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Persuasion through play: how procedural rhetoric in casual games can inform public relations

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Persuasion through play: how procedural rhetoric in casual games can inform public relations

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Content PERSUASION THROUGH PLAY: HOW PROCEDURAL RHETORIC IN CASUAL GAMES CAN INFORM PUBLIC RELATIONS by Amena Akmal ________________________________________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS) May 2010 Copyright 2010! Amena Akmal Table of Contents Abstract! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! iii Introduction!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 Chapter 1: Popularity of Casual Games! ! ! ! ! 4 Chapter 2: Procedural Rhetoric Within Games! ! ! ! 6 Chapter 3: Games As Persuasive Technologies! ! ! ! 10 Examples of Persuasive Games: Xtreme Errands and ! ! ! 12 Volvo Drive for Life Chapter 4: Elements of Game Design! ! ! ! ! ! 15 Formal Elements of Play! ! ! ! ! ! ! 15 Dramatic Elements of Play! ! ! ! ! ! ! 16 Importance of a Dramatic Arc! ! ! ! ! ! ! 17 Chapter 5: Public Relations In Games!! ! ! ! ! 19 The Limitations of Advergaming! ! ! ! ! ! 19 PRgaming! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 22 Chapter 6: Facebook Games! ! ! ! ! ! ! 24 Gaming Mothers! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 26 Example of a Persuasive Facebook Game: Kidnap!! ! ! 27 Chapter 7: Case Study of “Communication via Gameplay! ! ! 30 for Policymakers”!! ! Introduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 30 Scientific Background! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 31 Policy Implications! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 32 Reframing and Game Conceptualization! ! ! ! ! 33 Brain Architecture Game Prototype! ! ! ! ! ! 35 Coffee Stirrers and Play-doh! ! ! ! ! ! ! 38 Conclusion! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 41 Bibliography! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 43 ii Abstract ! The broad appeal of online and mobile casual games and their easy accessibility via multiple platforms presents a novel avenue to use games as communication tools. Games that employ the design concept of procedural rhetoric or in-built computational persuasion can effectively enhance understanding and shape opinion of the game subject and can even motivate players to take action. Viewed from this perspective, it can be posited that these “persuasive” games complement the objectives of public relations professionals and are well-suited to serve as communication platforms. Yet, surprisingly, using games to engage and inform has either been underutilized or has altogether been unnoticed by the public relations industry. Clearly, in keeping pace with our digital information age, the opportunity exists to initiate meaningful dialogue through this dynamic medium. iii Introduction ! The current state of the digital information age requires public relations professionals to engage audiences through social media platforms, such as social networking sites, online videos, blogs and wikis, but rarely is the medium of online and mobile casual games discussed as an option with which to engage. The feasibility of merging the fields of game design and communications in order to develop games that can potentially influence player attitude and behavior can be viewed as an innovative undertaking that holds much promise. ! Casual games are defined as nonviolent, arcade-style games that may involve puzzles, words, card games, and trivia. Popular and well-known casual game titles include, Tetris, Pac Man, Solitaire, Bejeweled, Cake Mania, Plants vs. Zombies and an ever-increasing number of games on social networking sites, such as Zyngaʼs Farmville and Playdomʼs Sorority Life on Facebook. Duration for casual games ranges anywhere between five to 20 minutes and playtime can generally be viewed as short bouts of fun escapist activity (“Casual Games Facts”). ! Although the term “casual game” within the games industry also includes console-based games, such as the Wii and Rock Band, the term used here refers only to online and mobile games, which are relatively less expensive, and therefore more practical, to develop than console-based games. ! 1 ! The potential of using casual games in public relations was inspired in this author by the work of academic and game designer Ian Bogost, who determined and coined the game design concept procedural rhetoric. The concept is the active programming of a thought-provoking persuasive element in games, which not only motivates players to reach a deeper understanding of the game subject, but also fully complements the communication objectives of public relations professionals. Two examples of games that successfully employ this tactic are presented, along with a brief explanation of the elements of game design that make the persuasive experience possible. ! The manner in which the public relations industry can best implement procedural rhetoric in games is provided through a contrast of the largely superficial practice of in-game advertising and advergaming (or stand alone branded games) that only allow for a cursory understanding of the game subject. Current in-game advertising and advergames generally fail to adequately simulate brand function or value, thereby necessitating the need for a more message-based approach of “PRgaming,” (a self-devised term), in which well- designed games provide players the opportunity to enhance their understanding of brand function and value. ! Furthermore, the idea of using persuasive casual games within the broad reach of social networks, such as Facebook, is discussed with a look at the rising number of women who play casual games on these networks. The argument is 2 made that the segment of online mothers on Facebook—women who control an estimated 80 percent of all household spending (“How Moms and Retailers Interact Online”)—are an ideal audience for public relation professionals to address via this popular medium. Although not developed specifically for women, a brief case study of The Travel Channelʼs successful Facebook game Kidnap! is dissected to illustrate the success and benefit of merging casual games and social networks to reach a broad audience. Arguably, best practices of this case study can then be applied to more female-oriented games. ! Lastly, the discussion is supplemented by an original in-depth case study of a game design project the author is currently involved in at the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California (USC). The project is funded by the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University in collaboration with USCʼs Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, and involves using games to inform policymakers of the importance of investing in early childhood development initiatives. The discussion provides public relations professionals a practical guide to the process of incorporating procedural rhetoric in games. 3 Chapter 1: Popularity of Casual Games ! According to the most recent data available from the Casual Games Association there are more than 200 million worldwide players of casual games via the Internet, and in 2009 the global connected casual games industry had combined revenues in excess of $3 billion across social networks, mobile/ iPhone, PC, Mac and the online Xbox LIVE Arcade platforms (“Casual Games Facts”). ! Not surprisingly, the latest research on US Internet users shows that playing online games is a preferred pastime of many Americans. A joint survey by market research firms Dynamic Logic and Millward Brown, “AdReaction 2009: Brands + Consumers + Social Media,” reports that 70 percent of US Internet users “actively participate” in playing online games. This ranks just below e- mailing, reading news/current events, and shopping online and above watching videos, social networking, downloading and listening to music, and blogging (“Online Activities of US Internet Users”). ! In the mobile casual games space, the comScore MobileLens study from September and December 2009, ranked games as the third most preferred use of mobile content by US mobile phone users, only outranked by accessing a web browser and sending text messages (“Mobile Content Activities of US Mobile Phone Users”). 4 ! Facebook, with its more than 400 million active users (“Facebook Press Room”) is currently one of the most popular platforms for casual games. A February 2010 report by one of the leading casual game companies, PopCap Games, states that among the nearly 5,000 consumers who responded to its survey on social games, more than 1,200 indicated they played games on social networking sites and platforms at least once a week. The median players are 43- year-old females, the majority of whom prefer Facebook as their platform of choice (“Profiling Social Gamers”). ! The widespread popularity and use of online, mobile and social network- based casual games is, without question, an interesting opportunity for public relations professionals to explore and leverage. In the new information age of competing and highly accessible channels of information, initiating relevant and engaging dialogue with audiences is of vital importance. With the American consumerʼs appetite for games steadily growing, this space certainly should be noticed by the public relations industry as a promising medium through which to communicate. ! 5 Chapter 2: Procedural Rhetoric Within Games ! The art of employing design process in games that deepens playersʼ understanding of the gameʼs subject matter was first introduced by Ian Bogost, game designer and professor at Georgia Institute of Technologyʼs School of Literature, Communication and Culture. Bogost is a recognized thought leader in the field of “persuasive games” or games that strive to alter or affect player opinion in-game, often with the aim to motivate the player to transfer that opinion or take action in the material world. In his work, Bogost defines and coins a persuasive and expressive game design component which he refers to as procedural rhetoric. The term procedural refers to the methods, techniques and logic that drive the operations of a system and rhetoric refers to effective and persuasive expression. ! Procedural rhetoric, then, is the practice of using processes persuasively, much in the manner that verbal rhetoric is useful for both the orator and the audience and written rhetoric is useful for both the writer and the reader, so procedural rhetoric is useful for both the game designer and the player. The persuasion—to change or form opinion or lead to action—is authored not through speeches, written words, or images, but through writing code for rules of behavior through computational systems, such as games (Bogost 3). It is the gameplay experience created by procedural rhetoric that simulates and makes 6 claims about how things work, and by doing so leads the player to reflect on or achieve greater understanding of the game subject. ! According to Bogost, seven persuasive technologies already exist that are used to alter behavior, as follow: • Reduction: Using computing technology to reduce complex behavior to simple tasks. An example is the www.capitoladvantage.com website, which simplifies political participation by generating contact information for all elected officials by the simple input of a userʼs zip code; • Tunneling: Navigating users through a predetermined course of actions, step by step, such as those demonstrated by the registration or electronic payment systems on many sites; • Tailoring: Providing information relevant to individuals, an example of which is www.scorecard.org, a website which provides information on nearby polluting entities based on the userʼs input of a zip code; • Suggestion: Suggesting behavior in a timely fashion via interactive computing products, such as the now defunct Microsoftʼs Office assistant (paperclip “Clippy”) that popped up when the program determined the user needed assistance working more effectively with Office features; • Self-Monitoring: Allowing individuals to monitor their attitudes or behaviors to realize a predetermined goal or outcome, such as as roadside speed- monitoring radar systems that display how fast one is driving; 7 • Surveillance: Allowing individuals to monitor the behavior of others. An example ! would be Hygiene Guard, a system that monitors hand washing in the retail ! service industry; and lastly, • Conditioning: Conditioning to change behaviors via systems, such as Telecycle, an exercise bike that clarifies the image on a television screen in front of the bicycle only when the exerciser pedals at a target speed. ! All seven of these technologies alter behavior, but not one employs the simple practice of rhetoric, whereby users are engaged to analyze the logic that ultimately recommends the proposed actions or beliefs. Quite often, as is the case with self-monitoring technologies, such as the heart rate monitor, it is already assumed that the user has understood and accepted the relationship between fitness and long-term health benefits. Existing captology, or the study of computers as persuasive technology, only allows persuasion to work toward existing material ends (i.e., the fuzzy television at the front of the exercise bicycle), rather than deal with the reasoning to pursue those ends. ! Here, it must be noted that although Bogost references only computational procedural rhetoric, the design element can also also be implemented in non- digital mediums, such as board games. The tactic is not dependent on technology, but rather informs how a particular medium is capable of being used to shape opinion and influence behavior. For example, the college-preparatory card game Pathfinder developed by USCʼs Interactive Media Division and the 8 Rossier School of Education provides high school students, who may be unaware of their post-secondary options, an opportunity to explore and understand how the college application process works. One of the main objectives of the game is to assist students in envisioning themselves as potential college students and future graduates and to facilitate well-informed choices that will lead them to this goal. The need to engage high school students through Pathfinder arose from the observation that most college-related online information is passive and students seldom engage with the material beyond reading web pages (“Pathfinder”). Although, there is a digital version of Pathfinder, the card game is a prime example of procedural rhetoric embedded within a non-digital medium. 9 Chapter 3: Games As Persuasive Technologies ! To further illustrate the power of procedural rhetoric, it must be noted that persuasion and meaning in games are not constructed through re-creating the world bit by bit or by immersing the player in all that is “out there,” but through selectively modeling appropriate and meaningful elements of that world. It is this relevance of interaction that sets the stage for promising opportunities to engage and form opinion. ! Over the years quite a few games have been developed that carry a message and often address weighty subjects, such as MTVʼs Darfur is Dying, which seeks to address the conflict in Darfur. Yet, the difference between these games, which can be categorized under the “serious games” movement, and “persuasive games” is that, first, not all persuasive games deal with serious subject matters and, second, persuasive games are able to make claims that speak past or even against fixed worldviews (Bogost 95). ! For example, in Darfur is Dying, the player is cast as a Darfuri refugee searching for a water well while attempting to dodge heavily armed Janjaweed militia in trucks. The game serves to increase player empathy, but it fails to make a procedural argument for conflict resolution in the mind of the player. Since MTVʼs website proclaims: “Play the game: Help stop the crisis in Darfur,” one can argue that raising awareness is an important step and generating empathy can possibly lead players to analyze the situation further, but what Darfur is Dying 10 really captures is the simple experience of the Darfuri villagers in crisis without the context of historical dilemmas which may partially explain the present circumstances. The game undeniably fails to consider the root of the problem and does not offer how historical circumstances led to the conflict and why solutions are so difficult to negotiate (Bogost 95-97). ! Game representations that tend to gloss over causality and the interconnected network of relations and their outcomes can be remedied by offering choices to players that serve to expose underlying frameworks. In the example of Darfur is Dying, the interrelation between political processes, why they work or do not work, or how society may benefit by changing the rules, are finely-tuned pieces of the puzzle that can be represented and made to interact with each other according to player choice for a truly expressive experience. ! For detractors of employing this practice who may view procedural rhetoric as public relations technological propaganda, one only has to point to the argument made by Edward Bernays, the pioneer of American public relations, who, in his timeless 1928 essay “Propaganda,” argues that the term itself has been unjustly sullied by those who have no understanding of what propaganda or public relations entails. According to Bernays, the objective of public relations professionals is to provide order in a “chaos” of ideas by narrowing down feasible snippets of information from which individuals can then independently form opinions and base decisions. Using games as a tool to represent select options 11 to players, and not all options, accurately mirrors the driving force of truly effective public relations which, in its most sincere and effective form serves to offer a funneled, transparent narrative of situations and individuals. The interactivity of games, and the procedures used within them to offer choices in the hopes of producing a desired expressive end, heightens and complements this public relations objective–an aim which can be difficult to capture in even the most well-crafted press release. Examples of Persuasive Games: Xtreme Errands and Volvo Drive for Life ! Taken directly from Ian Bogostʼs studio, Persuasive Games, the 2005 online casual game Xtreme Errands developed to promote Jeepʼs new truck, the Commander, successfully incorporates procedural rhetoric. The Commander was Jeepʼs first truck to include reconfigurable third-row seating and the objective of the game is to depict the functional value, not superficial perceived value, of the new innovation. To achieve this Bogost designed the game as a strategy game in which the player can move family members, move the Commander or reconfigure its seats to pick up and drop off cargo against the backdrop of limited time and resources. The game challenges the player to run errands, like pick up dry cleaning, get groceries, and transport an entire soccer team on game day, in as few moves and turns as possible, while providing players a representation of the vehicleʼs cargo and passenger space. 12 ! The procedural rhetoric found in Xtreme Errands alludes that the Commanderʼs flexible seating and storage capacity mesh well with the needs of families and provides players the opportunity to test out these claims and reflect upon the vehicleʼs applicability to their lives (Bogost 213). ! Another example of a well-designed persuasive game is Volvo Drive for Life, a collaborative effort between Volvo and Microsoft, which is only available on Microsoftʼs Xbox game console. Although not an online game, which are decidedly less expensive to make than console-based games, the example is included based on its effective use of procedural rhetoric. In the game players must drive three Volvo vehicles on a simulation of the companyʼs Göthenburg course both with and without safety features enabled. Bogost argues that the challenge Volvo faces is that the company is known for its safety features, but that these benefits can never be demonstrated in a test drive, and its attempts at visual representations of crash-test footage and retelling of life-saving stories are nothing but mere visual and verbal rhetoric (Bogost 209). ! By first simulating the safety features and then removing them from the game experience, players are provided the opportunity to approximate Volvoʼs claims to safety. The physical accuracy of the simulation is not a concern here since, as Bogost states, “the game is not intended to provide a literal representation of the vehicleʼs actual responses under every situation,” rather it 13 provides the player (and prospective Volvo buyer) a moment to reflect and be inquisitive about the merits of Volvo. It is only through employing procedural rhetoric that Volvo Drive for Life can make claims about mechanical consequence, arguing that safety features like roll stability and front-end collision are valuable safeguards (Bogost 210). 14 Chapter 4: Elements of Game Design ! To add to our discussion on designing meaningful games that incorporate procedural rhetoric, it is important to be aware of the underpinnings of how games work. It is only through a general understanding of the game design process that public relations professionals can fully appreciate the power of persuasion through play. Formal Elements of Play ! By definition a game is a closed, formal system that engages players in structured conflict and resolves uncertainty in an unequal outcome (Fullerton 43). The design components that provide structure in a game are referred to as formal elements. They include: • Players: Active participants, who make decisions and are invested in and voluntarily accept the rules and constraints of a game; • Objectives: The specific goals for the players; • Procedures: The actions or methods of play allowed by the rules; guide player behavior, creating interactions that would probably never take place outside the authority of the game; • Rules: Define game objects, proscribe principles, and limit behavior within the game; • Resources: Items made valuable by their scarcity and utility that can help players achieve their goals; 15 • Conflict: Created when playersʼ objectives intersect with the rules and procedures limiting and guiding behavior; players work to resolve in their own favor; • Boundaries: Created by a social agreement that the rules and goals that are driving the players apply only within the game and not in “real life;” otherwise known as the “magic circle;” and, lastly, • Outcome: An uncertain, measurable, and unequal outcome, i.e. a winner and a loser. Dramatic Elements of Play ! The driving narrative forces that keep the player emotionally engaged with the game experience and invested in its outcome comprise what is referred to as the dramatic elements of a game, and include: • Premise: Provides context to the formal elements; premises make it easier for players to contextualize their choices; • Characters: Agents through which dramatic stories are told; provide a way for ! players to empathize with situations and live vicariously through their efforts; ! and, • Story: Narrative that unfolds with the game; story integrated with play can create powerful and emotional results. 16 ! The formal and dramatic elements of a game when combined make up what is referred to as a “game system” and can only be thoroughly understood when players set the system in motion by playing the game. The dynamic elements, such as the level of challenge and ultimately how fun the game is, that emerges in play is something that cannot be predicted from examining each of the elements separately and game designers are well aware that game systems should be viewed as the sum of the parts. (Fullerton 26-42). ! On this basis, the concept of procedural rhetoric in games combines both the power of formal and dramatic elements to create persuasive and engaging “systems” of experiences. Importance of a Dramatic Arc ! Easily understood as rising action, climax, and falling action, a dramatic arc is linked to both the formal and dramatic elements of a game. The conflict that one feels when playing a game is at the center of any good game or story. It is meaningful conflict that keeps players from achieving success too quickly and what keeps them emotionally engaged by creating tension as to the uncertainty of the outcome. Since games are usually designed to provide more challenge as they progress, well-integrated games interweave dramatic and formal elements so that as the challenge rises (e.g. gameplay becomes harder due to rules, procedures, and so forth), the story develops as well. The most important aspect 17 of a dramatic arc is that the outcome of the story—the success or failure—is in the hands of the player. It is the player who must learn how to resolve conflict and move closer to the ultimate goal of success, which can make for a truly powerful experience (Fullerton 104). ! When applied to Xtreme Errands, it is easy to see the dramatic elements of mundane life events, such as picking up laundry and transporting kids, that make the game highly relatable to a prospective car buyer. The rules and procedures which motivate the player to “play around” with reconfiguring the seats in order to accomplish tasks and accumulate points is also an important aspect that ties the rhetorical narrative to the procedural function and usability of the Commanderʼs third-row seating. Volvo Drive for Life does not have a dramatic narrative, but the procedural representation of life-saving features is dramatic enough. 18 Chapter 5: Public Relations In Games ! As previously noted in Darfur is Dying, games meant to illicit greater understanding or action may unknowingly only be casting the subject matter in a superficial and largely meaningless context. A category of games that illustrate this shortcoming, which is markedly heightened since they are attempting to sell are advergames or branded games, which also may include in-game advertising. Incidentally, this may lead one to view that message-based public relations, in keeping with substantive procedural rhetoric, is ultimately better suited for games than advertising. The Limitations of Advergaming ! Although in-game advertising was observed in games dating from the mid 70s, the term “advergaming” was first formally defined in a 2001 whitepaper by Jane Chen and Matthew Ringel, analysts at interactive agency <kpe>. The two defined the practice as the use of interactive gaming technology to deliver embedded advertising messages to consumers. (Bogost 152). Examples, such as Americaʼs Army developed on behalf of the US military, Universal Studioʼs placement of The Bourne Ultimatum on a billboard in Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2 videogame, or the placement of a Honda Element SUV in Electronic Artsʼ “extreme sports” SSX 3 videogame, are all examples of advergaming. It is apparent that to the advertising industry, games are 19 considered a credible “media buy” and simply another surface to carry a commercial message (Bogost 158). ! Based on the observations of Chen and Ringel, brand messaging can be transferred into advergaming in three specific ways: 1) Associative advergaming indirectly associates the product with intangible elements of a particular lifestyle or activity—for example a game about Apple products, in line with the companyʼs slogan “Think Different,” may attempt to convince players Apple products are for the creative and independent; 2) Illustrative advergaming features the product and indirectly communicates tangible and intangible information, while deemphasizing the features of the product—an example is General Millsʼ Fruit Roll-Ups Scoops Memory Game, which is a simple memory game with no product information; and 3) Demonstrative advergaming in which the product is presented in its natural context, not just incidentally, and players are provided the opportunity to interact with it—an example is Mountain Dewʼs skateboarding game, Mountain Dew Skateboarding, created in 2003 by Groove Alliance and discussed below(Bogost 153-158). ! Theoretically, demonstrative advergaming speaks most closely to the concept of incorporating procedural rhetoric dialogue within gameplay to provide the player an opportunity to form an opinion, but examples of demonstrative advergames generally fail to deliver a clear message and often only offer rudimentary or even nonexistent connections to the product or service of 20 sponsoring companies. Mountain Dew Skateboarding attempts to associate consumption of its high-caffeine beverage with high energy activities, such as skateboarding, by having players perform skateboard tricks for points. The player must keep a “Mountain Dew Power” meter at the bottom of the screen from being exhausted to continue playing, which is done by collecting Mountain Dew products scattered throughout the game environment. At first glance, one may assume that the required Mountain Dew “power-ups,” much in the manner of demonstrative advertising, are an effective simulation of the caffeine “jolt” the soft drink offers. However, this “demonstration” does not illustrate the tangible benefits of the product itself; rather, it simply emphasizes the product. As Bogost writes, this may be referred to as “in-game object fetishism; the player seeks the Mountain Dew because it and it alone has magical power in the game world (160),” yet no information as to why one should drink Mountain Dew is offered. The game experience becomes an end in itself rather than a conduit to opinion formation and action in the material world. ! An alternate approach proposed by Bogost to Mountain Dew Skateboarding that implements procedural rhetoric (and may motivate a player to purchase the product) is a scenario in which the player has to beat the clock to get to school on time, while avoiding obstacles and seeking shortcuts. Shortcuts most likely require skateboard tricks, which demand energy and, in this case, 21 selecting high-caffeine Mountain Dew provides instrumental benefit to the player. The emphasis on the amount of information presented and synthesized to illustrate the value of the product or, in other words, intelligent product integration versus the mere image of the product used as a negligible token of play is the salient point in Bogostʼs suggestion. PRgaming ! The limitation of in-game advertising discussed thus far is a result of the makeup of the advertising industry itself which operates for the sole purpose of inscribing surfaces. As Bogost writes: The entire advertising industry has taken on metaphoric stereotypes for its obsession with surface; the ad man is a façade, his designer shoes and suits hiding his dearth of substance, and the advertising agency is a veneer, its ʻcreativeʼ environment of Razor scooters and exposed ventilation hiding its scanty imagination. Changing this state of affairs will not be simple (197). ! In order to fully present the value of products, there must be meaning attached to the products placed within games—an effort which is beyond that of a mere “media buy”—and must take place on a specific design and technical level that explicitly codes the product into gameplay to provide meaningful integration. The mere image of a product is no longer a feasible point of entry to the consumer and another driving force needs to take the helm. At the point where advertising fails is, the author argues, where the public relations industry can 22 step forward and establish ties with a medium that is contemporary, popular and highly complementary to the objectives of its trade. ! Much like a public relations talking points memo that serves to present the most relevant facts, yet always within a rhetorical framework, persuasive games make key claims about products and services through simulation—an engaging and interactive feature, which can strategically position the public relations industry in the current Web 2.0 space. 23 Chapter 6: Facebook Games ! Standalone persuasive games may be viewed as effective in and of themselves, but an interesting concept to hypothesize about is using persuasive games within the compelling force of social networks. The astounding success of Facebookʼs 400 million users coupled with 43-year old women being the median players of games on Facebook, leads one to rationalize that meaningful Facebook games developed specifically for this demographic might be a valid communication outreach strategy. An opportunity certainly exists to leverage this space since current Facebook games are generally devoid of meaning and revolve around such activities as tending farms, managing cafes or building a mafia empire, (e.g. Zyngaʼs Farmville, Cafeworld, and Mafia Wars). Certainly, a fun factor of engagement is inherently vital to the success of games, yet, creating more meaningful experiences for female players that may revolve around either brands or issues would most likely make for an effective outreach strategy. There is potentially a vast difference between the level of engagement provided by a dynamic and interactive Facebook game subtly imbued with meaning versus a static Facebook “fan page” of products, which simply offers a newsfeed to fans with no other means to engage. ! Although not a game, one interesting exception to the generally lackluster product placement efforts on Facebook is Burger Kingʼs “Whopper Sacrifice” campaign created in 2009 by advertising and design agency Crispin Porter + 24 Bogusky. The Facebook application created by the firm garnered top-tier media coverage by promising Facebook users a coupon for a Burger King Whopper in exchange for removing 10 friends from their friends list. The successful campaign, before it was shut down by Facebook for alleged privacy violations, resulted in 233,906 friends being removed by 82,771 individuals in less than a week (Arrington). While the campaign did not make claims about the Whopper itself, the creative approach it took to create an element of choice, similar to the choice a player must make in a game to reach an objective, is what makes this effort notable. The procedural rhetoric of meaning given to the Whopper when individuals “sacrificed” their friends for the burger creatively added perceived value to the product. From a peer-to-peer perspective, the campaign grew in popularity when once Facebook users opted to remove 10 friends, their ex- friends were informed of this in a humorous message sent by Burger King. The entertaining viral nature of the campaign further motivated others to sacrifice friends for a Whopper in an almost game-like fashion—the individual playing by the rules set by Burger King “won” a Whopper, while 10 ex-friends “lost” out on the deal. 25 Gaming Mothers ! A much vied for segment by marketers within the female demographic, and tangentially related to Facebook games, is mothers who control an estimated 80 percent of all household spending and are increasingly exercising their purchasing power online (“How Moms and Retailers Interact Online”). Research has shown that there are an estimated 34 million mothers online, and they are among the savviest of all internet users. Most importantly, these women are engaged in social media, such as blogs (as witnessed by the rise of the highly coveted marketing niche of the “mommy blogger”) and social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter, which leads to an ever-increasing sphere of influence (“Moms Online: More Influential Than Ever”). ! With so many mothers online coupled with their tremendous purchasing power, attempts to determine the online activities in which these women partake have consistently reported that gaming ranks high on the list of preferred activities. ! Not surprisingly, a recent report by Marketing to Moms Coalition, "State of the American Mom Survey," reports that out of all social media sites used by mothers, such as MySpace, Twitter and LinkedIn, Facebook ranked the highest, with 39 percent of mothers using Facebook (“Social Media Sites Used by US Mom Internet Users”). More granular Facebook-centric data released in January 2010 by lucid marketing and Lisa Finn in their report, "Marketing to Moms on 26 Facebook," confirms that 26 percent of moms who use Facebook do so to “play games/participate in quizzes,” which is only outranked by keeping in touch with family. Keeping in touch with business contacts (23 precent), checking out companies and products (10 percent) and meeting new people (9 percent) all ranked below playing games. ! This paper posits that this crucial segment of “gaming mothers” is not being effectively engaged in persuasive rhetoric through current Facebook games which, most importantly, is a viable medium of their own choosing. The void that is present serves as an invaluable opportunity to disseminate messaging about products and services tailored to the specific interests of this demographic. ! Although not specifically tailored to online mothers, TravelChannel.comʼs Kidnap! Facebook game highlights components of a meaningful social network game that can possibly be used as a model for more effective games for female players. Numerous women and mother-oriented sites—such as parenting and consumer review destinations—can easily be substituted for travel. Example of a Persuasive Facebook Game: Kidnap! ! In “Facebook Success Stories” published in 2008 by MarketingProfs.com, an online resource for marketing professionals, The Travel Channelʼs Facebook game Kidnap! is justifiably included as a study on how companies have successfully leveraged the social network site to connect with customers. 27 Kidnap!, created by marketing agency Rapp, made its debut in July 2008 and was instantly ranked as one of the highest played games on Facebook at the time. !The marketing objective was to recruit a younger demographic of 25-34 year old visitors to TravelChannel.com via engaging and competitive gameplay. Facebook users were asked to kidnap their friends to a secret hideout location and their victims could only escape by correctly guessing which city they were in. Clues to questions regarding the city were found on a “cheat sheet” located on TravelChannel.com, which linked directly from the Facebook game application. Although there was minimal branding of Travel Channel in the game itself, the website, through its “cheat sheet,” served as a great resource for players in their quests to escape. Within just six weeks of its debut the game had 23,000 daily active users, 25,000 monthly users, over 25 million “kidnaps” sent, and, more importantly, TravelChannel.com experienced a 81 percent click-through rate on its site, with site visits increasing by 28 percent and page views by 36 percent (“Facebook as Social Media”). ! The success of Kidnap! is largely due to the game having managed to effectively capture both the elements of procedural rhetoric and the reach of social media. Whether knowingly incorporated or not, it is exactly the procedural rhetoric found in its gameplay that serves to initiate a dialogue with players— quite possibly, current and future travelers—and persuade them to rely on TravelChannel.com as a resource for travel information. By prolonging the 28 process of the game experience, where one is compelled to visit TravelChannel.com in order to play the game, there is an inherent meaning to the experience which posits the site as a valuable travel resource. ! When the formal and dramatic elements of game design are applied to Kidnap!, it is easy to see that players were procedurally motivated by the system to view the site as a resource, even beyond the game. Players opted to take this action by participating in the kidnapping narrative unfolding on Facebook, which contributed to creating an effective game system. ! A thoughtful and engaging game with a viral appeal is a prime example of the promise of procedural rhetoric in social media. As the makers of the game state, “by making the brand a desired and rewarding destination instead of just plastering a logo on a screen,” Kidnap! helped the Travel Channel effectively engage a younger demographic and increase site traffic (“Travel Channelʼs ʻKidnapʼ App”). ! A relevant case study of a game that employs procedural rhetoric is one the author is personally involved in at the University of Southern California, which makes for an interesting discussion on the subject. 29 Chapter 7: Case Study of “Communication via Gameplay for Policymakers” Introduction ! In September 2009, I joined a game design project headed by Marientina Gotsis, Instructor and Media Lab Manager at USCʼs School of Cinematic Arts, which also includes two graduate students from the schoolʼs Interactive Media Division, Nahil Sharkasi and Diane Tucker. The teamʼs scientific advisor is Pat Levitt, Director of USCʼs Zilkha Neuorgenetic Institute, Provost Professor of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Pharmacy, and Chair of the Department of Cell and Neurobiology at the Keck School of Medicine. ! Our team is tasked with developing paper or digital game prototypes whose purpose is to engage the player in the reframing of common early childhood development assumptions in a non-didactic manner. This is done by demonstrating, through gameplay, the science behind the architecture of the developing brain and the long-term consequences of investing (or not investing) in early childhood development. The gameʼs intended audience is policymakers and their aides, who are responsible for keeping abreast of the latest information in this field in order to make informed decisions. Although intended for governmental decision-makers, the games are apolitical in nature and are intended solely to inform. For example, these games may supplement the reading of lengthy scientific research reports, which through procedural rhetoric 30 may provide an even more holistic understanding of the issue. Policymakers acting upon their new understanding will, quite obviously, be a much welcomed long-term endpoint. Scientific Background ! Harvard Universityʼs Center on the Developing Child is conducting ongoing research in discovering how vital the impact of a childʼs “environment of relationships” is on developing brain architecture during the first months and years of life; birth to age five is deemed critical. Although, it is well known that interactions with parents and caregivers, such as daycare workers and teachers, are important in a childʼs life, new evidence reveals that these very relationships can actually shape brain circuits and lay the foundations for later developmental outcomes—from academic performance and interpersonal skills to physical and mental health. ! Scientific research from the Center reveals that brains develop over time and “serve-and-return” or the reciprocal relationship between children and caregivers, which includes interactions such as a childʼs babbling, facial expressions, and gestures with adults responding in kind, is important to short and long-term development. Toxic stress in early childhood or stress that is chronic and unrelenting—such as stress caused by extreme poverty, repeat abuse, or severe maternal depression—can damage developing brain 31 architecture if left unaddressed and unbuffered by positive events. This can be severely damaging and lead to life long problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health. Policy Implications ! The implications of early childhood development programs and policies indicate early, preventive intervention is more efficient and produces more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life. In addition, although it is understood that supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home, these can also be provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors (such as quality daycare centers). Lastly, the research clearly demonstrates that in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes for children. ! However, many of our nation's policies, such as parental leave, child care, welfare work requirements, and child protection services, fail to take into account the crucial importance of this “environment of relationships” and its impact on child well-being. The imparting of these scientific findings and their possible short and long-term implications to decision-makers is the key communication objective of our game. Through gameplay the player should come to realize the importance of prevention and intervention and the implications of not taking action. 32 Reframing and Game Conceptualization ! As public relations professionals “frame” issues via well-crafted press releases and talking points, similarly games provide the opportunity to do the same. To assist us in framing the communication design aspect of our game prototypes, it is crucial for our team to first be aware of existing beliefs and assumptions about early childhood development programs. For this, we are relying on the work of The FrameWorks Institute, a communications firm the Center has partnered with, that developed several incorrect assumptions and biases the game needs to address, including: 1) Arenʼt most children in this country doing just fine? 2) Do early childhood programs really benefit all children, even those who arenʼt poor? 3) Arenʼt we asking the state to make up for what parents are not doing? Isnʼt it better for parents to take care of their own kids rather than send them to child care? 4) Isnʼt it true that data show that early childhood programs arenʼt very effective in the long-term? They cost a lot, but children still donʼt do well in school later on; and, 5) Weʼve been investing in child care programs for many years. Why havenʼt we seen more progress in educational outcomes? (“Early Childhood Development”) 33 ! In reframing these assumptions and questions, our team must create a sense of urgency to inspire investment today for healthier and well-adjusted children tomorrow; we must illustrate that socio-economic status is not a factor in brain development since abuse and neglect can occur in any environment; we must acknowledge that although parents are important, a nurturing “environment of relationships” that supplements or fills in gaps of the crucial reciprocal “serve- and-return” interactions can make a difference; we must also acknowledge that although data is important, an over-reliance on it can limit the implementation of new, more effective methods to optimal child development; and, lastly, we must underscore that school success does not necessarily equate to quality childcare and that social and emotional development is intertwined with learning and a holistic approach. ! Hence, to provide the player a means to achieve deeper understanding of the issue, three salient concepts included in our game design are: the science of developing brain architecture, the implications of investing to varying degrees in early childhood development programs, and reframing pre-existing assumptions. The versatility of game design provides an array of possibilities in choosing how to merge these three elements into an engaging and informative game experience. 34 Brain Architecture Game Prototype Formal Elements ! Although not a finalized product yet, our teamʼs Brain Architecture game has gone through quite a few iterations in order to balance its formal and dramatic elements neatly in a compelling dramatic arc. The end result will be a digital game, but for the purpose of this paper I will discuss the merits of our current prototype and the procedural rhetoric embedded within the game. ! Our teamʼs inspiration for the game came from the classic childrenʼs building toy Tinkertoy, in which children have the freedom to choose the manner in which they wish to assemble various wooden pieces to build structures. In the same vein, aesthetically our Brain Architecture game is also an expression of “free form” and employs the core mechanic of “building,” which is a complementary reinforcement in a game that deals with building strong foundations. ! The game is presented from the first-person point of view and is a single- player experience played against the system. The game provides developmental stages from pre-birth to age five and the granularity or the level of specificity is limited simply to building brain architecture. The core objective of the game is to build the most robust structure or “brain” with resources that are assigned to the player through randomly generated events. These events, in turn, contribute the “resources” of either toxic stress or stress that results from intense adverse 35 experiences that may be sustained over a long period of time, such as the abuse and neglect from child maltreatment, or positive stress, which is short-lived stress from adverse experiences, such as attending a new daycare or getting a shot, and is considered a normal part of the development process. Hence, the resources are either helpful in building a strong solid structure or contribute to an unsound structure. ! Progression is achieved by successfully adding to the structure and determining how well the structure can withstand “stress tests” at the end of each level. Currently, a simple end or win state is determined by how well the Brain Architecture built compares or interacts with other structures in the world. The win state has the potential to be expanded upon and infused with more complexity as the the game undergoes additional iterations. Dramatic Elements ! The dramatic elements included in the game experience include a number of vignettes of child and parent/caregiver/teacher scenarios that touch upon the frames provided by the FrameWorks Institute and which, when coupled with the formal elements, contribute to forming a compelling dramatic arc. The random resources that a player is dealt determine how well a structure can be built, much like in real life where a newborn may enter into optimal or sub-optimal development environments. In a sub-optimal environment the resource object 36 provided to the player in building the structure will not be very helpful and may possibly structurally undermine other positive events. Yet, as in real life, it is still possible to build a structure that can tolerate the “toxic stress” of neglect if buffers, such as quality childcare at a daycare center, are present in the childʼs environment. In this situation, the importance of investing in the concept of a interconnected “environment of relationships” (e.g. quality daycare centers) is clearly made apparent through non-didactic means. ! The specificity of a narrative that speaks only to “developing the brain,” rather than getting lost in all the possible ways in which we can better help children, is exactly what gives meaning to the game experience since, as Bogost and Bernays assert, a few select choices are what provide the context to effectively persuade. The narrative which drives the choices a player must make in building the Brain Architecture and how best to apply the resources meted out by parents/caregivers/teachers in a closed system is exactly what calls to attention the quality of resources available and the fact that they may potentially be in conflict with each other. Can a working mother in a two-income household afford to spend time with her baby if she has limited maternity leave? Can “serve- and-return” occur if the conflict of postpartum depression is present and what consequences does that hold for the newborn? The interplay of resources, conflict, choice and consequence in the context of various narratives are what 37 will ultimately make for an effective implementation of procedural rhetoric within the game. ! Our team cannot be certain of whether the conflicting scenarios will translate into the real life implementation of more robust childhood development policies, but if the player is led to simply reflect on the importance of taking action then that is success. As Bogost states on how best to evaluate the effectiveness of procedural rhetoric: Procedural rhetoric persuades when it helps discern the evental site of a situation—the place where current practice breaks down. Players are persuaded when they enter a crisis in relation to this logic. Persuasion is related to the playerʼs ability to see and understand the simulation authorʼs implicit or explicit claims about the logic of the situation represented (333). Coffee Stirrers and Play-doh ! In the current paper prototype phase our team is conducting several rounds of playtests to ensure the game is engaging and balanced and that it delivers effective messaging. To capture the developing brain in a non-digital manner we are employing the simplest of devices: coffee stirrers and play-doh. We are using coffee stirrers as building material for the brain architecture, with play-doh serving as the connecting nodes for the stirrers to complete levels of development. Randomly drawn cards of narrative vignettes are selected, which result in either toxic or positive stress affecting the structure, with larger pieces of play-doh representing positive stress (and better connecting nodes) and smaller pieces of play-doh representing toxic stress. 38 ! At each level and at the end of play, a weighted object, such as a paper- clip with a small weight attached, is used to test how well the structure stands up against cumulative stress. Coffee stirrers that are joined with smaller amounts of play-doh (toxic stress) have resulted in less solid structures that collapse when a weighted object is placed upon them—but not all the time. We have found, in some instances, that these structures are able to withstand a weighted object, which addresses brain architecture that may not be optimally built, but are still “making do” with what has been meted out to them by life circumstances. Capturing this in gameplay lends more credibility to the experience and an accurate simulation of a few, fortunate cases. If procedurally this event takes place in the game, then rhetorically the very realistic frame of “exceptions to every rule” coupled with an emphasis on the low chance of this actually occurring can be introduced. ! In individual playtests we have conducted thus far players have not been told that their Brain Architecture will be tested at the end—only that they should build the strongest structure possible with whatever resources they happen to receive. Furthermore, the only other instruction provided is that two-dimensional structures should be built in the first two rounds to establish a foundation, and three-dimensional structures can be built starting from the third round. We have observed that the message of the game, that of the importance of investing in early childhood development programs, is realized when players are made aware 39 that their structures will be tested. It is at this point that players realize, that although they did the best they could with their respective resources, their Brain Architecture could have been built stronger with different, more stable resources or it could have been substantially weakened if the right cards had not been dealt. 40 Conclusion ! The art of public relations requires that its practitioners present select information in order to inform, persuade and shape opinion. With 70 percent of US Internet users actively playing online games, the promise of using this medium to communicate is a practical, novel and fun approach to engage audiences. Through procedural rhetoric manifested in the choices players must make in games, it is easy for public relation professionals to initiate dialogue, yet leave the ultimate understanding to players. This non-didactic manner of communication is a fresh reprieve from the stolid press release, Facebook “fan page” or another Twitter update, lost among millions of other tweets. ! From past observations of the shortfalls of advergaming, the public relations industry is now better prepared to deliver information through games and fill in the gaps of meaningless logos with a public relations-centric approach toward substantive dialogue and understanding. ! By the agreeable merging of procedural rhetoric and social networks, especially the increasing number of mothers who are online and play Facebook games, communicators can more fully build messaging momentum and cater to this vital market.! ! To educate and inform in the most transparent and engaging manner possible through well-designed games, one would believe, would be a readily adopted communication method. But, surprisingly, this is not the case. In a recent 41 January 2010 report released by the Society of Digital Agencies (SoDA), utilizing games to communicate ranked at the very bottom of the list of priorities for senior marketers. Only eight percent reported that games were a “top priority,” with the majority 35 percent reporting games as a “low priority” and 26 percent of marketers considering them “not relevant” to their goals (“Top Priorities in 2010 According to Senior Marketers Worldwide”). Clearly, a gap exists between how games are viewed and their potential. ! Games, in the purest simple sense of “play,” have been with us since childhood. We are unquestionably drawn to the inherent game experience and the design and mechanics that make them so compelling. ! Why then are games being ignored? As communicators, we must continuously keep pace with our audience and innovate new methods to initiate dialogue that is engaging, is relevant and has impact. Relying on outdated communication methods and failing to create new, powerful dialogue when there is clearly opportunity to do so will surely limit the relevancy of our profession in the digital age. 42 Bibliography Arrington, Michael. “Facebook Blows A Whopper of An Opportunity.” TechCrunch. ! 14 Jan 2009. 31 March 2010. <http://techcrunch.com/2009/01/14/ ! facebook-blows-a-whopper-of-an-opportunity/> Bernays, Edward. Propaganda. Reactor-core.org. 8 July 2009. ! <http://www.reactor-core.org/bernays-propaganda.html> Bogost, Ian. Persuasive Games. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of ! Technology, 2007. “Casual Games Facts” CasualGamesAssociation.org. 11 Nov 2009. ! <http://www.casualgamesassociation.org/news.php>. “Facebook As Social Media.” slideshare.net. 3 Jan 2010. ! <http://www.slideshare.net/ralphpaglia/! facebook-as-social-media>. “Facebook Press Room” Facebook.com. 11 Nov 2009. ! <http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics>. “Early Childhood Development.” Frameworksinstitute.org. 4 Jan 2010. ! <http://www.frameworksinstitute.org/ecd.html>. Fullerton, Tracy. Game Design Workshop: A Playcentric Approach to Creating ! Innovative Games. Burlington: Morgan Kaufman Publishers, 2008. “How Moms and Retailers Interact Online.” Feb 2010. eMarketer. 4 !March 2010. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. 43 "Marketing to Moms on Facebook." 12 Jan 2010. eMarketer. 2 March 2010. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Mobile Content Activities of US Mobile Phone Users, September 2009 & ! December 2009 (% of total mobile subscribers).” 8 Feb 2010. eMarketer. 1 ! March 2010. <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Moms Online: More Influential Than Ever.” June 2009. eMarketer. 14 Sept 2009. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “New Media and Technologies Used by US Social Media Users vs. Average Adults, ! December 2009 (% of respondents).” 3 March 2010. eMarketer. 5 March ! 2010. <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Online Activities of US Internet Users, Q3 2009 (% of respondents)” 26 Jan ! 2010. eMarketer. 4 March 2010. <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Pathfinder.” Pathfinder.usc.ed. 25 March 2010. ! <http://pathfinder.usc.edu/?page_id=2> “Profiling Social Gamers.” 26 Feb 2010. eMarketer. 4 March 2010. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Social Media Sites Used by US Mom Internet Users, 2008 & 2009 (% of ! respondents).” 30 Oct 2009. eMarketer. 2 Feb 2010. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Top Priorities in 2010 According to Senior Marketers Worldwide (% of ! respondents).” 19 Jan 2010. eMarketer. 2 March 2010. ! <https://totalaccess.emarketer.com>. “Travel Channelʼs ʻKidnapʼ App.” Rapp.com. 12 Dec 2009. ! <http://www.rapp.com/forrester/gs/travelchannel/>. 44

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The broad appeal of online and mobile casual games and their easy accessibility via multiple platforms presents a novel avenue to use games as communication tools. Games that employ the design concept of procedural rhetoric or in-built computational persuasion can effectively enhance understanding and shape opinion of the game subject and can even motivate players to take action. Viewed from this perspective, it can be posited that these “persuasive” games complement the objectives of public relations professionals and are well-suited to serve as communication platforms. Yet, surprisingly, using games to engage and inform has either been underutilized or has altogether been unnoticed by the public relations industry. Clearly, in keeping pace with our digital information age, the opportunity exists to initiate meaningful dialogue through this dynamic medium.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Akmal, Amena (author)

Core Title Persuasion through play: how procedural rhetoric in casual games can inform public relations

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/10/2010

Defense Date 04/01/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag casual games,facebook,Games,gaming,Ian Bogost,OAI-PMH Harvest,procedural,Public Relations,rhetoric,Women

Place Name USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Floto, Jennifer D. (committee chair), Gibson, Jeremy (committee member), Williams, Dmitri (committee member)

Creator Email amy.akmal@gmail.com,amy_akmal@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3068

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Document Type Thesis

Rights Akmal, Amena

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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