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The role of music in the English language development of Latino prekindergarten English learners

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The role of music in the English language development of Latino prekindergarten English learners

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Content THE ROLE OF MUSIC IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF
LATINO PREKINDERGARTEN ENGLISH LEARNERS
by

Aubrey Anne Bird
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2007
Copyright 2007 Aubrey Anne Bird
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents, Walter and Lisa Storm,
who have always believed in the value of my education and supported me through
all of educational endeavors. I would not be here today if it were not for my
grandparents believing in me. If my grandfather could have lived to see this day, I
know he would have been so proud of me. I wish he was still in our lives, but his
memory will forever live in our hearts. I love you Grandpa.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my parents, Tom and Claudia
Grzywacz. My mother made my lunch every day and did so many “little things”
for me day in and day out that helped keep me going forward to attain my goals.
She is my inspiration and the love of my life. When I first began this doctoral
program, I told Tom that I wasn’t smart enough to be in this program. He
encouraged me, believed in me, and supported me all the way to the end.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my dissertation chair, Dr. Gisele Ragusa.
Towards the end of this dissertation process, Dr. Ragusa met with me each week.
During our meeting times, I learned how to properly write a dissertation. In
addition to our hard work, we also shared many laughs and stories. Her wonderful
insights and contributions have helped me to grow as an educator and will help
me continue to make a difference in the lives of children by helping me learn the
research process. By learning and using the process, I hope to positively affect
policy and practice.
I would also like to acknowledge my dissertation committee members, Dr.
Eugenia Mora-Flores and Dr. Virginia Erxleben for taking the time to mentor me
throughout this process. I appreciate all of the time and insight that you have so
willingly given me.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Introduction 1
Theoretical Framework 6
Significance of Study 7
Research Questions 8
Definitions 9
Limitations 13
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 14
Introduction 14
Today’s Preschool System 15
Today’s Preschool EL Students 25
Effective Instructional Practices for EL Students 27
Music as an Instructional Tool to help 37
Preschool ELs Acquire English
Summary of the Literature Review 41
Conclusion 44

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS 47
Introduction 47
Area of Investigation and Unit of Analysis 50
Research Design 50
Study Population 51
Data Collection Instruments, Processes, and Procedures 55
Validating the Accuracy of the Findings 65
Conclusion 67
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 68
Introduction 68
Program Description and Quality of the Case Study Classroom 69
The Classroom Teacher 71
v
Constellation of The Five Families Involved in the Case Study 72
Classroom
The Role of Music in the Oral Language Development of EL 76
Students
Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Related to the Role of Music 83
The Role of Music in Helping Young EL Students Acquire 90
English: A Neuroscientific Approach to Learning Language
Conclusion 100
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, & IMPLICATIONS 102
Introduction 102
Summary of the Findings 103
Discussion of the Findings 106
Recommendations 110
Recommendations for Practice 110
Recommendations for Parents 114
Recommendations for Teachers 116
Recommendations for Further Research 118
Conclusion 119
REFERENCES 123
APPENDICES
Appendix A-IRB Recruitment Tool 126
Appendix B-IRB Parental Consent Form 129
Appendix C-IRB Verbal Assent Form 133
Appendix D-IRB Teacher Consent Form 134
Appendix E-Observation Record Sheet 138
Appendix F-Parent Interview Sheet 139
Appendix G-Teacher Interview Sheet 141
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Emerging Themes Based on Grounded Theory 64
Table 2: Descriptive Characteristics for the Classroom Teacher Included 72
in The Preschool Case Study
Table 3: Descriptive Characteristics for Five Families Included in The 75
Preschool Case Study
Table 4: The Role of Music in the Oral Language Development of EL 77
Preschool Students
Table 5: Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Related to the Role of Music 84
Table 6: Nonverbal Expressions and Comments by the Preschool Children 86
Table 7: The Role of Music in Helping EL Students Acquire English 92
Table 8: Songs used to Teach Pre-Academic Information/Skills 99
vii
ABSTRACT
This dissertation examined the role of music in the English Language
Development (ELD) of Latino prekindergarten (Pre-K) English Learner (EL)
students. Specifically, this dissertation examined three key areas: (1) the role of
music in the oral language development of Pre-K EL students, (2) perceptions of
teachers and parents regarding the role of music in helping Pre-K students learn
English, and (3) the role that neuroscientific research plays in helping us
understand the role of music in the second language development of
prekindergarten English Learners.
This single classroom based qualitative case study examined five families
in a specific prekindergarten School Readiness Language Development Program
(SRLDP). Classroom observations, parent interviews, and teacher interviews were
conducted to determine the role of music in helping Pre-K student learn English.
Results from this study demonstrate that music helps young Pre-K
students improve their oral language development by providing a risk-free
environment to practice English and improving their social skills and
communication. In addition, results from this study reveal that the teacher and the
parents perceive that music is used in motivating, improving confidence, and
increasing memory in students. Lastly, the role music plays in the second
language development of prekindergarten English Learners is that it enhances
learning and increases memory.
viii
This dissertation concludes with recommendations for practice, parents,
teachers, and further research. It also provides insight for policymakers,
administrators, and any person who works with young ELs regarding music as an
effective instructional strategy that can be used in any prekindergarten classroom.
1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 calls for state
accountability systems that require improvement on mandatory state tests that
measure student’s performance in the areas of reading and math. This act requires
schools to meet growth targets so that all children will reach proficiency by 2013-
2014. Results for this growth must be broken down into all demographic
categories including ethnic/minority status, levels of English proficiency, and
special education. Adequate progress must be made in each of these categories. If
growth targets are not met for each of these groups, sanctions will be put in place
at the school that include supplemental services or in worse case, corrective
actions and school restructuring (Neuman, 2003).
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), within the Institute
of Education Sciences (IES), in collaboration with several health, education and
human services agencies is conducting an ongoing study, The Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K). This study focuses
on children's early school experiences in kindergarten through eighth grade. The
ECLS-K provides descriptive information on children in the following three
areas: (1) their status upon entry to school, (2) how they transition into school,
and (3) how they progress through the eighth grade. This longitudinal study
enables researchers to study how a wide range of factors, including family,
2
school, community, and individual factors, are associated with student
achievement. This study provides information regarding the national population
of children. Based on this study, Coley (2002) reported on the characteristics of
students entering kindergarten. The report concentrated on different aspects of
inequality including ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES). Coley found that
Asian and European American students are more likely than children in other
racial/ethnic groups to be proficient in reading tasks and mathematical skills.
Children in high SES groups were more likely to be proficient in reading tasks
and mathematical skills than children in low SES groups. When children were
grouped in similar SES groups, all racial/ethnic differences disappeared. Coley
concluded that students come to Kindergarten with a variety of preschool and
home experiences. Accordingly, students come to Kindergarten with a wide
variety of school readiness skills and strategies. Coley suggests addressing these
inequities prior to children starting school by identifying at risk students and
providing them with quality preschool experiences that equip them with school
readiness skills.
In a document by the American Federation of Teachers (AFT, 2003), the
AFT states that “fifty percent of children have one or more risk factors that can
lead to an achievement gap even before they start kindergarten and jeopardize
their chances to learn and succeed in school” (2003, p.6). Among these risk
factors is limited-English proficiency.
3
Neuman (2003), the former assistant secretary for elementary and
secondary education in the U.S. Department of Education, reports that 15% of
students have three or more risk factors including ethnic background, SES, or
parental education level. The greater the risk factors, the less school readiness the
child will possess. Children with multiple risk factors are likely to have less
exposure to books, language, storybook reading, and other literacy-based
activities that provide children with a foundation for literacy in later years. Lack
of exposure hinders these children’s reading achievement.
In addition, Hart & Risley (2000) examined longitudinal data on 42
families to determine what accounted for enormous differences in rates of
vocabulary growth. They compared results found in professional families to those
they found in welfare families. The results were astounding; Children from
professional families had been exposed to approximately 30 million more words
than the welfare families. This data is another factor that can hinder later reading
success.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC,
1998) provides a position paper statement summarizing important issues in
learning how to read and write and discussing what is known about young
children’s literacy based on research. The NAEYC advise that when we set
expectations too early with young students, school assessments identify English
Learners (ELs) as lacking vocabulary and problem-solving skills. This often leads
to immigrant children being over-referred to special education.
4
In order to begin closing this above-mentioned “achievement gap,” many
have argued that high-quality preschool programs must be developed (AFT, 2003,
Neuman, 2003). While there are several preschool programs available in the
United States, ranging from private organizations to public schools, many of the
best programs are far too expensive for the majority of Americans (Barnett &
Hustedt, 2003). Current programs for low-income children have provided “too
little instruction, at too slow a pace, for too short a time to create any
demonstrable effects in the long term” (Neuman, 2003, p. 288). In providing
preschool services to low SES students, obstacles to high-quality early childhood
education include low pay, minimal benefits, and as a result, high staff turnover.
This equates to low-quality preschool programs for low-SES students.
If we are to have any chance of reaching proficiency by 2014, Neuman
(2003) argues that in order to close the achievement gap, attention must be paid to
the differences in school readiness between children from diverse backgrounds.
This can be done through high-quality pre-kindergarten programs that
acknowledge that many children are not adequately prepared upon entrance to
school.
In a visit to a locally funded prekindergarten classroom, Neuman counted
only twenty minutes of instruction in a three-hour day. This can be attributed to
transitions including late arrivals, dismissals, lunch, bathroom, washing, getting
ready for outdoor play, getting back from indoor play, going to and coming back
from “specials,” and cleaning up. Of the twenty minutes of instruction that did
5
occur, Neuman claims that the children spent type doing various activities that
were not valuable to the children including memorizing lines of print they did not
recognize and repeating letter and number concepts they did not understand.
Neuman claims that this classroom visit seemed “typical,” however this type of
instruction would not begin to close the current achievement gap between low and
high-SES students. In reference to a child’s prekindergarten experience, Neuman
says “as pleasant as they might be, these experiences are insufficient to have
much effect in overcoming large differences in background knowledge,
vocabulary skills, and dispositions for learning” (p. 288). Neuman claims that in
order to make a difference in the learning of low-SES children, we must begin to
address these child’s needs with a sense of urgency and conviction.
A considerable amount of research has been done about the effects of
preschool on the academic achievement of students. Stahl & Yaden (2003)
reviewed several studies from the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading
Achievement (CIERA) that targeted preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade
children. Their findings document that children who begin schooling with a rich
preschool experience are more likely to have a more successful academic career
than students who have not participated in early childhood experiences. The AFT
states that “well-regarded studies have shown that high-quality pre-school both
increases the likelihood that children will gain higher levels of cognitive and
social skills and become successful students and productive citizens and reduces
the chances that they will drop out of high school, become dependent on welfare,
6
or be incarcerated” (2003, p.6). Thus, “understanding rich early learning, the
curricula that stimulate it, and the training preschool teachers need have all
become foci in the national agenda for understanding early childhood
development, and in particular, the acquisition of early literacy knowledge” (Stahl
& Yaden, 2003, p. 151). However, while researchers have agreed that preschool
education can produce substantial gains in children’s learning and development,
researchers disagree on whether or not these gains are permanent (Barnett &
Hustedt, 2003). Focus on preschool programs has evaluated the effects on the IQ
scores of low-SES children. While IQ scores increase initially, there are few
preschool programs that produce lasting IQ score gains.
Theoretical Framework
This dissertation study employs an educational psychology based
combined with a neuroscientific and information processing theoretical
framework to describe and provide a rationale for the use of music as a tool for
second language acquisition in Latino preschool English learners. The
information processing perspective of learning as described by Jeannine Ormrod,
(2006) recognizes that learning is a cognitive process by which learners obtain
information through their sensory memory, process it in short term memory by
encoding and categorizing it for later recall, and then shift it into long-term
memory for storage. This study posits that music can serve as the means by which
7
children encode language that they learn and shift the linguistic information from
short-term to long-term memory.
A second theoretical perspective for this study is a neuroscientific
perspective. This perspective posits that learning occurs through a combination of
physiological and cognitive processes involving the brain and body. Research by
Damasio (1993) provides neuroscientific research related to the brain and
language. Damasio claims that language (verbal) is processed in the left
hemisphere of the brain, while the right side of the brain processes the non-verbal,
thus all language is processed on the left side of the brain. Gellens (2000) links
neuroscientific research, to the information processing approach, to instruction
with the use of music. Gellens posits that music provides mediation to shift
information to long-term memory in children. Gellens (2000) states that by
adding hand movements to music, children use multiple parts of the brain at the
same time.
Significance of the study
There has been a considerable amount of research describing the positive
effects of preschool on the academic achievement of students, particularly
minority students. The national agenda has turned its attention towards preschool
and ensuring that preschool spots are available for all students. While there is a
considerable amount of research on effective ways to instruct young preschool
students and young EL students, there is a limited amount of research on the role
8
of music as an instructional tool for the ELD of preschool ELs. Music is briefly
mentioned in most articles, but very few articles focus on music specifically as an
instructional tool. This dissertation provides research specifically on the role of
music in instruction in the prekindergarten classroom. This research also provides
insight for policymakers, administrators, teachers, and any person who works
with young ELs about music as an effective strategy that can be used in the
prekindergarten classroom.
Research Questions
This qualitative research study examined prekindergarten as a means of
beginning to address the current achievement gap. Specifically, this dissertation
examined the role of music in the English Language Development (ELD) of
Latino prekindergarten English Learner (EL) students.
One overarching question served as the focus of this dissertation: How
does music affect the English Language Development (ELD) of prekindergarten
EL students? In addition to this broad question, the following three sub-questions
were used as guides in determining the answer to the overarching question:
1. What role does music have in the oral language development of
prekindergarten English Learners (ELs)?
2. What perceptions do teachers and parent possess regarding the role of
music in the English Language Development (ELD) of English
Learners (ELs)?
9
3. What role does neuroscientific research play in helping us understand
the role of music in second language development for prekindergarten
English Learners (ELs)?
Definitions
This section of chapter one will provide definitions of acronyms and
words that will be repeatedly used throughout this dissertation.
Preschool: Children may attend preschool for up to three years prior to
attending Kindergarten. Preschool differs from Prekindergarten in the sense that
preschool incorporates all schooling prior to Kindergarten. Prekindergarten, on
the other hand, is defined below as the year of school that children attend one year
prior to Kindergarten.
Prekindergarten (Pre-K): The year of school that children attend one year
prior to Kindergarten
High-quality preschool: For this study, Neuman’s (2003) definition of a
high-quality preschool will be used. A high-quality preschool program includes
the following four components: (1) high-quality teachers (typically teachers who
possess their state teaching credential), (2) a comprehensive and academic
curriculum with a thoughtful focus, (3) a small adult-student ratio, and (4)
sufficient time (no less than three hours per day).
10
Early childhood program: While early childhood is defined as age zero
through eight, for the purpose of this dissertation, early childhood program will
refer to preschool and prekindergarten programs.
Developmentally appropriate practices (DAP): The National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) released a position statement
defining developmentally appropriate practices for children ages birth through age
eight. They define this philosophy as practices which are both age appropriate and
individually appropriate for each child.
Risk factors: This refers to factors that may contribute to a child’s low
academic achievement. Risk factors could be several things including low SES
status, language abilities, education level of parents, and home structure/dynamics
(single-parent household, dual-parent household, etc.).
English Learner (EL): A child whose native language in not English. They
are in a school-setting where they are required to learn English in order to fully
access the curriculum. For the purpose of this study, EL will refer to Latino
students learning English.
English Language Development (ELD) or English Language Acquisition
(ELA): This refers to the development of the English language of ELs. In
assisting students in their ELD, special techniques (i.e. Specially-Designed
Academic-Instruction in English) are often used by qualified teachers including
but not limited to the use of realia (real objects and manipulatives), visuals,
11
graphic organizers, and manipulatives. Two components of language acquisition
are expressive language and receptive language, both defined below.
Expressive language (encoding): This refers to the ability to express
oneself through spoken or written words.
Receptive language (decoding): This refers to the ability to understand the
spoken word and comprehend the written word.
Specially Designed Academic Instruction In English (SDAIE): This is
often referred to as “sheltered instruction,” this refers to techniques that are used
in the classroom to assist ELs to progress academically as they acquire English
language proficiency (ELP). Strategies include but are not limited to the use of
realia (real objects and manipulatives), visuals, graphic organizers, and
manipulatives.
English Language Proficiency (ELP): This refers to a child’s ability to
speak English. Oftentimes in districts, students will be coded by ELD levels based
on their performance on ELP standards. The higher the level, the more proficient
the student is at speaking English.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP): This is often referred
to as “academic language.” According to Cummins (1981), in the process of
language acquisition, children often have a more difficult time developing their
academic language versus developing their “everyday talk” or “slang.”
Acquisition of CALP can take up to six or seven years to acquire.
12
California English Language Development Test (CELDT): This is a test
administered in California by the California Department of Education. It is a
required state test for English language proficiency administered to Kindergarten
to twelfth grade students whose primary language is not English. Results from
these tests helps to classify EL students in a certain level.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): Legislation that calls for state
accountability systems in place that call for improvement on mandatory state tests
that measure student’s performance in the areas of reading and math. This act
requires schools to meet growth targets so that all children will reach proficiency
by 2013-2014. Results for this growth must be broken down into all demographic
categories including ethnic/minority status, limited proficiency in English, and
special education.
Achievement Gap: For the purpose of the study, achievement gap will be
defined as the discrepancy on standardized test scores and academic achievement
between African American, American Indian, and Latino students and their
European American and Asian counterparts. The achievement gap also refers to
discrepancy on standardized test scores and academic achievement between low-
income students and their middle or high-income counterparts. It is important to
note that subgroups should not be generalized, however current data has shown
that there exists a discrepancy between the above mentioned ethnic and SES
subgroups.
13
Academic Performance Index (API): This measures the academic
performance of schools. A schools numeric number ranges from a low of 200 to a
high of 1000. The statewide target for all schools is 800. A school’s growth is
determined by how well a school is moving towards the state’s target of 800.
Limitations
While this study attempted to decipher the role of music in instruction,
there were limitations regarding the generalizability of this study. There is a wide
range of preschools offered to children today, from private preschool to public
preschool, to all-day preschool, to half-day preschool. While music may be
effective in assisting ELs in the acquisition of English, this study was limited
because it was difficult to determine whether music alone had positive effects or
in fact, other factors are responsible for a child’s language acquisition (including
teacher ability, length of preschool program, peer abilities, adult-student ratio, and
other factors that may attribute to acquiring a second language more quickly).
In studying prekindergarten classrooms, there is a wide variety of
curriculums used as well (Montessori, Creative Curriculum). The type of
curriculum used may be another factor for the language acquisition of an EL.
However, while there are limitations to this study, the focus of this paper was to
examine music as an enhancement to the ELD of ELs.
14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
In an attempt to begin to address the above-mentioned education issues,
the following literature review explores the impact of preschool on the academic
achievement of English Learner’s (ELs). Specifically, this literature review
focuses on the role of music in the English Language Development (ELD) of
English Learners (ELs). Three key areas were identified for the purpose of this
study:
1. Today’s Preschool System-An examination of today’s preschool
system describing the need for high-quality preschool programs,
providing a definition of a high-quality preschool, and examining
related preschool trends and data.
2. Today’s Preschool EL students-An examination of today’s preschool
EL students including descriptive data, language learning methods,
resulting instructional practices that help these students acquire
English and develop their oral language skills, and the importance of
oral language development in the development of literacy.
3. Music as an instructional tool to help preschool ELs acquire English.
15
Today’s Preschool System
It is imperative that an understanding is formed about the different types
of preschools and the role they play in the education system. Thus, by gaining an
understanding of today’s preschool system, we can begin to examine ways in
which preschool can address the achievement gap in regards to ELs.
Barnett and Hustedt (2003) argue preschool as being the most important
grade in school. Barnett’s fieldwork as a researcher in the High Scopes/Perry
Preschool Study serves as a basis for this argument. The High Scope/Perry
Preschool study will be referred to later in this chapter, however this study was a
comprehensive study that examined the short and long-term benefits of a high
quality preschool education program for young children living in poverty
(Schweinhart, Montine, Xiang, Barnett, Belfield, & Nores, 2005). Barnett &
Hustedt (2003) discuss the availability of preschool for children today. There are
a variety of preschool programs offered to children today ranging from private
preschool to public preschool. One particular public preschool is Head Start. This
program was a federal government education initiative, put in place in 1965, to
provide low-income families with free access to early childhood education
programs. Many statewide organizations followed the lead of Head Start and
began to develop preschool programs for “at-risk” students. In the past ten years,
a variety of preschool options have emerged for middle and high-class children to
receive free preschool as well.
16
Barnett & Hustedt also discuss the Universal Pre-K model. Universal Pre-
K programs have also begun to emerge nationwide. In 1995, Georgia introduced
the first Universal Pre-K program. This program offers free preschool education
to all four year olds in Georgia. New York, Oklahoma, and Florida soon followed
in Georgia’s footsteps, and offered Universal Pre-K programs as well. Recently,
Proposition 82 was placed on the California ballot, however this education
initiative was voted down by voters. Proposition 82 would have created a
Universal Pre-K program in California. The early education movement has begun
to move forward as more preschool programs are being offered and more
Universal Pre-K programs are being put into place. Thus, it is important to
understand the long term benefits of high-quality preschool programs. The next
section will provide an overview and analysis of the research that supports the
argument for high-quality preschool programs.
A comprehensive study by Schweinhart, Montie, Xiang, Barnett, Belfield,
& Nores (2005) examined the short and long-term benefits of a high quality
preschool education program for young children living in poverty. The High
Scope/Perry Preschool study was an experimentally designed longitudinal study
that examined program effects. A sample of 123 African American children were
chosen for this study that were born into poverty and were at risk of failing in
school. This sample was randomly divided into the preschool treatment group and
no preschool control group; 58 children were assigned to a program group with a
high-quality preschool program, and 65 children were not assigned to any
17
preschool program. Cost benefit analysis of data on these 123 students was
conducted through age 41. Results from this study demonstrated that for young
children living in poverty, attending a high quality preschool program contributes
to their educational performance and their economic development, prevents them
from committing crimes, and provides a large return on taxpayer investment. It is
imperative to look at the program design in more detail in order to fully define the
type of preschool program that was used.
For the High Scope/Perry Study, there were four teachers that served 20-
25 students. Teachers would conduct daily 2 ½-hour classes with students and
made weekly 1 ½-hour home visits to mother and child. The preschool program
was based on child development ideas of Jean Piaget, which focused on the fact
that children are intentional learners. They learn best from activities that they
themselves plan, carry out, and review. Teachers used Piaget’s framework to
encourage children to engage in play that helped nurture their intellectual, social,
and physical development. The High Scope/Perry Study is a critical study that
demonstrates that providing high poverty children with high-quality preschool has
a positive long-term effect on participants as well as financial benefits for society.
According to Schweinhart et al. (2005), a national survey of High Scope trainers,
one-fourth of Head Start programs are using some or all of the elements of the
High Scope curriculum that was designed and used in the Perry program.
Masse & Barnett (2002) conducted the Carolina Abecedarian study. This
study began in 1972 and included the offering of intensive preschool services to
18
high poverty families from infancy to five years of age. This study was an
experimental design that involved 112 African-American children. Experimental
group students were given the treatment, a center-based, all-day preschool
program with small teacher/child ratios (1:6 for infants and 1:3 for older
children). Children were provided with transportation and medical and nutritional
services. Results demonstrate that children who participated in the program had
higher cognitive test scores from toddler to twenty-one years of age, academic
achievement in reading and math was higher through young adulthood, students
were more likely to attend a four-year college, and students were older when their
first child was born. Cognitive benefits were stronger for this program than
several other early childhood programs, including the Perry study. Language
development was deemed to be an instrumental part of student success in the
Abecedarian study.
Reynolds (1997) conducted a quasi-experimentally designed study to
examine the effects of the Child-Parent Center and Expansion (CPC) program on
scholastic development of high-poverty children through age fourteen. Founded in
1967, CPC’s provide comprehensive educational and family support from ages
three to nine for up to six years. The Chicago Longitudinal study examined all
1,150 children enrolled in the twenty CPC’s with preschool and/or kindergarten
programs beginning in the fall of 1983 and compared them to 389 children who
graduated from government-funded kindergarten programs from six randomly
chosen schools. Results from this study demonstrate the economic benefits for
19
participants far outweigh the cost of the program. Reynolds (1997) found that
attendance in a preschool program for 18 months averaged a cost of $6,692 per
child, which returned a benefit to society of $47,759 per participant in the
program.
In their report detailing the position of the American Federation of
Teachers (AFT) regarding universal access to quality childhood education, the
AFT (2003) uses research to define a high-quality preschool program as
possessing the following five components: (1) a qualified and well-paid staff, (2)
low staff turnover, (3) low teacher-child ratios and small class sizes, (4)
comprehensive standards and curriculum that address the development of a
child’s cognitive, social-emotional, physical abilities as well as language, early
literacy and numeracy development, and (5) periodic licensing and accreditation
of the preschool, providing children with comprehensive social services, and
nurturing environments.
Neuman (2003), the former assistant secretary for elementary and
secondary education in the U.S. Department of Education, argues the case for
high-quality prekindergarten programs. In her report, From Rhetoric to Reality:
The Case for High-Quality Compensatory Prekindergarten Programs, Neuman
identifies four features that must be included in high-quality compensatory
preschool programs: (1) sufficient time, (2) precise targeting, (3) thoughtful focus,
and (4) accountability for results. In turn, high-quality pre-kindergarten programs
that include these four features will in turn lead to improved school readiness for
20
low-SES minority students and higher academic achievement for these students
on standardized math and reading tests.
Epstein (1999) conducted a study that considers children’s development in
109 Head Start, 72 public schools, and 110 nonprofit early childhood classrooms.
This study examined a national study, Training for Quality, which examined the
relationship between staff qualifications, in-service training, program quality, and
children’s development. Epstein’s sample was composed of a program sample
and a child sample. The program sample was defined as a classroom. The teacher
was targeted in each observation and interview. For this teacher sample, 366
teachers from 129 agencies were selected to participate in this study. For the child
sample, 200 children were drawn from programs in Michigan. The children
represented all of the programs being evaluated: 84 children from 11 Head Start
classrooms, 38 children were from 5 public school classrooms, and 78 children
were from 10 nonprofit classrooms were selected.
Epstein studied the three program settings on two structural variables: (1)
group size and (2) child-adult ratio and how these two variables were related to
quality. Epstein recommends no more than 20 preschoolers should be in one
classroom. This conclusion is based on research that the maximum average group
size for four-year olds is 23 students, but ranges from 16-35.
Structural variables are important factors when considering physical
environment. However in the Training for Quality program, dimensions such as
basic class size and child-adult ratios were not important ingredients in evaluating
21
programs of higher-quality. These ingredients are only important in evaluating
programs of lower-quality. In evaluating programs of higher quality, Epstein
claims that other factors—teacher education and in-service training are of
importance. According to Epstein, results from the Training for Quality program
showed that organizational support for adult learning is positively linked to
children’s development. In addition, quality is further enhanced by agency
policies that support adult development. Overall, Epstein claims that teachers with
more education had better quality programs. As suggestions, formal education or
in-service training are both important in preparing staff to deliver high-quality
services. Epstein recommends a combination of formal education and in-service
training to improve overall quality of preschool programs.
Stahl & Yaden (2004) review CIERA studies in order to examine
language development and literacy assessment and the development of word-
recognition abilities, in the three environments: (1) preschools, (2) primary grade
classes, and (3) home school connections. In this article, Stahl & Yaden hope to
gain an understanding of how these environments can provide children with the
support they need to be successful readers and writers. The Center for the
Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) studies the reading growth
of children in preschool and primary classes, both in and out of school.
In their research, Stahl & Yaden (2003) present three trends found by the
National Research Council-appointed Committee on Early Childhood Pedagogy
in their report, Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Stahl & Yaden
22
(2004) discuss the circumstances that have led to redirection of educational efforts
and concerns towards academic and socioemotional needs of children prior to
entrance into formal schooling. The three trends are:
“(a) the huge influx of women into the labor force, which has created a
pressing demand for quality childcare; (b) increased agreement between
educators and parents that young children need early and enriching
educational experiences; and (c) the growing evidence from research that
young children are readily capable of learning from these early
experiences and, more importantly, that this early start has a direct and
positive relationship to later school achievement and social benefit” (Stahl
& Yaden, 2004, p. 142).
The influx of women into the labor force has led to an increased demand
for quality childcare. Whereas women used to take care of their children full-time,
women are now working. There are far higher demands for quality childcare since
mothers can no longer provide their children with the care they need. These trends
are all contributing factors to the evolvement of preschools in the United States
and the need for childcare and schooling opportunities for young children.
In addition to above-mentioned trends, there are also predictions that the
population will become more diverse in upcoming years. In their position
statement summarizing research on young children’s early literacy development,
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (1995) claims that
by 2050, Latino and African American children under age five will outnumber
European American children in the United States.
In a document by the American Federation of Teachers (2003) detailing
their position regarding universal access to early childhood education, the AFT
23
discusses that states have made great strides in the area of preschool. Twenty
years ago, approximately ten states provided early childhood programs to
children. Today, nearly all states provide some type of early childhood program
for children under age five. Funding has significantly increased. In the 1990s
funding for early childhood programs was approximately $700 million. In 2000,
this amount grew to $2 billion. The number of children served has also increased.
In the 1990s, 290,000 children took part in early childhood education programs.
In 2000, this number has more than doubled. However, the AFT (2003) states that
“more work lies ahead to get all children ready for school, to achieve universal
access, and to raise the quality of all programs” (p. 18).
The United States Department of Education (2003) in conjunction with the
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) used a Fast Response Survey
System (FRSS) to survey 1,843 public elementary schools that serve children
prior to public school in the 2000-2001 school year. During the 2000-2001 school
year, there were 19,900 public elementary schools with prekindergarten classes,
which equates to 35% of all schools.
Lopez & Cos (2004) created a report at the request of Assemblywomen
Wilma Chan to analyze Census data from Census 2000. They analyzed data to
respond to questions from the Assemblywomen regarding how many children are
enrolled in preschool, and of those enrolled, how many are in public versus
private preschool, do enrollment rates vary amongst ethnic groups, and if so, why,
and how do California’s enrollment rates compare to those of other states and the
24
rest of the nation. In an attempt to answer these questions, Lopez & Cos (2004)
found that California has 1.17 million children, aged three to five years old, who
are not yet enrolled in kindergarten. Of these young children, 46% are Latino
students, 34% are European American students, 9% are Asian and Pacific
Islander, 6% are African American, 4% are multiple-race children, and 0.5% are
Native American. About half of these young children attend preschool. Children
of higher incomes (European American and Asians) typically attend private
preschools, and children of lower incomes (Latinos, African Americans, and
Native Americans) typically attend public preschools. Preschool and childcare
enrollment rates vary amongst different ethnic groups. 58% of European
American children, 56% of African American children, and only 37% of Latino
children are enrolled in preschool. Among all states, California ranks 37
th
in their
preschool/childcare enrollment rates, with only 47% enrolled in preschool.
According to Lopez & Cos (2004), a report published by the Policy
Analysis for California Education demonstrated that there are fewer preschools in
predominately Latino communities than in other communities. This might explain
why only 37% of Latino students are enrolled in preschool.
The purpose of the study was to study Latino English Learner (EL)
students, thus the next section of chapter examines statistical information for
today’s preschool EL students population.
25
Today’s Preschool EL Students
Tabors, Paez, & Lopez (2003) conducted a study to examine language and
early literacy skills in Spanish and English amongst four year old children
entering prekindergarten. Their sample consisted of 344 bilingual children in
Massachusetts and Maryland and a comparative group of 152 monolingual
children in Puerto Rico. They aimed at collecting longitudinal data for Pre-K
through second grade students from homes where Spanish is the primary language
spoken, and to identify factors associated with their language and literacy
development in both Spanish and English.
Tabors et al. (2003) first begin by providing descriptive data on the EL
population in the United States. Between 1990 and 2000 the number of ELs in the
United States has doubled. These children now make up approximately 10% of
the population. Although 329 languages are spoken in the homes of these
children, the majority of these students speak Spanish at home (77%). While these
figures have impacted elementary and secondary education, they have also
impacted prekindergarten education. In 2000-2001, 26% of Head Start students
were found to be dominate in a language other than English (83% were found to
be dominant in Spanish). According to Tabors et al., providing these children with
the instruction the need has become a challenge in education throughout the
United States.
Zill, Resnick, Kim, O’Donnell, Sorongon, McKey, Samant, Clark,
O’Brien, & D’Elio (2003) examine the Head Start study, which was designed to
26
describe characteristics, experiences, and outcomes for all students currently
served by Head Start. Head Start is the nation’s oldest and largest early childhood
education program serving nearly 800,000 children. In 2000, Head Start used the
Family and Child Experiences (FACE) survey to collect data on two cohorts of
children participating in Head Start programs. The first cohort (1997) contained
3,200 children randomly selected from 40 programs throughout the nation. The
second cohort (2000), contained 2,800 children from 23 programs (also randomly
selected). Zill et al. focused their report on the 2000 cohort as well as kindergarten
follow-up data for the 1997 cohort and presented findings regarding Head Start
children’s cognitive and social-emotional development, use of curricula in the
Head Start program, quality in Head Start programs, and several other related
issues. Zill et al.’s report showed that 4-year old children who entered Head Start
in the 1997 and 2000 cohorts were significantly below grade level in the areas of
vocabulary, emergent reading, writing ability, and letter identification. In
addition, Spanish speaking students, which comprised 27% of the preschool
population, were significantly behind the U.S. population of preschoolers as well
as other English-speaking Head Start students. Pertinent to this data is the
increase of Latino enrollment in Head Start preschools, which has increased by
51% compared to increases of only 3.1% for European American children and
8.5% for African-American children. Head Start delivers their curriculum primary
in English, and thus, is faced with the challenge of educating linguistically diverse
students.
27
Effective Instructional Practices for EL Students
The following section provides information on pertinent language learning
methods. In their book, Approaches and methods in language teaching, Richard
& Rodgers (1986) analyze eight currently-used or recently-used language learning
methods. While there are eight language-learning methods presented, for the
purpose of this study only two will be used: (1) Krashen & Terrell’s “Natural
Approach” and (2) Asher’s “Total Physical Response”. These language learning
methods were found to be the most applicable to this study. By reviewing these
methods, an understanding can be formed regarding language instruction for
preschool Latino EL students in order to best serve this growing population.
Krashen & Terrell’s (1983) Natural Approach has come to gain a large
influence over the instruction of language teaching in the United States and
around the world. According to Richard & Rodgers (1986), the Natural Approach
is based on the following tenants. The objective of this approach was to help
beginners become intermediates and based upon the needs of the learner.
Additionally, language learning and language acquisition are different processes.
Only through language acquisition can a second language be learned. Four
hypotheses are stated in this approach, (1) the monitor hypothesis states that
conscious learning operates only as a monitor that checks the output of what has
been acquired, (2) the natural order hypothesis states that grammatical structures
are acquired in a certain and predictable order. Learning grammatical structures in
another order is not as effective, (3) the input hypothesis states that people acquire
28
language best from messages that are just above their current level of competence,
and (4) the affective filter hypothesis states that the learner's emotional state can
act as a filter that blocks input that is necessary to acquisition.
The Natural Approach uses techniques and activities from different
sources to provide comprehensible input. Comprehensible input in presented in
the target language using techniques such as Asher’s (1982) Total Physical
Response (TPR), mime, and gesture. Group techniques are similar to the
Communicative Language Teaching language learning method, which incorporate
functional communication activities aimed at developing specific language skills
which involve communication, and social interaction activities (for example:
conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays).
In the Natural Approach, learners begin to talk when they feel ready.
According to Richard & Rodgers (1986), the Natural Approach is based on the
following four principles, (1) second language learning parallels first language
learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes, (2) listening should be
developed prior to speaking. Once listening comprehension has been developed,
speech will develop naturally and without effort, (3) adults should use right-brain
motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns, and (4) delaying
speech helps to reduce stress.
Asher (1982) developed the Total Physical Response (TPR) language
learning method, which is based on the coordination of speech and action. The
objective of TPR is to teach oral proficiency to students at the beginning level, to
29
use comprehension as a way of speaking, and to use action based drills. The main
activity of TPR is to give a command while the students obey the command.
Since the purpose of this study was to examine music as an instructional
tool for preschool Latino ELs, the following section examines the above-
mentioned language learning methods in relation to music.
Lake (2003) describes a theoretical framework based on Krashen’s Input
Hypothesis to explain the use of music in language acquisition. Lake uses three
components of Krashen & Terrell’s Natural Approach to serve as the basis for this
framework: the monitor model, the role of natural input in acquisition, and
affective filter considerations. Since Lake describes the monitor model in
reference to only adults, and this study focuses on children, only the input
hypothesis and affective filter hypothesis will be used.
The input hypothesis states that the input language a student receives
should be slightly beyond their current level of understanding. This is often
referred to as the “i-plus-1” formula, meaning that the language that the learners
are exposed to should be close enough to their own level of competency “plus-
one,” or in other words, slightly above their level of competency. Song lyrics
work according to this hypothesis. Students will often pick up the chorus prior to
picking up the words to the song. The chorus is the “i,” while the words to the
song are the “plus-1.”
The affective filter hypothesis states that the best learning occurs in an
environment of high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. This theory
30
states that the learner’s emotional state acts as a filter, which freely passes,
hinders, or blocks input that is necessary to acquisition. Lake claims that many
ELs come to the classroom with a feeling of homelessness. Music time helps to
bring a change to the student’s affective filter. Music creates a warm and relaxing
environment for the non-native speaker of English.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
provides a position statement that summarizes important issues in learning how to
read and write and summarizes what is known about young children’s literacy
based on the research. According to NAEYC (1998), children take their first steps
towards learning how to read and write very early in life, thus early childhood
teachers must use effective practices in helping children in the language
acquisition process. This section of the literature review will examine researched
instructional practices that help students acquire English.
Facella, Rampino, & Shea (2005) conducted a qualitative study to analyze
effective teaching strategies for ELs. They compiled their findings by
interviewing 20 early childhood educators from two communities in
Massachusetts that were culturally and linguistically diverse. Emphasis was
placed on strategies that were found by the greatest number of teachers in both
communities to be effective. The teachers studied mentioned over twenty-eight
different strategies; however there were four strategies that were used repeatedly
by almost every teacher. Teachers claimed to have the most success when they
varied their strategies. The following four strategies were named by most teachers
31
as being effective: (1) gestures and visual cues, (2) repetition and opportunities
for practicing skills, (3) use of objects, real props, and hands-on materials, and (4)
multisensory approaches.
Facella et al. tie in their fieldwork with important theories in language
acquisition. Their findings suggest using the Krashen’s “Natural Approach” to
help children acquire language. This approach is a framework for teaching ELs,
which focuses on understanding learner characteristics and appropriate teaching
strategies for each stage. The natural approach considers the four phases of
language acquisition (preproduction, early production, speech emergence, and
intermediate fluency). The “Natural Approach” suggests that by understanding
each phase of language acquisition and corresponding teaching strategies that are
appropriate for each stage, teachers can more easily integrate support and
activities for ELs into regular instruction. In addition, they suggest using Asher’s
Total Physical Response (TPR) technique. TPR is a well-known technique that
occurs when students participate in learning by physically demonstrating what
they are learning. This helps children learn vocabulary and comprehend more
quickly. Actions paired with words help children learn English words more
quickly. In conclusion, Facella et al. recommend that teachers of EL students
should use research the ways EL learn English and choose appropriate strategies
to facilitate this learning.
The Indiana State Department of Education (2001) details foundations,
linked to Indiana’s academic standards, to support teachers, parents, and
32
caregivers as they provide appropriate learning experiences for preschool
students. This report describes how ELs come to early childhood settings that may
not be consistent with their home culture and language. Many of the strategies
that are suggested for working with these students are simply just good techniques
for teaching, including techniques that are recommended for early childhood and
special education. Children today come from different backgrounds and languages
and there is not a “one size fits all” model. All children acquire language at
different paces and in different ways. In the language acquisition process, some
children may go through up to six months of silence, called the silent period.
Other children may quickly begin to speak in English and will mix both English
and Spanish words to communicate. However while children may be able to
communicate in a new language with friends, it may take much longer for
students to acquire the cognitive language skills that are required for academic
learning (Cummins, 1981). While children progress through the different phases
of language acquisition, it is important for adults to encourage children in the
development of their home language. Often, Spanish-speaking parents are
encouraged to speak only English at home. In doing this, children may have
limited verbal interactions and poor modeling of correct language use. Parents
should be encouraged to read to children in Spanish; children will have plenty of
opportunities to learn English in their educational setting.
The Indiana State Department of Education’s Foundations for Young
Children (2001) recommends the following techniques for working with your
33
ELs: adults should speak clearly, use simple words, short phrases, and repetition
and avoid the use of slang. Adults should avoid correcting children’s language.
Instead, it is important to paraphrase and model correct use of English. Adults do
not have to be bilingual to work with English Learners, however, it is beneficial to
learn a few words of the child’s primary language in order to better help a child
identify his or her needs. Teachers should also seek assistance and support from
family members and others in the community in order to get an understanding of
the best ways to meet the child’s needs. Adults who work with children learning
English should use gestures, pictures, and real objects. Hands-on activities that are
used in many early childhood programs are also beneficial when working with
ELs. Children can express themselves through drawing, painting, using clay, and
movement activities prior to being able to speak English. Caregivers should
incorporate children’s culture and language into activities whenever it is possible.
Children will become more comfortable in an early childhood program if they can
bring pictures of their family, have their favorite foods for snacks, use materials
that are familiar to them in dramatic play, and hear their home language in the
early childhood setting. Teachers can play music in the child’s language, read
stories in the child’s home language, and ask families to tell stories in their home
language. Children should always be encouraged to speak with other children in
both English and in their home language.
Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, & Tharp (2003) conducted a study to determine
the influence the Standards for Effective Pedagogy have on student achievement.
34
Specifically, they examined students that are at-risk of academic failure due to
cultural, linguistic, and economic factors. Participants were 15 teachers and 266
students in a public elementary school that serves predominately Latino ELs. The
first standard is to facilitate learning through “joint productive activity” in which
teachers and students work together on a common project or goal and have
opportunities to discuss their work. The second standard is to develop language
and literacy across the curriculum. The third standard is to contextualize
instruction in the children’s experiences in their homes and communities. The
fourth standard is to teach complex thinking through challenging activities that
require students to apply content knowledge to attaining an academic goal. The
fifth standard is to teach “dialogically” by using planned, goal-directed
conversations between a teacher and a small group of students. Results from the
study indicate a positive relationship between teacher’s use of the five standards
and student achievement.
Stahl & Yaden (2004) review CIERA studies in order to examine
language development and literacy assessment and the development of word-
recognition abilities, in the three environments: preschools, primary grade classes,
and home school connections. Stahl & Yaden (2004) ask, “What, then, do
children need to learn in order to be successful readers and writers?” (p. 144).
Stahl & Yaden suggest that children need to understand the language in which
they will be reading and be able to decode the written word fluently and
automatically so they can comprehend the text. While this may seem simple, it
35
can actually be very a very complex process for ELs. In order to understand
written language, one must possess knowledge of vocabulary, text structure,
comprehension strategies, decoding knowledge, automatic recognition of sight
words, fluency, and so on. It addition, children need to be motivated to learn to
read and write. Understanding key components of how students become
successful readers is important. Teachers must to be able to monitor the progress
of young children as they move toward the level of literacy expected in third
grade by policy makers.
Prior to children developing literacy, children must first possess strong
oral language skills. This next section will present research that discusses the
importance of oral language in developing literacy.
The Reading Recovery Council of North America (1996) compiled a
compilation of various articles to address the topic of Literacy, Teaching, and
Learning. The first article in this journal, Oral Language, Assessment and
Development in Reading Recovery in the United States, addresses the topic of oral
language. This journal describes that there are many differences between children
who enter school at five years of age in New Zealand. One of those differences is
a child’s oral language ability, which is determined by an assessment. This
assessment is used to determine whether or not a child possesses enough oral
language ability to begin formal reading and writing. If not, then it is
recommended that students attend an Oral Language program. Teachers in New
Zealand are encouraged to intensively instruct students in Oral Language through
36
talk-centered activities. However, in the United States, where there are greater
socioeconomic and language problems, efforts vary in regards to addressing Oral
Language Development, specifically for EL students. In addition, due to
overcrowding of classes in the United States, teacher’s abilities to engage EL
students in conversation are limited. This article attempted to demonstrate the
benefits of a Reading Recovery program for students that lack basic oral language
skills, since oral language is so critical to success in reading and writing.
Dickinson, McCabe, & Sprague (2001) describe the Teacher Rating of
Oral Language and Literacy (TROLL), an instrument that measures oral language
skills defined as “critical” in the New Standards for Speaking and Listening. The
National Center on Education and the Economy developed research-based
standards for speaking and listening for preschool through third grade. These
standards go along with the standards already developed for reading and writing.
In this study, researchers tracked over 900 students using TROLL. These students
were in the New England Quality Research Center study of Head Start programs.
There was an increase in 272 children’s scores in the spring versus the fall. This is
attributed to the fact that teachers were developing children’s language skills.
Dickinson et al. describe the importance of oral language skills. These
skills are typically acquired during the preschool years, which means that children
at this age must be taught these very important skills. The development of
TROLL was developed as a way to provide teachers a way to measure language
and literacy development of children. It is the goal of Dickinson et al. (the
37
developers of the TROLL assessment) that this instrument will “predict possible
failure in order to prevent failure” (p. 11).
Music as an Instructional Tool to help Preschool ELs Acquire English
The following section examines research regarding the role of music in
instruction.
According to Kelly (1998), preschool teachers provide children with their
first formal music instruction, and often, teachers are unprepared to do so. Kelly
(1998) conducted a study to identify music skills and understanding taught during
pre-service training that in-service preschool classroom teachers perceived to be
beneficial. Kelly developed a 31-item questionnaire and mailed it out to 89
directors of private and public preschool programs. Of the forms mailed out, 210
forms were returned (66% of total). Results from the study demonstrated that
teachers felt that the most beneficial music skills were those that provided
students with direct music experiences including movement activities, the use of
rhythm instruments, and singing experiences. All of these skills were skills that
teachers learned in pre-service training. Teachers felt that more traditional music
skills, like music skills that were taught in music theory and history courses, were
not as beneficial. Teachers perceive music skills to be important in the preschool
classroom. However, Kelly (1998) was alarmed by the large percentage of
participants who were not aware of MENC’s Prekindergarten Music Education
Standards. Kelly expected that since most participants had some type of college
38
degree and a majority possessed a teaching certificate, they would have been
exposed to the MENC standards, especially since teachers are required to take
some type of music course in order to receive their teacher certification. Kelly
argues that pre-service preschool music programs should include the development
of a wide variety of music skills, and should provide instructors with limited
music backgrounds with the knowledge they need to teach a wide variety of
music skills.
Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) examined the impact of musical
education on mathematics achievement in preschool students. A pseudo-
experimental design was used in which 35 preschool students involved in a music
program treatment were compared to 39 preschool students without the musical
treatment. Children in the treatment group participated in weekly one hour
sessions for ten months. Both groups were compared on the Test of Early
Mathematics Ability-2 (TEMA-2). Students receiving the musical treatment
scored higher than the children without the music treatment. According to
Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) music is powerful means for developing a
young child’s social/emotional, physical, and cognitive growth.
Campabello, DeCarlo, O’Neil, & Vacek (2002) conducted an action
research project which implemented musical strategies to improve student recall
and memory. The population examined was three suburban elementary schools
near a major midwestern city. Students had difficulty recalling facts and
information in a variety of subject areas and this hindered their ability to master
39
the grade level standards. Several teacher interventions were used to impact
student achievement. The following elements were used to evaluate the
interventions: pre and post questionnaires, rubrics, checklists, teacher anecdotal
records, student journals, and pre and posttests. Findings demonstrated a positive
growth of retention of facts using musical interventions. Using music as an
intervention created a positive emotional connection for initial learning and recall
of facts. Using music also helped students acquire challenging material that
otherwise may not have been learned. Campabello et al.’s (2002) chosen
intervention is setting facts to music that are selected according to the grade level.
Campabello et al. (2002) argue that music is often overlooked due to the
teacher’s lack of musical training and the notion that music should only be used as
a filler activity. Often music is not used as an alternative teaching method or to
enhance the curriculum. Instead, it is used as a reward and with little educational
value. According to Campabello et al. (2002), “the use of music as a tool to
enhance learning, memory, and recall in the classroom has long been overlooked”
(p. 16). Campabello et al. (2002) refer to Howard Gardener’s multiple intelligence
theory. Gardener describes music as a special intelligence.
Coyne, Dwyer, Kennedy, & Petter (2000) conducted an action research
study to examine the effects of music on the behavior of students of ages 3
through 21 with multiple disabilities, mental retardation, or severe mental
retardation in four special education classrooms. The intervention involved
playing music in the classroom to alter the classroom climate. Data collection
40
involved anecdotal records, direct teacher observations, and student interviews.
Findings from the study demonstrate that in each of the four classrooms, music
was a powerful tool in altering the classroom climate and student behavior. Coyne
et al. claim that benefits of music include increased cognitive processes, elevation
of immune function, reduction of stress levels, and boost of productivity.
Damasio (1993) studies brain and language relationships in patients who
have suffered from brain damage. This approach also provides the theoretical
framework for this study. Demasio (1993) has made maps of the left side of the
brain to demonstrate how language is represented in various parts of the left-
hemisphere. In these maps, a large part of the left side of the brain is used for
speech sounds (phonemes), the combination of sounds into words (morphemes),
and the combination of the words into sentences (grammatical rules and syntax).
Another portion of the left side of the brain allows us to translate non-verbal
concepts into nouns and verbs. Demasio also provides a description of language.
“Language is the translation of entities, events, relationships, and inferences into
auditory symbols. Reading may be thought of as a second translation of written
symbols to the auditory ones. As far as the brain in concerned, reading is
language” (definition accessed through Burns, 2000).
Research from Gellens (2000) further supports Damasio’s (1993) work by
describing how music affects the brain. Gellens uses a neuroscientific approach to
study children’s learning. This approach also provides the theoretical framework
for this study. According to Gellens (2000), music should begin, end, and have
41
variety. When children listen to music continuously, they learn to block it out.
Listening to a variety of music with adults pointing out highs and lows or fast and
slow tempo helps children develop listening skills. Listening to music with words
aids in language acquisition. The rhythm of music helps put words from music
into a child’s long-term memory. Gellens’ approach combines information
processing with neuroscientific perspectives. Gellens proposes that by adding
hand and body movements to music, children use multiple parts of the brain at the
same time. In addition music relaxes children, and when children are enjoying
something, chemicals are released in the brain that makes learning easier.
Summary of the Literature Review
In the past three decades, the world of preschool has progressed
tremendously. The number of preschool spaces available has increased
significantly, and as a result, more children have been served. However,
preschools today are far from perfect. We are still faced with the problems of
universal access to preschool and quality issues. Many trends have driven the
current evolution of the preschool system; more women have entered the
workforce, thus demanding child-care for their children, and our minority
population has grown and is predicted to continue growing. We are also faced
with an achievement gap. European American and Asian students are
outperforming their minority counterparts, and high SES students are
outperforming low SES students. Additionally, native English language speakers
42
are outperforming ELs. Surprisingly, this gap exists as early as preschool. Thus
we arrive at the problem. How can we begin to narrow this achievement gap?
Several theories and research-based instructional practices are examined in
the literature review. The following theories and instructional practices are the
most prevalent throughout chapter two.
Barnett & Hustedt (2003) argue preschool to be the most important grade
and discuss the types of preschools available to children, ranging from public
preschools to private preschools, and in some states, Universal Pre-K. Three
cost/benefit analyses are discussed: The High Scope/Perry Study (Schweinhart et
al., 2005), the Carolina Abecedarian Study (Masse & Barnett, 2002), and the
Chicago Longitudinal Study (Reynolds, 1997). While each study possesses its
own unique study design and results, all three studies demonstrate that the
economic benefits of preschool far outweigh its cost.
The AFT (2003), Neuman (2003), and Epstein (1999) discuss what
constitutes a high-quality preschool program. Key elements of a high-quality
preschool include: a highly qualified and well-paid staff, a comprehensive and
focused curriculum, accountability for results, low teacher to child ratios, and in-
service training.
Stahl & Yaden (2003) present three current trends which have led to the
redirections of educational efforts and concerns towards academic and
socioemotional needs of children prior to entrance into formal schooling.
Resulting from these trends comes various types of data. The AFT (2003), the
43
U.S. Department of Education (2003), and Lopez & Cos (2004) provide various
data regarding preschool funding, children served, ethnicities served, and other
pertinent data.
Tabors et al. (2003) and Zill et al. (2003) provide current descriptive data
for preschool EL students including what percentage of the population are ELs,
what ethnicities ELs are comprised of, academic achievement of ELs, and other
pertinent data. Language learning methods for today’s ELs are discussed.
Specifically, the key components, objectives, and suggested activities of Krashen
& Terrell’s (1983) Natural Approach and Asher’s (1982) TPR methods are
discussed. Lake (2003) analyzes Krashen & Terrell’s (1983) Natural Approach
relative to music in the classroom.
Facella et al. (2005), the Indiana State Department of Education (2001),
Doherty et al. (2003), and Stahl & Yaden (2004) review research based
instructional practices for EL students. A wide variety of strategies are discussed,
however findings show that variance of strategies is the most successful strategy
to teach EL students. Kelly (1998), Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996),
Campabello et al. (2002), Coyne et al. (2000), Damasio (1993), and Gellens
(2000) discuss music as an instructional practice linking the neurosciences to
information processing in the classroom. Music is shown to have an effect on
student achievement.
44
Conclusion
Facella et al. (2005) state that due to changes in bilingual education law,
children who need support in acquiring a second language have been placed in
classrooms where teachers may not possess the required resources and skills to
address these children’s needs. Without this help, ELs have begun to fall behind
academically, thus creating an achievement gap. This gap continues to widen over
time. Teachers need to be provided with adequate tools and techniques to address
the needs of these learners.
The AFT (2003) states that “if we are to address the needs of all children
to meet high standards and to close the objectionably large achievement gap
between advantaged and disadvantaged students, we must turn our attention to
issues related to early childhood education and school readiness” (p. 6). In
addressing current gaps in the research, the American Federation of Teachers
states that “current child care policies and practices do not reflect what is known
about child development—particularly what has been learned in the areas of brain
development and the critical role that systematic exposure to high-quality learning
opportunities play in future development and academic abilities” (p.6).
Additionally, there has been research and effective pedagogy that have
been developed within the past 100-years in the area of child development and
pre-school profession. While effective and successful models exist, these models
have not been adopted due to lack of training and funding. “More than 50%, and
as many as 80% of the early care and education programs in the country not only
45
fail to reflect what is currently known about child development but even to meet
basic standards of quality, thereby putting children’s health, safety, and overall
development in jeopardy” (AFT, p. 7).
According to the NAEYC (1998), today’s “teaching practices are
associated with outdated views of literacy development and/or learning theories
are still prevalent in many classrooms. Such practices include extensive whole-
group instruction and intensive drill and practice on isolated skills for groups or
individuals” (p.4). Effective practice for young children should engage children in
experiences that make the academic content meaningful and build on children’s
prior learning.
According to Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996), parents, educators,
administrators, and legislatures have been ignoring the consensus of experts about
how young children learn and the best ways to teach them. There is a large body
of research about intellectual and social development which has implications for
how young children should be taught. However, practices are way behind what
we know.
In his study examining the effectiveness of Instructional Conversations
(IC’s) for training teachers of EL students, Quinones-Benitez (2003) claims that
in most classrooms, lectures and teacher-centered instruction are still the norm.
This does not provide ELs opportunities for second language development, which
requires teacher-student and student-student interactions.
46
In his overview of neuromusical research specifically looking at the
implications of music and brain research, Hodges (2000) claims that for educators
finding research about music and the brain can be difficult. Most brain research
can only be found in scientific journals, which is too difficult to read and
understand, or it is found in the popular press, and is often distorted and obscured.
Thus, in the area of music and the brain, educational research is limited.
Thus, in synthesizing the research, there appears to be limited research
describing of the role of music in the ELD of ELs. Most research on instructional
tools for ELs briefly touch upon music as one of the tools that can be used to help
ELs acquire language, however little research exists on music as an essential or
one of the main tools in instruction to help in the ELD of ELs. The purpose of this
study was to use qualitative methods, including observations, interviews, and
surveys to determine how music affects the ELD of Latino preschool ELs. This
study attempts to fill the current gap in research that exists in terms of the role of
music in instruction for the ELD of EL students.
47
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation calls for state accountability
systems that require improvement on mandatory state tests that measure student’s
reading and math achievement. Adequate progress must be made in subgroup
categories including ethnic/minority status, levels in English proficiency, and
special education. If growth targets are not met, then supplemental services are
provided or in worse case, corrective actions and school restructuring will take
place (Neuman, 2003). Bracey (2003) reports that an achievement gap exists even
as early as preschool. Data from the U.S. Department of Education shows
significant differences across ethnic groups and SES of students entering
Kindergarten.
According to Barnett & Hustedt (2003), several private and public
preschool programs are provided in the United States, however many of the best
programs are far too expensive for the majority of Americans. Of the programs
that are affordable to Americans, many of these programs offer very little
instruction, at a very slow pace, for very little time. This does not equip all
students with the school readiness skills they need to meet the requirements set
forth by NCLB. Further complicating meeting NCLB requirements is the
growing amount of non-English speakers. Tabors, Paez, & Lopez (2003) cite that
between 1990 and 2000, the number of ELs in the United States has doubled.
48
Data from CIERA analyzed by Stahl & Yaden claims that Spanish speaking
students, which comprise 27% of the preschool population, were significantly
behind English-speaking preschool students. Neuman (2003) argues that in order
to reach proficiency by 2014 as outlined in the NCLB legislation, high-quality
pre-kindergarten programs must be developed that equip children with school
readiness skills then need to be successful in school.
In order to address the existent challenges in early childhood education
and to contribute to the body of research in this area, this dissertation examined a
preschool program with English Learners as a means of beginning to address the
current achievement gap. Specifically, this dissertation examined whether music
is an effective instructional tool to help young prekindergarten Latino ELs acquire
the English language.
There is limited research in the specific area of the role that music plays in
ELD of ELs. Most research on instructional tools for ELs briefly touch upon
music as one of the tools that can be used to help ELs acquire language, however
little research exists on music as an essential role in the ELD instruction of ELs.
Of the sparse research that does exist, most researchers do not provide data to
support their claims. The purpose of this study was to use a methodological
approach to determine the role of music in the ELD of Latino preschool ELs. This
study focused specifically on the role of music in helping EL students developing
English language skills. This study employed a combined information processing
49
and neuroscientific approach to study a single case of a preschool classroom with
English Learners.
One overarching research question served as the focus of this dissertation:
How does music affect the English Language Development (ELD) of
prekindergarten EL students? In addition to this broad question, the following
three sub-questions were as guides in determining the answer to the overarching
question:
1. What role does music have in the oral language development of
prekindergarten English Learners (ELs)?
2. What perceptions do teachers and parent possess regarding the role of
music in the English Language Development (ELD) of English
Learners (ELs)?
3. What role does neuroscientific research play in helping us understand
the role of music in the second language development for
prekindergarten English Learners (ELs)?
Chapter three in this dissertation discusses research methods that were
used to answer the guiding research questions for this study. In discussing the
research methods, four key areas are discussed:
1. The area of investigation and unit of analysis
2. Research design
3. Study Population
50
4. Data collection instruments, processes, procedures and preliminary
analytical methodologies
5. Validating the accuracy of the findings
Area of Investigation and Unit of Analysis
According to Patton (2002), the unit of analysis is often people, clients, or
students. This means that the focus of data collection is on the individual in the
setting—what is happening and how the individual is affected. In this study, the
area of investigation was the examination of the role that music plays in the ELD
of EL prekindergarten students. The unit of analysis in this study was one single
classroom in a prekindergarten School Readiness Language Development
Program (SRLDP) with Latino English Learners. Five students, their parents, and
the classroom teacher were all study participants in this single case study.
Research Design
The research design for this study was a single classroom based qualitative
case study. Creswell (2003) describes the qualitative approach as an approach in
which the researcher makes knowledge claims based on a constructivist
perspectives or advocacy/participatory perspectives. The strategies of inquiry that
are used are narratives, ethnographies, grounded theory studies, or case studies. In
a qualitative study, the researcher collects open-ended data with the primary goal
of identifying themes in the data. Patton describes the many techniques associated
51
with the qualitative approach. One technique is the use of case studies, which is
an approach in which the researcher explores in depth one or more individuals. In
this study, the researcher collected detailed information using several data
collection procedures over a period of time to describe the preschool classroom
case. Patton (2002) describes layers of possible analysis for case studies. Based on
this layering model, this study included a single case study of Pre-K classroom.
There was an analysis of the Pre-K program components and program parts
within the local site. A qualitative case study design was selected in order to
concentrate on each specific case in depth. Creswell (2003) identifies practices of
research that are used in qualitative studies: the researcher collects participant
meaning, focuses on a single concept, brings personal values into the study,
studies the setting or participants, validates the accuracy of findings, makes
interpretations of the data, creates an agenda for reform, and collaborates with
participants. These practices were used throughout the study and are conducive to
obtaining information related to the topic of study.
Study Population
The district and elementary school site were selected purposefully to meet
the following four criteria: (1) a large urban district, (2) a school site within the
district that was representative of other schools in the district (high Latino
population, significant EL population, low SES), (3) a predominately Latino
school site population with an EL population of greater than 10%, and (4) a low-
52
SES school site qualified by greater than 50% free and reduced lunch participants.
Based on meeting these predetermined criteria, one elementary school site was
selected in the South Bay area within a very large urban school district that serves
prekindergarten through fifth grade students. The school contains 485 students of
the following ethnicities: 5% African American, 2% Asian, 33% Filipino, 51%
Latino, 5% Pacific Islander, and 5% White. There are 79 ELs (16% of the
population) in the school, 54 students who speak Spanish, and 18 that speak
Tagalog. There are 66% of these students receiving free and reduced lunch.
Serving these students are 73% credentialed teachers, and 8% non-credentialed
teachers. Of the 91% of parents that participated in the parent education level
survey, the average parent education level is 2.86 (1 represents “Not a high school
graduate, and 5 represents “Graduate School.”).
At this elementary site, there are two School Readiness Language
Development (SRLDP) prekindergarten classrooms. The School Readiness
Language Development Program (SRLDP) is a state-mandated program that was
developed in the 1970’s to provide at-risk preschoolers with the additional Pre-K
spots. In addition to providing more Pre-K spaces, the School Readiness
Language Development Program (SRLDP) provides children with opportunity to
develop oral language and school readiness skills. This program is offered in low-
income areas to students who will be four years old by December 2
nd
of the year
of enrollment. This program equips students with school readiness skills prior to
their entrance to Kindergarten by providing them with opportunities to increase
53
their ability to listen, speak effectively, use appropriate vocabulary, and develop
academic readiness skills. The classroom consists of a mixture of English-Only
(EO) speaking students and students who are acquiring English (ELs) and need
primary-language instruction. Students attend class four days per week for 2 hours
and twenty minutes each day (180 minutes per day, 720 minutes per week). There
are 15 students in each class accompanied by one teacher and one teacher
assistant. The teacher is a fully- credentialed teacher (per state requirements). The
teacher assistant is required to have sixty-unit of college coursework and must be
currently taking twelve college units per year towards earning a teaching
credential. In addition to having one teacher and one teacher assistant in the
classroom, this program also contains a parent education and outreach component.
Parents are required to: (1) volunteer in the classroom once per month, (2) attend
monthly parent meetings, and (3) attend parent education sessions for ten
consecutive weeks. Typically, with the teacher, teacher assistant, and parent
volunteer, there is one adult (teacher, teacher assistant, and parent) to five student
ratio in the classroom. The early literacy program that is used in this program is
Developmental Learning Materials (DLM Express). While there are best practices
and guidelines that are followed in preschool programs, there are currently not
any state standards for the prekindergarten age level. Thus, the DLM Express is
aligned with California's Kindergarten Standards in Language Arts and
Mathematics and the Open Court Kindergarten Reading Program. In this district,
16, 680 students participate in this program in 556 programs at 326 school sites.
54
The individuals who were selected to be included as participants in the
case study were purposefully sampled to using the following three criteria: (1) EL
students in a large urban school district designated by two criteria, (2) participants
in a specific prekindergarten School Readiness School Readiness Language
Development Program (SRLDP), and (3) students who speak Spanish and very
limited English.
The sample for this case study consisted of five prekindergarten EL
students (and their families and teachers) enrolled in the School Readiness
Language Development Program (SRLDP). Within the district, these students are
designated as EL students based on their response to the following four questions
on the school district sanctioned Home Language Survey: (1) What language did
the child first learn to speak?, (2) What language is mostly spoken at home?, (3)
What language is most frequently spoken to the child?, and (4) Which language is
spoken by the parents? If parents answer Spanish to any of these four questions,
then they will be administered a Spanish and English PRE-LAS (language
assessment test) to further determine their classification. Students can only be
tested if they are four-years old. The results from the PRE-LAS tests are scored to
determine the child’s language classification. The child’s scores on the PRE-LAS
test will classify them as English Only speakers (Eos) or English Learners (ELs).
The PRE-LAS must be administered within forty-five days after the child turns
four-years old. Children will typically be classified by mid-year. Thus, up until
this point, children will not have any classification. In addition, test results will
55
indicate proficient, limited, or non-speaking skills and high, medium, or low pre-
literacy levels.
The California English Language Development Test (CELDT) is not
administered to students until they are in Kindergarten, at which time they may be
redesignated based on their CELDT results. In prekindergarten, they are
designated as EL only based on their answers on the home language survey and
their language test results.
Data Collection Instruments, Processes, and Procedures
Creswell (2003) includes procedures of a qualitative study. This procedure
served as a guide in determining data collection, data recording, and data analysis
and interpretation procedures.
First, a recruitment tool (see Appendix A) was mailed to thirty families in
a particular School Readiness Language Development Program (SRLDP) to
recruit five families (student and their parents) willing to participate in the study
that met the following three criteria: (1) EL students in a large urban school
district designated by two criteria, (2) participants in a specific prekindergarten
School Readiness Language Development Program (SRLDP), (3) and, students
who speak Spanish and very limited English. While eight families responded to
the recruitment tool (a 26% response rate), only five families were selected as
participants in the classroom based case study. These five families were selected
based on the following two criterions for inclusion: (1) gender of student-the
56
researcher wanted an equal balance of males and females, and (2) enrollment time
(AM class or PM class)-the researcher wanted an equal balance of students in
each class to provide enough time to conduct adequate observations and
interviews. The researcher examined the eight families, and chose five families
that created a group of three families with male students and two families with
female students. In addition, there were three students in the AM class and two
students in the PM class. These students met the previous described sampling
criteria. Of the students selected, all five students were designated EL students in
the Student Information System (SIS). Of the five families that were elected to
participate, all five of them were represented by their mothers. Their mothers
dropped them off and picked them up at school each day, and hence were the ones
to participate in the study. Of the five mothers that participated in the study, 60%
were homemakers, while the other 40% were employed, and 100% of the
participants were Latino. The teacher also noted that each family participated
heavily in the program; they met the program requirements by volunteering at
least five hours per month, and attending regular parent education courses. All of
the families were in good standing as far as meeting the program requirements
required to keep their child enrolled in the Pre-K program. This information was
obtained from school documents possessed by the classroom teacher.
Prior to entry to the school site and any interaction with study participants,
the rights of the human participants were protected by first obtaining permission
from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) prior to entry. The IRB process
57
ensures protection of human subjects by submitting the study to the board for an
Ethics review prior to permitting researchers to carry out research. Additional
ethical issues have also been considered. For the vulnerable populations (five
children under 18 years old) participating in the study, guardians/parents must
first sign the informed consent forms prior to engaging in any research (see
Appendices B, C, and D). This form acknowledged the protection of participants’
rights.
There was a personal connection between the researcher and the research
site. The researcher worked on a committee with the teacher whose school site
and classroom were used in the study. Permission was obtained from the site
principal to use the study site. In order to obtain permission from the school site, a
letter was written stating the length of the study, the potential impact of the study,
and benefits of the study. Additionally, the classroom teacher spoke to qualified
participants to obtain verbal permission from each parent to participate in the
study prior to introducing them to the researcher.
Creswell (2003) describes four types of data to be collected: observations,
interviews, documents, and audio and visual material. The following three types
of data collection were used in this study:
Student Observations: In this type of observation, the participant acts as
the observer, and the observation role is secondary to the participant role.
According to Creswell (2003), the strength of this type of data collection is that it
58
provides the researcher with a firsthand experience with participants. This type of
data collection may be limited because the researcher may be seen to be intrusive.
An observational protocol was used to record observational data
(Appendix E) in this case study classroom. The researcher used a folder with
observation record sheets to record data. Each record sheet was divided in the
middle by a line. One side contained descriptive data and the other side contained
reflective notes. On the top of the record sheet, there was a general information
section including date, time, place, and specific area of focus for the observation.
This protocol was designed consultatively by the researcher and the researcher’s
dissertation committee chairperson. Observations took place during the course of
the instructional day. Observations took place daily over a two-week time period
(7 school days). The researcher came daily from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. During
this time period, the researcher conducted observations of the classroom. Special
attention was paid to the use of music in the classroom and the effect of music on
the students.
Parent Interviews: Interviews were conducted face-to-face individually
with parents of the EL students. Interviews were conducted in Spanish
According to Creswell (2003), the strength of this type of data collection is that it
provides the researcher with historical information. This type of data collection
may be limited because is provides information in a designated place versus a
more natural field setting and interviewees are not equally articulate. An interview
protocol was used during parent interviews (Appendix F). The interview guide
59
consisted of the following: (1) a general heading with the date, time and place of
interview, (2) a checkbox to mark parent or teacher, (3) an opening statement and
instructions, and (4) interview questions and probes to follow key questions. At
the bottom of the protocol, there was a space for reflective notes. This protocol
was developed based on information obtained from the literature review. The
researcher came to the classroom daily over a two-week time period (7 school
days) from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. During this time period, the researcher
conducted observations of the classroom and conducted interviews with parents
and the classroom teacher. Each parent was interviewed twice during the two-
week period for approximately fifteen minutes. The interviews were conducted by
the researcher in Spanish. Since the researcher is bilingual in both English and
Spanish, there was not any loss in the meaning of the translation due to language
barriers. Interviews were recorded via notes and audio taping. The following three
questions were key elements of the interview protocol regarding the use of music
in the classroom: (1) What strategies and instructional practices do you use to
facilitate language acquisition in your classroom?, (2) Which strategies and/or
instructional practices do you find to be the most effective in helping English
Learners (ELs) acquire English? (3) What role does music play in helping English
Learners (ELs) acquire English? Additional probing questions were asked as
appropriate.
Teacher Interviews: Interviews were conducted face-to-face individually
with the teacher in the case study classroom. Strengths and limitations are
60
previously mentioned in this chapter. An interview protocol was used during the
teacher interview (Appendix G). The interview guide consisted of the following:
(1) a general heading with the date, time and place of interview, (2) a checkbox to
mark parent or teacher, (3) an opening statement and instructions, and (4)
interview questions and probes to follow key questions. At the bottom, there was
a space for reflective notes. This protocol was developed based on information
obtained from the literature review. The researcher came to the classroom daily
over a two-week time period (7 school days) from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. During
this time period, the researcher conducted observations of the classroom and
conducted interviews with parents and the classroom teacher. The teacher was
interviewed daily (7 days) during the two-week period for approximately fifteen
minutes. Interviews were recorded via notes and audio taping. The following
three questions were asked related to the use of music in the classroom: (1) What
classroom strategies are used to help your child learn English? (2) What
classroom strategies do you feel are most important in helping your child learn
English? (3) What role does music play in helping your child learn English?
Further probing questions were asked as needed.
Creswell’s (2003) six-step process for data analysis and interpretation was
used to analyze and interpret the data in this study: (1) the research first organized
and prepared the data for analysis. Interviews were transcribed by the researcher,
and all field notes were typed up. (2) Then the researcher carefully read through
all of the data and reflected on the information in the reflection spots provided.
61
The researcher looked for overall meaning and themes and wrote notes in margins
regarding general thoughts about the data. (3) The third step involved detailed
analysis with a coding process. Transcriptions and notes were read. Underlying
topics associated with the data as it related to the research question were coded.
(4) Then the researcher used the coding process to generate a description of the
setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis. Codes were used for
this description. This coding was then used to generate five to seven themes seen
throughout the data. Since this study is a qualitative case study, themes were
analyzed for each individual case and across different cases, and the researcher
advanced how the description and themes would be represented in the qualitative
narrative. A narrative was used to present the description of the data and
analytical themes. This narrative included the chronology of events and a
discussion of the themes. In addition, descriptive information about each
individual was presented in a table. A grounded theory process model was used to
present the descriptive information. Creswell (2003) defines grounded theory to
be when “the researcher attempts to derives a general, abstract theory of process,
action, or interaction grounded in the views of the participants in a study” (p. 14).
This process uses multiple stages of data collection. According to Creswell
(2003), a grounded system of codes possesses two characteristics: (1) data with
emerging categories are constantly compared, and (2) theoretical sampling of
different groups is used. The use of these two characteristics provides the
researcher with similarities and differences between the information. The last step
62
in Creswell’s six step process is (6) to make an interpretation or meaning of the
data. The researcher examined the lessons learned by examining the findings with
information from the literature.
Step Three and Four of Creswell’s (2003) six-step process for data
analysis and interpretation is to (3) begin detailed analysis with a coding process,
and (4) to use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people
as well as categories or themes for analysis. In Step Three, Creswell suggests
using an eight-step process to guide researchers in the coding process (p. 192).
This process includes: (1) getting a sense of the whole, (2) picking one document,
going through it, and writing thoughts in the margin, (3) making a list of all of
the topics, and clustering similar topics together (this list should be used to refer
back to the data), (4) abbreviating codes and then writing the codes next to the
text, (5) finding the proper wording for your topics and turning them into
categories, (6) deciding on a final abbreviation for each category, (7) assembling
the data belonging to each category and beginning analysis, and finally (8) if
necessary, recoding the data.
Seven themes emerged to answer the three research questions set forth for
this study. The following table (1) illustrates the themes that emerged from the
data analysis. These seven themes and the detailed analysis will be discussed
more thoroughly in Chapter Four by providing the following information: (1) a
frequency count (and corresponding percentage) for the amount of times the
63
category/theme appeared in the data, (2) examples of when this category/theme
was seen in the data, and (3) research linked to support the provided data.
64
Table 1: Emerging Themes Based on Grounded Theory
The Role of Music in the Oral Language Development of EL Preschool Students
_____________________________________________________________________
A Risk-Free Environment to Practice English
Improving Social Skills and Communication
Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Related To the Role of Music in EL Language Learning
________________________________________________________________________________
Increasing Memory
Motivating
Improving Confidence
The Role of Music in helping EL Students Acquire English
___________________________________________________
Enhancing Learning
Increasing Memory
65
Validating the Accuracy of the Findings
Creswell (2003) describes eight strategies to validate accuracy of findings.
The following six strategies were used to validate the findings: (1) triangulation,
(2) member checking, (3) rich, thick description, (4) clarify the bias, (5) negative
and discrepant information, and (6) peer debriefing. These strategies were used to
validate the accuracy of findings for this case study based dissertation study.
Triangulation: Data was examined and used to build a justification for
themes. A variety of data was used including observations and interviews, thus
triangulation of sources was used. Data from the student observation, the teacher
interview, and the parent interview was examined to ensure themes are common
throughout each type of data sources. In triangulation of qualitative data sources,
Creswell (2002) suggests comparing observations with interviews, comparing
what people say in private and what they say in public, and checking to see if
people say the same thing repeatedly. In addition, theory/perspective
triangulation was used. The theoretical framework provided three grounded
theory based perspectives that were examined to interpret the data and prevent
any single-observer biases. This framework examines the language acquisition
process and thus assisted in providing a perspective in which to interpret and
analyze the data.
66
Member-checking: The final report of data analysis was taken back to
adult study participants to confirm accuracy. For this strategy, member checking
was done with the teacher and parents.
Rich, thick description: This process was completed throughout
observations and interviews, and during field note collection.
Clarifying the bias: The researcher conducted a self-reflection to
determine any biases that were present as a result of engaging in the study as
someone who knew the participants prior to beginning the study. The following
biases were found: (1) the researcher teaches in the same program being examined
and thus, may have certain biases regarding the role of music in instruction for
this specific program evaluation, and (2) the researcher chose a familiar school
site thus may have chosen a teacher that may have certain instructional practices
that will help strengthen the findings regarding the role of music in instruction.
The researcher used this information as a check-in throughout the analysis process
to be sure that biases were not overriding clear and accurate presentation of the
data and associated results of the study.
Negative and discrepant information: Any negative and discrepant
information was determined and reported in the findings chapter. Since member
checking was one of the strategies used, any discrepancies between the
perspective of the teacher, the parent, and the researcher were discussed in chapter
four (there were none).
67
Peer debriefing: A peer debriefer was included to review the findings and
ask questions about the qualitative study to offer an additional perspective.
Conclusion
This chapter describes in detail the qualitative procedures that were used
for this study. The area of investigation, unit of analysis, research design, study
population, and data collection instruments, processes, and procedures that were
used in this study are discussed in detail. Emerging themes and subheadings were
discussed. The process that was used to validate the findings was also discussed.
In the upcoming chapter, findings will be described based on the qualitative
procedures used in the previous chapter.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Introduction
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) states that adequate progress must be made
subgroup categories including ethnic/minority status, levels in English
proficiency, and special education. Additionally, Bracey (2003) reports that an
achievement gap exists even as early as preschool. Data from the U.S.
Department of Education shows significant differences across ethnic groups and
SES of students entering Kindergarten.
Tabors, Paez, & Lopez (2003) cite that between 1990 and 2000, the
number of ELs in the United States has doubled. Data from CIERA analyzed by
Stahl & Yaden claim that Spanish speaking students, which comprise 27% of the
preschool population, were significantly behind English-speaking preschool
students. Neuman (2003) argues that in order to reach proficiency by 2014 as
outlined in the NCLB legislation, high-quality pre-kindergarten programs must be
developed that equip children with school readiness skills then need to be
successful in school.
In order to address the current existent problems and contribute to the
body of research in this area, this dissertation examined preschool as a means of
beginning to address the current achievement gap. Specifically, this dissertation
69
examined whether music is an effective instructional tool to help young
prekindergarten Latino ELs acquire English.
Chapter four contains results and interpretation of the data collection,
based on the findings and the literature and using a grounded system of codes to
categorize and make sense of the data. In discussing these results, five key areas
are discussed:
1. Program Description and Evaluation of Quality of the Case Study
Classroom
2. Background Information of the Teacher and the Five Families
included in the Case Study
3. Discussion of Themes Tied to the Study’s Research Questions: (1) The
role of music in the oral language development of EL students, (2)
Perceptions of teachers and parents regarding the role of music, and
(3) The role of music in helping EL students acquire English.
Program Description and Quality of the Case Study Classroom
The program under study includes one full-time teacher and one full-time
teacher assistant, both paid the as regular elementary school employees. There are
two classes; one morning class (AM) and one afternoon class (PM), each class
containing fifteen students and lasting for two hours and twenty minutes. In
addition, parents are required to volunteer in the classroom monthly. The number
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of adults in the classroom is always kept at a one-to five ratio of adults to
children. In addition, the teacher has working in this particular preschool program
for six years, while the paraprofessional has worked in this program for over
twenty years.
The American Federation of Teachers (AFT, 2003) states that a high-
quality program consists of the following six components: (1) a qualified and
well-paid staff, (2) low staff turnover, (3) low teacher-child ratios and small class
sizes, (4) comprehensive standards and curriculum that address the development
of a child’s cognitive, social-emotional, physical abilities, as well as language,
early literacy and numeracy development, (5) periodic licensing and accreditation
of the preschool, providing children with comprehensive social services, and (6)
nurturing environments. This program met all of the components described by the
AFT.
Epstein (1999) recommends two structural variables be present in a high-
quality preschool program. First Epstein recommends no more than 20
preschoolers in one classroom. Second, Epstein recommends formal education or
in-service training to prepare staff to deliver high-quality services. This program
meets both of Epstein’s structural variables for a high-quality preschool program;
the classroom teacher is formally educated and receives in-service training weekly
through the elementary school and bi-annually specifically on preschool related
topics.
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Schweinhart et al. (2005) conducted the High Scope/Perry Study, which
demonstrates that providing high poverty children with high-quality preschool has
a positive long-term effect on participants as well as financial benefits for society.
The Classroom Teacher
The classroom teacher is a fully credentialed teacher. She possesses a
Professional Clear Multiple Subject Teaching Credential with CLAD Emphasis.
In order to obtain a teaching credential, one must possess a Bachelor’s Degree and
must have met all of the state requirements, which includes going through a
teacher preparation program and passing a series of tests (CBEST, RICA, CSET,
and the U.S> Constitution Test). This credential allows its holder to teach in an
elementary school setting, and to be paid according to the district’s teacher pay
scale. This teacher possesses a Bachelor’s Degree in Liberal Arts and has
completed 98 post-bachelor’s units in Education courses. She is fluent in both
English and Spanish. She possesses bilingual certification through the school
district.
This teacher has been teaching in the classroom for twelve years. This
teacher has been working at this particular school site for ten years. She taught
other grade levels (first, second, and fourth-grade) prior to teaching
prekindergarten. She has been teaching prekindergarten for five years. The
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following table summarizes descriptive characteristics for the classroom teacher
that is included in the preschool classroom-based case study.
Table 2: Descriptive Characteristics for the Classroom Teacher Included
In the Preschool Case Study
Constellation of the Five Families Included in the Case Study Classroom
The first family is a Latino mother and her preschool aged son. The
mother has three children. This child of focus for this study is her youngest child
in the family. On the PRE-LAS test, the child was labeled as “limited English”
and scored a medium pre-literacy level. The mother is a homemaker. The child
speaks Spanish at home and English at school. The mother speaks only Spanish to
her son. She was educated in Mexico up until age fifteen.
The second family included in this study is also a Latino mother and her
son. The mother has four sons. This child of focus for this study is her youngest
child in the family. On the PRE-LAS test, the child was labeled as “non-speaking
Credential(s) Held by Classroom
Teacher
Years of
Experience
Possesses a Professional Clear Multiple
Subject Teaching Credential w/CLAD
Emphasis
Has completed 98 post-bachelor’s
degree units of Education coursework
Is Bilingual in English & Spanish
12 years overall teaching
experience as follows:
7 years teaching K-5
5 years teaching Pre-K
73
English” and scored a low pre-literacy level. The mother works in the evenings.
The boy speaks Spanish at home and Spanish at school. The mother speaks only
Spanish to her son. The mother attended school in Mexico until age fourteen.
The third study family is a Latino mother and her daughter. The mother
has two younger children with her each day when she drops the young girl off at
school. This child of focus for this study is her eldest child in the family. The
mother is a homemaker. On the PRE-LAS test, the child was labeled as “limited
English” and scored a medium pre-literacy level. The little girl speaks Spanish at
home and English at school. The mother and daughter speak only Spanish to each
other. The mother attended school in Mexico until age fifteen.
The fourth family is a Latino mother and her son. She brings one younger
sibling when she drops her son off, however she has three sons. This focal child
for this study is her eldest in the family. The mother is a homemaker. On the PRE-
LAS test, the child was labeled as “non-speaking English” and scored a low pre-
literacy level. The child speaks Spanish at home and at school. The mother and
son speak only Spanish to each other. The mother was a former preschool teacher
from Mexico. She attended school in Mexico into her twenties and received the
proper accreditation to become a teacher in Mexico. She taught in Mexico until
she recently moved with her family to the United States.
The fifth family is a Latino mother and her daughter. This focal child for
this study is an only child in the family. The mother works during the day, but
74
takes off time to occasionally volunteer in the classroom. On the PRE-LAS test,
the child was labeled as “limited English” and scored a medium pre-literacy level.
The child speaks English at home and at school. The mother and daughter speak
only English to each other. The mother was educated in the United States up to
tenth grade.
According to the teacher, all five study families included in the preschool
case study are very involved with their children’s education by making sure that
they meet the program requirements (volunteering and attending parent meetings),
complete homework daily, bring their children to school regularly, and arrive on-
time and pick up their children on-time each day. The following table (3)
summarizes descriptive characteristics for each of the five study families that
were included in the preschool classroom-based case study.
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Table 3: Descriptive Characteristics for Five Families Included in The Preschool Case Study
Persons
involve
d in the
study
# in
family
Child’s
Position in
family
Child’s
PRE-LAS
Score
Language
Level/Pre-Literacy
Level
Employment
Hours of
parent
Language
spoken
At home/
At school
Language
spoken
between
parent &
child
Education Level of
participating
parent
Parent 1
Child 1
5 youngest Limited
English/
Medium
Homemaker Spanish/
English
Spanish Educated in Mexico
until age 15
Parent 2
Child 2
6 Youngest Non-Speaking
English/
Low
Works
Evenings
Spanish/
Spanish
Spanish Educated in Mexico
until age 14
Parent 3
Child 3
5 Eldest Limited English/
Medium
Homemaker Spanish/
English
Spanish Educated in Mexico
until age 17
Parent 4
Child 4
5 Eldest Non-Speaking
English/
Low
Homemaker Spanish/
Spanish
Spanish Educated in Mexico
all the way through
“la Universidad.”
Parent 5
Child 5
3 Only child Limited English/
Medium
Works Days English/
English
English Educated in the
United States until
age 15
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The Role of Music in the Oral Language Development of EL Students
Upon review of the data collected through classroom observations and
parent and teacher interviews, the researcher coded the data using grounded
theory to identify seven categorical themes in the data. Two categories emerged
from the analyses that are related to the role of music in oral language
development of the case study children. These include: (1) A Risk-Free
Environment to Practice English, and (2) Improving Social Skills and
Communication. The following table (4) demonstrates the frequency (F) and the
percentage (percent) that each of the coded categories appeared throughout the
data during the coding process. An example of each of the is included for each
category.
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Table 4. The Role of Music in the Oral Language Development of EL Preschool Students
Category F percent Example
A Risk-Free Environment
to Practice English
13 54.17 Classroom Observation: “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and
Toes” song. Children were laughing hysterically while
participating.
Improves Social Skills
and Communication
11 45.83 Teacher Comment: “Music is very good. Five stars. The
learn how to sing, use their vocal skills, improve their
social skills, improve their self-confidence, and interact
with each other.”
*f is the total number of
responses in the given
category
*N is the total number of
responses coded
N=24 100%
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A Risk-Free Environment to Practice English.
As illustrated in the previous table (3), this particular theme was coded
thirteen times throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates
to approximately 54.17% of the total coded events. This reveals that more than
half of the learning that occurs in the classroom supported the oral language
development of the students in the classroom.
Many of the songs that are used to teach young children in this particular
classroom under study contained word play and other playful components. For
example, in this classroom, the teacher played the song, “Head, Shoulders, Knees,
and Toes.” The song goes as follows: “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes. Knees
and Toes. Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes. Knees and Toes. Eyes and Ears and
Mouth and Nose. Head, Shoulder, Knees, and Toes. Knees and Toes.” This verse
continues to repeat as the tempo continues to get faster. The children touch each
corresponding part as they sing. During this song, the children start out just
singing and touching their body parts. But as the tempo increases, the children
begin laughing harder and harder. They start to relax more and more. They are
having fun, but are also learning the correct English words to identify parts of
their body with. This is an example of how one song can serve to create a risk-
free environment for EL children to practice their English (Lake, 2003). This
practice is supported by research from Geoghegan and Mitchelmore (1996) whose
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research claims that creating playful environments for young children lowers
stress and allows for powerful linguistically rich environments.
The role that music plays in oral language development for EL students is
important. At times, it can be overwhelming for an EL to grasp pre-academic
concepts. Music provides students with a consistent and calming way of picking
up English vocabulary and pre-academic information. Not all music accomplishes
this, but music that is purposefully chosen for being repetitive, upbeat, and
applicable, can often help students learn new English vocabulary. For young EL
students, interactive, predictive, and repetitive songs can be very catchy and when
played repeatedly, EL students are able to hear the tune, learn the words, and then,
use the words from the songs in the classroom.
Facella, Rampino, and Shea (2005) name opportunities for practicing
skills to be one of four of the most effective teaching strategies for ELs. The
Indiana State Department of Education (2001) in their article, Foundations for
Young Children, state that children should always be encouraged to speak with
other children in both English and in their home language. Interaction with peers
provides children an arena to practice their skills and speak with other children in
both English and in their home language.
Improving Social Skills and Communication
As demonstrated in Table 3, this particular theme was coded eleven times
throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates to
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approximately 45.83% of the learning events coded in the observed classroom.
Several activities in the classroom supported the oral language development of the
students in the classroom.
In this classroom, the teacher begins the day by playing a song called,
“Hello, Neighbor!” During the observation, the children were instructed to find a
partner and to stand facing each other. They engaged in purposeful movements
with their friends including waving, shaking hands, hugging, and bumping hips.
While most of the case study children smiled, demonstrating enjoyment
throughout the entire song, they laughed the hardest when they bumped hips. This
demonstrates a connection between the physical aspect of song singing and the
role that it plays in student engagement. Student engagement has been found to be
linked to language development throughout the lifespan but particularly with
regard to early language development, (NAEYC, 1995). Physical response was
also linked to language acquisition (Krashen and Terrell, 1983).
When the teacher was interviewed about music, the teacher comments
demonstrate how often music helps improve social skills and communication:
PI: “What role does music play in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire
English?”
Teacher: “Music is very good. Five stars. They learn how to sing, use their
vocal skills, improve their social skills, improve their self-confidence, and
interact with each other.”
PI: “Do most of your songs require a partner like the ‘Hello, Neighbor’
song you play?”
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Teacher: “There are many songs that we use in the classroom, some are
games we play together as a group like ‘Pass the Beanbag,’ or ‘Fast and
Slow,’ some are done with a partner, and some are done independently.
Many of the songs that are used first thing in the morning require a
partner. Also, many of the songs that are used to dismiss the children
require a partner. But, for the songs that are done independently, the kids
still group with their friends to sing and dance.”
The lyrics and body movements to the Hello, Neighbor song are as
follows:
Hello, Neighbor (children wave at their neighbor)
`What do you say? (children put one finder on their chin)
It’s going to be a happy day (children put one finger on each of their
cheeks)
Greet your neighbor. (children shake hands with their neighbor)
Give him a bump (children bump hips)
And turn around! (children turn around)
This lyric is repeated about four times.
It is noted from this interview dialogue between the researcher and the
classroom teacher that the teacher understood the importance of the social
structure and interaction as a focus of language learning. This is supported by
Lake’s (2003) research on language acquisition. When children are required to
have a partner during Music time, this helps children interact and socialize with
each other. They learn to greet each other using modeled greetings and words.
They also learn how to say goodbye to each other using modeled greetings and
words.
Lake (2003) refers to Krashen & Terrell’s input hypothesis as it relates to
language acquisition for young learners. In this hypothesis, language that a
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student receives should be slightly beyond their current level of understanding (i-
plus-1 formula). Music works according to this hypothesis. Students will begin to
pick up the chorus of the song (the ‘i’). The words to the song are the “plus-1.”
Exposure to songs assists children in communication as they pick up language
from the songs they sing. For example, if a child sings the “Hello, Neighbor”
song, they might first learn the word “hello.” The remainder of the song is the
“plus-1” part. The children are still participating in the hand and body
movements, but are unable to understand the corresponding words. Eventually, as
the child learns more vocabulary, they will begin to learn more parts of the song
word by word. They will begin to learn the “plus-1” parts throughout the year.
Music helps to challenge EL students beyond their current input level so that their
second language learning continues to progress beyond what they have mastered.
Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) state that music is a powerful means
for developing a child’s social/emotional growth. Parent 1 of the case study
families stated that, “music gets them to sing and to rhyme. It is low stress. It
helps them memorize the words to songs.”
The Teacher in the case study preschool classroom stated that the strategy
that is most effective in helping EL student learn English is “decreasing their
anxiety and putting them at ease while using English. Respecting their language
of origin (L1) and encouraging them to enjoy learning English. Making it fun!”
According to Gellens neuroscientific research (2000), music relaxes children, and
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when children are enjoying something, chemicals are released in the brain that
makes learning easier. Music is similar to exercise in the sense that it releases
chemicals in the brain. It gets our bodies and our brains moving, which in turn
helps children learn.
In exploring the role of music in oral language development of preschool
English learners, it is clear from this study that the case study children in this
study used music as a means for developing oral skills. It appears that physically
engaging in music interaction assisted the children in oral language use. The
teacher recognized that creating a fun, socially engaging environment for children
assisted the children in practicing their oral skills.
Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Related to the Role of Music in
EL Preschoolers’ Second Language Acquisition
The perceptions of teachers and parents regarding the role of music in the
children’s development of language was also explored during this dissertation
study. During data analysis related to perceptions of teachers and parents, three
categories emerged as salient features of the data. These include: (1) Increasing
Memory, (2) Improving Confidence, and (3) Motivating Students. Table 5 that
follows illustrates the frequency (F) and the percentage (percent) that each of the
categories appeared throughout the data during the coding process.
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Table 5. Perceptions of Teachers and Parents Related To the Role of Music in EL Language Learning
Category F percent Example
Increasing Memory 16 41.03 Teacher Comment: “I use songs to teach the following
skills…”
Motivating 13 33.33 Parent Comment: “Music is a great motivator.”
Improving Confidence 10 25.64 Parent Comment: “Music helps them participate and not
be shy.”
*f is the total number of
responses in the given
category
*N is the total number of
responses coded
N=39 100%
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Increasing Memory.
As demonstrated in Table 5, the category, increasing memory, was coded
a total of sixteen times throughout the data during classroom observations, which
equates to approximately 41.03% of the time. Interview responses provided data
related to teacher and parent perceptions about the use of music in the classroom
to help EL students acquire English.
The following teacher interview except illustrates the teacher
understanding of and value she places on the use of music as an effective strategy
for teaching EL students:
PI: “What role does music play in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire
English?”
Teacher: “Music plays a key role. As we would encounter new ELD
lessons music brought more joy to the lesson. It helped with retention of
knowledge and gave the students a risk-free arena to use their English.
Fun for students and fun for teachers.”
This perception is reinforced in the teacher’s instructional practice of the
case study children. During classroom observations, during music time, the
children’s non-verbal expressions demonstrated how much children are impacted
by music. The following is a list of nonverbal expressions and comments that
were made by the children during music time.
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Table 6: Nonverbal Expressions and Comments made by the Preschool
Children
Comments: Non-Verbal Expressions:
___________________________________________________
Again! Smiling
Yay! Holding Hands
Let’s do it again! Jumping
Another One! Hand and Body Motions
Let’s do Tooty Ta! Spinning
It is apparent by these comments and non-verbal expressions that the case
study students are being reached during music time. The comments they make
and their non-verbal expressions show how much they enjoy music. It is
important to note that the nonverbal expressions listed in Table 5 are paired with
English based informal language in social context. This description is illustrative
of the work by Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996), researchers who link music to
affective processes linked to language acquisition and development. Music is one
of select few activities where this type of response is demonstrated, where
children are physically engaged in their language learning. In contrast, as
observed and noted in field notes from the study, when the teacher reads a story to
the children, the children were engaged and enjoyed the activity, but did not
respond with near as much excitement as they do when they are participating or
listening to music.
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Motivating.
As seen in the previous chart, this particular theme was coded thirteen times
throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates to
approximately 33.33% of the time. Questionnaire responses provided data related
to teacher and parent perceptions about the use of music in the classroom to help
EL students acquire English.
Parent 2 stated that, “music is a great motivator.” The Teacher stated that,
“music is the universal language. Kids respond and listen more to music. It’s a fun
way to learn!
Lake (2003) refers to the affective filter hypothesis component of Krashen
& Terrell’s Natural Approach. Lake claims that many ELs come to class with a
feeling of homelessness. Music time helps to bring a change to the student’s
affective filter. Music creates a warm and relaxing environment for the non-native
speaker of English. This theory is very true in this classroom. During classroom
observations, many of the EL children are often sitting on the outside of the rug.
Child Four and Child Five sat together all year. The teacher said that in the
beginning of the school year, these two students were very disruptive. They would
talk to each other and not participate in classroom discussions. They likely felt
frustrated and bored because they were not able to understand the teacher. This
teacher is fluent in both English and Spanish, but only instructs in English
because she feels that children must be fully immersed into the language.
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According to Lake, these two students might have felt a feeling of homelessness.
They were not able to understand the teacher and participate in the activities.
When other children would laugh at a story, they might not have known what was
going on. This might have made them feel left out.
According to Lake, music helps bring a change to their affective filter and
makes them feel included. While they may not understand the words to the song,
they are able to imitate the hand movements that the teacher and the other
students are doing. This makes them feel a part of the group. Eventually, they
begin to hear the words that go along with the songs. This is why it is so
important to play songs repetitively for EL students.
Improving Confidence.
As seen in the previous chart, this particular theme was coded ten times
throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates to
approximately 25.64% of the time. Questionnaire responses provided data
regarding teacher and parent perceptions about the use of music in the classroom
to help EL students acquire English.
Parent 4 stated that “music helps them participate and not be shy.”
Many students in this Pre-K class have never attended school prior to entering this
classroom. They come from a variety of backgrounds. While some students speak
both English and Spanish fluently, some children do not speak any English, and
might be afraid to try this new language and make mistakes in front of their
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teacher and friends. Music provides these students a way to try new words where
they will not be heard by their classmates. For example, Student 4 does not talk
often during classroom discussions. If the teacher asks him a question in Spanish,
then he will reply in Spanish. However, if the teacher asks him a question in
English, this student is hesitant to use English. He will shrug his shoulders and
look down. The teacher will have him repeat the English words that she models.
He will barely whisper them.
When a song is played, this same student comes to life. For instance, on
Tuesdays, the song “Tooty Ta” is played. The teacher refers to Tuesdays as
“Tooty Ta Tuesday.” The children sing along while following various
commands: thumbs up, elbows back, feet apart, knees together, bottoms up,
tongue out, eyes shut, and turn around. At the end of the song, the children are
laughing hard as they are turning in a circle after having followed all of the above
commands. For Student 4, he is completely engaged in this activity. He is singing
the words and following the commands. Every Tuesday, the children ask the
teacher if they can do the “Tooty Ta.” Even Student 4 will say, “Lets Tooty Ta!”
This is the same child that when asked a question in English will look down and
shrug his shoulders. Music helps students improve their confidence in using
English words in a group setting.
In support of this, Lake (2003) describes the affective filter hypothesis,
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which states that the best learning occurs in an environment of high motivation,
self-confidence, and low anxiety. Music provides children with this type of
environment. Music provides EL students with an opportunity to participate in
the class activity. This makes them feel less anxious. The more words they learn
to a song, they more confidence they build, which leads to them being more
motivated to participate in music and in the classroom activities.
The Role of Music in Helping Young EL Students Acquire English:
A Neuroscientific Approach to Learning Language for Young EL Learners
In reviewing the data collected for this study, the researcher noted two
categories of data that became associated with music as a tool for preschool
English acquisition. Both of these categories employ a combined neuroscientific
and information processing theoretical perspective of child language acquisition.
Neuroscientific research posits that learning combines physiological and cognitive
processes as a means for understanding human learning (Damasio, 1993 &
Gellens, 2000). The information processing theoretical perspective posits that
information shifts from short term (or working) memory when mediated by a
process that allows for the process to occur. In this dissertation, the researcher
posits that music serves as that mediating process (Ormrod, 2006). The two
categories associated with the neuroscientific and information processing
perspectives include: (1) Enhancing Learning, and (2) Increasing Memory. Table
91
7 that follows, illustrates the frequency (F) and the percentage (percent) that each
of the categories that emerged from the data during the coding process.
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Table 7. The Role of Music in Helping EL Students Acquire English
Category F Percent Example
Enhancing Learning 18 52.94 Classroom Observation: For the Ocean theme, “Five
Little Fishes,” was played to help children learn more
about the ocean
Increasing Memory 16 47.06 Classroom Observation: Many songs are used to teach
skills (see Table 7)
*f is the total number of
responses in the given
category
*N is the total number of
responses coded
N=34 100%
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Enhancing Learning.
As demonstrated by Table 7, enhancing learning was coded eighteen times
throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates to
approximately 52.94% of the data. This feature is particularly salient and provides
a rationale for the theoretical framework for this dissertation study. Teacher
interview responses and classroom observations provided data related to the role
of music in this specific School Readiness Language Development Program
(SRLDP).
The teacher was asked about the use of music in the classroom:
PI: “Does music help children learn certain skills?”
Teacher: “There are a number of songs that I use to do exactly that. I use
songs to teach the following skills: colors, shapes, alphabet, numbers,
greetings, addition, and so many more. On the children’s assessments, I
attribute a lot of their academic growth to music. Sometimes when I test
them on a particular skill, they will sing the answer to me. That is how I
know that the music is helping.”
In this classroom, the teacher also uses several songs to greet students at
the start of class including, “Hello, How are You?,” “Hello, Neighbor!,” and three
different versions of a “Good Morning” Song. According to the teacher, these
songs serve to model proper greetings and help children feel more comfortable
when they arrive in the morning. Additionally, before children leave the
classroom, the teacher closes the day with one of three songs. One song the
teacher played during observation time was “The Goodbye Song.” Gellens (2000)
describes that by adding words to music, teachers can aide the language
94
acquisition process. For students that do not possess a large English vocabulary,
using songs in the classroom helps them to learn words that they may not have
otherwise learned. For instance, if a child is singing the “Good Morning” song
and singing “Good Morning” while waving to a friend, they learn the proper
words and hand movement to greet people with.
Damasio (1993) provides neuroscientific research related to the brain and
language. Damasio claims that language (verbal) is processed in the left
hemisphere of the brain, while the right side of the brain processes the non-verbal,
thus all language is processed on the left side of the brain. Gellens’ (2000)
neuroscientific research posits that the rhythm of music helps put words from
music into a child’s permanent (long term) memory. By adding hand and body
movements to music, children use multiple parts of the brain at the same time that
facilitates shifting of concepts from short term to long term memory. This
supports the information processing theoretical perspective of child learning
(Ormrod, 2006). This neuroscientific perspective is one that is prevalently
demonstrated in this particular classroom under study for this dissertation. The
reading program that is used is in this classroom is based on the same tenant as
described in Gellens’ (2000) research. This preschool program understudy for this
dissertation embraces the perspective that children should use multiple parts of
the brain simultaneously for learning to occur. The teacher under study often
introduces and practices certain songs that cross the midline of the child’s body
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allowing them to use both hemispheres of their brain simultaneously. By crossing
the midline, children are using multiple parts of their brain in addition to both
hemispheres simultaneously. Many of the “Good Morning” songs that start the
day for the preschool program include actions that require the children to cross
the midline of their body by requiring the children to reach their left arm to their
right shoulder and vice versa. This in turn requires children to use multiple parts
of their brain and helps them put words into their long term memory. Damasio’s
(19922) and Gellens’ (2000) research on brain development and the role that
music plays in the brain development of young learners is extremely important for
early childhood teachers. Often, children that are learning English as a second
language in preschool are in the early stages of development in their new
language. They have a limited vocabulary and because of their age, are able to
learn a lot of language. Music helps children learn English more quickly than by
just hearing and practicing language in decontextualized format. In the classroom
under study, each day the teacher reviews six to eight vocabulary words with the
students. The teacher uses picture cards and says the word in English, says the
word in Spanish, and then repeats the word in English. The children participate,
but they do not always recall the vocabulary words they are learning. When the
teacher introduces the new picture cards words for the next week, she quizzes the
students on the old picture cards. Typically, in this particular classroom, the
“English Only” speaking students are the only students shouting out the English
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words. Pairing music with vocabulary in the classroom under study is quite
different. As revealed from the field notes, during the vocabulary building picture
card activity, the students are watching, but are not as engaged as they are when
they participate in music. When participating in music, they are excited and
positive. It is apparent that they are being reached and learning new English
words that will help them to acquire a second language.
Campabello, DeCarlo, O’Neil, & Vacek (2002) state that “music as a
tool to enhance learning, memory, and recall in the classroom has long been
overlooked” (p.16). This teacher has taken all of the songs used in the classroom
and allocated them to the appropriate theme. For example, on the teacher’s lesson
plan for the week “Ocean Life,” the following two songs are used: (1) Slippery
Fish and (2) Five Little Fish. The study children sing these songs each day. The
teacher discussed the use of music in the classroom:
PI: “I notice that you use songs that are related to the theme”
Teacher: “Yes. By using songs related to the theme, I feel I can
enhance the learning that is occurring in the classroom, especially for
the EL students.”
PI: “How do you feel the music helps the EL students?”

Teacher: “Well, for many of the songs, we use props. For example,
for ‘Slippery Fish,’ we use little fish pictures on popsicle sticks. Each
of the children gets a turn to hold one of the pictures. They say the
words as they look at the picture, and this helps them to learn.”
By using songs to accompany each theme, the EL children are able to
more easily pick up vocabulary words. For instance, the EL children learn each of
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the words of the different types of fish that are mounted on the popsicle sticks for
the “Slippery Fish” song. There is a fish, octopus, tuna fish, white shark, and a
whale. The children are holding the stick and looking at a picture of the fish while
they hear the words to the song. This song is played daily for four days. Each time
it is played, the children begin to learn a few more vocabulary words. On the first
day, they might only sing the first lyric. Each day, they learn another word. Music
helps children learn vocabulary associated with the specific theme they are
learning, which in turn enhances their learning about the “Ocean” theme.
The study participants were only in this specific classroom for less than
three hours, and hence their learning is limited to the short time they are there.
The teacher incorporates music as much as possible, however the teacher is being
pressured by the implementation of a new comprehensive curriculum, which
limits her ability to play music as much as she’d like. Prior to the implementation
of the new program, the teacher was able to use music much more often.
However, she still manages to use music when possible. Music is used during
calendar time to welcome students, and to teach specific skills. According to
Campabello et al. (2002), often music is not used as an alternative teaching
method or to enhance the curriculum. Instead it is used as a reward and with little
educational value. Campabello et al. (2002) discusses Howard Gardener’s
multiple intelligence theory, where music is considered to be a special
intelligence.
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Increasing Memory.
As demonstrated by Table 7, increasing memory was coded sixteen times
throughout the data during classroom observations, which equates to
approximately 47.06% of the time. Interview responses provided data related to
teacher and parent perceptions about the use of music in the classroom to help EL
students acquire English. With regard to “memory,” the research referred to
memory in terms of shifting information and concepts from short term memory to
long term memory.
During the classroom observations, the researcher observed the teacher
using many songs to teach skills. One particular song, “The Color Farm,” taught
the children how to spell color words. The lyric went as follows (sung to the
BINGO tune): “There was a farmer who had a dog and red was his name-o. R-E-
D. R-E-D. R-E-D, and red was his name-o.” The song proceeds to go through all
of the primary colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, black, and
white). The teacher also adds pink and gray. While the song is playing, the
teacher has a child come up to a color chart with a pointer. On the color chart is a
picture of the colored object (example: an orange for orange) with the spelling of
the word below the picture. As the children sing the song, the child points to the
letters with the pointer. This color song facilitates learning the correct colors and
learning the spelling of the color words. Campabello et al. (2002) claim that using
music as an intervention creates a positive emotional connection for initial
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learning and recall of facts. Using music also helps students acquire challenging
material that may otherwise not be learned. In this classroom, Pre-K students are
working on learning the colors, not necessarily how to spell the color words.
Music in this classroom helps students learn the colors and how to spell them.
They are acquiring a Kindergarten skill (spelling of color words), which will help
them be better prepared for Kindergarten.
There are several other songs that are used in the classroom to teach pre-
academic information and skills. The following table (8) contains a list of songs
and the corresponding skills they teach. All of these songs were observed being
used in the classroom.
Table 8. Songs used to Teach Pre-Academic Information/Skills
Song Skill Taught
____________________________________________________________
Alphabet Forwards & Backwards Alphabet Recognition
Color Farm Spelling of Color Words
Lettercise Alphabet Recognition
Zero the Hero Number Stomp Counting 1 to 100
Penny, Nickel, Dime Money
Line Up Cadence How to Line Up
Rules Rap School Rules
Seasons The Four Seasons
The Shape Song The Shapes
The Weather Song Weather Skills
Who Let the Letters Out? Alphabet Recognition
Rise and Shine Greeting Song
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Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) state that music is a powerful means
for developing a young child’s cognitive growth. Many EL students come into a
Pre-K class with different levels of English abilities. Instruction is conducted in
English and these children are completely immersed into the English language. In
their new environment, they hear a foreign language that they are not able to
understand. Music helps children build vocabulary. It also assists in their oral
language development. It models proper sentence structure. All of these skills are
necessary to commit to children’s long term memory. Music provides the means
by which teachers help children to shift these important and critical skills from
short term to long term memory.
Conclusion
In Chapter Three, seven themes emerged after coding the data. Each of
these themes was used to provide answers to the three research questions in this
study regarding: (1) the role of music in the Oral Language Development of EL
students, (2) perceptions of teachers and parents regarding the role of music, and
(3) the role of music in helping EL students acquire English.
Research was conducted on five families through case study based
classroom observations, and teacher and parent interviews. Chapter Four provided
information on each of these themes including: (1) a frequency count (and
corresponding percentage) for the amount of times the category/theme appeared
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in the data, (2) examples of when this category/theme was seen in the data, and
(3) research linked to support the provided data.
The study findings demonstrate that music is very valuable in the
classroom. While there are many strategies that are used to help young children
learn a second language, music is yet another avenue that teachers and parents can
use to reach our youngest children. It helps children feel motivated, learn
vocabulary, memorize English words, socialize, feel confident, bond with fellow
classmates and teachers, and so much more. Children at this age are so
enthusiastic about learning and so impressionable and ready to learn another
language.
Chapter Five that follows contains a summary and discussion of the findings.
Based on the findings, the Chapter Five will provide recommendations to various
stakeholder groups including: Recommendations for Practice, Recommendations for
Teachers, Recommendations for Parents, and Recommendations for Further Research.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, & IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) states that adequate progress must be made
in each of the subgroup categories including ethnic/minority status, levels in
English proficiency, and special education. Additionally, Bracey (2003) reports
that an achievement gap exists even as early as preschool. Data from the U.S.
Department of Education shows significant differences across ethnic groups and
SES of students entering Kindergarten.
Tabors, Paez, & Lopez (2003) cite that between 1990 and 2000, the
number of ELs in the United States has doubled. Data from CIERA analyzed by
Stahl & Yaden claim that Spanish speaking students, which comprise 27% of the
preschool population, were significantly behind English-speaking preschool
students. Neuman (2003) argues that in order to reach proficiency by 2014 as
outlined in the NCLB legislation, high-quality pre-kindergarten programs must be
developed that equip children with school readiness skills then need to be
successful in school.
In order to address the current existent problems and contribute to the
body of research in this area, this dissertation examines preschool as a means of
beginning to address the current achievement gap. Specifically, this dissertation
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examines whether music is an effective instructional tool to help young
prekindergarten Latino ELs acquire English.
Chapter five contains research and policy implications of the findings. In
discussing these results, two key areas will be discussed:
1. A Summary and Discussion of the Findings
2. Recommendations based on these Findings
Summary of the Findings
The following summary provides a brief description of each of the
subheadings and the research that supports the findings regarding the use of music
in the classroom to help ELs acquire a second language.
Music provides a risk-free environment for EL students to practice
English: Classroom observation in this dissertation shows that when children
participate in music, they feel happy and are able to sing to the words in their
target language more freely. Coyne, Dwyer, Kennedy, & Petter (2000) claim that
benefits of music include increased cognitive processes, elevation of immune
function, reduction of stress levels, and boost of productivity. A participant parent
in this study commented that “music helps children improve their social skills,
improve their self-confidence, and interact with each other.” In support of this
statement, Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) state that music is a powerful means
for developing a child’s social/emotional growth. Another participant parent
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commented that “music is low stress.” According to Gellens (2000), music
relaxes children, and when children are enjoying something, chemicals are
released in the brain that makes learning easier. Further, a participant parent
commented that “music helps them participate and not be shy.” Lake (2003)
describes the affective filter hypothesis, which states that the best learning occurs
in an environment of high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. This
study demonstrated that music provides children with this type of environment.
Music improves social skills and communication: A parent in this
dissertation study stated that, “music is good. Kids get to be together. They get to
be friends. To communicate.” Lake (2003) refers to Krashen & Terrell’s input
hypothesis. In this hypothesis, language that a student receives should be slightly
beyond their current level of understanding (i-plus-1 formula). Music works
according to this hypothesis. Students will begin to pick up the chorus of the song
(the ‘i’). The words to the song are the “plus-1. Exposure to songs will begin to
help children communicate as they pick up language from the songs they sing.
Music is motivational: A parent participant in this dissertation study stated
that, “music is a great motivator.” In support of this statement, Lake (2003) refers
to the affective filter hypothesis component of Krashen & Terrell’s Natural
Approach. Lake claims that many ELs come to class with a feeling of
homelessness. Music time helps to bring a change to the student’s affective filter.
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Music creates a warm and relaxing environment for the non-native speaker of
English.
Music improves confidence: A parent participant in this dissertation study
stated that “music helps them participate and not be shy.” Also, one particular
student in this study never participates in classroom discussions. However, when
music is played, the student was observed talking, even shouting, “Lets do the
Tooty Ta song, Lets do the Tooty Ta song!” In support of this, Lake (2003)
describes the affective filter hypothesis, which states that the best learning occurs
in an environment of high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. Music
provides children with this type of environment. As demonstrated through this
study, music provides EL students with an opportunity to participate in the class
activity. This makes them feel less anxious, lowering their affective filter. The
more words they learn to a song, they more confidence they build, which leads to
them being more motivated to participate in music and in the classroom activities.
Music is used to enhance learning: The classroom teacher in this preschool
case study used various songs along with the corresponding theme to enhance
learning in the classroom. According to Campabello et al. (2002), often music is
not used as an alternative teaching method or to enhance the curriculum. The
teacher also used music to teach specific skills including the alphabet, number
recognition, and colors. Campabello et al. (2002) state that “music as a tool to
enhance learning, memory, and recall in the classroom has long been overlooked”
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(p.16). During classroom observation, the researcher noticed that teacher often
used songs to bid the students good morning and to dismiss the students. Using an
information processing/neuroscientific perspective, Damasio (1993) and Gellens
(2000) describe that adding words to music, teachers can aid in the language
acquisition process.
Music increases memory: The classroom teacher uses various songs to
teach the children the various skills they need to know (refer to Table 7). In
support of this response, Campabello et al. (2002) claim that using music as an
intervention creates a positive emotional connection for initial learning and recall
of facts. Geoghegan & Mitchelmore (1996) state that music is a powerful means
for developing a young child’s cognitive growth, in support of the information
processing approach to language acquisition (Ormrod, 2006).
Discussion of Findings
This section of chapter five will relate the findings to the literature relating
to the role of music in the English Language Development (ELD) of
prekindergarten English Learners (ELs). In addition, the Natural Approach, TPR,
and Doherty et al.’s Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy conjunctively serve as
a connection to the information processing and neuroscientific theoretical
framework for this study to further explain the findings regarding music used in
preschool programs and its effectiveness in assisting Latino students’ second
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language acquisition. The research related to effective teaching strategies for EL
students supports many of the findings resulting from this study.
Several strategies and instructional practices were used in this case study
classroom to assist in the English Language Development (ELD) of
prekindergarten English Learners (ELs) including hands on experiences, student
interaction, music, and role play. While many strategies were visible through
various instruments, it is apparent that varied strategies were used throughout the
day. In Facella, Rampino, & Shea’s (2005) qualitative study to determine
effective teaching strategies for ELs, the four strategies that were named by most
teachers as being effective included: gestures and visual cues; repetition and
opportunities for practicing skills; use of objects, real props, and hands-on
materials; and multisensory approaches, although teachers claimed to have the
most success when they varied their strategies. All of these strategies were noted
in observation of the case study classroom. Research regarding effective
strategies to teach EL students often list varied strategies. The Indiana’s State
Department of Education’s Foundations for Young Children (2001) also
recommends varied techniques for working with your ELs including modeling
correct speech, incorporating children’s culture and language into activities, and
encouraging children to use their home language.
Music has an important role in the oral language development of
prekindergarten ELs. Findings from this study suggest that music aids in oral
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language development, communication, and memory recall. Research supports
this study’s findings. Gellens (2000) neuroscientific information processing
related research reveals that the rhythm of music helps put words from music into
a child’s long-term memory. By adding hand and body movements to music,
children use multiple parts of the brain at the same time. In addition music relaxes
children, and when children are enjoying something, chemicals are released in the
brain that makes learning easier. Coyne et al. (2000) claim that benefits of music
include increased cognitive processes, elevation of immune function, reduction of
stress levels, and boost of productivity. According to Geoghegan & Mitchelmore
(1996) music is powerful mean for developing a young child’s social/emotional,
physical, and cognitive growth.
Teacher and parent perceptions related to the role of music in the ELD of
EL students are very similar. The perception is that music helps children learn, to
communicate, and to improve their memory and self-confidence. All of these later
contribute to acquiring English skills as demonstrated in the literature on language
learning and young learners. Music has a large role in the development of a
second language for prekindergarten EL students in this case study classroom in
the School Readiness Language Development Program (SRLDP). Through
classroom observations, the researcher found music was used throughout the day
to signal center transitions, read-along with the themed big-books, enhance the
current theme, and dismiss students. Using music in the classroom is reflected in
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research conducted by Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, & Tharp (2003) Standards for
Effective Pedagogy. The second standard in this research is to “develop language
and literacy across the curriculum.” Using music in the classroom allows teachers
to enrich the curriculum and work toward developing language and literacy in
young EL students, which falls in line with this standard.
Additionally, Lake’s (2003) uses three components of Krashen & Terrell’s
(1983) Natural Approach to explain the use of music in language acquisition. The
input hypothesis states that the input that a language student receives should be
slightly beyond his or her current level of understanding. This is often referred to
as the “i-plus-1” formula, meaning that the language that the learners are exposed
to should be close enough to their own level of competency “plus-one,” or in
other words, slightly above their level of competency. Song lyrics used in this
case study classroom demonstrate this hypothesis. Students under observation for
this study often picked up the chorus prior to picking up the words to the song.
The chorus is the “i,” while the words to the song are the “plus-one,” per the
observations for this classroom based case study.
The affective filter hypothesis states that the best learning occurs in an
environment of high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. This theory
states that the learner’s emotional state acts as a filter, which freely passes,
hinders, or blocks input that is necessary to acquisition. Lake (2003) claims that
many ELs come to the classroom with a feeling of homelessness. In this
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classroom under study for this dissertation, music time helped to bring a change to
the participant student’s affective filter. Music created a warm and relaxing
environment for the non-native speaker of English in this study classroom.
Students’ emotive responses (smiles, giggles and other related responses)
illustrated the low affective filter in the classroom under study.
Asher (1982) developed the Total Physical Response (TPR) language
learning method, which is based on the coordination of speech and action. The
major tenant of TPR is that music is used to give a command while students obey
the command. Oftentimes in music, children are listening and obeying commands.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this dissertation study, the following section of chapter
five will provide recommendations for three stakeholder groups including:
Recommendations for Practice, Recommendations for Teachers, Recommendations for
Parents, and Recommendations for Further Research. .
Recommendations for Practice
Recommendation #1: Children Start Sooner and Attend School Longer
Currently in the United States, children are required to attend school from
age six through eighteen. Unfortunately, students often begin attending school as
late as Kindergarten. In the program observed for this study, children only attend
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their pre-kindergarten class for 2 ½ hours four days a week. The teacher appears
to be rushed and unable to make a significant impact on the students. Legislation
needs to be changed to require that children are mandated to attend school at age
three (universal preschool), and thus appropriate full-day public programs must be
funded to meet this requirement. Children should be required to attend school at a
younger age for longer periods of time to provide educators with the opportunity
to begin to address the achievement gap at a younger age and equip students with
the school readiness skills they need to be successful throughout the duration of
their school experience.
There is ample research to support of this recommendation. Legislative
efforts have begun to explore the idea of mandated universal preschool for all
children. In order to begin closing this above-mentioned “achievement gap”,
many have argued that high-quality preschool programs must be developed (AFT,
2003, Neuman, 2003). While there are several preschool programs available in the
United States, ranging from private organizations to public schools, many of the
best programs are far too expensive for the majority of Americans (Barnett &
Hustedt, 2003). Current programs for low-income children have provided “too
little instruction, at too slow a pace, for too short a time to create any
demonstrable effects in the long term” (Neuman, 2003, p. 288). In providing
preschool services to low-socioeconomic status students, obstacles to high-quality
early childhood education include low pay, minimal benefits, and as a result, high
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staff turnover. This equates to low-quality preschool programs for low-SES
students.
If we are to have any chance of reaching proficiency by 2014, Neuman
(2003) argues that comprehensive reforms must take place to address the
differences that exist in school readiness amongst children of diverse
backgrounds. In order to close the achievement gap, attention must be paid to the
differences in school readiness between children from diverse backgrounds. This
can be accomplished through high-quality pre-kindergarten programs that
acknowledge that many children are not adequately prepared upon entrance to
school.
Lopez & Cos (2004) found that California has 1.17 million children, aged
three to five years old, who are not yet enrolled in kindergarten. Of these young
children, 46% are Latino students, 34% are European American students, 9% are
Asian and Pacific Islander, 6% are African American, 4% are multiple-race
children, and 0.5 % are Native American. About half of these young children
attend preschool. Children of higher income families typically attend private
preschools, and children of lower income families typically attend public
preschools. Preschool and childcare enrollment rates vary amongst different
ethnic groups. 58% of European American children, 56% of African American
children, and only 37% of Latino children are enrolled in preschool. Among all
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states, California ranks 37
th
in their preschool/childcare enrollment rates, with
only 47% enrolled in preschool.
Recommendation #2: Develop State Standards at the Preschool Level
(Preschool-12 not Kindergarten-12 and Incorporate Music into the Early
Childhood Curriculum Standards
In addition to funding for full-day preschool and prekindergarten
programs, a national effort is being put forth to begin to raise student achievement
and address achievement gaps. As research continues to support the importance of
early childhood education, policy will continue to be impacted. Our educational
system needs to be viewed as a preschool-twelfth grade program (preschool
meaning two years prior to Kindergarten), and thus appropriate standards must be
addressed to ensure accountability and consistency amongst programs.
Music is an incremental piece to learning for young children. Music is
particularly beneficial in helping EL students acquire English as demonstrated by
this dissertation study. Thus, musical standards must also be developed to ensure
that every preschool/prekindergarten student is exposed in some way to music.
Kelly (1998) found that a large percentage of teachers are unaware of MENC’s
Prekindergarten Music Education Standards. Kelly argues that pre-service music
programs should include the development of a wide variety of music skills, and
should provide instructors with limited music background with the knowledge
they need to teach a variety of music skills.
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Recommendations for Parents
Recommendation #1: Lobby and vote for early childhood funding
Scholars publish research that provides data supporting a variety of early
childhood related educational topics. However, in order for this research to have
true child impact, parents must work in collaboration with researchers and
practitioners to support early childhood research and associated impact efforts.
Recently, Proposition 82 in California was voted down by voters. This ballot
measure would have created Preschool for All and would have provided more
preschool spots and longer days for students. Unfortunately, voters voted this
measure down. Education must be a priority if we are to make change.
There have been numerous research-based studies to demonstrate why
preschool is so important for child development and eventual academic gain. For
example, the study by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) within
the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) in collaboration with several health,
education and human services agencies. These agencies are conducting an
ongoing study with the assistance of university based research studies, The Early
Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K). This
study focuses on children's early school experiences in kindergarten through
twelfth grade. The ECLS-K provides descriptive information on children's status
upon entry to school, their transition into school, and their progression through the
twelfth grade. This longitudinal study enables researchers to study how a wide
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range of factors, including family, school, community, and individual factors, are
associated with student achievement. This mega-study will provide information
regarding the national population of children. Based on this study, Coley (2002)
reported on the characteristics of students entering kindergarten. The report
concentrated on different aspects of inequality including ethnicity and
socioeconomic status (SES). Coley (2002) found that Asian and European
American students are more likely than children in other racial/ethnic groups to be
proficient in reading tasks and mathematical skills. Children in high
socioeconomic status (SES) groups were more likely to be proficient in reading
tasks and mathematical skills than children in low SES groups. When children
were grouped in similar SES groups, all racial/ethnic differences disappeared.
Coley concluded that students come to Kindergarten with a variety of preschool
and home experiences. Accordingly, students come to Kindergarten with a wide
variety of school readiness. Coley suggests addressing these inequities prior to
children starting school by identifying at risk students and providing them with
quality preschool experiences that equip them with school readiness skills.
Recommendation #2: Talk, Talk, and Talk some more to your child
Dickinson, McCabe, & Sprague (2001) describe the importance of oral
language skills. These skills are typically acquired during the preschool years,
which means that children at this age must be taught these very important skills.
Since many children do not enter school until four or five years old, it is often the
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responsibility of the parent to help develop their child’s oral language skills. This
can be done by: (1) modeling correct English, (2) helping children paraphrase
what they say, (3) interacting often with children, (4) communicating often with
your child, (5) participating in talking-related activities, and (6) socializing
children by enrolling them in group activities. Research has demonstrated that
children with strong oral language skills will be better prepared to begin learning
reading and writing.
Recommendations for Teachers
Recommendation #1: Keep abreast of the research regarding effective
strategies for EL students
When teachers receive their credential, they are required to meet certain
criteria to ensure they are properly trained to serve diverse students. However,
after these criterions are met, teachers may not receive training regarding effective
practices for our youngest EL students. This next section of this chapter will
summarize seven pieces of key research that every early childhood teacher should
apply to practice: (1) Lopez & Cos (2004) found that California has 1.17 million
children, aged three to five years old, who are not yet enrolled in kindergarten.
Also according to Lopez & Cos (2004), a report published by the Policy Analysis
for California Education demonstrated that there are fewer preschools in
predominately Latino communities than in other communities. This might explain
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why only 37% of Latino students are enrolled in preschool. (2) Tabors et al.
(2003) first begin by providing descriptive data on the EL population in the
United States. Between 1990 and 2000 the number of ELs in the United States has
doubled. These children now make up approximately 10% of the population.
Although 329 languages are spoken in the homes of the children, the majority of
these students speak Spanish at home (77 %). (3) The NAEYC advise that when
we set expectations too early, school assessments identify English Learners (ELs)
as lacking vocabulary and problem-solving skills. This misreading of the
language development process leads to immigrant children being over-referred to
special education. (4) Facella et al. tie in their fieldwork with important theories
in language acquisition. Their findings suggest using the Krashen’s “Natural
Approach” to help children acquire language. This approach is a framework for
teaching ELs, which focuses on understanding learner characteristics and
appropriate teaching strategies for each stage. (5) Prior to children developing
literacy, children must first possess strong oral language skills (The Reading
Recovery Council of North America, 1996). (6) According to Kelly (1998),
preschool teachers provide children with their first formal music instruction, and
often, teachers are unprepared to do so. (7) According to Gellens (2000), music
should begin, end, and have variety. Adding words to music aids in helping
children acquire language. The rhythm of music helps put words from music into
a child’s permanent memory. By adding hand and body movements to music,
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children use multiple parts of the brain at the same time. In addition music relaxes
children, and when children are enjoying something, chemicals are released in the
brain that makes learning easier.
Recommendations for Further Research
Recommendation #1: Research in the Area of Neuroscientific Processing
Neuroscientific research was presented in this dissertation by Gellens
(2000) and Damasio (1993). However, while research by Gellens and Damasio
provided a theoretical framework for this dissertation, more research needs to be
done in the area of how music affects a child’s brain. So often, brain research is
done separately from research regarding music. Often, research on the brain is
very technical and scientific. In his overview of neuromusical research
specifically looking at the implications of music and brain research, Hodges
(2000) claims that for educators finding research about music and the brain can be
difficult. Most brain research can only be found in scientific journals, which is too
difficult to read and understand, or it is found in the popular press, and is often
distorted and obscured. Thus, in the area of music and the brain, educational
research is limited.
Research needs to be conducted that connects this gap by providing brain
research that applies to the classroom. By linking brain research to the use of
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music in the classroom, there will be a stronger argument for why music should
be used in the classroom in working with young English Learner students.
Unanswered Questions that Could Lead to Further Research Studies
There are still some unanswered questions in this study. While this
dissertation poses answers to the research questions regarding the use of music in
the classroom, the researcher still has some unanswered questions regarding
music that could serve as research questions for additional studies: (1) Why types
of music are most beneficial in the classroom?, (2) Do certain songs affect brain
activity more than others?, (3) Are teacher receiving appropriate training for the
use of music in the classroom?, and (4) Since music is found to be so valuable to
our youngest learners, would music training and standards be beneficial?, and (5)
How consistently is music used in the various preschool programs and
curriculums?. Each of these questions could be used to guide future research
studies.
Conclusion
Since the enactment of The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001,
the field of education has changed significantly. The call for state accountability
systems that require improvement on mandatory state tests that measure student’s
performance in the areas of reading and math is holding administrators and
teachers accountable for their teaching.
120
Education starts from the day a child is born. And in a few short years,
children often begin to fall behind. Children are entering school with inequities
and as they progress through school, the gap only continues to widen. In a
document by the American Federation of Teachers (AFT, 2003), the AFT states
that “fifty percent of children have one or more risk factors that can lead to an
achievement gap even before they start kindergarten and jeopardize their chances
to learn and succeed in school” (2003, p.6). Among these risk factors is limited-
English proficiency.
Coley (2002) suggests addressing these inequities prior to children starting
school by identifying at risk students and providing them with quality preschool
experiences that equip them with school readiness skills. This is one way to
address the problem: create quality preschool programs. While there are several
preschool programs available in the United States, ranging from private
organizations to public schools, many of the best programs are far too expensive
for the majority of Americans (Barnett & Hustedt, 2003).
In the 1990s, funding for early childhood programs was approximately
$700 million. In 2000, this amount grew to $2 billion. The number of children
served has also increased. In the 1990s, 290,000 children took part in early
childhood education programs. In 2000, this number has more than doubled.
However, the AFT (2003) states that “more work lies ahead to get all children
121
ready for school, to achieve universal access, and to raise the quality of all
programs” (p. 18).
Between 1990 and 2000 the number of ELs in the United States has
doubled. These children now make up approximately 10% of the population.
Although 329 languages are spoken in the homes of the children, the majority of
these students speak Spanish at home (77%). According to Tabors, Paez, & Lopez
(2003), providing these children with the instruction the need has become a
challenge in education throughout the United States. According to NAEYC
(1998), children take their first steps towards learning how to read and write very
early in life, thus early childhood teachers must use effective practices in helping
children in the language acquisition process.
So the question remains, how can we address the needs of all of our
children? Neuman (2003) claims that in order to make a difference in the learning
of low-SES children, we must begin to address these child’s needs with a sense of
urgency and conviction. While many reforms in education have been made thus
far, there are still many issues that need to be addressed. The research supports the
need for more publicly funded early childhood education opportunities for longer
periods of time, particularly for at-risk students. While this study provides several
strategies to address our EL students related to music as a tool for language
learning, these strategies are not applicable if students are not in school enough
time to receive them.
122
Along with changes to the early childhood public school system,
appropriate standards must be developed to create accountability and consistency
in these classrooms. Music must be incorporated into these standards as a critical
instructional tool.
Teachers must be well-trained in dealing with ELs. Since many children
are only in half-day programs, then teachers must offer concise teaching targeted
at developing oral language development. One way to help build oral language
development is through music. Gellens (2000) states that the rhythm of music
helps put words from music into a child’s long-term memory. By adding hand and
body movements to music, children use multiple parts of the brain at the same
time. In addition music relaxes children, and when children are enjoying
something, chemicals are released in the brain that makes learning easier.
The findings from this study supported by existing research has
demonstrated that music is an effective strategy in building oral language and
vocabulary, providing children a risk-free environment to practice their English,
building confidence, helping children communicate, and much more. Teachers
should use varied strategies in dealing with young ELs, however music is a fun
way to help our students feel motivated toward learning another language.
123
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Gellens, S. R. (2000). Activities that Build Young Child's Brains. Early Childhood
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Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (2003). The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap.
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Hodges, D. A. (2000). Implications of Music and Brain Research. Music Educators
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Kelly, S. N. (1998). Preschool Classroom Teachers' Perception of Useful Music
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Schweinhart, L. J. (2003). Benefits, Costs, and Explanation of the High
Scope/Perry Preschool Program. Paper presented at the 2003 Biennial
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Nores. M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High Scope/Perry Preschool study
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Stahl, S. A. & Yaden, D. B. (2004). The Development of Literacy in
Preschool and Primary Grades: Work by the Center for the Improvement
of Early Reading Achievement. The Elementary School Journal, 105(2),
141-165.
Tabors, P. O., Paez, M. M., & Lopez, L. M. (2003). Dual Language Abilities of
Bilingual Four-Year Olds: Initial Findings from the Early Childhood
Study of Language and Literacy Development of Spanish-speaking
Children. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, Winter Issue, 1-22.
Tarnowski, S.M. (1999). Musical Play and Young Children. Music Educators
Journal, 86(1), 26-29. United States Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics. Prekindergarten in U.S. Public
Schools: 2000-2001, NCES 2003-019, by Timothy Smith, Anne
Kleiner, Basmat Parsad, and Elizabeth Ferris. Project Officer: Bernard
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S.,Clark, C., O’Brien, R., & D’Elio, M. A. (2003). Head Start FACES 2000: A
whole-child perspective on program performances: Fourth progress report.
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Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Commissioner’s Office of
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127
Appendix A-Recruitment Tool
January 8, 2007
Dear Parent:
My name is Aubrey Bird and I am looking for volunteers to participate in a
research study. I am currently a student at the University of Southern California.
Part of my graduation requirements is to write a dissertation (paper). I am writing
my dissertation on how music helps prekindergarten students learn English.
I am interested in finding five students and one of their parents/guardian to
participate in this study. This study will take place over a period of two weeks. If
you and your child agree to participate, I will be watching (observing) your child
and taking notes during class time. I will be paying attention to your child’s
behavior during regular class time compared to behavior during music time.
Specifically, I will be looking at your child’s engagement and learning. What is
your child doing during class time versus music time? Is your child engaged in
learning? Is your child participating in the music? Is your child attempting to
sing the English words to the music? These types of things will be examined
during your child’s observation. An observation sheet will be used to record this
information. Your child will not be asked to do anything other than go about his
or her normal activities. I will not interact with your child, by asking him/her to
do anything or answer questions.
If you and your child agree, you and your child’s teacher will be interviewed
briefly. You will be asked to participate in two interviews (one time each week)
for a thirty-minute time period. Your child’s teacher will be asked to participate in
daily interviews, after each observation. All of the observations and interviews
will take place in the classroom during regular school hours.
I am looking for students that meet the following criteria:
1) A student who is learning English in a large urban school district,
2) Students in a specific prekindergarten School Readiness Language
Development Program (SRLDP) (you are currently in this program), and
3) Students who speak Spanish and very limited English.
I am looking for parents that meet the following criteria:
1) A parent/guardian to a student who meets the above student criteria
128
2) Parents/guardian speak Spanish and very limited English.
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your child’s grades will not be
affected whether or not you and your child participate.
It is my hope that information from this study will be used to help people
(especially educators) better understand how to teacher students English.
Thank you again for your time and consideration. If you are interested in
participating, please contact me by Wednesday, January 10
th
. If you need any
additional information please do not hesitate to contact me at (213) 704-7865. I
look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Aubrey Bird
(213) 704-7865
129
Appendix B-Parent Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education Ed.D. Program
Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
PARENTAL PERMISSION
******************************************************************
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Music as an Instructional Tool for the English Language Development of
Pre-K English Learners
Teacher Population Parental Consent
You and/or your child are asked to participate in a research study
conducted by Aubrey Bird from the Rossier School of Education Ed.D. Program
at the University of Southern California because your child is an English Learner.
The results from this study will contribute to the completion of a dissertation to
meet the graduation requirements for a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because your child meets
the following criteria:
1) English Learner (EL) students in a large urban school district,
2) participants in a specific prekindergarten School Readiness Language
Development Program (SRLDP),
3) students who speak Spanish and very limited English, and
4) parents/guardian speak Spanish and very limited English.
Five parents and their children will be selected from thirty students in this
particular language development class to participate. You and your child’s
130
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether or not
to participate. Your child will also be asked to participate, s/he does not have to
participate if s/he doesn’t want to; even if you say s/he can.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will look at five prekindergarten students, their parent(s), and their
teacher. The purpose of this study is to understand how music helps young
Prekindergarten students learn English. Information from this study will be used
to help people (especially educators) better understand how to teacher students
English. Also, through this process, it is the hopes of the researcher that you will
come to better understand how your child learns English and what strategies are
most helpful to them.
Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in
this research project.
PROCEDURES
If you and your child volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you or
your child to do the following things:
Your child will be observed during class time for the next two weeks. The
researcher will be watching student behavior during regular class time compared
to behavior during music time. Specifically, the researcher will be looking at
student engagement and learning. What is the student doing during class time
versus music time? Is the child engaged in learning? Is the child participating in
the music? Is the child attempting to sing the English words to the music? These
types of things will be examined during the student observation. Your child’s
teacher will be interviewed briefly daily after each observation.
You will be asked to be interviewed two times (one time per week) for a thirty-
minute time-period. The questions will be asked regarding the use of classroom
strategies that assist your child in learning English. Specifically, questions will be
asked regarding the use of music in the classroom and how it helps/doesn’t help
your child learn English. The interviews will be audio-taped. You can continue to
participate if you do not wish to be taped. The following are examples of two
questions that will be asked during the parent interview:
1. What classroom strategies do you feel are most important in helping your
child learn English?
2. What role does music play in helping your child learn English?
131
The interviews will take place during regular school hours in your child’s
classroom.
The following are examples of two questions that will be asked during the teacher
interview:
1. What strategies and instructional practices do you use to facilitate
language acquisition in your classroom?
2. Which strategies and/or instructional practices do you find to be the most
effective in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire English?
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Your child may feel uncomfortable with being observed by the researcher and
may feel different than peers that are not being observed.
You may feel uncomfortable speaking freely about how you feel about this
particular topic and you may have to give up some time to participate interviews.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You and your child will not benefit by participating in this study, however it is
hoped that this study will help better understand children learn English and what
strategies are most helpful to them.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You and your child will not receive any payment for your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no information obtained in connection with this study and that can
be identified with you. Your name, address or other information that may identify
you will not be collected during this research study.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with
this study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. This may include audiotapes. You will
have the right to review/edit these tapes. If you do not agree to be audio taped,
you may still participate in this study. Please keep in mind that you or your child’s
name will not be used. The researcher will transcribe the audio-tapes.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. If audio-tape
132
recordings of you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be
protected or disguised.
The teacher or school will not have any access to the data collected. Your child’s
classroom activities will not be affected, whether or not s/he participates.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may
also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in
the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances
arise which warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as
a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact
Aubrey Bird at (213) 704-7865 or by email at abird@usc.edu; or you can write to
the researcher at University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education
Ed.D. Program, Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038, Los Angeles, CA
90089-4038
133
Appendix C-Verbal Assent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education Ed.D. Program
Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
ASSENT FORM FOR RESEARCH
******************************************************************
ASSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Music as an Instructional Tool for the English Language Development of
Preschool English Learners
Pre-K Student Population Parental Consent
1. My name is Miss Aubrey Bird.
2. I am asking you to take part in a research study because I am trying to learn
more about music in the classroom.
3. If you agree to be in this study I will be watching you in class. You don’t have
to take part in the study if you don’t want to. I will ask you parents to also
take part and to allow you to take part, but even if they say you can take part,
you don’t have to if you don’t want to.
4. If you don’t like being watched, let me or your teacher know, and I will stop.
5. You don’t have to do anything you don’t want to do. If you don’t want me to
watch you, just tell me.
6. Do you have any questions? If you have any questions later, you can always
ask me.
134
Appendix D-Teacher Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education Ed.D. Program
Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
******************************************************************
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Music as an Instructional Tool for the English Language Development of
Preschool English Learners
Pre-K Student and Parent Population Parental Consent
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Aubrey Bird
from the Rossier School of Education Ed.D. Program at the University of
Southern California because you are the teacher of an English Learner population.
The results from this study will contribute to the completion of a dissertation to
meet the graduation requirements for a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you teach
children that meet the following criteria:
1) English Learner (EL) students in a large urban school district,
2) participants in a specific prekindergarten School Readiness Language
Development Program (SRLDP),
3) students who speak Spanish and very limited English, and
4) parents/guardian speak Spanish and very limited English.
You must be at least 18 years of age to participate. A total of one teacher will be
selected to participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the
information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand,
before deciding whether or not to participate.
135
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This qualitative research study will examine prekindergarten as a means of
beginning to address the current achievement gap. Specifically, this dissertation
will examine the role of music in the English Language Development (ELD) of
Latino prekindergarten English Learner (EL) students.
Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in
this research project.
PROCEDURES
This study will include student observations and teacher interviews. Designated
forms will be used for these observations and interviews. You may view these
forms prior to agreeing whether or not to participate in this study.
Observations of students will take place over a time period of two weeks, four
days per week, during class time. Up to five students in your classroom will be
observed during this time.
You will be interviewed briefly daily after each observation using an interview
guide. Interviews will not take longer than thirty minutes. The interviews will be
audio-taped.
Questions will be asked regarding the use of classroom strategies that you use to
teach your students English. Specifically, questions will be asked regarding the
use of music in the classroom and how it helps/doesn’t help your students learn
English. The following are examples of two questions that will be asked during
the teacher interview:
1. Which strategies and/or instructional practices do you find to be the most
effective in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire English?
2. What role does music play in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire
English?
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
The children participating in the observations may feel uncomfortable with being
observed by the researcher, and may feel different than peers not being observed.
You may feel uncomfortable speaking freely about how you feel about this
particular topic or at being audio-taped. You may also be inconvenienced.
136
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You will not benefit for participating in this study, however it is hoped you come
to gain a better understanding of how music helps your students learn English.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There will not be any form of compensation for participating in this research
study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no information obtained in connection with this study and that can
be identified with you. Your name, address or other information that may identify
you will not be collected during this research study.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with
this study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. The data will be stored for three years after
the study has been completed and then destroyed. The information will be
available to the Researcher’s dissertation committee if needed for review of the
dissertation data. The committee contains three people, one chairperson and two
members. This will include the two observation sheets and the transcribed
information from the teacher and parent interviews. This may also include
audiotapes. You will have the right to review/edit these tapes. If you do not agree
to be audio-taped, you may still participate in this study. Please keep in mind that
the individual’s names will not be used. The Researchers will conduct research as
follows:
1) Interviews will transcribe all audio-tapes and all field notes will typed up.
2) The Researcher will then read through all of the data.
3) After reading through the data, the Researcher will begin detailed analysis
of the data by using a coding process.
4) This information will be written in narrative form in the Researcher’s
dissertation.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. If audio-tape
recordings of your will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be
protected or disguised.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may
also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in
137
the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances
arise which warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as
a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to
contact Aubrey Bird at (213) 704-7865 or by email at abird@usc.edu; or you can
write to the researcher at University of Southern California, Rossier School of
Education Ed.D. Program, Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-4038
138
Appendix E-Observation Record Sheets
Place of Observation: _____________________________________
Date: ___________________________ Time: _________________
Area of Focus: ___________________________________________
Descriptive Data (Observations) Reflective Notes
139
Appendix F-Parent Interview Sheet
Place of Observation: _____________________________________
Date: ___________________________ Time: _________________
Area of Focus: ___________________________________________
Interviewee (check one): Teacher Parent
Opening Statement (Spanish version available for non-English speakers):
Hello and Welcome. Thank you so much for participating in today’s
interview. I will first provide you with background information about this
study prior to starting. I am a Pre-K teacher in LAUSD. I have been teaching
for five years. I am also obtaining my doctoral degree from the University of
Southern California. The final requirement to complete this degree is the
completion of a dissertation. For my dissertation, I am examining the role that
music plays in the English Language Development (ELD) of prekindergarten
English Learners (ELs). I have already obtained permission from the principal
and the district to conduct this study. I am conducting observations of the
students and interviews with the teacher, and you the parent. Before we begin,
I would like to review the procedure for today:
I will ask you a series of questions. Please respond openly and
honestly.
If you have any questions or need clarification, please do not hesitate
to ask.
I would like to record this interview with this tape recorder so that I
can take this data home to interpret it. May I have your permission to
audiotape today’s interview?
Okay, lets begin.
140
Question 1: What classroom strategies are used to help your child learn
English?
Question 2: What classroom strategies do you feel are most important in
helping your child learn English?
Question 3: What role does music play in helping your child learn English?
Reflective Notes:
141
Appendix G-Teacher Interview Sheet
Place of Observation: _____________________________________
Date: ___________________________ Time: _________________
Area of Focus: ___________________________________________
Interviewee (check one): Teacher Parent
Opening Statement: Hello Mrs. ______. Thank you so much for
participating in today’s interview. I will first provide you with background
information about this study prior to starting. I am a Pre-K teacher in LAUSD.
I have been teaching for five years. I am also obtaining my doctoral degree
from the University of Southern California. The final requirement to complete
this degree is the completion of a dissertation. For my dissertation, I am
examining the role that music plays in the English Language Development
(ELD) of prekindergarten English Learners (ELs). I have already obtained
permission from your principal and the district to conduct this study. I am
conducting observations of the students and interviews with the parents, and
you the teacher. Before we begin, I would like to review the procedure for
today:
I will ask you a series of questions. Please respond openly and
honestly.
If you have any questions or need clarification, please do not hesitate
to ask.
I would like to record this interview with this tape recorder so that I
can take this data home to interpret it. May I have your permission to
audiotape today’s interview?
Okay, lets begin.
142
Question 1: What strategies and instructional practices do you use to facilitate
language acquisition in your classroom?
Question 2: Which strategies and/or instructional practices do you find to be
the most effective in helping English Learners (ELs) acquire English?
Question 3: What role does music play in helping English Learners (ELs)
acquire English?
Reflective Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation examined the role of music in the English Language Development (ELD) of Latino prekindergarten (Pre-K) English Learner (EL) students. Specifically, this dissertation examined three key areas: (1) the role of music in the oral language development of Pre-K EL students, (2) perceptions of teachers and parents regarding the role of music in helping Pre-K students learn English, and (3) the role that neuroscientific research plays in helping us understand the role of music in the second language development of prekindergarten English Learners.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bird, Aubrey Anne (author)

Core Title The role of music in the English language development of Latino prekindergarten English learners

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/26/2007

Defense Date 06/29/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag English learners,Music,OAI-PMH Harvest,oral language,prekindergarten,Preschool

Language English

Advisor Ragusa, Gisele (committee chair), Matthews, Virginia (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email aubreybird@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m695

Unique identifier UC1290000

Identifier etd-Bird-20070726 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-523217 (legacy record id),usctheses-m695 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Bird-20070726.pdf

Dmrecord 523217

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Bird, Aubrey Anne

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu