University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Developing an educational framework to guide the design of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs

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DEVELOPING AN EDUCATIONAL FRAMEWORK TO GUIDE THE DESIGN
OF FAITH-BASED ADULT SMALL GROUP VIDEO
CURRICULUM PROGRAMS

by

Gabriel J. Veas

_________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2007

Copyright 2007 Gabriel J. Veas

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DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this paper to anyone who has an educational dream
and the heart to carry it out to the end.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my wife Karina who was a true blessing from
God during this time of my life. I would also like to acknowledge my friends, family,
professors, and students who encouraged me in this educational journey.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... vii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
Historical Perspective of Christian Education ................................................... 2
Church History ......................................................................................... 3
Contemporary Evangelicalism ................................................................. 6
The Digital Age ................................................................................................ 10
Radio, TV, & Film ................................................................................. 12
Media & Church-Site ............................................................................. 13
Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 15
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................ 16
Significance of the Study ................................................................................. 17
Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 19
Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 22
Limitations ....................................................................................................... 25
Organization of the Study ................................................................................ 25

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 27
Knowledge ....................................................................................................... 29
Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy ............................................................ 30
Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism .......................................... 41
Motivation ........................................................................................................ 49
Clark & Estes’ Theory of Motivation .................................................... 50
Instructional Design ......................................................................................... 63
Clark’s Theory of Technology ............................................................... 64
The Small Group Video Curriculum Program Landscape ............................... 78
Zondervan GroupWare........................................................................... 79
Bridges ................................................................................................... 81
LifeTogether ........................................................................................... 82
Summary .......................................................................................................... 92

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 95
Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................... 96
Case Study Research ........................................................................................ 97
Qualitative Research .............................................................................. 98
Case Study Design ................................................................................. 99
Role of Researcher ............................................................................... 101
Sample & Population ..................................................................................... 103
First Christian Church .......................................................................... 104
Participant Selection............................................................................. 107
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................ 111
Site Observation ................................................................................... 111
Interviews ............................................................................................. 113
Document Analysis .............................................................................. 115
Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 117
Verification of Interpretation ......................................................................... 118
Limitations ..................................................................................................... 119

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 120
Introduction .................................................................................................... 120
Demographics ...................................................................................... 121
An Emblematic Meeting ...................................................................... 121
Factors Influencing Leaders and Participants ...................................... 125
Knowledge ..................................................................................................... 126
Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy .......................................................... 126
Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism ........................................ 142
Motivation ...................................................................................................... 153
Clark & Estes’ Theory of Motivation .................................................. 153
Instructional Design ....................................................................................... 161
Clark’s Theory of Technology ............................................................. 162
Summary ........................................................................................................ 170

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................. 172
Introduction .................................................................................................... 173
Summary of Findings ..................................................................................... 175
Leaders & Participants ......................................................................... 176
Curriculum ........................................................................................... 193
Recommendations .......................................................................................... 197
Knowledge ........................................................................................... 197
Motivation ............................................................................................ 200
Instructional Design ............................................................................. 201
Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 203
History & Education ............................................................................ 204
Improvements ....................................................................................... 207
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Future Areas of Research ............................................................................... 209

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 211

APPENDICIES ........................................................................................................ 226
A. Questions for Participant Semi-Structured Interviews .............................. 226
B. Supplemental Questions for Leader Semi-Structured Interviews ............. 228
C. Information Sheet ...................................................................................... 229
D. Document Analysis ................................................................................... 231
E. Supplemental Document Analysis for Leaders ......................................... 232
F. Observation Sheet ...................................................................................... 235

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Clark & Estes’ Educational Framework .................................................. 20

Figure 2.1: Simplified Dual-Store Model of Memory ............................................... 72

Figure 3.1: Leadership Structure at First Christian Church ..................................... 107

Figure 4.1: Clark & Estes’ Educational Framework – Expanded ............................ 125

Figure 4.2: Knowledge – Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy ..................................... 127

Figure 4.3: Knowledge – Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism ................... 142

Figure 4.4: Motivation – Clark& Estes’ Theory of Motivation ............................... 154

Figure 4.5: Instructional Design – Clark’s Theory of Technology .......................... 162

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ABSTRACT

One of the most important responsibilities of church leaders is to provide
their parishioners with educational materials that will help them grow. Due to the
vastness of this charge, in recent years church leaders have relied upon faith-based
adult small group video curriculum programs to provide small group leaders and
participants with structure and direction. This study examined two small groups that
participated in the implementation of a curriculum program. Each small group was
observed during each session that took place, then members were interviewed and
had their documents analyzed. The researcher explored the extent to which literature
in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and instructional design was relevant towards
evaluating the implementation of the curriculum program (Clark & Estes, 2002). An
evaluative case study design was utilized to collect then analyze the experiences of
leaders and participants.
Based upon the experiences of individuals in this study, findings indicate that
the role of the leader, as the facilitator, played a central role in the health of groups.
In addition to this, findings indicate that the performance of leaders also appeared to
influence group dynamics and the motivation of participants. Findings also indicate
that the flexibility and simplicity that this technology offered proved to be incentives
for individuals to take part in this curriculum program. Research suggests that an
increased amount of accountability through the use of assessments are beneficial to
those who are seeking to implement such curriculum programs. This study suggests
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that the quality of learning can increase when church leaders develop mentoring
programs to help guide group leaders.
This study addressed the implementation of a faith-based curriculum program
in a religious organization with findings which are not unique for ecclesiastics. The
curriculum program and population in this study address several educational theories
in general, providing applied and theoretical implications for curriculum programs in
any subject matter, providing a universal appeal to educators. Further research is
needed to explore how different populations implement curriculum programs, in
order to provide insights into what is educationally effective.

1

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Roughly two thousand years ago, the Gospels conveys that a religious teacher
known as Jesus of Nazareth chose twelve individuals to follow him as committed
disciples. This intimate group of disciples appears to be the first small group in the
history of Christianity. A small group is a collection of three to twelve people who
regularly meet together voluntarily, with the shared goal of mutual growth and
community (McBride, 1998). As Jesus traveled in and around Judea with this group,
according to the Gospels, he taught them a new way of life, a way of life which was
centered on him as the authoritative figure on the matters not just of everyday life,
but of eternal life. As the Son of God, according to the Gospels, Jesus provided a
lens into how God expected people to live. According to Green (2003), Jesus fully
intended his teachings to be perpetually passed down by his followers in a similar
fashion.
According to the Gospels, following his three-year public ministry, Jesus was
arrested, and then brutally executed in Jerusalem. At this point it looked as though
the movement would fickle out, but this all changed according to the Gospels when it
was discovered that Jesus was resurrected from the dead. Following this, Jesus
appeared to his disciples before ascending to heaven according to the Gospels. In
Matthew 28:19-20 (New Revised Standard Version), Jesus instructed his disciples to
disciple others in what can be considered some of his last words on earth, passing on
his teachings in the process.
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In the midst of changes which have occurred over the course of millennia, the
way that discipleship or Christian education has been implemented has undergone
modifications with the advent of new media, such as books and DVDs. Scholars
argue that these new forms of media need to be evaluated in order to determine their
strengths and weaknesses in carrying out the discipleship process (Clark, 1994).
According to Clark (1994), the use of new media in itself does not improve the
quality of learning that takes place; instead this new media should be viewed as
another tool to guide the development of instructional curriculum and practice. This
chapter explores the history of Christian education and media, outlining why
studying the issue of contemporary faith-based adult small group video curriculum
programs is significant, and provides a brief overview of the ensuing chapters.

Historical Perspective of Christian Education
The movement which emerged out of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ has
been referred to as Christianity. Christianity is made up of individuals known as
disciples or Christians, who follow the teachings of Jesus Christ (Bruynell &
Padgett, 2003). The practice of discipleship has been carried out over the course of
history in various educational paradigms (Hull, 2006). It can be noted that from
Christianity’s beginnings, the educational model of small groups was employed.
Christian education will be explored in the following two sections: church history
and contemporary Evangelicalism.

3

Church History
During the days of the Early Church, groups met in homes, also known as
house churches (Banks, 1994). Following this time period was that of the Early
Church where there was a tremendous amount of persecution of Christians. This
environment was conducive to having Christians continue to meet in houses as small
groups, where the church went underground out of concern for safety (Simson,
2001). As the initial apostles desired to encourage and educate churches, they sent
letters or epistles to homes or newly established churches in various regions. One
example of this was when the Apostle Paul wrote a letter known as Romans from
prison, which was simply a letter written to the churches in the city of Rome. This
correspondence could be considered one of the first forms of distance learning that
took place in Christian education. Paul’s goal was to instruct this community in
Rome about the life and teachings of Jesus in Romans 1:1-7 (New Revised Standard
Version).
Christianity did not truly become institutionalized until the conversion of the
roman emperor Constantine during a battle (Gonzalez, 2001). Constantine’s
comprehensive Edict of Milan in 313 AD can be considered a major turning point in
the history of Christianity (Gonzalez, 2001). The clergy class and what are now
known as church buildings began to be commonplace since Christians were no
longer persecuted in the Roman Empire, but became supported by the government
(Simson, 2001).
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Throughout the Dark Ages, Christianity became entrenched as an institution,
made up of those who were literate and those who were not. Many Christians could
not read the Latin text of the Bible and depended upon the clergy for interpretations
(Daniell, 1994). To put this in context, Pulliam and Van Patten (2003) stated that at
this point in history, the Roman Catholic Church was the “most important
educational agency in the world” (p. 22) by utilizing their catechism or curriculum to
instruct individuals. Habermas (2001) found that originally, catechism was derived
from the Greek word kateche meaning to hear or to instruct. Later, Habermas (2001)
stated that the term evolved to describe “three entities: the actual content of religious
instruction; the pedagogical process; and, eventually, the literature itself, in the form
of small tracts and books” (p. 111). As the illiterate sought to obtain spiritual
direction, they relied upon the standardized teachings of the church, as conveyed in
the catechism.
Johannes Gutenberg is credited with playing a large part in changing the
course of history when he developed the printing press in Germany (Latourette,
2003). The Gutenberg Bible was published in 1455, considered to be the world’s first
printed book (Johnson, 2000). At the same time, according to Burgess (2001),
humanism fueled by the Renaissance was the prevalent philosophy. Humanism
sought to energize self-assertion in people over and against the traditions of the past
(Johnson, 2000). The invention of the printing press and the rise of humanism appear
to be the direct causes of the Protestant Reformation. It appears that these two factors
enabled scholars such as Martin Luther to translate the Bible into languages other
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than the Latin, such as his own native language, German (Bratton, 1969). Christian
education was dramatically changed with the production of these new translations of
the Bible. Not only were published copies of the Bible rapidly spread throughout
Europe, new catechisms were being created by scholars such as Luther and John
Calvin (Habermas, 2001). With the availability of literature into many other
languages so that people were able to read and reference books on their own for the
first time.
One of the main ideas that resulted out of the Protestant Reformation was the
doctrine of the Priesthood of all Believers. This doctrine stipulates that people can
learn about God through a study of the Bible and are no longer required to go
through a hierarchical priesthood system for interpretation (Gonzales, 2001).
According to Gonzales (2001), this reformation of the Church caused a split between
Roman Catholics and Protestants and caused many new denominations to be formed,
such as the Presbyterians, Baptists, Anglicans, and Lutherans. According to Burgess
(2001), it is in this atmosphere that new curriculums were created due to the need for
individuals to define their own version of Christianity, as well as have the ability to
present it in a defensible form. This environment was reminiscent of the way the
Early Church defined and defended their faith against a pagan world, except this
time it was over and against other groups of Christians (Burgess, 2001). All of this
was due in large part to people having the ability to read the Bible in their common
language. In the next section, the progeny of Protestantism, contemporary
Evangelicalism, will be explored in light of the history of Christian education.
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Contemporary Evangelicalism
In the United States, a large portion of Christians are considered Evangelical
(Barna, 2006). This group, comprised of a myriad of denominations, believes that the
Bible should be viewed as an authoritative text from which truth can be obtained
through study (Lawson, 2003). Following World War II, the movement now known
as Evangelicalism moved upon the scene emerging out of Fundamentalism (Mouw,
2000). Attempting to leave behind the negative connotations and beliefs associated
with Fundamentalism, Evangelicals moved towards the center becoming more
moderate and called for a renewed commitment to scholarship and study (Marsden,
1995). In addition to this, there was also a call for what can be considered seeker-
friendly or non-imposing Sunday and mid-week services, which allowed for visitors
to feel more welcomed.
While traditionally, many individuals view the life of the Christian to be
centered on attending formal Sunday services, Evangelicals call for much more than
this (Barna, 2005a). Instead of attempting to fulfill ritualistic obligations,
Evangelicals believe that Christianity is centered on a vibrant relationship with Jesus.
In order to be a part of such a relationship, one must first undergo a conversion
process that provides the foundation for dedicating one’s life to becoming a follower
of Jesus (Pazmino, 1992). It is in this context that there is an expectation for spiritual
growth and a dedication to understanding and following the teachings of Jesus, by
primarily studying the Bible. This is where small groups come into the picture, due
to the belief that one’s relationship with God should not be relegated to one hour a
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week in a building, but should encompass one’s daily life, as it is played out in the
home (Warren, 2002).
In order to gain insight into the phenomena of religious small groups, the
discipline of sociology will be explored. Dillon (2003) maintains that the sociology
of religion “treats religion as an empirically observable social fact” (p. 7). In this
light, Wuthnow’s (1988, 1994, 1998, & 2003) research indicates that many churches
have had small group programs which have been long established. These small
groups have deep roots in Methodist class meetings and Baptist prayer meetings
(Wuthnow, 1994). Saddleback Church, for example has had a small group ministry
established for over twenty years. Church researcher George Barna (2006) recently
found that twenty-three percent of people surveyed were active in a small group over
the course of the past seven days. While small groups have been used to provide
community to church members, Thomas and Jardine (1994) contend that they have
also been used for years as entry way into the life of the congregation by newcomers.
Moving beyond a cognitive study of the Bible or therapeutic sharing,
Wuthnow (1994) argues that small groups have the possibility of creating and
transforming the lives of individuals through group interactions. One reason for this
may be that the small group model allows for personal accountability, as has been
demonstrated in groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous (Hartigan, 2000). In
Murrow’s (2005) work, he addresses the current state of many churches which he
views as dormant and predominately female. While several factors play into this
appearance, Murrow (2005) argues that one way to curb this trend is to understand
8

that “a number of America’s most dynamic churches are discipleship based” (p. 35).
According to Murrow (2005), churches take on the characteristics of being dynamic
when everyone is expected to participate in either a small group or mentoring
program. These types of churches, according to Murrow (2005), are appealing to
males who prefer the responsibilities that go along with participating in small groups
or mentoring programs. This suggests that when Christianity is not viewed simply as
an academic endeavor, but as a social one with opportunities to build community
with tangible obligations, males take a more active role in the life of a church.
This may indicate that churches that utilize the small group model change not
only the way that an individual perceives the church, but also how they experience
the church. Davies (2001) lists a variety of small group models that are currently in
place in churches: house church, evangelistic group, nature, pastoral care, and the
ministry group. It appears that one of the incentives to join a small group is that they
are largely free of charge, since they are financed by the church-site. Typically, all
who participate in these small groups are volunteers that are not a part of the church
staff, yet are willing to invest their time and energy into this type of endeavor. In
addition to this, individuals usually do not receive any sort of certificate or tangible
documentation to show that they were participants following the completion of the
small group.
These small groups are entrenched in the lives of many churches according to
Wuthnow (1994). Created with a variety of purposes, small groups are often
considered the life-blood of a church, providing it with the vitality to thrive
9

(Wuthnow, 1988). Rick Warren is a pastor in California and appears to have made an
impact on the landscape of contemporary Evangelicalism with his work that seeks to
inform individuals on their purpose in life through five areas: worship, discipleship,
fellowship, ministry, and evangelism (Warren, 2002). Leading a seeker-friendly
church, Warren’s work is currently used in churches across the nation and is often
accompanied by discussion guides for participants in small groups. In what are called
40 Days of Purpose Campaigns, entire congregations embark on a journey through
his curriculum program by meeting in groups weekly, for a period of six weeks.
Yet, to evaluate the implementation of a small group curriculum program,
there must be an understanding of the nature of Christian education in relationship to
the small group process and how people learn. Banks (1999) contends that Christian
education originated in the context of the small group. Banks (2004) also states that
early church leaders worked towards ensuring that groups functioned correctly by
carefully selecting leaders and by providing them with ongoing support to ensure
future success. Canine (2002) argues that successful Christian education requires
leaders to meet certain obligations. Hull (2006) conveys that in addition to this, there
must be concrete expectations provided for leaders and participants, for any group to
function effectively. Anthony and Benson (2003) state that historically, the Bible
School movement and the use of para-church ministries have been used by churches
to provide practical parameters that guide the implementation of a Christian
education curriculum program. These organizations have also appeared to help
10

establish a culture of learning which has assisted churches in the work of developing
Christian educational programs.
By exploring Christian education from a historical perspective, research
indicates that discipleship is at the core of Christian education. Discipleship has been
carried out through the means of small groups that have met in homes for centuries.
With the advent of humanism and the invention of the printing press, the foundation
was set for the Protestant Reformation. This movement produced the Bible in the
languages of the common man, as well as curriculum that served to aid the study of
the Biblical text. Contemporary Evangelicalism traces its roots to the Protestant
Reformation. Evangelicals have used works, such as that of Warren (2002), as a
means of returning Christianity back to its origins: small group meetings centered on
a study of the Bible studies. In the next section, technological advances will be
explored, in order to shed light on the world as it exists today. This will then inform
the current environment in which faith-based adult small group video curriculum
programs are being produced and made use of.

The Digital Age
Multimedia has become an unavoidable part of everyday life due to a digital
revolution that has taken place over the past sixty years. Mediums of
communication, such as the television and radio, have revolutionized interaction
across the world. With the development of the microchip, new forms of technology
emerged on the scene including computers, cell phones with streaming video
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capabilities, mp3 players, satellite televisions, and the internet (Campbell et al.,
2004). Research indicates that many people spend considerable amounts of money
and time interacting with media on a daily basis (Stevenson, 2001). These new forms
of media have established themselves in the life and home of the consumer, bringing
society into what can be considered the Digital Age (Chen, 2002). More importantly,
media’s relationship to Christianity will be delved into, taking into consideration
previous, as well as current implementations and practices.
At the forefront of each revolution in multimedia, there have been Christians
seeking to implement these new forms of media into practice (Hendershot, 2004).
Friedman (2001) elaborates on this by stating that these Christians have been
dedicated to spreading the message of Jesus to the world through new media. Over
the past several decades, creating then implementing new media has been viewed as
an obligation to God by these individuals (Pollock, 2003). Through the lens of
carrying out Jesus’ command to make disciples, Christians have sought to
disseminate his message with any tool available (Hendershot, 2004). Multimedia has
efficiently been able to transcend traditional learning environments, such as churches
or schools (Cunningham, 2005). Media has enabled teachers to access individuals in
their homes through recently created mediums, such as the internet (Clyde &
Delohery, 2005). As each new multimedia product has arrived, Evangelicals have
traditionally viewed it as an opportunity and means of communicating the gospel
(Hendershot, 2004). In the following two sections, Christian media will be examined
12

from two perspectives: broadcasting or wide distribution and media in relationship to
the church-site.

Radio, TV, & Film
Preacher Charles Fuller was able to use radio broadcasting in the 1940’s to
spread the gospel message, while in the 1960’s Billy Graham employed television
and film to reach his audience (Melton et al., 1997). Today, there are religious
television empires like the Trinity Broadcasting Network which owns stations across
the globe, broadcasting twenty-four hour-a-day programming that has been created
for the exclusive use of being played on such networks (Melton et al., 1997). In
addition to this, many churches pay large amounts of money to get their
programming on non-religious television stations as well (Melton et al., 1997).
According to a nationwide survey, while “fifty-six percent of adults attend church
services in a typical month, a much larger percentage is exposed to religious
information and experiences through various forms of media” (Barna, 2005b, pg. 1).
In fact, the film industry recently posted one of its largest grossing films,
based upon the Gospels, The Passion of the Christ. Grossing one hundred and
twenty-five million dollars during its opening weekend, the producer of the film Mel
Gibson was able to place his production company Icon Films on the map in
Hollywood (Bartunket, 2005). The next section will address media and its
relationship to congregations in their churches.

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Media & Church-Site
Many church-sites have embraced technology in their weekly services as
well. According to Barna (2005c), more than “six out of every ten Protestant
churches presently use a large-screen projection system in their communications”
(pg. 1). The same video cameras and editing equipment used at church-sites serve to
document the service over the projection system, are often used later to transfer
recorded services to CDs, DVDs, or made available over the internet. Materials can
then be translated into different languages or transcribed into books for the purpose
of study. DVDs have also been used by parishioners who want to view church
services later. It appears that as churches continue to embrace technology into their
weekly services, more and more Christians will become accustomed to seeing
PowerPoint presentations or viewing media clips from a movie at Sunday services
(Kimball, 2003).
Barna (2005c, pg. 1) has also found that “nearly six out of every ten
Protestant churches now have a website” and some feature recent messages that have
been preached in the mp3 format to be downloaded free of charge. In addition to this,
it is not uncommon to come across the blog of a pastor on the internet, where he
shares his views on the events of the day from the perspective of a Christian
minister. According to Jenkins’ (2002), Christianity will continue to expand
predominantly throughout Latin America and Africa. As this Christian population
shift occurs, it appears that there will be opportunities for the North American
14

Church to assist their brothers and sisters to the south with media products to assist
future generations learn from the Bible.
Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary recently created a website which
features free educational materials via the internet to provide somewhat of an
alternative to going to a Bible college. Individuals around the world are now able to
take seminary-level classes then receive a certificate upon completion (Gordon-
Conwell, 2006). As the Gordon-Conwell (2006) website states, “Dimensions of Faith
is a free online theological education program. The Ockenga Institute has taken
seminary courses then adapted them to a ‘go at your own pace’ distance learning
program.” It appears that initiatives such as this are seeking to bring together groups
of people that would not normally come into contact, due to distance and financial
barriers. Friedman (2005) argues that technological advances have created a global
culture where everyone is now connected to each other, creating in affect an
inseparable global community. Thus, it appears that the question is not whether or
not groups will come into contact with each other, but rather how will these groups
relate and interact with each other.
This is the context in which faith-based adult small group video curriculum
programs are placed within Christianity today. Currently, Christians who are
pursuing a greater amount of Biblical knowledge are appearing to become more and
more prominent in the Digital Age. An example of this is the advent of the ministry
resources newsletter distributed seasonally by Zondervan, known as Zondervan
ChurchSource (2006). In this newsletter a wide array of small group video
15

curriculum programs are featured for churches to purchase at special rates. With the
widespread availability of technologies, such as televisions and DVD players,
curriculum programs are able to be implemented in the homes of potential
consumers. Whether curriculum programs take place one time or over a period of six
weeks, leaders and participants who have been a part of such courses have
experienced both the benefits and shortcomings of such endeavors. Ideally, faith-
based adult small group video curriculum programs provide each participant with
educational resources that are able to increase their knowledge of the Bible.
Supplementing the Biblical text, such curriculum programs provide participants with
discussion leaders, activities, and questions which will probe them before and
following viewing a video.
Research indicates that the Digital Age has brought about new media for
educators and churches to use (Chen, 2002). Historically, Evangelicals have viewed
new technologies as a means of carrying out discipleship. Faith-based adult small
group video curriculum programs are growing in popularity as more congregations
embrace these new curriculum programs. In the next section, the problem of faith-
based adult small group video curriculum programs will be addressed.

Problem Statement
As a whole, faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs that are
distributed in the United States have gone largely untouched, in terms of assessing
the educational effectiveness of these programs. In today’s climate of accountability,
16

educational products are being evaluated more and more as consumers attempt to
gauge the quality of learning that is taking place (Clark & Estes, 2002). Since the
faith-based adult small group curriculum programs that are being used weekly,
across the globe, have not been adequately critiqued or reviewed there is a great need
to begin doing so. Churches that implement these curriculum programs lack the
research to determine whether or not a curriculum program is effective without
simply trying it out. By conducting this study, research that sheds light on this issue
and builds a knowledge base so that churches could better evaluate and implement
curriculum programs will be collected. In the next section, the purpose of this study
will be examined, along with a statement of the research question that will guide the
research.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of leaders and
participants in the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program. Since there have been no evaluations to determine whether or
not these curriculum programs are effective. This lack of evidence has caused church
leaders to reconsider the curriculum programs that they have implemented, in search
of finding successful curriculum programs. In some cases, church leaders have
embarked on contributing to the field with their own products, in hopes of creating
more enriching curriculum. From a methodological perspective, this study also
17

attempts to verify and expand a qualitative approach to data collection. Below, the
research question will be stated.
My research question is: How do the group leaders’ roles and responsibilities,
and the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the implementation of a faith-
based adult small group video curriculum program? To investigate this research
question, qualitative methods will be used in analysis of the implementation of a
faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. This will be accomplished
by utilizing an evaluative case study design. Interviews, observations, and document
analysis will be employed to obtain a comprehensive view of the leaders’ and
participants’ experiences. In the next section, the study’s significance will be further
expanded upon.

Significance of the Study
Through the exploration of scholarly literature a number of educational
constructs were brought together to study the implementation of a faith-based adult
small group video curriculum program. Research indicates that this type of
curriculum program has not been extensively studied before, in that there is a lack of
literature on this subject matter. In addition to this, much of the current research does
not focus on the new types of video curriculum programs that are being produced
and implemented. The primary purpose of this study is to be that of an evaluative
case study, analyzing the roles and responsibilities of leaders and participants as they
implement a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. From the
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insights that are gained, recommendations will be provided for those interested in
implementing a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program.
The curriculum program in this study is comprised of a DVD, study guides,
and the Bible. A television, DVD player, and writing utensils are also required to
properly implement the program. The company that created this curriculum program
is LifeTogether, which has been in this industry for five years (Eastman et al., 2005).
The curriculum program that will be examined as it is implemented is LifeTogether’s
Experiencing Christ Together (2005) and is currently being used in homes across the
United States to educate small groups. LifeTogether is a Christian organization,
which markets its curriculum programs to Evangelical churches. Due to the nature of
faith-based products, which largely rely on sales to determine whether or not a
curriculum program is effective, there has been no tangible accountability for the
effectiveness of curriculum programs, outside of market forces. An illustration of
this is that a curriculum program is deemed successful when sales reach a certain
volume of sales due to churches choosing to become repeat buyers.
In this study, the goal of this investigation is to determine: How do the group
leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities
impact the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program?
This is an important question, due in part to the findings that this type of
curriculum program doesn’t appear to have been evaluated before. By evaluating
how such curriculum programs are implemented, findings may be obtained that will
19

shape this field by determining the products’ strengths and weaknesses. There will
also be opportunity for a research base to be established for future work. This study
also allows for scholars to become familiar with the products themselves, thus
making a contribution to a growing list of best practices for curriculum program
producers and consumers as well. In order to do all of this, a research question was
created to garner insights into how knowledge, motivation, and instructional design
effect leaders and participants as they progress through the curriculum program. In
the following section, the theoretical framework will be explained and deconstructed
into its three components.

Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2002) propose that in order to explore the roles and
responsibilities of group leaders and participants in the implementation of a
curriculum program, one must look to three main areas: knowledge, motivation, and
the instructional design. Below there an illustration of the Clark and Estes (2002)
educational framework is provided in Figure 1.1. This conceptual framework will be
further explored in this section, touching upon knowledge, motivation, and
instructional design.

20

Figure 1.1: Clark & Estes’ Educational Framework

Knowledge is the first aspect of the Clark and Estes (2002) framework. Here
it may be helpful to understand of how individuals obtain knowledge or learn. In
addition to this, one must determine how individuals interact together as a group, as
well as how they interact with the curriculum program itself. This will be
accomplished with the help of Knowles’ (1968, 1980, 1993) theory of adult learning
known as andragogy, which provides an understanding of the educational needs of
adults. Research indicates that adults bring with them experiences and expectations
that need to be taken into account (Knowles, 1993). This plays out in how the
relationship between the leader as facilitator and the participant as learner develops.
With this understanding, Bandura’s (1976, 1986) concept of social constructivism
provides an understanding and an appreciation for the nature of small group
dynamics and learning. According to Bronfenbrenner (1986), environmental factors
influence the learning that takes place in educational endeavors. This appears to
illustrate the need to examine the small group culture and activities that take place
among members to determine the health of the small group.
Motivation is the next aspect of the Clark and Estes (2002) educational
framework. To study the motivation of individuals, it may be beneficial for one to
Factors Influencing Leaders & Participants
Knowledge Motivation Instructional Design
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have an appreciation of how individuals progress through the duration of the
curriculum program. Clark and Estes’ (2002) theory of motivation will be used to
explore individual experiences in the curriculum program. This study seeks to
determine how the motivation of individuals as they take part in the curriculum
program. The Clark and Estes (2002) construct provides three aspects of motivation
from which to gauge the motivation of small group members: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Active choice has to do with beginning a task, while
persistence deals with whether or not an individual completes the task, and mental
effort addresses the amount of energy that one puts into the task (Clark & Estes,
2002).
Instructional design is the final aspect of the Clark and Estes (2002)
educational framework. By looking at the instructional design of the curriculum
program, insights can be gained by determining the strengths and weaknesses of the
organization and the structure of the DVD and study guide. With Clark’s (2000)
theory of technology, a curriculum program can be viewed as being comprised of
two components: delivery technology and instructional technology. Within this
frame, distance learning will be examined in order to determine how the curriculum
program utilizes the DVD and study guide to guide the small groups. Following this,
there will be an exploration of the dual-model view of human memory, as means of
determining the strengths and weaknesses of the presentation of the subject matter in
the curriculum program.
22

In the literature review relevant research will be reviewed in order to refine
the conceptual framework. With the research base accumulated in the literature
review, the present study will endeavor to build upon this foundation and investigate
the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program.
The next section will provide definitions to key terms that have been used throughout
this study.

Definition of Terms
The following are definitions of terms that are used extensively throughout
this study.
adult learners. This group is comprised of individuals who are above the age
of eighteen years old.
Christian education. Biblical instruction that churches use to educate
disciples of Jesus.
Christianity. This is an encompassing term that refers to the institution or
structure that Christians have established. It conveys more of a sense of bureaucracy
and buildings, than the conglomeration of people who are Christians.
Church. This term refers to the actual followers or disciples of Jesus, as
defined by the original Greek term of the New Testament: ekklesia.
church. This term refers to the conventional view of church, which is a
building where Christians go weekly for services and where they are able to hear
sermons. Interchangeable phrases also includes church-site or sanctuary.
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congregation. The people who make up the composition of a church-site.
curriculum program. For the purpose of this study curriculum program refers
to the organization and structure of an educational product. It includes the activities,
as well as instructional materials that are used, typically comprised of a DVD, a
study guide, and any other necessary texts, such as the Bible.
disciple. This refers to one who is adopting the lifestyle of Jesus, born out of
a desire to be like him. Four demands that go along with this are an unqualified
commitment to Jesus, faithfulness to the teachings of Jesus, a love for fellow
disciples of Jesus, and obedience to Jesus which demonstrates spiritual growth
(Bennett, 2004).
discipleship. This term is closely tied to Christian education and refers to the
process of making disciples of Jesus. This process can be carried through a variety of
paradigms, one of which is participation in a small group.
Evangelical. This term refers to a branch of Christianity, comprised of a
loose group of Protestants who embrace a set of doctrinal beliefs.
gospel. This refers to what the New Testament considers the good news: the
life, death, and resurrection of Jesus which provides hope and salvation to the world.
Gospels. This refers to the following books from the Bible, centered on the
life of Jesus: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
leader. This refers to a person whose role and responsibility it is to direct the
small group.
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media. This refers to all forms of technology that are used to convey
messages.
medium-sized church. This refers to a church that has between seventy-five to
two hundred and fifty people who attend a weekly service.
participant. This refers to a person who is not the leaders and whose role and
responsibility it is take part in the activities and assignments of a small group.
small group. This refers to a group that is comprised of between three to
twelve individuals who voluntarily meet weekly in hopes of building community and
growing spiritually (McBride, 1998).
Small Group Champion. The leader of a small group program at a church-
site, who is responsible for activities such as choosing the curriculum program that
will be used and the training of small group leaders. Another term for this is the
Small Group Pastor.
small group members. This consists of the collection of individuals who
comprise a small group. This includes both small group leaders and participants.
stakeholders. This includes anyone who has a vested interest in the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group program video curriculum
program. This includes the consumer and creator.
technology. This refers to mediums that convey knowledge, including books,
computers, and televisions.
In the next section, limitations of this study will be addressed.

25

Limitations
The limitations in this study are that the findings are not generalizable. This
is a common trait of work that utilizes qualitative research. Another limitation is that
this study will be conducted over the course of six weeks and will not be a
longitudinal study. Despite this, the current study still appears to be useful because of
the attention that will be brought to this subject, as well as the insights that were
obtained from delving into relevant literature and the data gathered during the
evaluative case study portion of this work. Future studies that follow groups over the
course of a number of months or years may prove to be beneficial in determining
how effective the implementation of a curriculum program are in establishing the
characteristics of a lifelong learner and the effectiveness of promoting leadership.
Overall, the main research limitation is that the field of faith-based adult small group
curriculum programs is relatively new. Therefore, research that is directly related to
faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs is almost non-existent.
Research was therefore drawn from comparable fields and populations, such as
distance learning and college students. In the next section, the organization of the
study will be provided.

Organization of the Study
This paper will examine the implementation of a faith-based adult small
group video curriculum program and the current context of such products today.
Chapter one introduces this topic with an overview of Christian education and media.
26

Chapter two reviews the literature of key constructs that are relevant to small group
leaders and participants: knowledge, motivation, and instructional design. Chapter
three addresses the methodology of this qualitative, evaluative case study. Chapter
four provides the findings of the study. Chapter five presents the analysis,
recommendations, conclusions, and future research.

27

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter the field of education will be explored, followed by a review
of relevant literature in the areas that comprise the Clark and Estes (2002) conceptual
framework: knowledge, motivation, and instructional design. In addition to this, the
current landscape of small group video curriculum programs will be examined,
followed by a summary of the chapter.
In order to examine the implementation of a faith-based adult video small
group curriculum program, the field of educational psychology will be used to
provide the theoretical framework of this study. Before this is done, the research
question that will be used in this study will be presented: How do the group leaders’
roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program?
According to Pulliam and Van Patten (2003), education has historically been
concerned with “building a full understanding of the current educational situation
through the study of the evolution of educational practices, ideas, and institutions in
social context” (p. 19). As this understanding is sought after, it may be beneficial to
acknowledge that humans are complex beings and that learning is affected by a
variety of influences, such as knowledge, motivation, and instructional design (Clark
& Estes, 2002). According to Salvin (1997), as theorists and scholars have pondered
these influences, disciplines other than education have been explored in hope of
finding answers, such as psychology. The discipline of educational psychology
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provides an insightful backdrop and theories to look at these factors, by shedding
light on both the roles and responsibilities of the small group leader and participant,
striving to improve upon educational practices (Pintrich, 2000).
In the discipline of educational psychology, there is a focus upon the
blueprint of the instructional design itself. It appears that curriculum and its design
are at the forefront of any educational endeavor. According to Ornstein and Hunkis
(2004), curriculum design refers to “the way we conceptualize the curriculum and
arrange its major components (subject matter or content, instructional methods and
materials, learner experiences or activities) in order to provide direction and
guidance as we develop the curriculum” (p.l8). This also includes such things as the
role of the educator or leader, as well as the period of time over which the material
will be covered. This is significant in this study because it points to the qualitative
nature of curriculum design, which encompasses many different factors at once. A
curriculum program appears to lend itself to being studied qualitatively, since this
methodology provides a wide grid to collect nuanced data from several different
areas at one time.
With this understanding of instructional design, the foundation is established
to move forward to explore how the Clark and Estes’ (2002) educational framework
can be used to examine the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program. This chapter reviews literature on three areas of learning that
influence the experiences of leaders and participants: knowledge, motivation, and
instructional design. The first section of this chapter looks at Knowles’ (1968) theory
29

of andragogy and Bandura’s (1976, 1986) theory of social cognitivism as a
foundation of understanding the adult learner and small group dynamics. The second
section focuses on Clark and Estes’ (2002) three aspects of motivation which
describe the experience of small group members who complete educational tasks.
Finally, the third section examines Clark’s (2000) view of technology which breaks
down a curriculum program into two components: delivery and instructional
technology.

Knowledge
Early on, researchers such as Thorndike (1928) pondered the question of
adult learning from a behaviorist perspective. The concern was centered upon a
theory of stimulus-response (SR) where there was an emphasis on strengthening and
weakening the SR connections. People were viewed rather mechanically, where a
desired response or output could be garnered if the individual was conditioned to
appropriately react to the stimulus or input. Unfortunately, researchers ignored the
importance of cognitive processes and believed that simply repeating and rewarding
behaviors automatically strengthened them (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). This section
will look at the research of Knowles (1968) and Bandura (1976, 1986), which has
taken into account the complexities of the adult learner in terms of the cognitive and
social processes, then determine what types of activities are effective in small
groups.

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Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy
Malcolm Knowles (1968) conceptualized a theory of adult learning known as
andragogy in the United States. Traditionally, pedagogy has been used as a blanket
term to denote instruction, which is teacher-directed and largely lecture-based.
Linguistically, Knowles (1993) proposes that pedagogy comes from the “Greek word
paid meaning child, while agogue meaning guide or leader – thus being defined as
the art and science of teaching children” (p. 96). Contrasting this, Knowles (1993)
goes on to describe andragogy as adult education, originally derived “from the Greek
word aner meaning adult – thus being defined as the art and science of helping adults
learn” (p. 96). According to Knowles (1993), there are distinct educational
differences between adult learners and youth which need to be taken into account
when a curriculum program is created. Consequently, biological developments of the
mind and body are a starting point to understanding that there is a distinction
between the adult and the child. According to Knowles (1993), central to andragogy
is the belief that learning environments and curriculum programs should reflect the
differences that adults bring with them, such as previous experiences, prior
knowledge, and values that will affect their capacity to acquire new knowledge.
While adult education can be viewed through an array of educational prisms,
distance learning among college students appears to provide a relevant lens to
examining the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program. Both of these educational programs, distance learning and curriculum
programs, are centered on the individual and they are both intended to be used
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outside of the traditional classroom setting. Knowles (1980) has designated four
main principles associated with andragogy: self-concept, role of experience, need-
based readiness, and immediate application. These areas will be further elaborated on
in the following sections, with particular attention paid to the prospect of enhancing
learning.
Self-Concept
The idea of self-concept has to do with an increasingly self-directed learning
quality for individuals (Knowles, 1993). From this perspective, the leader’s role is
closely tied to that of a facilitator, instead of a lecturer or evaluator. The focus of
learning is tied to the educational processes that take place during a course, not just
that of the content being studied. The leader’s role as a facilitator cannot be
overlooked, since they are the key player in this dimension of andragogy. In the
context of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program, the leader is
the primary facilitator who creates the educational environment that will set the tone
for the freedom and authority that participants will have in their small group learning
experience (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). In this section, the role of the facilitator
will be explored touching upon the leader’s role in providing the group with
direction, having character, leading discussions, providing the group with vision, and
preparing for meetings.
Schwarz (2002) states that as the leader, “the facilitator’s main task is to help
the group increase effectiveness by improving the process and structure” (p. 5).
Further elaborating on this statement, Schwarz (2002) goes on to describe how on
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the one hand, process can be described as how the group works together. On the
other hand, Schwarz (2002) describes the structure as the stable recurring group
process that takes place. As described above, central to these two responsibilities
appears to be the issue of the leader’s character. The leader that does not demonstrate
good character may not have the credibility to command and maintain the respect of
the group. According to Dodd (2003), integrity plays a key role in the life of the
facilitator, since the “do-as-I-say-not-as-I-do principle does not work” in a world
where actions speak louder than words (p. 95). This seems pertinent in the context of
a small group where participants become familiar with the practices and tendencies
of their leader.
In terms structuring the design of each session, an effective leader must be
able to facilitate a setting which promotes discussions and allows participants to
adequately interact with each other (Beebe & Masterson, 2003). A key to this seems
to be the ability of the leader to become successful in the skill of listening.
According to Nichols (1995), listening serves two distinct purposes: “taking in
information and bearing witness to another’s expression” (p. 15). An example of this
is when a leader makes certain that everyone in the group’s voice is heard and
understood. This type of activity seems to promote meaningful discussions and
allows for participants to share experiences that they have had. This may also enable
participants to see that they are not alone in facing issues that are brought up in a
curriculum program. McAlpine (2000) contends that it is important for learners to be
provided with the space to construct their own understandings in activities.
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According to Nichols (1995), if the leader of a small group models the role of
an effective listener, they will demonstrate the characteristics of care and concern for
the participant who is sharing their thoughts. Due to this, other participants in the
small group will be able to emulate the model that is presented by the leader. Pintrich
and Schunk (1996) shed some light on the role of the leader by providing a definition
of modeling, where modeling is the “behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes
that result from observing one or more models” (p. 164).
As models, it appears that group leaders should embody what Bolman and
Deal (2006) call the characteristics of the “wizard” or visionary (p. 3). This occurs
when the leader demonstrates a mastery of symbols, calling on imagination,
creativity, and meaning as a means of increasing the motivation of participants. Here
the leader can use their own personal story and commitment to the small group they
are leading to serve as a foundation to raise the collective motivation of the group
and to inspire participants to perform well (Bolman & Deal, 2006). Building upon
their previous work, Bolman and Deal (2003) sought to elaborate on the “symbolic
frame” which describes how leaders play a vital role in setting forth a vision for the
group. It is the leader who initially presents a passion that establishes the atmosphere
for the group to start out in unity and with a value for the task at hand (p. 242).
The symbolic frame is closely tied to the idea of creating culture (Bolman &
Deal, 2003). Modeling appears to be useful in establishing a culturally relevant
environment in which the behaviors of the leader are witnessed then followed.
Rendon (2002) studied a non-profit organization which utilizes mentors who assist
34

individuals in becoming more professional, as well as to internalize the philosophy
of the organization. These mentors play a crucial role in validating individuals when
they face obstacles early on, and provide them with support that fosters personal
development and social adjustment.
Working in a culturally-specific context, this organization works exclusively
with individuals who come from a specific background and have tailored their
program to fit their cultural beliefs (Rendon, 2002). Building upon a theory similar to
that of social facilitation, which postulates that the presence of a person can be
counted on to motivate another’s behavior, the non-profit utilizes mentors to act as
role models and liaisons of the central message of the organization (Pintrich &
Schunk, 1996). The message is simple, yet powerful: academic achievement attained
by the individual is reflective of the collective success of their culturally-specific
community (Rendon, 2002). By doing this, the organization has been able to
successfully maintain high praise and effective results in the transition from one
level of education to another (Rendon, 2002).
Within Schwarz’s (2002) research, there is an understanding that the leader’s
main task also encompasses increasing the effectiveness of the small group’s
structure. McBride (1995) argues that the leader should be responsible to plan and
lead each session. This includes reviewing the lesson ahead of time and preparing
any materials prior to the arrival of participants. In addition to this, the leader is
responsible for directing the group in the establishment of group norms and group
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goals. The areas of group dynamics and the responsibilities of leaders will be further
dealt with in the section on social constructivism.
The role of the leader as both a facilitator and model of a successful
participant are an effective means of establishing a positive self-concept of the
learner or participant. Markel (1999) argues the role of the leader should have the
flexibility for the facilitator to become a consultant, guide, or resource provider, as
needed in light of the situations that arise. In the context of distance learning, Spitzer
(1998) has pointed out that some distance educators don’t recognize that technology
and social context are equally important for learners. Thus, in order to combat the
isolation that can occur in distance learning, which can cause education to lose some
if its humanity, the incorporation of small groups appears to address such issues.
This will also be further dealt with in the section on social constructivism. The next
section, on the role of experience, will expand upon the roles and responsibilities of
leaders and participants.
Role of Experience
Knowles (1993) proposes that the role of experience is a rich source of
learning for not only one’s self, but for those that interact with that individual. In this
section, the role of the experience will be examined with an emphasis on measuring
the knowledge and experience that individuals bring with them to a curriculum
program and determining who should be leaders.
Knowles (1993) asserts that the experiences or prior knowledge of an
individual should be taken into account when working with adults who bring a
36

multitude of experiences, such as providing a venue for appropriate leadership
positions. With that said, it appears that experience should not directly translate out
into credibility in a particular subject matter. This is one of the critiques of
andragogy; it can be abused and lessons can deteriorate into sessions where the blind
are leading the blind and where there is no objective truth or any established means
of determining correct answers from wrong answers (Patterson, 2002). Responses
from fellow learners may be ineffective, incomplete, or even erroneous in this type
of setting (Westera, 1999).
In this line of thought, McIsaac and Bolcher (1998) found that while it is
important to take experience into account, the role and responsibility of a member
should be based upon the level of competence one has as a leader, as well as the
support that is provided to them by a curriculum program. In this light, Fink (2003)
advocates that there should be an initial assessment for both leaders and participants
in order to determine their experience and prior knowledge. Viola (2003) proposes
that a group leader should not be allowed to begin a new group, unless they have had
previously participated in a small group as a participant for a period of time. This
appears to ensure that their character has an opportunity to be known, and they are
familiar with how a potentially healthy small group functions. The following section
will build upon the necessity of crafting learning environments that meet the needs of
participants.

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Need-based Readiness
A need-based readiness provides an orientation to learning that is task-or
problem-centered (Knowles, 2005). Consistent with this is the idea that leaders must
encourage participants to take a mastery orientation, rather than a performance
orientation to develop increased competence (Knowles, 1980). In this section, a
need-based readiness will be explored by looking at the mastery orientation towards
learning with an emphasis on the perspective of the learner and relevant assignments.
According to Ames (1992), a mastery orientation centers on working hard to
learn the material, while a performance orientation is focused upon working hard to
receive a high grade or to simply complete an assignment. Ormond (1999) contends
that the current educational system in the United States does not stress how to learn
or how to be an effective learner. Instead, it appears that there is a greater value is
placed on memorization, where comprehension, application, and relevance of
knowledge are not underscored enough. In other words, there is an underlying
emphasis on a performance orientation over a mastery orientation in educational
settings which does not appear to promote long-term learning (Ames, 1992).
It is in this light that Ormond (1999) work among college students illustrates
that many individuals think that they can learn more information as long as they “try
harder,” rather than seeking to apply effective learning strategies (p. 339). From this
perspective, to enhance learning, educational materials should be contextualized and
there should not be as much of an emphasis on rote memorization. That is to say that
researchers such as Ormond (1999), argue that curriculum programs should place an
38

emphasis on learning, since individuals are not traditionally provided with this type
of knowledge in the classroom. Traditionally, Ormond (1999) argues that individuals
have been left to their own devices, to devise their own learning strategies over time.
Another aspect of a need-based readiness is the way that an individual views
intelligence. Research shows that their views are a precursor to their performance in
a learning environment (Dweck, 1988). If an individual believes that intelligence is
static, where you have what you have and there is nothing that you can do about,
they will be less likely to have faith in the view that they can improve as individuals
(Dweck, 1988). But, if an individual believes that intelligence is incremental; thus, it
is malleable, they are much more likely to believe that a mastery orientation is
possible, where they can progress in their abilities as a learner. So as an individual’s
ability increases over time, it is more likely that this individual will be focused on
mastery goals (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Dealing with the mindset of individuals appears to be one of the first steps in
progressing towards a need-based readiness. By instilling the perspective that
individuals are successful because they have implemented the correct learning
strategies, over and above having a leader simply attributing success of learners to
hard work seems to be beneficial. This type of positive reinforcement may be a key
element toward establishing a belief that intelligence can be increased over time
through the use of metacognitive knowledge; thus, a mastery orientation will be
cultivated in the individual (Biggs et al., 1996). Yet, there is still much to be said on
how to implement effective learning behaviors that will ensure the desired outcomes
39

are realized (Hattie & Purdie, 1999). This suggests that relevant assignments are a
step in the right direction to bring about a belief that meaningful learning is going on
in the mind of the individual.
By taking into account a need-based readiness, researchers suggest that
leaders can provide individuals with choices, so that they will be encouraged to learn
the subject matter or work towards completing relevant assignments (Ormond,
1999). This is where differentiated learning appears to come into play, in that
curriculum programs may be able to provide assignments that have varying levels of
difficulty or application. This is one of the main appeals to distance learning, where
the individual is able to have the flexibility to choose the subject matter (Oliver,
1999). The next section on immediate application will elaborate more specifically on
these types of assignments.
Immediate Application
The concern for immediate application appears to be an important factor for
individuals who desire to have the opportunity to apply what they have learned
(Knowles, 1993). In this section, immediate application will be examined looking at
relevant activities and real-world assignments. Practicality appears to be important
for individuals, thus activities must be reflective of this. Knowles (1980) posits that
people are ready to learn something when it will help them to cope with real-life
tasks or problems. This suggests that a curriculum program should provide concrete
examples and assignments that will demonstrate the relevance of the knowledge that
is presented.
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According to Simich-Dudgeon (1998), learning should take place in a context
similar to the one in which the knowledge was originally acquired for it to be applied
effectively. In accordance with this, the Director of the Center for Teaching at New
York University, Bain (2004) has spent over fifteen years studying the most effective
professors in the United States, in order to disseminate what these professors believe:
that teaching matters and that individuals can learn. Bain (2004) was originally
interested in investigating learning and teaching after obtaining a Ph.D., then
recognizing that “I had no formal preparation for helping anyone else learn” (p. 181).
In his work, Bain (2004) records the methodology of successful professors
who devise their coursework to address relevant problems that individuals will face
upon graduation. One such professor, motivated architecture students by taking them
outside of the classroom to work on a project that was to take place in a large
metropolitan context full of real-world challenges. By providing individuals with this
assignment, they were able to obtain a well-rounded view of the process that they
may not have been able to witness had they not progressed through the course. Bain
(2004) states that by learning about the “environmental, social, economic,
community and political issues in their design” individuals were able to appreciate
the architecture course they took that semester (p. 66). It appears that relevant
assignments should be provided so that individuals will maintain focus and
understand the materials, which will in turn lend themselves to immediate
application in the present day.
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Knowles (1968, 1993, 2005) appears to provide key insights into creating a
curriculum program that will be relevant and effective in adult education, through his
four principles of andragogy: self-concept, role of experience, need-based readiness,
and immediate application. In the next section, the social dynamics of a small group
will be addressed through Bandura’s (1976, 1986) theory of social constructivism.
This theory will provide the foundation for understanding the dynamics of a small
group in terms of the educational processes employed among leaders and
participants.

Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism
Bandura (1976, 1986) devised social learning theory, which later developed
into social constructivism. Social constructivism is based upon three areas which will
later be discussed individually: environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive. This
theory posits that the cognitive processes play a central role in mediating the areas of
behavior and environment. For social constructivists, knowledge is constructed
through human activities and interactions, which is the social context. With this
foundation, it is reasonable to understand how the experiences of leaders and
participants in small groups play into social constructivism. Huang (2002) contends
that small groups provide an intervention that can build a bridge between
traditionally individualized distance learning environments and the small group
experience of the traditional classroom.
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Studies centering on small group dynamics indicate that the implementation
of small groups tends to be a stellar form of education and motivation for individuals
(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Furthermore, scholars and practitioners such as McBride
(1998) have explored the area of Christian small groups exhaustively, providing
insights and analysis on the investment that is required of a church-site. In addition
to this McBride (1998) also explores the subtleties that go into maintaining an
effective small group program at a church-site which will develop leaders. In the
next section the areas of environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive will be
addressed further in relationship to small groups.
Environment
People do not come into small groups as blank slates as Watson (2004)
proposes; instead, they bring with them the life and educational experiences which
have left an indelible mark on them as incoming individuals into a program. In this
section the environmental factor of social constructivism will be explored, touching
upon the societal influences which affect individuals who participate in educational
endeavors.
Bronfrenbrenner (1986, 2000) contends that the societal influences which
individuals are exposed to, play a large part in their motivation towards education as
well. Seidman (2005) utilizes this understanding to explain how individuals who
come from family backgrounds which do not value higher education and do not see
the long-term pay off, in contrast to the immediate costs and hardships that initially
result in the beginning college years, are at a disadvantage. Another factor that seems
43

to emerge here is one’s personal religious history. George (1997) believes that the
responses to the following inquires play a role in how a leader or participant
eventually interacts with a curriculum program: how long they have been a Christian,
how much Bible knowledge they have, and what experience they have had in church
leadership.
The environmental factor seeks to address issues such as the difficulties
individuals face who are the first in their family to complete a curriculum program
because they do not have the benefit of referencing someone in their life who has
modeled what it takes to be a successful small group leader or participant.
Navigating through these new waters without past models that demonstrate it is
possible to complete an educational endeavor, appears to be a huge barrier for
individuals who are attempting to forge out a new path. Case in point, according to
Burchinal et al., (2002), it is evident in study after study that family characteristics
can prove to be one of the most concrete predictors of individual outcomes.
Environmental factors reveal that they make a substantial impact on what individuals
experience in a small group. The following section will continue to address the
theory of social constructivism by elaborating on the role of behavior.
Behavior
According to Bandura (1976, 1986), knowledge is attained through social or
cultural settings and interactions with others. In this section the behavioral factor of
social constructivism will be examined, looking at desire to be a part of small
44

communities, small group dynamics, accountability, social activities, and the practice
of hospitality.
By taking into account the role of the experience, social constructivism
attempts to open up the lens to the current landscape of adult Christianity. In a post-
9/11 context, Meyers (2003) contends that people are seeking out ways to be a part
of communities, in particular small groups. While Barna (2005a) contends that
today’s society is seasoned with thousands of gated-communities and instructional
barriers which fuel a self-important culture, people are drawn to the idea of being
known and knowing others personally.
Recently attention has been drawn to the value of smaller numbers of
individuals learning together. An example of this seems to be the classroom size and
the educational achievement debate (Ehrenberg, 2002). Within this debate,
arguments over the value of collaborative or cooperative learning has arisen, due to
the contention that individuals who work in small groups are able to achieve
common goals together (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Alant and Dada (2005) suggest
that there should be an understanding of group dynamics for those who seek to
implement interventions, so that activities which promote the efficient performance
of leaders and participants in small groups will take place.
Whether or not specific roles are provided to members of a small group, the
responsibilities that leaders and participants eventually take on appear to play a part
in how the group will function over time. Stacey (1999) supports the position that a
fixed structure of roles should not be arbitrarily imposed on groups. Research
45

indicates that the nature and autonomy of small groups should provide leaders and
participants with the flexibility to organize their roles according to the needs of the
group within the changing tasks and stages (Stacey, 1999). Beebe and Masterson
(2003) believe that the relationship between leaders and participants is central to
understanding how the group will function over time.
Group norms will emerge as the group spends time together. Beebe and
Masterson (2003) believe that groups develop in either one or two camps: those
groups that are led by a strong leader or those groups that have an absence of a
strong leader. Ideally, according to George (1997), a group will have a strong leader
who will be able to direct and nurture the other small group participants in
meaningful discussions. Peace (2006) provides an example of this, by maintaining
that leaders who provide participants with a specific amount of time to respond to a
prompt or question are employing a useful tool in getting through a desired amount
of material and to ensure that each person receives a fair amount of time to share.
As participants progress, McBride (1993) contends that accountability must
ensure that as influence is wielded in the group, individuals are able to learn from
their mistakes and have the opportunity to take leadership responsibilities. How and
where this is done appears to be dependent upon the organization that the group falls
under. George (1997) argues that whether or not the small group leader is held
accountable by the church leadership or by the group itself will play a role in the
dynamics here. The issue of accountability will be dealt with further in the active
choice section of motivation.
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Griffin (1982) points out that groups can be an effective means of
strengthening beliefs, as well as building new relationships. Social activities in the
context of group goals may be built within a curriculum program, which take place
outside of the normative structure of reading, viewing a DVD, then discussing the
materials. While these activities may be beneficial, some participants may still not
feel connected to the group enough socially to truly share their beliefs (Peace, 2004).
Flook (2005) found a correlation between individuals who felt they were accepted
socially in a learning environment with positive academic achievement. Social
activities appear to be beneficial in fostering a sense of community, which may
develop into effective collaboration within the small group.
The location in which the small group meets is often the first impression for
participants and potential new participants. Beckham (1997) argues that the creation
of a safe environment is as much a part of group goals as the dates that the group will
meet, if the group intends to be truly successful. An example of this appears to be the
practice of hospitality, which can be a key to the development of a welcoming
environment, as well as possibly leading to the formation of meaningful
relationships. Atkinson (2001) proposes that hospitality entails intimacy, trust, and a
supportive climate. It appears that small groups should deal with the issue of group
goals early on, to increase the likelihood that the group will be successful (McBride,
1998). The next section will address the third aspect of social constructivism, the
personal/cognitive dimension.

47

Personal/Cognitive
In light of the personal/cognitive aspect of social constructivism, the
sophistication of reasoning, as well as the personal characteristics of the small group
members are taken into account (Bandura, 1976, 1986). In this section the
personal/cognitive factor of social constructivism will be explored, touching upon
the concept of media literacy. As individuals have had and continue to have their
beliefs shaped, it appears to be important to understand how the environment and
behaviors of the small group play a part in the creation of shared meaning. While
some individuals may have no problem maintaining their independence throughout
the group process, others may sacrifice what they believe just to fit in (Pratkanis &
Aronson, 2001).
Media literacy is an overarching theory of media, which allows one to view
media from an outside perspective. This theory enables a leader to educate others on
how to scholarly analyze media, just as one analyzes a book (Sarno, 1987). From the
perspective of media literacy, when people turn on their TV, this doesn’t signal that
it is time for the viewer to stop using their mind and simply accept whatever
messages are presented. Research seems to indicate that propaganda flourishes in
environments where people who believe that if materials have been published or
broadcasted, then their content must be true (Pratkanis & Aronson, 2001).
By establishing practices such as checking up on the credentials of the
speaker or investigating the credibility of educational materials, individuals may be
better equipped to differentiate truth from fiction (Pratkanis & Aronson, 2001).
48

While following up on references that are made in a curriculum program may be
beneficial for individuals who desire to be critical consumers of media, the
responsibility to do this will fall on each leader and participant in any sort of
educational endeavor (Pratkanis & Aronson, 2001). As leaders and participants
become critical consumers, research suggests that they will be able to better analyze
what they are viewing and find the truth in the midst of presentation (Pratkanis &
Aronson, 2001).
Knowles (1968, 1980, 1993) and Bandura (1976, 1986) seem to provide
insights into meaningful learning environments for leaders and participants. The
areas of self-concept, role of experience, need-based readiness, and immediate
application all influence adult learners. Leaders appear to play a key role in
establishing the way a small group will function in terms of process and structure.
The leader also seems to provide the initial vision and values that the group will
build upon in a curriculum program. The previous experiences of small group leaders
and participants also seems to effect the way that the group will function over time,
due to the factors of environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive. While
individuals come to curriculum programs from an array of backgrounds, it appears
that the group can influence learners to take on characteristics that will enhance their
educational experience. Knowles (1993) contends that one of the critical variables in
andragogy is the ability of the learner to take responsibility for their educational
experience, which is largely dependent upon their level of motivation. In the next
49

section of this paper, the relationship between small groups and motivation will be
explored.

Motivation
Motivation will be explored by first looking at its relationship to small
groups, then turning to the work of Clark and Estes (2002) as a framework to guide
this study. The relationship between motivation and small groups appears to be a
complex one. Köhler (1926) found that group members who were underperforming
worked harder when they were a part of a team than they did as individuals. Despite
this, it has been noted that there are recurring complaints about group work from
individuals forced to participate in small groups. Individuals often voice that each
member does not contribute their own fair share when it comes down to completing
a task (Scudder, et al, 1994).
Individuals tend to dislike group work, complaining that it unfairly binds the
performance of the small group participant to the outcomes of the group and limits
individual recognition. Essentially, these outcomes are perceived to represent the
overwhelming effort of one or a few group members, while other members fail to
contribute. This phenomenon, known as social loafing, is another common
indictment of small group work among individuals (Aronson, 2003). Hancock (2004)
continues the argument, asserting that some individuals actually prefer working
alone, while others have a predisposition to work in groups. This effect, known as
50

peer orientation, has been shown to affect individual motivation when working in
small groups (Hancock, 2004).
With that said, there is also research which points to important factors that
play a part in maintaining motivation in group activities. Early conceptualizations of
motivation tended to emphasize the behavioral aspects of it. From a behaviorist
perspective, motivation can be described as a trait, characteristic, or instinct that is
hit-or-miss. Essentially, either one has motivation or they do not. More
contemporary views frame motivation as a cognitive process, emphasizing the
individual’s beliefs and emotions as central aspects of the construct (Pintrich &
Schunk, 1996). Therefore, according to Pintrich and Schunk (1996), everyone has
motivation; the issue appears to be more about what individuals are motivated to do
and what can be done to increase one’s level of motivation. This section will look at
the research of Clark and Estes (2002), which has taken into account the
complexities of the adult learner in terms of the motivation, then determine what
types of activities are effective in small groups.

Clark & Estes’ Theory of Motivation
Motivation appears to have a reciprocal relationship with learning:
motivation affects individuals’ learning and what individuals’ learn influences their
motivation (Schunk, 1991). Clark and Estes’ (2002) theory of motivation will be
used to evaluate how leaders and participants in small groups progress through the
implementation of a curriculum program. At its core, motivation seems to be the
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drive which moves someone to act; it entails beginning, continuing, and exerting an
appropriate level of intellectual effort in order to successfully complete a goal (Clark
& Estes, 2002). Clark and Estes (2002) formalize this construct by identifying three
primary dimensions of motivation which will further explored in detail below
individually: active choice, persistence, and mental effort.
Active Choice
The first aspect of motivation is for an individual to choose to make the
change or changes that will get one closer to the desired goal. In the Clark and Estes
(2002) motivational framework this process is known as active choice, a
motivational task that deals with situations in which people choose to actively pursue
a tangible goal. In this section, active choice will be explored by touching upon peer
orientation, social loafing, modeling by the leader, and group cohesiveness.
Some scholars have suggested that individuals bring a predisposition known
as peer orientation to small group work, which can affect their decision to choose to
work or not towards group goals (Hancock, 2004). Hancock (2004) contends that
peer orientation refers to the degree to which an individual likes or dislikes
functioning within the context of a small group. Individuals with a high peer
orientation enjoy working in small groups, while individuals with low peer
orientation do not (Hancock, 2004). It appears that high peer orientation individuals
are more likely to be highly motivated to join and work in small groups, while
individuals with a low peer orientation are more likely to not join a group or to
disengage from the outset (Hancock, 2004). Stated differently, individuals with low
52

peer orientation are less likely to make an active choice to work towards the group’s
goals, and are therefore less motivated.
As noted above, individuals often complain that group work encourages some
individuals to sit back and take it easy while others do all of the hard work to achieve
the group’s goals (Baker & Campbell, 2005). This phenomenon, known as social
loafing, appears to be directly related to the motivational aspect of active choice
(Aronson, 2003). Social loafers have made the inactive choice to not participate in
work that is being engaged in by the rest of the small group. Instead, they have
chosen to let their fellow small group members take on the majority of the work.
Research suggests that there are demonstrated mechanisms that can help to
reduce social loafing (Baker & Campbell, 2005). The degree to which individuals
feel that their contributions will benefit the final group product is known as the
individual’s valence (Vroom, 1964). For example, individual motivation within the
group improves when each member’s contribution is monitored and evaluated on an
individual basis, rather than simply assessing the outcomes of the group as a whole
(Karau & Hart, 1998). Social loafing also seems to be minimized when individuals
feel that their personal contributions are critical to the success of the small group
(Baker & Campbell, 2005).
In addition to this, there are indications that leaders should model the role of
a healthy small group member for participants (McBride, 1993). McBride (1993)
proposes that two of the most important responsibilities in this area are that a leader
should show up to all meetings on-time, as well as coming to each meeting prepared
53

to lead the group. These actions appear to encourage individuals to take participating
in the group seriously. The leader’s role also appears to assist in motivating
participants to complete assignments and to prepare for the meetings. As previously
addressed, if a leader is not a positive role model, the participants may become
disillusioned and feel that any preparation for meetings are a complete waste of time.
Group cohesiveness, according to Karau and Hart (1998), is often defined in
terms of group ideological homogeneity, which also appears to be a means of
decreasing social loafing. There is tension here in that, while on the one hand, each
individual must believe that the group as a whole can cooperate and collaborate
enough to accomplish their goals (Clark & Estes, 2002). On the other hand, the
group must also collectively possess the skills necessary to achieve the group’s
performance goals (Baker & Campbell, 2005). This implies a mixture of skills and
group heterogeneity will lead towards an increased amount of motivation. Here,
George (1997) contends that the responsibility to ensure that groups have competent
leaders will fall upon the leadership of the organization that is establishing the small
groups. As mentioned earlier, from this starting point, groups may be formed
according to the skills and background of leaders and participants (Fink, 2003).
Based upon Clark and Estes’ (2002) definition of motivation, active choice
deals with the initial action taken to begin the work process. Research suggests that
peer orientation plays a role in whether individuals are willing to make the active
choice to participate in small groups (Hancock, 2004). Social loafing appears to be a
common practice in small groups and implies an active choice to not participate in
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the work of achieving the group’s goals (Baker & Campbell, 2005; Karau & Hart,
1998). Social loafing appears to be mitigated by monitoring and assessing each
individual’s contributions independently from the group and by making the value of
each individual’s contribution to the group’s success explicit (Karau & Hart, 1998;
Baker & Campbell, 2005). The next section will address the second area of the Clark
and Estes (2002) construct of motivation: persistence.
Persistence
Clarke and Estes (2002) define persistence as “the ability to continue in the
face of distractions” (p.81). Persistence is the central piece of the motivational
construct. Once an individual makes the active choice to begin, they must then
continue to work on the task in order to complete it successfully. When people get
distracted by projects or tasks that are less important than the primary task, a
persistence problem will ensue (Clark & Estes, 2002). In this section, persistence
will be examined by looking at expectancy-valence theory, group-think, group
interaction, the role of individualists, and self-efficacy.
Looking towards how and when individuals working in small groups
continue working on tasks once they have begun, Vroom’s (1964) expectancy-
valence theory of motivation suggests that persistence can be increased in small
groups. The expectancy-valence theory defines the construct of motivation as a result
of a complex interaction among expectancy, valence, and instrumentality
(Nakanashi, 1998). Expectancy is the individual’s perception that investing effort
will lead to a certain level of performance. Stated differently, the individual believes
55

that the more effort they put in, the higher the quality of the final product. Valence is
the perceived positive or negative value ascribed by the individual to the possible
outcomes (Vroom, 1964). In other words, the individual will only persist if they
value the goals of the group. Instrumentality is the degree to which the individual
sees the performance of one’s work as leading to successfully completing the task;
an individual will not persist in the task if they do not believe that their effort is
contributing to the final product (Nakanashi, 1998).
Researchers have found Vroom’s (1964) construct to be beneficial in the
examination of persistence in small groups. Nakanashi (1988) found a positive
correlation between valence and expectancy in relationship to task persistence. The
findings of his study appear to demonstrate that when participants value the group’s
goals and when they saw the relationship between their efforts and the quality of the
final goal, they tended to persist at the task more than individuals with low valence
and expectancy. Research also indicates that having clarity of goals and relatively
simple and transparent paths to achieving goals can help to keep the small group
persisting on tasks (Jetten, 2000). With this as a foundation, it appears that when
goals are specific, an individual’s expectancy will increase because they will see the
clear relationship between their work and completing a task.
In addition to this, there is also some indication that individuals within a
group fail to persist on tasks when those in the group have a sense of cohesiveness.
Here, cohesiveness does not refer to a sense of unity within the group, but the
presence of an in-group. Jetten (2000) expands upon this concept of the in-group, as
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another factor in small group dynamics and believes that the perception of an in-
group in small groups can lead individuals who disagree with the in-group’s beliefs
to focus more on finding ways to fit in, than on persisting in doing what they think is
correct. This phenomenon, which Aronson (2003) refers to as group-think, is a
classic example of what Clark and Estes (2002) label as a distraction from the
primary learning goal of the group. Distractions, in the Clark and Estes (2002) theory
of motivation, are one of the primary causes of lack of persistence.
The relationship between group-think and valence appear to play a key role
in persistence. As previously discussed, valence for the group’s goals appears to
affect motivation positively. If the individual values the group’s goals, they are more
likely to persist in their efforts toward the group's goals. However, if an individual
has valence toward different goals than a perceived in-group’s goals, the individual
tends to fail to persist in trying to achieve their goals, choosing instead to try to find
a way to fit in.
Hancock (2004) contends that individuals tend to be distracted from the real
learning goals of the group, focusing instead on the cooperative learning process
itself as the most valuable dimension of the small group interaction. In many cases,
while developing healthy social skills may be a desirable by-product of small groups,
the real goals of a curriculum program are more content specific learning goals that
deal with facts, procedures, and concepts (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The goal
of mastering this content appears to be lost in some individuals, who instead choose
to focus on the experience of interacting with others in the group. Therefore, research
57

suggests that there must be a balance to ensure that activities that promote learning
are taking place and the group doesn’t just turn into a small group that meets for
strictly social purposes.
The degree to which a person is individualistic also seems to affect
persistence towards group goals. When highly individualistic people were introduced
into small groups of otherwise cooperative individuals, the individualists tended to
successfully manipulate the group to their own ends. These often exemplary small
group members persisted in their own goals, ultimately changing the group’s goals
better to align with their own goals (Schei & Rognes, 2005). This discovery, coupled
with the previously cited findings about the tendency of homogeneous groups to
move towards group-think, seem to indicate that heterogeneous groups are preferable
to homogeneous groups for task persistence, so that individuals will persist.
Research also appears to suggest that individuals with a high sense of self-
efficacy can help individuals with lower self-efficacy to persist in tasks when
working in groups (Baker & Campbell, 2005). These types of individuals can
encourage their lower-efficacy peers to continue working even when they are ready
to give up (Baker & Campbell, 2005). By encouraging persistence on the tasks,
individuals with higher self-efficacy can help to motivate their peers to complete
tasks that they would otherwise give up on. Thus, it appears that motivation toward
the completion of a task increases.
Persistence is the central piece of Clark and Estes’ (2002) motivation
construct, and is highly affected by various individual and group variables. It appears
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that when individuals within groups have a common clarity of goals and a relatively
simple and transparent path to achieving those goals, individuals persist on tasks
(Nakanashi, 1988). Nakanashi (1988) argues that heterogeneous groups are
preferable to homogeneous groups for maintaining group persistence. As previously
addressed, it appears that the characteristics of leaders and participants should be
taken into account by organizations which seek to implement a small group
curriculum program (Fink, 2003).
Groups that are overly cohesive can result in group-think, stifling the
creativity and persistence of individuals in the group who normally disagree,
focusing them instead on finding ways to fit in (Jetten, 2000). Thus, it appears that
cohesiveness may not lend itself to constructivism. Variance in points of view
appears to broaden the group lens and increase learning due to the dialogue and
innovation that is provided. Research indicates that when individualistic people were
placed in groups of cooperative individuals, the individualists tended to express the
trait of dominance and bullied the group.
This activity appeared to steer the cooperative individuals toward the agenda
of the individualists, which altered the groups’ persistence away from the groups’
goals (Schei & Rognes, 2005). Research tends to suggest that these types of
individuals should be given the highest priority to become leaders, rather than
participants. Baker and Campbell (2005) found that individuals with a high sense of
self-efficacy could help individuals with lower self-efficacy to persist on tasks long
after they were initially willing to give up and not complete the task. The final aspect
59

of Clark and Estes’ (2002) motivational construct: mental effort, will be addressed in
the next section
Mental Effort
The last piece of motivation in Clark and Estes (2002) framework is mental
effort. After choosing to begin work on a task and persisting despite distractions,
individuals must decide how much mental effort is required to complete the given
task. Clark and Estes (2002) define mental effort as “working smarter and
developing novel solutions” (p. 81). Their construct of mental effort is closely tied to
confidence in one’s ability to achieve a task, or self-efficacy. In this section, mental
effort will be explored by touching upon the mastery orientation towards learning,
self-efficacy, and individual ability levels.
The mastery vs. performance orientation perspective appears to be crucial to
understanding what causes leaders and participants to move forward with the new
information they learn in order to become life-long learners. Dweck’s (1986) and
Ames’ (1992) research appears to be supportive of the importance of goal orientation
in relation to an individual’s achievement in a small group.
Another aspect of small group success is the way that an individual views
intelligence. It appears that one’s views are a precursor to their performance in a
small group. Ames (1992) contends that if an individual believes that intelligence is
static, where one has a certain capacity for intelligence and there is nothing that can
be done about it, then they will be less likely to buy into the view that they can
improve their performance. But, if an individual believes that intelligence is
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incremental, thus, it is malleable, they are much more likely to believe that a mastery
orientation is possible where they could progress in their abilities as an individual
(Ames, 1992). Thus, as an individual’s ability increases over time, it is more likely
that this individual will be focused on mastery goals (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Self-efficacy appears to be a factor that is vital to an individual’s
performance within a small group (Baker & Campbell, 2005). Clark and Estes
(2002) contend that individuals with a realistic sense of their own abilities are most
likely to exert the most mental effort on tasks and therefore be properly motivated to
succeed. Within small groups, there is evidence that individuals with high levels of
self-efficacy tend to encourage others and are more likely to provide creative
solutions for the group, even when they are not the most skillful individuals in the
group (Baker & Campbell, 2005). The self-confidence that comes from high levels
of self-efficacy appears to help motivate groups to persist at tasks and to expend high
levels of mental effort.
There also appears to be evidence that individuals of lower ability levels
expend more mental effort when working in groups when the groups are carefully
constructed, such as all of the individuals are of comparable skill level (Baker &
Campbell, 2005). When working on tasks in which the individuals in the group are
dependent upon one another for success, less able individuals appear to work harder
and perform better than they if not in small groups. According to Köhler (1926),
individuals who are less able also work harder and perform better when they are
placed in groups with individuals who are only slightly more able than they are.
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There appears to be evidence that less able individuals expend more mental effort on
tasks when they are aware that their teammates are of slightly greater ability than
they are (Messé, Hertel, & Lount, 2002).
As discussed above, self–efficacy appears to have a relationship to the
amount of mental effort that an individual is willing to expend on a given task. Some
researchers have suggested that individuals with an inflated sense of their abilities
are likely to assume that they can accomplish the task with ease, while individuals
with unrealistically low belief in their own abilities are likely to despair at the
enormity of the task and be unwilling to try their hardest to accomplish the task
(Clark & Estes, 2002). It appears that in small groups, individuals with high self-
efficacy can help to motivate others of lower self-efficacy (Baker & Campbell,
2005). Research indicates that when working on tasks together, individuals with a
higher ability, tend to work harder, expend more mental effort, and perform more
highly than they do when they work alone (Köhler, 1926; Messé, Hertel, and Lount,
2002).
Research also indicates that motivation influences the amount of learning that
takes place in a small group (Clark & Estes, 2002). Markell (1999) points out that
learning does not just occur within the confines of the curriculum program, some
leaders and participants who are motivated may seek out additional information to
supplement the resources that are provided to them. McBride (1997) lists that one of
the reasons why some individuals may not choose to go above and beyond what is
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required within the context of a small group are their financial situation and time
constraints.
Several factors associated with the individual appeared to affect the
motivational outcomes among individuals working within small groups. Social
loafing, for example, appeared to be reduced when individuals’ contributions were
monitored and assessed independently of the group. Social loafing also appears to be
reduced when individuals feel that their contribution is valuable to the outcomes of
the group. Individual levels of self-efficacy can affect an individual’s willingness to
expend the optimal level of mental effort to complete a task. It also appears that
individuals with an inflated sense of self-efficacy are likely to expend less effort than
is necessary to complete the task at the highest possible level of quality. Research
seems to indicate that one means of dealing with this issue is to establish regular,
formative assessments as groups progress in a curriculum program, conducted by the
leader. This could potentially have the effect of correcting overly-inflated levels of
self-efficacy at a formative stage, which may motivate individuals to expend more
mental effort.
Group factors also appear to play a role in the motivational outcomes among
individuals working in small group environments. Research appears to indicate that
overly cohesive and homogeneous groups may suffer persistence problems and may
be subject to greater degrees of group-think than more heterogeneous groups. These
findings imply that groups should, ideally, be formulated to include individuals of
diverse beliefs and opinions. It also appears that when those in small groups are of
63

similar skill level relative to one another, individuals of relatively less skill level
benefit greatly, consistently expending more mental effort and ultimately producing
work of a higher quality than they have produced when working on their own.
This tension between the individual and the group appears to be the hallmark
in the study of small groups. It is in this tension that one can potentially find the true
strength of the epistemological foundation of social constructivism; this is where
individuals learn from one another, and motivate one another to construct meaning in
novel ways that the individual alone could potentially never achieve.
The relationship between Bandura’s (1976, 1986) social cognitivism and
Clark and Estes’ (2002) three aspects of motivation has been explored in the
previous section. In the next section, instructional design will be examined utilizing
Clark’s (2000) theory of technology. There will be an emphasis on investigating
factors that affect learning in terms of delivery technology and instructional
technology (Clark, 2000).

Instructional Design

Technological advances have brought about new curriculum programs that
have gone largely unevaluated. In this section, the current state of instructional
design will be presented followed by an exploration into the Clark’s (2000) theory of
technology. It appears that as technology continues to become more affordable and
commonplace, individuals who are raised during the Digital Age will become more
familiar with and demand effective educational media. According to Barna (20005a),
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as more adults with financial resources desire to gain more knowledge, this will
continue to generate an environment which will spur the creation of educational
materials that are media-based.
The creation of educational materials has many aspects to it, often requiring a
team of experts to bring everything together. Merrill (2001) notes that instructional
design is “an engineering activity for which the artifact created is some instructional
product designed to help a learner acquire some knowledge or skill” (p. 294). In
other words, learning is central to the process of creating an instructional material or
curriculum program. In the next section, Clark’s (2000) theory of technology will be
used as a lens from which to explore relevant literature in the areas of delivery
technology and instructional technology.

Clark’s Theory of Technology
The intended impact of the educational materials appears to be the starting
point that many curriculum program developers begin with (Merrill, 2001). Other
factors that begin to come into consideration are the costs that each unit will retail
for, as well as the quality of learning that will be provided. Stakeholders, such as the
distributor, church leaders, professors, and the regional tastes of the communities,
also play a part in impacting how a curriculum program is eventually designed. In
the end, delivery technology and instructional technology are two visible measures
of how instructional design is implemented in a curriculum program (Clark, 2000).
The factors that affect the areas of delivery technology and instructional technology
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will be elaborated upon and research will be reviewed in relationship to leaders and
participants in this section.
Delivery Technology
With the advent of this Digital Age, the delivery of education through media
appears to be commonplace in an audio-visual world (Chen, 2002). The Christian
community has attempted to seamlessly incorporate education and media together by
employing small group curriculum programs as means of conveying Christian
teachings. Clark (1983) contends that the issue when dealing with media is not
whether or not it should be used, but the specific way in which the media was used in
an educational context that should be examined with measured results. Delivery
technology is the medium by which education is conveyed (Clark, 2000). In order to
move forward, research in the areas of educational technology and audiovisual
communications may prove to be beneficial.
According to Roblyer and Edwards (2000), educational technology is a
“combination of the processes and tools involved in addressing educational needs
and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current tools: computers and
their related technologies” (p. 6). This includes the use of DVDs in a curriculum
program, in addition to more traditional technology such as that of books. Yet, the
question may arise of how are these educational tools of technology or multimedia
devices to be used. In order to address this, research from the discipline of
communication studies will be explored, followed by a look at distance learning.
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Saettler (1990) states that, audiovisual communications deals with “the
branch of educational theory and practice concerned primarily with the design and
use of messages which control the learning process” (p.9). These descriptions of
educational technology and audiovisual communications suggest that educational
media are to be developed with the explicit purpose of creating a curriculum program
which will aid the learning process. With that said, there is an indication that film
should not be used as a novelty act, but with the rationale that individuals will be
assisted in learning the material of the curriculum program. Mayer (2002) contends
that depending upon the subject matter that is to be taught, there are decisions to be
made which will determine what mediums will be used to accomplish this task. In a
math course, for example, a variety of media could be used to assist individuals, such
as computers, PowerPoint presentations, books, and calculators. The use of each type
of media will be dependent upon the educational effectiveness in that subject area.
Curriculum programs that utilize DVDs could potentially be considered a
derivative of a higher education distance learning program. Distance learning
programs provide consumers with two enticing qualities, their flexibility and
simplicity of use. Distance learning has been able to gain prominence in light of the
technological advancements of the computer and the internet. This type of learning
deals with media that conveys knowledge that was created at a location other than
the place where the media will be consumed. This particular type of curriculum
traditionally utilizes technologies solely as a means of transmitting information to the
learner. To mediate this, on-the-scene educators have been utilized in some cases by
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curriculum programs in order to provide an added level of accountability. These
educators that are present in the room are responsible for facilitating meaningful
dialogue between the curriculum and learners.
Yet, according to Moore and Kearsley (1996), it should be recognized that
distance education is in no way new to the landscape of education. Correspondence
courses have been used since 1910 (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). Launched in the early
1920’s, educational radio was an early medium of instruction in the United States
(Moore & Kearsley, 1996). Beginning in 1969, Great Britain’s Open University
began using television and related materials for instructional delivery (Moore &
Kearsley, 1996). These distance learning courses were made up of curriculum
developed by college faculty, scholars, practitioners, and instructional design
specialists.
Tele-courses are wide-spread pre-produced video lessons that were
broadcasted over local television stations (Zia, 2000). Here, individuals watched the
lessons as they were aired or at a convenient viewing center, such as local libraries.
These video lessons augmented the individuals’ textbooks and study guides.
Individuals were also able to receive course information, assignment, and syllabi
through the information packet and individual handbook. Individuals interacted with
their instructors by telephone, fax, or in-person. Instructors generally conducted
review sessions, administered examinations on-site, and sometimes hosted
workshops (Zigerell, 1983).
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According to Zia (2000), distance education has made great lengths due in
large part to technological advances and market forces. It appears that the flexibility
that is availed through delivery technology has caused distance learning to become a
vehicle of choice for adult learners who have many responsibilities that do not allow
them the time to travel to an educational institution. In addition to this, distance
learning also appears to be appealing to adult learners who may not have the
scheduling availability to make it to set class times of the traditional classroom
experience.
Distance learning is a form of individualized learning that is concerned with
providing relevant curriculum to the individual. Reich (2003) suggests that the
mediums that are chosen should provide the simplicity and benefits that will best fit
the characteristics and demographics of the learner. While research indicates that
curriculum programs may be an effective tool for the instruction of adult learners, it
should also be kept in mind that courses which employ several mediums of
technology must be simple enough to use by the target audience (Reich, 2003).
Simplicity needs to be an utmost concern for curriculum designers who want to reach
new audiences that may suffer from what Ellis (2000) describes as “technophobia”
(p. 273).
At the same time, even though there are a variety of technologies available in
the home (i.e. computers and DVD players), there are still segments of the
population who are not comfortable using these mediums due in large part to their
age or financial means (Ellis, 2000). It appears that initially, a curriculum program
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may need to incorporate specific and simplistic step-by-step directions to assist new
users who are not presently technology literate.
New technological advances have provided instructional designers with
several new mediums in recent years. Empowered with additional tools, research
suggests that designers have the increased potential to create holistic educational
environments that can further enhance instruction for individuals (Clark, 2000). In
the following section the foundation laid by exploring delivery technology will be
built upon, by looking at instructional technology for direction in instructional
design.
Instructional Technology
Instructional technology seeks to influence individual learning (Clark, 2000).
Fundamentally, instructional technology is comprised of what subject matter to
teach, then how to design that curriculum in order to teach that to individuals. In the
development of instructional technology, educational theorists have sought to
establish models which will inform designers of the way the human mind functions,
which will be further explored below. Consistent with this, as individuals interact
with curriculum in academic contexts, there are important questions to take into
account, such as: Is the individual expected to store information simply for the next
test or will the individual be required to demonstrate understanding past the duration
of a course?
These types of concerns largely have to do with the way individuals process
information for future retrieval. Memory is an essential concern with how people
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will be able to remember, then apply what they have learned in current, as well as
future real-life situations. It appears that this is a prevalent view in universities where
individuals are expected to be able to remember material covered in past courses,
following graduation for application in the workplace (Schacter, 2001). Schacter
(2001) contends that there are several barriers to this, mainly centered on the way
that an individual originally learns the information. Thus, underlying this type of
concern, the inquiry will then arise: what is the nature of human memory and how
should this inform curriculum design.
In order to establish some direction on this issue, the dual-store model of
memory will be explored (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1971). A dual-store model of memory
is the prevailing view of how people store information (Ormond, 1999). Coinciding
with the establishment of the computer, cognitive science was able to develop a
model of memory that can be described in a metaphor where the mind is viewed as a
computer (Ormond, 1999). According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971), memory
consists of three stages: sensory registers, short-term store, and long-term store. The
next section will touch on the first part of the dual-store model, which is the sensory
registry.
The sensory registry area of the dual-store memory model is where
information and knowledge is first directed into the mind (Atkinson & Shiffrin,
1971). Sensory input is initially detected by an array of sensory registers (Ormond,
1999). These sensory registers contain memory resources with a lifespan of only a
few hundred milliseconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). The sensory registry area
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stores incoming information obtained by one of the five senses: sight, hearing, smell,
taste, and touch. Since people sense far more from the environment than one can
process, the individual must focus on those sensations that are important enough to
be processed further in working memory. The next section will touch on the second
part of the dual-store model, that of the short-term store.
The next aspect of the dual-store model is that of the short-term store or
short-term memory, which contains memory resources that last for only a few
seconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). Short-term memory is subdivided into a
working memory component and a control process component. Just as attention acts
as a gateway to working memory, working memory acts as a gateway to long-term
memory. Miller’s (1956) early research into working memory was demonstrated in
the number of 7+/-2. This is used to denote the amount of information that can be
cognitively held in the mind at one time.
The working memory component provides a general purpose for processing
resources, while the control processes have more specific purposes (Ormond, 1999).
These control processes include: rehearsal, coding, problem solving techniques,
retrieval strategies, and imaging. The purpose of working memory is both to allow
the individual to interface with the world and to move new experiences into long-
term memory. This area of memory will be further explored and elaborated on later
in the section on cognitive load theory. The next section will explore the final aspect
of the dual-store model of memory, the long-term store
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The final aspect of the dual-store model of human memory is that of long-
term memory, which contains high memory volume that can last for decades
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). There is an unlimited amount of information that can be
stored here. Long-term memory can be broken down into two categories: episodic
memory and declarative knowledge. Episodic memory, sometimes called
autobiographical memory, is knowledge related to specific, lived events (Ormond,
1999). Declarative knowledge is the factual or conceptual knowledge that one
obtains in educational environments (Ormond, 1999). Declarative knowledge is a
crucial area when it comes to educational contexts, since this is the type of
information that is expected to be stored. This type of knowledge must include
information on how to respond under different circumstances (Ormond, 1999).
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971), the dual-store model of memory
intentionally portrays memory in terms of the operations of the short term memory.
It has to do more with what is going on, rather than where these functions are going
on in the mind. While neurocognitive research has influenced the educational world,
instructional design as a whole has not reflected this enough in curriculum programs
(Neath, et al., 1999). The following diagram is presented in order to demonstrate
how the mind works, rather than a model of the physiological structure of the brain.
Figure 2.1: A simplified dual-store model of memory
Sensory Short-Term Long-Term
Registry Memory Memory

From Ormond, 1999 (p. 178)
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In the next section, current research on working memory will be explored in
order to determine how it may be incorporated into the instructional technology
component of instructional design. Cognitive load theory (Merrienboer & Sweller,
2005) and working memory are closely tied together in that cognitive load theory
seeks to explain how working memory functions. With an understanding of cognitive
load theory, one is potentially provided with a lens from which to explore the
relevant and practical issues of cognitive demand and schema.
Paas et al. (2004) proposes that there are a panoply of theories that deal with
human memory; yet, cognitive load theory has been especially relevant in the field of
instructional design for both designers and researchers. Van Merrienboer and Sweller
(2005) state that cognitive load theory “uses interactions between information
structures and knowledge of human cognition to determine instructional design” (p.
147). This suggests that cognitive load theory is informed by relevant educational
theories, as well as what is known about the workings of the mind in terms of
memory, in order to carry out effective instructional delivery.
In line with the dual-store model of memory, cognitive load theory centrally
deals with the area of short-term store or working memory. According to van
Merrienboer and Sweller (2005), cognitive load theory “assumes a limited working
memory that stores about seven elements but operates on just two to four elements”
(p. 148). This suggests that since human working memory doesn’t process many
elements, the amount of information must be taken into account when creating
curriculum. It appears that expertise is then developed as learners are able to
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cognitively combine simple ideas into more complex ones (Merrienboer & Sweller,
2005). This suggests that the amount of novel information that is required to be
processed in working memory, in order to construct schema in long-term memory,
should be taken into account by curriculum designers.
Cognitive load theory appears to be successful in identifying informational
formats that are more efficient than conventional problem solving in the initial
novice phase of knowledge acquisition , according to van Gog et al. (2005). This
indicates that cognitive load theory is concerned with techniques for managing
working memory load in order to facilitate the changes in long term memory
associated with cognitive demand and schema. In the following sections, research
will be examined in light of instructional technology.
Cognitive demand encompasses two variables in human memory, which are:
underload and overload (Paas et al., 2004). Cognitive underload/overload is a
principle that deals with the amount of information that an individual can process at
a time. Paas et al. (2004) argues that performance degrades with both overload and
underload. This suggest that individuals need to be presented with the appropriate
level of cognitive demand, since it appears that too much or too little information
will reduce the amount of potential learning that takes place. Two factors that appear
to influence cognitive demand are attention and the effort necessary to learn the
material (Paas et al., 2004).
The attention in which an individual invests into the material appears to be a
factor which can reflect the ideas of cognitive demand. From this perspective, this
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factor can be played out in the expectations placed upon learners in terms of the
attention required to focus on the material presented to them. While many people are
able to watch television on end, it appears that a smaller quantity are disciplined
enough to invest the required energy to effectively learn from this medium (Paas et
al., 2004). This may suggest that a factor that may influence learning is whether or
not the material is engaging.
For example, assignments that require individuals to maintain focus on a
television have an underlying expectation to stay on task, even though there is not a
live person in the room demanding eye-contact and attention (Mayer, 2002). On the
one hand, this could be considered cognitive underload, if the information that was
presented was not entertaining or relevant. On the other hand, this could be
considered overload if the information was too overwhelming, where the individual
was not able to maintain focus. The next section will touch on another factor that
appears to influence cognitive overload/underload: effort.
An individual may also be overwhelmed by the amount of effort that they are
required to invest in learning new information, which is an example of cognitive
overload. According to Morrison and Anglin (2005), issues such as the way that the
assignments are designed, as well as the difficulty of materials, will effect whether or
not individuals develop an understanding of the course content. Cognitive demand
also seems to suggest that the amount of time that leaders and participants are
required to spend on assignments may be a factor in how well they perform.
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Morrison and Anglin (2005) point to the balancing act that must be walked
by curriculum developers that attempt to produce curriculum programs that do not go
over the head of some individuals, while at the same time not creating material that
appears very basic or one-dimensional. Cognitive demand is an area which addresses
the issues of overload and underload in terms of the attention and effort required by
an individual to take part in a curriculum program. Moving beyond this research, the
question of how knowledge is stored in working memory begins to emerge. In the
next section, the concept of schema will be addressed in order to determine how
construction and automation impact working memory.
Schema is a critical factor in cognitive load theory. Schema acts as a “central
executive, organizing information or knowledge that needs to be processed in
working memory” (Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005, p.149). These schemas then
categorize elements of information, according to the manner in which they will be
used (Chi et al., 1982). Schema has two main functions: construction and
automation.
Paas et al. (2004) describes schema construction as the process by which
skills or knowledge are developed through the “construction of increasing numbers
of ever more complex schemas by combining elements consisting of lower level
schemas into higher level schemas” (p. 1). Here, there is an emphasis on the
organization and structure that curriculum programs offer learners. Ormond (1999)
argues that rote memorization activities cannot be the central means of educating
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individuals. From this perspective, simplified fill in the blank assignments will not
develop schemas and promote long-term memory.
Schema automation is the internalization of frameworks by which the mind
stores information (Paas et al., 2004). According to schema automation, in order to
establish behavior, an instructional product which stresses automation is vital to
ensuring that progress is made by the learner (Paas et al., 2004). Here, learners are
expected to internalize the information that is provided to them, allowing them to
move forward past old lessons, in order to learn new material. This will free up
cognitive energy to be placed towards other activities, such as acquiring new
knowledge. Schema automation allows those schemas to be processed unconsciously
with consequent working memory implications (Paas et al., 2004).
The work of Clark (2000) has opened up the focus of this study on the
research and implications of instructional design. Viewed through two components,
instructional design draws attention to both instructional and delivery technology. It
appears that delivery technology must essentially fulfill two roles for the consumer,
it must be flexible and it must be simple to use. It also appears that instructional
technology must be informed by the way that individuals obtain and store
information. Now that the Clark and Estes (2002) educational framework has
informed a study of the areas of knowledge, motivation, and instructional design, the
small group video curriculum program landscape will be examined.

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The Small Group Video Curriculum Program Landscape

Small group video curriculum programs appear to be an effective means of
teaching culture (Herron et al., 1999). Furthermore, Meyers (2000) suggests that
video curriculum programs have been an effective tool in teaching adults social
responsibilities. The convenience, cost effectiveness, flexibility, and simplicity that
curriculum programs offer have afforded consumers with new educational
possibilities. These characteristics then lend themselves to supporting and
perpetuating the use of these types of curriculum programs by non-profit
organizations and churches.
Curriculum programs also appear to address some of the deficiencies of the
traditional distance learning program. Mainly, in traditional distance learning there is
a delay in receiving answers to questions or in many cases simply receiving
clarification on an assignment. Small group video curriculum programs are able to
provide a leader, that can act as a facilitator and provide accountability. In terms of
distance learning, McIsaac and Blocher (1998) argue that the most important factor
influencing learning relates to the extent to which a participant feels involved in a
mediated situation. This indicates that the incorporation of a leader into a small
group curriculum program may be beneficial to participants who require the presence
of a leader to maintain accountability.
This is where the dual-educator in the room principle begins to come into
effect. Here it appears that small group video curriculum programs provide a novel
solution to a traditional distance educational deficiency. The research of Hackman
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and Walker (1990) indicate that when participants in a distance learning program are
provided with cues, such as encouraging gestures, smiles or praise they responded
with enhanced levels satisfaction and perception of their own learning. This appears
to be an example of how teacher immediacy behavior had a positive impact on
individual learning.
In terms of the curriculum program that will be examined in this study, there
are two educators who are employed to instruct the participants of the small group:
the leader and the featured speaker on the DVD. This phenomenon can be considered
as the dual-educators in the room effect, where the leader acts as a facilitator who
directs participants to the task at hand and keeps individuals focused. The featured
speaker on the DVD acts more like an educator who provides lectures and teachings.
Currently, there are a plethora of media resources available which can be
purchased through major Christian bookstores, on-premise church bookstores, online
retailers, and directly from the curriculum designers. These distributors seek to
promote various educational materials and provide a brief description of their
products. With this understanding, an overview of the current faith-based adult small
group video curriculum program landscape will be explored.

Zondervan GroupWare
The distributor of Evangelical educational materials and faith-based adult
small group video curriculum programs is Zondervan publishing house. Zondervan is
known for its distribution of the New International Version Bible translation.
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Zondervan GroupWare is the division that publishes, distributes, and markets
curriculum programs to churches, via the internet, seasonal catalog, and conferences
for church leaders. To be a part of the Zondervan GroupWare product line, the
educational materials must fulfill their criteria. Simply put, Zondervan attempts to
deliver personal and spiritual growth by meeting the following four requirements:
1. Compelling biblical content.
2. Minimal preparation time for both leader and participant.
3. Proven learning techniques using individual participant
guides and a variety of media.
4. Meaningful interaction in groups of any size, in any setting.

One of the products that is under the umbrella of the Zondervan GroupWare
line is the Faith Lessons Video Series. This faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program largely focuses on educating individuals about the geography
and history of Israel. This curriculum program is an attempt to enable individuals
who do not have the resources to invest in a trip to Israel to experience some of it
through the use of technology. This curriculum program is intended to be completed
over a series of eight weeks within the context of a small group. Each small group
leader is charged with the responsibility of leading the group discussions and much
of the responsibility for learning falls on each individual in the group.
Faith Lessons Volume III (1996) features an interactive journey that is filmed
on location in Israel. With portions filmed in Israel, participants are able to view on-
site historical lessons from a guide who is a scholar and has experience providing
tours of Israel. In the next section, a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program that was recently created by a church-site will be explored.
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Bridges
Recently, there has been a shift towards congregations creating their own
curriculum programs (Eastman, 2006). A large suburban church, in Southern
California recently produced an in-house small group video curriculum program that
was to be used following the church’s participation in a 40 Days of Purpose
Campaign. Entitled Bridges: Minding the Gap, the curriculum program consisted of
a participant guide and a DVD, which presented the senior pastor as the featured
speaker. By utilizing the pastor as the main spokesman in the curriculum program,
potential church visitors are able to become familiar with the pastor of the church by
watching him on video from the context of a small group meeting in the home of a
church member.
This six week curriculum program was used in over three hundred homes in
Southern California and the course stressed community service (Reeve, 2005). An
outline of the six sessions is as followed: Overview – Bridge…Minding the Gap,
Committing to a Community of Believers, Connecting – Life is better together,
Breaking Down the Barriers, Serving – Greatness in the Kingdom, and A
Community of Bridge Builders (Reeve, 2005). There was a simple format that the
participant guide followed: a time to take notes from the DVD, a time for discussion,
a time for standing in the gap in prayer, and an opportunity to build bridges in the
community through service (Reeve, 2006). Bridges is an example of the move by
congregations who are creating contextualized curriculum programs to meet the
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needs of their community. In the next section, the featured curriculum of this study
will be explored in-depth.

LifeTogether
Originating out of Orange County, California, Brett Eastman created a
curriculum program known as the LifeTogether series. LifeTogether takes its name
from the text by theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Bohoeffer’s (1954) work is a record
of the communal experience that he had in an underground seminary in Nazi
Germany during World War II. From Bonhoeffer’s (1954) perspective, Christianity
cannot be separated by community, best illustrated through the statement:
“Christianity means community through Jesus Christ and in Jesus Christ” (p. 21). It
is in this context that Bonhoeffer (1954) recognizes the privilege that Christians
possess who have the companionship of a fellow disciple. To Bonhoeffer (1954),
being able to meet with a fellow disciple can be considered “a physical sign of the
gracious presence of the triune God” (p. 20).
Building upon this shared conviction with Bonhoeffer, Eastman is a believer
and advocate of building community, which he does through the use of small groups
in churches. With positions such as that of the Small Group Champion for two of the
largest churches in the United States: Willow Creek Church in South Barrington,
Illinois and Saddleback Church in Lake Forest, California on Eastman’s resume, he
has demonstrated his experience of working in church-site small group programs.
Amid this backdrop, Eastman has been able to partner with the Evangelical
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magazine, Christianity Today where his organization is featured on their website as
an authority on small groups.
Initially, there are a variety of ways that a church can come into contact with
LifeTogether’s curriculum programs: via the internet, a friend’s recommendation,
conferences for church leaders, or a Zondervan catalogue. A church can then
purchase the materials for a six-week course at an average price of one hundred and
ten dollars for a typical group of eight: retail price is twenty-nine dollars for the
DVD and eight dollars for each study guide. Following this, a church-site is
encouraged to launch a church-wide campaign, where the entire congregation is
asked to participate in the curriculum program by either becoming leaders or by
joining groups as participants. According to LifeTogether, this shared vision is
especially helpful to ensure that widespread congregational buy-in takes place and a
church wide small group program is established and maintained.
Leaders & Participants
Individuals in the church are encouraged to take initiative by taking part in
the curriculum program by becoming a leader and volunteering one’s residence as a
meeting place or Host Home. This means that as a small group leader, one will take
on the responsibilities of facilitator and open up their home to host a group of people
who will meet for the duration of six week. From the perspective of Christian
education, the leaders are told they will be able to be a part of the discipleship
process by assisting others to learn what the Bible teaches. Leaders are told that all
they need to do is be able to use a DVD player, and the curriculum will do the rest.
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Currently, this curriculum program is marketed as though leading the group is as
easy as pushing play, then sitting back after putting on a pot of coffee. In situations
where some individuals may have reservations about teaching the Bible, the leaders
are told that they will act as facilitators, which is a less daunting task than being a
teacher who has to be responsible for creating and presenting a Bible study. Most
often, new leaders will start out the process of starting a small group by recruiting
either those in their own family or their friends. Another incentive that is provided to
leaders is that they will be a part of creating a community that will lead towards the
transformation of lives.
The curriculum program also conveys that it serves the purpose of providing
another way of entry into the life of a congregation. Potentially, when the curriculum
program is implemented, there may be more people attending small groups during a
given week, than there are people who are attending a Sunday services at a particular
church-site. This is an incentive to church leaders who may view the curriculum
program as a means towards church growth. It appears that some church leaders
believe that people who begin attending small groups will inevitably become more
involved in the life of a church-site and potentially become a member. This then
leads to the possibility of small groups serving the purpose of introducing potential
members to a church, through a somewhat less imposing fashion than a visitor who
attends a Sunday morning service where they do not know anyone.

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DVD
The Beginning in Christ Together DVD is directed and produced by Rathbun
(2005) and features Eastman functioning as a personal coach to leaders providing
training sessions and he serves as the host introducing segments and facilitating
interviews to participants. The DVD is approximately four hours long and is based
upon the five biblical purposes that are outlined in Warren’s (2002) work:
fellowship, discipleship, ministry, evangelism, and worship. The DVD includes the
following six weekly sessions, in sequential order as followed: Beginning in Christ
Together, Connecting in Christ Together, Growing in Christ Together, Serving Like
Christ Together, Sharing Christ Together, and Surrendering to Christ Together
(Rathburn, 2005). Each of these sessions are then divided into four main sections that
will be explored further below: Leader Lifters, Creative Elements, Dynamic
Teaching, and Worship Music (Rathbun, 2005).
The LifeTogether Leader Lifter segments are pre-session video trainings that
offer weekly insights and practical techniques for leading small groups (Rathbun,
2005). These segments are intended to assist leaders in hosting the weekly meetings
that are typically held at their residence. The segments are intended to be viewed by
the leader prior to the meeting. In a Leader Lifter segment, Eastman provides an
overview of the session and provides advice on how to lead the group through the
study.
In addition to this, the Creative Elements segments include personal stories,
interviews, and music videos related to the weekly topics (Rathbun, 2005). Prior to
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each Dynamic Teaching segment, a scholar will provide some historical background
on the passage. These segments appear to be particularly fashioned to stimulate
discussion among the small group on topics of a more difficult or sensitive nature,
such as tragic death or divorce (Rathbun, 2005).
The videos feature portions called Dynamic Teaching segments, made up of
speakers who discuss the subject matter of a particular session’s theme for roughly
twenty minutes (Rathbun, 2005). These speakers, in order of appearance in the DVD
are as followed: Mike Breaux, Mike Meeks, Doug Fields, Tom Mullins, Dave
Rodriguez, and Kay Arthur. According to LifeTogether, these speakers are all church
leaders who have experience teaching the Bible. The delivery style appears to be
largely conversational with an emphasis on personal storytelling and practicality of
application.
There is also a Worship Music portion that includes music video segments
that feature popular songs from the Christian recording company, Maranatha
(Rathbun, 2005). These songs are combined with on-screen lyrics, so that
participants can sing along to the songs. The music videos also appear to include
uplifting video images with scenic views of nature. It should be noted that these
worship segments are not directly included in the structure of the curriculum; instead
they are to be used at the discretion of the group leader.
Study Guide
The Beginning in Christ Together: Six Sessions on the Life of Jesus study
guide is a one-hundred twenty-three page document that is to be used in conjunction
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with its associated DVD (Eastman et al., 2005). The study guide is divided into six
sessions and each of these sessions are divided into five main sections, as previously
discussed above. Each session contains sections that lead the group through the five
following purposes: Connecting, Growing, Developing, Sharing, and Surrendering
(Eastman et al., 2005).
The Connecting piece has to do with stressing fellowship within the group
(Eastman et al. 2005). Practically, there are two options provided to participants. The
first option allows for the entire group to go around and answer an icebreaker
question. The second option allows for the group to break up into partners, where
two people then discuss a more intimate question which is intended to forge a deeper
connection and encouragement.
In-between the Connecting section and the Growing section is where the
DVD teaching segment comes into play. Here, the group will have a chance to be
introduced to the host Brett Eastman and then watch a featured speaker explore a
topic. In addition to this, the personal experiences of a fellow Christian will be
presented on-screen. As well as this, insights are supplied by a Bible scholar who
provides some background on a passage. In the study guide there is also a page from
which one can record notes that are taken while the DVD is playing called DVD
Notes.
The second section, Growing, mainly has to do with the practice of
discipleship (Eastman et al. 2005). Here the curriculum program has the intention to
focus on how Jesus’ words and actions relate to what one does and says. In this
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section there also appears to be a substantial amount of Bible reading that is to take
place by the group together. When the readings are completed, the curriculum
intends that the group be brought into a passage where Jesus is in action, teaching or
demonstrating some aspect of how he wants one to live (Eastman et al. 2005).
Subsequently, there are at least seven discussion questions that are intended to allow
for the group to explore the assigned readings.
The third division, Developing, is largely ministry centered and seeks to have
participants discover and develop their gifts to serve others (Eastman et al., 2005). At
this juncture there is the opportunity for both the individual and the group to step out
and practice community service. This may include having the group meet outside of
the designated meeting time and serve the homeless, for example. Also fitting into
the category of Developing, there are also the following documents: Prayer/Praise
Reports, the Personal Health Assessment, the Personal Health Plan, and the Partner
Progress (Eastman et al., 2005). Again, building off of the five biblical purposes,
participants are provided with the opportunity to join with a partner to establish goals
in each of these areas. Following this, the partners are called on to keep each other
accountable each week towards building a healthy spiritual life until the conclusion
of the six-weeks.
The fourth portion of the study guide, Sharing, has at its focal point an
evangelism component (Eastman et al., 2005). Participants are encouraged to help
others to become disciples of Jesus. It is suggested that participants consider taking
on the role of group leader at the conclusion of the current course. In addition to this,
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leaders and participants are also encouraged to pray for and share the message of the
gospel with their family, friends, acquaintances, strangers, and fellow workmates by
inviting them to the group or in casual conversation (Eastman et al., 2005).
The fifth section is that of Surrendering, where the focus is upon the worship
of God (Eastman et al., 2005). Here prayer, worship through music, and reading the
Bible are highlighted as means of worship. In a seeker-friendly manner, the
participants are comforted with the idea that they will not be pressured to do
anything that they do not want to do. Instead, the group is told to determine which
form of worship best fits them (Eastman et al., 2005).
In addition to the six main sections outlined above, there are also a series of
sub-sections that fall into three general categories: small group dynamics,
instructional aids, and leader notes. Beginning with small group dynamics, there is a
Read Me First section at the beginning of the study guide that provides an overview
of the course (Eastman et al., 2005). As well as this, there is a Frequently Asked
Questions section (Eastman et al., 2005) that provides answers to seven commonly
asked questions. In addition to this, participants are also referred to the LifeTogether
website for additional small group resources (Eastman et al., 2005). Group dynamics
are dealt with more specifically in the following documents: Team Roles, Life
Together Agreement, and the Small Group Calendar (Eastman et al., 2005). The
curriculum program intends for the collective effort of the group to be utilized to
determine what roles each person will take on, how the group will function along
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with the commitment level that will be put in, and finally a schedule of when
activities and meetings will take place.
The next category of instructional aids provide opportunities to better learn
the materials dealt with during the group session, as well as materials that can be
further explored in sections, such as For Deeper Study (Eastman et al., 2005).
The first of these aids are the Study Notes, which provide background notes on the
Bible passages that are examined in the Growing section (Eastman et al., 2005).
Included in this, are short descriptions of what certain words mean in the context of
the New Testament, such as leprosy.
The second of the aids are the Reflection Sheets, which are simply a single
page that are located at the end of each of the six sessions (Eastman et al., 2005).
Each sheet includes a passage of the Bible to read for the purpose of meditating; as
well as questions to ponder on what was learned from the life of Christ and what
does one believe he wants them to do differently in their lives. Below the sections
designation for meditation and questions, space is provided where one can record
thoughts and notes.
The third aid is Journaling 101, which offers an overview of the subject of
journaling and advice on how to begin using this practice as a form of a spiritual
discipline (Eastman et al., 2005). The fourth aid is the Bible Reading Plan that
provides a thirty day schedule for reading through the Gospel of Mark (Eastman et
al., 2005). This is another spiritual discipline that participants are encouraged to
participate in at their own discretion.
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The third sub-section is that of leader notes and is tailored to the leader’s role
and responsibilities. The leader notes consist of five documents: Leading for the First
Time, Hosting an Open House, Experience Christ Together in a Sunday School
Setting, Introduction, and Answers to Session Questions (Eastman et al., 2005). The
Leading for the First Time provides practical advice and reassurance to the new
leader (Eastman et al., 2005). The Hosting an Open House discusses the idea of
hospitality and using icebreakers to set up a relaxed atmosphere (Eastman et al.,
2005). The Experiencing Christ Together in a Sunday School Setting discusses
modifications that can be made to the curriculum program, so that the principles of
LifeTogether can be potentially transferred to a larger classroom context. Changes
here include assigning the roles of Moderators, Discussion Guides, Hospitality
Coordinators, and Technical Coordinators to others (Eastman et al., 2005).
The Introduction and Answers to Session Questions are sections that offer
counsel and answers to the questions that are in the study guide (Eastman et al.,
2005). More than answers to the questions, they describe what types of responses to
expected from those in the group. For example, speaking of questions six, eight,
nine, and ten in session three of the study guide states, “these questions are designed
to let the group members voice not just their joyful experiences of Jesus’ care, but
also their confusion and pain” (Eastman et al., 2005, p. 113).
The Bible
Central to the curriculum program is a use of the Bible and belief that it is the
authoritative source of truth. With references to the Bible throughout the curriculum
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program, there is a requirement for leaders and participants to bring Bibles to each
session in order to read the assigned passages. Predominantly, the passages that are
discussed in the course are taken from the Gospels, the only holy and trustworthy
account of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, according to Evangelicals.
Upon examining the current landscape of small group video curriculum
programs, it should be noted that these DVD curriculum programs that have been
produced recently illustrate a growing trend within Evangelicalism. Mainly, there is
a market for curriculum programs that will assist churches in carrying out the
practice of Christian education in small groups. Current research also indicates that
academically there is a void in studies in this almost untouched field. Due to
institutional and religious forces that are unchecked, there is an indication that there
is a need for examination to determine what are the strengths and weaknesses of
these curriculum programs. In the next section, a review and analysis will be
presented of the research investigated in this chapter.

Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide an overview of the literature on
factors germane to adult learners taking part in faith-based adult small group video
curriculum programs. The literature review also sought to attain a research base from
which to explore the research question in this study: How do the group leaders’ roles
and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program?
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The theoretical framework provided three areas from which research could be
collected, then analyzed in order to answer the research question: knowledge,
motivation, and instructional design (Clark & Estes, 2002). Research was largely
drawn from the disciplines of educational psychology, higher education, and
Christian education to inform this study. A central goal of the research was to
highlight findings from previous research on successful educational experiences in
the fields of adult learning, leadership, small groups, distance learning, persistence,
multimedia, and curriculum programs.
Beginning with the overarching educational framework devised by Clark and
Estes (2002) as a foundation, relevant theories and research was explored, to inform
this study in the literature review. Knowles’ (1968, 1980, 1993) theory of andragogy
was examined, which claims that adult learners bring experiences and prior
knowledge that need to be taken into account by educators. There was also a focus
on research done by Bandura (1976, 1986) who offered insight into the importance
of the social construction of knowledge and its relationship to small groups.
Following this, the work of researchers such as that of Clark and Estes
(2002), was reviewed on the topic of motivation. Clark and Estes (2002) contend that
motivation can be viewed through a trio of facets: active choice, persistence, and
mental effort. Motivation and its relationship to small groups was then explored for
findings on what factors emerged in successful educational experiences. Next, there
was a discussion on instructional design. Clark’s (2000) theory of technology was
utilized as a foundation, which can be viewed from two angles: delivery technology
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and instructional technology. Finally, the current landscape of small group video
curriculum was explored, which established some of the educational specifics of
what is contained in these types of materials.
Weaknesses emerged in the knowledge base as the literature review was
performed. The literature reveals that almost no research has been previously
conducted on the implementation of faith-based adult small group video curriculum
programs. Also, most of the research that was explored did not address learning from
a holistic perspective, instead choosing to look at educational experiences from only
one area, such as the persistence of small group participants. Thus, there is a
justification to progress in this study to provide a platform from which to conduct a
more encompassing evaluation of the implementation of a faith-based adult small
group video curriculum program. The next chapter outlines the research design of
this study and the methodology used to collect and analyze the experiences of leaders
and participants who were a part of the implementation of a curriculum program.

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The first two chapters laid the foundation for the present study. Thus, in order
to examine the experiences of leaders and participants in a curriculum program, there
was a rationale for evaluating the implementation of the Beginning in Christ
Together: Six Sessions on the Life of Jesus curriculum program (Eastman et al.,
2005). Investigating how the theories of knowledge, motivation, as well as
instructional design impacted leaders and participants was vitally important in
understanding the educational processes that took place over the duration of the
course.
An evaluative case study was chosen as the specific methodology to be
employed because it provided an intense view into an educational environment
(Merriam 1998). This enabled the researcher to obtain a rich understanding of the
experiences of leaders and participants from the beginning to the completion of a six-
week course (Merriam, 1998). Furthermore, this qualitative study was an
introductory work in the field of faith-based adult small group video curriculum
programs. Therefore, the individual experiences of leaders and participants needed to
be fully explored in order to provide a foundation for future research (Patton, 2002).
The research question that was answered is as follows: How do the group leaders’
roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program?
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The ethical considerations of this study will first be addressed, relying in part
on guidance provided by the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB) process. Next, an overview of case study research will be
provided. Within the confines of this section, an understanding of qualitative
research will be established, followed by a discussion on the case study design.
Then, the role of the researcher will be delved into. Subsequently, there is a
description of the sample and population, which will explore how the church-site
was selected, background on the church-site, and the participant selection process.
Following this, the data collection procedures will be discussed, with an explanation
of how data was collected through the use of site-observations, semi-structured
interviews, and document analysis. The next section will be centered on data
analysis, where a description of how the data was interpreted will be presented.
Afterwards, a section on how triangulation was used to verify information will be
provided. Following this, will be the study’s limitations that should be taken into
account when reviewing the data gained from this study.

Ethical Considerations
IRB placed ethics as a focal point of research in this study. Leaders and
participants came into the study voluntarily and they were informed that they were
able to withdraw from the study at any point. According to the USC IRB, the
researcher was not required to provide an informed consent form to participants.
Research goals were clearly presented initially to potential participants from the
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beginning when an informative PowerPoint presentation was presented in September
of 2006 at First Christian Church. Then as participants signed up for the study, they
were provided with information sheets that gave an overview of the study.
Individuals were then provided with complimentary curriculum, in order that leaders
and participants had access to the materials. These materials were donated to the
researcher for the use of this study by LifeTogether, to be provided free of charge to
all leaders and participants.
Throughout the study, participants were coded as to allow for anonymity.
Following the completion of the dissertation, results were provided to informants, in
the form of a brief summary which described the findings. It was clear throughout
the study that participants were under no obligation to remain in the study and that
they could have chosen to leave the study at any point. The researcher also ensured
that no harm or exploitation was done throughout the study.

Case Study Research

In this study, research has largely been drawn from qualitative research to
explore the implementation of a curriculum program. The methodology of the
qualitative case study was viewed as an optimal means of further adding to the field
of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs. In this section, an
overview of qualitative research will be provided, followed by a presentation of case
study design, and an exploration of the role of the researcher.

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Qualitative Research
The unfolding experience of leaders and participants in a small group, takes
place within the dynamics of a social setting. Therefore, understanding the different
features of social processes requires a scientific exploration of events, through the
eyes of those participating in the process. This perspective is in line with the
qualitative methods paradigm that seeks to capture close approximations of reality
while maintaining objectivity (Hatch, 2002). According to Merriam (1998),
qualitative research is “an umbrella concept covering several forms of inquiry that
help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena with as little
disruption of the natural setting as possible” (p. 5).
While in the course of deciphering whether or not to pursue the current study
in the direction of a qualitative or quantitative dissertation, the researcher found
Merriam’s (1998) work enlightening. Merriam (1998) suggests that researchers who
are “interested in insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis
testing” will have their research moving towards a qualitative direction (p. 29). More
specifically, there are several characteristics of the qualitative branch of research that
inform a rationale for choosing this line of inquiry over that of quantitative research.
Some characteristics of the current study that align themselves with qualitative
research are the natural settings in which learning will take place, along with the
assortment of perspectives of the participants (Hatch, 2002). In addition to this, there
is the opportunity to have the researcher act as a data gatherer, the wholeness and
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complexity of the subject, the subjectivity of the small group dynamics, the emergent
design component, as well as the use of inductive data analysis (Hatch, 2002).

Case Study Design
Within the scope of qualitative research, falls the case study design. Merriam
(1998) believes that the case study design can be used to, “gain an in-depth
understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved” (p. 19). Case studies
are effective qualitative tools that provide an intensive view into a situation. Merriam
(1998) posits that case studies can be distinguished by three features: particularistic,
descriptive, and heuristic. Particularistic means that case studies “focus on a
particular situation, event program, or phenomenon” (Merriam, 1998, p. 29).
Descriptive means that “the end product of the case study is a rich, ‘thick’
description of the phenomenon under study” (Merriam, 1998, p. 29). Lastly, heuristic
means that case studies “illuminate the reader’s understanding of the phenomenon
under study” (Merriam, 1998, p. 29).
Merriam (1998) then describes three types of case studies that are used in
terms of what is the overall intent of the study: descriptive, interpretative, and
evaluative. The descriptive case study is one that “presents a detailed account of the
phenomenon under study-a historical case study that chronicles a sequence of
events” (Merriam, 1998, p. 38). Interpretative case studies are used to “develop
conceptual categories or to illustrate, support, or challenge theoretical assumptions
held prior to data gathering” (Merriam, 1998, p. 38). Evaluative case studies involve
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“description, explanation, and judgment” which is the best reporting form for
evaluations (Merriam, 1998, p. 38). Of the three types of case studies presented by
Merriam (1998), the evaluative case study best fits the current study.
Kenny and Grotelueschen (1980) provide an understanding of why the case
study design is optimal in the process of evaluating a curriculum. According to
Kenny and Grotelueschen (1980), the case study can be an important evaluative tool
when the future of an educational course “is contingent upon an evaluation being
performed and there are no reasonable indicators of programmatic success which can
be formulated in terms of behavioral objectives or individual differences” (p. 5). A
thorough case study investigation will prove to bring patterns and issues to light. By
observing a case study, which is actually made up of many smaller cases or the
specific stories of individuals, a holistic perspective can emerge (Patton, 2002).
Particularly appealing to the evaluative case study is the opportunity to take a deeper
look at an educational program, examining the complexities of a single location to
comprehend what is going on (Stake, 1995).
In addition to this, building upon the qualitative nature of this study, an
ethnographic perspective was utilized as data was collected. While there was an
established order to data collection, there was also an understanding that the
researcher was collecting information on a blank chalkboard, making connections as
the environment dictated. According to Genzuk (2003), ethnographic studies are
open to turns that take place, providing the flexibility to move past preconceived
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notions. Once a strand of truth becomes apparent, the researcher will have the
flexibility to shift their research accordingly to collect and present pertinent data.
As qualitative research was conducted, the data that was collected began to
be more centered on how the curriculum program was being used by leaders and
participants, rather than on the curriculum program itself. Therefore, the study
shifted from an evaluation of the curriculum program itself, to an evaluation of the
implementation of the curriculum program. Due to this move, the initial research
questions were modified and the study was reorganized accordingly. Next, the role
of the researcher will be explored in the context of case study research.

Role of the Researcher
In this study, the researcher was the “primary instrument for data collection
and analysis” (Merriam, 1998, p. 7). Thus, it should be recognized that the researcher
is “fallible as any other research instrument” (Merriam, 1998, p. 20). In qualitative
research, there is an understanding that the character and skills of the researcher are
of the utmost concern when evaluating their findings. Merriam (1998) goes on to
denote three characteristics that the researcher must have in order to trust their
observations: tolerance for ambiguity, sensitivity, and communication skills.
A tolerance for ambiguity has to do with the fact that the role of the
qualitative researcher is similar to that of a detective (Merriam, 1998). Merriam
(1998) goes on with the analogy by pointing out at first everything will be important;
everyone will be a suspect. Yet, after time and patience, clues will come together,
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leads will emerge, and missing pieces will appear to put the puzzle together
(Merriam (1998). As an observer of the participants in the study, there will be a lack
of control as interactions and events take place. Overall, qualitative research places
the “investigator in a largely uncharted ocean” and they must be able to adapt and
deal with ambiguity (Merriam, 1998, p. 21).
Sensitivity or being highly intuitive is the next characteristic described by
Merriam (1998). Through the progress of the study, the “researcher must be sensitive
to the context and all the variables within it, including the physical setting, the
people, the overt and covert agendas, and the nonverbal behavior” (Merriam, 1998,
p. 21). Here, the researcher must be sensitive as observations are made during the
data collection process. If the researcher is not attuned to the “cues and nuances
provided by the context” there is a good chance they will misread the actions or
statements of a participant in the study (Merriam, 1998, p. 22). While the researcher
is synthesizing data, they must ensure that they are sensitive to bringing together all
of the data to draw themes and conclusions from.
Under the umbrella of sensitivity, personal biases emerge as a factor in that
they can have an influence on the investigation (Merriam, 1998). In terms of the
researcher’s own biases, as a scholar, the researcher brought to this endeavor a set of
beliefs as an Evangelical Christian. Prior to becoming a student at USC, the
researcher received his Masters of Arts degree in Theology from Fuller Theological
Seminary. In addition to this, the researcher received his Bachelor of Arts degree in
Communication Studies with an emphasis in Media from Azusa Pacific University,
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which is a Christian University. As the director of a video production company, the
researcher believes that media can be an effective means of conveying information in
educational contexts.
The final aspect of a researcher’s character are good skills as a
communicator. Having good communication skills entails empathizing with
respondents, establishing rapport, asking good questions, and the ability to listen
intently (Merriam , 1998). By empathizing and establishing a rapport, the researcher
will be able to build relationships which will allow those being studied to feel
comfortable. The ability to ask good questions will allow the researcher to draw out
what is in and on the participant’s mind, which cannot be “directly observed or
measured” (Merriam, 1998, p. 23). Thus, the interviewer has to ask questions in such
a way as to obtain meaningful information. As a good listener, the researcher will be
able to sort through what is being said and hear things that are “not explicitly stated
but only implied, as well as noting the silences, whether in interviews, observations,
or documents” (Merriam, 1998, p. 23).

Sample & Population
The site was obtained by contacting a representative of LifeTogether on June
26, 2006, the creators of the curriculum. An overview of the study was then
presented. Following this presentation, there was a discussion between the researcher
and the representative. The researcher then asked the representative if LifeTogether
knew of any churches in Southern California that fit the requirements of the study
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and might be interested in participating in the study. The representative was more
than open to assisting the researcher in finding a church-site that was open to using
the Beginning in Christ Together: Six Sessions on the Life of Jesus DVD curriculum
during the Fall of 2006. LifeTogether has established relationships with churches and
was able to provide a church-site that met the study’s requirements and was willing
to be a part of this study. The LifeTogether representative then volunteered to donate
materials to the participating groups in order that finances did not hinder the study.

First Christian Church
The researcher met with the pastor of First Christian Church of Orange
County, the potential church-site on July 18, 2006. At this meeting the researcher
provided an overview of the dissertation study, as well as the requirements that were
be necessary for leaders and participants. The pastor was more than happy to be a
part of the study, viewing it was an opportunity to further the study of Christian
education.
Following the meeting with the pastor, the church was finally selected
because it was located in Southern California and it was representative of the typical
church that utilizes this type of curriculum. The church-site, First Christian Church
of Orange County, is considered medium-size, averaging two hundred and thirty
people at a Sunday service. The church-site also had previous experience
implementing small group curriculum programs from LifeTogether in the past.
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According to the pastor, the small group ministry of the church, is central to
the life of the church. Smith believes that small groups fulfill the need for individuals
who long for deep relationships with each other. Small groups offer caring, deep
commitments where accountability among members is able to take place. In Smith’s
experience, small groups help to solidify relationships and provides the intimacy that
took place in the Early Church when they met in homes.
In terms of the effects that small groups have on First Christian Church, they
have been shown to help the church grow. More than bringing new people into the
church, Smith has witnessed how small groups actually help to hang on to the people
that are coming to the church. Having experience implementing both traditional
small groups and those groups that incorporate video, Smith is enthusiastic about
both. Smith believes that, on the one hand groups that use a traditional format, based
upon literature, has participants that are more likely to delve deeper into the
materials. On the other hand, video-based curriculum is a wonderful change that
engages people more quickly due in part to the nature of a media driven society and
the ease of the curriculum. At First Christian Church, a balance between the
literature-based and video-based curriculum is present.
First Christian Church is conveniently located off of a major freeway. A short
walk from the church will bring one to a busy street intersection which includes a
supermarket, coffee shops, and flurry of fast food restaurants. Immediately
surrounding the church are neighborhoods of residential homes and schools. Upon
viewing the church, it consists of a few one-story buildings which serve as
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classrooms. The main sanctuary is a humble building with seating for some two
hundred and fifty people. These structures are surrounded by grass and to the side of
the complex lies a decent size parking lot. The entire property is valued at a reported
one million dollars according to the First Christian’s annual Balance Sheet for 2006.
In addition to this, the Balance Sheet records that the annual income for the church is
five hundred and twenty-seven thousand dollars.
According to the First Christian’s annual report of 2006, there are eighty
members who are active in the church and the average church attendance was two
hundred and thirty people each Sunday. The pastor of the church relates that the
majority of the congregation is new to the church over the course of the past two
years. The mission statement of First Christian Church of Orange County includes
the importance of building relationships, establishing commitment, and promoting
growth.
Small Groups
Small groups at First Christian are a part of fulfilling their mission of
becoming a relational community. According to a pamphlet that describes the
church’s purpose, small groups provide an opportunity to build deep relationships
with others. The pamphlet continues to describe how these small groups can fulfill
the desire that individuals have for a safe place where honest struggles and
weaknesses, as well as talents and strengths, can be known and understood by others.
The leadership structure of the small groups follows the general path of church
hierarchy with the pastor as general overseer. Below the pastor is the adult
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commission chair, who acts as the leader of the small group leaders. Then, under the
adult commission chair are the small group leaders. Finally, under the small group
leaders are the small group participants. This is illustrated in the following figure:
Figure 3.1: Leadership Structure at First Christian Church

Participant Selection
The researcher sought to analyze small group leaders and participants as units
of analysis, as they progress through the faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program. This allowed for the implementation of the curriculum program
to be effectively evaluated, since there was not just an emphasis on one individual
perspective, instead the perspective of leaders and participants were obtained.
Through in-depth research, the researcher was able to witness what leaders and
participants experienced throughout the curriculum program.
Participant
Participant Participant Participant
Senior Pastor
Adult Commission Chair
Small Group Leaders
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Leaders and participants who had no previous experience with a
LifeTogether curriculum program were chosen to be a part of the study. This
allowed for the study to examine what leaders and participants experienced,
following their initial interaction with such a curriculum program. Leaders and
participants who volunteered to be a part of the study were divided up, then placed
into two groups comprised of six individuals. Both groups completed the Beginning
in Christ Together: Six Sessions on the Life of Jesus curriculum program between the
dates of September 2006 to November 2006. The groups did not contain any leaders
or participants who were on church staff. This ensured that the congregation was
studied, as they took initiative in the curriculum program. The groups were
comprised of adults, which according to LifeTogether is the target audience that
mainly consumes this type of curriculum program. The groups then met on separate
evenings during the week, one on Wednesdays, the other on Thursdays, so that the
researcher had the ability to be present at each session, to record site observations.
Patton (2002) describes information-rich case studies are those in which one
can “learn a great deal about issues of central importance for the purpose of inquiry,
thus the term purposeful sampling” (p. 230). One of the benefits of purposeful
sampling is that it yields “in-sights and in-depth understanding rather than empirical
generalizations” (Patton, 2002, p. 230). Within the confines of purposeful sampling
falls the strategy of criterion sampling. According to Patton (2002), the “logic of
criterion sampling is to review and study all cases that meet some predetermined
criterion of importance, a strategy common in quality assurance efforts” (p. 238).
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Criterion sampling was implemented in this study in order to ensure that the desired
population was studied.
The first for individuals to be able to participate in this study was that they
needed to volunteer to be a part of the study. The next was for individuals to be
adults who have never used this type of curriculum before, and were able to meet
regularly during the Fall of 2006. Individuals also needed to be willing to, at the
completion of the curriculum program to meet with the researcher individually to
take part in an in-depth semi-structured interview and document analysis.
On September 10, 2006, at a service known as the Kick-Off Sunday Service
for small groups, the researcher presented a PowerPoint presentation at First
Christian Church. During the presentation, the researcher provided an overview of
the study and stated the criterion for participants in the study. It was also mentioned
that there was an opportunity for individuals to become leaders of the
groups. Finally, it was pointed out that the curriculum was provided free of charge to
leaders and participants. At the conclusion of the presentation the researcher told the
audience that he would be outside of the church building following the service with
sign-up sheets for groups that met on either Wednesday or Thursday evenings. The
researcher also said he was available to answer any questions that anyone might
have. At the end of the service, the researcher made his way to the outside of the
church building. For over an hour the researcher stood outside answering general
questions and signing up volunteers for the study. Those who volunteered for the
study were provided with information sheets (Appendix C) that reiterated the
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PowerPoint presentation and further explained the purpose of the dissertation study.
Twelve people ended up signing up to be a part of the study. Two couples
each volunteered to become leaders of the two groups that were formed. They
offered their homes to be used during the study and agreed to take the initiative as
leaders. The majority of those who signed up attended First Christian Church several
times a month. In addition to this, nearly all who signed up had been attending the
church for one year or less. Almost everyone who signed up had previously
participated in a faith-based adult small group before. However, none had
participated in a small group at First Christian Church prior to this experience. The
majority of those who signed up were female and the majority also had at least some
level of college education.
Group A was led by a married couple and met on Wednesdays evenings. The
majority of the group fell between the age-range of fifty to sixty-four years of age,
and were Christian for over twenty-five years. In terms of race, most of the group
self-identified themselves as white. All in the group were married, this included the
couple that were leaders and a couple that were participants, as well as two wives
who were present without their husbands.
Group B was led by a couple that was recently engaged to be married and
met on Thursday evenings. The majority of the group fell between the age-range of
thirty to forty-nine years of age and were Christian for at least ten years. In terms of
race, most of the group was self-identified as non-white. The majority of the group
was also single.
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Data Collection Procedures
In this case study, two small groups from First Christian Church of Orange
County were followed as they took part in a faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program during the Fall of 2006. Two small groups, Group A and Group
B, were made up of six participants each. They were observed as they met over a six-
week period. Immediately following the observation period, interviews and
document analysis were scheduled to determine how each leader’s and participant’s
experiences related to the three aspects of the educational framework reviewed
earlier: knowledge, motivation, and instructional design. The types of data collected
were qualitative. Detailed information was collected utilizing several data collecting
procedures over the course of the six sessions. The practices of research that were
used were observations, semi-structured and open-ended interviews, and document
research in order to come away with data, which enabled the researcher to have a
thorough understanding of the sample.

Site Observation
The researcher was present at each of the six sessions for both groups as an
observer. The researcher was able to take the role of a non-participant observer
taking notes while leaders and participants interacted with each other in their groups.
Patton (2002) describes the purpose of observation work as describing the “setting
that was observed, the activities that took place in that setting, the people who
participated in those activities, and the meanings of what was observed” (p. 262).
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More specifically, in an evaluative case study, observations can help the researcher
to “understand the program activities and the impacts through detailed descriptive
information about what has occurred in a program and how the people in the
program have reacted to what has occurred” (p. 262).
The researcher was an on-looker, collecting open-ended data with the
primary goal of identifying themes in the data. The researcher utilized observation
sheets (Appendix F) to record what was viewed happening during each session. The
sheets were coded to organize data as well as to protect anonymity. On the first
session of each group, the researcher opened up the meeting by stating that he was
going to play the role of a non-participating observer. Therefore, the researcher was
simply going to attend each meeting and take notes of what occurred. He was not
there to take part in discussions or activities. The researcher also reiterated the fact
that the anonymity of the leaders and participants was provided in this study.
Principles that guided this portion of the study included (Patton, 2002, p. 331):
1. Be clear about the role of the observer.
2. Be descriptive in taking field notes. Strive for thick, deep, and rich
description.
3. Gather a variety of information from different perspectives.
4. Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different types of
perspectives: observations, interviews, and documents.
5. Use quotations; represent people in their own terms.
6. Be aware of and strategic about the different stages of field work.
7. Separate description from interpretation and judgment.
8. Be reflective and reflexive.

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Interviews
Following the completion of the six-week curriculum program, leaders and
participants were scheduled to be a part of the interview process of this research
study. In addition to this, open-ended phone interviews were conducted with leaders
of each group to supplement the in-person interviews that were previously
conducted. Interviews are necessary when “we cannot observe behavior, feelings, or
how people interpret the world around them” (Merriam, 1998, p. 72). These
interviews were semi-structured and were around an hour in length following the
completion of the curriculum program. Merriam (1998) describes a semi-structured
interview as a mix of more-structured and less-structured questions. There is a
flexibility that availed to the researcher in this format.
In order to obtain a more holistic view of the program, both the small group
participants and leaders experiences were studied. The interviews were tape-
recorded, then transcribed. A sheet of paper (Appendix A) that included the
questions for participants was used to make notes on the respondents’ answers.
Another supplemental set of questions was also provided to leaders (Appendix B).
Mental notes were also made and recorded of observations that the researcher had
during the course of the interview. The work of Gallup and Lindsay (2002) was
utilized to obtain background information in the interview. Questions from Gallup
and Lindsay (2002) were used to gain information on the participant’s religious
background. Additional interview questions were informed by the literature review
portion of this study. The interview questions (Appendix A) can be divided into five
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main sections for participants: introduction, knowledge, motivation, instructional
design, and overall. There is a sixth section of supplemental questions (Appendix B)
to obtain further information on the leader’s perspective. These sections will be
elaborated on below.
The first set of questions were of an introductory nature, and served the
purpose of establishing rapport and obtaining background information. The second
set of questions dealt with the knowledge component of the educational framework.
Research drawn from the theories of Knowles (1968, 1980, 1993) and Bandura
(1976, 1986) informed the creation of questions. The third set of questions elicited
information on the motivation of participants as they progressed through the
curriculum program. Research in connection with Clark and Estes’ (2002) three
aspects of motivation provided the foundation for inquiry. The fourth set of questions
sought to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional design.
Clark’s (2000) theory of technology offered direction in this area. The fifth set of
questions were of a summative nature, and sought to obtain responses that garnered
what the leaders and participants suggested to improve the program, whether or not
to participate in the next course of the series, what they felt they learned, and what
they planned to change in their lives. Questions that sought to obtain the leader’s
perspective were devised in order to obtain feedback on the leader’s experience as a
facilitator of the small group. This was informed by cumulative research of the
literature review. As for the additional open-ended phone interviews that were
conducted with the leaders of each group, a sheet of paper was used to record their
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experiences implementing the curriculum program. These questions were based upon
the cumulative research in the literature review and the qualitative data that was
collected. These interviews were tape-recorded, then transcribed as well.
During the interview process, the researcher met with participants
individually and reiterated the fact that the anonymity was provided in the study. The
following list is a presentation of some principles that guided the interview process
(Thumma, 1998, p. 204):
1. Schedule interview well ahead of time.
2. Select a comfortable location.
3. Be prepared with list of questions.
4. Begin meeting with informal and casual small talk.
5. Focus on events or specific experiences that have led this person to
their beliefs or opinions.
6. Listen, listen, listen.
7. Be aware of questions that could only be answered by damaging
either the interviewee’s or other congregational member’s esteem
or social standing.
8. Use interviews to check out the information provided by others.
9. Pay attention to what happens and what you see in the surrounding
during the interview.
10. Test interview questions before hand.

Document Analysis
According to Merriam (1998), documents are a “ready-made source of data
easily accessible to the imaginative and resourceful investigator” (p. 113). Merriam
(1998) goes on to describe three types of documents that are available to the
researcher for analysis: public records, personal documents, and physical materials.
Public records include “manuals, program documents, mass media” and so on
(Merriam, 1998, p. 113). Personal documents are made up of documents, such as
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“diaries, letters, home videos, sermons” and so forth (Merriam, 1998, p. 116).
Physical materials are also known as “artifacts, which include tools, implements,
utensils, and instruments of everyday living” (Merriam, 1998, p. 117).
Merriam points out that once “documents are located, their authenticity must
be assessed” (Merriam, 1998, p. 121). Thus, it is the researcher’s “responsibility to
determine as much as possible about the document, its origins and reasons for being
written, its author, and the context in which it was written” (Merriam, 1998, p. 121).
It must also be understood that through the investigatory process that “documents
prove valuable not only because of what can be learned directly from them but also
as stimulus for paths of inquiry that can be pursued only through direct observation
and interviewing” (Patton, 2002, p. 294).
The study guide that was used during the study provided a wealth of
information that further informed the researcher of the participants’ experience.
Following the interview phase of this study, the researcher reviewed each leader and
participant’s study guide with questions (Appendix D). There was also another sheet
with questions that was used with leaders (Appendix E). The researcher went
through the study guide with the leaders and participants, stopping at each of the
following documents discussed below to determine whether or not participants took
part in the assignments.
Within the study guide there were seventeen documents that were evaluated
by the researcher for all leaders and participants: questions in the Connecting,
Growing, Developing, Sharing, and Surrendering sections, DVD Notes, Reflections,
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Personal Health Plan, Personal Health Assessment, Partner Progress, Team Roles,
Contract Agreement, Group Values, Reflection Sheets, Journaling 101, Bible
Reading Plan (Eastman et al., 2005). In addition to these documents, there were also
a set of three documents that were explored with leaders: Leading for the First Time,
Hosting an Open House, and Answers to Session Questions (Eastman et al., 2005).

Data Analysis
The data analysis for this study was reported in a manner to address the
research question under the headings of the theoretical framework: knowledge,
motivation, and instructional design. Patton (2002) states that “developing some
manageable classification or coding scheme is the first step of analysis” (p. 563).
Thick, rich descriptions were collected, then coded and organized by theme
according to the literature review. Interviews, observations, and document analysis
results were filtered into the three aspects of the educational framework: knowledge,
motivation, and instructional design. From this point, data was analyzed as a
detective looking for trends and patterns that emerged from the qualitative research
(Merriam, 2005). This process of analysis and interpretation was centered on looking
for insights with a meticulous attention to detail. Due to the nature of qualitative
research where new data continues to emerge, findings began to materialize that
emphasized the ethnographic technique that the researcher began to use, which went
from evaluating a curriculum program, to more of a study of the implementation of a
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curriculum program. Following this, data was synthesized and the process of writing
up the results into the chapter on findings took place.

Verification of Interpretation
Prior to studying Group A and Group B from First Christian Church, the
researcher went through the curriculum program with a volunteer small group. This
was to ensure that the researcher was familiar with the curriculum program and so
that he could witness firsthand how the study guide and DVD functioned. Following
this, the researcher created interview questions that were used in a pilot study with
the aforementioned volunteer group to determine the validity of the inquiry. By
conducting pilot interviews, the researcher was provided with sufficient practice in
interviewing and acquiring the necessary skills to refine the procedures used in this
study. In the pilot interviews, respondents were asked if there was clarity with the
questions provided.
The researcher had his own work monitored by having scholars in the area of
Christian education review the study. This was accomplished by carrying on an
ongoing dialogue with scholars who are familiar with the principles of Christian
education and small groups to determine how valid the findings that were emerging
in the course of the dissertation study were.
Methodologically, the researcher can demonstrate that his interpretations are
valid by utilizing methodological triangulation, where the interview data,
observation, and document analysis are used in conjunction to illustrate that the data
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has been properly represented. Research was conducted with the goal of obtaining
data that will answer the research question discussed earlier in this chapter. The
observations offer a view of the actual events as they took place in the study. The
document analysis provided insights into the effort that leaders and participants put
into completing assignments. Finally, the interview data served to tie everything
together by allowing the researcher to obtain information and clarity into what took
place during the study. What has just been presented can be considered
methodological triangulation, which provided different sources of data to ensure that
the researcher was truly reporting what occurred during this study (Patton, 2002).

Limitations
In qualitative research, a limitation is that results are not generalizable
because one cannot reproduce the same population that was studied. In addition to
this, Guba and Lincoln (1981) state that case studies can “oversimplify or exaggerate
a situation leading the reader to erroneous conclusions about the actual state of
affairs” (p. 377). Another limitation is that the study was conducted over the time-
span of one course and will not be a longitudinal study. Future studies that follow
groups over course of a number of months or years may prove to be beneficial in
determining how effective the course is in establishing the characteristics of a
lifelong learner and the effectiveness of promoting leadership.

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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the experiences of two small groups
that implemented a six-week faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program. An evaluative case study design was used to garner information from the
experiences of leaders and participants. After conducting qualitative research, by
observing a total of twelve small group sessions, conducting twelve one-on-one
semi-structured interviews, four open-ended interviews with leaders, and document
analysis the following data was obtained.
This chapter presents and explores the data that was collected in this study as
it relates to the Clark and Estes (2002) educational framework consisting of
knowledge, motivation, and instructional design. The experiences of leaders and
participants will be portrayed by describing their encounter with the curriculum
program and touching upon the following four conceptual frameworks: Knowles’
theory of andragogy, Bandura’s theory of social constructivism, Clark and Estes’
theory of motivation, and Clark’s theory of technology. Finally, a summary and
analysis will be provided on the research findings.

Introduction
By observing a small group over a period of time, one is potentially taken for
a journey into the lives of individuals who are in the process of learning and personal
growth. To set the stage for an exploration of the two small groups who implemented
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a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program, it was beneficial to first
examine what the demographics were of those who participated in this study.
Following this, the description of a typical evening in this context will be provided.
Finally, a look at the factors that influence adult learners will be presented.

Demographics
In this study, twelve individuals were followed as they implemented the
curriculum program. Seventy-five percent of the individuals were females, while
twenty-five percent were males. In terms of ethnicity, sixty-six percent of individuals
self-identified themselves as white, while twenty-five percent were Hispanic, and
one person was of Native-American decent. On the topic of age, fifty percent of
individuals fell between the ages of thirty to forty-nine years of age, thirty-three
percent were between fifty to sixty-four, and sixteen percent of were between
eighteen to twenty-nine. In the next section, a typical evening in the curriculum
program will be provided.

An Emblematic Meeting
Based upon the observations of the small group interactions over the course
of the entire study, the average emblematic meeting involved everyone in the group
making the commute from work or home, and arriving on-time at seven in the
evening. Leaders and participants came in wearing comfortable clothing, jeans and a
t-shirt. Participants greet each other casually by shaking hands or hugging, as each
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new guest walked through the door. As they made their way inside this modest
suburban home, participants made their way to their seats that were arranged in a
circle in the living room. Three end up sitting on couches, one on a dining room
chair, while one takes off their shoes and sits with their legs crossed on the floor.
The front door remains open, along with the windows of the home, allowing
a cool breeze to move through this Southern California home during an autumn
evening. A large HDTV is playing the continuous loop of the DVD menu, with the
light sounds of New Age music in the background. Everyone in the group begins to
reach towards the coffee table in the center of the room to grab a bottle of water or
some freshly baked cookies. At this point the leader might say, “Sara is not going to
be able to make it to tonight’s meeting. She called a little earlier and ended up having
to work late tonight.”
An observer could tell that the group members were relaxed. They had grown
accustomed to their new environment and they were familiar with their fellow group
members. Everyone begins to open up their study guides to the section of the week,
some with pens out, others are skimming through the pages of last week’s lesson.
Then one of the group leaders opens the group up in prayer. Welcome and general
announcements follow such as, “be sure to grab some cookies, I can’t eat them all.”
And with this, a group leader begins the lesson by reading the opening paragraphs of
the study guide that describes the experience of someone’s life in relationship to
God. This story serves to center the group and set the stage for the theme of the
evening.
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The group then progress through an ice-breaker question that has some
spiritual nature to it, such as “which of the following best describes your personal
health right now…” (Eastman et al., 2005, p. 24). The study guide then provides six
potential answers to this question. The responses to this question serve to enliven the
group. The first response is, “I’m so healthy I can leap tall buildings in a single
bound.” The group chuckles then listens attentively to the background to the
response that was provided. Next, a group leader presses play on a remote control to
start up the DVD player, activating the featured lesson and speaker of that week. The
group watches the television attentively for around fifteen minutes. Most are not
taking notes, but are listening intently to the message.
Following this the group leader might ask the group what they thought about
the speaker, or more likely, the group would simply move on to the study guide. A
group leader then asks the group who wants to go first this week. A participant then
raises their hand or says “I’ve got it.” The participant then reads and follows the
directions that are provided by the study guide, such as “Read Mark 1:40-45. From
this scene, how would you describe Jesus’ character and values?” (Eastman, et al.,
2005, p. 24). Thus, upon opening up their Bible, the participant reads the passage on
Jesus healing a man with leprosy out loud to the group.
The leader then offers up the first response to the question posed. The
answer is simple and concise, “I think Jesus wanted to teach and not just heal.” The
attention then focuses on the person sitting clockwise next to the participant who just
spoke. If they had studied the passage beforehand in church or had looked at the
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study guide prior to the meeting they might provide a more sophisticated answer,
“Jesus was more interested in healing the inside, through salvation, rather than
healing people’s bodies. God wants to teach people to love him if they don’t get
healed.” One member might take notes, following this response, while another nods
in approval. The progression continues until everyone in the group has an
opportunity to share what they thought.
As the group moves through the rest of the questions of a similar nature, two
themes would continue to arise: What does this mean and how can I apply it?
Throughout this time, the discussion goes in a few directions. If a group member was
confused about a statement made by the speaker on the DVD, or by a passage that
was read, a comment made by a group member, or a general question regarding the
Bible it would be brought out here. Plenty of questions and new discussion topics
could be brought up during the course of the roughly hour-and-a-half meeting.
Answers and advice are offered up randomly by fellow group members. An observer
could notice that social relationships have been established in this small group, were
influencing how open members are with their doubts and questions.
Personal stories of the leaders and participants are shared in the context of a
meeting. Personal struggles and questions of an intimate nature also emerge near the
end of meetings when participants were most comfortable to speak on what was
affecting them during the past week. Most of the materials in the study guide are not
addressed when the meeting draws to a close. Finally, a participant asks what anyone
would like to be prayer for, and it is recorded on a sheet of paper. The group would
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then bow their heads as an enthusiastic member prays for the needs of group
members individually. In the next section, factors that influence adult learning will
be explored.

Factors Influencing Leaders & Participants
The Clark and Estes’ (2002) educational framework has been a beneficial
means of understanding the adult learner. This framework contends that knowledge,
motivation, and instructional design are factors that influence adult learners. Figure
4.1 illustrates the sub-themes associated with each factor, which influenced the
learning of adults as informed by the review of literature and the data collected
through qualitative research.
Figure 4.1: Clark & Estes’ Educational Framework - Expanded

Factors Influencing Leaders & Participants
Knowledge

Motivation Instructional
Design
Knowles’
Theory of
Andragogy
Clark & Estes’
Theory of
Motivation
Clark’s
Theory of
Technology
Bandura’s
Theory of
Social
Constructivism
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In the following three sections, the roles and responsibilities of leaders and
participants will be further explored, in light of the theoretical framework, organized
under the headings of knowledge, motivation, and instructional design.

Knowledge
At this point, it would be beneficial to revisit the research question of this
study: How do the group leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and the participants’
roles and responsibilities impact the implementation of a faith-based adult small
group video curriculum program? In order to address this, the question has been
divided into two sections: andragogy and social constructivism.

Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy
Knowles’ (1968, 1980, 1993) theory of andragogy has been a beneficial
means of understanding the adult learner. Andragogy posits that adults bring with
them experiences and expectations that need to be taken into account when exploring
the relationship between the leader, as the facilitator, and the participant. Based upon
the literature review and the experiences of leaders and participants, Figure 4.2
provides an overview of how individuals were influenced during the implementation
of the curriculum program with the four aspects of andragogy in mind: self-concept,
prior experience, need-based readiness, and immediate application.

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Figure 4.2: Knowledge – Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy

Self-concept
The idea of self-concept has to do with an increasingly self-directed learning
quality for individuals (Knowles, 1993). From this perspective the leader’s role is
closely tied to that of a facilitator, instead of a lecturer or evaluator. Both Group A
and B had first-time leaders as facilitators. In addition to this, the groups each had
couples as group leaders. As observed by the researcher, the groups took on a
different tone when one member of the leadership team was absent from a session. In
the case of Group A, when the female leader was not present at two of the sessions,
her husband appeared to facilitate the group better than when she was present. He
seemed to be a better listener and did not go off topic as much during times of
discussion.
In the case of Group B, when the male leader was not present at two of the
sessions, the group also appeared to perform better as a whole. When the male leader
was present, he seemed to be prone to take up too much time sharing and not follow
Andragogy
Role of
Experience

Immediate
Application
Self-
Concept
Need-based
Readiness
Role of
Facilitator
Prior
Knowledge
Relevance
of
Assignments
Practicality
of
Assignments
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the study guide. Yet, when the group was under the sole leadership of the female
leader, the group seemed to function more orderly. Another reason why the group
may have performed better when he was gone was that he was the only male member
of the group. When the group was made up exclusively of females, deeper levels of
sharing and disclosures also appeared to take place. This may indicate that in a small
group in which the entire group is comprised of one gender, individuals may feel
more comfortable sharing since the opposite sex is not present.
As the study progressed, the facilitation skills of leaders became evident in
terms of the group process and structure. From the beginning, it could be noted that
both groups had major problems communicating. In terms of getting everyone
involved in discussions, the group leaders were able to do this by having each person
share their thoughts following the questions provided in the study guide. A leader
from Group A stated that, “It was great that everybody had a turn and was able to
share what they believed. Usually in church only one person really gets to say
anything, but here people could say whatever they wanted.” The leaders were able to
create an atmosphere where no one was interrupted while speaking and they had time
to finish their thoughts.
It appeared that by providing participants with too much freedom of
expression, leaders were unable to establish parameters on what was to be discussed.
Therefore, some of the curriculum was not covered because of what appeared to be a
lack of control by leaders. A leader from Group B stated that, “I didn’t want to make
anybody feel bad, so I decided to let people go ahead and talk about things that were
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not on topic. This made the group go on longer, and probably seemed like the
discussions sometimes were out of control.” An example of this would have been
when a participant from Group B brought up the topic of drug use and began to talk
at length on the subject, even though it did not follow the discussion outlined in the
curriculum program.
Since there were no limits on the time that leaders and participants had to
share, it appeared that at times the groups would lose focus and go off on tangents.
This was perceived to be a major problem for the participants of Group A, as
documented in their interviews. A participant from Group A stated, “I would have
liked to have followed the curriculum more, but the leader of our group talked too
much. The leader turned the group into a place to get on a soapbox and rant.” This
leader from Group A would often bring up past experiences that would go on for
over ten minutes, while fellow group members sat in what appeared to be an
awkward silence. This leader from Group A, in retrospect stated that, “I probably
shouldn’t have talked as much as I did, but I was nervous as the leader.”
In addition to this, this same leader from Group A would often propose his
own stances on doctrinal issues that were outside of the topic of discussion as stated
in the curriculum program. This leader’s views were also clearly contrary to the
established beliefs of First Christian Church, as noted by participants from Group A.
An example of this was when the leader of Group A began to expand upon his
personal beliefs on the topic of who will eventually go to heaven. To the surprise and
dismay of the participants of Group A, according to their interview responses, he
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presented a teaching known as universal redemption. A participant from Group A
commented that in response to the perceived unscriptural teachings that were being
provided by the leader of Group A, she felt obligated to attempt to tread lightly in
order to, “in love bring the discussion back without hurting anyone’s feelings.”
Another participant from Group A elaborated on this issue by stating that, “It was
hard at times in the group because some things were not scriptural. So I would try to
sway the group to look at it ‘this way’ instead of the way the leader was taking the
group.”
The leaders of both groups appeared unable as facilitators to consistently
keep their groups on the discussion topic as outlined in the curriculum program. A
participant from Group B, described what their leaders could have done to make the
course more enriching for them by stating that, “a little bit more direction would
have helped. It seemed like there was no leader, so we all had to jump in and lead.”
A participant from Group A stated that, “discussions were often geared around
people’s problem. This made it easy to go off track and things then dragged on.”
Another participant from Group A commented that their leaders could have “stayed
on course and been more focused.” A leader from Group A admitted that as a leader
he could have made the course more enriching by, “staying better on task.” The
interview data collected suggests that a leader’s role, as a group’s facilitator, is a
driving force behind the health of an effective small group. The facilitation
performance of the group’s leaders appeared to play an enormous role in how the
groups functioned according to the observations of the researcher as well.
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There was a common view among many participants that leaders also lacked
in their organization and presentation. This also appeared to impact the learning that
took place among participants. A participant from Group B stated that, “we didn’t
really go through the course, we skipped through it. We didn’t go from beginning to
end at all.” According to the comments of participants in both groups, when
assignments in the curriculum program were not addressed in sequential order,
confusion often resulted. More will be discussed on the topic of organization, as well
as the development of schema, in the instructional design section.
A participant from Group A, when asked to comment on the group leader’s
use of the study guide stated that, “the people hosting should have gone through it a
little more.” All of the leaders, by their own admission, were not prepared for each
session, which was also evidenced by their performance as observed by the
researcher and through document analysis. Leaders did not regularly utilize the
available resources that were provided in the DVD, study guide, and website due to a
lack of preparation, according to their interview responses. The use of resources by
leaders will be further discussed in the behavior section of social constructivism.
Although participants described times of discussion as less than ideal, this
portion of the curriculum program is where most noted that real learning took place
for them. The majority of participants noted that the responses that emerged from the
group during the discussion portion helped to provide insights and ways to apply
what was being studied, over any other part of the curriculum. A participant from
Group A stated that, “the greatest thing that I learned about myself was that it’s okay
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to just sit back at times and do nothing more than observing than interacting. It was a
blessing for me.” A participant from Group B stated that, “it was more intimate than
a bigger group. It was about different people’s perspectives. I learned a lot from
different types of people who didn’t hold back. I hold back in church sometimes,
they made it a little easier.” Listening during discussions appeared to be an effective
means of obtaining the perspective of others as participants interacted with the
curriculum program.
According to participants of both groups, the character of leaders also played
a factor in their experience with the curriculum program. An example of this was the
male leader from Group B, whose questionable character was noted by participants
of his group. This leader did not show up to two of the meetings, then arrived more
than an hour late to another meeting. This meant that he was only present during
roughly half of the sessions. A participant of Group B stated, “To be honest, I still
have questions about the leader of my group. He didn’t appear to care about the
group as much as he should of. We would of gotten more out of it if he would of
taken it serious.”
The issue of this leader’s character came up again, while informal
conversations were taking place just prior to the start of a meeting. Here the
participants of Group B discovered why this leader was not present at their last
session. The leader of Group B disclosed a different reason than the one that his
fiancé had provided at the previous meeting. While his fiancé had earlier shared that
his absence was due to the fact that he was out of town, the truth became known
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when he told the group that he was arrested over the weekend, and could not get out
of jail in time to be at the Thursday meeting. This did not create a healthy culture for
the group, by reaffirming some of the doubts that participants already had in their
leader’s character. This male leader did not appear to be to be a good example of a
positive role-model for those in his group. Thus, it appeared that the character of this
leader negatively affected the implementation of the curriculum program on
participants.
The issue of character also came up in Group A, when in an informal
conversation the female leader began to discuss her son from a previous relationship.
It was at the conclusion of a meeting when she began to complain about her son.
This drew the group’s attention to her, when typically at the close of a meeting
everyone leaves within less than a minute. As all of the participants were standing
around preparing to leave, a participant then asked a follow-up question about her
son. This is when the leader began to go on about her shortcomings as a mother and
the constant problems that she has with her son. She went on to describe how bad
their relationship was, highlighted by the fact that at one point she sent him to a
boarding school in Mexico that ended up being raided by the Mexican government.
According to interview responses, as well as the observations of the researcher, this
narrative went on for roughly fifteen minutes and caused the group to be in a state of
shock and awkwardness as participants discovered that their leader couldn’t manager
her own home and probably should not be a leader. This would appear to indicate
that a leader’s role may need to incorporate a morality code that is required for them
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to be eligible to lead a group and obtain the respect of participants. In the following
section, the role of experience will be looked into, in relationship to the experiences
of small group leaders and participants.
Role of Experience
Knowles (1993) proposes that the role of experience is a rich source of
learning for not only one’s self, but for those that interact with that individual.
Interview data indicated that a majority of participants were college educated and
Christians for at least ten years. Interviews, document analysis, and the researcher’s
observations appear to suggest that the experiences and prior knowledge that leaders
brought to their groups, did not directly translate into being effective facilitators. A
leader from Group A stated that, “Even though I grew up in the church, now that it is
all over, I can say that I wasn’t prepared to lead a group.” A participant from this
leader’s group who came with years of experience participating in small groups,
remorsefully stated that, “some people are not meant to be facilitators.”
With respect to the leaders of Group B, one had no experience with small
groups before, while the other was a part of a college group that met weekly. As for
the leaders of Group A, they came into the curriculum program with experience as
small group participants at the church they previously attended. According to these
leaders, this experience was not a good training ground for them as leaders. A leader
from Group A stated that the small group was “not really a Bible study, but more of
a gossip and complaining session about the pastor and the church.” The church that
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this small group was a part of would soon close down shortly thereafter, according to
these leaders causing them to find another church.
A participant of Group A who had a wealth of experience leading small
groups was unable to make the commitment to become the leader of this group due
to the demands of life. Yet, throughout the duration of the course, this participant
appeared to end up taking control of some of the discussions. In one particular
discussion, this participant offered much needed advice to a leader of Group A.
During a discussion, this leader began to describe how much she was offended by a
family member who invited her to go to a homeless shelter on Thanksgiving to serve
dinners. This leader felt that this date was sacred to her family and that she could not
imagine giving up this day to help others no matter how noble the cause.
At one point this leader stated that, “I know that I am probably being selfish,
but that’s what I believe.” It was at this point that the participant of Group A asked
her “why don’t you celebrate Thanksgiving with your family the day before or the
day after? This way you can still be a part of serving the less fortunate on
Thanksgiving and have your family traditions too.” This advice was listened to
because this participant had developed a rather high level of credibility and respect
with the group by the way she carried herself during sessions. This illustrates how
people who have more experience as successful Christian facilitators can
meaningfully contribute to group discussions.
In both Group A and B it appeared that exemplary participants emerged to
informally provide leadership to the groups. One participant from Group A stated
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that she viewed her role in the group as that of a “listener and leader.” Another such
participant from Group A stated that she saw their role as one who could “bring a
level of stability to the group since some discussions went off track and felt
anxious.” The exemplary participant from Group B stated that she viewed their
responsibility to the group in terms of helping others. This participant stated that,
“I’m the type of person that if I see someone struggling, I’ll try my best to bring to
the table what I know.” These participants appeared to emerge when group leaders
were not able to adequately provide leadership to the group. In response to this lack
of leadership, these participants according to their interview responses, felt obligated
to step forward and provide leadership based upon the experiences that they
possessed. The next section will address a need-based readiness in relationship to the
participants’ experiences.
Need-based Readiness
A need-based readiness provides an orientation to learning that is task-or
problem-centered (Knowles, 2005). Qualitative research indicates that an influential
factor in the implementation of a curriculum program is the relevance of
assignments. Early on, leaders from both groups encouraged participants to complete
assignments that were relevant to them and to skip parts that they did not feel like
doing. An example of this would be the model that a leader from Group A provided
to his group. He stated that one of the reasons that he didn’t complete the study guide
questions ahead of time for discussions was that, “I’m better off the fly. Occasionally
I would read through the material, but usually I glance through it.” It appears that
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this leader from Group A used not preparing for discussions as an excuse for not
focusing on relevant content, because from his perspective he felt that the assignment
was not relevant to his performance as a facilitator and participant in discussions.
While this was initially appealing, it was noted by participants from both
groups that one of the weaknesses in the implementation of the curriculum program
was that leaders provided no formal accountability on work done outside of the
group. A leader from Group A stated that, “I think I could of done a better job
staying on top of people, but I was barely doing the stuff myself.” A participant of
Group A stated that, “I sometimes felt bad because I was doing all this work, yet I
was not being recognized for what I was doing.” This appears to be an example of
how accountability plays a role in the responsibilities of an effective small group
leader. The issue of accountability will be discussed further in the social
constructivism section below.
According to their own admission, the leaders of both groups did not
adequately go through the study guides with the participants throughout the
curriculum program. This may reveal why many potentially relevant assignments
were overlooked in the document analysis. Assignments from the study guide, that
were not specifically touched upon during group meetings were not completed by the
majority of participants according to the document analysis. One reason for this,
according to the responses of participants from both groups was that there was a
large emphasis placed upon the leader’s role in the utilization of materials. It appears
that by largely relying on the leaders’ direction on how to utilize materials, many
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participants under-utilized study guides since they did not have motivation to do so
on their own.
A participant from Group A stated that, “I didn’t even know there were more
things to do in the guide. I just did what the leaders talked about.” Other responses
from participants on why they did not take part in an assignment include: laziness,
ignorance, a lack of time, and a lack of accountability. Interview responses from
those who happened to complete additional assignments illustrate a desire by
participants to learn more outside of the group. This appears to suggest that there
should be a larger emphasis for participant’s to take responsibility for taking
initiative in the utilization of materials.
One task that appeared to be particularly relevant, according to all leaders and
participants, were the assigned readings from the Bible that took place during each
session. A leader from Group A stated that, “I liked the way I learned a lot about
Jesus. I saw it before, but never read it or got it.” It should be noted that based upon
the interview data, that all believed that these readings encouraged them to take
action and apply what they learned. This leader believed that the readings “put a
personal perspective on Jesus and the lives of the disciples that I can relate to, to use
my gifts.” The individualized understandings that were drawn from the assigned
readings provided a high level of enthusiasm for this portion of the small group
sessions, according to the observations of the researcher and interview responses.
The leader from Group A continued on the subject of assigned readings by
stating that, the curriculum program provided “not just a couple of verses chosen by
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some far away church, but stories you can understand and get a personal spin.” This
appeared to show that while there were many assignments provided in the
curriculum program, the Bible had a prominent role and seemed to perform its
purpose according to the responses of the individuals. In the next section, the
immediate application aspect of andragogy will be addressed in relation to the
participants’ experiences.
Immediate Application
The concern for immediate application is important for participants to have
the opportunity to apply what they have learned (Knowles, 1993). According to the
responses of participants, they were able to adequately apply what they learned from
the curriculum program weekly. A leader of Group A stated that through the process
of studying he realized that, “I didn’t know half as much as I do now. I am
personalizing the Bible a lot better now.” It appears that the curriculum program was
effective in providing leaders and participants with the knowledge on how to
immediately apply what they were learning, according to interview responses.
A leader from Group A stated that during each meeting he were able to “find
better ways to serve God better.” An illustration of this appeared to take place during
a session when the topic of repentance came up. The study guide provided a
definition that conveyed a different meaning of the word repentance than one of the
participants in Group A had been familiar with. This participant then began to
struggle with her previous understanding of the word and this new definition based
upon a study of the original Greek term, according to the study guide. Suddenly, a
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sense of relief appeared to come over this participant as she came to accept this new
definition which was to simply change your behavior, not being remorseful. This
participant later conveyed that learning this new definition of repentance was the
most powerful experience that she had throughout the curriculum program since she
no longer had to beat herself up over past mistakes. She was free to experience a new
relationship with God that was less about feeling remorseful about the past and more
about feeling empowered to move forward in a new direction. This participant later
stated that, “early on I got to find out what repent really means. I got a lot of insights.
It doesn’t mean penance, it just means to turn to God!” This appears to suggest that
some of the subject matter in the curriculum program is conducive to immediate
application. This same participant from Group A also stated that through this course
she was able to learn how others deal with “challenges, gratitude, being a witness to
God, and finances.” This statement appears to illustrate that the curriculum program
was particularly applicable to her personally, since she was struggling to pay bills
and to move forward in life spiritually.
Another example of how the curriculum program appears to lend itself
toward immediate application took place during a discussion in Group A. The
subject matter of this particular session was on God’s ability to heal individuals
today as he did in the past, according to the New Testament. A leader from the group
made a statement that was contrary to the teaching provided in the curriculum
program. He stated that, “I don’t pray for myself to be healed. I just don’t think that
God wants me to do that. That would be selfish, so I just pray for others.” The
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context of this statement was that this leader had been experiencing severe back-pain
for decades. In fact, the entire lesson, provided in the study guide and DVD that
week was on God’s desire to heal individuals of illnesses. According to the
curriculum program, the group was instructed that healing could be accomplished
through prayer.
So when this leader made the statement above, the rest of the group jumped
in to let him know “that while your motives may be good and genuine, in terms of
the teachings and the character of God, you are not getting it.” One participant
reiterated the lesson to him, stating that, “Jesus came to heal physically. The apostles
also healed people.” She continued on that, “God wants to heal you and you should
pray for yourself.” An example of immediate application appeared to take place
when at the conclusion of the meeting the leader of Group A prayed for himself that
he would be healed. According to the observations of the researcher, the following
week this leader stated that, “I was feeling a lot better this week.”
Leaders and participants had an array of experiences in the context of this
faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. Informed by the four
principles of andragogy: self-concept, role of experience, a need-based readiness,
and immediate application, the researcher was able to key in on factors that
influenced the implementation of the curriculum program: the role of the facilitator,
prior knowledge, relevance of assignments, and the practicality of assignments. In
the next section, leaders and participants experiences will be informed by social
constructivism.
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Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism
Bandura’s (1976, 1986) concept of social constructivism provides an
understanding and an appreciation for the nature of small group learning. Based upon
the literature review and the experiences of leaders and participants, Figure 4.3
provides an overview of how individuals were influenced during the implementation
of the curriculum program by the three aspects of social constructivism:
environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive.
Figure 4.3: Knowledge – Bandura’s Theory of Social Constructivism

Environment
People do not come into curriculum programs as blank slates as Watson
(2004) would propose, instead they bring with them the life and educational
experiences which have left an indelible mark on them as incoming leaders and
Social Constructivism
Environment

Behavior Personal/
Cognitive
Family
History
Group
Norms

Media
Literacy
Religious
History
Group
Goals
Responsibility
Educational
History
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participants into a small group. The societal influences which individuals are
exposed to, play a large part in their motivation towards educational activities
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986, 2000). An individual’s educational history appeared to be a
factor when it came to how an individual viewed their experience in a small group.
On the one hand, a participant from Group B was extremely disappointed by the
“lack of organization and accountability” of their small group, in contrast to their
recent experience in college. On the other hand, another participant from Group B
stated that she always “had problems staying focused in school” as an explanation
for why she couldn’t keep up with some of the readings and assignments throughout
the curriculum program. A leader from Group A made known several times
throughout the duration of the small group her academic credentials. This appeared
to be an attempt to establish a degree of respect from the group, as well as
demonstrate her ability to master academic tasks.
The family experiences of individuals also appeared to affect how they
participated in a curriculum program. On numerous occasions, participants would
reference family upbringing as a means of explaining how they approached the small
group and the curriculum program. During a time of discussion, a leader of Group A
stated that, “I come from a Chicago-Irish family, so excuse me if I come off gruff.”
According to the responses of participants in this group, this appeared to be an
accurate disclaimer, as the group would end up learning just how direct and
unpolished this leader was. A participant in Group A stated that, “I couldn’t believe
it when she started using that language during the meeting.” The researcher observed
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how this group leader’s less than wholesome phrases would produce a surprised
response from participants in the small group setting.
In terms of family experience, the male leader from Group A would often
reference his upbringing and his “overly religious mom. She always forced us to do
things, which I hated. I am more into giving people room to make their own
decisions.” This may provide some insight into why this leader felt so passionate
about voluntary small groups. This leader stated that, “I really liked this group,
everyone who came wanted to come.” Family experiences also appeared to be a
factor in the implementation of a curriculum program.
The religious history of individuals also appeared to affect participants in the
curriculum program. One couple from Group A was in the process of returning back
to church after going through a bad experience at a previous church that they had
been a part of “for more than thirty years.” According to what they shared during
group meetings, they were very sensitive and were hoping that through being
involved with this intimate small group they would be in a non-threatening
environment where they could make new friends. The wife in this couple from
Group A stated that, “We were involved in such a bad experience from that church
that we were left with basically no friends. We lost a lot. So here we are trying to
start over.” A leader of Group B also stated that participating in this small group was
also the first step for them to get back into church after “not having anything do to
with church” while away at college. These appear to be two examples of how small
groups provided a venue for individuals to get more involved with a church at a
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personal level. The next section will deal with the behavior aspect of social
constructivism in relationship to the experiences of individuals.
Behavior
According to Bandura (1976, 1986), knowledge is attained through social or
cultural settings and interactions with others. Johnson and Johnson (1991) argue that
with this understanding, it is important to note that the behaviors that take place
within the confines of a small group appear to play a role in how individuals function
and learn. According to the qualitative research that was collected, two factors which
appear to impact individuals are group norms and group goals. At this point it may
prove beneficial to review some of the curriculum that is available to leaders through
the curriculum program. The Beginning in Christ Together study guide provides
several documents to support leaders in establishing health group norms such as:
Hosting an Open House, Leading for the First Time, Introduction, Team Roles, and
Frequently Asked Questions (Eastman et al., 2005). In addition, the study guide also
referenced the LifeTogether website as an additional support in this area (Eastman et
al., 2005). Finally, the Beginning in Christ Together DVD also offered weekly
segments called Leader Lifter trainings that were also to be used to assist the leaders
in establishing group norms (Rathbun, 2005).
In reviewing the documents listed above, during the document analysis, it
emerged that the leaders from both groups did not use any of these resources because
they “did not have time” or did not adequately “look into the study guide”
throughout the entire curriculum program. According to the observations of the
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researcher, these first-time small group leaders appeared to be left to their own
devices as they established the conduct of the group. The researcher noted that both
the pastor and adult commission chair of First Christian Church took a hands-off
approach with the small group leaders and did not keep them accountable in any
tangible fashion. This may explain why the groups failed to be more effective in
providing structure to participants.
In terms of group goals, the study guide provided a document called the
LifeTogether Agreement that was recommended for groups to work through at the
beginning of the first night (Eastman et al., 2005). This document addressed what the
purpose of the group would be, the values of the group, as well as the expectations
for the group. On the one hand, Group A worked through a few of the values that the
group would commit to during the duration of the curriculum program, but never
addressed or acknowledged them again. On the other hand, Group B skipped through
this section entirely and seemed to miss out on the structure that could have been
provided. This may be an example of the implementation of a curriculum program
where small groups did not have leaders that cultivated an environment which
encouraged consistency.
On another note in the behavioral aspect of social constructivism, the small
group appeared to be an effective tool in the creation of new relationships, according
to the responses of half of the participants in this study. In Group B, one of the
participants was a sponsor in a substance-abuse rehabilitation program. Through this
program, she developed friendships with individuals who she grew very close to,
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through the sponsorship model. Two of the people that she sponsored in the
substance-abuse program had begun to attend weekly services at the First Christian
Church for a few months, but they had not yet assimilated into the life of the church.
After the sponsor signed up to join Group B, she persuaded the two people to also
join the group. Through the curriculum program, all three participants ended up
making new friends due to their involvement with the small group. This appeared to
be an example of how small groups can be influential in the formation of new
friendships.
As participants progressed through the curriculum program, others did not
feel as connected to the group as the participants mentioned above. This feeling of
not being connected also played itself out during discussions, according to a
participant of Group A. The participant stated, “I didn’t feel as though I was a part of
the group sometimes, because these people were not on my same page.” Others, who
felt more of a sense of bonding, did not hesitate to share within the group. A
participant from Group B stated that, “I had a lot of stuff bottled in, inside of me. But
in this group I felt safe enough to say what I experienced.” It was noted in
observations by the researcher that as general levels of disclosure began to rise,
leaders and participants began to feel more comfortable with those in their small
group. Another participant from Group B stated that, “as we spent more time
together, it was easier for me to speak from the heart.” This appears to indicate that
depending upon the level of comfort that a participant feels within a small group,
may be a determining factor when it comes to sharing in discussions. In the next
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section, the final aspect of social constructivism, the personal/cognitive factor will be
addressed in light of the experiences of participants.
Personal/Cognitive
When exploring the personal/cognitive aspect of social constructivism, the
sophistication of reasoning as well as the personal characteristics of the leaders and
participants is taken into account (Bandura, 1976, 1986). As individuals have had
and continue to have their beliefs shaped, it appears that the environment and
behaviors of the group play a part in the creation of shared meaning. According to
the observations of the researcher, while some individuals who participated in the
curriculum program had no problem maintaining their independence, it appears that
others compromised to fit in.
An example of how others compromised to fit in appeared in the relationship
between the leaders of Group B. Originally, when the leaders of Group B introduced
themselves to their group, they conveyed that they were in a loving, healthy
relationship and were soon to be married. According to the responses of participants
from Group B, while initially these leaders attempted to portray themselves as a
model couple that was in love, in reality they were not good for each other. A
participant from Group B would later state that, “they were putting on an act to
impress the group, at first, then problems started to show. They probably shouldn’t
be together. I know that he is verbally abusive to her and he even yelled at her
parents in their home.” This appears to be an example of how individuals can
misrepresent who they really are in order to receive acceptance from the group.
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Qualitative research obtained during this study also seemed to indicate two
factors that influenced leaders and participants in the curriculum program: media
literacy and personal responsibility. Media literacy enables a leader to teach
participants how to scholarly analyze media. As the groups progressed throughout
the sessions, it was evident that leaders and participants had strong views on the
topic of doctrine. Individuals were constantly analyzing the study guide and DVD
based upon their previous biblical knowledge, as well as their life experiences. This
was apparent in the discussions that would take place during meetings, based upon
what was provided in the curriculum program. Leaders and participants would
sometimes go back and forth on issues, attempting to come to a common
understanding. It then appeared that certain individuals within the group would
become known as more reliable sources of knowledge. In Group A, participants
would look to a certain participant for answers when difficult questions would arise.
The sophistication in the evaluation of the curriculum program that took
place by leaders and participants varied from crude and rudimentary to more
collegiate and specific. On the more refined side, a participant from Group A would
not hesitate to bring up during the discussion, studies that she had previously been a
part of in the languages and context of the Bible. This would seem to serve as a
foundation to challenge participant responses, as well as seek to clarify issues that
were brought up in the curriculum program. Overall, this participant acted with tact
and patience in providing answers.
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On the less polished side, the male leader from Group B, who was arrested
during the course of the study, took things in a different direction. During the final
meeting that was held for Group B, there was pizza and soda out to greet participants
as they arrived. Since the male group leader was not there yet, the female leader took
charge and began to lead the group through the initial section of the lesson that day.
The mood appeared to be very harmonious and had a celebratory nature to it, since
the group had developed some close relationships over the course of the six-week
study.
Around an hour into the meeting, the missing male group leader walked in
and sat down. The group leader then began to take charge of the meeting, by taking
the lead role in facilitating the discussion at hand. The mood of the group did not
appear to miss a beat up to this point. Next, it was time for the group to view the
Dynamic Teaching portion of the DVD. That week the featured person was another
widely-respected speaker, according to the curriculum program. During the teaching
the speaker made her presentation in a unique fashion compared to the previous five
speakers, in that she did not use a conversational tone. Instead, she was the only
presenter who used the style of a southern preacher, dressed to fit the part, and
standing behind a podium.
During the teaching, the speaker openly discussed how she used to live and
how God changed her life. She brought up the fact that she was an evil woman
before all of this. One of the mistakes she believed she made prior to becoming a
Christian was that she had a divorce. When this was mentioned the leader then
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blurted out “divorced” which drew the attention of the participants who were
watching the presentation. A few minutes later this leader paused the DVD player
with the remote control was recorded, stating that:
Now I just want to add something to what she is saying now right now. She
mentioned something about being a new divorcee. Divorcee. Divorce. It is
not a godly thing. God does not believe in divorce. God gave the institution
of marriage. It is until death do you part. That is what God said. So this lady
is full of it. And I don’t want to hear what she has to say about it. Because
divorce is not acceptable and God does not believe in divorce. She is very
happy to talk about it. I am a divorcee. No, no, no. Her past or her present or
her future. Not acceptable God does not accept divorce. I’m putting an end to
this CD.

At this point the group leader turned off the DVD player with the remote control and
said:
No God does not agree with divorce. God says until death do you part. It does
not say until the man beats on you and you are tired of him. Until the man
cheats on you. No God says until death do you part. And he brought strict
punishment on anyone who remarried. The Samaritan woman, one example.
God asked her why aren’t you with your husband. She goes I have no
husband. You’re right you have no husband because you have married five
guys already. The first guy you married was your husband. Period. Divorce is
not acceptable in God’s eyes. No matter which way you want to cut the cake.
It is unacceptable.

When the group leader finished his tirade, the last meeting effectively fell
apart and ended. A participant who was divorced due to the abuse that was inflicted
upon her by her husband at the time broke down in tears and quickly left the home.
She sought refuge in her car that was parked out front. The meeting then deteriorated
into an argument between the leader and a participant who was sticking up for the
participant who had just fled the home. The story above appears to be an example of
how a group leader did not practice media literacy. Throughout the curriculum
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program, it should be noted that other discussions took place over issues where there
was disagreement between participants, leaders, and the curriculum; yet, they did not
play themselves out like the story just mentioned. Thus, it appears that media literacy
was practiced within the curriculum program, and leaders play a role in how
effectively it is implemented.
Responsibility also emerged as an important factor in light of the
personal/cognitive aspect of social constructivism based upon the qualitative data
that was collected. Through the educational experience of participating in a
curriculum program, there seems to be an indication that the responsibility to be a
critical consumer of research falls upon each participant. In situations such as the one
described at length above, it appears that each member of a group needs to take
initiative to ensure that differences are critiqued are discussed in an objective and
forthright manner.
Leaders and participants had an array of experiences in the context of a faith-
based adult small group video curriculum program. Informed by the four principles
of andragogy: self-concept, role of experience, a need-based readiness, and
immediate application, the researcher was able to key in on factors that effected the
implementation of a curriculum program: the role of the facilitator, prior knowledge,
relevance of assignments, and the practicality of assignments. Next, the three aspect
of social constructivism: environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive were
explored and it was found that the following factors effected the implementation of a
curriculum program: family history, educational history, personal religious history,
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group norms, group goals, media literacy, and responsibility. In the next section
Clark and Estes’ (2002) theory of motivation will be explored with particular
attention paid to their three aspects of motivation: active choice, persistence, and
mental effort.

Motivation
At this moment, it would be advantageous to repeat the research question
used in this study and look at it through the motivational lens: How do the group
leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities
impact the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program? In order to address this question, this section has been informed by the
literature review and has been organized under the heading of Clark and Estes’
Theory of Motivation.

Clark & Estes’ Theory of Motivation
Clark and Estes’ (2002) theory of motivation provided an effective
framework to explore the implementation of a curriculum program. Based upon the
literature review and the experiences of leaders and participants, Figure 4.4 provides
an overview of how individuals were influenced during the implementation of the
curriculum program by the motivational aspects: active choice, persistence, and
mental effort.

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Figure 4.4: Motivation – Clark & Estes’ Theory of Motivation

Active Choice

The first aspect of motivation is for an individual to choose to make the
change or changes that will get one closer to the desired goal or active choice. A
crucial factor that plays a role in whether or not a leader or a participant can begin a
task is social loafing. In a curriculum program, social loafing has to do with
individuals who simply sit back while the rest of the group does all of the work.
According to the responses of participants, peer orientation and accountability
appeared to be factors in whether or not social loafing took place. Overwhelmingly,
individuals responded that they initially came into the curriculum program actively
looking to be a part of a group that would bring them closer to God. There were
other comments made by participants that demonstrated that a desire to study the
Bible more was one of their main motivations behind joining the small group. A
participant from group B stated that, “I wasn’t keeping up with reading the Bible on
Motivation
Active Choice

Persistence Mental Effort
Self-Efficacy

Mastery vs. Performance
Orientation
Social Loafing
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my own, so I thought that this could help me do that. Plus, I could make friends at
the same time.”
Social reasons were also at the forefront, according to participants, in their
initial interest to take part in a small group. While individuals noted that they
primarily wanted to learn and grow in knowledge of Bible, just behind that, they also
chose to be a part of a group in order to build relationships with other people at
church. A participant from Group B stated that, “I was going to the church for a
month, but I didn’t know anyone. That’s why I chose to do this.” It should also be
noted that most of the participants in this study did not know each other prior to the
formation of the small groups. The small groups served to bring people together, as a
member of Group A put it, “that would never be in the same home as each other.” It
appears that social needs provided a necessary incentive for individuals to participate
in a small group curriculum program.
The observations of the researcher indicate that among group members, peer
orientation is especially important. According to the work of Hancock (2004), people
with high peer orientation enjoy working in small groups, while those with a low
peer orientation do not. Those with a high peer orientation, predictably, are more
likely to be highly motivated when working in small groups, while people with low
peer orientation are more likely to disengage from the outset. It can be noted that all
of the participants expressed two common characteristics for joining the small group:
to get to know other people and to work towards learning more about the Bible. It
would appear that individuals who have a low peer orientation would not volunteer
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to participate in a small group. While initially it appeared that all individuals who
signed up to join the small group did so out of their own accord, one participant from
Group A stated that he was actually signed up, “by my wife.” This individual would
convey that he did not really want to participate in the group, but did so to please his
wife. This may indicate why he would often provide one word answers or short
phrases in discussion such as “the same as him” or “I agree with that.” He
summarized his perspective on the curriculum by stating that, “it wasn’t really my
thing, so I couldn’t get into it.”
In terms of accountability, it appeared that leaders were unable to model the
characteristics of a skilled facilitator. A leader from Group A stated that in the
beginning of the curriculum program, in discussions “I was a leader getting us back
on track, myself included. Then things changed where I became very passive, where
I was just sitting back and learning.” This was interpreted by some participants to be
an unfair contribution, by the leader, to the rest of the group. One participant from
Group A stated that, “the leaders didn’t look like they were doing their job at all
sometimes.” Due to this type of activity, participants from both groups conveyed that
they did not feel that their leaders were putting in as much effort as they should. This
may suggest that when leaders are not perceived to be effective facilitators, group
cohesiveness begins to drop, opening up the door for social loafing to occur among
participants.
Yet, according to participant interviews and the observations of the
researcher, within the group participants were able to obtain strength and
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encouragement from each other to apply what they were learning. It was not
uncommon for a participant to share an experience that would serve to embolden
another participant to take action. An example of this took place within Group B,
when during a discussion a participant shared a moving story that took place while
she was in prison. This participant stated that, “I was in prison and pregnant with no
hope.” She shared that while she was at the lowest point in her life, she decided to
reach out to God. It was from this place in life that she decided to trust God and to
turn over every area of her life back to God. This encouraged another participant to
make a stand that week to break free from a long-term unhealthy relationship with
her boyfriend. This appeared to be an example of how the curriculum program
facilitated an environment in which participants could motivate each other to make a
change in their lives. In the next section, the second area of motivation, persistence
will be addressed in light of the leaders and participants experiences.
Persistence
Clarke and Estes (2002) define persistence as “the ability to continue in the
face of distractions” (p.81). Self-Efficacy is a means of understanding persistence in
a curriculum program. When some of the participants began to perceive the group as
a lost cause, they became disheartened and failed to invest the necessary work to
complete the tasks of the group or to attend sessions. This appeared to occur in this
study when it was noted that nearly all participants missed at least one session. In
addition to this, it was observed that most group members missed two out of the six
scheduled sessions.
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A leader from Group A took some ownership over the lack of persistence in
her group by stating that, “I didn’t really know what being a leader of a small group
was all about.” She reasoned this was why she fell short in the area of being an
effective small group leader. Some participants voiced that when they realized that
the work that they were putting in, outside of the group in preparation for a session,
was not being recognized they began to lose focus and did not invest as much effort
as before. A participant in Group A stated that, “When I noticed that we were not
going through all of the questions that we were supposed to, I didn’t really want to
come anymore.” This may indicate that when group leaders are not able to create an
environment which meets the expectations of participants that persistence decreases.
At the same time, despite the deficiencies of the leaders of Group A, a
participant from that group stated, that following the curriculum program, she
learned “patience through this experience. These were new leaders who had a
willingness to serve and offered up their home as a place to do that.” Another
participant of Group A stated that, “I realized that everyone comes from a different
place and that I need more compassion.” In fact, a leader from Group A stated, “I
still have some serious things that I still need to give up to be a better Christian.”
While the other leader from Group A reiterated the same sentiment, in that
throughout the curriculum program the leader “felt lucky to be a host.” In an
atmosphere where group members began to learn about the tendencies of their
leaders, humility appeared to be a helpful perspective for leaders and participants in
the implementation of the curriculum program.
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According to the responses of leaders and participants, the majority of them
stated that they were pleased with the curriculum program and would be interested
participating in the next course in the series. More will be discussed on this topic in
the instructional design section. It should also be noted that the majority of
participants in Group A stated that they did not want to complete the next curriculum
program within the same group. Since individuals unanimously agreed that they
liked the curriculum program itself, problems that arose due to how the groups
functioned left something to be desired, according to interview responses. In the next
section, the final aspect of motivation, mental effort, will be addressed in light of the
leaders and participants experiences.
Mental Effort
The last aspect of motivation in the Clark and Estes (2002) motivational
framework is mental effort, which is defined as “working smarter and developing
novel solutions” (p. 81). After choosing to participate in a small group and persisting
despite distractions, individuals must decide how much mental effort is required to
complete the curriculum program. The mastery vs. performance orientation appeared
in the mental effort exerted by leaders and participants. The mastery orientation
posits that those who view learning from the perspective of a life-long learner will be
more apt to invest mental effort into educational endeavors, as opposed to those who
take a performance orientation who view learning as a series of tasks that are to be
simply completed and done with. A leader from Group B stated that “no matter
where you are in life, everyone has a story. God put us here to change us.” This
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appeared to be an example of what other participants noted during interviews, that
life is about spiritual transformation over time and that this can be applied to
participation in a small group. A participant from Group B stated that, “I knew that I
didn’t have all the answers, but I was learning and this encouraged me to keep
going.”
Participant responses seemed to illustrate that those who held the perspective
of a lifelong learner, were able to place a larger amount of effort into completing
assignments and preparing for sessions. A participant from Group A stated that, “I
was very motivated to learn about Christ. I was also in other studies at the same time
as this one.” This participant continued by stating that, “I looked through each
session beforehand and filled out the answers to the questions.” Another participant
from this group stated that they put a lot of effort into preparation, “I went into
commentaries to study the passages more in-depth.”
According to the observations of the researcher and document analysis, the
majority of participants consistently completed the assigned readings and answered
discussion questions from the study guide ahead of time. Participants who did not do
this noted that while at the beginning of the program they wanted to do these
activities to learn, towards the end they began to fall behind on assignments.
Eventually, they began to simply view their responsibility as participants as simply
showing up. Some of the reasons that were attributed to their change in perspective,
were due to being too busy, having a lack of group accountability, and a lack of
personal discipline. A participant from Group B stated that, “I tried to glance through
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the guide the night before, so that I wouldn’t look like I didn’t know what was going
on.” A participant from Group A stated that, “I would have liked to put more effort,
but I did read the study guide before meetings.” The findings seem to suggest that
participants who were encouraged to have a mastery orientation put in more effort
than those who embraced a performance orientation.
The Clark and Estes’ (2002) construct of motivation was an effective means
of exploring the experiences of adult learners through its three aspects: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Factors that emerged through this study that
influenced learning were: social loafing, self-efficacy, and mastery vs. performance
orientation. The next section will address the final aspect of the Clark and Estes
(2002) educational framework: instructional design.

Instructional Design
Here, attention should be brought back to the research question, in light of the
research explored on the subject of instructional design: How do the group leaders’
roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program? In
order to address this question, this section has been informed by the literature review
and has been organized under the heading of Clark’s Theory of Technology.

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Clark’s Theory of Technology
Clark’s (2000) view of instructional design provided a useful framework for
exploring the implementation of a curriculum program. Based upon the literature
review and the experiences of leaders and participants, Figure 4.5 provides an
overview of how individuals were influenced during the implementation of the
curriculum program by the technological aspects of delivery and instruction.
Figure 4.5: Instructional Design – Clark’s Theory of Technology

Delivery Technology
According to Roblyer and Edwards (2000), educational technology is a
“combination of the processes and tools involved in addressing educational needs
and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current tools: computers and
their related technologies” (p. 6). Two factors that emerged during the
implementation of the curriculum program were flexibility and simplicity. The
flexibility that was availed through the curriculum program was an incentive for
leaders and participants who had many responsibilities, as noted in interview
Technology
Delivery Technology Instructional Technology
Distance
Learning
Dual-Store Model
of Memory
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responses. For most participants, it was common for them to remark that time was
one of their main hindrances in participating in more activities at church. As a
participant from Group B stated, “I always wanted to do more with the church, but
my schedule didn’t allow for it.” A participant from Group A stated that, “In my line
of work, I can’t do things unless it happens late. So this group started at seven and
that was good for me.” It appeared that the flexibility that was offered in the
curriculum program, mainly meetings that started late in the evening and met on
various nights encouraged individuals to participate in the small group.
The flexibility to go through assignments in the curriculum program based on
one’s preferences was also an incentive for participants, according to their interview
responses. A participant from Group B stated that, “I loved that we could do what we
wanted. It helped me do less work some weeks, so that I could spend more time with
my kid.” Another participant from this group stated that, “At the first meeting, I felt
good about this group because I knew that I wouldn’t have to do so much work if I
didn’t have the time.” The flexibility for individuals to choose which assignments to
complete in the curriculum program appeared to be an incentive for participants with
busy schedules.
The implied simplicity, or the ease-of-use, of the curriculum program’s
technology appeared to be a difficulty for leaders from both groups. At Group A’s
first meeting, the leaders had problems using their DVD player. It took over thirty
minutes to get the DVD player working properly. A leader from Group A stated that,
“I just couldn’t figure the thing out. I was nervous. That had something to do with it
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too.” According to participants from this group, this incident was viewed as a bad
start since they were in the process of making first impressions. A participant from
Group A stated that the first night was “a complete waste of time as the leaders tried
to figure it out.” It appeared that technical difficulties were a hindrance for
participants when their leaders did not seem to have things together. According to
participants in both groups, this type of activity appeared to suggest that the leaders
were not taking their role seriously since they were the ones responsible for
preparing the video in time for meetings.
In addition to this, the issue of simplicity also seemed to surface throughout
the curriculum program when leaders from both groups were unsure of when to start
the DVD and when to go back to the study guide. This type of problem was an
example of how the pace of meetings could be slowed down, causing the group to go
off course according to the curriculum program. It appeared that group leaders had
problems following the directions at times when the curriculum program required a
transition from the study guide to the DVD, and back. A leader from Group A stated
that, “it was a little rough at first. I didn’t know what I was doing because the
instructions in the book were not really clear.”
While the study guide did direct the leaders towards a general protocol at the
beginning of the guide, it was not specifically listed in each session. Early on, in the
study guide, leaders were provided with the following directions: view the DVD
teaching segment, “after your Connecting discussion and before your Bible study
(Growing section)” (Eastman et al., 2006, p. 9). It appears that leaders who
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participated in the curriculum program needed more specific directions in order to
adequately go through the materials provided. In the next section there will be a
focus on the instructional technology component of instructional design.
Instructional Technology
Instructional technology seeks to influence learning and is comprised of what
subject matter is to be taught, then how to design that curriculum in order to teach it
(Clark, 2000). In this study, two factors that seemed to emerge during the
implementation of the curriculum program were cognitive demand and schema.
Cognitive demands brings the following question to the forefront, does the
curriculum program provide too much or too little information for an individual to
process? Two factors that appeared to influence the cognitive demand of individuals
were the attention and the effort necessary to learn the material presented.
In terms of the attention factor, based upon the observations of the researcher,
individuals were engaged during the use of the DVD. A participant from Group A
stated, “The videos were well done. Speakers were short and concise. They were not
trying to impress anyone and I could stay awake during them too.” Participants also
noted that they appreciated the majority of the teaching segments which were
instructional and featured speakers who were excited and enthusiastic about the
subject matter. According to the majority of individuals in this study, they felt that
the DVD segments for the most part had compelling teachings that were easy to
follow. A participant of Group A stated that, “The videos were quick and to the
point. I could get it, even after a long days work.” Another participant from this
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group stated that, “it was good to hear input and get the viewpoint of a scholar.” The
leader from this group stated that, “the videos helped me to relate to the people on
screen, then apply it to the scriptures and apply it to my life.” Another participant
from this group stated that, “I liked the way that they gave their own stories on the
topics.” It appeared that, overall, the DVDs presented the correct amount of
information to hold the attention of participants. Yet, other participants voiced that
some of the featured speakers were not able to hold their attention.
A participant from Group A stated that, “the method of delivery of some
speakers made it difficult to focus.” Another participant from this group
acknowledged that, “two of the speakers I didn’t care for.” A leader from this group
conveyed that, “the guy that spoke two weeks ago, I didn’t hear anything he had to
say because of the way he looked and the way he talked.” Another participant from
this group also commented on this same speaker by stating that, “he didn’t do it
right. He never got to the point.”
Continuing to focus on the attention factor, individuals noted that they began
to loose focus during some of the discussion portions of the meeting. A participant of
Group A stated that, “Sometimes people just talk too much.” This was reiterated by
another participant of this group who stated that, “I think that discussions go too long
sometimes.” A participant from Group B stated that,
“sometimes the study guide was too wordy. There were so many intense
questions that it was impossible to get through all the questions in one
session. There should be less questions, so that the group does not feel
pressured to try to get through them all. With less questions, there will be
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more space to talk about them. I would say three or four questions are what
the group should attempt to go through, not twelve.”

It appears that while the curriculum program provided ample opportunity for
individuals to participate in answering questions, these discussions could draw on
causing individuals to lose focus and attention on learning.
In terms of effort, the majority of participants felt that the materials were at a
basic level where there was nothing that was too difficult or overwhelming. A
participant in Group B stated that, “The questions that were in the study guide were
really simple, like for beginning Christians. It was simple.” Another participant from
this group stated, “I liked everything in the small group, especially the videos
because they were to the point.” Yet, a participant from Group A stated that, “this
book was good, but it should probably be broken down into twelve studies, than six
because there was a lot of information that we could have gone deeper into.” It
appears that the materials were straightforward, providing an ease for individuals as
they progressed through the curriculum program.
While, according to the responses of the participants, the materials were
easily understandable, it should be noted that there were also additional materials
within the curriculum program for those individuals who desired a more rigorous
experience. According to the researcher’s analysis of documents, most groups didn’t
use more than half of what was contained in the study guide and more than two-
thirds of what was on the DVD. It was also noted that group leaders did not use the
variety of training resources as well. A member from Group B provided the
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following insight, “If the leader didn’t bring it up, then I didn’t look into it.” This
suggests that the materials that the leaders chose out of the curriculum program
directly affected the rigor of a participant’s experience.
Schemas allow for individuals to categorize information into a format that
will be readily available for future reference. In terms of the curriculum program
studied, the majority of participants noted that the real learning that took place for
them was during the discussion portion of meetings. A participant from Group B
stated that, “during discussions is when I learned. It was great to hear everyone say
what they thought. It made me ask more questions of myself.” Another participant
from this group stated, “in a good group discussion, I was able to learn things that I
would have never learned before because of the different types of people.”
According to the observations of the researcher, it appeared that discussions guided
by leading questions were able to provide an environment that was conducive
towards building understanding. This suggests that discussions are an effective
means of bringing about schema in a curriculum program.
It appeared that the organization of the curriculum program itself was
effective in providing the framework for individuals to build schema as well. Each
week, a specific theme was presented by the curriculum program that appeared to
allow for individuals to easily make connections with what was being presented. Yet,
a participant from Group B stated that,
“There should be a skeleton outline of what we were going to touch on in the
guide. Bible points and an outline of what we would go through would of
helped. Maybe even a worksheet that you can take out and turn into a leader
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to see how the group is doing each week, then the leader could give it back to
us.”

It appears that participants desired to have materials available to them to further
assist them in organizing information, thus building schema.
It should be noted that throughout the curriculum program there are two types
of facilitators in a small group meeting: leaders of that particular small group and the
host on the DVD. This host is the creator of the curriculum program who introduces
segments and provides transitions throughout the DVD. According to the responses
of participants, the host was a personable figure who provided a relational feel to the
curriculum. Yet, a leader from Group B stated that, “I did not like the narrator guy,
he seemed too cheesy.” Yet, this comment was contrasted by others in the study,
such as a participant from this same group who stated that, “I liked the guy who was
the introduction person, but it would have been nice if we would of revisited the past
session during this time.” A participant in Group B stated that, “I felt like I could
relate to him. He was down-to-earth and did a good job.” A participant from Group
A stated that, “the host was informative by leading the group with instructions.”
A leader from Group A stated that, “the host gave the meeting direction and
put us on track.” The other leader from this group stated that, “he explained what we
were supposed to be talking about.” A participant of Group A stated that the “host of
the DVD was very informative. He leads the group to pay attention to certain things.
He was really effective.” These findings indicate that the host was able to
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supplement the role of the small group leaders by providing participants with the
organization to build schemas.
Clark’s view of instructional design, delivery technology and instructional
technology, proved to be useful in exploring the experiences of leaders and
participants. Two factors that emerged during the implementation of the faith-based
adult small group video curriculum program were distance learning and the way
curriculum designers took the principles of dual-store memory into account.

Summary
Through the course of this study, an evaluative case study design was utilized
to obtain data to inform the research question. As previously stated, leaders and
participants had an array of experiences in the context of the faith-based adult small
group video curriculum program that was studied. Informed by the four principles of
andragogy: self-concept, role of experience, a need-based readiness, and immediate
application, the researcher was able to key in on factors that influenced adult
learners: the role of the facilitator, prior knowledge, relevance of assignments, and
the practicality of assignments. Next, the three aspects of social constructivism:
environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive were explored and it was found that
the following factors influenced adult learners: family history, educational history,
personal religious history, group norms, group goals, media literacy, and
responsibility.
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Clark and Estes’ (2002) construct of motivation was an effective means of
exploring the experiences of adult learners through its three aspects: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Factors that emerged through this study that
influenced learning were: social loafing, self-efficacy, and a mastery vs. performance
orientation. Clark’s (2000) view of instructional design, delivery technology and
instructional technology proved to be useful in exploring adult learning. Two factors
that emerged during the implementation of the faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program were distance learning and the way curriculum designers took
the principles of dual-store memory into account. In the final chapter, I will provide
an analysis of the findings, recommendations, conclusions, as well as future areas of
research.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
This study explored the experiences of two small groups made up adults who
took part in the implementation of a faith-based adult small video curriculum
program in Southern California. Relevant literature was explored that addressed the
roles and responsibilities of leaders and participants who take part in this type of
curriculum program. Qualitative data was collected then presented.
In this chapter, initially a brief overview will be provided of chapters one,
two, three, and four. Chapter one provided the overview of this study, addressing
issues such as the problem statement, purpose of the study, significance of the study,
conceptual framework, and limitations. Chapter two examined applicable research as
it relates to the conceptual framework. Chapter three provided background on the
methodology that was chosen in this study: an evaluative case study. Chapter four
presented the findings that were collected in this study through observations,
interviews, and document analysis.
In this chapter the findings will be discussed under the headings of leaders &
participants, and curriculum. Next, how this study contributes to knowledge about
theory or practice will be offered under the headings of the Clark and Estes (2002).
Limitations not covered in Chapter Three will follow. Recommendations will then be
presented for future research, followed by conclusions.

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Introduction
This study began by looking at the history of Christian education, which is
actually the history of the practice of discipleship (Bruynell & Padgett, 2003). In the
course of discipleship throughout the centuries, small groups have been used because
of the intimacy that was available through this model, as well as tremendous amount
of persecution that Christians faced (Simson, 2001). According to Burgess (2001)
emerging out of the Dark Ages, a return to scholarship was a driving force, as the
Protestant Reformation sought to change the direction of the Church due to abuses
that were going on. In response to these abuses, the Bible was translated into various
languages in order that parishioners could determine whether or not they were being
deceived (Gonzales, 2001). Habermas (2001) argues that the sixteenth century can be
considered an epicenter for communities and organizations creating contextual
catechisms or curriculum that promote teachings from the Bible. Today, curriculum
programs are being created, out of a desire for individuals to understand the
teachings of the Bible as they did in the past.
In today’s Digital Age, as new faith-based adult small group video
curriculum programs have been created, there have been almost no evaluations of
these materials outside of economics, whether or not the curriculum sells (Chen,
2002). This study chose to examine the LifeTogether Beginning in Christ Together
curriculum program as an inaugural work in this neglected field (Eastman, et al.,
2005).
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In order to carry out this task, the Clark and Estes’ (2002) educational
framework was employed. This framework proposes that in order to improve upon a
program’s product; one must examine three main areas: knowledge, motivation, and
instructional design (Clark & Estes, 2002). By utilizing the work of educational
theorists, relevant research was reviewed in order to refine the conceptual
framework. With this research framework, the present study endeavored to build
upon this foundation and utilized qualitative methods in order to investigate the
implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. The
first two chapters laid the groundwork for the present study.
An evaluative case study was chosen as the specific methodology to be
employed because it provided a comprehensive view into an educational
environment (Merriam, 1998). This enabled the researcher to obtain a rich
understanding of the experiences of leaders and participants from the beginning to
the completion of a curriculum program (Merriam, 1998). Furthermore, this
qualitative study was the first academic study in the field of faith-based adult small
group video curriculum programs that is known of. Therefore, the individual
experiences of leaders and participants needed to be fully explored in order to
provide a foundation for future research (Patton, 2002). The research question that
was answered is as follows: How do the group leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and
the participants’ roles and responsibilities impact the implementation of a faith-based
adult small group video curriculum program?
In chapter four the researcher presented the findings of this study that were
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collected through observations, interviews, and document analysis. This data
provided insights into the group leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and the
participants’ roles and responsibilities and how they impacted the implementation of
a faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. In the next section, an
analysis of the findings will be presented.

Summary of Findings
The process of analyzing the findings that were obtained through
observations, interviews, and document analysis was centered on looking for insights
with meticulous attention to detail. Combined with the research that was conducted
in the literature review, the researcher reflected upon the findings and determined
what contribution this study made to knowledge and practice. This section is divided
into two parts which outline the clear distinction between the delivery of the
curriculum program through leadership and application, and the content of the
curriculum program itself. It should be noted that the curriculum program itself is not
reflective of the quality of delivery in this study. Under the heading of leaders &
participants, the researcher will explore how this study contributes to the knowledge
base, such as the importance of accountability within small group curriculum
programs.

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Leaders & Participants
The group leaders’ roles and responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and
responsibilities were evident throughout the implementation of a faith-based adult
small group video curriculum program. The roles and responsibilities of leaders and
participants will be explored below. The way that volunteers become leaders in this
context of curriculum programs appears to be a significant area which will determine
the health of a small group. Tying into this, it is also evident that the amount of
support that is provided to leaders will influence participant experiences.
Knowledge
This study set out to examine the experience of small group leaders and
participants as they implemented a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program. The research question posed, centered on the roles and responsibilities of
the leaders and participants as they took part in the curriculum program.
In the literature review, Knowles’ (1993) theory of andragogy was discussed,
which illustrates how the role of experience is a rich source of learning for not only
one’s self, but for those that interact with that individual. This factor played itself out
in this study, as leaders took the role of facilitating their small groups. Since most of
the leaders did not have experience leading a healthy small group previously, in
addition to not having any support, they were unable to guide group discussions
effectively. In line with the research in the literature review, the experiences of the
incoming leaders in the curriculum program proved to be influential in how their
small groups eventually functioned in terms of their process and structure.
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Based upon the observations of group interactions, leaders from both Group
A and B were not able to adequately create and maintain a healthy small group
environment. As those who volunteered began to function as small group leaders, it
became evident that they did not fully comprehend the importance of their role as
facilitators based upon their interview responses. Part of the reason for this is
attributed to the way in which the small group leaders were selected. When
volunteers were first introduced to the possibility of becoming leaders, they were
told that all it took to become a leader was to open up their home and play a video.
This was based upon the marketing literature of the curriculum program, itself.
What was later revealed by the small group leaders in their exit interviews,
was that they did not fully understand what they had signed up for in the beginning.
Initially they were told that all that was required of leaders was that one had to open
up their home to the small group and be able to use a DVD player. These leaders
believed the marketing of the curriculum program, but soon found out during the
first week that there was a lot more required of them in order to lead their groups. It
was also evident from the interview responses of the exemplary participants, that the
reason why they did not choose to become small group leaders was that they
understood the investment in time and energy that was required to be an effective
leader. According to their interviews, this was why they chose to be participants,
rather than to volunteer to take a leadership position in the curriculum program.
Thus, these participants who had experience in effective small groups prior to this
study were not convinced by the marketing of the curriculum program that there was
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simply a minimal role for leaders. It appears that the marketing of the curriculum
program is misleading for those who have never used this type of product before in
terms of the roles and responsibilities of leaders.
Based upon the observations of group interactions and participant responses,
it was confirmed that one of the main determinants in whether or not a group will
function effectively is if qualified leaders are placed in charge of groups. An
example of this was when a participant from Group A conveyed that some
individuals should just not be leaders if they did not possess good character and were
unable to meet the requirements of a responsible leader. Thus, when leaders who
were not able to facilitate the group effectively, learning and motivation decreased
among participants as reported in their interview responses. Therefore, one of the
primary concerns for those implementing a curriculum programs is that groups
should be specifically crafted in a way to ensure that groups will be effective (Baker
& Campbell, 2005). This could likely be accomplished by assessing what knowledge
and experience individuals bring to a curriculum program (Fink, 2003).
It should be recognized that medium-sized churches contain a broad spectrum
of potential leaders and participants in a curriculum program, with characteristics
ranging from age, maturity, and educational history in both church and school. Yet,
just as in this study, when curriculum programs are typically implemented at church-
sites there is no screening process that takes place to determine the skills of leaders
or participants. As evidenced through the interviews with participants, this practice
can prove to be detrimental to the health of groups, due to the fact that some leaders
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are unable to provide the guidance that their groups need. This was exemplified by
the interview responses of participants in Group A whom eventually ended up not
returning to their group after they felt that there was a lack of leadership being
provided by their leaders.
It appears that the results of an initial assessment may be useful in assisting
church leadership to assess, then determine who in the congregation should become
group leaders and who should be matched in certain small groups. Another
advantage resulting from an assessment for group leaders is the ability to gain
background information on participants to determine who has knowledge or
credibility in certain areas that may be relevant to the curriculum program (George,
1997). Group leaders should potentially be able to craft the curriculum program to
the participants they would lead.
Among group leaders, it also became evident through this study that there
needs to be an accountability component built into this type of curriculum program
(McBride, 1995). Findings suggest that accountability through personal relationships
should be stressed. Personal relationships should be established between the church
leadership and potential small group leaders, so that church leaders will know the
character of new leaders. As was the case of the male leader from Group B, who was
arrested during this study, he had no relationship with the church leadership, thus
church administrators did not know of his character defects prior to becoming a
leader. Based upon the observations of group interactions, not only did the church
leaders not know about this leader’s character, they also did not hold him
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accountable for the way he carried himself as the leader of his group since leaders
were not required to check in with church administrators.
With no regular contact or accountability to someone in church leadership,
the leaders in both groups were able to skate through this experience without really
having to answer to anyone, but those participants in their group (McBride, 1993).
An example of this was when participants in Group A were uncomfortable with the
non-Biblical teachings that their male leader was providing. Based upon the
observations of the group interactions and interview responses, these participants
were political in the way that they attempted to correct him, yet there was no
involvement from church leadership on this issue. By not directly stating that this
leader was wrong, participants would attempt to provide insights in a non-
threatening way that provided passages from the Bible to justify their beliefs, rather
than just saying, “I believe this.”
Thus, research explored in the literature was confirmed that the failure to
have checks and balances among leaders affected the health of the small group.
Group norms and the ability to keep group members accountable fell apart in both
groups since the group leaders did not follow through on these vital areas (Schwartz,
2002). Participants in Group A conveyed in interviews that they lost heart and focus
once they realized that the work that they were putting in was not being valued by
the group since group leaders were not going through the curriculum program
systematically, but randomly choosing one topic over another. In addition to this,
participants from both groups reported in their interview responses and through
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document analysis that they were not provided with the necessary level of
accountability to keep up on completing assignments throughout the curriculum
program. It is evident that this is an area where the church-site needs to do more to
ensure that accountability is established with leaders such as meeting with them
regularly, which in turn affects the culture of the small group (George, 1997).
Again, without the proper accountability and support, research has confirmed
that leaders left to their own devices were unable to carry out the tasks of an
effective facilitator (Viola, 2003). This was evidenced by the responses of the leaders
from Group A who reported in their exit interviews that they had no idea what they
were really doing leading a small group for the first time. Thus, it appears that
church leaders should establish a system of accountability and training for small
group leaders, through mentoring. An initiative, such as church leader-small group
leader mentoring program should become an integral rather than a peripheral part of
the church’s tradition and infrastructure. Based upon the observations of small group
interactions and leader interviews, small group leaders needed and desired the
structure and support from someone who could help them become better leaders.
Based upon the research of Girves (2005), if a mentoring program is to be
implemented in order to improve the role of facilitation by leaders, then it should be
central to the life of a church. Girves (2005) argues that successful programs, if not
institutionalized, will eventually disappear and their benefit will be lost, for their
success is tied to the individuals who run them. Therefore, mentoring programs
which are based in small group curriculum programs should be firmly established as
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necessary to the welfare of the life of the church. This would also send a clear
message to the rest of the church: mentoring programs are valued and the church-site
is committed to assisting church members in developing into small group leaders.
Mentoring programs that are established should be uplifted and dignified as a
part of the church leadership’s responsibilities. Consequently, church-sites should
equally value mentoring, teaching, and community service as invaluable
responsibilities of church staff members. Data indicates that some of the most
powerful accountability and learning experiences can take place outside of the
regimented Sunday services. Church-sites should promote the activity of small group
leaders meeting with church staff informally. Thus, church leaders should be
provided with incentives such as financial support that would enable them to become
more sociable with those they mentor, with the purpose of promoting a mastery
approach towards participating and leading small groups (Ormond, 1999). A
mentoring program allows for small group leaders to build meaningful relationships
with church leadership, promoting a type of apprentice-style educational experience
to be fostered, and providing for a more fruitful experience for both the small group
leader and the church leader.
Effective coaching or mentoring could also ensure that the leaders facilitate
their group properly, while at the same time making certain that there is
accountability (Stanley & Clinton, 1992). Through personal relationships that are
built between the church leadership and the small group leaders, leaders are placed
within a supportive environment where they could learn and develop into better
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facilitators. This helps to eliminate bad routines, such as the practice that the leader
from Group A displayed, which was that he didn’t prepare for discussions because
he felt that he was better at answering questions on the fly. Curriculum programs,
such as the one featured in this study had a tremendous amount of helps and trainings
that could have benefited the small group experience of participants (McIsaac &
Blocher, 1998). The responsibility for this falls on the leadership of a particular
church-site. This type of training should be systematic and formal, in order to ensure
that the leader is consistently receiving assistance and skills from their coaches
(Arnold, 1997).
Bandura’s (1976, 1986) theory of social constructivism was also examined in
this study and also proved to be influential in the way that a curriculum program is
implemented. Based upon the observations of group interactions and participant
interview responses, it was confirmed that volunteers who have not been a part of a
healthy small group before should not be eligible to become small group leaders
(Viola, 2003). Based upon the document analysis, the leaders from both groups may
have benefited greatly from experiencing life in an effective small group as
participants. Examples of this are individuals who have previously participated in a
curriculum program. These leaders may not bypass as many assignments or Leader
Helps that are provided to them. Leaders voiced in their exit interviews that they did
not use these documents because they did not know these resources existed, largely
because they did not thoroughly go through the curriculum program’s materials at
any point in the study. By taking part in a healthy small group, participants also have
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the chance to view their leader facilitate the group and use the materials provided by
the curriculum program.
This study suggests that while there may be first-time leaders who can
potentially do an excellent job, it should be understood that for most church-sites, it
is not difficult for someone to take part in a small group that lasts six weeks which
could act as a training program. It is possible for an individual that desires to lead a
small group to join a six week small group and gain some experience before they
take a leadership position. In addition to this, it appears beneficial for the leaders
themselves to develop and take on the characteristics of a healthy small group
participant before they lead others (Hunter, 2000).
As previously discussed, Bandura (1976, 1986) argues that knowledge is
attained through social or cultural settings and interactions with others to collectively
construct new knowledge or a clear understanding of knowledge. By taking into
account the role of the experience, social constructivism opened up the lens to the
current landscape of adult Christianity in this study. In a post-9/11 context, the
observations of group interactions and participant interviews have confirmed that
people are seeking out ways to be a part of communities (Meyers, 2003). An
example of this was in Group B, where participants voiced that they had been going
to church services on Sunday for months, yet developed no personal relationships
with those in the congregation. All participants voiced that one of the main
incentives to take part in the curriculum program was to make friends. The hunger to
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develop friendships with those at church proved to be a motivating factor for those in
this study.
The research of Schwartz (2002) was also confirmed, through the
observations of group interactions that a lack of group norms and group goals will
lead to a lack consistency among participants of a small group. Again, participants in
the study voiced their dislike of the manner in which their leaders led their groups.
This was viewed by participants as an indication that leaders were not taking their
role seriously. An example of this was during the first session of Group A when the
leaders demonstrated that they were not prepared to lead the group, when they took
more than thirty minutes to set up the DVD player so that the group could watch the
introductory video segment. Participants conveyed during interviews that they
desired to have group leaders who not only prepared for sessions, but also went
above and beyond to hold participants accountable to standards.
The groups in this study had varying degrees of accountability due to the lax
approach of their leaders. To combat this, it is suggested that there should be a means
to evaluate, assess, or gauge how both the leaders and participants are progressing
through the curriculum program (Lawson, 2002). This sentiment was also voiced by
a participant from Group B who believed that there should be documents built into
the curriculum program for leaders to determine what participants have done during
the week. A possible supplement to this documentation are quizzes incorporated into
the curriculum program, so that leaders and participants will be encouraged to
diligently study materials as well.
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Due to the emotions of not feeling connected to the group, as voiced by
Group A’s participants in interviews, the curriculum program should be informed by
research on this issue in the future. If there is a mix of leadership within a group,
then feelings of connectedness may be more likely to occur (McBride, 1993). In both
small groups, leadership was stagnant throughout the curriculum program. This was
despite the fact that the curriculum program offered a variety of activities where
participants could have taken a higher degree of ownership and leadership in the
group (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Exemplary participants, according to their
interview responses, were willing to take part in small leadership roles in the group,
yet there were no opportunities provided to them.
Based upon the observations of group interactions, participants in both
groups were not provided with any opportunities to take leadership roles at any point
during the six-weeks that the groups met. Part of the reason for this, as voiced by
leaders in their exit interviews, best summarized by a leader from Group A who
stated that they saw their role having more to do with “showing up and giving the
small group a place to meet. I didn’t think about giving people stuff to do or
checking up on them.” This statement was in line with the original marketing that the
curriculum program provided, which described the leader’s role as providing a venue
and putting on a DVD.
In addition to this, a media literacy component could be incorporated into the
section on group norms in the curriculum program. This assists leaders and
participants in critiquing and evaluating the materials that they are being exposed to
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in a more sophisticated manner (Sarno, 1987). It appears that this could also ensure
that hot-button discussions that take place within the group remain civil and
organized. If this was incorporated into the curriculum program, it may have
alleviated the incident that took place over the issue of divorce in Group B, where
the group leader decided to create a scene and stop the DVD because he did not
agree with the speaker. More specifically, when the leader of Group B did not allow
the DVD to play through, the leader did not allow the featured speaker to finish their
segment.
This was against the protocol of the curriculum program, which dictated that
each video segment should be allowed to play all the way through. Following this, if
media literacy was stressed, then a code of behavior may have been in place to direct
the following plan of action. Potentially, the leader may have been provided a time
of discussion over the material that was just presented. By not doing this, this leader
did not allow the group to discuss and debate the points that were made by the
speaker. Instead, the leader simply shut down the speaker and decided to take over
the meeting and put forward a monologue in regards to his thoughts on divorce. The
next section will provide an analysis of the findings in this study, under the heading
of motivation.
Motivation
In the area of motivation, the research question posed, centered on the roles
and responsibilities of the leaders and participants as they took part in the curriculum
program. Based upon the observations of group interactions and document analysis,
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motivation within both groups was based more on the social nature of learning,
rather than the materials that made up the curriculum program. More specifically a
participant’s level of motivation was based upon the health of the small group and
the quality of their leader, more than the assignments provided in the study guide.
As participants progressed through the curriculum program, it was evident
that their levels of motivation changed, as was proposed in the literature review
(Schunk, 1991). This appeared to be mediated by the perception of the heath of the
small group by participants. Research was confirmed when participants came into a
curriculum program half-hearted and then developed meaningful social relationships,
and become more enthused about their educational experience (Baker & Campbell,
2005). This was particularly evident in Group B where bonding began to occur on a
deeper level, which led to the formation of friendships. Yet, data also indicated
through the interview responses of participants, that some who were enthusiastic at
first then began to fall away in their commitments as the situations of life came up
(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). An example of this took place in Group A, as a
participant noted that she was not present to some of the final meetings because of
events that came up such how she decided to go to a real estate meeting instead.
While this was the first reason that she provided for not being present at a session,
she later related during the interview that she did not feel like participating in the
group any longer due to the way the leaders conducted themselves. The leaders of
Group A did not adequately go through the materials each week and it seemed to her
that taking part in the meetings was a waste of time if the work that she was doing in
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preparation for meetings was not going to be referenced. Thus, there was an
insinuation that she could have rescheduled the real estate meeting to another day,
but chose not to.
Based upon the observations of group interactions and document analysis,
some participants who were initially excited about being a part of the small group
lost focus and motivation as they began to think that their contributions to the group
were not being valued. An example of this was a participant in Group A who
conveyed, during an interview, that the lack of leadership within the group caused
her to feel as though the effort that she was putting into preparing for sessions was
for not. Other participants cited, during their interviews, the lack of structure in the
group, or the shortcomings of the leadership as excuses for why they did not put in as
much effort as they previously did.
This study provided data that demonstrated how small group leaders played a
central role in how motivated participants were in taking part in the curriculum
program. An action that leaders from both groups did not do, according to
observations of small group interactions and their own interview responses was to
quickly go through the session of the week, prior to each meeting. This caused
participants to lose respect and lose heart in the integrity of the curriculum program,
as evidenced by the attendance of participants and their interview responses. It
appears that if leaders go through the sessions beforehand, they may be more
prepared to facilitate the group through the lesson. By respecting and investing time
in preparation, small group leaders establish an atmosphere which encourages
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participants to also invest the time and energy necessary to get the most out of the
curriculum program (McBride, 1993). This would also ensure that leaders would be
provided with a familiarity of the subject matter ahead of time in order to properly
lead the group through the discussion (Greive, 2003).
This study confirms prior research that argues that leaders who are not
willing to make this sort of commitment should not be leaders in the first place
(Dodd, 2003). Thus, by placing expectations and responsibilities on leaders,
participants will not have to suffer through bad leadership (McBride, 1993). If the
small group participants of today are really the leaders of tomorrow, then it is clear
that church-sites should start making a difference and stop letting bureaucracy
perpetuate the use of unqualified group leaders in positions of leadership (Cummins,
1986). By not developing a means of assessing leaders, this study practiced what
many churches do: simply seek to meet the quota of small groups that are desired by
placing anyone who is willing to take charge to become a leader with no questions
asked.
One resounding comment that came across in both group interactions and in
interview responses, that confirmed findings in the literature, was that both leaders
and participants enjoyed hearing the stories of others (Peace, 2006). Yet, this type of
activity did not emerge often because the curriculum program did not provide
discussion questions that centered on storytelling. Instead, the study guide chose to
focus on more abstract questions that did not lend themselves to a personal narrative.
Questions that require participants to do activities that specifically require
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storytelling, according to the literature review, increases the engagement level within
both groups (Heim & Heim, 1999). An increased emphasis should be placed on
storytelling, in order to amplify the motivation of leaders and participants. This
fosters an atmosphere where individuals are able to further articulate their stories,
more than the current curriculum program allows. This then allows individuals to
better understand and empathize with the experience of others. In addition to this,
groups will be able to grow closer as the events of the past are shared; enabling
group members to better understand how to personally address the problems of today
and tomorrow.
Overall, it was confirmed that the quality of the group leaders played the
largest role in the motivation of participants (Jetten, 2000). Most participants
admitted in their interview responses that they did not put their full effort into the
curriculum program and its assignments due to the way that their group functioned
(Scudder et al., 1994). Thus, it appears that the way that groups are constructed
should be done explicitly with a hands-on-approach by church leadership with an
emphasis on quality over quantity. Simply put, by putting more effort into the
process of creating quality groups by supplementing leaders at the front-end, it could
be ensured that more qualified individuals will become group leaders. This appears
to indicate that trouble can then be avoided on the backend when the fruit of due
diligence will provide a higher probability of success (Beckham, 1997). This of
course assumes that obtaining the maximum mental effort from leaders and
participants is the primary goal of churches implementing a curriculum program.
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Findings of this study also suggest that multiple models of leadership should
be incorporated into the structure of the small group curriculum program. Taking
into account the fact that there are volunteers who are already stretched for money
and time, they may not have the flexibility to shoulder the role and responsibilities
that go along with being a small group leader. This was best exemplified by the
interview responses from the exemplary participants, who were not willing to take on
all the responsibilities that go along with being an effective leader. Church leaders
should create models of shared leadership in order to utilize this human capital.
The motivational levels of leaders and participants were evident in the
document analysis portion of this study. In terms of the assignments in the study
guide that were to be completed in the course, the activity of participants largely fell
in line behind the example of their group leaders. An example of this, according to
the document analysis, was that participants in both groups largely chose to complete
only the assignments that their brought up during session and did not go above and
beyond to complete any others. According to the interview responses of participants,
this lack of initiative that participants demonstrated throughout the curriculum
program was due in part to the role that the leader had. Thus, leaders who did not
model the role of an effective participant, and did not hold those in their group to
high standards, eventually witnessing the motivation of their group decrease. The
next section will provide an analysis of the findings in this study, under the heading
of curriculum.

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Curriculum
In the area of instructional design, the group leaders’ roles and
responsibilities, and the participants’ roles and responsibilities were evident
throughout the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program. The roles and responsibilities of leaders and participants will be explored
below. In addition to this, the curriculum program itself will be examined from the
perspective of Clark’s (2000) theory of technology.
Instructional Design
Clark (2000) argues that instructional technology seeks to influence
individual learning. Yet, much of the curriculum program in this study had
shortcomings in the area of cognitive demand and schema. An example of this, as
evidenced in the document analysis was they way in which the study guide and DVD
did not reference past materials that were covered in prior sessions. By failing to
revisit information that was covered in the past, individuals were in a sense not
provided with more than one opportunity to learn the material. By following up on
materials that were previously studied this type of curriculum program may obtain
more credibility in an academic sense, as well as an increased amount of
accountability. Research indicates that when educators become more concerned with
ensuring that the material studied is retained over time, thus by embedding a review
component into a curriculum program, learners will be encouraged to re-examine
materials and build schema (Chi et al., 1982).
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By neglecting foundational educational practices, the curriculum program
was not as effective as it could be in promoting learning. At the beginning of each
session it may be beneficial for both leaders and participants, according to the
interview responses of individuals. Tied into this type of review, based upon the
document analysis, there also needs to be some kind of measures built into the
curriculum program to assess learning (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). This can be
accomplished through various means, but this study suggests that creative
assignments should be a key to this (Knowles, 2005). One possibility for this
curriculum program is to have participants create portfolios that are then evaluated
by leaders (Gottlieb, 1995). Gottlieb’s (1995) six purposes for portfolios are
consistent with, and beneficial to the curriculum program used in this study: collect,
reflect, assess, document, link, and evaluate. By employing a portfolio assignment,
more creative assignments could then be incorporated into the curriculum program to
reflect the more artistic side of participants (Van Pelt, 2005).
In terms of the discussions that took place during sessions, participants noted
that despite the shortcomings of their small groups, that this is where the most of the
real learning took place for them (Knowles, 2005). Yet, the large amount of
questions provided in the study guide were, more of a hindrance than an asset to
groups according to participant responses. Due to this, indications from this study
suggest that there should be fewer questions used during discussions. This also helps
to emphasize discussions where responses are longer and of a higher quality. In
accordance with the literature review, this allows for the group to go deeper into
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discussions (Paas et al., 2004). This is where depth is emphasized over breadth. Yet,
the questions must be carefully crafted in order to ensure that participants will be
prompted to share stories, instead of abstract short answers. In both groups it became
evident that as the groups went around and provided each individual to offer an
answer to the question, that at times it appeared that the group was bored. Simply
put, by failing to provide questions that offered more personal responses, some group
members fell into a habit of simply restating what others had previously stated.
Based upon the document analysis, leaders should also stress the importance
of study skills and learning strategies throughout the curriculum program. An
example of this was illustrated in the data, indicating that most leaders and
participants did not view the use of the study guide as an educational resource that
was to be thoroughly explored; instead it was more of a container for discussion
questions. According to the document analysis and observations of group
interactions, most of the resources and assignments were not utilized by leaders and
participants, thus learning materials went unused and small group meetings fell into a
familiar pace that was comfortable for leaders and left something to be desired by
participants. This was exemplified by lack of use of assignments such as the Personal
Health Plan, which provides a greater level of depth and interaction among
participants (Eastman, et al., 2005).
Dill (2004) indicates that small groups have the potential to create true
learning communities. Yet, the small groups that were studied did not live up to this
ideal based upon the observations of group interactions and the document analysis.
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By incorporating study skills and learning strategies into the study guide, participants
are provided with support in acquiring the subject matter (Dembo, 2000). As
previously addressed, by encouraging participants to acquire and put learning
strategies into practice, they will be encouraged to grow as individuals (Ormond,
1999). Practically speaking, the idea of the church-site as a learning organization is
foreign to what is currently available in the research of the topic. The structure of
small group curriculum programs can be a conduit to creating an environment where
there is more coordination, support, and accountability for the systematic
improvement of teaching and learning.
By promoting learning strategies, learning can be increased. In particular, at
the beginning of the curriculum program, study skills and learning strategies should
be stressed (Dembo, 2000). One learning strategy that was discussed earlier is to
have leaders and participants review materials provided in the curriculum program in
their entirety at the outset. Thus, the desired outcome of having participants utilize
the entire curriculum program could be further realized by imbedding learning
strategies throughout the entire curriculum program (Hattie & Purdie, 1999). This is
consistent with what Pazamino (1992) argues, that within Christianity there is a
transformational view of education where individuals are seeking to continually
learn from the Bible, as well as investing in materials that will facilitate their
spiritual development over the course of their lifetime. In the next section,
recommendations will be made based upon the review of literature, and the
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qualitative data that was collected under the headings of knowledge, motivation and
instructional design.

Recommendations
The contemporary field of educational psychology has been explored as a
rich repository of information from which curriculum programs can obtain direction.
The Clark and Estes’ (2002) educational framework has been the lens from which
the areas of knowledge, motivation, and instructional design have been explored. In
the following section, nine recommendations will be provided based upon the review
of literature and the qualitative data collected in this study. These policy
recommendations can be used by curriculum program designers as well as churches
who are seeking to effectively educate parishioners. The first aspect of the theoretical
framework, knowledge, will be the subject of the first set of recommendations for
implementing faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs (Clark &
Estes, 2002).

Knowledge
In the area of knowledge the following three recommendations provided to
those interested in implementing a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program:
1. An assessment should be used to determine the prior knowledge and
experience of leaders and participants.
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2. Church leaders need to establish a system of accountability to ascertain
the amount and quality of training and experience that leaders possess to
mediate the learning environment.
3. Leaders should discuss group norms and group goals at the first session
and implement them throughout the course.
By implementing these recommendations, church-sites will be able to ensure
that they are making steps to improve the experience of leaders and participants in a
faith-based adult small group video curriculum program. Based upon the findings
and analysis of the researcher, the first recommendation falls rather adequately into
Knowles’ (1968, 1980, 1993) theory of andragogy. The role of the leader as
facilitator has proved to be an influential component in the health of an effective
small group. Based upon the interview responses of participants, the group leaders in
this study did not appear to be equipped or qualified to lead their groups through the
curriculum program. Yet, at the same time exemplary participants in a sense
emerged as leaders within their groups, as participants and leaders were in need of
direction or wanted answers to questions. Thus, an assessment should be put in place
to help determine what background each person is brining to a potential small group,
so that groups can be specifically constructed with the appropriate leaders and
participants.
The next recommendations are in line with the work of Bandura’s (1976,
1986) theory of social constructivism. The second recommendation addresses the
area of accountability within a small group curriculum program. While the groups
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were able to function over time, the quality of instruction within these groups was
not satisfactory to the participants. One area that was particularly troubling to the
participants was the lack of accountability that leaders had above them. One way to
mediate this is to create a mentoring program that would be based upon personal
relationships between the church leadership and small group leaders. By doing this,
leaders would be provided with training and support that would encourage them to
become more effective in their role and responsibilities.
The third recommendation addresses the breakdown of small group dynamics
that took place within both groups in this study. Although both groups provided
environments which encouraged free-flowing discussions, there was a lack of order
and structure that participants desired. By not establishing and maintaining group
norms and group goals, leaders and participants went through the curriculum
program in a lax and unorganized fashion. By implementing the third
recommendation, leaders and participants will be provided with parameters that will
provide the foundation from which to adequately complete weekly assignments. In
the following section, the second aspect of the theoretical framework, motivation,
will be the subject of recommendations for implementing faith-based adult small
group video curriculum programs (Clark & Estes, 2002).

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Motivation
In the area of motivation, the following two recommendations are provided to
those interested in implementing a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program:
1. Leaders and participants should comprehensively go through the session
of the week, prior to the meeting.
2. Leaders should place a larger emphasis on storytelling.
By implementing these recommendations, church-sites will improve the
motivational aspects of small group leaders and participants in a faith-based adult
small group video curriculum program. Both of these recommendations are
sufficiently explained by the Clark and Estes (2002) motivational construct. The first
recommendation addresses one of the concerns that participants voiced in their
interview responses, mainly that their leaders were ill-prepared to lead groups during
the weekly sessions. When participants began to perceive that their leaders were not
taking their role seriously as the facilitator of the curriculum program, motivation
levels decreased among participants. By incorporating the first recommendation,
both leaders and participants will be better prepared each week and will be able to
demonstrate that they value the time spent during each session.
The second recommendation addresses a recurring response from participants
during the interview phase of this study, that stories are important to them. The
practice of sharing stories among small group members was viewed as one of the
most powerful and important parts of the curriculum program, according to the
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responses of participants. By placing a larger emphasis on storytelling, motivation
among participants will increase due to their desire to know more about each other
and learn how to practically apply what they are learning in the curriculum from the
example of others. In the following section, the third aspect of the theoretical
framework, instructional design, will be the subject of recommendations for
implementing faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs (Clark &
Estes, 2002).

Instructional Design
In the area of instructional design, the following four recommendations are
provided to those interested in implementing a faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program:
1. Leaders should regularly revisit past information that has been covered.
2. An assessment should be used to determine the learning that is taking
place among leaders and participants.
3. Leaders should promote the use of study skills and learning strategies.
4. Leaders should use fewer questions during discussions.
By implementing these recommendations, church-sites may improve the
instructional design for small group leaders and participants in a faith-based adult
small group video curriculum program. Each of the recommendations provided are
clearly explained by the Clark’s (2000) construct of instructional design. The first
recommendation addresses the concept that educational materials need to be
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followed up on in order to encourage learning among individuals. Throughout this
study, there were significant amounts of information that leaders and participants
were exposed to, but there was no means of revisiting past knowledge. By
implementing this recommendation, a curriculum program takes a step in the right
direction in order to encourage long-term retention of knowledge.
The second recommendation also speaks to the concept of learning, by
calling for an assessment to be used to determine how much learning is taking place.
In this study, it was noted by a participant that there was no accountability for
assignments that were provided in the study guide. Building on this theme, there
were also no quizzes or tests in any fashion to hold individuals accountable and to
determine how much of the subject matter was being retained by leaders and
participants. By incorporating formative and summative assessments into the
curriculum program, such as quizzes or a portfolio assignment, individuals would
have standards and expectations before them that encourage them to learn what is
presented to them. Leaders may benefit by having adequate information and
feedback to help design and follow-up learning sessions.
The third recommendation addresses the use of study skills and learning
strategies in the curriculum program. While most individuals voiced that they
learned during the times of discussion, they did not use the study guide, where most
of the assignments were located. By implementing the third recommendation, leaders
and participants will be provided with an understanding of how to approach the study
203

guide from an academic perspective. This in turn provides participants with an
emphasis on taking more personal initiative when it comes to learning.
The fourth recommendation addresses how to improve the quality of
discussions that take place during the weekly sessions. Participants voiced that
discussions sometimes ran on and get off topic. Part of the reason for this was that
there were so many questions, some of which were abstract and were not relavant to
the discussion at hand. Thus, by using fewer questions during discussions, the quality
of responses can be increased. Implementing this recommendation would cause
individuals to go more into depth, than breadth and allow them the time to fully
explore stories, rather than providing short answers that leave people wanting a more
in depth discussion about the situation. The next section will provide conclusions
which can be drawn from this study.

Conclusion
As Christian curricular designers continue to work towards carrying out the
practice of creating Christian curricula, they must continue to be informed by
scholarship. Educational psychology is one discipline which can inform the
developing faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs of the future.
Since instructional materials of this type have not been critiqued or evaluated,
research such as this study should be viewed as the foundation for future work that
will seek to continue this dialogue in hopes of creating faith-based adult small group
curriculum programs that are educationally effective.
204

History & Education
It appears that a historical perspective of Christian education brings one to
realize that each generation needs to take a fresh look at each new venture in the
field to determine its effectiveness (Clark, 1994). Each generation has essentially
reevaluated and adopted the traditions of the past as they move forward and create
new curriculum programs (Habermas, 2001). Yet, there should always be a note of
caution to ensure that the instructional materials stay true to and consistent with the
message of the gospel (Burgess, 2001). This may be especially important in
organizations and bureaucracies, such as churches, that can get caught up in pleasing
influential parishioners and institutional forces to enhance revenue streams and affect
parishioners’ thinking and actions (Lawson, 2003). This is one of the main
contributions that this study makes towards the knowledge base, drawing attention to
a neglected field and by providing direction to those who want to implement faith-
based adult small group video curriculum programs in the future.
Church leaders, instructional designers, small group leaders, and participants
all have a degree of responsibility in the creation and implementation of a curriculum
program. Throughout the history of Christianity, individuals have attempted to
refocus the eyes of the Church in order that the Church might truly embody the
teachings of the Bible (Marsden, 1995). The creation of faith-based adult small
group video curriculum programs is another means to that end. As technology
continues to be more wide-spread and affordable, more churches will be prone to
205

adopt these mediums and create contextualized curricula in hopes of carrying out the
purpose of making committed disciples (Barna, 2006).
Curriculum programs should be more diverse, featuring women and
representatives from various ethnic groups, theological viewpoints, and regional
areas. Today, any curriculum program that is not attempting to represent the world,
as it currently exists, is doing a tremendous disservice to its consumers (Rendon,
2002). By providing small group participants with a variety of perspectives, they will
be better prepared to deal with their environment. In addition to this, participants will
be able to expand their minds towards truly becoming committed disciples that are
relevant.
With this understanding, churches should take the steps necessary for
curriculum programs to be translated into various languages and be available at a
lower cost to those around the globe. With a global perspective in mind, this type of
curriculum should not be sectioned off only for those with the financial means to
purchase it (Jenkins, 2002). Instead, these materials should be viewed as a means of
helping others who are not be able to learn about these subjects had it not been for
the technological advances that have been made (Banks, 1999). In a time when
intellectual capital is one of the hottest commodities in our capitalistic society, it is
time that the United States assist those in other regions with educational materials
that will serve to empower them (Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006). Technology will
continue to influence the lives of individuals, in particular in fields such as education
and business which are tied closely together.
206

As the new technological advances continue to materialize, curriculum
programs will become an inseparable part of Christian education. This will
progressively affect the development of adult learners internationally as they
progress through their Christian educational experience. Globally, any church that
has internet capabilities is able to download curriculum programs and begin
implementing them within seconds. When these curriculum programs are
supplemented with effective leadership, the potential to bring high levels of
scholarship is available in any corner of the globe.
Today instructional design is pushing both society and technology to its
limits. With this, there is a tremendous opportunity for multi-institutional
collaboration. The demand to use these newly devised educational materials will
increase as time progresses. The implications of globalization will continue to
change the face of today’s world, especially the demographic shifts in Christianity
(Friedman, 2005; Jenkins, 2002). Curriculum that represents the regional and
community tastes will also be necessary. Featuring various racial groups and
perspectives in video curriculum programs will ensure that the materials are not
stagnant and are representative of a global community (De La Torre, 2003).
Yet, it should be noted that without the proper theology and educational
theories to serve as a foundation, this endeavor will surely be more difficult (Mouw,
2000). This notion has influenced the purpose of this study, which is an attempt to
inform those that can move churches in a direction that seek to create effective faith-
based adult small group video curriculum programs. A knowledge base for such
207

action has now been established, which can encourage instructional designers to
develop curriculum programs that will not encourage small groups to simply
function as social clubs, but as dynamic learning organizations which can provide the
opportunity for transformational learning to take place (Murrow, 2005). This study
attempts to contribute insights to the knowledge base, with the help of the discipline
of educational psychology and a study of the implementation of a curriculum
program, in order to provide a framework to guide the design of faith-based adult
small group video curriculum programs (Clark & Estes, 2000).

Improvements
While this study was able to focus on several factor that were vital to
understanding the implementation of a faith-based adult small group video
curriculum program, there is still much that can be done in this field. By examining
the study, one can see that there are still areas which can be expanded and improved
upon. One of them is to include more groups in this study, such as groups that are
comprised both randomly and purposefully. Additional groups provide more insights
on the roles and responsibilities of leaders and participants. By studying additional
groups that met the same criteria as the ones used in this study, more insights would
have been available to the researcher.
By incorporating groups that meet additional criteria one would also have the
ability to compare and contrast the samples of diverse small groups with each other.
Examining small groups that previously completed the curriculum program together
208

with new and diverse groups would be beneficial in illustrating similarities and
differences in the diverse populations. This comparative approach illustrates how
small groups that are familiar with each other perform over time and if there are
group characteristics that can be generalized from similar experiences.
By looking at small groups that contained someone who was on church staff
may have provided some insights, as well how groups perform when someone is
present that takes an income from the church. Another population that could be
examined would have been groups that were made up of one gender. Based upon the
findings in this study, this possibility appears to be fruitful. Groups that were each
led by experienced leader would have also provided insight into how groups function
which have a leader who has previously gone through the curriculum program
before.
In addition to this, adding a quantitative component to this study could have
also been beneficial. By incorporating measures of learning or extensive surveys,
data could have emerged that provide more validity and reliability to the study. In
addition to this, following those who participated in this study over a course of time
would have also been beneficial. By obtaining longitudinal research from these
individuals over the course of several years after the conclusion of this particular
curriculum program, data could be gathered to determine the long-term impact of
their experience. The final section of this study will explore future areas of research
in the field of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs.

209

Future Areas of Research
Taking into consideration the research accumulated in this study, there are
four main areas which should be examined in order to incorporate them into the
knowledge base of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs:
educational measurements, longitudinal studies, quality of social relationships, and
the development of an independent faith-based curriculum evaluation program.
These areas will be further explored and expanded upon below.
First, in today’s climate of accountability, educational measurement is
becoming more and more prominent as people attempt to gauge the amount of
learning that is going on both inside and outside of an educational setting. This is
causing educators to reconsider the curriculum that they have relied on for decades,
in search of creating more measurable learning experiences. Thus, an emphasis on
content knowledge needs to be explored. Various evaluative tests need to be created
in order to determine the learning that is taking place (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001), such as weekly quizzes or final exams that take place at the conclusion of a
curriculum program. Currently, research is almost non-existent in this area.
Second, a longitudinal study should take place which examines groups that
progress through all of the courses in a curriculum program, often consisting of six
courses, all together. Insight may be gained in this area that could provide the
foundation for advocating for longer term small group commitments. Commitments
could range from a six month term to more than a year. Currently, research is largely
absent in this area.
210

Third, a study regarding the quality of social relationships that are built
within small groups and what are their impact outside of the group needs to be
conducted. Church leaders have indicated strong interest in finding out if a particular
curriculum was more apt at motivating and empowering participants to take initiative
in the church and in the community. Current research is almost not present in this
area.
Fourth, the development of an independent faith-based organization to
evaluate curriculum programs which seek to thoroughly examine the current
landscape of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs is necessary.
This evaluation organization could build off of what this study attempted to do, but
on a larger scale studying multiple curriculum programs with a scale that provided
ratings to consumers. This evaluation organization could publish an evaluative guide,
similar to that of other organizations which seek to educate the general public on the
quality of products. Church leaders are the primary audience for such a publication,
but it could also be used for potential small group participants who want to shop
around to determine which curriculum program provides them with the best fit.
Church leaders could also be informed of which curriculum programs best meets the
needs of their congregations. Currently, no such evaluative organization is in place.

211

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226

APPENDIX A

Questions for Participant Semi-Structured Interviews

Group: ________

Participant Code: ________

Introduction
1. Explanation of the purpose of the interviews and interview schedule
2. Questions to establish background information
a. What is your age?
b. What do you consider your race/ethnicity?
c. What is your marital status?
d. What is your occupation?
e. What is the highest level of education you completed?
f. How frequently do you attend services at First Christian Church?
g. How long have you attended First Christian Church?
h. How long have you been a Christian?
i. What was the highest level of education that you completed?

Knowledge
1. Describe your prior small group experiences as a Christian?
2. Describe how the small group functioned?
a. Do you believe you contributed meaningfully to the discussion?
c. How do you evaluate your contribution to the discussion?
e. Describe your role in the discussion.
e. How would you evaluate the demonstration of your skills as a listener?
f. Were you a team player?
g. What did you learn about yourself?
h. What was your role in the group?
3. Name one or more things the leader did to contribute to your development in this
course.
4. What could the leader have done to make the course more enriching for you?

227

Motivation
1. Why did you decide to participate in this program?
a. What were your goals?
b. How motivated were you when you started this program?
c. How much effort or how dedicated were you to this program?
2. Describe what your experience in this group.
3. Did you prepare for meetings?
a. If so, how?
4 Did you miss any sessions?
b. If so, why?
4. Due to this course…
b. Did you read the Bible any more than prior to the course?
c. Did you pray any more than prior to the course?
e. Did you experience any changes?

Instructional Design
1. What did you like about the videos?
a. What did you not like about the videos?
2. Were there any changes or modifications that you would make to the curriculum?

Overall
1. Do you have any ideas that would improve the program?
2. Would you participate in the next session?
a. Why or why not?
3. What are the most important things you learned in this course?
4. Where did the “real learning” take place for you in this class?
5. What do you intend to change in your Christian walk as a result of the course?

228

APPENDIX B

Supplemental Questions for Leader Semi-Structured Interviews

Group: ________

Participant Code: ________

Leader’s Perspective
1. How would you describe your experience with LifeTogether?
2. Would you recommend it to others?
3. Had you previously heard of LifeTogether?
4. Did you visit the website?
5. Did you use the training?
a. DVD
i.. Did you watch the Leader Lifter trainings?
b. Study Guide
i. Did you reference the Leading for the First Time?
ii. Did you reference the Hosting an Open House?
iii. Did you reference the Introduction?
iv. Did you reference the Answers to Session Questions?
v. Did you reference the Frequently Asked Questions?
6. Did you go through group dynamics with the study guide?
a. Did you use the Team Roles with the group?
b. Did you use the Life Together Agreement with the group?
c. Did you use the Small Group Calendar with the group?

229

APPENDIX C

Information Sheet
You are invited to be a part of a dissertation study during the Fall of 2006.
The primary purpose of this study is to be that of a case study, analyzing small
groups as they interact with a faith-based adult small group video curriculum
program. From the insights that are gained, I would like to provide suggestions on
how to improve a product, mainly a video-based curriculum course made up of six
one-hour sessions created in 2005. The course is comprised of a DVD, study guides,
and the Bible. Also, a television, DVD player, and writing utensils are required to
complete the program. The company that created this video-based curriculum,
LifeTogether, has been in this industry for four years (Eastman et al., 2005). The
product being evaluated, Lifetogether’s Experiencing Christ Together curriculum
(2005) is currently being used in homes across the United States to educate
individuals. LifeTogether is a private Christian organization, which largely markets
its products to Evangelical churches. This is one reason why there has been no
tangible accountability for the effectiveness of this type of product, outside of market
forces, for example churches choosing to or not to become repeat buyers.
In this study, the goal of this investigation is to: Develop an educational
framework to guide the design of adult faith-based small group video curriculum
program.
As a participant you will be asked to take part in being observed as you
progress through the course and as you complete the assignments in the program. In
230

addition to this, you will be asked to be a part of an hour long interview at the
completion of the course.

231

APPENDIX D

Document Analysis

Group: ________

Participant Code: ________

Study Guide
1. Completed DVD Notes?
2. Answered questions prior to meeting?
3. Answered questions during meeting?
4. Completed Prayer/Praise Reports?
5. Completed Personal Health Assessment?
6. Completed Personal Health Plan?
7. Completed Partner Progress?
8. Completed Reflections?
8. Completed Journaling 101?
9. Completed Bible Reading Plan?

232

APPENDIX E

Supplemental Document Analysis for Leaders

Group: ________

Participant Code: ________

DVD & Study Guide

1. Did the leader go through each section of the study guide with the group?
Session I - Teacher
Connecting
Growing
Developing
Surrendering

Session II - Healer
Connecting
Growing
Sharing
Surrendering

Session III - Shepherd
Connecting
Growing
Developing
Surrendering

Session IV – Servant
Connecting
Growing
Developing
Surrendering

Session V – Savior
Connecting
Growing
Sharing
Surrendering

233

Session VI – Risen Lord
Connecting
Growing
Sharing
Surrendering

2. Did the leader go through each section of the DVD with the group?
Session I - Teacher
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: “I Am”
Teaching Session: Mike Breaux
Group Lifter

Session II - Healer
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: Jordan Rubin
Teaching Session: Mike Meeks
Group Lifter

Session III - Shepherd
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: Mary Scherff
Teaching Session: Doug Fields
Group Lifter

Session IV – Servant
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: “Servant”
Teaching Session: Tom Mullins
Group Lifter

Session V – Savior
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: Gary Poole/Miles McPherson
Teaching Session: Dave Rodriguez
Group Lifter

234

Session VI – Risen Lord
LifeTogether Worship Songs
Session Opener: Mike Wilkins
Real Life Moment: Bennie Huesmann
Teaching Session: Mike Meeks
Group Lifter

235

APPENDIX F

Observations

Group: Session #: Theme: Time: Page#:
Participant Code Observations Notes (K/M/I)

1. ________

2. ________

3. ________

4. ________

5. ________

6. ________

K=knowledge M=motivation I=instructional design

Abstract (if available)

Abstract One of the most important responsibilities of church leaders is to provide their parishioners with educational materials that will help them grow. Due to the vastness of this charge, in recent years church leaders have relied upon faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs to provide small group leaders and participants with structure and direction. This study examined two small groups that participated in the implementation of a curriculum program. Each small group was observed during each session that took place, then members were interviewed and had their documents analyzed. The researcher explored the extent to which literature in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and instructional design was relevant towards evaluating the implementation of the curriculum program (Clark & Estes, 2002). An evaluative case study design was utilized to collect then analyze the experiences of leaders and participants.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Veas, Gabriel J. (author)

Core Title Developing an educational framework to guide the design of faith-based adult small group video curriculum programs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Psychology)

Publication Date 11/12/2009

Defense Date 09/12/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adult learners,Christian education,curriculum,discipleship,educational psychology,implementation,instructional design,Knowledge,leadership,mentoring,Motivation,multimedia,OAI-PMH Harvest,small groups

Language English

Advisor Genzuk, Michael (committee chair), Jun, Alexander (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email gabeveas@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m918

Unique identifier UC1248148

Identifier etd-Veas-20071112 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-592749 (legacy record id),usctheses-m918 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Veas-20071112.pdf

Dmrecord 592749

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Veas, Gabriel J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu