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Critical reflection among marriage and family therapy students: an examination of cognitive complexity and content

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Critical reflection among marriage and family therapy students: an examination of cognitive complexity and content

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CRITICAL REFLECTION AMONG MARRIAGE
AND FAMILY THERAPY STUDENTS:
AN EXAMINATION OF COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY AND CONTENT

by

Alaisen Reed
____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Alaisen Reed

ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the loving and timeless memory of my maternal
grandmother, Mrs. Pinkie Booker (1913-1975). Her love lives on forever.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge those persons who gave selflessly to the completion of
this project.
I have much gratitude for my sons, who patiently grew up on college campuses,
throughout my pursuit for higher knowledge. I wish to thank my mother for assisting
with their childcare, as well.
Thank you to Drs. Karen Symms-Gallagher, Rodney K. Goodyear, Ginger Clark,
and David Balok for your invaluable wisdom and academic guidance.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables v
Abstract vi
Chapter One: Conceptual and Empirical Foundations 1
of the Study

Chapter Two: Method 20
Chapter Three: Results 25
Figure 3.1: Scatterplot for Neuroticism and Cognitive 29
Complexity Scores

Chapter Four: Discussion 30
References 34
Appendices
Appendix A: Information Sheet 48
Appendix B: Document of Solicitation 53
Appendix C: Critical Reflection Survey 55
Appendix D: Critical Reflection Survey Narrative Responses 70

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Cumulative Frequencies of Cognitive Complexity Scores 25
Table 3.2: Between-Item Correlation Matrix 26

vi
ABSTRACT
Students (N = 33) enrolled in master’s degree programs in counseling at three
universities were asked to complete measures of need for cognition, openness to
experience, and neuroticism. They were then asked to provide a written narrative about a
specific incident that had occurred during the past 30-days that left them feeling puzzled
or confused. In that writing, they were prompted to describe the basis for their reactions
to the incidents, including what they would do differently next time. Quality of these
reflections-on-experience was assessed using the Hatton and Smith (1995) coding system
as an approximation of cognitive complexity. Scores were obtained by a team consisting
of four trained raters.
Two of those four raters, also, then categorized the reflections according to
content. The three categories that emerged were labeled as Peer Relations, Supervisor
Interaction, and Professional Development. Most reflections were in the first of these
three categories. But most students were not yet working with clients. However, if that
had been the case, the categories likely would have been different.
Contrary to expectations, neither need for cognition nor openness to experience
predicted quality of reflections. Neuroticism, though, did predict cognitive complexity,
as it had in two previous studies using similar methods and measures.

1
CHAPTER ONE
CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE STUDY

Many perceive critical reflection to be an essential element in professional
training and practice, with understandings of it having evolved primarily from a context
of practice. Research on it, though, has been scant (Brookfield, 1987; Brooks, 1999;
Mezirow, 1990; Plack & Greenberg, 2005), in all areas of practice, including that of
counseling, which is the specific focus of this research.
Schön (1982), in particular, has written about reflection as being integral to
professional practice. It is a dialectic method of thinking that enhances the practitioner’s
level of professional competence (Osterman, 1990). Although each profession has unique
traditions and contexts for utilizing the reflection process, practitioners in all professions
rely on a reflective process for the integration of new information and skills (Schön,
1991).
In this study, reflection was defined as the deliberate act of thinking about an
event or a situation that had left the practitioner feeling uncertain or uncomfortable; an
act of self-inquiry that allows him or her to obtain a better understanding of what to do to
optimize outcomes when a similar situation next occurs. Reflection enhances
professionalism by facilitating solutions to problems that will influence the practitioner’s
future choices (Skovholt, 2001).
One profession for which critical reflection seems particularly well-suited is that
of counseling. And, in fact, supervision is the vehicle to teach it. Bernard and Goodyear
(2009) regard counseling supervision as the person’s “signature pedagogy” in that it is

2
central to and characterizes the training of counselors. To accomplish this, it also trains
supervisees to engage in critical reflection (Hoshmand, 1994; Kano, Nelson, & Neufeldt,
1996; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1992). Hoshman (1994) argued for a “reflective
professional psychology” and wrote that counselors behave as: “knowing subjects and
objects to be known. Reflexivity, which means referring back to oneself, requires
stepping outside the system we are part of to study and reflect on our own involvement in
it” (p. 6).
She further stated that reflective practice permits counselors to align their
personal knowledge with their professional knowledge. A counselor “uses these ongoing
personal realities…to improve his or her work” (Skovholt, 2001, p. 32), and so the
reflective process benefits the practitioner’s professional practice. Hoshman asserted that,
“professional training should provide opportunities for refining the use of self-inquiry”
(p. 13).
In short, the skill of reflection is necessary for a counselor’s lifelong professional
development (Skovholt, 2001), a process that begins when counselors are still trainees. It
is vital, therefore, to understand trainees’ reflective processes (Borders, 1989; Murdock,
1991; Pica, 1998; Skovholt, 2001). But as it has been true with respect to all other
professions, the actual empirical literature supporting or even describing reflection in
counseling has been minimal.
Reasonably, there are personal characteristics of a counselor that will affect the
quality of his or her reflections. A preference for playing with or entertaining ideas is one
of these characteristics that seemed particularly important, as it foreshadows cognitive
style. This can be manifested as a need for cognition, which Cacioppo, Kao, and Petty

3
(1984) noted “is predictive of the manner in which people deal with tasks and social
information” (p. 306). Persons who enjoy engaging in thought may well have better
reflections than those who do not.
A related construct is openness to experience, one of the five basic domains of a
personality Goldberg (1993) identified. People high on this personality trait are curious
and have active imaginations. But, so far, the relationship between these attributes and
quality of professional reflections has not been examined empirically.
There is no consensus about what constitutes a quality reflection. It makes sense,
though, that reflection of superior quality is multifaceted and exhibits evidence of self-
evaluation and an in-depth analysis of events or circumstances. The person who
demonstrates these qualities would be demonstrating cognitive complexity; that is,
exploring various alternatives to an issue in a differentiated manner (Birney, 2000; Kelly,
1955).
Practicum is a training experience counseling programs use to develop counseling
competence by having trainees see actual clients under supervision. The student who
completes a practicum should be able to demonstrate basic reflective practice skills; skills
they develop during the process of supervision. This study examines whether these
reflective practice skills would vary in quality as a function of the student’s preference
for playing with ideas.
A secondary focus of this study is on the content of student reflections. That is, if
asked to report situations that are in some way troublesome to them, what will the
students report?

4
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine whether two measures of preference for
thinking activities, the Need for Cognition Scale (Caioppo, Kao, & Petty, 1981), and the
Openness scale of the Big Five Personality Inventory (Howard & Howard, 1995) would
predict quality of counselor trainees’ reflections, measured by levels of cognitive
complexity. Cognitive complexity was inferred from scores on the Hatton and Smith
(1995) coding system.
The study also examined the types of issues students raised in their reflections.
This provides a useful indicator of what they are finding to be particularly troublesome or
challenging to them.
Counseling trainees were asked to provide an account of an event or a situation,
occurring within the past 30 days, that they deemed as unsettling. Counseling trainees
then provided a written account about how their response to the event or situation could
change as a result of employing reflection.
Each written reflection was coded for a level of cognitive complexity using the
Hatton and Smith’s (1995) coding system. Two raters, proficient in that system, assigned
a score to each counseling trainee’s reflection. The reflection sample then was analyzed
for content and assigned to categories. Two raters (a) assigned a cognitive complexity
score to each reflection, and (b) identified themes in the content of the reflections.

5
Review of the Literature
The literature reviewed in the remainder of this chapter establishes the context
and rationale for this study. It covers, in turn, (a) reviews of how reflection and its
processes have been defined, (b) the reflective process in the development of counselors,
(c) and, cognition as an outcome variable (cognitive complexity) and a predictor variable
(need for cognition).
Literature Defining Reflection
Despite the attention reflection is receiving from practice communities, it remains
in many respects vaguely understood (Bleakley, 1999; Bulman & Birms. 2000; Huber &
Nolan, 1989).
Limited scholarly research on reflection is likely “attributed to the false
dichotomies between theory and practice and the lack of clarity in the complex
relationships between knowledge, action, and reflection” (Chiu, 2006, p. 71). Several
theorists, though, have provided central understandings of the construct. Each of those
will be addressed in turn, beginning with Dewey.
John Dewey. Current understandings of reflection begin with Dewey (1933) who
described it as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed
form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions
to which it tends” (p. 10). He saw it as an integral part of the generation of knowledge. In
his view, reflective practice is an active process that affords a practitioner the opportunity
to attain more enriched experience by extracting and gaining knowledge from past
activities.

6
Dewey (1933) proposed five components of the reflection process. They include:
(a) a realization that there is a problem for which a solution is possible, (b) the isolation
of specific events that gave rise to the problem, (c) proposing various solutions to the
problem, (d) analyzing possible solutions to address the problem, and (e) testing potential
solutions with the use of the imagination (Chiu, 2006). He asserted that, “Reflective
thinking involves (1) a state of doubt, hesitation, perplexity, mental difficulty, in which
thinking originates, and (2) an act of searching, hunting, inquiring, to find material that
will resolve the doubt, settle, and dispose of the perplexity” (Dewey, 1933, p. 12).
Dewey’s (1933) concept of reflectivity received criticism due to its absence of
“emotive” and “dialogic” characteristics that others believe to be important to reflective
process (Cinnamond & Zimpher, 1990). Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985), who revised
Dewey’s model to address what they perceive to be the missing emotive component,
suggested that reflection should include: the ability to remember the pertinent details of
the event; attentiveness to the feelings that the reflective practitioner experienced during
the course of the event; and, an interpretation of how past experiences might influence
the reflector’s current point of view (Boud, et al. 1985).
Schön. Schön (1983, 1996) wrote that the critical reflection process occurs both
consciously and unconsciously. He termed the unconscious, or automatic, reflective
process that occurs in the moment reflection-in-action, and the conscious reflective
process that occurs after the event, reflection-on-action.
Reflection-in-action is “tacit and spontaneous, and often delivered without taking
thought” (Schön, 1987, p. 80). It is the act of thinking while performing a task; or,
thinking on one’s feet. In that moment it is difficult to stop and formulate thoughts about

7
what is about to occur because the thinking process is directly connected to the act itself
(van Manen, 1991).
Reflection-on-action, which is the focus of this research, allows the reflective
person to look back on an event or a situation and to learn from it (van Manen, 1991).
The act of reflecting-on-action permits a person to create a question set and then to
develop opinions and beliefs relevant to the task and how it was performed. Reflective
thinking causes a more reasonable evaluation of knowledge as it is based on solid and
cohesive concepts that have an applicable meaning to the reflective practitioner (King &
Kitchener, 1994).
The reflective process requires a toolbox of visual memories, opinions, and
beliefs (Dewey, 1933; Schön, 1983). Smith (2007) noted that many researchers prefer to
hold on to “technical rationality” (i.e., a positivist epistemology of practice) in lieu of
accepting Schön’s (1983, 1987) conception of practice that evolves from experience. Yet
critics debate the distinctions between and the importance of reflection-in-action and
reflection-on-action (Eraut, 1994; Usher, 1997). Other critics insisted that he did not
provide a sufficient definition for what the reflective process entails (Smith, 2007).
Moreover, no examination of the affects of reflection-in-action exists (Munby & Russell,
1989).
Schön’s ideas have had enormous influence on academic training programs,
which quickly began to incorporate his ideas (Cliff, 1990). Following Dewey (1933),
Schön believed that reflection begins when a person perceives a problem or has a
question about his or her performance in a task that must be resolved (Schön, 1983). The
awareness of the discrepancies between actual and ideal behaviors or outcomes catalyzes

8
a person to improve his or her professional work practices (Dewey, 1938; Getzels, 1979;
and, Senge, 1990), bringing about a change in professional practice behaviors (Kottkamp
& Osterman, 1993). Mezirow (1990) wrote that reflectivity leads to a significant change,
or transformation, in the practitioner’s way of thinking about a situation. He or she will
create new understanding based on analysis and evaluation (Wells, 1999).
The reflective process has transformative properties because it demands both
cognition and activity of the practitioner. Reflection is thus an intellectual process a
counseling trainee can use (Caine & Caine, 1991). Training methods that review
epistemic assumptions address the trainee’s self-knowledge (Degan, 1994; Mezirow,
1991; Mezirow & Associates, 1990; and Perry, 1970).
Symbolic Interactionism. One basis for reflective practice is symbolic
interactionism, a perspective derived from the theories of both Mead and Dewey (Denzin,
1992). It’s adherent that reality is subjective and that each person is capable of creating
his or her own. Each person participates in the behavior that manifests a reality that is
valuable to him or her. As a person interacts with other people, they analyze the things
that are personally meaningful to them through a continuous self-reflection process.
Self-reflection drives interactions with other people. It is how other people
respond to the individual that determines if that same behavior will be used for future
encounters. Engagement in the self-reflection process additionally influences the quality
and skill that is necessary to conduct future self-reflective practice (Blumer, 1969).
The conceptualization that led to Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism was
Dewey’s postulate that people self-reflect while interacting socially within their
environments (Denzin, 1992). Dewey (1933) influenced Mead’s conceptualization of

9
symbolic interactionism by stating, “Reflective thinking involves (1) a state of doubt,
hesitation, perplexity, mental difficulty, in which thinking originates, and (2) an act of
searching, hunting, inquiring, to find material that will resolve the doubt, settle, and
dispose of the perplexity” (1933, p. 12).
Dewey maintained that reflection began with a trigger point, or an issue that
demands a resolution. Through the use of prior knowledge and deliberate self-probing
over the issue, a solution to a troublesome issue is possible. Dewey’s assertions and
Symbolic Interactionism are not mutually exclusive of each other. Reflection is necessary
in identification and assessment of the behaviors a practitioner wishes to develop or
maintain in their personality.
Reflection in Counselor Training
Critical thinking and reflective practice skills are important for those in clinical
practice, (e.g., National League for Nursing, 1992; United Kingdom Central Council for
Nursing Midwifery and Health Visiting, UKCC, 1999). Clamp (1980) stated that the
primary causes for skill inadequacies in the provision of care are ignorance professional
skill, as well as a poor professional attitude about the services being rendered.
Reflectivity is of primary importance to rectifying these issues.
A counselor trainee’s professionalism and competency are determined by his or
her ability to reason and conceptualize difficult issues (Holloway & Wampold, 1986).
Reflective practice allows the practitioner an opportunity to link textbook knowledge
with real life scenarios (Moon, 2002). Reflection allows the practitioner to audit his or
her own professional practice (Carr, 1996; Clark, 1996; Degazon & Lunney, 1995;
Durgahee, 1996; Heath, 1998; Hinnet & Weeden, 2000). “Reflection reminds qualified

10
practitioners that there is no end point to learning about their everyday practice (Driscoll
& Teh, 2001, p.98).
The practice of reflection may seem uncomfortable to many counseling trainees,
for it often focuses attention on negative experiences (Smith, 2000). Through training, a
reflective practitioner will learn both to persist and to do so effectively.
Reflection should be a cornerstone in counselor training (Borders, Ethington,
Fong & Pitts, 1997; Nelson & Neufeldt, 1998). Peterson (1995) asserted that the creation
of reflective practitioners is essential, for empirical research has provided inadequate
guidance for practice. Reflective practice is necessary to a counseling trainee’s
professional development (Neufeldt et al., 1997; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 1995).
One method of developing trainee’s skills in reflective practice is for the
supervisor to engage in Socratic questioning that will “foster self-initiated discovery”
(Overhoser, 1991, p. 68). Because practicum offers the opportunity for counselor trainees
to examine and discuss circumstances that caused the apprehension and uncertainty (King
& Kitchener, 1994), it is an ideal venue for supervisors to introduce the reflection process
to trainees. Karno, Nelson, and Neufeldt (1996) noted that:
The reflective process itself is a search for understanding of the phenomena of the
counseling session, with attention to therapist‘s actions, emotions, and thoughts,
as well as to the interaction between the therapists and the client. The intent to
understand what has occurred active inquiry, openness to that understanding, and
vulnerability and risk taking, rather than defensive self-protection, characterize
the stance of the reflective supervisee. Supervisees used theory, their prior
personal and professional experience, and their experience of themselves in the
counseling session as sources of understanding. If they are to contribute in future
development, reflections must be profound rather than superficial and must be
meaningful to the supervisees. To complete the sequence, reflectivity in
supervision leads to changes in perception, changes in counseling practice, and
an increased capacity to make meaning of experiences. (p. 8)

11
Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR; Kagan & Kagan, 2000) and the Reflective
Judgment Model (RJM; King & Kitchener, 1994) seem particularly well suited as means
by which to encourage reflective practice among counselor trainees. The Interpersonal
Process Recall (IPR) supervision model (Kagan & Kagan, 1991) is a self-discovery tool
that “helps participants to become aware of messages that they denied or ignored, and to
identify their own unstated fears and imagined vulnerability in personal interventions”
(Kagan & Kagan, 1991, p. 226).
It focuses the student’s attention to thoughts and feelings as they had occurred
during the counseling sessions. Attention to them and their meanings provide enhanced
understanding of themselves, their clients, and the clinical intervention might have
yielded better results (Bemak, Giordano, & Hanna, 1996).
The IPR process allows a supervisee to review his or her previously recorded
counseling session with the guidance of his or her supervisor. The supervisor facilitates
the reflection process and remains non-judgmental; the activity is meant only to sharpen
the professional skill of the supervisee by using reflectivity as a self-assessment tool.
The stance of IPR supervisor is that the supervisee is “the best authority of their own
dynamics and the best interpreter of their own experience” (Kagan, 1980, pp. 279-280).
During IPR-based supervision, the supervisee is able to stop the taped session if
the recollection of “any thoughts, feelings, goals, impressions, conflicts, confusions,
images, internal dialogues, or any other covert processes occurred during the session”
needs attention (Kagan & Kagan, 1991, p. 227). It fosters reflection, and therefore allows
the counselor trainee to engage in continual self-examination of how and why he or she

12
arrived at specific therapeutic decisions during their clinical practicum (Frieden &
Griffith, 2000).
The Reflective Judgment Model (RJM; King & Kitchener, 1994) is a critical
thinking developmental model that offers a theoretical framework for categorizing and
interpreting data trainees have gathered from observations (Frieden & Griffith, 2000).
The antecedent to the RJM was the work of Dewey (1933), and so it retains his position
that reflective judgment occurs once a person experienced uncertainty over an issue that
remained unsolved even with the use of conventional logic (King & Kitchener, 1994).
The RJM suggests seven developmental stages that are categorized into three groups: pre-
reflective thinking, quasi-reflective thinking, and reflective thinking. Pre-reflective
thinking is what is observed first-hand, or knowledge transferred from a person of
authority. Quasi-reflective-thinkers base knowledge on what they have personally
experienced and know is true. Their knowledge is primarily ambiguous and opinionated
(Frieden & Griffith, 2000). The most actualized degree of reflectivity sees knowledge as
multi-dimensional and varying in its validity and context. Reflective thinking causes a
more reasonable evaluation of knowledge to occur as it is based on “conceptual
soundness, coherence, meaningfulness, usefulness, and parsimony” (King & Kitchener,
1994, p. 17). RJM, therefore, discusses reflection in terms that map exceptionally well to
conceptions of cognitive complexity.
Neufeldt et al. (1996) offered four steps of the reflection process as it occurs
during counseling supervision. These are (a) causation, (b) intervening, (c) the process,
and, (d) the outcome or the consequences. Causation is the impetus for the reflection
process. It is the event or the situation that sparks reflectivity. Some causes for reflection

13
might stem from a clinical session involving a counseling trainee or the practicum’s
supervisor. The causation could be directly linked to the subjective nature of the
counselor, thus causing the reflection process to occur.
Intervening is also affected by the practicum’s environment. The behavior or
personality of the supervisor trainee, especially if he or she is more inclined to engage in
reflective thought, becomes an issue. The latter is probably best facilitated through the
implementation of IPR (Kagan & Kagan, 1991), which was discussed in the
aforementioned text.
The Neufeldt et al. (1996) process category itself has four subcomponents: (a)
attention, (b) stance, (c) understanding, and (d) level of comprehension. Attention
depends on the behavior, feelings, and the therapist’s thinking. How the therapist and the
clientele interact with each other also determine the span of attention afforded during the
clinical experience. Stance deals with the how the therapist and the client interact or
connect with one another. It also addresses the willingness to share information with ease
and comfort.
Understanding is a component that involves the experiences that the therapist
possesses professionally and personally. Level of comprehension addresses the depth or
pertinence of the counseling experience. In the category of consequences, reflection has
two avenues that gauge the counseling trainee’s professional perception within the
clinical setting.
By implementing reflection as a part of the practicum experience, the supervisee
might achieve a new understanding and a sense of tolerance when working with clients
due to the engagement in the reflection process. Additionally, the supervisee might better

14
develop a professional maturity as he or she employs reflection into his or her
professional career. In summary, “the reflective process itself is a search for
understanding…with attention to therapist actions, emotions, and thoughts, as well as to
the interaction between therapist and client” (Neufeldt et al., 1996, p. 8).
Conclusion. The literature suggests that critical reflection is integral, both in
training and in practice, to the professional development of a counselor (Ronnestad &
Skovholt, 1995). It also has addressed processes to facilitate it. What remains much less
explored, though, are the personal variables that affect quality of reflection.
Cognition as Both Outcome and Predictor
Cognition is both a predictor of quality reflections and a measure of that quality.
In the material that follows, outcomes will be covered first. Then, discussion of cognition
as a predictor will follow.
Cognition as Outcome: Cognitive Complexity. Stoltenberg (1981) proposed
that during a counselor trainee’s development, his or her level of cognitive complexity
would range from the novice counselor’s complete lack of cognitive integration or
complexity, to the more advanced trainees’ having some integrative skills, to the experts
being highly integrative in the realm of cognitive complexity. Expert counselors are
capable of showing high levels of differentiation in their thinking patterns and are able to
perceive and extract meaning from various perspectives relative to the processing of
issues. Stoltenberg asserted that a counseling supervisor is integral in facilitating this
process by providing supportive guidance. Interestingly, many studies parallel individuals
who possess high and low levels of cognition with individuals who exhibit expert and
novice skill levels (Clark, Delia, Switzer, 1974; Delia, 1972).

15
Like Stoltenberg (1981), Mezirow (1990), too, highlighted cognition in the
trainee’s reflective process, noting that indulgence in reflection leads to a significant
change in the practitioner’s way of thinking about a situation. This gives particular
salience to the construct of cognitive complexity.
There are several prominent definitions of cognitive complexity (Atkins, Bieri,
Briar, Leaman, Miller, & Tripodi, 1966; Crockett, 1982; Blackman & Goldstein, 1978;
Burleson & Waltman, 1988). All see it as “an information processing variable” (Delia,
1972, p. 10). Persons who demonstrate high levels of cognitive complexity are able to
differentiate and form their own opinions based on the data that they have encoded and
processed. A person functioning with a low level of cognitive complexity will see the
world in dichotomous, right/wrong ways (versus through a lens that acknowledges that
there may be many perspectives on an issue).
Literature discussing novice and expert skill level differences (Bell, Daly, Glenn,
& Lawrence, 1985; Ericsson & Smith, 1991; Hoffman, 1992) shows that expert
professionals are more able to engage in the abstract thinking process of cognitive
complexity than someone at a nominal skill level (Hintzman, 1986). “The well-developed
schemas of experts contain more links among the elements and more complex
organization” (Fiske & Taylor, 1991, p. 148). Hence there is a direct comparison between
the skilled cognitive expert and the person who is able to apply cognitive differentiation
and integration to solve process information variables (Bell et. al, 1985; Ericsson &
Smith, 1991; and, Hoffman, 1992).
Persons functioning at an expert skill level also are capable of (a) mentally
processing and deciphering data (Carroll & Lurigio, 1985), (b) expediently retrieving

16
mentally stored data (Adams, Schorr, & Smith, 1978), (c) expediently filing and
categorizing relevant data (Merluzzi & Pryor, 1985), (d) instantly determines when data
are irrelevant to the scheme of things being mentally considered, and (e) easily reaching
resolution between how to use pertinent data wisely (Fiske, Kinder, & Carter, 1983).
Cognition as a Predictor: Need for Cognition. Some people are more prone
than others to savor ideas and exhibit more introspective cognition. Reasonably then, they
might also be more inclined to consider a variety of perspectives relative to a situation
causing them to develop higher quality reflections. To some extent, this may overlap with
the trait of being cognitively complex.
Persons with highly developed systems of interpersonal constructs are better able than
those with less developed systems to acquire, store, retrieve, organize, and generate
information about other persons and social situations. We should expect that cognitive
complex persons will spontaneously and routinely use the enhanced processing capacities
at their disposal (Burleson & Caplan, 1982, p. 598).
The Need for Cognition Scale is a reasonable method by which to measure
people’s preference for engaging in thinking activity. Cacioppo et al. (1984) assert that
people with exceeding levels of NCS prefer engaging in thought processes that require
high levels of cognition.
Need for cognition refers to an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy
effortful cognitive endeavors. This characteristic is predictive of the manner in which
people deal with tasks and social information (p. 106). Because NCS is a predictor of
cognitive style, it is utilized in this study to assess which personalities measured engage
most in the enjoyment of effortless thinking.

17
Cognition as a Predictor: Openness to Experience. In this study, a second
measure of cognitive style (i.e., cognition-as-predictor) was used as well: Openness to
Experience. Through factor analytic studies, five basic personality characteristics have
emerged (Goldberg, 1993), with Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI, Howard &
Howard, 1995) designed to measure them. These are: Openness to Experience,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. In this study, the first
of these, Openness to Experience, was used as one measure of cognitive style. Howard
and Howard (1995) assert that people who score high on this scale tend to revel in
activities of creativity and of imagination. They also are available to have new
experiences and are more willing to consider different methodologies to perform a task.
They are inquisitive and tend to be discerning and insightful.
Cognition as a Predictor: Neuroticism. This study also regards Neuroticism as
a measure of cognitive style. Persons scoring high on the Neuroticism inventory, most
likely respond to adverse events with a display of intense dysfunctional emotion.
Furthermore, individuals scoring high in the Neuroticism inventory tend to exhibit long
periods of anger, anxiety, and frustration over uncomfortable experiences (Howard &
Howard, 1995). This outpour of mutable behavior may impede their ability to employ
coping mechanisms and to make sound decisions.
Focus of Trainee Critical Incidents
This study relied on the use of reported critical incidents, a technique that has
been used with relatively little research with counseling trainees (Morrissette, 1996). For
this study, a critical incident is defined as a situation or event that has left a counseling
trainee feeling uncomfortable or confused, scenarios that reasonably could be seen as

18
catalysts for change (Carroll & Furr, 2003). Examination of these incidents is necessary
to provide alternative and differentiated views on a counseling trainee’s development.
Carrol and Furr (2003) wrote, “By identifying the external events that trigger counseling
student development, the research on critical incidents can focus on an additional and
different perspective of development” (p. 483).
There are differences in the critical incidents reported by counseling trainees. The
critical incidents vary depending on which stage of development the trainee is in-during
the counseling program (e.g., Ellis, 1991). Heppner and Roehlke (1984) stated that
novice counseling trainees often reflect on critical incidents detailing professional
competence, emotional stability, or supervisor reliance. The more expert counseling
trainees however, tend to reflect on critical incidents related to client or supervisor related
issues. It is noted that both novice and more expert counseling trainees concurrently focus
on “developing a treatment plan” and the need to “getting support from (their)
supervisor” as paramount to their success as clinicians (Fukuyama, 1994, p. 297)
Reports of these critical incidents are also useful in determining categories of
experience trainees regard as focal points of moist concern to them. To know that, is
useful to counselor educators for planning and training purposes. Therefore, the critical
incidents were used to identify categories of experience students found problematic.

19
Research Questions
The three research questions guiding this research study were:
1. When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic,
what themes are evident in those reflections?
2. When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic,
does their level of need for cognition predict the quality of their reflections?
3. When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic,
does their level of “openness to experience” predict quality of their reflections?
4. When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic,
does their level of neuroticism predict quality of their reflections?

20
CHAPTER TWO
METHOD

This chapter addresses the methods that were used in this study. More
specifically, it describes the participants, raters, measures, stimuli, procedures, and the
analysis of data used in this research.
Participants
Participants were 33 (31 female, and 2 male) masters level counseling trainees
from graduate programs in three universities in Southern California. The participants had
a mean age of 23.82 (SD=2.34), and stated their ethnic affiliations as African American
(4), Asian American (6), Caucasian (12), Hispanic (8), Mixed (2), or Other (2).
The participant volunteers reported a mean of 9 (SD= 4) months of counseling
coursework. All had completed a counseling practicum.
Raters
The four raters used in this study were one doctoral student in education and
three Doctor of Education Degree holders. Three raters were female, and one rater was
male. The raters reported their ethnicity as African American (1), Asian American (1),
and Caucasian (2). Their ages were between 25 and 50.
Each rater had mixed-methods dissertation research experience, with a minimum
of graduate level Inquiry Methods I and II level coursework satisfactorily completed.
Raters have also participated in a mock review of the cognition surveying process used to
rate the reflections gathered for this study. Raters analyzed, discussed, and (through
consensus) coded each reflection received from volunteer participating in this study by

21
(1) reviewing the content of each reflection for its level of integrative complexity, and (2)
by assigning each reflection a numerical value based upon the its level of integrative
complexity.
Measures
This research employed a demographic questionnaire and three measures to
predict quality of reflection, and one outcome measure.
Descriptive and Predictive Measure
Demographic Questionnaire. The demographic questionnaire, designed for this
study, asked participants to state their age, sex, ethnic affiliation, highest academic level
attained, and how long they had been enrolled in their counseling program.
Need for Cognition Scale (NCS, Cacioppo, Kao, & Petty, 1984). The Need for
Cognition Scale predicts “the manner in which people deal with tasks and social
information” (p. 306). For this study, the 18-item Need for Cognition Scale was used.
Items were gauged using a five point Likert scaling: 5 = extremely characteristic of me, 4
= somewhat characteristic of me, 3 = not sure, 2 = somewhat not characteristic of me,
and 1 = extremely not characteristic of me. The higher the score, the more likely the
person enjoys cognitive activity.
Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI, Howard & Howard, 1995.) Of the five
scales of the Big Five Personality Inventory, only Openness (to experiences) was
employed in this study. Those persons who score high are said to value artistic things, the
use of creative imagery, and the practice of inquisitive thinking. Those who score low
tend to be conservative and function with minimal spontaneity; art has very little practical
use to them.

22
Outcome Measure
Framework for Evaluating Participants’ Level of Reflection (FEPLF; Hatton
& Smith, 1995). The FEPLF (Hatton & Smith, 1995) was used to assess quality of
participants. It provides an approximation of a measure of cognitive complexity. It
requires raters to evaluate reflection as being at one of 4 levels, based on the following
criteria:
1 = No evidence of reflection. Events were not explained or may have been reported
elusively if at all.
2 = Somewhat reflective. There was a nominal attempt to explain the chain of events
and reactions.
3 = Dialogic Reflective. Reflection occurred as evidenced by a descriptive discussion
of events as they unfolded, and there is a better than average attempt to exhibit literary
justification for the participant’s actions and reactions.
4 = Reflective. The participant takes many perspectives into account as he or she
contemplates and describes the event and his or her involvement in the event.
Protocol for Reflection
This research employed several open-ended questions that had been developed by
a research team of doctoral students and their professor as a protocol to guide the writing
of reflection. Specifically, participants were asked:
1. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets
the following criteria:
a. You were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering.

23
b. Your own behavior or reactions directly affected the outcome of the
experience.
c. The experience occurred less than 30 days ago.
2. How many days ago did this experience occur?
3. Describe your immediate actions and reactions.
4. What internal factors (e.g., personality traits and emotions) influenced how you
responded to the experience?
5. What external factors (e.g., environment or time of day) influenced how you
responded to the experience?
6. What conclusions have you drawn since you have had time to think about this
experience?
7. How would you react next time, if you were faced with a similar experience?
Procedures
Participant volunteers were recruited from counseling programs at three highly
selective universities before and after class time. Participants were advised that their
participation was entirely voluntary. Details were explained to the participants relative to
the purpose of the survey which included the advisement of danger or obligations tied to
the completion of this study.
Participants completed the survey in one of two ways. Some (N=6) completed it
online, using a commercial service (Survey Monkey). Others (N=28) used paper and
pencil to complete the survey.

24
Analysis of Data
Descriptive Theme Development
Participants’ responses were saved in a Microsoft Word file containing each of the
recorded events and descriptive details. Data on that file was duplicated for review by
each rater. Each reviewed every reflection and provided lists of themes they had extracted
from the data. One theme was generated relative to each event.
The raters’ independent reviews and thematic lists were compiled onto a master
file. The raters then agreed upon a master file that contained 3 themes that emerged from
an original list of 33 events offered by participant volunteers.
Descriptive Evaluation of Participants’ Levels of Reflection
Raters assigned each reflection to one of the Hatton and Smith (1995) categories.
Raters independently reviewed each participant’s reflective event and assigned a level of
cognition score. Then, the raters reached a consensus to determine a final level of
cognitive complexity score for each reflection provided.

25
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS

The results of the study are presented in this chapter. It begins with a summary
of descriptive statistics. Then, the specific research questions used to guide this research
will begin each section that presents the results.
Descriptive Statistics
Four raters worked independently to assign each reflection a cognitive
complexity score between 1 and 4, using the Hatton and Smith (1995) scoring system.
These three ratings were summed so that each reflection could have a score that ranged
from 3 to 12. Table 3.1 summarizes the cumulative frequencies for the scores of the 33
reflections obtained.
Table 3.1

Cumulative Frequencies of Cognitive Complexity Scores
Score
N %
Cumulative
%
4.00 6 18.2 18.2
4.50 1 3.0 21.2
5.00 5 15.2 36.4
6.00 5 15.2 51.5
7.00 4 12.1 63.6
7.50 1 3.0 66.7
8.00 4 12.1 78.8
8.50 1 3.0 81.8
9.00 2 6.1 87.9
9.50 1 3.0 90.9
10.00 2 6.1 97.0
12.00 1 3.0 100.0
Total 33 100.0

26
Table 3.2 presents the between-variable correlations for the several dependent and
independent variables. As well, it presents the mean and standard deviation for each
variable.
Table 3.2
Between-Item Correlation Matrix

Cognitive
Complexity
Need for
Cognition
Openness
to
Experience Neuroticism M SD
Cognitive
Complexity -- 1.66 .53
Need for Cognition .13 -- 54.28 5.74
Openness to
Experience .04 .13 -- 2.92 .34
Neuroticism .45** .21 -.15 -- 2.93 .33
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Research Question One
When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on their experiences, what
themes are evident in those reflections?
The intent of this study had been to capture reflections that concerned novice
counselors’ interactions with their clients. But, it turned out that this was true of only a
few reported incidents. The reflections tended instead, to focus on classroom and course-
specific behaviors. Chapter 4 addresses a likely reason for the unexpected finding.
The raters identified three broad themes from the 33 critical incidents. Those
concerned (1) Peer Relations (20 reflections), (2) Supervisor Interactions (9 reflections),
and (3) Professional Development (4 reflections). Examples of each of those follows:
Peer Relations
This theme focused on peer relations. An example is the following:
Four of my classmates were organizing a study session. Since no one seemed to
really know each other, I thought it would be okay to ask if I could be a part of

27
their study group too. I didn’t think it would be a big deal to join them in their
study group. They didn’t seem to be a clique of friends that wouldn’t want to
include an outsider in their study plans. The person who was scheduling the date
and time of the study session with everyone else, told me that she didn’t think
that I’d feel comfortable studying with them. She even recommended that I form
my own study group. When I asked her why she believed that I would feel
uncomfortable studying with them, she said that she just didn’t think that I’d be
able to keep up with them. I became angry over her charge that I was inferior to
the likes of them. She doesn’t even know me or what kinds of grades I get in
class. Now I’m more angry with myself because I didn’t challenge her words.
I’m really angry at myself because I let her see me cry, so she knows that she
hurt my feelings. I don’t see them in my new classes. I still consider saying
something about what had been said to me. If anything like this ever happens to
me again, I’ll be sure not to let my feelings get the best of me by crying.

Supervisor Interaction
This theme focused on Supervisor Interaction. An example is the following:
I don’t usually complain about things, but the supervisor targeted me in class.
He started asking me questions to see if I had read an article that he had told the
class to read. I answered the questions with the right answers, but he wanted
more details. He wanted me to look bad in front of the other students. I asked
him what was up with him. I didn’t handle things satisfactorily because I got
smart with him in front of the class. Now everyone sort of ignores me and the
supervisor doesn’t go out of his way to talk to me like he does most of the other
students in the program. I found out that’s his way. He asks lots of questions. I
messed up by being rude to him in front of everyone. I should have just
answered the questions and left it at that, but I kept talking back to him. I let my
pride get in the way a little bit.

Professional Development
This theme focused on Professional Development. An example is the following:
I did not want to participate in an exercise where we had to observe other students
performing tasks on how to relate to difficult clients. I understood that the
exercise was to make me a better therapist, but I did not want to do another
exercise like this one. I did not want to be paired with the person that I was paired
with to do the role play exercise with either. It was probably showing on my face
and in my attitude. This was a difficult exercise for me, mostly because I did not
want to be there. Things would have worked out best if I had asked to be excused
for the day. I know that I was unfair to my role play partner. I know that I have to
work on tolerating other people.

28
Research Question Two
When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic, does
their level of need for cognition predict the quality of their reflections?
Table 3.2 indicated that need for cognition was quite weakly related to cognitive
complexity (the measure of reflection quality). In fact, the correlation of .13 between the
two indicates that less than two percent (1.7%) of the variance in one is accounted for in
the other.
Research Question Three
When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic, does
their level of “openness to experience” predict quality of their reflection?
Table 3.2 indicated that openness to experience had virtually no relationship to
cognitive complexity. The two were correlated at .04.
Research Question Four
When novice counselor trainees are asked to reflect on professional
experiences that they have found to be somehow confusing or problematic, does
their level of neuroticism predict quality of their reflections?
Table 3.2 indicated a moderate relationship between neuroticism and quality of
reflection (i.e., cognitive complexity). Figure 3.1, below, provides a scatterplot of the
relationship between those variables.

29
Figure 3.1
Scatterplot for Neuroticism X Cognitive Complexity Scores

30
CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION

This chapter is comprised of three sections. The first concerns the conclusions
that may be drawn from this research, including the comparisons between these findings
and those in previous literature. The second section considers the limitations and the
delimitations of this study. The chapter then ends with recommendations for future
research. Implications are also provided for counseling trainees and supervisors.
Conclusions
One of the surprises of the study was how few reflections concerned client-
counselor interactions. But what had not been clear at the time data were collected,
though, was that only three of the 22 participants actually had been seeing clients under
supervision at the time of the study. This, which was the result of misunderstandings
between the researcher and course instructors, substantially affected the obtained results.
It certainly affected the themes that were identified.
But this likely circumstance also affected the other between-variable
relationships as well. Specifically, it is reasonable to assume that the class-related
interactions reported by these participants would have a different level of urgency than
would be the case with counselor-client interactions and may well be prompted by
different motivations. To be even more speculative, it is possible that this would be
reflected in how weakly associated openness to experience and need for cognition would
be to cognitive complexity.

31
Perhaps the most interesting finding was the relationship between neuroticism and
cognitive complexity. This same relationship was found, as well, in studies by Yun
(2008) and Cohen (2010), both of which used the same measures and general method as
this study. Neuroticism has a “worry” component. Therefore, it may be that people
scoring high on neuroticism invest more energy in thinking through problems; that is,
they have richer reflections.
Three unique themes emerged from the counseling trainee reflections. Those
themes were categorized as: (a) peer relations, (b) supervisor interaction, and (c)
professional development. Most (20) of the counseling trainees chose to reflect on
incidents and events related to peer- relationships. Clearly these were of most salience to
the trainees. This likely is an artifact of the sample: Had students actually been working
with clients, their interaction and professional development probably would have been
more salient.
The prediction was that levels of need for cognition or openness traits would
produce higher quality of reflections. “Scores on these traits can often explain important
issues for adults and thus simplify counseling efforts” (McConochie, 2009, p. 1). But this
was not the case. A likely possibility was that some level of dissonance or discomfort is
necessary to activate the relationships among these variables, and this simply was not
there.
Self-awareness and negligible experiences often emerge in data related to
beginning counseling program students (Ladany, 2004). However, these issues are
important to the professional development of counseling trainees (McCarthy & Skovhot,

32
1988). Reflection, therefore, might serve as a management tool for the personal and
professional growth of supervisees (Altman, Inman, & Howard, 2006).
Limitations
When discussing the findings in this study, some methodological limitations must
be acknowledged. One is that participants were volunteers and so those who chose not to
participate may have responded differently. Thus, a sample bias may have affected the
findings in this study. But most important of all was the fact that so few of these students
actively were involved in work with clients.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study’s findings and conclusions yielded these recommendations for future
research: It is advisable to conduct an in-person interview with each participant allowing
the surveyor to gather data of this matter, as opposed to using an on-line survey method
or arbitrarily collecting reflections from persons agreeing to participate. Expanding the
number of survey participants to include persons outside of Southern California may
affect research findings.
Implications for Practice
Reflective practice influences the professional development of a counseling
therapist. Reflective practice is a skill that can be learned. Critical thinking is integral to
the reflective practice process. Critical thinking can be taught and developed
pedagogically. Through instructional strategies, critical thinking skills can be honed to
produce a counseling therapist who instinctively engages in quality reflective practice
throughout his or her professional career.

33
Clear learning goals and objectives, addressing the professional benefits of
reflection, must be made obvious within the curriculum of the counseling therapy
program. Counseling supervisees are in an ideal position to ensure the successful
implementation of reflective practice usage across the curriculum. The practicum
experience should reveal the intrinsic value of how beneficial reflective practice is to the
development of a supervisee’s clinical and overall professional success.
There must be instructional procedures established that effectively train each
supervisee in the reflective practice process. It is likely that the supervisor will be the
determining factor of whether reflection routinely occurs throughout the practicum
experience. Thus, the behavior of those supervising the practicum should properly
articulate and continuously model the reflective practice process for students of the
counseling therapy program.
The intrinsic and extrinsic values found in the engagement of the quality
reflective practice process must be highlighted throughout the counseling therapy
program. The benefits of reflective practice should undoubtedly inspire the supervisees to
automatically self-reflect. There is a possibility that if self-reflection is automatic, then
perhaps, the ability to self-supervise will follow as a by-product of the reflective practice
process.

34
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48
APPENDIX A
INFORMATION SHEET

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Critical Reflection Among Graduate-Level Counseling Students: An Examination of
Content and Cognitive Style

Greetings:
You are being asked to volunteer as a participant in a research study conducted by
Alaisen Reed, Ed. D. student, and Rodney K. Goodyear, Ph. D., from the Rossier School
of Education at the University of Southern California. The data gathered from this study
will be contributed to a dissertation. You were selected to volunteer as a participant in
this study because you are currently a graduate-level counseling student, at a highly
selective university. At least 30 subjects will be randomly selected from a population of
Southern California graduate-level counseling students.
PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY
We are asking that you voluntarily participate in this research study as a means for us to
gather data on the practice of reflection among graduate-level counseling students.

49
Appendix A, Continued
Your completion and submission of this survey constitutes your consent to voluntarily
participate in this research study.
PROCEDURES
We are asking that you voluntarily participate in this research study by completing a
survey questionnaire. The survey questionnaire will take approximately 30 minutes of
your time. You will be asked questions, such as: your age and ethnicity.
You will additionally be asked to pinpoint and discuss an event that occurred within the
past month, which left you feeling puzzled or confused resulting from your reaction or
participation in the situation. Specific details describing the event will be necessary, such
as, a description of the activity that occurred; the involvement of any other parties; and,
why did this event leave you feeling puzzled or confused.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
No risks are expected to occur from your voluntary participation in this research study.
However, you might encounter feelings of discomfort from revisiting the memory of the
event that left you feeling puzzled or confused. You may be inconvenienced, time-wise,
if the survey takes longer than 30 minutes for you to complete it.

50
Appendix A, Continued
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO VOLUNTEERING PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO
ACADEMIA
There may be no direct benefits gained for your voluntary participation in this research
study. However, the results of this work may assist in the academic comprehension of
how graduate-level counseling students reflect in practice. This data may additionally
inform the curriculum of graduate-level counseling programs.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment or monetary compensation for your voluntary
participation in this research study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
At no time during this research study will information be collected that can identify you.
No personal identifying information will be asked or collected from you during this
research study.
Only members of this research study team will be allowed access to the data gathered and
linked to this research study. The data will be maintained in the research investigator’s
office in a locked file cabinet linked to a pass code protected computer. The data will be
maintained in storage for three years after this research study has been completed. Then,
the data will be destroyed.

51
Appendix A, Continued
Once the results of this research study becomes published or are discussed, no identifying
information will be used that could reveal your identity because no personal identifying
information has been collected or asked of you during this research study.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You are able to decide whether or not to voluntarily participate in this research study.
Your voluntary participation in this study may be cancelled or withdrawn at any time,
with no consequences. You may refuse to respond to any survey questions or aspects of
this research study that you do not want to involvement, while choosing to remain as a
voluntary participant in this research study. The research investigator may withdraw your
voluntary participation from this research study as necessary.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
You have the right not to participate in this research study as an alternative.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may cancel or withdraw your consent to participate in this research study at any
time, without prejudice. You are not waiving any legal rights, claims, or remedies as a
result of your voluntary participation in this research study. Questions regarding your
rights as a subject involved in this research study may be addressed to the University
Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224

52
Appendix A, Continued
a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146. The telephone number is: (213) 821-5272. The e-mail
address is: upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH INVESTIGATORS
Your questions or concerns regarding this research study should be addressed to the
principal research investigator for this research study. She is Alaisen Reed. She is
available by e-mail at: areed@usc.edu. Additionally, the faculty sponsor for this research
study is Dr. Rodney K. Goodyear. He is available by e-mail at: goodyea@usc.edu.
Date of Preparation: (September 3, 2007) – Information Sheet
USC UPIRB#UP_07-00276

53
APPENDIX B
DOCUMENT OF SOLICITATION

Date: Spring 2008

To: Graduate-Level Counseling Students

Re.: Voluntary Participation in a Research Study on Reflective Practice

From: Alaisen Reed, Rossier School of Education Doctoral Candidate
at the University of Southern California

Your voluntary participation in a research study surveying the reflective practice among
graduate-level counseling students is greatly appreciated.
The goal of this research study is to know what graduate-level students might reflect on,
while enrolled in a highly-selective university counseling program.
Your consent to voluntarily participate in this research study will be understood by your
completion and submission of the research study survey.
No personal identification information will ever be asked of you. Thus, your privacy will
be respected.
This research survey will take approximately 30 minutes to complete.
Feel free to access the survey at the following web link address:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=33Fdlr/61UJQm7BOB4nkg_3a_4a
Or, you may complete the research survey now. I will accept the return envelope, with
the completed survey enclosed, for the next 2 hours. If I miss you, I can be reached at:
areed@usc.edu.

54
Appendix B, Continued
I will be additionally appreciative if you would share this research study survey
information with fellow graduate-level counseling students, who you feel may want to
voluntarily participate in this research project.
Thank you for your assistance and voluntary participation in this research study.

Most sincerely,

Alaisen Reed, Doctoral Candidate

55
APPENDIX C

CRITCAL REFLECTION SURVEY

1. Introduction to the study

Critical reflection is an important skill. It is a mechanism of self-
supervision that enables professionals to keep developing long after
they have completed their graduate programs. In fact, a number of
professions (e.g., teaching, nursing, and social work) stipulate that
students preparing for those professions learn reflection skills.
Many authors have described the reflection process. Although there
are some differences among them, they all agree that reflection begins
with an incident that somehow is confusing or upsetting. This
stimulates critical reflection that ends with a new understanding of the
incident. Despite this convergence of opinion about the importance of
the process, there has been curiously little actual research on it or its
outcomes.
The first step in any domain of research is to examine the phenomena
of interest. In that spirit, I am interested in obtaining a sample of your
reflective process as part of my research, focusing on MFT students.
Immediately following this first page, you will be asked to describe a
recent professional situation and your thoughts about it. That page is
followed by one with multiple choice questions that all concern your
particular style of thinking. Those questions should take about 7
minutes for you to complete (based on my field testing).
If you are willing to participate in this study, please complete the
questions that follow. Your responses will help me to learn more about
this ubiquitous – but little-understood – practice of reflective practice.
Alaisen Reed
Ed.D. Student
USC Rossier School of Education

56
1. Your age

2. Your gender
Female
Male

3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
Pacific Islander
African-American
Native-American
Hispanic
White, nonHispanic
Other
Mixed

2. Reflective Practice

Please think of an experience with a client that occurred during your
field work experience this summer[Ginger: We need the course
numbers here] in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your believe your own behavior or reactions directly affected that
experience.
If you had more than one such experience, please choose the one that
had the greatest impact on you.

1. If you had more than one experience that meets the criteria

57
stated just above, please choose the one that had the greatest
impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including
(a)what had been occurring between you and the client when
the incident occurred,
(b) what happened that was upsetting, and
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or
wondering.

2. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts,
and feelings) to the experience.

3. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional
reactions) influenced your response to that experience?

4. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the
event, and so on) influenced your response to that experience?

5. What conclusions have you reached based on your
subsequent thinking about this experience?

58

6. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you
think you would you react differently?

7. For what problem or issue was this client seeking treatment?

8. During approximately what session did this occur (e.g., 1st
session? 7th session? etc)?

9. Approximate age of client

10. Gender of client
Female
Male

59
3. NFC Scale

Each of us has a characteristic way of thinking about problems
we encounter. The following items are designed to assess your
particular style.
For each item, please check the single answer that best
describes you.

1. I would prefer complex to simple problems.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

2. I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that
requires a lot of thinking.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

3. Thinking is not my idea of fun.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than
something that is sure to challenge my thinking abilities.

60
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

5. I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely
chance I will have to think in depth about something.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you
6. I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

7. I only think as hard as I have to.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

8. I prefer to think about small, daily projects than long-term
ones.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you

61
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

9. I like tasks that require little thought once I’ve learned
them.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you
10. The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top
appeals to me.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

11. I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new
solutions to problems.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

12. Learning new ways to think doesn’t excite me very much.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you

62
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

13. I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you
14. The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

15. I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and
important to one that is somewhat important but does not
require much thought.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

16. I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task
that required a lot of mental effort.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

63
17. It’s enough for me that something gets the job done; I
don’t care how or why it works.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you
18. I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they
do not affect me personally.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you
19. I see myself as someone who is depressed, blue
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

20. I see myself as someone who is original, comes up with
new ideas
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

21. I see myself as someone who is relaxed, handles stress
well

64
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
22. I see myself as someone who is curious about many
different things
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
23. I see myself as someone who can be tense
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

24. I see myself as someone who is ingenious, a deep thinker
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

25. I see myself as someone who worries a lot
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree

65
agree a little
Agree strongly

26. I see myself as someone who has an active imagination
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

27. I see myself as someone who is emotionally stable; not
easily upset
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

28. I see myself as someone who is inventive
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
29. I see myself as someone who can be moody
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

66
I see myself as someone who values artistic,
aesthetic experiences
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

31. I see myself as someone who remains calm in tense
situations
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
32. I see myself as someone who prefers work that is routine
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
33. I see myself as someone who gets nervous easily
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

34. I see myself as someone who likes to reflect, play with
ideas

67
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

35. I see myself as someone who has few artistic interests
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

36. I see myself as someone who is sophisticated in art, music,
or literature
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

68

4. Final page

1. If you did discuss this situation with your supervisor, how
helpful was that discussion?

2. On a 7-point scale, where 1 = not at all upsetting or
confusing and 7 = very upsetting or confusing, how would you
rate this experience that you have written about?
1 (not at all upsetting or confusing)
2
3
4
5
6
7 (very upsetting or confusing)

3. Did you discuss this situation with your supervisor?
No
Yes

4. On a 7-point scale, where 1 = not at all and 7 = completely
how well does the way you have described this incident on this
survey match the quality of your usual reflections on your
professional practice?
1 (not at all)
2
3
4

69
5
6
7 (completely)
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. I
appreciate your input.
If you would like the survey results, please click here to send request.
Your email will arrive independent of this survey, so the two will not be
linked.

70
APPENDIX D
CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY NARRATIVE RESPONSES

(CATEGORIZED BY QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORES)
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 4
Your age: 31
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the participant
was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling confused, upset,
or puzzled:
My client asked me to complete an item that was not in the scope of our services, but
because he was the client, saying no to him was difficult. I called a meeting with him and
the entire meeting was between him pushing and reminding him why what he asked for
was out of our scope and if he wanted us to complete the form we had to revisit the
contract. After the meeting, I felt upset and confused because he had a hard time
accepting this. During the meeting, I was very logical and practical when speaking with
him, but afterwards, my pride led me to believe that I wasn’t strong enough. Although I
did my best to paint the situation for him, my personality of wanting to please everyone
also played an effect, because naturally, I have a hard time saying no. My boss, an
external factor, was in support of my decision, and with that, I knew I could say no.

71
Appendix D, Continued
However, my boss did not want to step in and deal with the situation. He said I should
handle it so it doesn’t undermine my position; however, it may have required a manager
level’s involvement. My supervisor was able to explain everything to me so it made me
more upset than I originally had been. I would have remained hopeful if I had not talked
to my supervisor. The fact that he had explained the reality to me allowed me to feel so
many of those emotions. The client wanted us, the consulting professionals, to basically
take more work on than originally planned.

72
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 4
Your age: 25
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the participant
was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her felling confused, upset,
or puzzled:
First I want to explain that I haven’t actually entered my field work experience
yet, so I don’t know if my responses can count toward this study. But I have worked as an
intern in a federal funded rehabilitation clinic and I performed the intakes and
assessments of the clients. There was one client with whom I was taking an assessment of
and he was a drug addict. He was maybe 2 and a half times my age and had been an
addict for many years. He had divulged so much information and was crying about his
experiences and told me that the drugs were ruining his life. I had never experienced
anything like that and I was somewhat uncomfortable with that responsibility. I also felt
like that was my shining opportunity to change someone’s life! It would be my first life-
changing moment in a long career full of them. After we completed the assessment we
scheduled another visit to prepare him for the group therapy. He did not show up to the
next appointment. I was so confused and upset as to why or how he could just not show
up after revealing so many emotions surrounding his addiction. He was under strict

73
Appendix D, Continued
regulations and faced prison time if he did not comply. He seemed so committed to at
least fulfilling the terms of his arrest, and it was so upsetting to me that he had either lied,
or couldn’t fulfill them. I knew as part of my responsibility I had to report it, which I did.
More than anything I found myself crying with this person. He was under strict
regulations and faced prison time if he did not comply. He seemed so committed to at
least fulfilling the terms of his arrest, as it was so upsetting to me that he had either lied,
or couldn’t fulfill them. Not necessarily affected by external factor other than knowing
that I as a counselor have to report harmful neglect as a responsibility.

74
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 42
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I am puzzled why the instructor allows some students to bring their kids to class.
I didn’t say anything because everyone kept saying how cute the little boy was, but I was
irritated. This is a professional program and I don’t understand how kids are allowed to
be in class with us. I was thinking about writing a note, but a man in the class says that
we should just write our thoughts on the evaluation at the end of the class.

75
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I am required to participate in a potluck this semester. It is an inconvenience for
me. It leaves me feeling upset because I do not have extra income to feed people. I feel
that people will complain about me, if I do not participate. The course evaluation will be
low for me if I do not participate. I know this even though the instructor says that it is all
for fun and so that we can get to know each other. I might drop the class. But this class is
not offered for another semester.

76
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
My confusion is how much of my grade will be affected by not bringing food to
class. I work and come straight to class. It is hard for me to feed myself really. I asked the
instructor for the section. The students who are for this say that it is all voluntary, but I
could tell that I will be exiled if I do not bring a good dish for everyone to sample. I think
this is unfair socially. Next time, I will investigate the expectations before enrolling in the
class. I will not take another class that demands socializing.

77
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 25
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I did not want to participate in an exercise where we had to observe other
students performing tasks on how to relate to difficult clients. I understood that the
exercise was to make me a better therapist, but I did not want to do another exercise like
this one. I did not want to be paired with the person that I was paired with to do the role
play exercise with either. It was probably showing on my face and in my attitude. This
was a difficult exercise for me, mostly because I did not want to be there. Things would
have worked out best if I had asked to be excused for the day. I know that I was unfair to
my role play partner. I know that I have to work on tolerating other people.

78
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 27
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: African American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I had been working as a counselor for a short while when a student came to me
crying. I asked her to walk with me and tell me what is going on? First, I calmed her
down. I told her to get a drink of water, wash your face and take a deep breath. I
mentioned that everything you tell me is confidential and if there is harm to you or others
I have to report it as part of my responsibility. Do you understand, and she said, “Yes”.
She told me about her home life. As she was telling me I was writing it down verbatim.
The more she told me the more I was shocked about how she gets treated. I was more
upset with how this person was living than her telling me. I was confused to the fact that
people live the way she described. To anybody else this is abuse.
I’m a natural caretaker-type. I’m emotional and invest myself fully in others’
stories. I’m naïve and very convincible. I am not surprised of this experience, it just
attests to these attributes of mine. The client was there for abuse.

79
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 28
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I don’t usually complain about things, but the lecturer targeted me in class. He
started asking me questions to see if I had read an article that he had told the class to read.
I answered the questions with the right answers, but he wanted more details. He wanted
me to look bad in front of the other students. I asked him what was up with him. I didn’t
handle things nicely because I got smart with him in front of the class. Now everyone sort
of ignores me and the supervisor doesn’t go out of his way to talk to me like he does most
of the other students in the program. I found out that’s his way. He asks lots of questions.
I messed up by being rude to him in front of everyone. I should have just answered the
questions and left it at that, but I kept talking back to him. I let my pride get in the way.

80
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 24
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: African American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
The instructor made a bad analogy a couple of days ago. She said that because a
client was morbidly obese the client must suffer from social alienation. I disagreed with
the instructor that just because someone is heavy doesn’t automatically mean that they
are lonely. I did not say anything to the instructor. I just feel this way. I was deeply
offended because I am overweight. I will write my feelings on our course evaluation
activity. That way I will not risk my career. The instructor has said things before about
weight. It always bothers me. I may have to say something out loud before the semester
ends because the weight things are always negative and they really upset me.

81
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 3
Your age: 25
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I was talking to the client about his inability to admit he has trust issues. He’s
unwilling to verbalize his feelings about anything that has to do with the situation. He
would close up every time I tried to get any information and that frustrated me and I
began to lose patience once it has been repeated over and over again. This experience left
me confused with what I could have done better to get myself and him out of that
encircling situation. I am a very impatient person and I tend to not like stubborn people.
Perhaps that’s what got me angry at the client. Not that I can think of. Maybe the weather
was extra hot that day so it made me even more impatient. He was frustrated because he
was having strange dreams about his wife-him murdering his wife and etc. He felt guilty
because he cannot imagine doing that in real life. He wants to find an explanation, or a
cause to his dreams.

82
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 22
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I want to change my group assignment. The people that I am assigned to sit with
act like I am not carrying my weight of the group. They say things that let me know they
do not value my input. One of them is already working in the profession as a drug
counselor. Next time, I will say that I am not happy with how I am not taken seriously by
the group members.

83
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 24
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Four of my classmates were organizing a study session. Since no one seemed to
really know each other, I thought it would be okay to ask if I could be a part of their
study group too. I didn’t think it would be a big deal to join them in their study group.
They didn’t seem to be a clique of friends that wouldn’t want to include an outsider in
their study plans. The person who was scheduling the date and time of the study session
with everyone else, told me that she didn’t think that I’d feel comfortable studying with
them. She even recommended that I form my own study group. When I asked her why
she believed that I would feel uncomfortable studying with them, she said that she just
didn’t think that I’d be able to keep up with them. I became angry over her charge that I
was inferior to the likes of them. She doesn’t even know me or what kinds of grades I get
in class. Now I’m more angry with myself because I didn’t challenge her words. I’m
really angry at myself because I let her see me cry, so she knows that she hurt my
feelings. I don’t see them in my new classes. I still consider saying something about what

84
had been said to me. If anything like this ever happens to me again, I’ll be sure not to let
my feelings get the best of me by crying.

85
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 22
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
My career choice leads me to believe that I have to endure people. I cannot
complain because that is the nature of this profession. I try to think out things that have
happened.

86
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 23
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
There are people in the program with me who fight over seats. I can’t believe this
type of juvenile behavior exists at the graduate level. I try to sit at the front right of the
podium. My seat is always taken, so I might sit somewhere else. Last week an older
woman in the class had the audacity to tell me to get out of her seat. I told her that there
were no assigned seats and to sit somewhere else. She called me a name under her breath.
I just ignored her. I told the leader of our section. He did nothing about this woman. Next
time, I hope there won’t be a next time. I might behave badly because I am usually tired
by the time that class starts. I have very little patience for foolishness over a chair.

87
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
One of the classmates babysits for the grader for our section. It is not cool at all
because she seems to get course information before everyone else. She is sort of the
grader’s assistant. Every class meeting leaves me feeling uncomfortable. I want to say
something, but I want to pass my section too. I am thinking about asking them how fair
do they think all of this is to everyone else in the class.

88
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 31
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Each group has to sponsor a weekly dinner for the class. Our class is small but I
cannot really provide a meal for other people right now. The instructor is adamant about
who brought what and who did not bring anything. It creates pressure for me. I spoke to
her about it and she said to just grab some drinks to bring, just so that I can say that I
brought something. I am afraid that if I complain, I will lose course credit. I will not say
anything else about the pressure this requirement causes.

89
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 29
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: African American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
There are social groups formed inside of our class section. The “in” crowd is
preferred by the professor. She knows their individual names and calls on them for all of
the activities of choice. I went to see her, and she had no record of our appointment. She
was not interested in going into detail with me about my questions. Maybe I am too
sensitive. I will just accept that I am just here to get a grade, and move on with my
program. If I knew what I know now, I would not have taken this course or even selected
this college.

90
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 34
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Hispanic
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Children should be with a babysitter. I think the school should offer child care for
students so that they will not feel obligated to have their strollers and items in class. It is
distracting, but some students in the program like little kids. I am not complaining. I am
not accustomed to having children inside of college classes with me. It is like going to a
bar and there are children sitting down next to you. I don’t know what I would do
differently next time I see a little kid inside of my class. People might get offended if I
say something. It is not really my place to say or do anything about it. Maybe I could
write a letter or something anonymous like that.

91
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 29
Your gender: Male
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I showed up for office hours and the teacher for the section was not there. I
waited for 40 minutes outside of her door. The secretary for the department finally said
that I should go ahead and leave because this instructor usually doesn’t come in on
Fridays. Her disregard for me made me angry because I did not matter to her. I always
keep my appointments or at least call to say if I cannot keep my schedule. I will always
call to verify if the appointment is scheduled. I will not just show up. I guess.

92
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
People eat during the sessions. This is crazy to me. It is unprofessional behavior.
I want to say something without compensating my need to get along with others in the
class.

93
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 2
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
One of the instructors for this set has a strong accent. I can’t make out what he is
saying half of the time. I never ask him to repeat himself probably because everybody
else seems to know what he is saying, unless they are faking too. I probably don’t say
anything because everybody likes him and I don’t want to be the odd ball in the group. I
probably won’t say anything. I’ll just let him talk without getting clarity.

94
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 31
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
This is kind of dumb, but it did leave me upset. One of the students in my group
offered me chopsticks while I paid for my lunch. I am Asian. He is African-American. I
felt teased about my culture. I remained quiet when it happened. Maybe he was being
thoughtful. I did not like what he did. I probably would keep quiet if it happened again.
People were watching.

95
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 27
Your gender: Male
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Someone stole my phone from off of my desk. I asked that if anyone found a cell
phone to please return it. The instructor said to check with the department’s secretary
after class.

96
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 34
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
It is difficult to supply food to people in class.

97
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: African American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
In class there are some people that I cannot stand. They sit in clichés. No one else
can do or say anything. The teacher seems to really like them. One of them is her
neighbor. I want to say something, but I do not see how it will matter much.

98
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 30
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Nothing has left me puzzled or confused in this program. It is pretty straight
forward. I haven’t done much yet with patients, but I am looking forward to it.

99
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 29
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I do not have any practicum experience but the instructor asked me to complete
this form. I am sorry that I can’t help you.

100
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: African American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Not Applicable-First Year

101
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 24
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
Students bring their children to our class. This is upsetting because the children
should not be allowed to disturb the class that I pay money to attend.

102
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 41
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
It is uncomfortable to attend classes when I am required to bring food from home
for others to eat. I have never heard of this practice.

103
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Hispanic
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
The class is not bothersome for me.

104
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 26
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: White
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I’m sorry, I’m a first year, thus, I haven’t done field work (Prof. Clark sent this to
all first years).

105
Appendix D, Continued
QUALITY OF REFLECTION SCORE: 1
Your age: 28
Your gender: Female
Your race or ethnicity: Asian American
Is English your primary language? Yes.
The following narrative was extracted from a survey response when the
participant was asked to critically reflect on an incident that left him or her feeling
confused, upset, or puzzled:
I am a first year student with no field work yet.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Students (N = 33) enrolled in master’s degree programs in counseling at three universities were asked to complete measures of need for cognition, openness to experience, and neuroticism. They were then asked to provide a written narrative about a specific incident that had occurred during the past 30-days that left them feeling puzzled or confused. In that writing, they were prompted to describe the basis for their reactions to the incidents, including what they would do differently next time. Quality of these reflections-on-experience was assessed using the Hatton and Smith (1995) coding system as an approximation of cognitive complexity. Scores were obtained by a team consisting of four trained raters.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Reed, Alaisen (author)

Core Title Critical reflection among marriage and family therapy students: an examination of cognitive complexity and content

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/02/2010

Defense Date 06/10/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cognitive complexity,critical reflection,OAI-PMH Harvest

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Goodyear, Rodney K. (committee chair), Balok, David (committee member), Clark, Ginger (committee member)

Creator Email alaisenreed@gmail.com,areed@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3242

Unique identifier UC1279118

Identifier etd-Reed-4005 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-336098 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3242 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Reed-4005.pdf

Dmrecord 336098

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Reed, Alaisen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu