confirm the necessity of the professional learning
community (PLC) as a function of closing the achievement gap in their quantitative
study of high-performing schools. In their study, they examined 48 high performing
schools in Kentucky with high populations of African-American students, those who
receive free and reduced lunch, and large numbers of struggling learners. The objective
of this study was to investigate the differences in staff commitment to professional
learning and improvement and its relationship to student academic performance.
Cowley and Meehan (2002) found that schools with a minimal achievement gap had
PLC strategies in place, such as a commitment to continuous learning, shared
leadership, effective teaching, family-community relationships, purposeful student
assessment, and common learning goals, which provided collaborative culture of
learning and effective teaching. Furthermore, they explain that to meet the needs of all
students, schools must foster and sustain a school climate where teachers are committed
to continual learning and improvement.
In the book Getting Started: Reculturing Schools to Become Professional
Learning Communities, Eaker, DuFour, and DuFour (1999) explain that the first, and
42
most important step in developing the collaborative culture of the PLC is to articulate
the mission, vision, values, and goals that will drive all of the decisions of the school.
The mission answers the questions of why the school exists; the vision answers the
question of the kind of school or district that the organization hopes to become; the
values answer how the members are to behave in order to become the organization they
envision; and the goals establish the steps to be taken and when they will be taken.
Furthermore, they describe the PLC as a high performing collaborative team in
which all members are assigned to one or more teams that work interdependently to
achieve common goals. Collaboration is to become embedded in the school culture with
every major decision made through collaborative processes. Teachers who are mostly
familiar with a culture of isolation must learn to give up some personal autonomy in
exchange for collective engagement of answering critical questions about teaching and
learning. The focus now, specifically, is shifted from teachers teaching to students
learning. Teachers must ask three basic questions:
1. What do we want students to learn?
2. How do we know if they have learned it?
3. What will we do when they haven’t learned? (Eaker, et al., 2002)
This cultural shift must be assisted by providing time for teachers to collaborate and
receive professional development during the normal work week, specifically built into
the school day and the school calendar (Eaker, et al., 2002). Furthermore, there is a
focus on specific and measureable goals, as well as explicit products of collaboration
(Eaker, et al., 1999).
43
Another critical focus of the collaborative school culture is data-driven decision
making. Data-driven decision making is the vehicle on which to focus on specific and
measureable goals, as well as provide evidence of collaborative efforts (Eaker, et al.,
2002; Schmoker, 1999). Schmoker (1999) notes that data make the invisible visible by
noting strengths and weaknesses, and promoting precision with decision based on clear
goals and the assessment of progress. Common goals with common measures that are
developed against a collective focus give practitioners the greatest opportunities to learn
from each other and improve practice.
Data-driven decision making can be used for school wide programs or tailored
to classroom use to improve instruction. Administrators and school leaders should use
data to specifically target “at-risk” students who may need specific resources to ensure
success in the school environment, especially for students transitioning from elementary
to middle school or middle school to high school. Data coupled with collaborative
efforts of administrators and counselors between feeder schools and receiving schools
allow a continuum of support in terms of prevention efforts for struggling students early
in their academic career (Blankenstein, 2004). As students are placed into prevention
and intervention programs, data is used to ensure that the program is addressing the
issues that are specifically leading to low student performance. Without data,
educational leaders are merely left to opinion without a firm foundation to support any
conclusions (Blankenstein, 2004).
In terms of classroom use, Eaker, et al. (2002) indicate that once specific goals
have been set, collaborative teams need to be provided with relevant and timely
information to assess progress toward their goals. In a functioning PLC, teachers are
44
provided time to do common planning and create common assessments that would
measure student performance on agreed upon standards. However, once the standards
are set, the data are ultimately needed to improve practice (Schmoker, 1999). When the
assessment is created, teachers should establish a performance standard for student
mastery of the total test, as well as any specific standards or substandards. When
students are assessed, timely and relevant data can be provided to this group of teachers
to discuss success as well as teaching strategies for concepts on which students have
struggled.
Finally, a collaborative culture entails a schoolwide program of rigorous
academics with accountability. Whitman (2008) highlights the utilization of rigorous
academic programs with accountability in his article An Appeal to Authority: The New
Paternalism in Urban Schools in which he examines how the paternalistic model of
schooling works to close the achievement gap. He examines a growing trend in urban
schooling called paternalism which uses a highly prescriptive way to teach students how
to think, and how to act according to middle-class values, and in which teachers are
authentic and caring figures. The goal of paternalist programs is to try to curb social
problems by imposing behavioral requirements. Whitman (2008) cites that disorder and
chaos are believed to be the undoing of urban neighborhoods, and that by curbing this
disorder a cultural shift centered upon going to college can develop. Paternalistic
schools also promote character education and the building of cultural capital by
exposing students to Shakespeare, National parks, and providing opportunities in white
collar internships. Together, these actions are believed to suppress street culture and
promote post-secondary success. Additionally, Whitman (2008) emphasizes the
45
personalization of the school culture referring to the familiarity that teachers and
administrators have with students’ personal lives.
Confirming the essence of paternalistic schools, Marzano (2003) discusses the
necessity of a safe and orderly environment as being critical to academic achievement,
and that schools that do not create this type of environment risk undermining all efforts
at reform. School leaders must examine a school’s physical structure and establish
routines that would minimize negative interactions, in addition to establishing
schoolwide rules and procedures for behavior. He recommends an assembly format at
the beginning of the school year to provide students with oral and written
communication of schoolwide expectations for behavior, in addition to an open house
night for parents to answer questions and further communicate schoolwide expectations.
With schoolwide rules and expectations clearly communicated, Marzano (2003)
recommends that consequences for rule violations be established and enforced.
Consequences must be fair and consistent, as well as appropriate to the violation. He
further suggests that schools should establish an early system of detection for students
who may be violent or have a history of behavioral problems.
Curriculum and Instruction
Developing a systemic approach to reform requires a collaborative effort by all
stakeholders in the school community (Porter & Soper, 2003). A cultural shift must take
place to create a cohesive school community that is willing to work together and build
collaborative efforts to improve school climate and create an academic focus to improve
minority student achievement. The schoolwide focus begins with hiring highly qualified
teachers who are skilled and knowledgeable in their content area (Haycock, 2001;
46
Lynch, 2006; Schwartz, 2001). The curricular focus needs to be placed on challenging
academic goals for all students which include a college preparatory curriculum, as well
as research-based strategies to improve student outcomes. District and site leadership
are also recommended to build instructional capacity by creating school-based, regional,
and even national networks that will allow teachers to have conversations with other
professionals regarding classroom practice (Porter & Soper, 2003).
Marzano (2002) reports that a teacher can be the most important factor to affect
student learning. When a highly effective teacher is placed into a classroom, student
achievement rises dramatically, improving the education of the student well over any
other factor. Students placed in classrooms of ineffective teachers showed gains that
were over three times lower than those of their peers who had effective teachers.
Marzano (2002) emphasizes that the study of the difference in gains was only for the
period of one academic year, however, the cumulative effect of being placed into
classrooms with ineffective teachers over several years is debilitating.
The result of hiring highly qualified, effective teachers can have a compounded
effect on the school. Effective teachers have sound subject matter knowledge, more
instructional strategies they might use along with the pedagogical knowledge of when
those strategies might be useful, and the ability to effectively communicate and relate to
students (Marzano, 2002; Noguera, 2007). Furthermore, teachers who know their
subject matter exhibit greater self-efficacy in the classroom, have increased and
appropriate classroom interactions, and have less racial bias than teachers who are not
confident in their subject matter (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Payne, 1994).
47
The next focus of curriculum and instruction is providing a challenging
academic coursework that includes rigor and relevance. Noguera (2007) notes in his
study of two urban school districts that increased access of minority students to rigorous
classes, coupled with improved mentoring and counseling programs for students who
are “at risk” of failure contributed to the decrease of racial academic disparities in
student achievement.
Grants given by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation seek high schools that
provide every student with a challenging academic program that will prepare students
for college and family-wage jobs. Furthermore, they believe that high schools must
combine rigor with relevance to student’s interests and career choices, while being
supported by positive relationships within the school setting.
Rigor, Relevance, and Results: The Quality of Teacher Assignments and Student
Work in New and Conventional High Schools (Mitchell, Shkolnik, Song, Uekawa,
Murphy, Garet, & Means, 2005) compares practices of new high schools (those that
accept Gates Foundation funding) and comprehensive high schools. In this comparison,
rigor and relevance proved to be the mitigating factor for improved performance in
English Language Arts (ELA) and mathematics. Emphases were placed on real-world
contexts, problem-based learning, and project-based learning as a step toward bringing
relevance to ELA and mathematics.
Quality assignments were also shown to directly relate to improved standardized
test scores. Further, detailed teacher feedback was also necessary for quality products in
ELA. Rigor in mathematics proved to be more necessary than relevance in improving
48
math achievement. However, providing hands-on mathematic experience engaged
students, enriching their learning and providing greater outcomes.
Implications of this study suggest that teachers need continued professional
development on how to incorporate rigor and relevance into their teaching practices
with compelling illustrations of the types of rigorous and relevant assignments given to
students of similar demographic populations in new high schools to those of
comprehensive high schools. Finally, the study suggests that supplementary resources
are also needed to provide support for high-needs populations.
In accordance with the above implications, other instructional strategies that
have noted to help close the achievement gap are extended time frames for student
instruction which include block scheduling, an extended school day and school year,
and tutorial programs (Haycock, 2001; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Schwartz, 2001).
Based on Marzano’s (2002) meta-research on effective instructional practices that
enhance student achievement, tutorials seem to have the largest effect size. Tutorial
programs can be placed outside of the school day, before or after school, or within the
school day to ensure student participation. Tutorial periods scheduled during the school
day allow students to specifically work with their own classroom teacher without
missing classroom instruction (Eaker, et al., 2002).
Summary
In an era of increased accountability, public schools have the responsibility to
ensure challenging academic curriculum that prepares all students for postsecondary
opportunities. The literature suggests that the racial academic disparity is a result of an
education debt that has accumulated over hundreds of years of inequitable resources for
49
people of color that currently manifests itself through racism and colorblindness in the
classroom (Ferguson, 2004; Lee, 2002, Lynch, 2006; Marx, 2008). As a result, students
of color and of low socioeconomic status are typically discouraged form rigorous
coursework, teachers lacking in quality, and lack of leadership and guidance in the
schools (Ferguson, 2004; Haycock, 2001;Lynch, 2006). Further, the literature adds that
home environments and low socioeconomic conditions intensify the academic gap as
children from impoverished environments are not exposed to the same language and
literacy opportunities as children from wealthier homes (Hart & Risley, 2003; Lynch,
2006).
In high performing urban or urban-like high schools, many factors have been put
into place to increase student performance. The literature suggests that schools have
been shown to reduce the achievement gap by instituting a vision for success for all
students, while implementing a challenging a rigorous curriculum aligned to standards
with accountability tied to assessment (Haycock, 2001;Cowley & Meehan, 2002;
LaRocque, 2007; Lynch, 2006; Noguera, 2008; Parker & Soper, 2003; Schwartz, 2001;
Sherman, 2008; Whitman, 2008). The strategies can most often be evaluated through
leadership, school culture, and curriculum and instruction.
Some schools have been statistically outperforming other urban or urban-like
high schools. And, while many of these schools have put these factors into practice,
schools still exist in which the achievement gap remains wide. Literature is lacking in
defining factors that have contributed to the sustained success of schools that are
narrowing the achievement gap. This study will examine the programs and practices
that have allowed the narrowing of the achievement gap in one urban high school. This
50
study will further examine the culture that has sustained the success and continuous
improvement toward closing the gap over the last 5 years.
51
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study examines an urban school that has sustained success in narrowing the
achievement gap. In this chapter, the purpose of the study, research questions, research
design, sample and population, data collection procedures, data analysis process, and
limitations are discussed. As described in the problem statement and review of the
literature, factors that have contributed to narrowing the achievement gap include
leadership, a collaborative culture, and curriculum and instruction. However, yet to be
studied are the ways in which these factors work to sustain success toward closing the
achievement gap in urban high schools. Limited information exists on how urban high
schools sustain success over a period of three or more years in narrowing the
achievement gap.
The purpose of this study was to examine urban high schools and their programs
and practices which have succeeded in reducing the achievement gap, and sustaining
this academic growth over time. More specifically, the study examined whether cultural
norms of the school community, practices, both inside and outside the classroom, and,
programs employed by the school have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap
and sustain success.
The research questions are as follows:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
52
2. What are the practices (school-wide and classroom) that have been employed by
the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain
success?
3. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have allowed
them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
This selected urban high school was unique because it was exceeding the
performance of similar schools throughout California. Due to its success over the last 5
years, this study focused on the cultural norms, site practices, and programs that may
have impacted this improved student performance.
This high school was selected because its student body and demographics were
consistent with the characteristics of an urban population, as defined by the dissertation
team. This particular high school is located in an urbanized area as defined by the U.S.
Census Bureau as having “a central place(s) and adjacent territory with a general
population density of at least 1,000 people per square mile of land area that together
have a minimum residential population of at least 50,000 people” (U.S. Census Bureau,
2000). An urban school was defined by the team as having a population that causes a
school to modify its programs to accommodate the risk factors that would come with
such population in a school. These include, but are not limited to, minority/immigrant
students, English Language Learners, low socioeconomic status, at least 40% free and
reduced lunch, and Title I status. Other characteristics included a student population
with racial minority subgroups of greater than 100, or greater than 15% of the school
population. The dissertation team defined success toward narrowing, or reducing, the
achievement gap as making progress toward an Academic Performance Index (API) of
53
800 schoolwide; subgroups meeting and/or exceeding state averages; the narrowing of
schoolwide versus subgroup API scores. Sustainability of success was defined as
achievement of the aforementioned for 3 or more years.
This case study was one of 9 thematic dissertation studies by a doctoral student
cohort studying this phenomenon as an extension of research completed by a previous
doctoral cohort. The cohort met in person on a monthly basis from October 2008
through January 2010, and conversed electronically by email to discuss past and current
research surrounding the achievement gap; to develop research questions; to design the
components of the study; to develop the conceptual framework; to develop the
instrumentation; to discuss individual progress, compare results, share resources, and to
support each other’s efforts. It should be noted, however, that each dissertation was an
individual effort. However, the compilation of these studies will provide a
comprehensive and extensive examination of the sustainability of success toward
narrowing the achievement gap for urban schools from the elementary through
secondary levels.
A qualitative case study was conducted to examine the cultural norms,
programs, and practices of the school community in relation to the narrowing of the
achievement gap in an urban high school. The case study methodology was selected to
provide an opportunity to study these relationships and any other contributing factors in
the school environment. Data collection methods included document review,
administrator and teacher surveys, administrator and teacher interviews, and
observations.

54
Research Study Framework and Model
The conceptual framework for this study was derived from the gap analysis
model developed by Clark and Estes (2002). Figure 1 describes the plan for the gap
analysis model. The model begins by identifying an organizational goal, which is
followed by effective performance goals. The organization proceeds to determine
performance gaps and analyze those gaps to determine causes. Performance gaps are
due to knowledge/skill causes, motivation causes, and organizational causes. Once
solutions are determined and implemented, the organization will evaluate results, tune
the system, and revise goals (Clark & Estes, 2002).

Figure 1. Gap Analysis Process Model

Note. Clark, D., & Estes, F. (2002). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the
right performance solutions. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.

Identify key
business goals
Identify individual
performance goals.
Determine
performance gaps.
Analyze gaps to
determine causes.
Identify motivation
solutions and
implement.
Evaluate results,
tune system and
revise goals.
Identify organizational
process and material
solutions and implement.
Identify knowledge/skill
solutions and implement.
55
The conceptual framework shown in Figure 2 was developed by the dissertation
team to illustrate the gap analysis used to determine factors that have contributed to
growth in student achievement for urban high schools that are exceeding performance
expectations compared to like schools. Factors contributing to growth include cultural
norms, programs and school structures, and practices. These factors will be analyzed to
determine their role in narrowing the achievement gap within the urban high school of
study.

Figure 2. Model of the conceptual framework for the current study.

Research Design
This study was a qualitative study utilizing document reviews, observations,
interviews, and surveys, focusing on the case of an urban high school that has sustained
Identify a
High Achieving
School
Identify Student
Subgroup
Performance
2008-2009 School
Achievement
Goals and
Subgroup API
Scores
Identify Factors
Contributing to
Growth
Programs/
School Structures
Analyze and
Synthesize
Results
Practices
Cultural Norms
Document
Review

Observations
Interviews
Surveys

56
success in narrowing the achievement gap. Research of this phenomenon required
detailed, in depth study of issues that pertain to this urban high school.
Due to few examinations of schools which have sustained success in the
narrowing the achievement gap, case study methodology was used due to the interest of
in-depth study of this phenomenon in its natural setting, while seeking the emic and etic
perspectives of the participants (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). Case study research allows
the researcher to focus deeply on one case due to its intrinsic interest. For this particular
study, I was able to collaborate with the other members of the dissertation cohort in
order to test the generalizability of themes and patterns (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003).
Utilizing various forms of data collection allows details to be examined from
multiple perspectives, strengthening the study through triangulation (Patton, 2002).
Triangulation ensures that no single method answers or solves a problem. A variety of
methodological combinations provide cross-data validity checks, testing for consistency
(Patton, 2002). Finally, triangulation allows the researcher to find inconsistencies in
results that “offer opportunities for deeper insight into the relationship between inquiry
approach and the phenomenon under study” (Patton, 2002, p. 248).
The case study methodology allowed me to provide detailed descriptions of the
phenomenon with an explanation of relational patterns (Gall, et al., 2003). The
depiction of the phenomenon will provide a thick and rich description to re-create the
phenomenon within its context, further relating descriptive data to data of other research
findings reported in the literature (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003).

57
Sample and Population
This study focused on one urban high school and investigated site practices,
such as cultural norms, practices, and programs that have increased student
achievement, and have allowed the school to narrow the achievement gap continuously
from 2004-2008.
The high school is located in the southeastern portion of Los Angeles County,
and was selected based on its meeting of two qualifying criteria set by the dissertation
group: (1) the school demographics are consistent with that of an urban school, and (2)
the school has had to have sustained progress in narrowing the achievement gap.
Although the term urban is reserved by the U.S. Census (2000) as having a population
of 1000 people per square mile, the dissertation team had to define how a school is
considered to be urban. The team defined an urban school by virtue of its population
that requires a school to modify its programs to accommodate risk factors that would
come with a population which included, but was not limited to, (1) immigrant/minority
students, English Language Learners, low socioeconomic status, at least 40% of the
school population receiving free and reduced lunch, and Title I status, and (2) the school
included significant minority subgroups of 100 or more students or 15% or more of the
population. The school was located in an urbanized area as defined by the U.S. Census
Bureau (2000), and had urban characteristics as defined by the dissertation team. As
shown in Table 1, the school served a population that was 88% Hispanic or Latino, 9%
White, 1% African American, 1% American Indian or Alaska Native, and 1% Asian
(CDE, 2009). Seventy-one percent of its students participated in the Free or Reduced
Lunch program (CDE, 2009). While the school is Title I eligible, it does not participate
58
in a school-wide Title I funding program (Public Schools Report, 2007). Eleven percent
of its student population is designated as English Learners (EL) or reported their
primary language as other than English on their Home Language Survey (CDE, 2008b).
Nineteen percent of the student population was designated as Reclassified Fluent-
English-Proficient (CDE, 2008b).
Table 1 Student Demographics for Wrightwood High School
Hispanic/Latino 88%
White/Caucasian 9%
Asian American/Pacific Islander 1%
African-American 1%
English Language Learners 11%
Reclassified Fluent English Proficient 19%
Qualified for Free and Reduced Lunch
Program
71%
Note. Source: 2008-2009 Accountability Progress Reporting, California Department of
Education, Sacramento.

Sustainability was defined by subgroups that have met or exceeded state
averages for a period of 2 or 3 consecutive years or have had progress toward an API of
800 for 2 or 3 consecutive years. The selected school has sustained progress toward
narrowing the achievement gap for more than 3 years. Between 2004 and 2008 (Table
2), the high school has increased its schoolwide API from 609 to 716, an increase of
107 points, exceeding the state average every year since 2005, with the exception of
2006 (CDE, 2005a; 2006; 2007; 2008a). Hispanic or Latino subgroups have shown
continuous growth since 2005, increasing their API by 43 points, narrowing the
achievement gap with their White counterparts from 84 points in 2005 to 47 points in
2008 (CDE, 2005a, 2008a). Socioeconomically disadvantaged student subgroups and
students with disabilities subgroups have shown significant gains of 45 points and 40
points, respectively (CDE, 2005a, 2008a). Additionally, significant subgroups in
59
Wrightwood High School have outperformed significant subgroups in the state of
California since 2005 (Table 3).
Table 2 School API Data from 2003-2004 to 2007-2008
School Year 2003-
2004
2004-
2005
2005-
2006
2006-
2007
2007-
2008
2008-
2009
California
Statewide API
Score

*

671

683

689

702

755
Schoolwide API
Score
609 682 680 714 716 743
Hispanic/Latino 593 670 667 707 713 739
White/Caucasian 740 754 769 776 760 785
African-American NA NA NA NA NA NA
Asian/Filipino NA NA NA NA NA NA
Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged
566 654 653 692 695 739
Students with
Disabilities
NA 453 459 477 490 502
English Learners NA 650 622 656 666 692
Note. “NA” indicates that scores were not available due to insignificant number in
subgroup.
Note. Source: 2003-2009 Accountability Progress Reporting, California Department of
Education, Sacramento.
Note. “*” denotes data was not available from the California Department of Education,
Sacramento.

60
Table 3 API Comparison Data for Significant Subgroups in State of California v.
Wrightwood High School (WHS) from 2005-2006 to 2007-2008
School Year 2005-2006
State WHS
2006-2007
State WHS
2007-2008
State WHS
2008-2009
State WHS
African-American 578 NA 589 NA 596 NA 624 NA
Hispanic/Latino 597 667 612 707 621 713 651 739
White/Caucasian 745 769 759 776 765 760 788 785
Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged
593 653 607 692 616 695 648 739
Students with
Disabilities
441 459 456 457 467 490 494 502
English Learners 586 622 586 656 590
666
612 692
Note. “NA” indicates that scores were not available due to insignificant number in
subgroup.
Note. Source: 2005-2009 Accountability Progress Reporting, California Department of
Education, Sacramento.

Similar schools rankings in California utilize the API decile ranks to compare
school overall performance statewide and compare school performance based on similar
demographic characteristics (California Department of Education, 2007). Schools’ API
scores are first sorted from lowest to highest and divided into ten equal groups, or
deciles, producing the statewide rank. The similar schools score is a decile ranking
which compares each school’s API scores to those of 100 other schools with similar
demographic characteristics (California Department of Education, 2007). The state wide
ranking and similar schools ranking for Wrightwood High School has steadily increased
since 2003, with a small dip in 2004-2005 (Table 4).
Table 4 Statewide Rank and Similar Schools Rank from 2003-2008
School Year Statewide Rank Similar Schools Rank
2003-2004 4 5
2004-2005 3 3
2005-2006 5 7
2006-2007 4 5
2007-2008 6 9
2008-2009 5 8

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The high school is one of five in a union high school district serving grades 9-12
only. The student enrollment of this high school is 2523, well above the state average
enrollment of 1246 and the county average enrollment of 1686 (Whittier Union High
School District, 2008). The school staffs 103 teachers, six full-time guidance
counselors, three assistant principals, and one site principal (Whittier Union High
School District, 2008).
Once the school was selected, I contacted the principal to seek permission to
study the school. The principal and assistant principal of curriculum and instruction met
with me to discuss the purpose of the study and gain approval for the request to proceed
with the study. The principal granted me access to the campus, allowed the review of
school documents, allowed interviews with various teachers and administrative staff,
and allowed the researcher to observe aspects of the school.
Instrumentation
To enhance the validity of the findings for this study, multiple methods to
collect data about the phenomenon were used, including document review,
observations, surveys, and open-ended interviews to investigate the sustainability of
success in narrowing the achievement gap. The instruments were developed
collaboratively by a thematic dissertation group from January to April of 2009. I
conducted document reviews, surveys, observations, and interviews from August
through December 2009. The use of multiple instruments to address the research
questions and investigate the phenomenon facilitated triangulation of the findings to
justify themes that emerged. The instrumentation was developed utilizing Bolman and
62
Deal’s (1997) four frames: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic to gain
greater insight to the phenomenon being studied.
The process of data collection was more fluid than rigid, following a suggested
order as set by the dissertation group. The initial investigation began with the document
review giving me an overview of the school and an initial indication of possible areas
for further review via observation. Observations were then conducted to build upon
initial findings, and remained ongoing throughout the investigation. Surveys were
conducted with teachers, followed by open-ended interviews of the principal, assistant
principals, and teachers.
Document Review
The dissertation team developed a document review master list based upon data
needs addressed by the three research questions (Appendix A). The concentration of
study for the dissertation team covered all grades K-12. The list was compiled with this
in mind. The document review list demonstrates all documents that can be reviewed for
information from district level and site specific level artifacts, instructional artifacts,
differentiated or special services artifacts, documents that can be obtained from the
California Department of Education website, and includes a section specific to the
document review needs for the high school level.
For the purpose of selecting this urban high school, information was collected
from the California Department of Education website. The California Department of
Education website provided student performance information, disaggregated by
ethnicity, and special interest groups, such as students of low socioeconomic status and
EL students, to determine the sustainability of success over 3 or more years.
63
I reviewed documents to determine and examine cultural norms that have been
employed by the school which have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and
sustain success. Documents were reviewed to examine teacher collaboration which was
defined by common planning, common assessment, and review of school assessment
data and classroom assessment data. Textbook adoption lists, assessment tools, and the
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) were reviewed to determine the level of
challenging and rigorous curriculum offered by the high school, standards-based
curriculum and instruction, and the utilization of data-driven decision making. The
SARC, student-parent handbook, and board policy were also utilized in examining
prevention programs and intervention programs for at-risk populations and the whole
school population, as well as determining behavioral expectations for students. Further
document review of the school’s vision, mission, and staff development plan allowed
for the examination of school leadership and professional development of staff for
focusing on at-risk and ethnic minority students.
Further document review was needed to examine practices employed by the
high school that have allowed them to reduce the achievement gap and sustain success.
The SARC was instrumental in reviewing school data, such as suspension records,
attendance records, and staffing to examine practices of school safety, student behavior,
and Response to Intervention. Additionally, the SARC and master schedule detailed
classroom class size, the use of block scheduling, and the organization of tutorial
periods within the school day. Classroom assessments, CST, and CAHSEE results
provided information on the practice of administrative leadership on instructional
practices of teachers. The staff development plan and professional development records
64
were examined to determine teacher involvement in professional development. Finally,
California English Language Development Test (CELDT) scores, Individual Education
Plans (IEPs), and district course flow charts to determine practices of course placement.
Practices that have been employed by the high school that have allowed
sustained success of the narrowing of the achievement gap required further document
review in the areas of leadership, intervention, classroom organization, prevention,
school safety, and English language development. I reviewed agendas and meeting
minutes from School Site Council (SSC) meetings, Student Study Team (SST)
meetings, and attendance meetings, such as Student Attendance Review Board/Team
(SARB/SART). The SARC, school safety plan, suspension reports, board and site
policy, and behavioral contracts were utilized for examination of school safety
practices. CELDT data, ELD lesson plans, and district re-designation policies were
examined for practices of English language development.
Observations
I selectively chose observation opportunities that would address the research
questions of the study. Five general categories of observations were identified: (1)
classroom observations, (2) student program observations, (3) staff meetings and
professional development meetings, (4) leadership, (5) physical plant. An Observation
Protocol was used to guide observations (Appendix B) in addition to an Observation
Log (Appendix C). I attended a student-leader preparations day for freshman opening
day. The program is titled “Senators”. The group is composed of specifically selected
student leaders from all backgrounds who are chosen to mentor a small group of
freshmen throughout the year. The following day, I attended “Freshman First Day”, an
65
orientation day designed for freshman students to make them acquainted with the school
itself, the location of their classes, their teachers, and school expectations. The day
further included team-building activities and an introduction to school pride. I also
attended an opening-of-school meeting called “Leadership Camp” attended by teacher
leaders who are addressed by the principal regarding aspects of teacher leadership.
Additionally, teachers share professional development experiences with each other;
look at recent CST and API data; discuss Social Contracts resulting from their training
at Capturing Kids’ Hearts (CKH); identify effective instructional strategies; review PLC
WUHSD Individual School Analysis; discuss Western Association of Schools and
College (WASC) areas of growth; and, finally, review professional development
opportunities within the school district as put in place by the “Pay It Forward” training
program. I also attended professional development meetings for site members and
common planning meetings. Classroom observations were conducted in various
classrooms ranging from 5 minutes to 50 minutes. The classrooms were mutually
selected by the school administration and myself to represent a cross-section of
curricular areas and student ability levels.
Staff meetings and professional development meetings were attended by me to
observe the interactions of teachers-with-teachers and teachers-with-administrators.
Department meetings were attended to observe teacher-teacher interactions that
included common planning, development of common assessments, and data-driven
decision making. I attended staff development meetings to witness interaction of staff
and teacher leaders.
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During site visits, I noted the physical plant, and issues of school safety that
were addressed by school leadership. I visited various portions of campus that included
the older buildings as well as the newer, including the school’s auditorium, sports
complex, administration building and classrooms, math and science building, and
electives buildings found across the street. The campus is divided into two parts
connected by an underground tunnel that is utilized by students and staff to reach
classrooms on the other side of the street.
During the observations, I took notes on the observation log designed by the
dissertation team (Appendix C). The observation log was designed to be open-ended
and allow for scripting of information during the observation. Within a 24-hour period,
all observations were transcribed into a word-processing document.
Surveys
The teacher survey was developed by the dissertation team to determine
teachers’ perceptions in six areas: (1) collaboration opportunities, (2) curriculum for
underachieving students, (3) school leadership, (4) levels of implementation, (5) use of
data, and (6) intervention (Appendix D). The survey included 30 questions that focused
on factors that narrow the achievement gap based on the literature.
The teacher survey was administered to the teachers during a four week window
via the web survey tool, surveymonkey.com. To ensure the greatest possible
participation, the researcher had discussed using this tool with the school principal prior
to administration. The principal had said that they had used the survey tool as a school
site once before to collect data and had great success with participation being 100%.

67
Interviews
Interviews were conducted individually with 1 administrator and 4 teachers pre-
selected by me with guidance from the school administration. All interviews were
digitally recorded with the participant’s permission and transcribed into a word-
processing document. Interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes to 90 minutes.
Individual interviews included 50 questions which were aligned to areas in the
survey to ensure triangulation of data (Appendix E). Additional questions, including
follow-up inquires were asked during individual interviews based on other data
collected and the interviewee’s responsibility or knowledge in a particular area.
Interviews were conducted after surveys were administered so that the researcher would
have an opportunity to clarify, prove, and validate information already obtained.
Data Collection
All data collection was the responsibility of the doctoral student. Document
reviews, observations, surveys, and interviews were conducted from August to
December 2009.
Validity and Credibility
The qualitative data collection design was developed by the dissertation team to
align with the research questions and factors based on the literature to increase the
validity and credibility of the results. Teacher surveys and interview questions were
field tested in a focus group setting of a demographically comparable urban high school
in another school district.
The researcher received certification from the Collaborative Institutional
Training Initiative Course in the Protection of Human Research Subjects prior to data
68
gathering. The researcher completed the four required modules with success. The
course focused on legal, procedural, and ethical research practices associated with
studying human subjects.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to identify urban high schools which have
succeeded in reducing the achievement gap, and sustaining this success over time. The
researcher was able to triangulate case data from the review of relevant documents,
surveys, interviews, and observations to support emergent themes and to strengthen the
validity of the study. The data were coded and classified as they related to the research
questions.
Summary
Through a carefully and collaboratively designed qualitative methodology, the
study addressed the stated research questions. It was the intent of the researcher to
identify factors that contribute to the sustainability of success of narrowing the
achievement gap in urban high schools. It was also the researcher’s objective to
comprehensively study an urban high school to identify practices that could be applied
to other schools to increase student achievement.
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CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The purpose of the study was to identify urban high schools which have
succeeded in reducing the achievement gap, and have sustained success over time. This
urban high school was unique because, despite its large subpopulations of racial and
ethnic minorities, socioeconomically disadvantaged students, English Learners, and
students with disabilities, it has sustained success toward closing the achievement gap
over a period exceeding 6 years. The study also examined cultural norms of the school
community; practices, both inside and outside of the classroom; and, programs
employed by the school that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and
sustain success.
This chapter summarizes the findings of the case study. The chapter consists of
five sections: Overview of the Case Study, Summary of the Findings by
Instrumentation, Emergent Themes from the Data Collection, Summary of Findings by
Research Questions, Discussion of the Findings.
Overview of the Case Study
Wrightwood High School is a large urban high school located in the
southeastern section of Los Angeles County. One of five comprehensive high schools in
a Union High School District, Wrightwood High School maintains a rich history dating
back to 1900. The surrounding community was established in 1887 by Quakers who
desired to build a new community in California. The building of the first Southern
Pacific Railroad spur into the town allowed it to flourish. Within a few years, the
community began to thrive with a commercial cannery, in addition to citrus and walnut
70
industry that developed prominence as a result of the railroad line. With an increase in
residents, the first school opened, and was quickly outgrown (City of Whittier, 2009).
The second school was established in 1900, housing 47 high school students in the
upper floor of the school building. The high school consisted of a “study hall, a library,
a recitation room, a science laboratory, and the principal’s office”. In 1905, a new
building was constructed to house the rapid influx of students. The school has grown
tremendously since 1905, adding several classroom buildings, an auditorium, sports
fields, Olympic size swimming pool, sports complex, cafeteria, and an additional
southern campus.
The purpose of this study was to address the following research questions:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices (schoolwide and classroom) that have been employed
by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
To be able to obtain a comprehensive look at the high school, I collected data
over a period of 17 weeks, conducting 6 visits. Over this period of time, I observed
Senators training, an all-day training session for freshman student mentors, also referred
to as Link Crew; attended and observed freshman first day; attended and observed
Leadership Camp for teacher leaders; observed a common planning day for staff called
“Data and Doughnuts”; attended and observed a professional development meeting;
observed 10 classrooms; conducted individual interviews with 4 teachers and the
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assistant principal of curriculum; and surveyed staff via surveymonkey.com. I also
reviewed several documents including the school’s Focus on Learning Self-Study, or
WASC report, API data, SARC, bell schedules, master schedule principal’s and
superintendent’s newsletters, and various pieces of professional learning tools utilized
within their Leadership Camp and teacher-led professional development time. From the
school’s website I reviewed guidance information, discipline plans, and EL assistance
and educational planning programs. Testing schedules for district and state testing were
posted, specifically for benchmark testing, CELDT, CAHSEE, Physical Fitness Testing,
Early Assessment Program testing, and standardized testing and reporting (STAR)
testing. Professional development information was found including an overview of the
district’s Pay It Forward Professional Learning and Systemic Improvement model,
schedules, learning activities, and additional research resources. In the area of
curriculum and instruction, the school website has posted graduation requirements,
curriculum and instructional materials, such as essential standards for all courses
offered, course descriptions, and course of study development and approval process.
Summary of Findings by Instrumentation
Observations
Senator training: Link Crew. My day began early on a summer morning, prior
to the opening of the school year. I drove through the quaint downtown neighborhood,
streets lined with mature trees, small cafes and eateries, an older movie theater, and
small, antique shops and clothing boutiques. As I drove toward Wrightwood High
School, the road led me to a majestic building, detailed with architecture that dated back
to the early 1900’s. There wasn’t one building, however, but a large school campus with
72
several buildings, another under construction; the campus expanded to include a large
magnificent auditorium, several large playing fields, an Olympic size swimming pool,
Sports complex, and a spacious quad spotlighted by a fountain. The exterior of the
campus was clean and freshly-painted. There were open wrought-iron gates that led to
the campus walkways. As I parked my car, I noticed that the campus was not contained
to just one city block, but continued across the street to a smaller campus which housed
several smaller buildings, including an arts building, general studies building, metal
craft shop, auto shop, and newer modular buildings.
I found my way toward the new sports complex named after an alumnus of the
high school who played college football at the University of Southern California and
professional football for a team that once called Southern California its home. As I
entered the foyer, I couldn’t help but notice the banner which read, “Wrightwood High
School—Legacy of Excellence.” Below the banner are California Interscholastic
Federation (CIF) patches for various sports beginning with 1906 to the most recent of
2001. Three glass cases filled with trophies and pictures that dated as far back as the
1930s, including photos from the 1938 California Interscholastic Federation (CIF)
wrestling team and the 1943 championship basketball teams adorned the cases. The
center case contained CIF championship footballs from the 1960s and 1990s, along with
uniforms and lettermen sweaters. One case was dedicated to the alumnus for whom the
sports complex had been named.
As I found my way up the stairs and into the entrance of the complex, I saw over
170 junior and senior students waiting to enter the building to begin a day of intense
training as freshman mentors. They are called the Senators, a group of upper class
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student leaders who are chosen from all walks of life, assigned to small groups of
freshmen who they will mentor for the coming school year. They are preparing for
Freshman First Day, a day dedicated only to freshmen in which they will engage in
team-building activities; get-to-know each other activities; tour the campus; become
acquainted with their schedule and teachers; and be introduced to the expectations and
pride of the high school. Not all Senators look like the clean cut, straight “A” student
that one would choose to be mentors and examples to a freshman class. Rather, Senators
are a mix of athletes, scholars, middle-of-the road to struggling learners, underachievers
who have turned their lives around, and your typical purple-haired, lip-pierced, Goth-
looking student. One particular student packages himself as “the common guy”. He
appeals to the students who are underachieving, telling them stories about how he had
poor grades as a freshman, and, also, as a sophomore, but life circumstances changed,
and now he wants to go to one of the Universities of California.
This gaggle of students crowded into the stands only to be greeted by a petite
young woman with a great deal of energy. Their advisor, Michelle, is an English teacher
and ASB director for the high school. She greeted the students with a vigorous “Good
morning” and led them into their morning stretch, an activity they will use during the
Freshman First Day. She continued to lead students through interactive team-building
activities which are geared toward counseling freshmen to become part of the school.
Michelle took time after every activity to explain how the part the students play within
the games is related to school and students’ lives as freshmen. For example, the large
group of students played a game of tag. While some thought they were too cool to play,
or just didn’t want to participate fully in the game, once they got started, laughter and
74
energy increased. Michelle explains that the same happens in school. As freshmen,
students may find themselves not wanting to participate in fear that they may look
ridiculous; but if they allow themselves to become part of the culture, they will get
caught up into the life of school, and invariably experience success.
Michelle led the group in a second game of tag, called “Cyclops tag”. Students
were only allowed to keep one eye open as they play the tag game. The laughter and
energy increased exponentially during this round. Michelle asked, “Was this activity
harder? Why? Because you only have one eye? Does that happen in life? When you see
obstacles in life, what do you do? Give up? Or find someone to help you?” Her line of
questioning led students into a discussion of their roles as Senators. Because the
freshmen have the Senators to help guide them, they should have no excuses for
obstacles to keep them from graduating. There is a definite sense of camaraderie and
pride that drive the mission of the Senator program.
Freshman First Day. As I approached the sports complex on my next visit,
there was a sense of excitement and nervousness filling the air. Approximately 350
freshmen students anxiously waited to enter the sports complex of Wrightwood High
School. This would be their first taste of high school life. Red and white balloons, the
schools colors, are everywhere outside the gym. The principal, Mrs. E. seemed just as
excited as the teenagers waiting to see what awaited them inside. She was dressed from
head to toe in school colors, ready to greet each student as they came through the door.
Inside the gym, Senators lined up and created a walkway that led freshmen to
tables labeled with sections of the alphabet on which they found their nametags. A
deafening cheer for these new members of the Cardinal family filled the gymnasium.
75
Senators called each freshman student the night before to remind them to come to their
orientation day. They stationed themselves in the stands to control and regulate seating.
The training of these new students begins with something as simple as their seating in
an assembly. Freshman students are kept in the lower bleachers and fill the bleachers
from the bottom up as will be the case during their school year in regular assemblies.
This is part of the Cardinal way.
The assembly of students was welcomed by Mrs. E. who addressed the students
with a short welcome. With the introduction to the Senators in the audience, each
donning a read t-shirt that read, “We got your back”, she introduced a couple of new
teachers to the Cardinal family. Mrs. E. then invited the freshmen to look around and
look at the Senators around them; she said, “This is your future.”
Michelle began to lead the freshman class, with the help of her Senators, into the
opening stretch and team activities. After the first game, Michelle asked students to
think about what the game meant. She told them to look around and notice that some
kids were cheering. Some laughed. But, some didn’t allow themselves to enjoy the
process. This was just like school life. “We want you [freshmen] to become the people
to ‘make things happen’. Get involved.”
Another game conducted by Michelle and the Senators asked for large groups of
approximately 40 students each to get in line by height without talking. Immediately, I
noticed leaders begin to emerge directing the way for others. Some students were just
standing by waiting to be pointed in the right direction. Is this what will happen in
school?
76
Students were then asked to get in line according to birthday order without
talking. Again the same patterns emerge. However, this time I noticed a clump of girls
just sticking together and not participating. Michelle reminded them, “You can move
around. You will still be able to be friends even though you aren’t holding each other’s
hands.” “Take some risks, move out of your comfort zone,” she implored. Michelle
continued to tell these freshmen that the lesson of this game was “to get to school early,
do your homework, and above all, be yourself. Your friends may not want to
participate, but don’t let them hold you back. You need to take risks while at
Wrightwood High School.”
At the conclusion of the games and activities, the freshmen were introduced to
their Senators who would be specifically working with them throughout the year. The
freshmen groups began with a tour of the historical campus. I walked along listening to
the older students pass down the history and traditions of the century old campus. We
began by walking through the student quad. On either side were older buildings, some
of the original buildings to the campus. They were freshly painted, and the campus was
clean, with trimmed trees and greenery all around. At the middle of the quad, I noticed a
fountain that was covered with tiles dedicated from each graduating class since the early
1900’s. The Senators explained that the fountain is a centerpiece to their campus and
will often have different colored water for special occasions, like red during
homecoming week, signifying the school’s colors. The Senators continued to explain
the history of the tunnels on campus utilized for bomb shelters during World War II.
They boasted about the use of their school as the centerpiece to a movie made in the
1980s. They also proudly bragged about their auditorium which has hosted speakers as
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famous as Albert Einstein. The pride that the Senators had for the history and the
traditions of their school was evident throughout the conversations they had with their
groups of freshmen.
The freshmen were also led through the administrative building where they
would obtain their identification cards. I took a moment to explore the halls through
which the Senators were leading us. From the entrance of the building to the exit, the
walls were filled with reminders of school pride and the college-going environment that
has been built at WHS. The Associated Student Body (ASB) glass cabinet included
school spirit merchandise for purchase. The ASB also decorated a second cabinet with a
school calendar of events and posters about class competition.
Throughout the building, including the faculty lounge, administrative offices,
guidance office, and ASB office, were 11x14 glossy pictures of various aspects of
student life. The pictures contained students of various walks of life taking part in
school dances, assemblies, and athletic events. Pictures were also displayed of students
studying in groups, working independently and cooperatively in the classrooms, and
participating in one-on-one tutorials with teachers.
Continuing to walk down the hallways, I noticed the curriculum board
advertising the schools vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet A-G requirements.
The bulletin board also included posters with logos of colleges and universities with a
statement that read: The following students from Wrightwood High School will be
attending [name of college/university] in the fall of 2009 semester. And directly
underneath, the board featured the names of students who would begin their college
career in just a few short weeks. Some of the college and career paths the proud
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graduates were taking included, but were not limited to, Whittier College, Cal State
University Fullerton, DeVry, United States Marine Corps, Rio Hondo College, Cal Poly
Pomona, University of California Riverside, Cal State Sacramento, Universal Technical
Institute, University of California Berkley, Arizona State University, Concorde Career
College, Riverside Community College, California State University Long Beach, and
California School of Culinary Arts.
A second glass case further heralded the achievements of seniors who were
attending colleges and universities in the fall. In this display were 4x6 glossy photos of
graduating seniors proudly wearing a WHS red polo shirt. Beneath the picture was
listed each student’s name and the college they would be attending in the fall. While I
didn’t take the time to count the number of students in the display, I would have to
estimate that there were over 150 soon-to-be college students representing WHS.
Further down the hallway at the opposite entrance to the administration building,
another glass cased bulletin board celebrated WHS’s achievement of being named in the
Newsweek Magazine’s list of the Top 1500 high schools in the nation. Newsweek’s
selection criteria is based upon the number of Advanced Placement, International
Baccalaureate or Cambridge tests given at a school in May, divided by the number of
students that graduated that year. If the ratio is at least 1.000 of tests given to number of
graduates, the school is placed on the Top 1500 list. Less than 6% of approximately
27,000 public high schools in the United States were able to reach the standard during
that year. Newsweek’s rationale for compiling this list is to highlight the best high
schools in the nation that are giving students as many opportunities to take college-level
course work so that they will be better prepared to face the academic challenges of
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college. This was Wrightwood’s first time to appear on this list, and, as was evident by
the decorative bulletin board, they were extremely proud of this achievement.
It was evident from my experience of Freshman First Day, the proud display of
student life throughout the administration building, and the unmistakable exhibit of the
achievements of WHS students toward academic success, that this school is dedicated
toward a college-going culture. A freshman’s first impression of WHS is a school with
a tremendous amount of pride and a commitment to academic accomplishments.
Graduating from WHS is not optional, it’s essential. Moreover, when a student
graduates from WHS, having completed college entrance requirements, he or she will
be equipped to make the choice to continue pursuing an education after high school
whether that direction leads to a university, community college, trade or technical
school, or the armed services. Furthermore, whatever that choice may be, WHS will
exuberantly display the accomplishment of its graduates as a legacy and promise of
excellence to its current students.
Leadership Camp. The Leadership Camp was a day prior to the start of the
school year in which teacher leaders were invited back to the school to meet and to
discuss preliminary state test score data, effective instructional strategies, professional
development opportunities, being an effective teacher leader, and WASC areas of
growth. The all-day meeting was held in the library, an open room structure with high
ceilings and several large tables for students or faculty members to do work. Faculty
meetings are typically held in the library due to its size and available workspace.
The principal began the morning with a Good News activity. Each teacher was
asked to share something good that happened during the summer and something they
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were looking forward to during the coming school year. Every teacher took the
opportunity to share with their peers. Several of the teachers mentioned their experience
at the Capturing Kids’ Hearts (CKH) conference. Groups of teachers attended this 3-day
conference hosted by the Flip Flippen group. The conference provided tools for
administrators, teachers, and school staff to build positive relationships, trusting
relationships with students, as well as create self-reflective, high-functioning teams. The
program website states that it trains teachers how to:
• Develop safe, trusting, self-managing classrooms
• Improve classroom attendance by building
students’ motivation and helping them take responsibility
for their actions and performance
• Decrease delinquent behaviors such as disruptive
outbursts, violent acts, drug use and other risky behavior
• Utilize the EXCEL Model™ and reinforce the role
of emotional intelligence in teaching
• Develop students’ empathy for diverse cultures
and backgrounds (Flippen Group, 2009).
Teachers boasted the development and anticipated use of a Social Contract
which they learned how to utilize during their training. The principal modeled the
practice of creating a Social Contract. She asked teachers to get into small groups and to
define what a social contract is for, and to answer one of four questions that she
provided. Automatically, small groups conform to leadership group rules by appointing
a facilitator, scribe, spokesperson, timekeeper, on-task person, and affirmer. Members
who have been to the CKH training help to guide the group conversation.
The objective of developing a social contract was for teacher leaders to discuss
how they wanted to be treated by different groups on campus including administrators,
other teacher-leaders, colleagues, and how those groups should be treated in good times
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and in times of conflict. Much of the conversation by each group revolved around
concepts of respect, professionalism, fairness, positive attitudes, and compassionate
honesty. After lunch, the principal would take all of the input from each group and write
the social contract so that each member would sign it as the social agreement for the
year.
The principal moved on to celebrate success with her team. She shared with me
that all success, however small, is to be celebrated in her school and in the district.
Evidence of success is always proven in the form of data. She allowed her teacher
leaders to analyze data provided by the district’s office of assessment and
accountability. The data included district-wide API data trends beginning from 1999 to
the present, and broken down by each of the 6 high schools in the district. Data also
included the percentage of students in performance levels by course at WHS.
The principal allowed some time for the teacher leaders to analyze the data
before she shared with the group that the WHS’s API grew the most in the district. She
continued to share that WHS had the highest growth in A-G course completion rate in
the district, a growth of approximately 9%. Furthermore, every course had increased the
percentage of students scoring proficient and advanced on the CSTs. With that success,
WHS would celebrate their students’ achievements by handing out proficiency passes.
Students who receive proficiency passes will have the privilege of being released from
tutorial for the first 5 weeks of school. The principal announces that more than 50% of
WHS students scored proficient or advanced in at least one test during the CSTs. She
further explained that she wanted to make sure that “students who were not proficient
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don’t feel like they are valued less at WHS, but that those who earned a proficiency
pass really worked and studied hard, took the CST seriously, and wanted to make their
teachers look good.”
Finally, teacher leaders began to engage in discussion about effective
instructional strategies. The principal asked them to discuss in small groups and write
down two strategies on post-it notes answering the question, “What does a classroom
look like or feel like when you are in the room of a really good teacher?” Every person
took a stack of post-it notes and wrote one or two word ideas for this prompt. Posters
were put up with each of the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP).
Group leaders were asked to place the post-its on the poster under the appropriate
CSTP.
After engaging in discussion about effective teaching strategies, the principal led
discussion with the group about their Cardinal Fly By. The Cardinal Fly By is a strategy
used by the professional learning communities at WHS in which one faculty member
will visit another faculty member’s classroom. The purpose of the Cardinal Fly By is to
“gather ‘food, twigs, or other materials’ that will add to the ‘strategy nest’ and/or give
‘nourishment’”. The play on words, obviously, comes from the school’s mascot the
Cardinal bird. When a faculty member visits another teacher’s classroom, he or she will
identify 3 things he or she will want to use in his or her own classroom; 2 things that he
or she may need more information about; and 1 thing he or she liked the best.
Data and Doughnuts. Every Monday, WHS starts school one hour later than
normal so that teachers can meet for common planning time. On this particular Monday,
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I was invited to experience Data and Doughnuts, a faculty meeting designed by the
principal to celebrate the success of her teachers and the school as a whole on its
improvements from the previous year, and to begin analyzing data and making
adjustments in teaching and planning.
The celebrations began that morning with the recognition of “Cardinals of
Caliber”. The principal gave special recognition to a World History teacher who had a
22.8% of his/her college preparatory classes and 48% of his/her Honors classes score
advanced proficiency on the CST. This celebration was followed by an email read from
a new teacher recognizing all staff to thank them for making her feel welcome, part of a
team, and on the right bus moving in the right direction without people wanting to get
off. She relayed that she was very proud to work and be a part of the team at WHS.
In departmental groups, the faculty began looking at schoolwide data. The
principal excitedly shared that the school had increased its API by 27 points. However,
she pointed out, they seem to follow a stair step pattern of large growth, followed by
small growth. “Why don’t we have significant growth each year, but every other?,” she
asked. This year’s motto is, “Let’s go for 2 in a row!” The principal wants to achieve a
distinguished school award. She shared, “We deserve this award. The community and
the mayor want to see us get this recognition as well.” Furthermore, she shared that
although WHS met their AYP, the bar keeps rising. If they were to look at this year’s
scores with next year’s goals, WHS may miss their AYP target. So, she urged them to
keep moving forward.
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The principal also shared with her staff that the number of students who have
completed A-G college requirements had increased. The official word from the district
is that WHS had the largest increase of A-G completers in the district at 6.6%.
“Teachers,” she shared, “are a large part of making kids believe they can do college
preparatory classes and go to college, regardless of their background or socioeconomic
status.” Additionally, she reports that the average completion rate for college
preparatory courses with a “C” or better is 93.6%. They attribute much of their success
to the tutorials that they have instituted.
After looking at data as a whole group, departments began to look at grades and
CST scores. As they analyze the data before them, they share out their “OMGs”, or “Oh
my goodness” discoveries about their data. OMGs are both good and bad. These
discoveries help departments and courses, specifically, to create goal areas with a
rationale and steps toward reaching their goals, which will be due in December.
I chose to sit with the math department which has made great strides in
improvements over the past 5 years. They begin by delineating roles as described earlier
from the CKH training, appointing a scribe, reporter, and other additional roles.
Members received data on CST broken into 5 subscores (far below basic, below basic,
basic, proficient, and advanced proficient) and a grade point average for each class
period of each discipline. The group celebrates the success of Algebra 2. They point out
OMGs beginning with 10
th
grade which has 0% advanced students in Algebra I.
Discussion reveals that the reason for this may actually be good because students who
passed Algebra I in the 9
th
grade are now in Geometry as 10
th
graders. The group
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continued to discuss a comparison of its advanced and proficient scores to the grade
point averages for each class. They notice that the honors geometry grade point average
seems low compared to how students performed on CST. The group questioned whether
the discrepancy between the CST score and GPA is a knowledge issue or a grading
issue.
The math department also discovers that they had 0% far below basic and below
basic and only 5% basic in Algebra 2 Honors. The course lead for Algebra 2 explained
that they began a new policy with students which allowed students to have their grade
changed to an automatic “A” if they received and advanced proficiency on CST.
The math group ended their discussion with goals for the school year. One of
their goals was to have more students score advanced proficient in Algebra I with less
students in the far below basic category. This group of students had the highest
percentage of far below basic scores in 3 years.
The meeting ended with each department chair sharing two OMGs, one good
and one bad, as well as each of their departmental goals. This practice of sharing out
with the whole faculty helps to broaden the scope of how departments are able to
analyze data, create goals, and develop solutions. While each department shared their
discoveries, I realized that each group had different ways of analyzing data and setting
goals. One department analyzed CST cluster score areas and set goals specifically
geared toward raising cluster scores focused on specific standards. The social studies
department chose to focus on vocabulary which they believed would move student
achievement to increase in all cluster areas. The math department analyzed data
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holistically, choosing to concentrate on overall proficiency in specific courses, such as
Algebra I, wanting to eliminate students’ scores in the area of far below basic. Not one
of the ways to analyze data or set goals was the one right way. However, sharing aloud
would allow departments to reflect upon their data again with a different lens. The
method of data analysis and goal-setting used by the math department could also be
utilized by the science department in areas of chemistry or physics, which are highly
math-related, and vice versa. The concentration on vocabulary by the social studies
department might also allow for collaboration with the English department in terms of
teaching vocabulary and incorporating social studies vocabulary into their curriculum.
Additionally, with the tremendous amount of data at their disposal, WHS
teachers are able to reflect upon their grading practices and refine their instruction and
assessment to really determine student learning. Data provided to departments included
both CST cluster analysis and grade point averages for each class period, allowing
teachers to reflect upon and have open discussion about their grading practices and how
their grades translate into what students have learned in their classes. Members of the
math department had a revelation about some of the geometry sections in which the
grade point average was low, but student proficiency was high. There seemed to be a
discrepancy between student knowledge of the subject matter as tested by the CSTs and
grading of student performance as determined by teacher. This begs the question as to
whether teachers are grading students based on their knowledge and proficiency of the
standards, or whether grades being used, in some cases, as a disciplinary action for not
turning in assignments or being late to class.
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Period by Period Staff Development. Two years ago, one of the target groups
at WHS did not meet their AYP goal, therefore part of the federal Title I funding the
school received had to be designated toward staff development. WHS offers period by
period staff development that is designed for teachers and presented by teachers. Each
period, one or two teachers had the opportunity to present an overview and strategies
from specific training in which they were involved over the summer. Trainings included
Capturing Kids’ Hearts, Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID)
conferences, and Secondary Academic Language Tools (SALT) strategy conferences.
The concept behind teachers presenting to teachers during their conference
period is threefold. First and foremost is the opportunity for professional development
in research based instructional strategies. Second, teachers who attended the
conferences were deemed the “experts” in that area or strategy, and could be easily
identified as the contact person to whom any questions could be asked or clarifications
on strategies might be made. Finally, teachers in attendance would be able to identify
others in the group with whom they shared a conference period, so that collaboration
designed around those strategies could take place.
The group of 10 teachers began with a presentation of Capturing Kids’ Hearts, a
big push for practice in this academic school year. The teacher-leader explained that the
philosophy behind CKH is to treat students as individuals by taking into account their
backgrounds and needs. She continued to share strategies from CKH including greeting
students at the door with a handshake, utilizing a social contract, and ending class with
a “launch”, a way of officially concluding the class with a send-off to students. She
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asked teachers in the group to share out strategies that they have tried in their
classrooms that came from CKH training.
The door greeting strategy is used by 4 of the teachers present. This approach
has teachers standing at the door at the beginning of every class period, greeting each
student as they walk into the classroom. In addition, they can also utilize a handshake
for every student. However, not every teacher is comfortable with the handshake. Those
who are, though, believe that it has made a difference in the relationships with students
in class. One teacher describes her experience incorporating the handshake into her
daily routine. She said, “I do the handshake, but I didn’t want to do it at first. I started
with 2 classes of freshmen. Now I look forward to shaking their hand.”
The teacher-leader, Martha, said that she notices that there is a transformation of
attitudes of students going into the classroom. Another teacher agreed, telling the group
that she had begun to experiment with just one class. She relayed that the handshake
tells a lot about the students. A firm handshake communicates confidence. A soft
handshake indicates a student who is unsure or shy. She continued by saying that the
personal contact makes a difference in intimacy and personal space. A handshake
becomes an agreement to civility.
Several of the teachers had also begun using the social contract, claiming that it
works well in their classrooms. One of the Spanish teachers present explained that all
the Spanish teachers that attended the conference during the summer developed a
progression of consequences to be utilized in conjunction with the social contract and
agreed to follow the progressive discipline plan. She explained that the social contract
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works because it is followed by everyone. Students developed the social contracts as a
class, but teachers assign the consequences. For the Spanish department, the teachers
had agreed that if a student violated the social contract, that student would be sent to
another classroom of the same course. Therefore, if the student is sent out of a Spanish
1 classroom, he or she will be sent to another Spanish 1 classroom. This way, the
student isn’t missing out on instruction since the Spanish classes keep a common pacing
of instruction. Students tend to find it uncomfortable to go into another classroom, so
they would rather abide by the social contract to be able to stay in their own classroom.
The next strategy to be shared came from the AVID coordinator. He inserviced
the group on Cornell notetaking and questioning techniques based on Costa’s Three
Levels of Questioning. Cornell notetaking is an interactive system of taking notes which
allows for collaborative and independent studying. Students master content material by
articulating major concepts in their own words and by regularly synthesizing
information. The purpose is to prepare students for the rigors of academic study where
notetaking is a genuine tool for learning, and to increase autonomy by developing the
ability to process information from multiple sources in order to meet he demands of
higher level learning. This particular strategy is being pushed schoolwide. The AVID
teacher explains that Cornell notetaking can be utilized with any style of teaching or
notegiving.
Costa’s levels of thinking and questioning are similar to Bloom’s taxonomy.
Level One requires students to gather information and show understanding through
recall tasks such as defining, listing, and describing. Level Two requires students to
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process information and use their understanding through tasks such as computation,
comparing and contrasting, and formulating answers or hypotheses. And, Level Three
asks students to apply the information they have gathered and processed through
decision making and providing supportive evidence.
The AVID teacher leader models his professional development as if he were
giving a lesson to students. Using a method of direct instruction, he discusses in some
depth Costa’s levels of questioning and how he uses them in his classroom. The teacher
participants then gathered the information on the levels of questioning and, with a
partner, listed the types of questioning with examples. The teacher-leader followed with
an activity in which the participants were given envelopes with strips of paper that had
different types of questions. Using their understanding of the levels of questioning, a
level 2 activity, they were to separate the strips into groups of level 1, 2, and 3
questions. Finally, he concluded with an activity in which each teacher participant
created 3 questions, one per level, relative to their discipline. This type of activity
involved level 3 thinking skills on Costa’s levels of thinking and questioning.
The final strategy to be covered were the SALT strategies, presented by a
foreign language/ELD teacher-leader. She handed out to the group a packet compiled
from her training on the California Reading and Literature Project. As the group went
through the packet, they discussed the essential elements of SALT strategies which
include backwards planning, identifying vocabulary across content areas, concept
mapping, and various other instructional strategies for reading.
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In reflecting upon the professional development training, it is obvious that the
shared strategies support the focus areas of WHS—at-risk student populations, college
preparation, and English language development. No single group at WHS benefits from
these techniques, but all groups benefit from each of the techniques. Creating personal
relationships and social contracts, preparing students for rigorous academic learning,
and developing academic vocabulary confirm Ferguson’s (2004) assertions of factors
that positively affect student achievement. The curricular focus, according to Ferguson
(2004) needs to be placed on challenging academic goals for all students which include
a college preparatory curriculum, as well as research-based strategies to improve
student outcomes. Furthermore, the professional development led by teacher-leaders is
more evidence of support for Porter and Soper’s (2003) recommendation to build up
site leadership in order to develop instructional capacity by creating school-based
networks that allow teachers to have conversations with other professionals regarding
classroom practice.
Classroom Observations. Four block periods of classroom observations
allowed me to view an AP English classroom, Guided Studies classroom, Physics,
Trigonometry, Geometry Concepts, Spanish I, Algebra I, and three Algebra 2
classrooms. The observations lasted between 10 minutes and an hour and 40 minutes
leading into tutorial, which was another 20 minutes.
In all but one of the classrooms I visited, the walls were visibly engaging for
students. The focus of the classroom was undoubtedly academic beginning with the
agenda that was posted on the board. Each of the classrooms posted the vision of the
school for students to be reminded of the goal of the school. Each classroom notably
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placed the college requirement letter for which their class was to fulfill. In math, each
classroom posted the letter “C” with the recommended number of years to fulfill the
four-year college math requirement. In Physics, the “D” was posted, while in English
and Spanish, the posted letters were “B” and “F”, respectively. Multiple classrooms also
posted social contracts signed by each member of the class reminding students of the
behavior they are to display during class time.
Each classroom had themed walls according to their subject area. Several of the
classes that I visited had little open wall space due to the displays of student work, the
utilization of word walls, hints and tips for success, and posters with subject specific
themes that filled the walls and bulletin boards. For instance, the physics class had
posters made by students with physics equations, with another bulletin board that was
filled with tips and tricks for test taking and reviewing quizzes. In Spanish, student
work was proudly displayed utilizing a lot of bright colors and phrases mostly written in
Spanish, creating a language rich environment. Classrooms in one wing each had a
bulletin board that was titled the “A Team”, which posted students names and their high
achievements in various classroom assignments. One classroom even had a large poster
of the Alma mater hanging at the front of the classroom, paying homage to the pride of
WHS.
Block periods of an hour and 40 minutes can be a long time to engage high
school students, however, my observation proved to me that the staff had received
training on teaching block periods and was well-prepared to utilize every minute of
instruction. As I walked into the Spanish I class, students were diligently working on
creating vocabulary flash cards. Desks were arranged for sitting in small groups of four
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so that students could have conversations and collaborate on assignments. After
approximately 10 minutes of creating vocabulary flashcards, students seamlessly moved
to the next activity with the instruction of their teacher. Using textbooks that are
provided by the classroom teacher, they read and followed along with an audio
presentation of the lesson as the teacher walked around the classroom to monitor her
students, ensuring that they were following along in the right place. Reading and
listening led to practicing pronunciation of vocabulary with the instructor. She
continued to move around the room listening to student pronunciation and helping to
correct mispronunciations. Students who she knew had difficulty, she monitored
closely. Upon the conclusion of this activity, the students began a comprehension
activity in their practice notebooks.
I noticed that the block was fully utilized by this particular teacher. In the time
that I had been present in the classroom, five different activities had taken place.
Students were familiar with classroom practices and followed the teacher’s instructions
with very little prompting. With the variety of instructional techniques, students seem to
have very little time to be left off task.
The AP English class that I observed also utilized various instructional
techniques and activities during my 40 minute observation. This particular class was
studying poetry versus prose. The teacher was specific in her instruction, telling
students what they were to look for in the piece they were analyzing and how to attack
the analysis. Her teaching techniques were direct and skillful, beginning with her use of
time. She gave students 3 minutes to do a quick overview and analysis of the piece in
front of them. She explained that at the end of the year, “when” they take the AP test,
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“not if they take the AP test”, they will have to learn how to quickly survey and
annotate the piece of literature before them. So, she gives them a short amount of time
to do a preliminary analysis. At the conclusion of the 3 minutes, students are instructed
to work with a partner to share ideas and complete more of the analysis. The teacher
continuously moves about the room checking on student progress and having
conversations about the rhetorical devices they had found. Using direct interactive
instruction, the teacher calls on students by name to share the elements of a poem versus
prose. Asking students to explain what a metaphor is, the teacher is not quick to give
answers, but instead allows students time to think and respond. To emphasize the
importance of the literary element, she instructs students to write down the element and
its meaning, followed by a quick turnaround of questioning regarding that literary
element.
In addition to the skilled instruction by the AP English teacher, I noticed a
connection to her students. It was obvious that this particular instructor had a way that
she was able to speak to students and inject a sense of humor into her subject matter.
She worked diligently at calling on students around the room, and would often be heard
saying, “who haven’t I picked on in a while?” Students seemed to like being in her
class, and were focused and willing to work for her.
I decided to make my way to see some math classrooms. As I understood, math
has become the most developed PLC on the campus. So, I found myself visiting several
math classes to see how collaboration has influenced their classroom teaching. In each
of the math classrooms the structure of the class was similar. The agenda was posted on
the board. Each class began with a warm-up set of problems, followed by a review of
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the warm-up and lesson from the last class meeting, lesson on new material, followed
by guided and independent practice. In every math classroom, I noticed that students
worked in partners or in small groups of four. Independent practice was not truly
independent, but done with a partner. When I asked one of the math teachers about this
practice, she told me that it was much easier to check for understanding with 18 groups
of two than it was with 36 individual students.
On the day that I visited, I observed three Algebra 2 classes. I had been told that
Algebra 2 had improved tremendously in the last 2 years and were really working well
together. What I observed was that the Algebra 2 definition of common planning and
instruction was truly that. Each of the three classrooms I visited was doing the same
thing. They began with a set of warm-up problems that were the same in each of the
classes. They moved into a review of the properties of logarithms. One teacher
explained to his class that as a whole, the Algebra 2 teachers had noticed that students
were struggling with solving logarithms, so they were going to reteach solving
logarithms that day, followed by more practice, and that students would be assessed on
logarithms again on the next test. The lesson was followed by review practice “by
appointments.” Students were given test review questions to work on with a partner.
They were instructed to make four “appointments” with different people in the room.
The appointments were a way of allowing students to work with multiple partners
within a class period. Every 10 minutes, the students were instructed to go their next
appointment. As students worked in partners, the teacher circulated around the room
helping students who were struggling. Students who completed the review section with
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their partner were allowed to check their answers at the front of the room. This is
another common practice I found throughout the math department.
The last math classroom that I was able to visit was a Geometry Concepts class
taught by the math department chair. This class is typically made up of students who
struggled with Algebra I and are in need of one more year to sharpen their math skills
before moving on to geometry. Typically, students in this type of class can be less
focused, creating behavior issues during the class period. However, this class had 38
students and at no time did the instructor have to discipline a student. The lesson was on
absolute values, and the notes she was giving were structured similar to the Cornell-note
taking style. Instructionally, the teacher used visual representation and physical
representation of the absolute value math concept. She explained that absolute value
was not a number, but a distance, and distances can never be negative. Many of her
illustrations were also related to everyday examples that students were able to connect
to their learning, such as relating distance in terms of driving. She explained that if she
were to drive from her home to school, she would drive approximately 25 miles. But,
when she drives back home at the end of the school day, the distance she travels doesn’t
become negative, or go backward, but rather, she would be driving 25 miles again from
school to home. In her instruction, she also repeatedly pointed out common mistakes
that students make during problem solving. During her lecture, the teacher was
constantly moving around the room to make sure students were writing notes and
answering questions of students who were struggling with their guided practice.
At the conclusion of the class period, students were asked to take out their
assignment sheet to be “checked”. At the beginning of each week, students are given an
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assignment sheet that includes the agenda that they will follow each class period; a
possible number of points for each activity; practice problems that they should be able
to do by the end of the week; and, a list of objectives that are covered during the week.
The objectives are alphanumerically listed in a table that notes the objective, and has a
check box for “didn’t do it”, “clue”, “got it”, and “for sure”. During the week, students
are given problems during their warm-up or during their guided practice that will be
lettered to correspond with one or more of the objectives in the list. Every time a
student successfully completes a problem, he or she is able to give him or herself a
checkmark by that objective. Three checkmarks signify that the student “got it”; six
checkmarks signify that he or she understands the objective “for sure”. As the students
are checking off their objectives, the teacher walks around the room to be able to do a
quick visual assessment of students who understand or do not understand concepts in
the classroom. For students who do not understand the concept, this leads to reteaching
by the instructor, or pairing the student who is struggling with another who is competent
and able to explain the concept.
Tutorial. At the conclusion of every block period, students move into tutorial
session for twenty minutes. Not every student is mandated to stay in tutorial. Typically,
tutorial is used for students who are struggling to understand a concept that was taught
during the class period, students who may be earning a grade lower than a “C”, or
students who need to make up missing assignments or tests. The math department has
the most structured way of utilizing the tutorial period, especially for math levels from
Algebra I through Algebra 2. Most math teachers ask their students for “a ticket out the
door”. The “ticket out the door” is a tagged classroom assignment, a specific problem
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done correctly, or an assignment sheet with no missing assignments. This is a way to
assess for learning before students leave the classroom.
During tutorial period, students who meet the criteria to leave tutorial are
allowed to do so to enjoy a longer nutrition break, a longer lunch period, or an early
release time. This typically leaves a small group of students in the classroom to be able
to work one-on-one with the classroom teacher. On this particular day, I overheard the
student ask the instructor for help because he had been absent from school. He was the
only student left in the classroom. She worked with him for the remainder of tutorial to
teach him the lesson that he had missed when he was absent. Now, having understood
the lesson, he was able to complete his assignments and prepare for the upcoming exam.
Reflecting upon my observations of WHS, I have concluded that there is a
strong culture of mutual trust and professionalism amongst the staff, as well as sense of
school pride and a focus on student achievement. There is an emphasis on connecting
students to the school environment via the Freshman Mentors program and tutorial. In
addition, that connection to the school and celebration of student success is visible
throughout the school, and most evidently, in the hallways of the administrative
building that herald the achievements of the school, its graduates, and student life.
Surveys
The survey used for this case study was developed by a doctoral cohort of 9
students studying the factors that sustain success toward closing the achievement gap.
The survey was utilized to triangulate data in an effort to answer the research questions
about cultural norms, programs, and practices that have been employed by the school to
close the achievement gap and sustain success.
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Teachers and administrators were given the opportunity to answer the survey via
surveymonkey.com, an internet-based survey delivery and item analysis system. The
principal had shared in a preliminary meeting with me that her staff had experience
using suverymonkey.com and had a high response rate. Faculty response for this survey
was approximately 53%. The survey included 18 item responses and 14 open-ended
items. Due to a functional problem with surveymonkey.com, teachers were unable to
properly answer question #24, rating instructional strategies used to enhance student
learning by importance. The response rate for item #24 was very low, not allowing for
reliable response data, and therefore, will not be used to triangulate findings. A
summary of survey findings are provided in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5 separated by
research question.
Table 5: Summary of Survey Results for Research Question #1
Research Question #1: What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the
school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
1. The school
supports
collaboration among
teachers.
Strongly
agree

71.7%
Agree

28.3%
Somewhat
Disagree

0.0%
Strongly
Disagree

0.0%
2. The teachers at the
school believe that
students can achieve
at high levels.
Strongly
agree

50.9%
Agree

47.2%
Somewhat
Disagree

1.9%
Strongly
Disagree

0.0%
3. School
administration
creates a positive
school culture for
teachers and
students.
Most of
the time

86.8%
Sometimes

11.3%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

1.9%
4. Leadership is
shared among school
personnel.
Most of
the time
71.7%
Sometimes

24.5%
Rarely

3.8%
Never

0.0%

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Table 5: Summary of Survey Results for Research Question #1 continued
5. Teachers collaborate
to discuss student data
to improve student
learning.
Most of the time

83.0%
Sometimes

17.0%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
6. The school addresses
the needs of struggling
students.
Most of the time

83.0%
Sometimes

15.1%
Rarely

1.9%
Never

0.0%
Based on the results of the survey, the cultural norms that sustain success toward
closing the achievement gap include teacher collaboration, shared leadership, and
promoting a positive school culture that supports the needs of struggling students. The
faculty strongly agrees that collaboration around student data is common and necessary
to improve student learning. And, while most of the teachers believe that students can
achieve at high levels, they strongly believe that the school addresses the needs of its
struggling students. Finally, faculty agrees that leadership is shared among school
personnel most of the time and that school administration creates a positive school
culture for teachers and students.
Table 6: Summary of Survey Result for Question #2
Research Question #2: What are the practices that have been employed by the school
that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?

7. School
administration
conducts classroom
observations
frequently.
Strongly
agree

29.4%
Agree

56.9%
Somewhat
Disagree

11.8%
Strongly
Disagree

2.0%
8. The school has a
systematic process for
identifying and
assisting struggling
students.
Strongly
agree

32.1%
Agree

62.3%
Somewhat
Disagree

3.8%
Strongly
Disagree

1.9%

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Table 6: Summary of Survey Result for Question #2 continued
9. School
administration
communicates vision
and goals to the staff.
Most of the
time

86.8%
Sometimes

13.2%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
10. School
administration ensures
the analysis of student
assessment data.
Most of the
time

73.6%
Sometimes

26.4%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
11. School
administration
provides support for
implementation of
new instructional
practices.
Most of the
time

76.5%
Sometimes

24.5%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
12. School
administration
provides ways to
improve instructional
strategies to meet the
needs of students with
diverse backgrounds.
Most of the
time

69.8%
Sometimes

28.3%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
13. CST scores and
District assessments
are used to plan your
instructional program
Most of the
time

83.0%
Sometimes

13.5%
Rarely

5.8%
Never

0.0%
14. Student data is
used to identify the
instructional needs of
my students.
Most of the
time

81.1%
Sometimes

18.9%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
15. You utilize the
California State
Standards to plan and
deliver instruction.
Most of the
time

96.2%
Sometimes

1.9%
Rarely

1.9%
Never

0.0%
16. You provide
differentiated
instruction to meet the
needs of all students.
Most of the
time

73.6%
Sometimes

26.4%
Rarely

0.0%
Never

0.0%
Teachers
82.9%
Administrators
39.0%
Counselors
9.8%
Coaches
2.4%
19. Who leads
collaboration
sessions? Other
(please
specify)
14.6%
Comments to “other”:
• Course leads, Department chairs
• All of the above everyone gets an
opportunity
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Table 6: Summary of Survey Result for Question #2 continued
Curriculum

87.5%
Instruction

87.5%
Intervention

80.0%
Data
Analysis
97.5%
Operations

17.5%
Standards

50.0%
Other
(Please specify)
10.0%
20. What topics
are discussed in
the collaboration
sessions?
Comments:
• Grading practices
Substitute
Release Time

20.0%
Minimum Days

20.0%
Partial
Release
Days

22.5%
After
School
Time

25.0%
Bank Time
Activity

20.0%
Staff Meetings

82.5%
Preparation
Periods

60.0%
Other
(please
specify)
25.0%
21. How does the
school make
collaboration
possible?
Comments:
• Block schedule/late start
• Lunch
• “Math day”
• English days
• Summer curriculum writing
Peer Tutoring

75.6%
After School
Tutoring

70.7%
In-Class
Interventions

85.4%
Pull-Out
Intervention

31.7%
Homework
Assistance

51.2%
Summer
School

82.9%
Off-Track
Classes

31.7%
Other (please
specify)

14.6%
22. What type of
intervention
practices are used
for struggling
students?
Comments:
• Tutorial Periods
• Saturday School intervention is also available
Teachers

62.5%
Administrators

85.0%-
Department/
Grade Level
Chairs
50.0%
Coaches

5.0%
23. Who organizes
professional
development
sessions related to
intervention
programs?
Other
(please specify)
7.5%
Comments:
• District level…
• Teacher leaders

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Table 6: Summary of Survey Result for Question #2 continued
30. Please share any
comments about the role
of school leadership
which helped close the
achievement gap at your
school.
Comments:
• Support for intervention programs.
• Leaders are open to suggestion and are focused
on supporting the work of teachers; trusting
attitude towards new ideas that are well
conceived.
• Shared leadership contributes strongly to total
staff collaboration.
• Our principal is a teacher-leader and supports
people through programs.
• Department chairs have great experience and
leadership qualities and are supported by
administration.
• Our leaders at the school are very dedicated to
student needs always advocating for more
resources, time and tutoring to help students
achieve.
• The ASB and Senators programs work very hard
to improve school experience for students.
31. Please share nay
comments about the role
of collaboration which
helped close the
achievement gap at your
school.
Comments:
• Common assessments
• General education teachers are very willing to
work with Special Ed teachers to meet kids’
needs. Very impressive.
• Resulted in joint accountability.
• Collaboration is integral to the success of
interventions, assessing the success or lack
thereof and sharing ideas to intensify,
individualize or fade supports for various student
groups.

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Table 6: Summary of Survey Result for Question #2 continued
29. Please share any
comments about the role
of data analysis which
helped close the
achievement gap at your
school.
Comments:
• It takes a good leader and input from “# people” to
interpret the data and make it valuable. Statistical
data is only as valuable as the data entered into the
systems.
• Data analysis helped us focus on where students
needed help with regards to skills and knowledge;
critical to the improvement of graduation rates and
test scores; holds teachers accountable and gives us
the chance to learn from each other. It also helps us
identify common mistakes and re-teach, re-test, and
spiral specific questions; guides the beginning of the
year kick offs and continues through the year.
• Have seen the use of EADMS for reteaching in math
and language arts as very effective, spiraling
instruction and assessment based on previous
information.
• Very important and is now district-wide in many
subject areas for the implementation and data
analysis of common assessments that are standards
based.
• Standards and data force instructors to be
accountable, something they previously were not.
32. Please share any
comments about the role
of your classroom
which helped close the
achievement gap at your
school.
Comments:
• Pre-learning and post-learning assessments.
Interaction among students. CELDT strategies.
• When kids have adequate support they can be
successful.
• Higher expectations.
• Belief in each student’s ability and also my own
ability to teach the required curriculum.
• I work really hard developing lesson, sharing with
my department and following the testing guidelines.
• Varying activities and the use of tutorials ahs helped
close the achievement gap.
In addition, the survey shows that school administration has been effective in
employing practices within the school that have aided in the closing of the achievement
gap. The faculty strongly agrees that the administration has communicated a clear
vision and goals for the staff. Also, the administration strongly supports the
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implementation of new instructional practices and provides ways to improve upon those
instructional practices in order to meet the needs of students of diverse backgrounds.
Furthermore, the faculty strongly agrees that school leadership has supported
teachers and students in closing the achievement gap. School administration ensures the
analysis of student assessment data. Utilizing CST scores and district assessments, the
school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling learners and
planning instructional programs. Administration has supported intervention programs,
including tutorials and the freshman link program, also known as the Senators program.
Teachers also strongly agree that student data and the California State Standards are
cornerstones to planning and delivering a complete instructional program based on
student needs.
Further comments from staff indicated that administration is very supportive in
developing shared leadership on campus which strongly contributes to total staff
collaborations. Evidence indicates that leaders are open to suggestions, support the
work of teachers, and trust their staff in implementing new ideas and concepts for
instruction. The school leaders are also dedicated to student needs by advocating for
more resources to be utilized by teachers and students, as well as time and tutoring to
help students achieve.
Teacher collaboration meetings are an integral practice utilized by the school to
increase student achievement. These meetings are essentially led by teachers and
teacher-leaders. Collaboration is made possible mainly through staff meetings,
preparation period meetings, and English or Math Days—full days strictly devoted to
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the respective departments to come together and plan curriculum and assessments for
the coming semester. Data, the analysis of data, and data-driven decision making is
largely a part of these meetings. Additionally, curriculum, instruction, student
intervention, and standards-based instruction are included in these collaborative
conversations. Teachers have indicated that collaboration has aided in strengthening
their teaching through shared strategies and common goals.
In the survey, teachers also commented on the role of their classroom in helping
to close the achievement gap. Teachers indicated that utilizing various activities,
differentiating instruction, and common planning have played a significant role in
closing the achievement gap. In addition, one of the teachers indicated that his or her
own self-efficacy, the belief in one’s own ability to teach the required curriculum, as
well as his or her belief in each student’s ability has contributed to closing the gap.
Table 7: Summary of Survey Results for Question #3
Research Question #3: What are the programs that have been employed by the
school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
18. The school
utilizes a specific
program to analyze
student data.
Most of the
time

86.5%
Sometimes

9.6%
Rarely

3.8%
Never

0.0%
25. What specific
program does the
school use to
promote
collaboration?
Comments:
• Late start/schedule
• PLC based approach modeled after DuFour
• AVID
• Zangle, EADMS, Teleparent, etc.

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Table 7: Summary of Survey Results for Question #3 continued
27. What instructional
programs do you use
in your classroom that
have helped close the
achievement gap?
Comments:
• No “program”, just check for understanding
strategies, direct vocabulary instruction, etc.
• Tutorial
• Capturing Kids Hearts strategies, SALT strategies;
AVID techniques
• Amp Reading Program for special education
28. Please share any
comments you may
have about the role of
intervention in closing
the achievement gap at
your school.
Comments:
• It’s an absolute necessity; vital link; it is critical. It is
important to identify what the problem is—it is not
always an academic barrier
• Tutorial time is very valuable.
• Our intervention team focuses on our 9
th
grade
population, with successful results; has targeted a
group of students and has given them a place to work
and improve; has helped teachers to focus on
students with greater needs
• The focus of data analysis for future planning to
improve.
• Our interventions are amazing. Not all schools test
student reading levels and then being to get help to
students, which is a large portion of our population
to bring them to the grade level they are testing at.

In terms of programs that have been employed by the school that have allowed
them to close the achievement gap and sustain success, there exists a strong consensus
by the faculty that the school has initiated programs that have been key to student
success. However, in my analysis of faculty responses to the open-ended questions, I
noticed that there is confusion between a program and instructional strategies. In the
open commentary, many responses pointed toward specific instructional strategies as
opposed to programs. Therefore, this information was taken into consideration and
discussed previously under instructional practices. In spite of this, there was data to
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suggest that the school utilizes some specific programs to analyze student data and
promote student achievement; and that the school administration was key in initiating
these programs.
Some of the programs utilized by the school to promote student achievement
include Educator’s Assessment Data Management System (EADMS), Zangle, Whatever
It Takes, Guided Study, Tutorial, Senators and the Freshman Link Crew programs, and
Capturing Kids’ Hearts. EADMS is widely used throughout the district to analyze
assessment data in countless ways. Zangle is an application that gives various types of
student information including student profiles, attendance data, gradebook data, and
tracking of special education and health information. Both programs have been key to
data-driven decision making within the school and have contributed to collaborative
efforts in departments.
Whatever It Takes is a program based on the PLC model by DuFour, DuFour,
Eaker, and Karhanek (2004). The program revolves around providing time for teachers
to collaborate as professionals, support and assist students, and create a school-wide
base of targeted interventions that answer the question of “What do we do when
students don’t learn?” This program was adopted district wide and implemented in each
school based upon their interpretation of the scheduling of student interventions.
Through this program, the school developed their Link Crew/Senators program, tutorial
built into the instructional day, and guided study programs.
Capturing Kids’ Hearts is a new program that the school has embarked upon.
The program is mentioned by a few teachers as helping to increase student achievement.
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Not all teachers have been fully trained in this program, and therefore, the program is
not mentioned by many. Secondly, CKH has been implemented for only a few months
and couldn’t possibly be a strong factor in the success that the school has experienced
up to this point, but is worth mentioning, as teachers have seen a noticeable difference
in their classrooms with student behavior and work habits. This leads me to believe that
CKH may help to continue to lead WHS in closing the gap as time progresses.
Document Analysis
In an effort to triangulate data, I reviewed many documents from the school’s
website, the district’s website, and the school itself in order to identify cultural norms,
practices, and programs that support student achievement and sustain success toward
closing the achievement gap. Some of those documents included the school’s website,
SARC, William’s report, professional development schedule, guidance counseling web
pages, and WASC Self-Study report.
The school’s website prominently features its vision: To prepare EVERY
student to meet the “A-G” four-year college requirements. Evidence to support this
vision can be seen in the master schedule, course descriptions, and curriculum plans.
Curriculum is completely aligned to California Content Standards, and includes
rigorous academic expectations. WHS has spent a considerable amount of funding on
developing department binders and pacing guides to help staff to focus on content
standards.
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WHS only offers courses that are college preparatory, including its electives.
The master schedule offers over 38 different college preparatory courses, and over 50
honors and 16 Advanced Placement courses. Approximately five years ago, WHS
offered fewer than 30 sections of honors and Advanced Placement courses. As seen in
Table 6, greater numbers of underrepresented students are electing to take Advanced
Placement exams, and are taking advantage of AP classes.
Table 8: Numbers of Students Passing Advanced Placement Courses per the Number of
Students Tested from 2002-2007.
Course 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Biology 1/7 3/9 None None None 15/20
Calculus A/B 8/9 11/20 11/22 9/23 10/15 13/41
Calculus B/C None None None None None 4/4
Economics-
Macro
None None None 0/2 None None
Economics-
Micro
None None None 1/2 None None
English
Language
8/25 13/37 9/44 21/45 12/50 20/62
English
Literature
7/32 8/31 11/22 7/27 10/18 12/19
European
History
None 5/25 15/34 8/24 20/47 10/31
French
Language
None None None None None 0/5
Government-
U.S.
15/44 13/37 22/51 7/29 10/20 4/9
Psychology None None 4/4 16/23 24/29 16/22
Physics B None None None None None 4/31
Physics C None None None None None 8/24
Spanish
Language
53/54 69/70 48/53 53/60 102/110 57/83
Spanish
Literature
16/21 9/19 17/25 12/16 11/24 19/36
U.S. History 7/17 4/36 3/42 7/25 13/37 24/45
Total 116/217
(53.5%)
137/309
(44.3%)
138/297
(46.8%)
141/276
(51.1%)
212/350
(60.6%)
207/534
(38.8%)
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Further evidence indicates that the master schedule is thoughtfully put together
to build and strengthen programs within each department. Teachers assigned as
instructors for Advanced Placement and honors courses also teach foundational courses
as well. For example, one of the math teachers teaching Calculus AB/BC also teaches
two periods of Algebra I. The AP English Literature and Composition teaches two
periods of English 2 and one period of English 2 honors. This supports two lines of
thinking. First, the best teachers should be placed with the neediest of students. Calculus
is the highest math course taught in high school, while Algebra I is the lowest. The
Calculus teacher has significant knowledge of the theories and basics of mathematics
needed for a level such as Calculus, but his understanding of these greater math
concepts also allows him to confidently teach and support the needs of Algebra I
students in his classroom. Furthermore, the math teacher, as well as the English teacher,
can foster the necessary skills that will guide students to enroll in advanced placement
courses in the future. This phenomenon is not only seen in the areas of English and
math, but also in foreign language and science. The master schedule also supports
building the English program by programming teachers to teach English 1 and 2 or
English 3 and 4, allowing them to spiral groups of students for two years.
The master schedule is also designed to support struggling learners in math. The
math department tries to keep Algebra I math classes limited to a smaller population of
students. Typically, the ratio for Algebra I is 19 students to one teacher. In the second
semester, they evaluate how students are doing, and raise some of the classes to 22
students for those students who are doing well. The students, who seem to be struggling
with Algebra with low Cs, Ds, and Fs, are placed into smaller classes with class sizes of
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11 or 12 students. They essentially repeat the first semester of Algebra I again to
sharpen their skills and take the second semester of Algebra in the second year
effectively creating a two-year Algebra course.
With the help of the guidance office, the master schedule also allows for “D and
F swaps”. If a student is not doing well in a particular class, receiving a D or an F, the
guidance office, with approval from administration, will switch students between
teachers at the quarter, allowing students to get a fresh start in a brand new atmosphere.
They are placed with a different teacher for that same period of the day. This has been
done in English, biology, and math.
The school has also created a class called Geometry Concepts. It was explained
that when a student received a C- in Algebra I, they are ready to move on to geometry
based on the criteria set forth by the curriculum. However, their skills may not indicate
a readiness for geometry, so they are placed into a Geometry Concepts class. The
Geometry Concepts class gives the students a stronger base in Algebra, and prepares the
student with geometry concepts and theories as well, so that they have a solid
foundation and are ready for geometry in the following year. By giving students greater
support in the Algebra skills they need for an additional year, students have a stronger
math foundation are able to experience success in Geometry and Algebra 2, which still
allows them to fulfill the A to G four year college requirement by the time the student is
a senior.
To support its traditionally underrepresented populations in the honors and AP
courses, WHS also offers programs such as AVID and Puente, which promote honors
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level courses and provide support for students who are taking those classes. The
school’s website offers a comparison of AVID and Puente programs so that students
may seek the program which is best suited for them. Both programs have the same
mission: to support motivated students in becoming competitively eligible for a four
year college/university upon high school graduation, especially encouraging students
who would be the first in their families to go to college. The most significant difference
between AVID and Puente is that Puente is geared primarily toward Latino students,
celebrating the culture and ethnicity of the Latino population. However, the Puente
program is open to students of any cultural background.
The Guidance Office Home page further supports students and parents in
student success and achievement of the completion of four year college “a-g”
requirements. On this home page, the guidance office mission reads:
Whittier High School’s guidance team strongly supports the academic
performance, career development and personal growth of each student.
Our goal is to assist students in their pursuits and to support them in the
decision making process. We are committed to creating an atmosphere of
encouragement so that each student is empowered to set and pursue
goals as they prepare for their futures.
The page offers four-year AP/Honors course offerings, SAT 1 Prep Workshop and
testing schedules, weekly/daily student contracts to track grades and behavior, and
information to parents on grading, study skills, and college.
WHS has also put programs into place to support students who are identified as
not having been successful in school. Their programs begin with Bridge to High School
Success, which identifies students coming out of the 8
th
grade who are at risk for not
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succeeding in high school. The course provides survival skills for high school
academics, goal setting, and social development. Students are also provided a basis for
enhanced character building, a connection to school and community, and skills
necessary for a successful high school career. Students are enrolled during the summer
for six weeks, earning a semester of elective credit.
For students who have been identified by their Summer Bridge teacher and
middle school counselor as needing more support, students are enrolled in a Guided
Study program which is designed to assist students in developing the habits necessary
for them to achieve in school, be on track for graduation, and set education and/or
career goals beyond high school. Instructors offer academic support to students by
participating in Student Study Teams (SSTs), conducting regular grade checks and
communicating with academic teachers and attendance office staff, organizing field
trips, strengthening student’s school survival skills, and assisting students to develop
their post secondary goals.
In support of student achievement, WHS provides continuous staff development
and collaboration time for teachers to strengthen instructional practices. In response to a
Joint Intervention Agreement made in 2002 as a result of the school entering into
sanction status, administrative leadership and staff implemented a block schedule with
“banked minutes” to allow teachers to meet at least twice monthly for curriculum
development, curricular and instructional modification, discussion and sharing of best
teaching practices, and assessment development and review. Students start one hour
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later on Mondays as a result of the banked minutes, allowing uninterrupted
collaboration time for teachers.
Ongoing professional development is supported at the district level through a
grant initiative called: Pay It Forward—A Model of professional learning and Systemic
Improvement. The program is established upon research-based strategies delivered
through sustained, job-embedded, collaborative strategies that improve organization
learning in a coherent and coordinated manner. Training modules are provided to site
administrators, who, in turn, provide training to department chairs and course leads.
These teacher-leaders utilize their new skill and tools as they engage in work with their
subject-alike peers. New modules are introduced monthly, allowing the newly learned
tools to be “paid forward” throughout the different levels of the site organization. At the
conclusion of the module each month, an accountability survey is completed by all
participants to assist site administration in determining the level of implementation, as
well as the areas in need of greater support for the school site and the District in general.
In summary, document review supported the existence of a culture of shared
leadership; a rigorous academic program that focuses on California’s Content Standards
and an increase in honors and AP course offerings; a college-going culture that begins
with the school’s vision and continues with its programs and practices for at-risk and
underrepresented students; and, a culture of continuous professional development
supported by District and site funding, revised bell schedules, and focused collaboration
time for staff.

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Interviews
The interview protocols for this case study were developed by the doctoral
cohort, and utilized as the final method of data collection. The interview questions were
open-ended, with follow up clarifying questions asked by the researcher based on
previous observations, document reviews, or informal conversations with administration
and teachers. Interviews varied in length from 40 minutes to one hour and 45 minutes,
the average being approximately 50 minutes. Creswell’s (2002) method of analyzing
data was used in order to “chunk” data into themes and categories. Interviews were
conducted with 4 teachers from various subject areas including Spanish, Social Studies,
Physics, and English, and 1 assistant principal.
The interviews revealed a complex and thorough school program with its
beginnings in 2002 when WHS was put into corrective action for not meeting their AYP
in several subcategories. A joint intervention agreement outlined over 30 items that had
to be “fixed”, allowing a new administration to make several decisions that would
change the culture of the school. The administrative staff was completely replaced with
key leaders from other high schools within the district that were experienced, positive,
and focused on pulling WHS out of Program Improvement. The new administrative
team began, at that time, to create a culture of shared leadership with its staff, trying to
“ask the right kinds of questions”, and allowing staff to have the freedom to try new
things, think outside of the box, and make attempts at change.
With the support of the district office and the superintendent, a movement for
professional learning communities and doing Whatever It Takes for students became the
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cornerstone for the new school community. The effort to create this new cohesive
community was aided by hiring teachers who were going to be part of the WHS team.
Assistant principal, Bill S., explained that the hiring process is very important and has
been done well over the years. Prior to 2002, WHS experienced a lot of turnover in
staff, moving 10-20 teachers in and out of the staff every year. The new administration
ensured that when they hired a teacher, it would be for a long career at WHS. The hiring
process required the new administration to begin looking at applications as early as
March and April of the preceding school year. Several candidates would be chosen for
interviews. In fact in one school year, 7 English teachers were hired. Mr. S. recalled that
administrative staff interviewed approximately 30 people for those seven positions,
requiring some of the prospective candidates to return for two, or even three, interviews.
This selectivity in the hiring process has significantly decreased the turnover rate of
teachers, lending to cohesive departments who are able to have honest and open
conversations with each other about instructional practices.
The collaborative culture of WHS is strongly based on their professional
learning communities (PLC). A district-wide push for professional learning
communities began with standardizing curriculum so that all courses were aligned to
California content standards; course notebooks were developed helping to outline
essential standards for teaching; creating pacing guides for all core disciplines;
developing district-based benchmark assessments; and employing course leads who act
as facilitators for common planning and the examination of assessment data. PLC work
expanded at the school sites with common planning time added to the bell schedule.
Currently, WHS has common planning time on Monday mornings. At least twice
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monthly with the guidance of course leads, teachers meet in discipline-alike groups to
plan lessons, discuss instruction, and develop common assessments. I was informed by
the assistant principal and each of the teachers that the method for creating common
assessments and examining data to inform instruction came from the math department.
The math department is the most developed department in terms of common
planning, common assessments, and the examination of data to inform instruction and
place students. The math department began looking closely at Algebra I instructional
and assessment practices approximately 5 years ago. Teachers who were teaching
Algebra I began as a small group creating common lesson plans and pacing for WHS.
This group would meet together weekly during common planning time, and often at
lunch to discuss instructional strategies and create assessments. The teachers would
agree to give the chapter or unit assessment on a specific day to all Algebra I students.
The data would be disaggregated using a data analysis system, EADMS, to analyze
trends in student responses. Data would help to “identify certain concepts or specific
questions that the students [were] not being successful with.” As a group, the Algebra
teachers would then discuss strategies on reteaching concepts with greater student
success. These conversations, it was explained, have to be honest and open, allowing
for a certain amount of trust amongst colleagues. Data analysis discussions are not a
time for pointing fingers, but rather to celebrate student success and develop sound
teaching strategies.
Discussions of student success and reteaching strategies led this group of
educators to develop a retesting policy. This policy is closely related to work by Rick
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Stiggins, who advocates “Assessment for Learning”. Once teachers were able to
determine pitfalls in student learning, they went back to the classrooms to spiral their
lessons and re-teach concepts. Students who lacked proficiency in the standards tested,
had the opportunity to take a retest approximately one week later. The test would cover
the same content, but have different questions, allowing students the opportunity to
learn the concept and show proof of their learning. In the area of math, this practice is
very structured. The Algebra teachers have designated days assigned for retesting, with
designated classrooms, and specific teachers proctoring the retest. The practice has
spread throughout the campus, however, not necessarily utilizing the exact same
protocol for retesting.
The PLC design also incorporates other aspects that have been cultivated by the
administration and teaching staff of WHS. Most evident is the distribution of leadership
throughout the school. Each department is lead by a department chair. And, within each
department are course leads, teachers who are officially chosen by administration with
recommendations from department chairs to lead common planning and data-driven
discussions within their specific course groups, such as Algebra I, Geometry, Algebra 2,
and the like. Together with administration, the school is led through data-driven
decision making processes. Based on the interviews I had with the teachers and assistant
principal, there was agreement that the leadership is shared; teachers are the driving
force for collaboration; and, administration simply tries to ask the right questions and
give support to what teachers believe they need to do for students.
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Conversations within meetings are strongly centered around data. The sources of
data vary from common assessments to district assessments, CST and API data to local
classroom data, and also include attendance with comparisons to D and F rates. Much of
the data is provided by the director of assessment and accountability at the district office
who provides data on a variety of levels. Course leads also run data reports based on
common assessments given within their subjects.
The district provides a data analysis program to be used at all school sites called
EADMS. The availability of data is immediate, allowing for users of the program to be
able to disaggregate assessment information based on content standards, common
mistakes on an exam, D and F rates, and class grade point averages, as just a few
examples. Data gathered from the EADMS program typically drives teacher discussion
during common planning. As explained by the English teacher, during her department’s
collaboration, teachers get together and look at the data, especially data that is broken
down by content standard strands. They examine the skills that were required for each
question on the test and center discussion on the areas that evidently seem to be weak as
indicated by the data. The physics teacher also shared that the data allows teachers to do
an item analysis leading to discussion around why students gravitated toward certain
wrong answers on a specific test. They re-examine the questions on the test to see if the
problem may have been in the written test or how the content was delivered, or not
delivered. Teachers are also able to have open discussions of their strengths and areas in
need of improvement based on testing data. If one teacher had students who did very
well on a particular content area strand, while the majority of the group had minimal
success with their students on that same strand, this allows for discussion of best
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practices in the classroom. Teachers are able to share openly the strategies that they
used that seemed to have allowed for the greatest success; they can share worksheets
and review sheets, labs, and activities that added to their student success. There is a
sense of accountability to colleagues through data talks. At no time did any of the
teachers I interviewed mention that accusations are made toward teachers whose
students were not doing well on specific standards, but rather the culture of
collaboration and collegiality were present in their discussions.
Driving the need for collaboration is the fact that all decisions are based on data.
Beginning with the school’s vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet the four-year
college A to G requirements. This type of statement is highly quantifiable and can be
seen as the centerpiece for all decision-making on campus. “The primary goal is to help
all of our kids achieve at a high levels.” If the program, conversation, method of
instruction or assessment doesn’t prepare students to meet the A to G requirements, then
it shouldn’t be done.
This vision statement has helped to build a college-going culture with students
being successful in their classes. “Every class, except the special ed classes…every
class is a college prep class…and even if kids don’t reach that, they’re getting exposure
and experience in rigorous classes. And they’re being moved in that direction.”
According to the assistant principal and science teacher, students are being challenged
in ways they hadn’t been before. More students are enrolled in Algebra 2, chemistry,
and physics. These classes have traditionally been the gatekeepers to achieving the 4
year college requirements. Students in the district must complete 3 years of science to
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graduate from high school, therefore, every students starts in biology and algebra. In
fact, a shift in thinking also accompanied this movement for physics when the one
physics teacher the school had told the administration that students who pass Algebra I
were definitely able to take physics. “Nobody has ever said that before. Physics was
always this class that was the last destination for kids who really, really get it.” Prior to
building this college-going culture, 90% of freshmen were not eligible to be in biology,
thus not eligible to complete 4 year college requirements. Today, approximately 46% of
the WHS population completes A to G requirements. And, based on my conversations
with the teachers and assistant principal, every decision is based on this goal.
The assistant principal shared that he believes the primary goal of the school is
to help all students achieve at high levels, “but,” he added, “how do you quantify that?”
This brought me to the question, “If you can’t measure it, you don’t say it. Would that
be fair?” He agreed, saying that “we’ve definitely moved in that direction…Even our
PLC work, you can measure…that phrase PLC covers so much. You can point at
everything we do and say, it’s part of a professional learning community.” The
guidance department that he oversees also has highly quantifiable objectives including
graduation rates, student retention within the school and the district, attendance rates,
and disciplinary referrals. Furthermore, teachers are responsible for looking at their D
and F rates in each of their classes to determine what interventions may be needed for
their students to turn around and succeed.
The English teacher and science teacher also shared with me that there is a push
for students to know and understand their own data. Students analyze their assessments
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to make connections about what they have or have not learned. Counselors also go into
classrooms of juniors and seniors to teach students how to understand and analyze their
own transcripts. They are shown how to track their own progress toward completing
graduation requirements, completing A to G requirements, and the calculation of their
own grade point average.
This focus on student achievement and the college-going culture has led WHS to
providing several programs for students to reach rigorous academic goals. AVID and
Puente were both mentioned by each of those I interviewed. On this campus, Puente is a
much stronger and highly recognized program for students who are primarily Latino
and typically the first generation of their families to go to college. This program was
started by the University of California system to attract students who are from
underrepresented populations. Students are identified in middle school and invited to be
part of the Puente program. They share an English class, which is their only class
together. The students stay together as a group for four years in their “Puente English
class”. In addition, their freshman English teacher stays with the group for their first
two years of high school, providing continuity and a connection to an adult on campus
to whom they can turn when they have needs. Through the Puente club, Puente also
provides outside experiences for the students, taking them on field trips to colleges and
providing speakers who discuss career opportunities after college. A guidance counselor
is dedicated part-time to this program as well. As stated by the assistant principal,
“…it’s really about getting those kids who have the potential to do well. It’s getting in
their minds the idea of going to a four-year university. And, that’s been a very
successful program for us.”
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In addition to Puente, WHS has established other programs that are focused on
connecting and supporting freshman in their transition to high school. The Freshman
Mentor program utilizes upper class students to be their Link Crew, also known on
campus as the Senators program, helping freshmen students to understand and navigate
the high school culture, in addition to providing tutoring and support in their academics.
The Freshman Mentor program is a vital component for WHS in connecting students to
school. As previously mentioned, the school utilizes a summer bridge and guided study
program to aid underachieving students who are transitioning to high school from
middle school. Students are identified in the 8
th
grade by their guidance counselors as
being at risk for many reasons, some of which include low grade point averages, family
difficulties, and social adjustment problems, to name a few. Students who are placed
into the summer bridge program and guided study programs are given instruction in
study skills, supported through tutorial with a credentialed teacher, and exposed to guest
speakers who discuss a variety of topics relevant to at-risk youth, such as teenage
pregnancy, gang affiliations, and school survival. Included in this program is a class for
parents of incoming 9
th
graders called Parent Power, which introduces parents to WHS,
its programs, and its interventions that can be accessed to make their child successful.
Students placed into the guided studies program are provided assistance through an
intervention counselor who routinely performs grade checks to identify any issues that
these students may have in school.
The Link Crew, or Senators, program provides students with a student-centered
connection to the school. Juniors and Seniors build relationships with the freshmen and
help to provide teachers with another means of monitoring students. During freshman
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intervention, if a student is found to be having trouble in a certain class, they will be
“put on alert to the appropriate link crew student who is then supposed to go and offer
the first line of [support].” On the flip side of the program, the upper class students who
are Senators are being trained to be leaders within their school community. This
program is yet another way of connecting students to their school community.
In addition to schoolwide programs such as Puente and Freshman Link, WHS
utilizes a block schedule with tutorial embedded within the school day. Every teacher I
interviewed believes that the block schedule with its tutorial program has been critical
to the success of WHS in raising student achievement. The schedule itself has a built in
collaboration time for staff on Monday mornings. Students start one hour later on
Monday mornings, allowing for teachers to be able to meet for common planning and
data analysis. In addition, some departments have created common prep periods, which,
when coupled with a block schedule, allow for an hour and 40 minutes of collaboration
time twice per week, if needed. The block schedule, as explained by the teachers, also
allows for a variety of instructional techniques to be utilized in one class period. When
the faculty decided to shift to block scheduling, the administration supported their need
for professional development on how to maximize their teaching during that large
chunk of time. A consultant was hired to teach the staff how to focus their teaching
strategies, and what types of strategies that could be utilized during the block of time.
Also, professional development has been provided on direct interactive instruction. The
result seen in the classrooms has been varied and differentiated instruction, structured
engagement strategies with very structured checking for understanding, and reteaching.
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The block schedule has also provided time at the end of each instructional
period for tutorial. This tutorial has a built-in incentive for students to make strides
toward higher achievement. Each tutorial period is at the end of the instructional hour
and 40 minute block. Students who do not need tutorial are dismissed to enjoy a 30
minute nutritional break after first block, an hour lunch after the second block, or an
early release after the third block. All students are welcome to stay if they feel they are
in need of extra support from their instructor. However, tutorial is mandatory for
students who are not being successful in the class. Success does not have a school-wide
definition, and therefore, different departments, or even, individual teachers have their
own stipulations for students to take part in tutorial. More often than not, tutorial is
utilized for students who are achieving lower than a “C” in a specific class. Due to the
school-wide push to lower “D” and “F” rates, most often, students with D or F grades
must stay behind to get the needed help to succeed in that subject, whether it is
completing missing assignments or getting extra assistance to understand specific
concepts.
As all of these systems of checks and balances have been put into place at WHS,
I asked the assistant principal and the four teachers if they believed their school had
sustained success toward closing the achievement gap. Overwhelmingly, the answer
was “yes”. Most remarkably, in true WHS fashion, each of them pointed to the data to
prove they have been closing the gap. “You’ve seen our API data.” “You can tell from
our test scores.” “Our API score was in the 500s when I got here and now it’s close to
the 800s. So, in 10 years, I think…we’re continuing to grow.” Sustainability toward
closing the gap, they shared, comes from several factors—collaborative and cohesive
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teams; administration that is supportive; open communication and trustworthy
relationships; and accountability to colleagues, parents, students, and the community.
Most notable was a comment by the assistant principal who explained that the school
had sustained success “mostly because of the people that work around us.” “We’ve
done a nice job of supporting people over the years and giving them the confidence they
need to go out and do these things. But, it wouldn’t be sustainable if it was just me and
[the principal] doing all of it. We’re just kind of directing it and making sure it happens.
But, you know, principals last 4 or 5 years, most of them, and teachers stay for thirty.
So, the only way it’s going to be sustainable is if it’s our teachers doing it. We keep
pushing and we keep asking questions, and we keep the conversation going, but if we
left now, it would be fine.” “The people that [are] doing all of our serious important
work [are] the teachers.” They see the benefits of their hard work and they have become
more effective teachers because of it.
Emergent Themes from the Data Collection
Through the examination of data, documents, interviews, survey and
observations, it seems that several themes began to emerge. The underlying focus of
these themes is the focus on doing Whatever it Takes for students for students to be
successful and achieve beyond the confines of high school. The following 11 themes
have contributed to the sustained success of Wrightwood High School toward
narrowing the achievement gap:
1. Data-driven decision making with focused and measureable targets. The
target begins with the school’s vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet the four year
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college A to G requirements. The vision is focused and provides a measureable,
quantifiable target for teachers, counselors, and administration. This theme became
evident through the triangulation of observation data, interviews, and surveys.
2. A consistent and clear message that failure is not an option. Interviews and
surveys of staff indicate that students are held to higher expectations; the status quo and
the old way of schooling children are no longer acceptable. Based on the master
schedule and bell schedule, evidence further indicates that it’s time to think outside the
box and create courses especially in mathematics that will lead to success for all
students.
3. Shared leadership in which strong teachers facilitate the process of
collaboration and decision making. There isn’t a micro-management by administration,
but rather the trust by administration to allow teachers the freedom to look at data and
have open discussion around student achievement. This became most evident through
interviews, and further corroborated by observation and survey data.
4. Support of teacher leaders by giving them the freedom to embark on new
strategies to improve student achievement with the tools and professional development
to run an effective meeting and speak to their colleagues without alienating them. This
theme was supported by the triangulation of observation data, interviews, surveys, and
document analysis.
5. Get the right people on the bus and put them in the right seats. This begins
with an agreement amongst administration and staff that the hiring process is critical to
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the success of the school. A meticulous and calculated hiring of staff has decreased the
turnover of teachers and created a consistency for the staff and the school as a whole, so
that everyone can move in the same direction. Finally, the teacher leaders have to
emerge from within that staff to be the right people who will be able to lead their peers.
Evidence of this them was extracted from interviews, surveys, and observations.
6. Collaborative culture with a common instructional focus. No longer do
teachers teach in isolation, but, at this school, have discovered that the benefit of
collaboration is twofold. Collaboration allows for the sharing of best instructional
strategies and the sharing of workload, coupled with greater student success toward
achieving proficiency in the content standards. This theme was evident through the
examination of observations, interviews, surveys, and document analysis.
7. Intervention by invitation is not an option. There is a focus on prevention
coupled with swift, immediate intervention for struggling learners embedded within the
school day. Evidence of this theme was based upon the master schedule, interviews
with various teachers and administration, and surveys of staff.
8. College-going culture: Begins with the vision of the school and transcends the
focus of school culture. The activities, extracurricular opportunities, and outcomes for
students learning throughout the school are focused on the needs for college
preparation. This theme is evident through observations, document analysis, surveys,
and interviews.
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9. Rigor, relevance, and relationships: Building strong relationships on campus
for students so that school becomes an important place to be for academic and social
success. This theme became evident through the observation of various on-campus
activities, interviews with teachers, and surveys.
10. Assessment for learning. All assessments have a focus and intent to guide
classroom instruction. Quizzes and tests are not simply given to assign grades, but to
understand what students know and don’t know, and how reteaching and instruction
will continue in the classroom. Evidence of this theme was the result of observations,
document analysis, and interviews.
11. Strict focus on student needs: This begins with the identification of at-risk
students in the middle schools; creating a freshman mentor program to help students
connect to the school environment; creating new courses and utilizing intervention
programs for struggling learners. This theme resulted from the examination of
documents, interviews, surveys, and observations.
Summary of Finding by Research Questions
Cowley and Meehan (2002), through their study of schools closing the
achievement gap, confirm that schools which are effectively closing the gap have PLC
strategies in place, such as a commitment to continuous learning, shared leadership,
effective teaching, family-community relationships, purposeful student assessment, and
common learning goals, which provide a collaborative culture of learning and effective
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teaching. The following discussion will address the cultural norms, practices, programs
that have allowed WHS to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success.
Cultural Norms
The cultural norms of WHS that have allowed them to narrow the achievement
gap and sustain success in doing so have included a sharp focus on creating a college-
going culture; shared leadership; a collaborative culture devoted to common planning
and data-driven decision making; high expectations for faculty and students; and the
belief that failure is not an option. The culture of WHS is centered upon the work of
DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Karhanek (2004) utilizing PLCs to develop a collaborative
culture and to articulate the mission, vision, values, and goals that drive all of the
decisions of the school.
Researchers emphasize the necessity of a vision for success with high
expectations for all students (Cowley & Meehan, 2002; Lynch, 2006; Parker & Soper,
2003; Schwartz, 2001; Sherman, 2008). The success of WHS is largely founded upon
its vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet the four year college A to G
requirements. This vision is focused and provides a quantifiable target for the school to
determine its progress toward success for all students.
The vision continues to be present in the college going culture of the school.
Based on observations, surveys, documents, and interviews, the pride of the school lies
within the number of students who are able to complete the four-year college A to G
requirements and continue their education beyond their high school diploma. The
school proudly boasts the accomplishments of its graduates continuing their education
on the walls of the administration building. California universities and colleges, both
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private and public, as well as Ivy League schools, community colleges, trade schools,
and armed forces are displayed under the pictures of recent WHS graduates. The vision
is known by every teacher with whom I came in contact, and was posted in almost
every room I visited.
The master schedule is built around college preparatory coursework. Haycock
(2001), Noguera (2008), Parker & Soper (2003), and Schwartz (2001) emphasize the
need for accessibility of college preparatory curriculum for all students in order to close
the achievement gap. Over the years, WHS has changed its practices to allow students
who once did not have access to a college preparatory curriculum, now an open and
unrestricted access. As the restrictions were lifted on enrollment, and support was built
in to the schedule to support student success on the endeavor for a more rigorous
academic curriculum, the numbers of students moving into upper division math and
science classes increased. This trend in enrollment subsequently led to the numbers of
students enrolling in advanced placement coursework to increase, leading the school to
be recognized in the USA Today Top 1500 Schools in America.
In addition to offering college preparatory coursework, the school supports its
students with programs on campus that further cultivate the achievement of a rigorous
academic curriculum and a goal of pursuing education beyond high school. WHS has
incorporated a Freshman mentoring program that has encompassed much of the school.
Freshman students are connected to teachers and older students who help to mentor and
tutor the freshmen so that they are successful in the first year of high school. In
addition, WHS offers AVID and Puente for students who are typically first generation
college prospects.
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This vision, however, could not be supported without the shared leadership that
defines WHS. Marzano (2003) points out that effective leadership involves a small
group of educators with the principal working as a cohesive group. I would argue that
the leadership at WHS is not shared by a small group of educators, but rather
encompasses the vast majority of the school in many ways. Teacher leaders emerge as
department chairs, course leads, freshman mentors, and professional development
expert leaders. While each department has a chair who manages the mechanics of the
department, such as budgeting and dissemination of information, course leads act as
liaisons and mediators for the collaboration of teachers of like courses.
The support of shared leadership is not only indicative of the site, but is the
norm of the district as well. It is the belief of the school district that “effective
collaboration among teachers and other staff members has been instrumental in the
student achievement gains [they] have made in recent years.” Therefore, WHS has been
able to provide professional development for teacher leadership through the Pay It
Forward Grant Initiative. The district’s staff development plan expects that the training
they are able to provide through Pay It Forward will “enable teachers to function at a
higher level during collaborative meetings.” In turn, the expectation is the improvement
of the consistency of instructional delivery, sharing of best practices, and the insurance
that effective curriculum adjustments are made, resulting in higher performance levels
of staff and greater student achievement measures, noted by the CAHSEE and CST
results.
Collaboration at WHS heavily involves data-driven decision making. In every
conversation I had with teachers and the assistant principal, and in meetings that I
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attended, data was the center of the conversation. Data-driven decision making is the
vehicle on which to focus on specific and measureable goals, as well as provide
evidence of collaborative efforts (Eaker, et al., 2002; Schmoker, 1999). Whenever I
asked teachers a question that began with, “How do you know…” or “What evidence do
you have that…” the answer always began with “the data”. The use of data is now so
engrained in the culture of WHS that it drives every instructional decision that is made.
Data is the evidence to support the instructional strategies that are working, while
substantiating the reasons to abandon those that are not working.
The collaborative culture of WHS is exemplary in its form and practice. The
school as a whole has taken a shift in their focus from finger-pointing and blame to
taking the responsibility schoolwide for student achievement. The change in leadership
in 2002 that came as a result of corrective actions by the state of California, imposed a
shift on leadership that empowered teachers with a principal and successors that helped
to create and shape the culture of their school by example, invoking a collaborative
leadership effort with teachers and the community. Furthermore, the cultural shift
experienced by WHS is a textbook illustration of Porter and Soper’s (2003) key to
creating comprehensive school reform in which they say to begin with a vision that will
shape the school and fully address its needs, in particular transforming the academic
climate, school culture, and curriculum.
Finally, there exists a culture of high expectations throughout the school,
focusing on faculty performance as well as student performance. Teachers are expected
to collaborate and produce within their curricular teams. The instruction they provide is
not watered down, but rather focused on providing the content at a college preparatory
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level with differentiated instruction that is applicable for all learners. Furthermore, it is
evident that the high expectations placed upon teachers not only come from the district
and site administration, but from the community, and from within themselves. Teachers
are continuously reevaluating their methods of instruction, structure and alignment of
the curriculum they offer, and the assessments that they give to students to ensure that
all students are successful at WHS. In turn, high expectations of students is evident in
part by the provision of college preparatory coursework, the availability of classes such
as AVID and Puente, SAT preparation, and mandated tutoring during the school day, all
to ensure the success of students beyond their lives in high school.
Practices
While strong leadership is key to school success, school leaders must create a
vision for success by building capacity through collaboration that supports the vision
with a reform process. The practices at WHS substantiate the commitment to reform the
old way of schooling in which children were allowed to fail, to a new way of educating
children to become productive, successful contributors to society. Based on the
practices observed at WHS, failure is not an option for students.
Blankenstein (2004) states that schools that function as highly reliable
organizations base all actions upon their vision, continuing to press on with what is
working, and discarding that which isn’t. The PLC process has helped to create a highly
structured school program that focuses on preparing every student to meet four year
college A to G requirements. The practices begin with a block schedule with built-in
collaboration time. The purpose of block-schedule is twofold. First, it provides a built-
in collaboration time for teachers to meet weekly without interruption. Secondly, it
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provides longer periods of instruction that, teachers have shared, allows for greater
opportunities to teach new concepts, assess for learning, and reteach difficult concepts.
Extended time frames for student instruction, including block scheduling and tutorial
programs have been noted by researchers (Haycock, 2001; Lynch, 2006; Noguera,
2008; Schwartz, 2001) to help close the achievement gap.
Each Monday, students begin school one hour later, allowing teachers to meet as
a whole faculty or as departmental groups to discuss data, curriculum, and teaching
strategies. During this time of collaboration, teachers address the essential questions of
the PLC. The examination of these questions were the basis for creating pacing guides,
course notebooks, and common benchmark assessments. Today, those instructional
tools are continuing to be modified based on curriculum changes and students’ needs.
Much of the discussion in the collaboration time is centered around data from
various sources and assessments. In the beginning of the year, school leaders gather to
discuss benchmark data, class GPAs, CST cluster scores, and API scores. They review
their progress toward meeting AYP, and begin creating solutions to raising student
success at a school level. Common goals and common assessments help to develop a
collective focus, giving these practitioners the greatest opportunities to learn from each
other and improve practice.
Further supporting teacher practice, the administration provides professional
development with targeted instructional strategies that are taught by teacher experts
within the faculty. This practice not only improves instructional practices, but builds
capacity in the staff in the form of leadership, collegiality, and accountability. The
professional development opportunities are focused and purposeful, developing local
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networks for teachers to have professional conversations about their classroom practice.
Period by period professional development opportunities bring teachers out of the
confines of their classrooms and introduce them to others within the staff that have
common preparatory periods, allowing discussion regarding the use of newly learned
strategies.
The use of data provides school leaders with an opportunity for intervention
with at-risk students and prevention with freshman students entering from the junior
high school. Students are identified prior to the spring enrollment of the incoming 9
th

grade students and are placed into the Freshman Summer Bridge program to prepare
them with the study skills and organizational skills that will help them to be successful
in high school. Guided Studies classes are utilized for students in need of additional
help and are designed to closely monitor for grades, behavior, and attendance.
All freshmen are placed into a Freshman Mentors program, which together with
Senators (the Link Crew of older students as mentors), learn about team-building,
school pride, and continue to learn how to navigate the high school community. Small
groups of freshmen are overseen by one faculty member and approximately four Link
Crew students, or Senators. Students meet with their teacher mentor and Senators twice
per week.
In addition to preventative measures for students, the block schedule offers swift
and immediate intervention through tutorial periods embedded within the school day.
After every block period, students are given an opportunity to stay in the classroom to
get immediate and focused help from the teacher for 20 minutes. Typically, there are
criteria for students that must stay for tutorial. Those who have met the criteria demands
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are dismissed, providing an incentive for students who would rather be free of the
classroom environment to take care of business.
In addition to the mechanics of the bell schedule, tutorial, and instruction, hiring
practices have also been an important factor to the sustained success of WHS. Since
2002, WHS has tried to begin their hiring process as early as April, interviewing several
applicants for a single position multiple times. The result for WHS has been the hiring
of highly qualified, effective teachers who are dedicated to the mission and vision of
WHS. These teachers are strong in their content knowledge, use multiple pedagogical
strategies in the course of one period, and are able to effectively communicate and
relate to students; therefore exhibiting greater self-efficacy in the classroom, which
leads to increased and appropriate class interactions, and less racial bias than teachers
who are not confident in their subject matter (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Marzano, 2002;
Noguera, 2007; Payne, 1994).
Rigor, relevance, and relationships clearly encompass the practices of WHS.
From the collaboration of teachers around data, common planning, and the use of
common assessments to the bell schedule, tutorials, professional development, and the
focus on preparing all students to continue their education beyond high school, the
relevance of the practices employed by WHS has proven to be a mitigating factor in
improved student and overall school performance. Students are offered a solid and
rigorous, college preparatory curriculum with teacher support. Tutoring offers swift and
immediate instructional intervention for students through one-on-one instruction. And,
social contracts utilized by some of the faculty, in addition to the Freshman Mentors
have provided relationships necessary to be able to connect to the campus and navigate
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the large high school community. These practices combined support the notion that
rigor and relevance with supportive positive relationships in a school setting are critical
to high school student success.
Programs
Few programs have been purchased by the district and the school site to sustain
success toward closing the achievement gap. Programs, per say, are not as widely used
in the high school setting as they may be in elementary settings. However, programs
that have shown the most effect in raising student achievement are EADMS, the AVID
and Puente Programs, and Freshman Link Crew. Most recently, the school has begun
training teachers in Capturing Kids’ Hearts. This program is new to the school and
could not have been a factor to the previous success that the school has had toward
closing the gap; however, the foundations of the program have greater implications in
creating connections for students to their school and to their teachers.
EADMS is a web-based data disaggregation system that allows teachers to
create assessments and get immediate feedback to inform instruction. Data can be
disaggregated in a variety of ways including, but not limited to content standard,
strands, themes, and item analyses. The use of data from EADMS has focused
discussion during collaboration to student achievement and sound instructional
strategies.
With the college-going culture so strongly sound at WHS, AVID and Puente
programs have played a significant role in connecting first generation college-goers to
their school community and to their future. Puente, however, has made a greater impact
on the student culture at WHS due to its connection to the Latino culture. The program
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ensures that all students will meet the A to G requirements, with an emphasis based on
writing, counseling, and mentoring. In addition to support services offered to students,
Puente requires parent support and active involvement at the school. Parents are
required to meet every other month at WHS to learn about college requirements, the
college application process, financial aid and scholarships. The role of the Puente
program at WHS strongly supports the vision of the school in addition to providing the
rigor, relevance, and relationships students need to be successful.
Link Crew, referred to as Senators at WHS, is a high school transition program
that welcomes freshman to the school community through the use of upper class student
mentors. The Link Crew program is a program based on studies which show that
students who have a positive experience in their first year of high school have
dramatically greater chances at success. Link Crew leaders are positive role models,
motivators, leaders and teachers who guide freshmen into a successful transition into
high school. The goal of Link Crew is to provide a structure in which students make
real connections to their school and each other, while discovering that people care about
them and their success.
Capturing Kids’ Hearts is a relatively new program at WHS, and is part of the
staff development program of the district. The district is utilizing Title I funding
combined with site funds to send 50 participants to be trained in CKH. The purpose of
CKH is to improve teacher relationships with students, allow teachers to feel as though
they have the ability to have a significant impact upon student success, and provide
students with a greater sense of support and motivation for success. In turn, the
expectation for WHS is to increase teacher self-efficacy which will result in a greater
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willingness to become active in collaborative activities. In addition, WHS hopes to see
enhanced affective relationships, improved student motivation and effort, and an
improved confidence and connection to school, resulting in an improved campus
climate, and improved student performance. However, this is only the first year of
implementation. And, while the staff who has been trained in CKH believes that the
program has great merit to accomplish its goals, time will tell whether those goals will
be realized.
Discussion of Findings Around the Four Frames
The organization of leadership, a vision and strategy for success, strong
curricular and instructional programs, and a focus on rigor, relevance, and relationships
have contributed to the success for this urban high school. Utilizing Bolman and Deal’s
(2003) four frames—structural, political, human resource, and symbolic—to analyze the
data collected has increased this researcher’s understanding of the ability for WHS to
sustain success for more than 5 years. The urban high school that entered corrective
action in 2001 was forced to reframe their organization so that its leaders, both
administrative and teachers, could gain a new perspective on student success. The
following discussion details the school’s use of the four frames.
The structural frame defines the roles and relationships of an organization and
its coordination to assess how well the organization performs. This urban high school is
highly structured in its organization of shared leadership, designating department chairs
and course leads to build their instructional programs around research-based practices.
The focus of the entire school is based on a strategic and quantifiable vision and goals,
which lead to the design of a master schedule that is based on student need; a bell
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schedule that is organized for embedded and immediate academic intervention; and, an
emphasis on common planning and professional development for teachers with time
that is embedded within the teachers’ contracted day.
The political frame organizes the coalitions of diverse interest groups who
typically have a difference in beliefs, compete for scarce resources and power, yet set
goals and make decisions through bargaining and negotiations (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
This urban high school navigates the political frame by setting a vision that guides
decision making with strategies, and mapping key agents of change within the school.
Data-driven decision making focuses the allocation of scarce resources to research
based programs that support student achievement. Again, shared leadership and shared
decision making promote buy-in amongst the stakeholders.
The organization’s culture interweaves the pattern of beliefs, values, practices,
and artifacts defining what the organization is and how they do things (Bolman & Deal,
2003). These core assumptions are central to the symbolic frame through which this
urban high school can be viewed. Throughout the school, the importance of the students
to the administration and faculty can be experienced. A college-going culture is
depicted through an abundance of pictures of recent graduates labeled with their names
and institutions of higher learning. Further evidence exists of student-centered culture
with the apparent display of 11x14 pictures of student-life, student artwork adorning the
walls, and the advertisements of multitudes of student activities available on campus.
Academic rigor and instructional time is sacred and respected by students and teachers.
Classroom instruction is bell-to-bell, and students are not visibly seen roaming the
hallways during instructional time. Collaboration time is also sacred to the professional
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growth of staff and its emphasis on conversation around data. A bell schedule was
created to allow for teacher collaboration and professional development during the
contracted day. Furthermore, research-based practices are highly emphasized.
Administrative leaders are consistently reading and studying research-based practices
and utilizing those practices in faculty and leadership meetings.
Finally, the greatest evidence for this urban high school can be found through
the human resource frame, in which there is the realization that there is a mutual need
between the organization and its people, and a good fit benefits both (Bolman & Deal,
2003). Again, shared leadership allows both administration and teachers to put the right
people in the right place. The concept of shared leadership spreads responsibility to all,
creating a unified team where everyone has a voice. Strong hiring practices with the
vision of the school in mind sometimes require two or even three interviews before
hiring, ensuring that the new faculty member is a good fit. There is a schoolwide
devotion to developing relationships with kids, most recently through Capturing Kids’
Hearts. Relationships are further emphasized through the Freshman Mentors/Link Crew
program, where students are constantly monitored for progress and success in their
academic and social relationships within the high school environment. The importance
of student success is also seen in the school’s movement in doing Whatever It Takes for
students to achieve. As previously mentioned, the courses and master schedule are
based on student needs, employing classes such as Geometry Concepts for students who
do not have strong enough Algebra skills to move on to Geometry; looping Algebra
courses for students who fail the first semester; or, doing “teacher swaps” during a
quarter for students who may experience greater success with a different teacher.
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The human resources frame also makes evident the strong investment in staff at
WHS. Time within the school schedule is devoted to the professional development
offered to staff that creates a team concept by training course leads on running effective
and efficient meetings. Teachers are also encouraged to observe their colleagues during
instructional time to strengthen instructional strategies and build organizational
capacity. Administration also supports staff by giving teachers the freedom to try new
things without the fear of failure.
Finally, and most notably, the district administration supports the school
leadership by promoting from within. The current principal is an alumna of WHS. Her
educational career has been devoted to the school district, having taught at WHS, being
an assistant principal at WHS, and now as the principal of WHS. Her devotion to the
school is a direct result of the vested interest in seeing her alma mater become a
landmark on the educational landscape.
Discussion of the Findings
Prior to this case study, the literature was direct in highlighting practices that
have been shown to reduce the gap, which have included school leadership, school
culture, and strong curricular and instructional practices. However, factors that have
been shown to sustain success over time, including cultural norms, practices, and
programs, were not evident in the literature. The results of this case study validated the
practices reviewed in the literature, specifically, strong leadership, professional
collaboration, a rigorous academic focus, and data-driven decision making.
In reviewing the study, I realized that the cultural norms could not be viewed in
isolation from the practices and programs of the school, but that all were intertwined
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with a laser-like focus on student achievement. The culture of the school has been
shaped by its practices and programs, and vice versa, with culture being key to the
sustainability of success toward narrowing the gap. Unquestionably, it all begins with
the clear and measureable school vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet A to G
four year college requirements. No where in the school, nor on the lips of any
administrator or teacher was it said that EVERY student was going to go to college; but
rather, it was their mission to prepare the students to have the option of education
beyond high school open to them, knowing the moral imperative of getting that child
ready to compete in a global economy. This measureable goal has helped to shape the
culture and practices of collaboration based upon data-driven decision making and a
focus on students’ needs.
Teacher collaboration is strongly rooted in the WHS culture. Much of teacher
collaboration is focused on professional development, common planning, and creating
and analyzing common assessments. Teachers are encouraged to visit the classrooms of
their colleagues to view different instructional strategies, and to constructively analyze
instructional strategies for the benefit of students. Accountability to students and to each
other as staff members is evident during conversations, as there is an atmosphere of
trust and honesty.
Collaboration around data is distinctly part of the culture at WHS. From many of
the conversations I had with teachers, both during formal and informal interviews, the
word “data” or a reference to “data” was mentioned. With the support of the district, the
school is using a program called EADMS that immediately analyzes and disaggregates
data in a multitude of ways. Faculty meetings and department meetings are spent
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analyzing student assessment data to inform instruction. Much conversation is centered
around how to increase the school’s API scores, in addition to decreasing D and F rates,
increasing attendance rates, graduation rates, and completion of A to G requirements.
The philosophy of the school seems to be that “The numbers don’t lie; they tell a story.”
The culture of the school is decidedly student-centered. Beginning with the
college-going message that is defined by the school’s vision, the school proudly
announces its graduates’ achievements in the halls of the administration building.
Student life is also visibly portrayed on pictures that adorn offices, hallways, and
classrooms. The focus on student need is observable through the clubs and programs
that WHS offers, beginning with the Freshman Mentors/Link Crew program that
introduces the newest members of the WHS family to high school life and helps them to
navigate the waters of a large high school environment. Students also have support for
academic success through tutorial embedded within the school day. Since failure is no
longer and option, intervention by invitation has also been banned at this school.
Tutorial for struggling learners has been embedded within the school day, with swift
and immediate assistance from the teacher in a small group setting. Students no longer
have an excuse to fail, as WHS has tried to destroy every road block that may prevent a
student from realizing the school’s vision.
Most recently, the school has placed an emphasis on creating mentoring
relationships on campus for their students through Capturing Kids’ Hearts. The program
is changing the way teachers and students interact in the classroom. The focus has
changed from teaching the curriculum to “teaching students”. The central premise to
CKH is making positive connections between adults and kids, while having them take
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ownership of their own behavior. This being a relatively new program on campus, it
would be difficult to say how it has helped to narrow the achievement gap. However, I
would suggest that based on the literature of paternalistic schools, this program may
only continue to help reduce the gap on this campus.
Finally, shared leadership has led to a concentrated focus on getting the right
people on the bus and in the right seats. As reported in the various pieces of data
collected, the principal may be the figurehead of the school, but there is a consensus
that leadership is shared amongst various stakeholders. The high school is able to
accomplish this through its selective hiring practices. Knowing that the school has a
culture of shared leadership, one of the intents in hiring is to find teachers who will step
up and lead when given the opportunity. Furthermore, there are many different
capacities in which teachers are given the opportunity to lead on campus. Some
positions are formally appointed, such as department chairs and course leads, others are
the result of teachers stepping up to lead professional development or volunteering to
lead a freshman mentors group. Regardless of the capacity of leadership, it is evident
that all stakeholders have the opportunity to bring their talents to the table to serve the
school community.
In conclusion, this high school is sustaining success toward closing the
achievement gap due to a strong collaborative culture with shared leadership, a focus on
student success with instructional support embedded within the day, data-driven
decision-making that directs the instructional program, and a strong academic focus
coupled with student-teacher relationships. The complete instructional program is a
complex engineering of cultural norms, practices, and programs that include talented
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and motivated instructional leaders. By keeping a vision of success with high
expectations for all students, the school should continue to move forward toward
closing the gap.
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CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter provides a summary of the case study and significant findings from
the data reported in Chapter Four. The following will provide a discussion of the
implications on how the findings may be duplicated or considered in similar settings,
challenges facing this school and similar schools, as well as recommendations for
further research.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to identify urban high schools which have
succeeded in reducing the achievement gap, and have sustained success over time. The
study examined cultural norms of the school community; practices, both inside and
outside of the classroom; and, programs employed by the school that have allowed them
to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success.
The study addressed three research questions:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices (schoolwide and classroom) that have been employed
by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?
This case study was one of 9 thematic dissertations within a cohort group of
doctoral students studying factors, including cultural norms, practices, and programs,
which may contribute to the academic success in a high-performing urban high school.
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Together with the cohort group, this study examined factors that sustain success in
narrowing the achievement gap in an urban high school setting, while other members of
the group examined elementary and middle school settings as well. Together, these case
studies contribute to a developing body of research, which include cultural norms,
programs, and practices that are linked to increased levels of student achievement in
urban high schools. School practitioners, both at the site and district level, may discover
these findings are applicable to their campuses or districts. A qualitative case study was
conducted to examine the cultural norms, programs, and practices of the school
community in relation to the narrowing of the achievement gap in an urban high school.
Multiple measures were utilized to identify factors that may have contributed to student
achievement including document reviews, observations, surveys, and interviews. The
instruments were developed collaboratively by the thematic dissertation team from
January to April of 2009. The researcher conducted document reviews, surveys,
observations, and interviews from August through December 2009.
The achievement gap has been defined by various researchers and scholars as
the measured disparity in academic achievement between Whites and their racial and
ethnic peers (Anderson, Medrich, & Fowler, 2007; Chenoweth, 2004; Lee, 2002; and
Lynch, 2006); however, it is also the measured by the comparison of high school
dropout rates, the relative number of students who enroll in college preparatory and
honors level coursework, take Advanced Placement exams, and are admitted to two-
year, four-year, graduate and professional colleges (Ferguson, 2004; Ladson-Billings,
2006: Lee, 2002; Noguera, 2008). Today, the growth of the Hispanic population and
other ethnic groups have compounded the problems in education by adding more
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complex issues, including English as a second language (Johnston & Viadero, 2000).
Despite these issues, some urban high schools have achieved significant gains.
The literature is rich with strategies that have been shown to close the gap;
however, it is unclear what contributes to the sustained student success in these schools.
Moreover, there are virtually no studies that address the cultural norms, practices inside
and outside the classroom, and programs that lead the urban high school to closing the
achievement gap with sustainability.
Summary of the Findings
The urban high school examined in this study has been exceeding expectations
for the past 6 years. The high school has been meeting and exceeding schoolwide and
significant subgroup achievement targets based on the API for the previous 5 years. The
high school is ethnically rich with 85% of its population being Hispanic and only 10%
being White. Additionally, over 11% of the population are English Learners, while 19%
have been redesignated English Learners. The school also has a growing
socioeconomically disadvantage population that was reported as 51% in 2007 to 71% in
2009. However, despite these factors, the students of this urban high school are
achieving and exceeding expectations. But, how have they done this?
The researcher has discovered several reasons for the increase in student
achievement as seen in emergent themes.
1. Data-driven decision making with focused and measureable targets. The
target began with the school’s vision: To prepare EVERY student to meet the four year
college A to G requirements. The vision is focused and provides a measureable,
quantifiable target for teachers, counselors, and administration.
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2. A consistent and clear message that failure is not an option. Students were
held to higher expectations; the status quo and the old way of schooling children were
no longer acceptable. It became time to think outside the box and to create courses
especially in mathematics that led to success for all students.
3. Shared leadership in which strong teachers facilitate the process of
collaboration and decision making. There wasn’t a micro-management by
administration, but rather the trust by administration to allow teachers the freedom to
look at data and have open discussion around student achievement.
4. Support of teacher leaders by giving them the freedom to embark on new
strategies to improve student achievement with the tools and professional development
to run an effective meeting and speak to their colleagues without alienating them.
5. Get the right people on the bus and put them in the right seats. This began
with an agreement amongst administration and staff that the hiring process is critical to
the success of the school. A meticulous and calculated hiring of staff decreased the
turnover of teachers and created a consistency for the staff and the school as a whole,
so that everyone could move in the same direction. Finally, the teacher leaders had to
emerge from within that staff to be the right people who would be able to lead their
peers.
6. Collaborative culture with a common instructional focus. No longer did
teachers teach in isolation, but, at this school, had discovered that the benefit of
collaboration was twofold. Collaboration allowed for the sharing of best instructional
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strategies and the sharing of workload, coupled with greater student success toward
achieving proficiency in the content standards.
7. Intervention by invitation is not an option. There was a focus on prevention
coupled with swift, immediate intervention for struggling learners embedded within the
school day.
8. College-going culture: Began with the vision of the school and transcends the
focus of school culture. The activities, extracurricular opportunities, and outcomes for
student learning throughout the school were focused on the needs for college
preparation.
9. Rigor, relevance, and relationships: The building of strong relationships on
campus for students so that school became an important place to be for academic and
social success.
10. Assessment for learning. All assessments had a focus and intent to guide
classroom instruction. Quizzes and tests were not simply given to assign grades, but to
understand what students knew and didn’t know, and how reteaching and instruction
would continue in the classroom.
11. Strict focus on student needs: This began with the identification of at-risk
students in the middle schools; the creation of a freshman mentor program to help
students connect to the school environment; the creation of new courses and the
utilization of intervention programs for struggling learners.
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The culture of this urban high school is centered upon the work of DuFour,
DuFour, Eaker, and Karhanek (2004) utilizing PLCs to develop a collaborative culture
and to articulate the mission, vision, values, and goals that drive all of the decisions of
the school. The primary goal of the school is guided by its vision: To prepare EVERY
student to meet the four year college A to G entrance requirements. This vision is the
fundamental archetype for data driven decision making. The goal is focused, succinct,
and measureable. The vision also necessitates the building of a collaborative culture that
is focused on students’ needs.
The collaborative culture at this urban high school is strongly supported through
professional development, common planning time embedded within the contractual day,
common preparatory periods, and the widespread accessibility to data through the use
of the EADMS program. Utilizing Title I funding and a district grant called the Pay It
Forward Initiative, administrators and teachers are provided professional development
targeted toward meeting the school’s vision and goals. Teachers have most recently
been trained through professional conferences on a variety of strategies, including, but
not limited to, SALT strategies, AVID instructional techniques, and Capturing Kids’
Hearts. Through the Pay It Forward Initiative, school administrators are trained in
effective leadership practices, which are taught to department chairs and course leads.
This practice aids in the evolution of shared leadership, which has been a significant
finding in this study.
Another significant finding was the common planning time embedded within the
contractual day. Common planning time was centered on PLC research by Eaker, et al.
(2002) in which the objective is essentially to answer three basic questions:
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1. What do we want students to learn?
2. How do we know if they have learned it?
3. What will we do when they haven’t learned it?
Utilizing data from EADMS, teachers can quickly gain feedback on student progress
that they utilize to inform instruction. Assessment is done for the sole purpose of
evaluating what students have or have not learned.
A sense of urgency to prevent student failure was also significant to this study.
While instruction was informed by the evaluation of student progress, intervention by
invitation was no longer considered an option. Tutorial for remediation of student
learning is embedded within the school day and is swift and immediate to student needs.
Furthermore, intervention through prevention is also a strong practice at this urban high
school. Students are targeted coming out of the 8
th
grade as being at risk of failure in the
high school environment. This urban high school has created a Freshman Mentoring
program that ties students to older mentors on campus to help them to navigate the high
school experience. Additionally, students who are most at risk, typically earning below
a C average in middle school, are identified and placed into a Summer Bridge program
that trains them to organize and build study skills to become successful students when
the school year begins. Those who need additional support during the school year are
placed into a Guided Studies program that will put them together with a teacher who
will, in effect, parent the student to do homework, complete assignments, and continue
to build study skills that will aid them in being successful throughout their high school
career and beyond.

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Implications
As accountability standards for NCLB increase, great concerns are being
realized by schools all over the country over how they will continue to successfully
meet proficiency levels of all groups, let alone ethnic, socioeconomic, and students with
disabilities subgroups. Further compounding the issues is the economic crisis in which
we find ourselves. With the unemployment rate hovering at around 10%, based on the
U.S. Department of Labor—Bureau of Labor and Statistics, the trend in students
qualifying for free and reduced lunch is bound to rise, creating a swelling effect of the
socioeconomically disadvantaged subgroups. Economic concerns do not just hit the
homes of our students, but rather are passed on to the education system, which has been
hit considerably hard in California. With cuts into the tens of billions of dollars in
California alone, class sizes have increased, educators have experienced cuts in pay, and
districts are “cutting the fat” down to the bare bones, only keeping administrators and
programs that are the absolute necessity. This all begins to beg the question of whether
a broken economy may cripple the sustained success of a school like WHS.
The sustainability of success that has been realized by WHS is not necessarily
the result of money being poured into their system, but rather thinking outside of the
proverbial box that education has created in its nine-month schedule and seven-hour
school day. The culture of the school is such that WHS should continue to sustain
student achievement and the narrowing of the achievement gap despite monetary cuts to
the budget. Cultural norms, such as shared leadership, common planning time built into
the teacher’s contractual day, and immediate, embedded intervention for students, are
standards that have virtually no impact on the school budget, and thus should be
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continued regardless of the economic forecast. The college-going culture further
promotes a focus on student needs that drives assessment for learning throughout the
school. And, finally, data-driven decision making will continue to drive administrators
and teachers to focus on measureable targets, creating an environment for continuous
improvement of curriculum, instruction, and methods of assessment.
As I examine the work of WHS, it is evident that the availability of professional
development has most certainly facilitated the success of this urban high school. The
additional grant money awarded to the district through Pay It Forward has also helped
to build shared leadership and the collaborative culture that defines this school. In spite
of this, WHS continues to develop a schoolwide culture that is focused on collaboration
and doing Whatever It Takes for students to succeed. While this study examined cultural
norms, practices, and programs that have been employed by WHS to close the
achievement gap, it has become clear that it is not these factors used in isolation, but the
amalgamation of these factors that have sustained success. For WHS, this begins with a
clear and quantifiable vision for the success of all students. The realization of this goal
is through the collaboration and planning based on assessment data, and the open
discussion centered upon research-based instructional practices. Furthermore, the
success is realized through the shared leadership of administration and teachers who are
allowed to take risks and celebrate success however small.
High schools can be as large and complex as small cities, and the formation of a
cohesive and collaborative culture with practices that are geared toward student success
can be a tremendous undertaking. The culture of the typical high school is that of every
teacher being the
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master of his domain. The teacher is the expert in his or her curricular area, and would
be best left behind a closed door in autonomy to teach as he or she was taught. After all,
“this is the way I was taught and it worked for me.”
However, the days of allowing students to fail by their choice are no longer an
option. It has become a moral imperative to prepare students for education beyond high
school so that they can become contributors to a global economy. The high school
culture must be transformed so that the urgency of student success is sensed by all. The
change, however, is not one to be done overnight. WHS has spent the last 8 years hiring
the right teachers, creating a data-driven decision making culture, teaching and learning
how to collaborate with colleagues, and thinking outside the box on how to create
programs, courses, and bell schedules that will drive students to succeed.
Finally, as was heard over and over again from administration and teachers at
WHS, change doesn’t occur overnight. Each small change must be well-planned and
given input by all stakeholders. Further, the more the leadership is shared amongst
faculty, the greater the buy-in process for change that lies ahead.
Recommendations
As long as the achievement gap persists, and, in light of the economic crisis that
continues to wreak havoc on public education, recommendation for further research
emerge from this study.
1. Conduct a similar study on a school that was more demographically equal in
ethnic minorities. This urban high school was largely Hispanic. If the school was more
demographically equal in its numbers of Black, Hispanic, and White, would the results
159
of sustained success be the same? Or, would the contributing factors to the
sustainability of their success be the same?
2. What role does teacher efficacy play in forming a collaborative culture? As
teachers are provided professional development in conjunction with the opportunity to
engage in discussion centered upon instructional strategies, it seems that efficacy would
increase. A longitudinal study on teacher efficacy needs to be done in a school that
works on the transformation to a collaborative culture.
3. Is high teacher efficacy a result of forming a collaborative culture, or is it the
result of good hiring practices? A longitudinal case study can be performed to discover
whether schools sustain success due to hiring practices or due to professional
development practices. Does stability of the faculty over a period of time contribute to
higher rates of teacher efficacy?
4. How have the practices of the successful urban high school influenced the
higher education of its students? A longitudinal study can be performed to follow
students who have graduated from successful urban high schools that have narrowed the
achievement gap to discover if the practices of the high school have influenced the
skills utilized in a post-secondary education.
5. How has the narrowing of the achievement gap at the high school level
affected colleges and universities? With the concentration on narrowing the gap in the
high school, have admission standards changed at the college and university level? This
also can be examined from an economic standpoint. With a decrease in funding,
colleges and universities are turning students away. Will this negate the work being
done by the K-12 public school system in terms of narrowing the gap? Assuming that
160
the demographics of the students being admitted to colleges were majority White and
Asian, could this possibly bring back affirmative action?
6. Conduct a meta-analysis. Combine the research of the current doctoral cohort
of 9 students to discover trends that have contributed to the sustained success of
narrowing the achievement gap. Since members of the doctoral cohort studied the three
levels of K-12 public education—elementary school, middle school, and high school—
common trends can be identified that can be carried throughout the K-12 system.
Summary
As a nation of socially and ethnically diverse people, with a growing population
in socioeconomic distress, it has become imperative to examine factors that contribute
to sustaining success toward closing the achievement gap. With the United States
having one of the highest dropout rates of any industrialized nation, our global
competitiveness will soon dwindle leading to our economic demise in the global
economy. With a rise in ethnic minority populations, including those that speak English
as a second language, and a growing socioeconomically disadvantaged population, it is
imperative that educators move toward transforming school culture from the confines of
what has been historically an isolated profession to a collaborative culture that levels
the playing field for all students. The transformation of school culture and its influence
on school practices that include collaboration and shared leadership will be the dynamic
that will change education with the least economic impact. However, change is not
static, but dynamic. School leaders must keep in mind that changes such as those seen at
WHS do not happen overnight, but take years to cultivate. And, while failure is not an
option for our students, educators must allow themselves the opportunity to innovate,
161
knowing that not every change in practice or program will result in success. But,
instead, through an honest examination of what is implemented, a school can move
continuously toward closing the achievement gap.
162
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168
APPENDIX A:

DOCUMENT REVIEW MASTER LIST—CATEGORIZED

District
1. Textbook adoption list
2. Vision statement
3. Mission statement
4. Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners
5. LEA Plan
6. LEA discipline policy
7. LEA catch-up plan for monitoring and overcoming any academic deficits
8. District policy on qualifications for certificated staff

School level artifacts
1. Meeting schedules
2. Staff Development plan/School site plan
3. Instructional minutes/Master Schedule
4. Assessment tools
5. Tutorial programs
6. Saturday school
7. Interventions during the school day
8. Summer school
9. Student-parent handbook
10. Discipline assembly
11. Vision statement
12. Mission statement
13. Equitable groupings of minority students in classrooms
14. School Accountability Report Card
15. Teacher and paraprofessional assignments
16. Student profile data
17. Counseling availability and function
18. Entitlement funding i.e. Title I funding, Categorical funding
19. Public reports of suspension, expulsion, and truancy rates
20. Safe school plan (including disaster procedures, crisis management, or
emergency plan)
21. Attendance reports

Instructional
1. Department meeting notes
2. Common planning/Common Assessments
3. Classroom Objectives or standards posted in rooms
4. SMART goals or action plan documents

Differentiated or special services
1. Re-classification of LEP
169
Appendix A: Document Review Master List—Categorized continued

California Department of Education website
1. School data to analyze student proficiency (CST and CELDT)
2. School demographic data
3. School data on Program Improvement status i.e.: AYP and API information

Pertains to High Schools only
1. College prep/AP/IB offerings
2. School data to analyze % of students in CP/AP/IB/Honors courses
3. Freshman advisory/Mentoring Program
4. AVID
5. Freshman assembly/freshman first day
6. Student placement criteria into CP/Honors/AP/IB
7. CST data, CAHSEE, AP, and college-bound statistics
8. District career technical education plan and course offerings
9. Process for adding new courses
10. Description of alternative programs

170
APPENDIX B:
SCHOOL OBSERVATION FORM/GUIDE

• In all observation situations keep in mind the 4 frames of Bolman/Deal
o Structural Frame: organization and structure of groups and teams to
achieve goals
o Human Resource Frame: organizational ability to meet human needs,
positive interpersonal and group dynamics
o Political Frame: power and conflict, coalitions, internal and external
politics and their impact on the organization
o Symbolic Frame: positive culture that gives purpose, esprit de corps
through rituals, ceremony, story, shared experiences

• An organization demonstrates what is important to it by what it emphasizes in daily
practice

• First Impressions
o Note time of observations and what expected activity at those times may
look like
o Condition of surrounding neighborhood
o Approach to school
Exterior condition of structures
Plants and foliage
Bus turn-arounds, parking lot: teachers and students
Supervision around/ in front of school
o The Office
Entrance/security
Condition of office compatible with exterior?
Staff interaction, with guests, parents, community, and peers
o Initial Meeting
With whom? Principal, Asst. Principal…
Restrictions on access?
Are you greeted?
Staff traffic to administration, open door or appointments
o Staff
Designated representatives, restricted choice, or free access to
staff
Teacher leaders
• Empowered? Figure heads?
• Emergent leaders or formal structures of leadership
• Experienced or non-experienced?

171
Appendix B: School Observation Form/Guide continued

Collaboration?
• Structured, non-structured
• Common assessments, formative, summative
• Attitudes towards collaboration

o Students
Student centered culture?
Connection with staff at all levels? Any levels?
Student run events?
Posters? School spirit?
• Curriculum
o Levels of curriculum
ELD
Standard Levels
College Prep
Advanced Placement
International Baccalaureate
Open Access or restricted entrance
o Support Programs
AVID
Credit Recovery
Distance Learning credit
• Classroom Observations
o Physical condition of room
o Desks or tables
o Student work displayed
o Learning Goal
o Related to Content standard
o Demonstration of Learning
o Levels of student engagement
Student-staff interactions
High Expectations
Meaningful Participation
o Strategies
Direct instruction
Guided practice
Scaffolding
Visuals/Graphic Organizers
Compare and Contrast
Summarizing or note taking
TPR
SDAIE
Check for Understanding, summative

172
Appendix B: School Observation Form/Guide continued

o Technology
Extent available
Extent used
Teacher use
Student use
Student/teacher feedback on its use
173
APPENDIX C
OBSERVATION LOG
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools

Date:_______________________ Page ____of_____
Time: ___________

Type of Observation(Circle One): School Class Leadership Meeting

Observation Log
First Impression
Condition of Surrounding
Neighborhood

Approach to School

• Exterior condition of
structures

• Plants and foliage

• Bus turn-arounds,
parking lot: teachers
and students

• Supervision around
and in front of the
school

The Office
• Entrance/security

• Condition of office
compatible with
exterior?

• Staff interaction, with
guest, parents,
community, and peers

Initial Meeting
• With whom? Principal,
Asst. Principal…

• Restrictions on access?

• Staff traffic to
administration, open
door or appointments

174

Appendix C: Observation Log continued
Staff
• Designated
representatives,
restricted choice, or
free access to staff

• Teacher leaders

• Empowered/Figure
heads?

• Emergent leaders of
formal structures of
leadership

• Collaboration led by?

• Structured, non-
structured?

• Common assessments,
formative, summative

• Topics discussed
Students
• Student-centered
culture?

• Connection with staff
at all levels? Any
levels?

175
Appendix C: Observation Log continued

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools

Date: ________________ Page: ______ of _______
Time: _______________

Levels of Curriculum Curriculum
ELD

Standard Levels

College Prep

Advanced
Placement/Honors

International Baccalaureate

Open Access or restricted
entrance

Support Programs

• AVID

• Credit Recovery

• Distance Learning
Credit

176
Appendix C: Observation Log continued

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools

Date: ________________ Page: ______ of
_______
Time: _______________

Classroom Observation
Physical condition of room

Desks or tables—in rows or
groups

Rigorous Standards-Based
Student work displayed

Learning Goal Posted

Related to Content
Standard

Level of Student
Engagement

• Staff-student
interactions

• High Expectations

• Meaningful
Participation

Instructional Strategies
• Direct instruction

• Guided practice

• SDAIE
• Scaffolding

• Visuals/Graphic
Organizers

• Compare and
Contrast

177
Appendix C: Observation Log continued
I
• Summarizing or note
taking

• TPR (Total Physical
Response)

• Check for
Understanding

Technology
• Extent available

• Extent used

• Teacher use

• Student use

• Student/teacher
feedback on its use

Intervention
• During lesson

• Response to
Intervention period

• Tutorials

178
APPENDIX D
STAFF INPUT SURVEY
Staff Input Survey
Your school was chosen for this study based on the success and sustainability in
student achievement. The purpose of this study is to identify your school’s cultural
norms, practices and programs that contributed to the closing or narrowing of the
achievement gap. The results of this study could be useful to schools with a similar
student population. Your input on this survey is anonymous. This research project is
being conducted by a doctoral student from the University of Southern California.
The survey will take about 10-15 minutes to complete. Thank you for your
cooperation.

Please circle the appropriate response:
1. The school supports collaboration among teachers.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

2. The teachers at this school believe that students can achieve at high levels.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

3. School administration creates a positive school culture for teachers and students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

4. Leadership is shared among school personnel.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

5. Teachers collaborate to discuss student data to improve student learning.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

6. The school addresses the needs of struggling students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

7. School administration conducts classroom observations frequently.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

179
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

8. The school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling
students.

a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

9. School administration communicates vision and goals to the staff.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

10. School administration ensures the analysis of student assessment data.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

11. School administration provides support for implementation of new instructional
practices.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

12. School administration provides ways to improve instructional strategies to meet the
needs of students with diverse backgrounds.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

13. CST scores and District Assessments are used to plan your instructional program?
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

14. Student data is used to identify the instructional needs of my students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

15. You utilize the California State Standards to plan and deliver instruction.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

16. You provide differentiated instructions to meet the needs of all students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

17. School administration initiates programs that promote student achievement.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

180
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

18. The school utilizes a specific program to analyze student data.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

Please circle all that apply:

19. Who leads the collaboration sessions?
a) Teachers
b) Administrators
c) Counselors
d) Coaches
e) Other:________________
20. What topics are discussed in the collaboration sessions?
a) Curriculum
b) Instruction
c) Intervention
d) Data Analysis
e) Operation
f) Standards
g) Other:______________________

181
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

21. How does the school make collaboration possible?
a) Substitute release time
b) Minimum Days
c) Partial Day Release
d) After School Time
e) Bank Time Activity
f) Staff Meetings
g) Preparation Periods
h) Other: _________________________

22. What type of intervention practices are used for struggling students?
a) Peer Tutoring
b) After School Tutoring
c) In-class intervention
d) Pull-Out Intervention
e) Homework Assistance
f) Summer School
g) Off-Track Classes
h) Other: ______________________________________

23. Who organizes professional development sessions related to intervention programs?
a) Teachers
b) Administrators
c) Department/Grade Level Chairs
d) Coaches
e) Other: _____________________________

182
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

24. Rate the following instructional strategies you used to enhance student learning.
Extremely Important 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Important

___ Direct instruction ___ Guided practice
___ Pre-teaching ___ Re-teaching
___ Visual aids/graphic organizers ___ Note-taking
___ Summarizing ___ SDAIE Strategies
___ Cooperative grouping ___ Peer tutoring
___ Individual instruction ___ Higher Order Thinking Questions
___ Scaffolding ___ Using Prior Knowledge
___ Metacognitive Skills ___ Other (please list) ________________

25. What specific program does the school use to promote collaboration?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
26. What intervention program(s) at your school have contributed to closing the
achievement gap?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

27. What instructional programs do you use in your classroom that has helped close the
achievement gap?
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

183
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

28. Comments about the role of intervention in closing the achievement gap at
your school:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
29. Comments about the role of data analysis which helped close achievement gap at
your school:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
30. Comments about the role of school leadership which helped close the achievement
gap at your school:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
31. Comments about the role of collaboration which helped close the achievement gap
at your school:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

184
Appendix D: Staff Input Survey continued

32. Comments about the role of your classroom instruction which helped close the
achievement gap at your school:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Even though this survey is anonymous, please provide the following information:
Your position at the school:
For Elementary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Grade level
Chair
For Secondary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Department
Chair
Number of years as an educator: ________________________________
How long have you worked at this school? ________________________________

Thank you for completing this survey. Your responses are
appreciated!

185
APPENDIX E
CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Collaboration:
a. What does collaboration look like at this school?
b. Who leads the collaboration sessions?
c. With whom do you collaborate? How often?
d. What are the outcomes for student learning?
e. What programs, practices, and cultural norms does the school have in
place to ensure that students achieve?

2. School Leadership:
a. What is the school mission and vision?
b. How is the mission/vision/goal communicated?
c. What is the primary goal for this school?
d. Who is the school leader? Why?
e. How does the leadership foster or help student learning?
f. Is the leadership shared among the various school personnel? How?
g. How does the leadership meet the needs of at-risk populations?
h. Are school decisions based upon student needs? Give an example

3. Program Implementation
a. What programs have been employed that have allowed the school to
close the achievement gap?
b. Are there programs that have improved attendance? And how is this
affecting achievement?
c. What programs have improved the school climate?
d. What programs have improved content learning for all students but
specifically for students with diverse needs?
e. What programs have improved student achievement in literacy skills?
f. What programs have improved student achievement in mathematics?

4. Data Analysis
a. How is data used to support student learning?
b. Who is responsible for disaggregation, dissemination, and review of
data?
c. How is this information shared among the various school stakeholders?
d. Does your school utilize a specific data analysis program? If so, which
program?
e. How often is data analyzed at your school site?

186
Appendix E: Closing the Achievement Gap Interview Questions continued

5. Intervention:
a. What are the supports that are in place for students and their families?
b. Who determines which students get support?
c. How are supports implemented and monitored?
d. What is intervention is offered to students who are underperforming
academically?
e. How are these implemented? Who is involved?
f. How do you make sure that every student has his or her academic needs
met?
g. Can you explain the way things are done to support learning in student
groups that are traditional underperforming?

6. Practices that Support Closing the Achievement Gap:
a. What are the school-wide practices that support student learning?
b. Who determined that this practice happens?
c. How is effectiveness measured? Or what data is collected?
d. How do you know that it is successful?
e. Has this practice been modified since the beginning?
• How do you know that all (EL, low SES, Special Ed, African
American, Hispanic) students have access to these practices?
• How do you know students are appropriately placed in
classrooms or courses?
f. What are the departmental or grade level practices that support student
learning?

7. Classroom Instruction
a. What are the classroom practices that support student learning?
b. What are teachers supposed to know and be able to do?
c. How do you know that they have done it?
d. How is classroom instruction differentiated to meet the needs of all
students? List some classroom examples.

8. Professional Development Practices that support closing the achievement
gap:
a. What are the professional development opportunities available to
teachers?
b. What is the role of the teacher in professional development?
c. What is the role of the administrator in professional development?
d. How do you know that teachers are utilizing skills learned?
e. In the classroom? In specific content areas?

187
Appendix E: Closing the Achievement Gap Interview Questions continued

9. Sustainability
a. Do you believe that your school has sustained success?
b. How do you believe that you have sustained success?
c. What advice would you give to other schools that want to emulate your
cultural norms, programs and practices to close the achievement gap?

Do you have anything you would like to add to this interview in terms of closing
the achievement gap and sustaining success?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Since the introduction of the Coleman Report (1966), the focus on closing the achievement gap has been a critical component of educational policy for political leaders and field research by educators. The economic crisis which California and the nation at large currently face creates a challenging situation in attempting to narrow the gap. Cultural and economic implications are huge if public schools continue to fail in fully preparing minority and socioeconomically disadvantaged children.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cabrera, Kimberly Elizabeth (author)

Core Title Sustaining success toward closing the achievement gap: a case study of one urban high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/10/2010

Defense Date 02/19/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,assessment for learning,common assessment,data-driven decision making,High School,intervention,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional learning communities,shared leadership,urban high school

Place Name California (states), Los Angeles (counties)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email kecabrer@usc.edu,kimberly_cabrera@chino.k12.ca.us

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3071

Unique identifier UC1291103

Identifier etd-Cabrera-3697 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-341577 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3071 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Cabrera-3697.pdf

Dmrecord 341577

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cabrera, Kimberly Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu