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Linking theory and practice in teacher education: an analysis of the reflective-inquiry approach to preparing teachers to teach in urban schools

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Linking theory and practice in teacher education: an analysis of the reflective-inquiry approach to preparing teachers to teach in urban schools

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LINKING THEORY AND PRACTICE IN TEACHER EDUCATION:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE REFLECTIVE-INQUIRY APPROACH TO PREPARING
TEACHERS TO TEACH IN URBAN SCHOOLS

by

Janice Myck-Wayne

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2007

Copyright 2007 Janice Myck-Wayne

ii
Table of Contents

List of Tables iv

List of Figures v

Abstract vi

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Context of the Study 6
Purpose of the Study 10
Importance of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 13

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 18
Theoretical Framework 18
Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching and Learning 24
Unpacking and Unraveling the Personal Belief Systems 35
of Preservice Teachers
Seeking Change through Preservice Coursework Interventions 35
Developing the Reflective Practitioner in Teacher Education 42
Beliefs and Attitudes and Development of Identity 44
in Preservice Education
Theory into Practice-Interventions: Student Teaching and Beyond 48
Developing a Reflective Preservice Teacher through 56
Teacher Education Program Changes
Models of Reflection 61
Conclusion 64

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 71
Introduction 71
Setting, Participants and Programmatic Components 73
Research Design 78
Data Sets 79
Data Analysis 81

Chapter 4: Findings 87
Journal and Reflection Content 89
Journal Content in Foundation Cousework 95
and Early Field Experience
Journal Content in Student Teaching 134

iii
Comparison of Early Field Experience 173
and Student Teaching Reflections
Evidence of Reflective Writing 178
Summary 200
Conclusion 207

Chapter 5: Discussion 210
Implications for Teacher Education Research 215
Limitations 216
Recommendations 217
Conclusion 224

References 226

Appendices 235
Appendix A: Criteria for the Recognition of Evidence for 235
Different Types of Reflective Writing
Appendix B: Percentage Distribution of Enrollment in 236
Public Elementary and Secondary Schools
Appendix C: Coding Schema 237
Appendix D: Journal Count: Student Teaching and Early Experience 238
Appendix E: Lesson Plan Reflection Count 239

iv
List of Tables

Table 1. Coursework and Field Experience for MAT Program 74

Table 2. Profile of 2005-2006 MAT Entering Class 77

Table 3. Categories Using Grounded Codes and Percentage of Responses 91
By Category

Table 4. Categories Generated from Preliminary Analysis: Student Teacher 94
Lesson Plan Reflections, Teacher Candidates eFolio
Journal Entries

Table 5. Two Student Comparison of Early Field Experience Journals 96

Table 6. Comparison of Two Sets of Reflection Topics Written During 135
Student Teaching

Table 7. Criteria for the Recognition of Evidence for Different Types of 179
Reflective Writing with Percentages across Entries

Table 8. Three Models of Reflection 214

v
List of Figures

Figure 1. Journal Entry Count 88

Figure 2. Preservice Foundational Coursework Journals 97

Figure 3. Frquency: Reflection on Student Learning 99

Figure 4. Frequency: Implications of Coursework 102

Figure 5. Frequency: Discussion of Theory 107

Figure 6. Frequency: Teaching English Learners 110

Figure 7. Frequency: Types of Instructional Methods 114

Figure 8. Frequency: Program Influences 118

Figure 9. Journals in Student Teaching 136

Figure 10. Lesson Plan Reflections 137

Figure 11. Frequency: Types of Instructional Methods and 142
Implications of Coursework

Figure 12. Frequency: Reflection on Lesson Outcomes 150

Figure 13. Frequency: Teaching English Learners 152

Figure 14. Frequency: Discussion of Theory 155

Figure 15. Frequency: Elements of Student Teaching 159

Figure 16. Frequency: Cultural and Socio-economic 168

Figure 17. Percentages of Least Referenced Categories 174

Figure 18. Percentages of Most Referenced Category 176

vi
Abstract

A prevalent dilemma in preservice teacher education is the effort to bridge
the gap between theory and practice. Researchers working within teacher education
engage in a process of examination to understand how preservice teachers develop
over time in response to the teacher education program, and how they have
developed their professional identity as they finish the program. This study examines
the critical elements of an urban-focused program in which teacher candidates
participate, so that the relationship between student thinking and program
components can be connected.
The study asked four questions: What role do preservice teacher education
programs play in informing and influencing teacher belief systems? What role do
preservice teachers’ beliefs play in their reflection? What role do reflective journals
in teacher education play in informing teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices?
What role can teacher educators play in facilitating transformative learning processes
in teacher candidates during preservice programs in urban settings?
The study utilized qualitative research methods by examining through deep
analysis the journal entries and reflective assignments of 15 teacher candidates from
the Masters of Arts in Teaching program at a large urban private university.
The findings of the study indicate that prospective teachers experience
difficulty in linking the practice of teaching to the perspectives of teaching. This
speaks to their limited understanding of the links between student assessment and
high quality instruction. Results of the analysis demonstrate that, based on the

vii
framework of Hatton and Smith (1995), the teacher candidates engaged in beginning
stages of reflection.
The research findings suggest that development of a framework for reflection
would help teacher educators to structure experiences and activities in coursework
and field experience. Immersion into the classroom does not tend to foster the
development of inquiry. Therefore it is important to promote a habit of inquiry
during teacher preparation, as well as support teacher candidates in understanding
the vital role inquiry and reflection have in teaching and learning.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem
Teacher educators continue to be called by policy makers and the public to
justify their profession. In the book Rethinking Teacher Education, Edwards, Gilroy
and Hartley (2002) note that, during the past decade, governments world-wide have
sought sweeping initiatives for education and teacher education. While society
undergoes major changes, education — primarily teacher education — must attempt
to make sense of and respond to these changes. Edwards et al. (2002) argue that
many government-driven changes have limited rational support. In their observation
of the current state of teacher education, Edwards, Gilroy, and Hartley (2002),
remark that teachers, “the very people who might have been expected to defend
postgraduate training and the status it brings, chose to opt out of the fray.” Edwards
et al. (2002) pose the question, “Why has education failed to bring teachers to its
defense?” (p. 4). Part of the answer to this question may be that teachers have an
underdeveloped sense of professional identity. It may also be the case that teachers
have a limited awareness of the structural conditions that frame their professional
existence. In other words, teachers may not see how their profession is juxtaposed in
the socio-political arena. The other part of the answer proposed by Edwards et al.
(2002) is that government policy increasingly promotes a view of teacher education
as simply the practice of common sense, while — as is the case with most

2
professions — it is actually significantly more complex. Perceptions of the
professional teacher as a purveyor of techniques and practical application were
substantiated by Wright and Bottery (1997). They concluded that “a cloak of
technical rationality shrouds the training of new entrants to teaching and that the
profession is either unaware of or unwilling to debate and initiate its new entrants
into a rich professional culture” (p. 235).
In the midst of society’s confused understanding of the teaching profession,
new teacher candidates must develop their teacher identity: their professional self.
The literature suggests that the development from student to teacher is a very
complicated and multidimensional process. Studies have illustrated that teachers’
views of teaching and learning are socially constructed (Lortie, 2002). Teacher
candidates enter teacher education with a first-hand perception of schools, teachers
and teaching that have developed over many years of “experiencing” schools (Clift
& Brady, 2005; Hammerness et al., 2005; Lortie, 2002; Stuart & Thurlow, 2000).
Co-mingled in these experiences are many societal uniformed messages related to
teaching and teachers as professionals. Intricately intertwined are the perceptions,
beliefs and attitudes of prospective teachers regarding race, class, and gender (Leland
& Harste, 2005; Sleeter, 2001).
As early as 1904, Dewey was concerned about the intellectual dependence of
teachers on the authority of textbook publishers, policy makers and school boards.

3
The willingness of our teaching corps to accept without inquiry or criticism
any method or device which seems to promise good results. Teachers…flock
to those persons who give them clear-cut and definite instructions as to just
how to teach this or that. (As cited in Rodgers, 2002, p. 855.)
Dewey viewed the reflective process as a means to develop teachers’
professionalism. Professionalism, Dewey reasoned, developed out of a reflective
approach to the educational process, providing teachers with an opportunity to reflect
systematically on their experiences. Rodgers (2002) writes that reflection supports
teachers in coming to an understanding of what their students do and why.
Understanding students and the context in which learning takes place enables
teachers to be better prepared to express their needs and goals, in addition to those of
their students. Reflection enables teachers “to take a stand and to propose actions,
both inside and outside the classroom walls” (Rodgers, 2002, p. 855).
Korthagen (2001) argues that, in the second half of the 20
th
century, the
introduction of competency-based teacher education led to the formulation of
concrete and observable criteria for good-teaching. Process-product educational
research studies, Korthagen (2001) explains, resulted in the development of “long
lists of trainable skills that became the basis for teacher education” (p. 2). This line
of thinking developed into the theory to practice approach in teacher education, by
which experts working in universities impart knowledge to prospective teachers.
The new teacher is then expected to practice the knowledge in the classroom.
According to Korthagen (2002), the traditional technical-rationality paradigm in
teacher education does not appear to function well. Research shows that many ideas

4
and educational concepts learned in preservice teaching are “washed out” during
student teaching (Gupta, 2004; Kaste, 2004; Kessels & Korthagen, 2001; Wideen,
Mayer-Smith & Moon, 1998; Worthy, 2005). Reflection has come to take a central
place in teacher education in reaction to research (Gore & Zeichner, 1991) that
showed the gap between theory and practice.
John Loughran (1997) writes, “that the relationship between theory and
practice should be apparent within the teaching and learning episodes we create is
central to learning to teach” (p. 5). What appears important in Loughran’s thinking
about teacher education is that teacher educators “approach their teaching in ways
that demonstrate the importance of the relationship between teaching and learning”
(Loughran, p. 6). While this research examines the specific issue of linking theory to
practice for preservice teachers in urban education, the issue clearly is a larger one in
programs for teacher education. While theories behind teacher learning and teacher
education have transitioned from a behaviorist perspective of teachers acquiring
skills and strategies to employ in the classroom, to a social-constructivist theory of
acquiring and obtaining knowledge through lived experiences (Ashton, 1999), there
seems to remain a central dilemma in teacher education: how to engage teacher
candidates in an examination of their perceptions of teaching and learning, that
fosters a teacher identity that integrates theory and practice. What beginning
teachers believe about teaching and learning is an important and pressing concern to
teacher education and related research.

5
Reflection and inquiry have emerged in teacher education as means to make
“explicit learning about teaching, learning about the self as teacher and as a learner,
learning about the content matter and learning about the social milieu in which
teaching occurs” (McLaughlin & Hannifin, 1994). The National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE, 2002) makes it clear that advancement
of reflective practice is an essential component of teacher education programs.
Furthermore, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2007) has set
standards for accomplished teaching that propose:

Teachers Think Systematically about Their Practice and Learn from
Experience. They are familiar with learning theories and instructional
strategies and stay abreast of current issues in American education. They
critically examine their practice on a regular basis to deepen knowledge,
expand their repertoire of skills and incorporate new findings into their
practice. (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2007)

In the most recent review of research into preparing teachers for teaching
diverse populations, Hollins and Guzman (2005) state that, while there are many
factors that impact educational outcomes for diverse student populations, teacher
quality is the foremost factor. This is not merely about preparing teachers for diverse
school settings, but, rather, preparing preservice teachers to be successful in diverse
settings. While research in the area of preparing teachers for diverse populations has
increased over the past two decades, it has yielded mixed results concerning
preservice teacher thinking with regard to multicultural education (Hollins &
Guzman, 2005; Sleeter, 2001). Absent from the current research on teacher

6
education are studies that demonstrate sustained change in thinking over time, as
well as the effect that coursework in multicultural education has on teacher
classroom practices (Hollins & Guzman, 2005; Sleeter, 2001).

Context of the Study
Most of my review of the research into teacher education has been in the area
of preservice teacher education and the study of assisting preservice teachers to think
of teaching and learning in terms of theory and best practices. The idea is aligned
more with transformative thinking and learning than merely changing personal
beliefs. Teachers often teach as they themselves were taught, relying on their own
memories of being students.

“The problem with conformity in teacher education, then, begins with the
fact that schools attempt to “process” not only knowledge but persons as
well. Can the tensions of teacher education be experienced in such a way
that its potential — as a catalyst for transforming schools and the knowledge
cultivated there — becomes a possibility felt by its participants? Must
teacher education be lived as an accommodation to existing school structure?
Can teacher education be structured more dialogically to take into account
the myriad forms of negotiation that position pedagogy and the teacher’s
identity?” (Britzman, 2003, p. 47)

Presented with this prevalent dilemma, there have been efforts to bridge the
gap between theory and practice. Approaches to addressing this issue have centered
on the social cognitive theory that emphasises teaching as a complex social-moral
activity (Ashton, 1999). Developed within this theory is the social constructivist

7
paradigm that learning happens from both instruction and experience, through
construction of personal meaning based on prior knowledge and beliefs. Included
within this paradigm is the idea that new knowledge develops from a specific
context, and transfers to other contexts when the learner has identified common
aspects between contexts (Ashton, 1999). Preservice teachers enter teacher
education with attitudes, beliefs and assumptions about teaching that have been
shaped by popular culture, politics and their personal experiences as students,
(Hammerness et al., 2005). Deeply imbedded in preservice teachers’ belief systems
are their attitudes and knowledge about race, status, gender and poverty.
Kessels and Korthagen (2001) argue that a primary difficulty caused by the
gap between theory and practice is that teacher education programs reflect the
episteme conception of knowledge. They assert that many teacher educators who
stress the value of practical experience continue to work on the basis of the epistemic
conception of knowledge. The gap between theory and practice creates transfer
problems, arising from questions of how to best connect to students’ existing
knowledge of both theory and practice.
Historically, changing prospective teacher thinking has been a significant
challenge (Lortie, 2002). There is a significant body of research into how
prospective teachers think and adapt, with regard to instructional practice,
(McMahon, 1997). Reflection appears in the literature on teacher education as a
means to support the development of critical thinking in prospective teachers (Hatton
and Smith, 1995; McMahon, 1997; Copeland, Birmingham, De La Cruz, and Lewin,

8
1993). Reflection is often employed as a means to help preservice teachers
assimilate teacher education course content and “real” world experiences, and as a
process that enables preservice teachers to develop themselves as change agents
(McMahon, 1997). These aspects of reflection appear to be very challenging for
both prospective teachers and teacher educators (Hatton & Smith, 1995; Risko,
Roskos, and Vukelich, 2002). Reflection can serve as a process for developing
teachers’ ways of thinking more explicitly. Dewey (1933) defined reflection as the
process of thought that results when one is in a state of doubt and in search of new
information and solutions. An operational conceptualization of reflection suggests
that reflection involves the process of problem solving and meaning construction
with a “perspective toward inquiry that can be observed over time” (Copeland et al.,
p. 350).
Reflection can serve as a form of insight into the development of critical
thinking in preservice teachers. Research on reflection in teacher education often
focuses on how to develop reflective practice in prospective teachers. It appears
from a review of the research on reflection in teacher education that the development
of reflection occurs over time, in conjunction with meaningful experiences and
content through which preservice teachers can develop an inquiry into their practice.
The development of a teacher’s professional identity that is rooted in the
belief that teaching is more than the transmission of knowledge has been a concern
of teacher educators for more than 70 years (Dewey, 1997). Essential in teachers’
professional identities are their attitudes and beliefs about the students they teach.

9
While multicultural education has increased in teacher education programs over the
past 30 years (Hollins & Guzman, 2005), it must be continuously revisited as the
racial and economic demographics of teachers and students become increasingly out
of proportion. Acknowledgement and awareness of these discrepancies is a start, but
reactions to change are fragmented. Raising the standards for teacher certification
increases student performance as measured through standardized testing (Darling-
Hammond, 2000), although the achievement gap continues to increase. Darling-
Hammond’s (2000) research examined how teacher qualifications and other school
inputs were directly related to student achievement across the United States. The
study used data from state surveys of policies, a case study, the 1993-94 Schools and
Staffing Surveys (SASS), the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP),
and student performance reports. It attempted to find a connection between student
performance in mathematics and the physical sciences and the level of teacher
preparation in those subjects. Darling-Hammond concludes, “Although it may be
purely coincidental, these differences in ranking are similar to the differences in
teacher qualifications across these fields” (p.14). This phenomenon may be related
to teacher identity, beliefs and attitudes. Increasing admission requirements for
teacher education programs, as well as requiring expertise in content area subjects,
may solve some issues in teacher education. Other factors may include reforming
teacher education to teach preservice teachers to value their professional identity and
to be successful with all students. An additional factor to consider is how teacher

10
educators teach preservice teachers to perceive the relationship between theory and
practice as an essential component of successful teaching.

Purpose of the Study
In the review that follows, I have explored an array of studies that examine
specific shifts in attitudes regarding multicultural education, identity shifts from
student to teacher, and applying theory in practice. Some studies look specifically at
the issue of theory into practice (Ebby, 2000; Gupta, 2004; Worthy, 2005), while
others focus on interventions to bridge the gap (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005;
Salisbury-Glennon and Stevens, 1999). Research on preservice teacher attitudes and
beliefs (Au and Blake, 2003; Case and Hemmings, 2005; Dong, 2004; Gay and
Kirkland, 2003) examines how those attitudes and beliefs are transformed.
In my review of how teacher educators intervene to address issues of linking
theory to practice, it has become apparent that the transformation of theory into
practice is more complex than the transmission of methods and knowledge. One
focus of this dissertation is change in preservice teachers’ thinking during the time
spent studying how to teach. As the literature reveals, teacher educators have
applied different interventions and strategies in an attempt to help preservice teachers
examine their beliefs and attitudes. Reflection and inquiry were used most often in
practice. Examining the use of reflection and inquiry as vehicles of transformative
learning leads me to ask the following research questions:

11
1. What role do preservice teacher education programs play in informing
and influencing teacher belief systems?
2. What role do preservice teachers’ beliefs play in their reflections?
3. What role do reflective journals in teacher education play in informing
teachers’ beliefs and instructional practice?
4. What role can teacher educators play in facilitating transformative
learning processes in teacher candidates during preservice programs in
urban settings?
These questions are important, since they may offer further insight into how to
effectively prepare teachers for urban student populations. As noted, rigorous
standards for credentialing beginning teachers have not been shown to sufficiently
connect preservice education programs to student achievement.

Importance of the Study
This study seeks to employ the research genre that investigates
phenomenological and developmental change in teacher education. It involves
following teacher candidates as they proceed through their preservice Master of
Teaching (MAT) program, in order to document whether and how their ideas about
teaching change over time. Researchers working within teacher education engage in
a process of examination, in order to understand the attitudes and beliefs of
preservice teachers when they enter their programs, how preservice teachers develop
over time in response to teacher education programs, and how preservice teachers

12
have developed their professional identities when they finish their programs
(Kennedy, 1999). This study includes an examination of the critical elements of an
urban-focused program in which teacher candidates participate, so that the
relationship between student thinking and program components can be connected.
Most teacher education studies have examined the student teaching component of
teacher education. This study will add to the body of research in teacher education
by examining two aspects of teacher preparation: (1) the teacher candidates and the
teacher education program component; (2) the developmental trajectory of preservice
teachers, from their first teacher education course until the completion of student
teaching. Developmental studies are sparse in the field of teacher education research
(Clift and Brady, 2005). A previous study by Hollingsworth (1989), while
developmentally designed, examined written documents for only one reading course
over the nine-month-long teacher education program. Copeland & Marianne
D'Emidio-Caston (1998) focused their developmental study of preservice teacher
change on interviews, and did not examine the richness of written documents. This
study attempts to document the reflective experience of teacher candidates from start
to finish of their preservice preparation experience.

13
Definition of Terms

Alternative Certification
Alternative certification in the context of this dissertation refers to teacher
education programs that enroll noncertified individuals in alternative tracts. Using a
definition adapted by Zeichner and Conklin from Alderman (1986), alternative
programs offer shortcuts, special assistance and/or unique curricula that lead to the
eligibility for a teaching credential.

Foundation Coursework
Foundations classes, as defined for this dissertation, provide in-depth
knowledge in sociological and psychological theories and their application in the
classroom.

Initial Teacher Education (ITE)
ITE is an acronym used to indicate teacher education programs that lead to
credentials or licensure. It is frequently used in the United Kingdom and Australia.
(Wilson & I'Anson, 2006.)

14
Inquiry
Inquiry, as used in this dissertation, refers to a way of knowing. The term
derives from a description used by Lyons and Labosky (2002), and refers to a
process of acquiring new knowledge.

Methods Coursework
Methodological courses are content area courses that preservice teachers
enroll in during their teacher preparation program, that include pedagogy constructs
on how to implement instruction in subject areas (Clift & Brady, 2005).

Preservice Teacher
For the purposes of this dissertation, the term preservice teacher refers to a
student of teaching enrolled in a teacher preparation program working towards
licensure to teach in the public schools.

Reflective Practice
For the purposes of this dissertation, reflective practice is derived from
several sources. Van Manen (1995) suggests that reflective practice extends beyond
knowledge of the student’s skills and needs and the range of teaching skills, to
include a continuing “motivation and ability on the part of teachers to interrogate
their own practice and its results in order to continue to connect with students’
changing needs” (Day, 1999, p. 218). According to Schön (1983), a reflective

15
practice helps to “correct over-learning” (p. 61). Reflective practice allows one to
critique one’s tacit understandings, and the repetitive experiences that one has come
to know, and help to make new sense of uncertain or unique situations.

Teacher Education Programs
Teacher education programs are defined in this study to include both
undergraduate and graduate university programs that lead to certification at the
preservice level. Coursework in teacher education programs includes foundational
courses, methodological courses, and field experience components (Zeichner &
Conklin, 2005).

Teacher Educator
The teacher educator is an instructor or faculty member in a school of
education who facilitates learning about teaching across all pedagogical coursework.
These individuals include full-time faculty and adjunct instructors (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2005).

Students of Diverse Backgrounds
According to Au and Blake (2003), students of diverse backgrounds refers to
students who are differentiated from the mainstream by one or more of the
following: (a) social class, (b) ethnicity, and (c) primary language,

16
Teacher Education Programs
Teacher education programs are defined in this dissertation to include both
undergraduate and graduate university programs that lead to certification at the
preservice level. Coursework in teacher education programs includes foundational
courses, methodological courses, and field experience components (Zeichner &
Conklin, 2005).

Teacher Educator
For the purposes of this dissertation, a teacher educator is an instructor or
faculty member in a school of education who facilitates learning about teaching
across all pedagogical coursework. These individuals include full-time faculty and
adjunct instructors (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005).

Transformation
Transformation, as used in this dissertation, refers to the process of
knowledge construction that an individual goes through in participation in teacher
education activities. This definition is linked to Rogoff, Matusov, and White’s
(1996) participation theory.

Transformative Learning
For the purposes of this dissertation, transformative learning refers to
transforming a problematic frame of reference to make it more dependable in our

17
adult life by generating opinions and interpretations that are more justified. We
become critically reflective of those beliefs that become problematic.
Transformative learning is a way of problem solving by defining a problem, or by
redefining or reframing a problem (Mezirow & Associates, 2000).

18
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

The review of literature on reflection and teacher development showed that
previous research focused on several areas of study. One area of study examined
preservice teachers’ preconceived beliefs about teaching and learning, related to
bridging theory to practice. Additional research examined interventions
implemented during methods coursework to change preservice teachers’ attitudes,
and strengthen the link of theory into practice. The literature included research on
developing reflective teachers in early field experience and student teaching
experience. Several studies examined teacher development beyond the teacher
preparation program. Additionally, the literature included models for structuring and
guiding the development of reflective practices.

Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this dissertation is that teacher learning is a
transformative, developmental and social cognitive process. In their chapter on
research into teacher education methods courses and associated field experiences,
Clift and Brady (2005) discuss the complex development of methods courses and
field experience from 1995 to 2001. Citing the historical focus on the subject in
terms of research over the previous 30 years, they show how the trajectory of focus
has moved from a behaviorist perspective (Peck & Tucker, 1973, as cited in Clift &
Brady, 2005) to a social cognitive perspective (Clift & Brady, 2005). The shift has

19
transformed from discrete teacher practices to examining models of engagement
(Schunk, 1991). In the development of social cognitive theory, increasing
achievement was viewed in terms of active contribution within the learning process,
rather than merely being the recipient of transmitted knowledge (Schunk, 1991).
It has become increasingly evident that teaching is a complex, multifaceted
process that requires new approaches that bridge theory to practice (Ashton, 1999).
The scientific approach of applying theoretical principles to the problems of practice
does not appear to effectively transform into practice (Ashton, 1999). Application of
theory develops slowly, and must develop across many contextual experiences in
order for a teacher to fully understand the connection between theory and practice.
This disconnect occurs because the application of theory into educational practices
must take into account “the goals, purpose, beliefs and intentions of both the teachers
and the students” (Olson & Bruner, 1996, p. 10). The approach, then, should not be
to eliminate theory from teacher preparation programs, but rather to investigate
innovative approaches that “develop psychological knowledge in contexts that
enable teachers to understand the relevance of theory to practice” (Ashton, 1999, p.
212).
Hammerness et al. (2005) developed a framework for teachers learning to
teach, that encompasses the concepts of the learning community and teacher identity
development. This teacher learning framework posits that:
New teachers learn to teach in a community that enables them to develop a
vision for their practice; a set of understandings about teaching, learning and
children; dispositions about how to use this knowledge; practices that allow

20
them to act on their intentions and beliefs and tools that support their efforts.
(p. 385)

Based on the research into teacher development within learning communities, this
theoretical framework incorporates several approaches outlined by Cochran-Smith
and Lytle (1999) with regard to knowledge development. These include the
development of knowledge for practice, knowledge in practice, and knowledge of
practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). This “learning to teach” framework moves
away from the belief that teacher development happens in linear, rigid, universal
stages.
The terms reflection and critical reflection have become embedded in the
teacher education lexicon, and frequently appear as descriptions of approaches in
teacher education. Hatton and Smith (1995) note that Dewey considered reflection a
special form of problem solving, within which consideration must “be given to any
form of knowledge or belief involved and grounds for its support” (p. 33). Often,
reflection in teacher education is approached as the use of journals associated with
field experience. While this approach encourages a reaction to practical events, it
does not appear to focus the direction of reflection towards finding solutions to
specific problems, by way of a change in thinking, without additional engagement
(Hatton & Smith, 1995). According to Hatton and Smith (1995), critical reflection
places emphasis on making judgments based on ethical and moral criteria, linked to
an analysis of personal actions in larger socio-historical and politico-cultural
contexts (Gore & Zeichner, 1991). Hatton and Smith (1995) write that approaches to

21
fostering reflection in teacher education programs are frequently based on reflective
writing. In an effort to develop criteria for evidence of reflective writing, Hatton and
Smith (1995) developed a framework that includes four levels of reflection:
Descriptive Writing, Descriptive Reflection, Dialogic Reflection and Critical
Reflection. Descriptive writing is categorized as a description of events or a report of
material read. Descriptive reflection includes a description of events but adds an
attempt to justify actions or events. Dialogic reflection moves into the problem
solving realm, and begins to resemble self-talk, in that there are qualities of
judgment, in addition to the development of alternative hypothesizing. Critical
reflection demonstrates the awareness that events and actions can be viewed from
multiple perspectives and are often connected and influenced by political, social and
historical contexts. Both dialogic and critical reflection “require knowledge and
experiential bases that take some time to develop” (Hatton & Smith, p. 46). The task
of helping preservice teachers to develop, and to become truly reflective about
teaching and learning, involves helping them to learn how to think using critical
reflection.
According to Rodgers (2002), reflection and inquiry are in essence defined as
thinking to learn. Reflection, writes Rodgers (2002), is a “complex, rigorous,
intellectual and emotional enterprise that takes time to do well” (p. 844). In
clarifying Dewey’s original ideas regarding reflection, Rodgers summarizes Dewey’s
view of reflection as “a meaning-making process that moves a learner from one
experience into the next with deeper understanding of its relationships with and the

22
connections to other experiences and ideas.” (p. 845). Reflection, according to
Rodgers, is an essential element, which enables the continuity of learning, and which
ultimately assures that the individual and society progress. The reflective process,
Rodgers posits, does not happen in isolation, but rather occurs in interactions with
others and with the community.
Rodgers presents a dilemma: because it is difficult to clearly define — and
often difficult to discern — what reflection is, it becomes difficult to assess
reflection as a skill. Because of this, reflection has begun to lose its value in practice
and in teacher preparation programs. Supporting reflective thinking in preservice
teachers requires, according to Hatton and Smith (1995) and Rodgers (2002), more
than personal rumination.
Transformative learning is defined by Mezirow (2000) as a process of
questioning previously uncritically held beliefs, assumptions, values and
perspectives. Mezirow and Associates (2002) and Cranton (2006) situate
transformative learning in the context of adult learning, which is often described as
voluntary and self-directed. Although adult learning is often seen as self-directed,
Cranton (2006) suggests that it is not “intended to be an independent or isolating way
of learning” (p.3). Transformative learning is based on the premise that throughout
life people construct meaning out of their experiences. People construct a way of
seeing and living in the world. They develop a way of interpreting what happens to
them that is based on their values and beliefs, and the assumptions that determine
their behavior. According to Mezirow and Associates (2000), formative childhood

23
experiences become a filter for understanding life. Transformative learning theory
includes habits of mind and points of view and is derived from developmental
assumptions where meaning is seen within us. People develop or construct personal
meaning from experiences, and validate those experiences through interaction and
communication with others. Mezirow contends that what we make of the world is a
result of our perceptions of our experiences. Transformative learning is a process of
examining, questioning, validating and revising our perspectives. For learning to
occur, an individual must encounter an alternative perspective which calls into
question prior habits of mind and uncritical ways of knowing, feeling and believing.
Learning, according to Mezirow, can be a single, dramatic or disorienting event, or a
gradual cumulative process. When people critically examine their habitual
expectations, revise them and act on the revised point of view, transformative
learning occurs. This leads to perspectives that are inclusive, discriminating and
integrative of experiences. If a person reacts to “an alternative habit of mind by
reconsidering and revising prior belief systems, the learning becomes
transformative” (Cranton, 2006, p. 24). Thus, reflective learning turns out to be
transformative whenever assumptions are discovered to be disorienting or
inauthentic.
Transformative learning, as a theory of adult learning, supports the
development of reflection and inquiry in teachers. Dewey (1997), Rodgers (2002),
Cranton (2006), Mezirow and Associates (2000), and Hatton and Smith (1995),
discuss reflection as a process that questions habits of mind. Change in perceptions,

24
assumptions and beliefs, occurs as a result of reflection with the initiation of a
disorientating experience or problem that leads to interpretation of the experience
and the generation of possible explanations or questions about the experience.
Revised perspectives are the result of implementing a new course of action or
experimenting and testing a new hypothesis. Development and scaffolding of
activities, strategies and experiences in teacher education that support transformative
learning, appear to be fundamental in the process of the development of students to
teachers.

Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching and Learning
There are three primary areas of the preservice education program that infuse
content knowledge with the practice of teaching and learning: foundational courses,
methodological courses, and field experiences. A disconnect emerges in the research
when examining the preservice teacher’s ability to integrate theory into practice.
The issue is one of conceptual understanding (Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens, 1999).
Salisbury-Glennon and Stevens (1999) assert that preservice teachers’ beliefs may
not be compatible with the ideas and theories presented and taught in education
coursework. Preservice teachers have personal theories — also called “implicit
theories” — formed from “history-based beliefs” (Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens,
1999, p. 741), on which their prior knowledge of “good teaching” is based. Personal
theories form the platform on which preservice teachers evaluate and construct new
theories and ideas about teaching and learning. What is significant about this

25
grouping of research is that it illuminates the recognition by individual teacher
education course instructors that there is a disconnect occurring in preservice teacher
learning. The research in this area essentially discusses studies that infuse a single
methods course with some form of field experience. The dominant context of
teacher education research relates to single-course self study, initiated by the course
instructor and occurring during a short period of time. Through research, the
instructor searches for changes in preservice teacher learning, and changes in
behavior, that may have occurred during the coursework.
Research related to preservice teachers’ preconceived beliefs about teaching
and learning is plentiful (Davis, 2006; Ebby, 2000; Gupta, 2004; Pang and Sablan,
1998; Risko, Roskos, and Vukelich, 2002; Moore, 2003). Studies that address the
issue of prospective teachers’ beliefs have attempted to measure how preservice
teachers struggle to integrate theory into practice. One study conducted by Gupta
(2004), entitled Old Habits Die Hard: Literacy Practices of Pre-service Teachers,
addresses the question of whether preservice teachers actually practice the strategies
they are taught to use in their methods course. Using observation and analysis of 29
students, Gupta (2004) studied the occurrence of applied teaching methods used in
preservice field experience practice. Gupta (2004) employed a qualitative research
design that included an analysis of preservice students’ written class assignments
related to beliefs about reading. Student participants were enrolled in a reading
methods course. Beliefs related to reading strategies were surveyed before and after
coursework and associated field experiences. The study revealed that there was

26
limited congruence between preservice teachers’ personal beliefs about reading
instruction, and what they were taught in their literacy methods coursework. In other
words, the students did not put theory into practice, but instead relied on their
personal beliefs of how literacy is developed. Essentially, preservice teachers’
perceptions about reading, in this study, affected how they approached the task of
teaching reading. The conclusions reached by Gupta (2004) suggest that teacher
educators need to be aware of the belief systems that each preservice teacher brings
with them into the teacher education program, and, furthermore, that changing those
perceptions and beliefs is not typically accomplished through field experience and a
single methods course. Gupta’s (2004) study provides insight into preservice
teachers’ behaviors and perceptions. The results of the study indicate that a course in
reading methods may not change teaching practices in the classroom. One major
flaw in this study is that it did not offer any intervention, nor is it effectively linked
to other significant research on teacher learning theories. Additionally, the context
was time-limited, thus limiting the generalizability of the study.
Pang and Sablan (1998) conducted a quantitative study that addressed teacher
efficacy as it relates to teaching an underrepresented group of students. This study
used a Likert type efficacy survey to indicate agreement to 30 specific questions
designed to determine how confident teachers felt about teaching African-American
students. The questions were adapted from efficacy scales taken from Gibson &
Dembo (1984), Woolfolk & Hoy (1990), and Riggs and Enochs (1990). While this
study yielded disturbing results related to the mixed beliefs that both in-service

27
(n=75) and preservice (n=100) teachers held about teaching African-American
students, it also highlighted the pressing need for teacher education programs to
address attitudes and beliefs about race, ethnicity and culture. The findings from this
study indicated that teachers had mixed beliefs about teaching African-American
students, and that both preservice and in-service teachers embraced the cultural
deficit view of learning. Additionally, Pang and Sablan concluded that a large
number of teachers believed they could not effectively teach African-American
students. Sixty-five percent of the teachers in this study responded that they agreed
with the statement that even a teacher with effective teaching abilities may not be
able to reach and teach African-American students. These results suggest that if
preservice teachers have limited opportunities to examine the stereotypical beliefs
they may hold, they will feel less efficacious about teaching culturally diverse
students. Additionally, the findings from Pang and Sablan’s (1998) study concluded
the “majority of the teachers believed that their teacher training programs did not
provide them with necessary skills to be effective teachers” (p. 52). From these
results, Pang and Sablan concluded that their study indicated that European-
American teachers’ knowledge of African-American students was very limited. The
implications of Pang and Sablan’s (1998) research are that teacher education
programs fail to address attitudes concerning multicultural instruction, as well as
personal and professional belief systems.
Ebby (2000) conducted a teacher case study that explored how preservice
teachers integrate coursework and field experience as they learn to teach. This study

28
focused on three preservice teachers over a two semester period. The study’s data
sets included interviews, observation and review of written documents. Ebby (2000)
examined the relationship between methods courses and field experience for the
purpose of investigating how preservice teachers draw on their experiences as
learners to develop a conception of their teaching role. The findings of the case
study concluded that “what preservice teachers take away from their university
coursework has much to do with the beliefs and dispositions and experiences they
bring with them” (Ebby, 2000, p. 91). Furthermore, this study underscores the need
to continuously monitor the way that students respond to different kinds of learning
experiences in order to screen for hidden resistance. Ebby (2000) concludes that
bidirectional learning between the university classroom and field experience can
facilitate the identification of resistance, and work to overcome perceptions that may
limit the implementation of theory into practice. Essentially, this study adds to the
research on teacher learning by suggesting that knowledge learning is not linear:
knowledge gained in coursework is not always applied in field experience. Ebby
(2000) suggests that, while the preservice teachers in her study did not link theory to
classroom practice, they did appear to learn that children have diverse learning
needs. In the end, the question still exists: How do teacher education programs move
preservice teachers from thinking about teaching as a process of transmitting
knowledge, to viewing learning from a constructivist view of students as active
learners?

29
Risko, Roskos, and Vukelich (2002), looked specifically at preservice
teachers’ reflections, in order to examine the perceptions and strategies they used to
teach reading. This study documented the mental processes used by preservice
teachers to guide their reflections on course content and field-based teaching
experiences. Using qualitative methods, Risko et al. (2002) examined 30 preservice
teachers’ reflective practices across three university teacher education programs. All
30 preservice teachers were enrolled in a literacy methods course at their respective
universities. Risko et al. (2002) used double entry journals to study the mental
strategies used by the teachers. The journals consisted of two-page reflections. On
one page, the student teachers summarized their reactions to the learning each week;
on the facing page, they wrote their impressions, reactions and reflections.
Additionally, these researchers conducted interviews that further explored reflection,
at the conclusion of the semester. The journals were analyzed in an effort to identify
preservice teachers’ patterns in their reflections, and to track “developmental
tendencies and changes across the semester” (Risko, Roskos, & Vukelich, 2002, p.
156). In reviewing the themes that appeared to guide the prospective students’
reflections, the authors of this study found five primary categories that represented
the most salient aspects of the student’s reflections. Across all three universities,
Risko et al. (2002) found similar results for the thirty students. Categorized results
demonstrated that the majority of preservice teachers at the three universities used
subjective reasoning — as opposed to procedural, story telling, problem solving and
official knowledge strategies — in their reflections. Accordingly, the strategies used

30
to guide the subjects’ reflective activity changed very little across the semester: “For
the most part, students across sites directed their attention to personal experiences,
beliefs and values to guide their analysis of course information.” (Risko et al., p.
164.) Several conclusions were derived from this study: (1) prospective teachers’
personal experiences and preconceived notions about teaching and learning are
powerful; (2) teacher education is a developmental process, and time is needed to
create change in perceptions and understanding; (3) guided instruction is critical to
enhancing the potential impact of teacher education coursework on transforming the
thought processes of prospective teachers. Risko et al. (2002) concluded that teacher
educators need to examine the structure and content of instruction, to help develop
scaffolding for new knowledge to be socially constructed.
In an investigation of the reciprocal relationship between educational theory
and teaching practice, Moore (2003) conducted a study to “find evidence that
preservice teachers utilized the constructivist theory emphasized in the university
classrooms to guide their teaching and instructional decision making in the field
practicum” (p. 31). Over a period of three semesters, Moore (2003) studied 77
preservice teachers enrolled in a three-week language arts field practicum that was
required just prior to student teaching. Preservice teachers in this study were
required to teach two hours of integrated language arts every day for a three-week
period. In this qualitative study, Moore (2003) analyzed data collected from the
university professor’s field notes, notes from conversations with mentor teachers,
reflective journal entries from the preservice teachers, and surveys given to both

31
mentor teachers and preservice teachers. Moore was the course instructor associated
with the study. The results of the study indicated that 88% of the language and
reading strategies that the mentor teachers expected the preservice teachers to
demonstrate were introduced in the university methods course curriculum. Moore
(2003) concludes that:
… “[the] rich opportunities for preservice teachers, mentor teachers and
university supervisors to examine the theoretical constructs behind the
pedagogical decisions made by the preservice teachers were often overlooked
in lieu of procedural concerns of time management, teaching the expected
lessons and content and classroom management.” (p. 40)

A significant outcome of Moore’s analysis included the identification of actual
learning situations found in the comments of mentor and preservice teachers that
might be used as examples of missed opportunities by either the mentor teachers or
the university supervisor, to provide a reflective response to classroom situations in
an effort to link theory and course content to teaching practice.
Seeking to investigate how preservice teachers’ written and oral responses
might reveal their efforts to bridge literacy instructional techniques taught in teacher
education coursework with the practice of the cooperating teacher that they worked
with in their field placement, McMahon (1997) designed a case study that analyzed
preservice teacher journals, and recorded discussions associated with field practice.
McMahon selected two preservice teachers who had completed a literacy methods
course that included field experience. Data sets for the case studies included
journals, lesson plans, small-group discussions, portfolios and observational field
notes. Data sets were qualitatively analyzed for emerging themes and patterns that

32
developed over the course of the semester. The findings from McMahon’s study
suggested that repeated, documented language use might reveal the relationship
between preservice teachers’ definitions of teaching, and their learning from
university coursework associated with field experience. The findings also suggested
that reflection is a very complex task, and that categories of reflection often overlap
and “occur at multiple levels at the same time” (McMahon, p. 211). McMahon
concluded that reflection in teacher education should expand beyond journals and
course discussions as the sole prompt for reflection, since such activities do not
necessarily focus on the problem-solving aspect of reflection. Reflection for this
study was prompted by the course instructor requiring the preservice teachers to
write about what they were finding problematic in their field experience practicum.
The researcher discovered that while the documents used for journaling were not
officially viewed as “reflections,” they yielded opportunities for preservice teachers
“to find their own voice to explain, describe, or question their experiences in the
field” (McMahon, 1997, p. 211), as they constructed their professional identities as
related to instructional practice. The gap in this research relates to its limited scope
of a single course. It offers the perspective of looking beyond the strict confines of
reflective journals by examining additional supportive teacher artifacts.
Davis (2006) attempted to understand how preservice teachers integrate a
content knowledge base, and how analytical they are when reflecting on a teaching
event. Davis analyzed the journal entries of 25 preservice elementary teachers.
Davis collected 70 journal entries during the third semester of a four-semester

33
teacher preparation program. Reflective journal writing was part of the methods and
field practicum coursework during the semester under investigation. Journal writing
was used to promote preservice teacher learning, and to “provide a window into their
thinking” (Davis, 2006, p. 284). Davis analyzed journal entries in terms of how
preservice teachers integrated ideas and content. Specifically, Davis wanted to see if
the teacher candidates’ written reflections were characterized by an integration of
ideas in instruction, or if they reflected a mere parroting of ideas and strategies. This
study sought to focus on specific characteristics of teaching that were included in the
reflective writing: learners and learning, subject matter knowledge, assessment and
instruction. The journal entries used for this study were quantitatively ranked on a
scale of one to four (1-4) in terms of whether an aspect of teaching was included,
emphasized and integrated in the reflection. The ranking illustrated that no entries
actually emphasized all four aspects of teaching. As a second means of analysis,
Davis used qualitative analysis to delve deeper into the insights of preservice
teachers. Accordingly, Davis took seven individuals’ written reflections which were
comparative in content. Davis looked for specific features embedded in the students’
writing. These features included “rationales for decisions, providing evidence for
claims, generating alternatives, questioning assumptions, identifying the results of
one’s own teaching and evaluating rather than judging” (Davis, 2006, p. 288). The
primary conclusion derived from this study is that preservice teachers need support
and scaffolding in order to assist them to reflect in their practice. Davis writes:

34
Preservice teachers should not be expected to reflect with the same complexity
or depth of reasoning that experts do, they should be supported in starting on a
trajectory that will move them toward more expert reflection and effective
reflective practice. (Davis, 2006, p. 294)

The conclusions reached by Davis substantiated the conclusion of Pang & Sablan,
Gupta, Ebby, and Risko et al., related to integration of theory and practice.
Preservice teachers exhibit difficulty in integrating theory into practice.
Additionally, Davis’s (2006) study supported the developmental perspective of
teacher learning.
The implications of these studies (Gupta, 2004; Pang and Sablan, 1998;
McMahon, 1997; Ebby, 2000; Risko et al., 2002; Moore, 2003; and Davis, 2006)
suggest that teacher educators need to create deep learning experiences in order to
unpack, unravel and transform prospective teachers’ preconceived notions and
beliefs related to classroom instructional practice. This is not to suggest that one’s
personal beliefs should be dismissed, but rather that preservice teachers need the
opportunity and support to reflect deeply about their experiences (Davis, 2006). This
requires designing and implementing coursework that includes course structures and
content that encourages prospective teachers to examine their beliefs, and to
understand the need to the apply theory to their instructional practice. Further,
teacher educators must provide guided and prompted practice for reflection that
directs candidates toward deep, cognitively-based reflection.

35
Unpacking and Unraveling the Personal Belief Systems of Preservice
Teachers

Research by Ebby (2000), Risko, Roskos, and Vukelich (2002), and Gupta
(2004), examined the effects of teacher education coursework and its impact on how
preservice teachers approached teaching strategies. These studies revealed the
challenges of reframing prospective teachers’ thinking through the analysis of their
personal beliefs and theoretical constructs. Teacher researchers sought to understand
how coursework can incorporate an intervention strategy in an attempt to bridge the
gap between theory and practice. Teacher educators attempted to employ various
strategies that would result in prospective teachers developing reflective “habits of
mind” (Zeichner & Liston, 1996). As with the first grouping of research in this
review, the majority of the studies that follow were conducted in isolation, as self-
studies conducted in conjunction with a single methods course.

Seeking Change through Preservice Coursework Interventions
Several studies considered how teacher education coursework is designed,
and how a change in that design might yield change in preservice teacher thinking.
Building on Gupta’s findings (2004), Lassonda, Stearns, and Dengler (2005)
investigated change in attitudes towards reading amongst preservice teachers by their
participation in a book group discussion as part of their required literacy methods
course. This study looked at preservice teachers’ weekly self-reports, focus group
discussions, and end of semester written reflections, to see if students’ dispositions

36
and attitudes related to reading changed over time. The intervention included the
addition of in-class book-group discussions into the literacy methods course. By
providing a focus on book reading, Lassonda, Stearns, and Dengler (2005) sought to
change preservice teacher attitudes and beliefs towards reading. Teacher candidates
were encouraged to choose texts “that were interesting and motivating to read” and
that would help them develop as future teachers (p.45). Data was collected over two
semesters, and consisted of preservice teacher notes — written online using
Blackboard — related to their book-group discussion, focus groups, and a pre- and
post-study reading survey. The book-group discussions offered a chance for the
preservice teachers to facilitate their own learning, in addition to developing
professional identities. The researchers reached the conclusion that they were able to
see some changes in their preservice teachers’ attitudes towards reading, and towards
reading as a process for professional growth. What was not evident was whether the
book-group activity had altered behavior over time, or impacted the preservice
teachers’ understanding of literacy theory.
A study by Smith (2005) examined the feasibility of promoting habits of
inquiry using video case studies in a preservice reading methods course. This
qualitative and quantitative study was based on the premise that “most teachers do
not bring inquiring dispositions to their preparation, and immersion into the
classroom tends to preclude inquiry” (Smith, 2005, p. 42). Smith posited that it is
important to develop the habit of inquiry in the teacher preparation program by
demonstrating to prospective teachers the indispensable role of inquiry in teaching

37
and as a tool for learning and growth (Smith, 2005). Smith’s exploratory study
examined the ability of preservice teachers to use an inquiry model to teach reading.
Smith (2005) used Rodgers’ (2002) model of inquiry to guide the instruction and
course assignment. The study participants included five of the 26 students enrolled
in the reading methods course. All participants were Caucasian, and two participants
were male. Prior to taking the methods course, each participant viewed a video of a
struggling third-grade reader. Following the viewing of the video, the participants
responded to a series of interview questions that served as prompts in order to
determine what they had observed. Following the semester-long methods course, the
participants viewed the same video and were interviewed using the same questions
that had been used following the pre-course viewing. Additional interview questions
were added to the post-course interview in order to determine what the participants
had learned in the course. Interview questions inquired about what features of the
course the participants found most valuable. Smith (2005) used a set of rubrics to
score the interview questions. The scoring ranged from a low numeric score, which
signified a “novice” answer, to a high numeric score which signified an “expert-like”
answer. Rodgers’ (2002) model of inquiry was used to provide the language for the
scored data. The results of the study “indicated the reading methods course had a
profound effect on helping preservice teachers develop habits of inquiry” (Smith,
2005, p. 49). The study revealed that the two features of the course that had the most
profound effect on helping preservice teachers learn how to teach reading involved
child case analysis. This study was limited by the length of the semester.

38
A study by McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) attempted to foster the
development of reflection in preservice teachers through collaborative inquiry. This
qualitative study was conducted during a “Professional Studies 1” course, and was
designed to understand changes in preservice teacher thinking. The course, included
in the study, was the first course of the second year of the Bachelor of Teaching
Program. The intention of the course was to promote reflective teaching in teacher
candidates, and it was structured to integrate theory and practice by melding teaching
and learning experience with field experience. The study included 16 preservice
teachers, who spent 12 weeks (half-days) in the field. During the 12 weeks, the
preservice teachers remained in the same classroom, with the same supervisory
teacher and university tutor. The preservice teachers were encouraged to assume a
critical perspective through the use of self-assessment, critical discussions with the
supervising teacher, tutor and peers, and in reflective post-lesson journal entries.
The researchers analyzed written data in the form of eight post-lesson reflections,
and a progress report, to determine whether the students were able to demonstrate
evidence of reflective activity. McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) used the categories
for the “Recognition of Evidence for Different Types of Reflective Writing,”
developed by Hatton and Smith, in the coding of the written data. They coded for
levels of concern embedded in the content of the journals. The results suggested that
the most salient concerns discussed in the post-lesson reflections were technical
issues: classroom control and management. The findings of the study indicated that
“all 16 students were able to demonstrate some evidence of a reflective approach

39
toward practice in the field” (p. 8). The most common form of reflection was
considered to be descriptive reflection using the Hatton and Smith (1995)
framework. McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) also indicated that reflective
discussions of technical issues assisted the preservice teachers to “consider the why’s
and how’s and what ifs of issues found to be problematic” (p.12). Limits of the
study were that it occurred over the span of one semester, and did not include any
longitudinal follow-up related to the sustainability and growth of reflection. The
study did, however, examine both the depth and breadth of the post-lesson
reflections.
Research conducted by Genor (2005) investigated reflective discussions in a
preservice teacher study group. The objective of the study was to develop guidelines
for reflective practice from the analysis of the study group instructions. This
qualitative study was conducted with a group of eight preservice teachers, who were
invited to participate in a semester-long, bi-monthly teacher study group. The
intention of the study group was for the teacher candidates to have “ownership of the
topics” that were discussed. Genor developed a framework based on the social
reconstructionist orientation to teaching, that draws attention to the teachers’ own
experiences, and founded on the “problematized and social notion of teaching” (p.
52). The content of the reflection was not a focus. The framework categorized how
preservice teachers problematized their teaching. It included three levels of depth of
reflection: Unproblematized Reflection, Problematized Reflection and Critically
Problematized Reflection. The framework included a trajectory from generalized

40
inquiry to dramatic changes in teaching thinking that resulted in transformed
practice. This study’s results indicated that the majority of study group reflections
were represented as unproblematized reflection. In only a few cases did the
preservice participants ask “contextualized questions in regards to their practice
which led them to further critique their thinking” (Genor, 2005, p. 57). Genor (2005)
postulates the absence of critically problematized reflection in the study group
discussion as possibly related to the structure of the study. Limits in the study
included the fact that Genor did not study the link between classroom practice and
study group discussion. Additionally, the study took place over a single semester,
perhaps entailing that there may not have been sufficient time for the participants’
thinking to transform. Genor concluded that, in order for the participants to reflect in
a way that critically problematized, there would need to be a better “understanding of
the conditions that exist outside of the classroom, especially those that greatly
influence practices in schools” (p. 58). Genor’s study, which used a proposed
framework for reflection analysis through a preservice teacher study group,
articulates the difficulty of moving inquiry from a technical, abstract discussion, to
thinking that results in transformation of teaching practices that eventually impact
child learning.
The incompatibility of preservice teachers’ personal history-based beliefs,
with the information presented in education courses, was also studied by Salisbury-
Glennon and Stevens (1999). These researchers posited that a preservice teacher’s
“personal history-base serves as an invaluable framework into which new knowledge

41
about teaching and learning can be integrated” (Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens, 1999,
p. 741). They present a rationale for why preservice teachers’ beliefs may be
incompatible with the theories presented in teacher education courses. Preservice
teachers’ beliefs are grounded in their personal experiences, and the knowledge that
they developed as students rather than as teachers, and therefore their perspectives
may differ. Furthermore, preservice teachers’ beliefs are “based on general lay
theories about teaching and learning, or in some cases, common conceptions about
teaching and learning” (Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens, p. 742). In Salisbury-
Glennon and Stevens’s (1999) research, they investigated conceptual change and
conceptual change techniques through the use of texts, in an effort to address the
preservice teachers’ conceptions of motivation. This study was conducted using 163
undergraduate education majors in an introductory educational psychology course.
Using refutational texts to address preservice teachers’ conceptions regarding
motivation, Salisbury-Glennon and Stevens were able to effect changes in preservice
teachers’ beliefs and attitudes. Refutational texts (conceptual change texts) helped
“develop a conceptual understanding of motivation that is more in line with
information that is being presented in their teacher education courses” (Salisbury-
Glennon & Stevens, p. 749). The strength of Salisbury-Glennon’s and Stevens’
work is that the authors designed their research using a conceptual change in
pedagogy model (e.g., Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993; Morine-Dershimer, 1993).
Conceptual change techniques are based on theories founded in part on Piagetian
theory. Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens used conceptual change pedagogy as an

42
instructional means to help students grasp new concepts as they see how different
viewpoints evolve over time, including their own. The key to conceptual change is
to develop learning environments where students can equate their earlier conceptions
and beliefs with the new knowledge that is being given to them. Salisbury-Glennon
and Stevens used random assignment of both refutational (conceptual change) and
nonrefutational (regular) text. The results of the study showed more change in
attitudes related to student motivation for the preservice teachers who were given the
refutational text. The primary challenge for this study is that it ignores the time-
effect for conceptual change, and also does not consider whether conceptual change
was actually put into practice.

Developing the Reflective Practitioner in Teacher Education
Ostorga (2006) conducted multiple case studies involving four student
teachers during their last semester of an undergraduate teacher preparation program
for elementary grades. The study looked at the development of reflective thought
through epistemic stances. Participants were four learners between the ages of 28
and 35, who were teaching paraprofessionals — Ostorga used paraprofessionals
since some studies of reflective thinking are linked with classroom experience called
“knowledge of teaching.” The study used three data sets: (1) an interview protocol,
(2) the Measurement of Epistemological Reflection (MER) questionnaire developed
by Baxter-Magolda (1992), and (3) a set of 15 weekly reflective journals. The study
was founded on the assumption that knowledge is socially constructed. The

43
interview protocol and MER questionnaire were used to gather data on ways of
knowing and patterns of reasoning according to instruments developed by Baxter-
Magolda. Each paraprofessional was asked to reflect on a weekly lesson and include
important aspects of the lesson, an evaluation of the lesson, and possible alternatives.
The reflective journals were coded for evidence of reflective thinking using a
reflection taxonomy developed by Mezirow (Ostorga, 2006). The findings of the
study revealed that the participants in the study exhibited low- to middle-level
reflection thinking. One paraprofessional, who was scored as an independent
knower, viewed learning and was able to be reflective at a higher level than the
student teacher who was a transitional knower. The more complex the
epistemological stage of knowing, the more reflective the person will be.
Furthermore, experience in the classroom as a paraprofessional did not seem to be a
factor in the level of reflective thinking. These findings suggest that if a prospective
teacher’s views of teaching and learning are socially constructed (Ostorga, 2006;
Lortie, 1997), then their ways of knowing become the building blocks of the
epistemology that forms their educational philosophies. This may influence their
reflective thinking. For teacher educators this demonstrates that, in order to develop
teachers who are reflective thinkers, it would be necessary to promote a development
in their values about learning and to promote a change in their epistemic stances.
Ostorga (2006) concluded that teacher education programs have to include activities
aimed at promoting transformations, by infusing inquiry and educative mentoring in

44
field experiences in order to promote critical reflective thinking at the preservice
level.

Beliefs and Attitudes and Development of Identity in Preservice
Education

Multicultural preservice teacher education is an essential aspect and
necessary component of coursework for teacher education programs. Demographic
statistics reported by the U.S. Department of Education indicate that 86 percent of
America’s teaching force is composed of European-American females (Gay &
Howard, 2000), while the numbers of African-American, Latino and Asian/Pacific
Islander American teachers have either declined or stayed the same. Native
American teachers make up less then one percent of the national teaching force (Gay
& Howard, 2000). In contrast to the homogeneous composition of teachers, student
populations are becoming more diverse. While most of America’s teachers are
European-American women from middle-income backgrounds, according to recent
statistics from the U.S. Department of Education (2005) (Appendix B) the population
of diverse students is increasing. The implication is that America’s diverse student
population is being taught by teachers who have limited knowledge of their students’
cultural and linguistic heritage, community and home environment, and are not
prepared to teach in diverse environments (Bassey, 1996).
Gay and Kirkland (2003) assert that teachers who know who they are,
understand the context in which they teach and question their knowledge and

45
assumptions. Critical racial and cultural consciousness should be combined with
self-reflection in both preservice teacher education and in-service staff development.
This process includes the examination and monitoring of personal beliefs and
instructional behaviors with regard to the value of cultural diversity. Further, this
process is essential in analyzing the optimal ways to successfully teach ethnically
diverse students. Self-reflection and cultural consciousness are necessary factors in
“improving the educational opportunities and outcomes for students of color” (Gay
& Kirkland, 2003, p. 182).
Gay and Kirkland (2003) argue that students can overcome resistance to
critical consciousness through teacher education programs that offer learning
climates and expectations for self-reflection as part of the coursework demands of
preservice teachers. This entails structuring coursework that includes not only
personal reflection, but also involves engaging in critical discussions with teacher
candidate peers. According to Gay and Kirkland (2003), course design should
include opportunities for students “to have critical conversations with each other
about racial and culturally diverse dilemmas in education” (p. 184).
Au and Blake (2003) examined the effect of cultural identity on the learning
of preservice teachers. They looked specifically at the influence of cultural identity
and cultural community membership on preservice teachers’ perspectives and
learning. Using a qualitative collective approach, Au and Blake analyzed a series of
structured interviews conducted with three culturally diverse preservice teachers
enrolled in their teacher education program. This study’s analysis involved the use

46
of interviews and writings of the three teachers during three semesters of
coursework. Written data was collected from coursework assignments that included
weekly summaries of assigned readings, final papers, and weekly reflections from
their field experience in the classroom. Interviews focused on literacy, schooling
and cultural identity. Au and Blake’s findings revealed that preservice teachers who
differ in terms of cultural identity may gain different benefits from participation in a
teacher education program designed for teaching diverse students. In the context of
this study, Au and Blake (2003) defined the phrase students of diverse backgrounds
as “students who are distinguished from the mainstream by (a) social class, (b)
ethnicity, and (c) primary language” (p.192).
The results of this study suggest that cultural outsiders of the community
benefit greatly from field experience set in a cultural context, while insiders of the
same cultural community gain critical understanding that evolves from the methods
coursework. The implication of this study, as it applies to teacher learning, is that
both methods and theory courses — along with field experience — are essential
elements of a teacher education program. This assumes, though, that field
experience is conducted in diverse communities and is guided by a framework that
develops an awareness and understanding of the issues regarding school inequality
and social justice. While students who are insiders to a community may already be
committed to making changes in the educational system, outsiders may not clearly
understand social justice issues. For outsiders, critical understanding may develop as
a result of field experience and reflection.

47
Rosaen (2003) approached the issue of cultural identity in preservice teachers
through coursework design. She developed a pedagogical approach embedded in a
literacy methods course that utilized poetry as an avenue for preservice teachers to
explore aspects of their own culture and share their cultural knowledge with one
another. Rosaen used a collaborative self-study design to study the effectiveness of
her course design. The 25 students in her class were participants in the study, which
focused primarily on the students’ written work, and her planning notes. Her
findings concluded that there was a “need for more satisfying and informative ways
to measure teacher candidates learning” (Rosaen, 2003, p. 1476).
Transforming beliefs and attitudes related to racism and privilege was the
focus of a study conducted by Lawrence (1997). This researcher examined possible
shifts in attitudes and practices for White preservice teachers following a course in
multicultural education. The study was built on a previous study conducted in 1996
(Lawrence & Bunche, 1996, as cited in Lawrence, 1997). The researcher followed
three European-American teachers from a course in multicultural education into their
15-week practicum. Using interviews, Lawrence’s analysis of change of attitudes
was completed using Helms (1997) developmental framework on racial identity.
Lawrence concluded that, while there were some positive belief-changes from the
coursework on multicultural education, one semester of multicultural coursework
was not sufficient for comprehensive attitudinal shifts. In addition, the findings
suggested that the most significant gain in racial awareness occurred for the
preservice teachers whose practicum placement was with teachers who had strong

48
racial identities. This study was limited in its scope, since it included only three
preservice teachers. While it was conducted in the late 1990s, it is significant
because it utilizes a racial identity theory as a means to explore teacher beliefs. The
racial identity framework provides teacher educators with a continuum of racial
belief transformation that assists in indicating how preservice teachers are integrating
their multicultural coursework into their professional beliefs and teaching practice.

Theory into Practice-Interventions: Student Teaching and Beyond
Another approach to exploring preservice teacher learning is proposed by
Wilson and I’Anson (2006). These researchers used a case study approach to assess
whether graduates of their teacher education program found the microteaching
program experience helped them in their transition into solo teaching. They
identified important aspects of Schön’s work on reflection and practice, and
integrated these characteristic into an alternative approach to initial teacher education
(ITE). Wilson and I'Anson (2006) designed a program for ITE that uses
microteaching as a practicum context. Combining the concept of the reflective
practitioner with the notion of the practicum, this study sought to resolve some of the
issues related to the quality of new teachers’ reflection, and the supposed limited
ability of teacher education programs to change student-teachers’ preconceived
notions of learning and teaching. Using Schön’s perspectives on reflection and
practicum, Wilson and I'Anson (2006) designed an alternative approach for initial
teacher certification, which argues that the practicum space is designed specifically

49
to provide an approximation to an authentic environment. Essentially, they found
that the practicum should be a simplified version of the real world experience, in
order to promote reflection. Schön (1987) writes:

A practicum is a setting designed for the task of learning a practice. In a
context which approximates a practice world, students learn by doing,
although their doing usually falls short of real world work. (p. 37)

Wilson and I'Anson (2006) maintain that the traditional professional
development of preservice teachers is divided between the university and the K-12
school. The university provides the theory, and the K-12 school provides a location
for the practicum. They write that it is clear that Schön “never intended to replicate
the level of complexity to be found in the ‘real world’ of the classroom” (Wilson &
I'Anson, 2006, p. 355). K-12 schools are inherently complex, and that complexity
can hinder the process of critical inquiry at an early stage in the learning process of
preservice teachers. Therefore, in their re-envisioned practicum, Wilson and I'Anson
use microteaching that engages the principles of Schön’s concepts of reflective
practice, along with his models for coaching reflective practice for student teachers
during their practicum. In this sense, microteaching refers to lessons delivered by
preservice teachers on a smaller scale to a group of students in the classroom. In a
nutshell, it establishes a student teaching practicum that is less complex than
throwing a student teacher into a school and classroom that leave little time for
reflection and adequate guidance. Microteaching, for Wilson and I'Anson (2006),
begins in the second year of professional coursework. After three weeks of

50
observation, preservice students undertake a number of microteaching lessons with
small groups of students. Preservice teachers work in pairs. While one performs a
lesson, the other records the lesson on video. The videos are reviewed and discussed
between the preservice teachers, their university supervisor and teacher fellow. The
following semester, the preservice teachers teach the same group of students for the
duration of the practicum, which allows them to design and implement a sequence of
lessons with students they are accustomed to working with, rather than focusing on
discrete episodes. When the microteaching is completed, the preservice teachers
begin their extended school experience.
This research is significant, as it expands Schön’s learning perspectives to
introduce a different concept of practicum in initial teacher education. It offers a
structure for the gradual introduction to the complexity of the K-12 school
experience, so that the student teacher does not have to navigate practice along with
the school culture, during the initial stages of preservice teacher preparation. Wilson
and I'Anson (2006) conclude from their interviews that microteaching did help with
the transition to first year teaching. This study provides a structural model that
supports the use of scaffolds in teacher education and documents the effects of the
preservice program practice and its connection to the first year of solo teaching.
Additional research examines the role of teacher education in relation to the
performance and experiences of new teachers in their first year of teaching. This
research offers information and insight into the effectiveness of teacher education

51
programs in enabling preservice teachers to integrate the preservice practice of
teaching with course-based theoretical study.
One study by Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) identified the relative
influences of teacher education programs and occupational socialization in schools
on the development of teaching competence. They specifically looked at the transfer
from teacher education programs into practice. They note that there appears to be an
attitudinal shift from preservice teacher education programs to the first year of
teacher solo practice. Brouwer and Korthagen suggest that beginning teachers
struggle in their first few years of teaching, and “do not feel sufficiently prepared by
their teacher education experience” (Brouwer & Korthagen, p. 155). A “discrepancy
experience” occurs, which results in a rift between the idealistic teachings learned
during the teacher education program, and the pressure from the K-12 schools to
conform to traditional patterns of behavior in teaching. This study used a path
analysis to investigate the long-term process of teacher education development. It
looked at written documents, in the form of individual learning experiences and
preservice student work, in addition to interviews of preservice teachers at the
beginning and the completion of their student teaching. Interviews with university
supervisors were also conducted. Observations were completed during the beginning
teachers’ first teaching experiences. The findings from this study suggested that,
initially, novice teachers fell back on teaching techniques that were based on their
beliefs and personal experience, rather than on theory-based practice. After the first
and second year of teaching, however, the teachers who were part of the integrated

52
student teaching program began to explore and implement a theory-based practice.
The authors describe the phenomenon of a U curve (used to describe an initial
downward slowing in theory-based practice followed by an upward trend over time)
in new teachers’ assimilation into classroom teaching. The integrated student
teaching programs in this study incorporated practical experience with theoretical
study. The components of integration include: (1) arranging competence acquisition
as a gradual process in which each step forms a preparation for the next; (2)
coordinating the acquisition of theoretical knowledge with practice in teaching skills;
and (3) arranging learning as an inquiry into one’s own actions. What is notable
about this study by Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) is that they link an integrated
student teaching program with a longitudinal study.
Schultz (2005) used data from a three-year study that examined teacher
candidates’ practicum experiences that emphasized inquiry. This component to the
teacher education program was designed to promote teachers who learn from their
teaching throughout their careers. At the University of Manitoba, programs moved
from a traditional, technical skills model of the practicum in their teacher-education
program, to an educative program, incorporating Ziechner’s (1996) criteria for an
educative practicum into the restructured field experiences. The University of
Manitoba offers a two-year post-degree program that includes an integrated sequence
of coursework and field experience. The program specifically attempts to
incorporate two of Ziechner’s criteria: (1) teacher candidates move beyond the
classroom walls to understand the full scope of a teacher’s role; and (2) they develop

53
the capacity to continue to learn from their experiences. The program requires 24
weeks of practicum, spread over two years. Field experiences are guided by a
curriculum designed to address the integrated principles of inquiry and reflection,
collaboration, integration, diversity of experiences, caring and career-long learning
(Shultz 2005). This study focused on inquiry and reflection. Shultz (2005)
examined how that aspect of the practicum contributed “to the development of
teacher candidates who are thoughtful and alert students of education” (p. 151).
Using a naturalistic research approach, Schultz (2005) collected data in order to
obtain an in-depth understanding of how effective the new component of the teacher
education program was in expanding teacher candidates’ experience with inquiry.
The author used random sampling, using a clustering technique in which ten teacher
candidates were selected from the three areas of concentration in the teacher
education program. A total of 17 teachers from the early year, middle year, and
senior year streams agreed to participate. The primary data source used in this study
was videotape transcripts from focus group discussions conducted at the end of the
first and second years of the program. The first-year teacher candidates were asked
questions about “how they had been engaged in inquiry, how they defined the term,
what they saw as the benefits and challenges, and why they thought that inquiry had
been integrated into the program” (p. 157). In addition, the candidates were asked to
speculate as to whether they would “engage in inquiry when they became classroom
teachers” (p. 157). Second-year teachers were asked the same questions they had
been asked the previous year, as well as new questions generated from the first year

54
transcripts. In the third year of the study, the participants — now beginning teachers
— were asked to describe their engagement with inquiry in terms of its benefits,
issues and challenges. The results of the study indicated that the teacher candidates
in the first two years of the study viewed teaching as an “ongoing academic process.”
Additionally, the teacher candidates thought that to be a “true professional, inquiry
was important,” because it helps to improve educational practices. At the conclusion
of the study participants’ first-year teaching, the researchers noticed changes in the
participants’ responses. The responses indicated that, for most of the participants,
“inquiry had played little, if any role in their teaching because they were too
overwhelmed by the demands of their daily work” (Schultz, 2005 p. 160). Schultz
concluded that while the teacher candidates recognized “the transformative
possibilities of inquiry” (p, 161), they were more apt to focus their inquiries at the
technical level in the first year of teaching. The significance of the Schultz (2005)
study is the stance that the teacher education program took in redesigning the
practicum with an emphasis on inquiry. The study concluded that engagement with
issues that the teacher candidates explored remained at the technical level. This
research provides insight into the complexity of developing reflective teachers. The
strength of this study is that it was conducted over a three-year period. While the
interview questions were directed at inquiry and reflection, a challenge for the study
was that it did not include artifacts of teaching to support the interviews.
Among research that looks beyond the student teaching and teacher education
program, Worthy (2005) examined, using a case study approach, one teacher’s

55
experience of teaching in an urban school. Worthy (2005) conducted a four-year
longitudinal study of one beginning teacher’s first years of teaching. Although
limited by its small scope, this study provides insight into how a new teacher copes
beyond the first year of solo teaching. The study demonstrates how frustrated and
overwhelmed the teacher felt by the demands of classroom management and the
challenging behavior of the students in his class. The teacher reported that his
student teaching experience did not prepare him for the complexities of classroom
life. He described the incongruence between his university teacher education
coursework and the “real world.” He reported that during his teacher education
program he learned to develop creative lesson plans, but received no focus or
instruction on the organization and management of a classroom. He was not
prepared for the limited support he received from the school at which he became
employed. He had started his first year teaching filled with hope and idealism, only
to be faced with a reality far different and far more difficult than expected. Worthy
(2005) describes this in the following excerpt:
The observations of Mark’s classroom revealed a classroom in crisis, affirming
Mark’s description of his challenges with management, instruction and
students with severe behavior problems. The common patterns found during
the observations were: (a) much wasted instructional time; (b) rude and
disrespectful comments made by more than half of the students to each other or
to Mark; (c) an atmosphere of boredom and contempt; (d) instruction that was
not reaching students. (p. 385)

This case study relates directly to the research studies by Wilson and I'Anson (2006)
and Brouwer and Korthagen (2005). Wilson and I'Anson (2006) contend that there
needs to be a subtle immersion into classroom teaching through a Schönian model of

56
microteaching, while Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) offer an integrated approach
with stronger collaboration and coaching between the university and schools during
the student teaching experience. Both of these approaches might have supported the
teacher described in Worthy’s (2005) study. Worthy makes the excellent
observation that it is difficult for novice teachers to bridge the “chasm between what
they learn in teacher-preparation programs and what faces novice teachers when they
enter the classroom” (Worthy, 2005, p. 380). The study did provide support to the
new teacher in the form of coaching, and this was perhaps a factor in the teacher
continuing to teach. The findings of this study suggest that prospective teachers
need experiences during preservice programs that present realistic views of teaching
in schools that are less generic and more focused. One kind of field experience that
Worthy (2005) offers would require preservice teachers to tutor struggling learners,
with constant supervision and feedback as a means of helping them to make
connections between theory and practice.

Developing a Reflective Preservice Teacher through Teacher
Education Program Changes

Beck and Kosnik (2002) approach the topic of theory into practice by
modifying the campus aspect of their teacher education program using some of the
suggestions that teacher educators have put forth for improving programs. Their
campus program had been redesigned to follow a cohort format. The instructors
integrated the campus program around a coherent philosophy, in addition to

57
integrating the campus program (coursework) with the practicum. The central goal
of this study was to assess the impact of the redesign of the campus program. Using
a qualitative research design, Beck and Kosnik (2002) conducted individual semi-
structured interviews with nine preservice teachers enrolled in their teacher
education program. The interviews were used as the data collection source to
ascertain whether the preservice teachers felt the new program design had a
significant impact on their learning, in addition to gathering feedback on program
improvement. Interviews were conducted twice during one academic year of the
new design. The findings from the Beck and Kosnik (2002) study concluded that the
preservice students “felt the campus program had a considerable impact on their
development as teachers, helping them acquire theory, goals, skills and resources;
develop a broad approach to teaching; grow in professionalism; and consolidate
ideals and approaches” (p. 424). What is significant about this study is the practicum
component of the redesigned program. Beck and Kosnik (2002) broke the large
teacher education program into cohorts; this allowed for the development of a
community of learners within each candidate cohort. Also noteworthy is the work of
forging school and university partnerships, which allowed for an integrated flow
between campus learning and course field experience. All the teacher educators
participated in the school practicum component of the program. This allowed for
practical issues and techniques to “serve as useful entry points for theoretical
discussion and vice versa” (Beck & Kosnik, p. 430).

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One study focused on assessing and measuring preservice teacher knowledge
related to effective teaching practices in urban schools. The authors of this study,
Swartz and Bakari (2005), developed a 91-item survey primarily with the intent of
using the findings for the purposes of professional development of the faculty at their
school of education. The survey was given to 248 full- and part-time preservice
teachers enrolled in the school of education. The 91 items on the survey were
divided into subscales that included items in eight areas of what “effective teachers
know, do and are like in urban schools” (Swartz & Bakari, 2005, p. 831). A panel of
seven experts reviewed the survey items to establish content validity. Each item was
rated by two questions: (1) Does the item represent part of the knowledge base of
urban education? (2) Can the item be taught in a traditional teacher preparation
program? Eventually, the eight constructs for effective teaching were agreed upon as
survey subscales. They included:
a. Teachers as professionals (12 items)
b. Families and community (8 items)
c. Emancipatory pedagogy (10 items)
d. Cultural knowledge (15 items)
e. Systemic analysis (13 items)
f. Classroom environment (11 items)
g. Student experience (6 items)
h. Importance of cultural knowledge (16 items)

The participants were chosen to represent preservice teachers at varying points in
their master’s program in education. Participants were chosen from the beginning,
middle, and end of their course of study. They were asked to respond to each of the
91 items on the survey with either “True,” “False,” or “Do Not Know.” The authors

59
noted that they included the “Do Not Know” as a response to discourage guessing.
Along with the survey, the participants were asked to include comprehensive
demographic information regarding gender, age, cultural/racial identification,
teaching status, grade level preferences and preferred location for teaching. This
demographic information was compiled along with the university’s database
regarding the participants’ number of credits completed, grade report and teaching
certification. Eighty-four percent of the participants were White, while 4% were
Latino/a and 4% were African American. Asian Americans, Native Americans and
Arab Americans each accounted for less than 2%. Eighty-eight percent of the
participants were female, while 12% were male. The authors (Swartz & Bakari,
2005) of this study concluded that cultural knowledge — including knowledge about
the relationship between culture, teaching and learning — was the greatest predictor
of the total scale to support their view.
In a self-study conducted collaboratively between a preservice teacher and a
teacher educator, Freese (2006) explored a preservice teacher’s growth and
development over a two-year period. The focus of the study was to examine the
complexity of learning to teach, as well as the complexities of teaching preservice
teachers through their development as teachers. The data for this study was collected
over two years. Data collection used observation notes, journal reflections,
conversations, videotaped analyses of teaching, the mentor’s dialogue journal,
individual assignments and the preservice teacher’s action/research self-study paper.

60
Freese (2006) used a comparative method of analysis to identify recurring
themes as well as the development of personal constructs that emerged from the
reflections and self-study of the preservice teacher. The themes that emerged for the
data analysis indicated a number of obstacles to the participant’s growth: fear,
responsibility, contradictions between his beliefs and practice, and closed
mindedness. Over time, the participant gradually moved from being closed and rigid
to becoming more open-minded. Freese (2006) asserts that the preservice teacher’s
growth and development was primarily a “shift in attitude from resistance to a
willingness to improve his teaching by reflecting on his journey” (p. 115). The study
helped Freese to further understand and appreciate the difficult identity-based
journey from student to teacher. She acknowledged that, as a teacher educator, she
may have misinterpreted her student’s behaviors, including lack of motivation or
stubbornness: “I now realize that some students are nearly paralyzed by fear. It is
essential that I help students identify their fears, their beliefs and oppositional pairs
in order to help them achieve their potential.” This study reveals the tension that
teacher educators face in terms of providing support and guided assistance. Freese
(2006) asserts that teacher educators must navigate the often blurred line between
assistance and assessment. This study, while limited in the number of participants,
was conducted over four semesters, including student teaching. It followed a teacher
candidate throughout the teacher education program. This study is unique and
significant in that it seeks not only to examine the development and growth of the

61
teacher candidate, but also to incorporate the knowledge growth of a teacher
educator, as well as giving insight into the process of becoming a teacher.

Models of Reflection
In the review of the literature on reflection and inquiry, I found several
models of reflection that were proposed in teacher education to help prospective
teachers become reflective learners. These models provide a framework for assisting
prospective teachers and teacher educators to identify the process of reflection.
Without a clear framework for defining reflection it becomes difficult to distinguish
reflection from other forms of thought, and to assess reflection as a standard.
Furthermore, as Rodgers (2002) asserts, without a clear framework for reflections,
“it is difficult to research the effects of reflective teacher education and professional
development on teachers’ practice and students’ learning” (p, 842). As Rodgers
(2002) writes, “reflection is not an end in itself but a tool or vehicle used in the
transformation of raw experiences into meaning-filled theory that is grounded in
experience, informed by existing theory” (p.863). Rodgers contends that reflection
is the process of moving between practice to theory, and theory to practice. It is a
“forward-moving spiral” that is rigorous and systematic. The process of reflection,
as defined by Rodgers, consists of four steps: (1) presence to experience, (2)
description of experience, (3) analysis of experience and (4) intelligent
action/experimentation. Rodgers notes that questions, problems and ideas integrate
through all four phases.

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In the work on reflection by Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), they propose a
process of reflection in their realistic teacher education program that is based on the
ALACT model (named after the first letter of each of the five phases): (1) Action, (2)
Looking back on the action, (3) Awareness of essential aspects, (4) Creating
alternative methods of action, and (5) Trial. The ALACT model is used in the
Utrecht teacher education program, which is based on the realistic approach. The
Utrecht program views the role of reflection in teacher education as taking “student
teachers’ experiences and their concerns as starting points for learning” (p. 32).
ALACT is an inductive approach to reflection that incorporates both experiences and
reflection, and builds on prospective teachers’ “own perceptions, their thinking about
concrete teaching situations in which they were actively involved, and their needs
and concerns” (p. 45). Using reflection as a means to support learning is based on
the assumption, according to Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), that prospective
teachers need to develop a process of problem solving, since it is impossible to
prepare them for every kind of situation and experience they will be confronted with
during their careers. The ability to problem-solve supports teachers in being able to
continue to learn and develop beyond the scope of the teacher preparation program,
and to develop into self-directed learners with teaching efficacy and a professional
identity.
The Reflection Integration Model (RIM), designed by Hutchinson and Allen
(1997), includes four components: (1) pre-experience, (2) experience, (3) reflection
and (4) integration. Hutchinson and Allen (1997) view the facilitating of reflection

63
as the process of creating life-long learners who view every experience as an
opportunity for growth. The four components of RIM are developed out of
experiential learning theory, based on three assumptions: “People learn from their
experience, the learning outcomes of the experience depend on whether the
experience is processed, the personalizing of the learning is dependent on the
integration of the reflection” (Hutchinson & Allen, p. 227). The RIM model is
systematic and planned. The pre-experiences allow teacher candidates to be
prepared for the experience by understanding purpose before observation and field
experience. The goal of the experience created in teacher education determines the
setting. Following the experience, the teacher candidates re-examine the experience
using a variety of techniques. Hutchinson and Allen suggest reading, writing,
speaking and listening as techniques that can be used in reflection. After reflection,
integration is utilized to guide teacher candidates “through personal introspection
using a three-level approach” (p. 230), that encourages them to examine themselves,
enlarge the experience, and to examine the experience in a larger social context.
The three models for reflection are similar in that all define a process that
encourages the use of experiences to produce meaningful learning. Each model uses
the process of reflection to build knowledge by generating hypotheses and alternative
actions. For teacher educators, the models provide an unambiguous procedure for
developing reflection as a means to engage preservice teachers in learning and the
linking of theory to practice. Having a model for reflection provides teacher
educators with a means by which to assess preservice teacher reflections.

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Conclusion
Literature on linking theory into practice is abundant, although it suggests
that linking theory into practice is problematic for preservice teachers. Research
indicates that the problem may be attributed to the attitudes, beliefs and perceptions
that preservice teachers bring with them to teacher education programs (Britzman,
2003; Ashton, 1999; Lortie 2002). Prospective teachers often come into teacher
education programs wanting and expecting to be given practical ideas along with
mechanized and “generic methods for classroom application” (Britzman, 2003, p.
63). Britzman (2003) describes this phenomenon as preservice teachers looking for
prescriptions and recipes, especially around the area of classroom management and
other technical skills, since preservice teachers often view teaching in part as a
“social controller” (p. 63). These implicit ideas obstruct the preservice teacher’s
understanding of the necessity for theory as a means of informing their instructional
practice. This attitude raises the question: What does theory really mean to those
learning to teach? Delving further into this question, Britzman (2003) asks, “What
images of theory do prospective teachers hold that make it appear so untenable?” (p.
64). Teacher education programs should seek as early as possible to unpack the
implicit personal and teaching beliefs and perceptions held by preservice teachers.
Hammerness et al. (2005) theorized that transformative thinking and learning does
not occur in lockstep stages, but rather through the interrelationship between learning
and inquiry.

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Most of the studies included in this literature review focused on aspects of
reflection and inquiry. Much of the research looks for change in preservice teachers’
beliefs and attitudes by examining written reflections — instead of primary activity
— as a means of assessment, to promote knowledge and improve professional
practice. If a significant characteristic of effective teaching is the ability to look at
one’s own instructional practice and procedures in an objective manner (Britzman,
2003; Bransford, Derry, Berliner, Hammerness & Beckett, 2005; Roth, 1999; Schön,
1983), then the primary function of inquiry or reflection should be to promote
learning connected to professional practice, rather than only to assess learning. The
literature affirms that the reflection process, observational process and student
teaching do not completely accomplish the goals they are intended to accomplish:
development of the teacher. The conclusions reached in the research indicate that
there is a disconnect between the coursework, theories and perspectives that drive
teacher education, teacher learning and instructional practice. The literature related
to the first years of teaching is also significant, since it informs teacher educators
about the gaps between teacher education programs and the realities of classroom
instructional practice. If our ultimate goal as teacher educators is to improve student
achievement, then classroom practice, and the role we play in informing this practice
of our novice teachers, are of utmost importance.
The literature informs us of the need to transform preservice teachers’
attitudes, beliefs and perceptions with regard to their view of teachers and teaching,
as well as their perspectives on race, culture and class. However, the literature,

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while defining the problems, has offered only small sound-bites concerning how to
address these issues. Several models of reflection as a means to promote meaningful
learning and connect theory to practice have been put forth by Rodgers (2002),
Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), and Hutchinson and Allen (1997). A common
thread related to reflection in the work of Rodgers (2002), Korthagen and Wubbels
(2001), Schultz (2005) and Mezirow (2001), is that in order for reflection to bring
about change in thinking, the learner needs to encounter a problem or disorientating
experience that promotes critical reflection. Transformative learning is self-directed,
linked to critical reflection, and voluntary (Mezirow, 2001). Additionally,
Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) and Mezirow (2001) contend that students do not
necessarily come into teacher education programs knowing how to reflect. It is the
responsibility of teacher educators to scaffold and develop reflective experience, as
is suggested by Hutchinson and Allen (1997) in their Reflection Integration Model.
Only one study, by Smith (2005), applied the model of reflection from Rodgers
(2002), in his study of promoting reading instruction in teacher education. Much of
the research in teacher education is conducted in isolation, in one-semester courses.
Often the research is conducted by the course instructor (Clift & Brady, 2005). What
is not apparent from the review of the literature is how the process of transformative
thinking of preservice teacher beliefs, attitudes and perceptions, develops over time.
Furthermore, the research does not articulate which aspects of teacher education are
most effective in developing preservice teachers’ beliefs about their practice of
teaching and its influence on student learning.

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Gaps in the research include the fact that many of the studies reviewed
describe specific course interventions, but do not address programmatic interventions
or comprehensive reforms. Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) and Beck and Kosnik
(2002) examined systematic changes to overall teacher education to address the issue
of linking theory into practice. Beck and Kosnik (2002) describe the process of
restructuring as a learning process for the teacher educators. The majority of the
studies reviewed ignored the teacher education program configuration. Another gap
in the research was the lack of longitudinal studies which tracked interventions and
the use of reflection beyond the semester course, and studies that followed beginning
teachers into the first several years of teaching. Research studies with longitudinal
designs are scarce. There are few studies that examine how preservice teachers
develop over time during their studies in teacher education. Most research
investigated perceptions and the possibility of change during a single semester or a
single course or field experience; few explored the integration of preservice thinking
across several concurrent courses. The case study by Worthy (2005) followed one
beginning teacher for several years, and provided insight into the aspects of
instruction that the beginning teacher felt had been absent from his teacher
preparation program. This study also provides teacher educators with information
regarding the study participant’s development of his professional identity. While the
study’s story is compelling, it would have been useful for the author to interview
other graduates from the same teacher education program, in order to investigate
which specific aspects of the teacher education program provided the weakest links.

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Research that attempted to sustain transformative thinking has achieved only
marginal levels of critical thinking, perhaps because of the positivist, unproblematic
structure of the teacher education programs in which interventions were situated.
Transformative learning theory suggests that change in attitude is linked to
experiences that are problematic (Mezirow, 2001).
Information related to coursework and field experience was absent from
many of the studies. One of the few studies that reviewed program design was
described by Au and Blake (2003). Their research is meaningful, since it contributes
to discussion regarding contextual alternative coursework and field experience
within teacher education.
While reflection and narrative inquiry were used extensively in many of the
studies of teacher education, it was not always clear how they were used within the
context of coursework. It became evident that reflection as a tool and/or process to
facilitate transformation of preservice teacher attitudes and beliefs needs to be well
defined, as either a means of assessment or a process of knowledge building and self-
discovery. The dangling question becomes whether teacher educators use preservice
teachers’ reflections as a means to inform their own practice. This observation is
substantiated by Hatton and Smith (1995), Rodgers (2002) and Korthagen and
Wubbels (2001), who indicate that reflection in teacher education is used loosely and
without direction or purpose. Purposeful reflection is not just related to the
components of teacher education. Hatton and Smith (1995) write:

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A critically reflective approach demands an ideology of teacher education
different from that traditionally employed, which usually involves models of
“best practice,” emphasis on competencies, and unrecognized conflicts between
institutional ideals and workplace socialization. (p. 38)

The issues presented by Hatton and Smith move beyond the individual components
of teacher education programs, and challenge teacher educators to evaluate the
structure and ideology of the entire teacher education program. While many of the
researchers of the studies reviewed in this dissertation were perplexed by limited
preservice teacher thinking in terms of linking theory into practice, none of the
studies sought to delve deeper into the theoretical frameworks of the teacher
education programs in which they were situated.
This study seeks to address these gaps in research. I attempted to engage in
descriptive analysis of preservice teachers’ journals that chronicle their development
of learning to teach throughout the entire 13-month period of their teacher
preparation program. Both Kennedy (1999) and Clift and Brady (2005) indicated
that research in teacher education lacks longitudinal inquiry; this study contributes to
the field of teacher education and preservice teacher learning in that respect. This
aspect of the study offers a multi-directional approach to researching teacher
learning, since teacher education is not about acting upon preservice teachers, but is
concerned with the development of preservice teachers as they learn to teach. Most
studies have been concerned with the learner (Davis, 2006; Gupta, 2004; Kaste,
2004; McMahon, 1997; Rosaen, 2003) rather than with the teacher educator or the
teacher education program.

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Building on the framework of Hatton and Smith (1995) and the
transformative learning theory of (Mezirow, 2001), this study contributes to teacher
education research through the development of a framework of analysis for teacher
education programs to utilize. The framework facilitates the development of insight
into the alignment between teacher education program objectives and ideology, and
the development of preservice teacher thinking, as gleaned from course and field
experience journals. This process stimulates the critical reflection of teacher
educators into how program decisions are made and how course planning is
determined.

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Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Introduction
The question of how preservice teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and perceptions
evolve and develop while they are learning to teach in teacher preservice programs
can be examined through deep analysis of journal entries and reflective assignments.
The analysis of written reflective journal entries provided the opportunity to study
the development of the preservice teacher from studenthood to the beginning of their
professional identity as a teacher. This retrospective analysis also studied how
coursework trajectory affects preservice teachers’ pedagogical development.
Through the investigation of reflective journal entries linked to foundation and
methods coursework and field experience in the teacher education program, this
study examined the transformation of beliefs, attitudes and perceptions beyond a
single semester of teacher education coursework. The gap in the literature related to
preservice teacher change follows from the limited scope of research in the field
(Clift & Brady, 2005). Previous research has primarily involved short-term studies
completed by course instructors, which focused on documenting change in
preservice teachers’ behavior by examining course material in a field experience
setting (Gupta, 2004; Lassonda, Stearns, and Dengler, 2005; Risko, Roskos, and
Vukelich, 2002). It is difficult to discern the degree to which transformation in
practice and thought was measured. Numerous teacher education studies that I

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reviewed, tracked change in teacher candidate beliefs, attitudes and perceptions
during a single semester, and the majority of scholarly work in teacher education
reflection has been course-specific. There is scant research related to knowledge,
beliefs, values and perceptions that may have resulted from cross-course information
and content. In order to fully examine the combined impact of methods courses,
field experience and student teaching on emergent teacher belief systems, it is
essential to complete a thorough analysis of all journals and other reflective
experiences and data sets across program courses.
The retrospective analysis of written documents completed in this
dissertation, combines information from all journals and reflections. These written
documents provided the opportunity to view how preservice teachers integrate
knowledge and concepts from all methods courses. Journal entries offer relatively
transparent views of the thinking of preservice teachers. The discussion board
format used in the teacher education program under study provided a vantage point
from which to view the construction of knowledge, as preservice teachers grappled
with important issues raised in their coursework and through their field experiences.
The written journal experience, studied here over the entire length of a teacher
education program, provides valuable information about the processes by which
preservice teachers think about theory and connect it to practice, and the
transformation of preservice teachers to professional teachers. The research in
teacher education on the impact of teacher education programs in transforming

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preservice thinking from student to teacher, suggests that this change is difficult to
accomplish and limited in scope. The literature is limited in terms of being able to
pinpoint which courses and experiences in the teacher education program most
profoundly impact the thinking, reflection and transformative learning of preservice
teachers as they enter the professional world.

Setting, Participants and Programmatic Components
Programmatic Components
This study was conducted using preservice teacher candidates in the Master
of Arts in Teaching (MAT) program at a large, urban, top-tier private university in
the western United States. The MAT program was first established in the 2004-2005
academic year. The initial enrollment in the program was 42 students. The program
follows a cohort model, in which students begin, progress through, and complete the
program together. The MAT program is 13 months in length.
The MAT multiple subject program is structured to be completed in 13
months, during which time teacher candidates enroll in and complete 39 semester
units in coursework and field experience. The trajectory of coursework is
predetermined, developmentally sequenced, and includes foundational core courses
in Reading and Writing Methods, Bilingual Education, Teaching and Learning in
U.S. schools, and content-specific subjects. The program sequence is outlined in
Table 1.

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Table 1: Coursework and Field Experience for MAT Program
Summer
EDUC 503 Teaching and Learning in U.S. Schools (4 units)
EDUC 520 Foundations of Language Education (3 units)
Fall
EDUC 538 Curricula and Cultural Pluralism (3 units)
EDUC 537 Methods in Bilingual Education and in Teaching English as a
Second Language (3 units), or
EDUC 560 Primary Language Instruction in a Bilingual Setting (3 units –
BCLAD only)
EDUC 511 Reading and Writing Methods for Elementary Teaching (4 units)
MUED 479 Music for the Elementary Classroom Teacher (2 units)
Spring
EDUC 415 Content to Pedagogy: Mathematics in the Elementary School (2
units)
EDUC 417 Content to Pedagogy: From Science Content to Science
Curriculum (2 units)
EDUC 418 Content to Pedagogy: From Social Sciences to Social Studies (2
units)
EDUC 548A Multiple Subject Matter Methods (2 units)
EDUC 549A Student Teaching in Multiple Subjects (3 units)
EDUC 558 Culture Learning in Schools: Latino (3 units – BCLAD only)
Final Summer
EDUC 416 Content to Pedagogy: Art in the Elementary School (2 units)
EDUC 419 Content to Pedagogy: Physical Education for Elementary
Teaching (2 units)
EDUC 548B Multiple Subject Matter Methods (2 units)
EDUC 549B Student Teaching in Multiple Subjects (3 units)

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Core and methods courses occur concurrently with early field experiences
and student teaching. During the first semester of study, teacher candidates are
enrolled in two foundational courses, Teaching and Learning in U.S. Schools (EDUC
503), and Foundation of Language Education (520). Early field experience is an
embedded component in both courses. A weekly reflective writing assignment is
required in EDUC 503. Additionally, teacher candidates complete an action research
project and theory to practice paper during the first semester of coursework. These
two assignments require a prompted reflective component, outlined in the
assignments’ grading criteria. These courses are theory rich, with a link to theory to
practice foci. During the Fall semester, candidates enrol in their first methods
course, Reading and Writing Methods for Elementary Teaching (EDUC 511). This
course includes a second early field experience, coupled with associated prompted
reflective assignments. Again, this course links theory to practice. Additionally, in
the Fall semester, teacher candidates enrol in Curricula and Cultural Pluralism
(EDUC 538). This foundation course is theory rich, with a required reflective
component. During the Spring and Summer semesters of the student teaching
experiences, teacher candidates are concurrently enrolled in a general methods
course and content related to pedagogy in Math, Science and Social Studies courses.
A weekly, open-ended reflective writing assignment is required in the general
methods course. Lesson plan reflections are completed during student teaching
without prompts.

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The MAT program philosophy is aligned with the university’s school of
education’s four academic themes:

• Learning represents the core technical skill. The school’s graduates have a
deep understanding of the basic principles of how individuals learn and how
what they learn is incorporated into their daily lives.
• Diversity is the context within which educators operate, particularly in urban
areas. The School of Education seeks to understand the specific strengths
and needs of learners who differ in income, ethnicity, gender, language
proficiency, or disability, and to insure that graduates incorporate such
knowledge and skills into their practice.
• Accountability comes from determining what should be learned and how well
it has been learned. The School of Education addresses indicators of success
such as systems coherence and support, evidence-based best practices,
processes of continual improvement and organizational learning. The
school’s courses and faculty research help leaders understand who is
accountable for what at each level of the system. Accountability also means
professionals who are held accountable receive the resources necessary to be
successful.
• Leadership is ‘how’ we focus our educational systems on learning. The
School of Education focuses on enhancing the skills and knowledge of people
in the organization, creating a common culture of expectations, fostering
productive relationships within the organization, and holding individuals
accountable.

Study Population
Sixty-seven teacher candidates were enrolled in the MAT program during the
2005-2006 academic program. Of the 67 teacher candidates, 16 were working
towards single subject secondary school certification, and 51 were working towards

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a multiple subject certification. Table 2 provides a profile of the 2005-2006 MAT
students in the cohort under study.

Table 2: Profile of 2005-2006 MAT entering class
Admissions Information
Number of Applications 145
Number of Admitted Students 120
Number of Confirmed/Enrolled Students 67
Class Demographics
Women 88%
Average Age 25
Age Range 21-51
Racial/Ethnic Representation
Asian/Asian American 37.3%
Black/African American 3%
Caucasian/White 31.3%
Latino/Hispanic 22.4%
Native American/American Indian 3%
Undisclosed 3%
International 0%
Academic Background
(Undergraduate GPA average = 3.3)

Undergraduate GPA 3.5 or higher 25.3%
Undergraduate GPA 3.0-3.49 59.7%
Undergraduate GPA 2.5-2.99 15%
Undergraduate GPA 2.49 or lower 0%

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Teacher Education Candidates
For the purposes of this study, I limited the research participants to those
teacher candidates who were in the multiple subject MAT cohort during the 2005-
2006 school year. I chose to use the journals and reflective writings of the teacher
candidates from the multiple subject MAT cohort because their coursework and field
experiences were more homogeneous than the candidates in the single subject
cohort. The study participants took the same methods courses. I believe that
utilizing the documents from the multiple subjects cohort resulted in a more
consistent coding process, controlling for greater variability amongst participants.

Research Design
This study utilized a naturalistic, qualitative research design based on a social
cognitive theory of the learner’s acquisition of knowledge. According to social
cognitive theory, one acquires knowledge as experiences converge with one’s belief
system and prior knowledge and new experiences are evaluated in relation to prior
experiences (Schunk, 1991). In essence, this study attempted to capture the different
perceptions, attitudes and beliefs of preservice teachers as they engage in the
learning process of becoming teachers.
Research in teacher education indicates that transformation in preservice
thinking is often difficult to accomplish (Davis, 2006; Gupta, 2004; Ebby, 2000; Au,
1998). It suggests several reasons why change and development in teacher candidate

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thinking and beliefs is often minimal. It may not be a consequence only of deeply
embedded attitudes, beliefs and perceptions about teaching, learning and education,
but also due in part to the philosophy, structure and content of teacher education
programs themselves (Wideen, Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998). While previous
studies have analyzed reflective journals written during coursework, in order to
specifically measure degrees of change in beliefs, attitudes and perceptions of
preservice teachers, this study examined written documents for evidence of
preservice teacher change in thinking, as well as evidence of how preservice teachers
develop in their thinking about teaching. Another unique feature of this study is that
the reflection analysis spanned the entire programmatic period in which the teacher
candidates were enrolled in the MAT program. Additionally, this study also
examined reflective entries from several education courses, instead of focusing on
only one course.

Data Sets
The data sets used to investigate the phenomena of how preservice teachers
develop their beliefs about teaching and their professional identites were derived
from eFolio journals and post-lesson reflections that were posted by the teacher
candidates while enrolled in the teacher education program, and electronically
archived during the academic year.

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Reflective Component
Three reflective components were used as data sets: (1) weekly journals
written during the early field experience, and teacher education foundation
coursework; (2) weekly journals written during student teaching, in conjunction with
the general methods course; and (3) lesson plan reflections posted after the student
teacher executed a lesson.

Reflective Journals: For the purposes of this study, I examined the
developmentally sequenced reflective journals and reflections of 15 preservice
teachers from the 2005-2006 MAT cohort of students in the multiple subject
education strands. Journal entries enabled me to analyze the language of the
participants, as well as gather data concerning what the participants had given
attention to: what they had chosen to write about (Creswell, 2003). Included in the
study were the weekly journals submitted during the core foundation courses, and the
weekly journals submitted in the general methods course taken concurrently with
student teaching. The syllabus for each of the courses requires that teacher
candidates post reflections weekly via eFolio in response to field experience
observation, course readings and lectures. My literature review concurred with the
review of the research on field experience and methods courses in teacher education
conducted by Clift and Brady (2005), in that most of the coursework research was
completed by the course instructor. My research differs in that I am neither a course

81
instructor nor a faculty member in the school of education. I am, however, a
graduate student who as part of a graduate fellowship is a field experience supervisor
for single subject secondary school credential teacher candidates. This study focused
on the reflective journal entries of teacher candidates in the multiple subject cohort.

Student Teaching Lesson Reflections: Student teachers are required to post
lesson reflections via eFolio following the execution of a teaching a lesson. The
lesson reflections are posted at the end of their lesson plan.

Data Analysis
Data analysis focused on coding and cataloging of data to highlight emerging
themes and patterns, beginning with the first journal entry of each student
(McMahon, 1997) and developing throughout the program sequence. Two levels of
analysis were conducted to analyze the breadth and depth of the reflections.
To analyze the breadth of the reflections, I used a grounded theory approach
to identify and code emerging categories and themes. I coded the information into
tentative categories and developed questions guiding further investigation.
I used the rubric developed by Hatton and Smith (1995) to analyze the depth
of the reflections for each individual journal entry in the data sets. Hatton and Smith
(1995) have identified four types of writing: descriptive writing, descriptive
reflection, dialogic reflection and critical reflection. According to Hatton and Smith
(1995), descriptive writing is not reflection, but rather a report of literature or events.

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Descriptive reflection incorporates reasons for a certain action, based on personal
judgment or on a student’s thinking about literature that was read. In dialogic
reflection, a “form of discourse with oneself” emerges, and the student attempts to
explore a problem and find possible ways to explain an event or action. Dialogic
reflection is analytical, and demonstrates an understanding that there may be
multiple factors and perspectives when thinking about or thinking on an experience
or action. For critical reflection to occur, thinking expands beyond multiple
perspectives and delves into the understanding of experiences by looking at multiple
historical and socio-political contexts.

Journals
All written documents were read and coded using Creswell’s (2003) six step
procedure for analyzing qualitative data:
1. Organize and prepare the data using transcription and document analysis.

2. Read through all documents to generate a general sense of the information as
well as the depth of the data.

3. Code all documents and interviews by chunking into reoccurring themes,
topics and categories.

4. Develop a description of the setting, people and themes.

5. Develop a format for representation of the data (narrative, charts, sub-
themes).

6. Interpret the results of the data, compare to findings of the literature review,
propose new questions generated by the results, and discuss implications for
further study. (p. 191)

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I utilized HyperRESEARCH™, computerized coding software, in coding of
the breadth of the reflections. Coding of the data facilitated the development of
categories and themes, which emerged from the grounded codes. Hatton and
Smith’s analysis of journals and reflections was focused on the examination of
preservice teachers’ development of reflection. Their study was directly related to
categorizing written data into four levels. In this study, coding initially focused on
the development of the preservice teachers’ identity, their shift in attitudes, beliefs
and perceptions regarding teaching and learning, and their thinking about racial
identity in the context of social equity in education. However, as the analysis of the
data unfolded, I found in the analysis of the journal content emerging themes that
broadened the focus. The coding process allowed for highlighting specific themes,
and integration of learning and belief change across coursework. In comparing the
content of the journals written during the early field experience with the content of
the journals written during student teaching, I was able to follow the development of
pedagogical knowledge across coursework and experiences. The data analysis
enabled me to examine both the depth and the breadth of the journals and lesson plan
reflections.
The data (electronic journal entries) were collected from the program’s
teacher education eFolio archives. The database manager provided the electronic
files for all 56 MAT elementary students. The numbers of eFolio entries were
averaged across all of the teacher candidates. The average number of entries
obtained per candidate was 26. Entries were randomly selected from those files that

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contained between 25 (mean - 1) and 27 (mean + 1) journal entries. Fifteen files
were selected. Post-lesson reflections, written by student teachers after they had
conducted a lesson, were obtained from the eFolio database for the 15 selected files.
Each file was organized in chronological order of the date that the journal
entry was written. The files were saved as MS Word documents in order to be
compatible with the HyperRESEARCH™ format. All files were formatted to
include margins and spacing in order to increase their readability.

Coding Schema
The coding schema used in the analysis of the teacher candidates’ written
journals and student teaching reflections utilized a grounded system of codes derived
from a preliminary analysis of a compilation of five preservice teachers’ complete
electronic journal entries. Grounded coding is the process of generating theory
through inductive, qualitative analysis. Grounded theory is meant to develop a
theory rather than test a theory (Patton, 2002). In grounded theory, the researcher
attempts to develop a general, abstract theory of a process, grounded in the views of
the study participants (Creswell, 2003). The approach focuses on the interpretation
of data, and coding that generates a theory (Flick, 2002). Following the preliminary
analysis, themes were identified from repeated descriptive references related to
teacher education coursework, field experiences, observations and student teaching.
The identified themes were used to compile a list of keywords and phrases used in
the initial coding.

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Coding Process: Five files, containing an average of 26 journal entries, were
printed and read through in order to conduct a preliminary analysis of themes and
topics. From the initial reading, a list of topics and themes was generated. The
topics and themes were organized into categories: Reflections, Culture, Socio-
economic, Implications of Coursework, Teaching English Learners (EL), Reflection
on Student Learning, Discussion of Theory, Types of Instructional Methods,
Reflection on Lesson Outcome, Elements of Field Experience, Elements of Student
Teaching, Critical Experiences and Preservice Teacher to Teacher. Keywords were
identified for each of the categories (Appendix C).
Following the development of the coding schema, each eFolio data set was
transferred to a text file. The text file for each of the 15 data sets was loaded into the
HyperRESEARCH™ program and coded for themes and categories. For the
purposes of this study, journal entries written in conjunction with teacher education
coursework requirements, and reflections written as part of student teaching lesson
plan requirements, were run in separate reports. Additionally, a frequency report
was run, to provide descriptive statistics regarding the frequency of codes found in
the written journals and reflections (see Appendix D and Appendix E for tables of
the frequency counts). A preliminary analysis of five complete data sets — one data
set per teacher candidate — was conducted to discover emerging themes. Following
the preliminary analysis, a schema was developed for further coding (see Appendix
C). The schema was used to develop the master code list used in analysis of the data
using HyperRESEARCH™. HyperRESEARCH™ is an easy-to-use qualitative data

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analysis software package, which enables coding and retrieval, theory-building, and
data-analysis.

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Chapter 4: Findings
Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with
what happens to him. — Aldous Huxley

The purpose of this study was to examine the critical strategies in a teacher
education program that promote change in teacher candidates’ thinking and
understanding of K-12 education, and the development of understanding of
theoretical perspectives in teacher candidates’ teaching practices. It sought to use
reflective journals written by teacher candidates during their 13-month Master of
Arts in Teaching (MAT) program as the primary data source to examine teacher
candidates’ thinking as they develop as novice teachers. The students’ wide variety
of experiences develop into strategies which might cultivate reflection within this
program. Components within the MAT program that are designed to foster
reflection include foundational courses and methods courses, in conjunction with
field experiences including two semesters of student teaching. The course of study
was reviewed in Chapter 3.
This chapter presents the results and findings from the examination of
journals and reflective writings from 15 teacher candidates. The journals and
reflective writings were analyzed to address several research questions:
1. What role do preservice teacher education programs play in informing and
influencing teacher belief systems?

2. What role do preservice teachers’ beliefs play in their reflections?

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3. What role do reflective journals in teacher education play in informing
teachers’ beliefs and instructional practice?

4. What role can teacher educators play in facilitating transformative learning
processes in teacher candidates during preservice programs in urban settings?

To answer these research questions, detailed qualitative analyses were
conducted, using data collected from archived electronic journal responses and
lesson plan reflections from the teacher preparation program. Each data set of
preservice teacher reflections was given a random identification number, in order to
mask the identities of the teacher candidates completing the reflections. Reflective
data from 15 randomly-sampled teacher candidates were selected. The average
number of journal entries per teacher candidate set was calculated. The mean
number was 51 journal entries per teacher candidate. Figure 1 illustrates the total
number of journal entries used in the analysis.

Figure 1. Journal Entry Count

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The purpose of this chapter is to report the results and findings from data
collection. It is organized into two sections. The first section of the chapter includes
an analysis of the critical strategies in teacher education for promoting the
development of the teacher candidate’s professional self. This analysis was
conducted using the coding schema of the journal and reflection content. The second
section of the chapter includes an analysis of the journals and reflections using
Hatton and Smith’s (1995) framework for the Recognition of Evidence for Different
Types of Reflective Writing, in order to examine the depth of the journals and
reflections. Grounded coding was used for the analysis of the journal contents, in
order to generate categories and themes across all three sets of data that would assist
in following the developmental trajectory of the teacher candidates’ pedagogical
knowledge about teaching and learning. The framework by Hatton and Smith (1995)
provided a tool to investigate the depth of journal entries, as an aspect of the
development of the teacher candidates’ competence in the reflective process.

Journal and Reflection Content
In this section, the results of the analysis of the journals and reflections in
terms of content will be presented. The significance of the analysis of what teacher
candidates chose to include in their lesson plan reflections speaks to the issue of
linking theory to practice. In the examination of what strategies in teacher education
work to develop critical inquiry in teacher candidates, it is important to investigate
the content of reflections. Information concerning what preservice teachers write

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about is valuable to teacher educators. Freese (2006) acknowledges that teacher
educators should “explore our preservice teachers’ thinking and ‘give reason’ to their
actions” (p. 116). In essence, the investigation of preservice teachers’ journals and
reflections provides teacher educators with the opportunity to reflect on their
teaching, instruction and programmatic components. While teacher educators
explore strategies to “develop the preservice teacher into a reflective educator and a
life-long learner who perceives every experience as an opportunity for growth,
change, and development of understanding” (Hutchinson & Allen, 1997, p. 226),
teacher educators should, as Freese (2006) suggests, consider the entire
developmental process, and not just the end product. Review of the research on
content suggests that there is “a cautious but positive conclusion that methods
courses and field experiences can impact prospective teachers’ thoughts about
practice and in some instances actual teaching practices” (Clift & Brady, 2005, p.
323). The analysis of journals and lesson plan reflections in this study revealed
grounded categorical themes of teacher education content matter that preservice
teachers focused on in their writing. Table 3 indicates the categories and the
percentage responses for the three sets of data.

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Table 3: Categories Using Grounded Codes and Percentage of Responses by
Category

Early Field Work
Journals in
Student Teaching
Lesson Plan
Reflections
Teaching English Learners 1% 1.50% 2%
Critical Experiences 13% 17% 7%
Discussion of Theory 5% 1% 0%
Elements of Field Experience 4% 0% 0%
Elements of Student Teaching 0% 24% 12%
Implications of Coursework 10% 3% 0.90%
Preservice Teacher to Teacher 7% 5% 0%
Cultural 5% 1.60% 1.60%
Reflection on Student Learning 44% 33% 49%
Socio-Economic 4% 4% 0%
Reflection on Lesson Outcomes 0% 1% 3.00%
Reflection 0% 4% 6%
Types of Instructional Methods 6% 6% 20%

The journals and lesson plan reflections provide teacher educators with
information about what content from foundation and methods courses is being
retained and integrated into preservice teachers’ practice and thinking. The primary
trend shown by the analysis of the journals and lesson plan reflections under study
was that the teacher candidates sought to make meaning from the pedagogical
coursework and early field experience observations. In their early journal entries,
the preservice teachers attempted to connect their classroom observations with
course content and text from their course readings. Educational theories were
referenced and integrated in the journals. The following journal entry provides an
example of connecting early field experience observations with course content.

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As I observed this language arts activity I related it to the constructivist
theory of learning. Through the "star of the week" activity the students were
practicing language in many different forms in both a social/group setting as
well as independently. Vygotsky's theory of ZPD (zone of proximal
development) stresses the importance of learning language through peer
tutoring and you see this being done through this activity. (Student #360)

This entry is significant because it suggests that the preservice teacher related
the theoretical concepts learned in coursework to observable practice. The
preservice teacher made the connection between a pedagogical approach and
instruction in a classroom. The excerpt provides insight into the development of new
knowledge as it relates to professional growth. Other preservice teachers cited
course text information directly in their journal entries.
During my observation I came across a student who completely lacked
motivation to go to college…I did notice that he constantly wanted to be the
center of attention during class discussion and group activities. He was very
outspoken always giving his opinion to the teacher and other students.
Surprisingly these opinions were not irrelevant but interesting and engaging.
In the book, Teaching in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms, Lemlech
states, “When students are given the opportunity to share knowledge with
each other, they reap the benefits of improving communication skills and
learning to value teamwork” (p15). (Student #344)

In this entry, the preservice teacher found the course text relevant in
explaining students’ classroom behavior. The preservice teacher observed behavior
in the classroom that appeared perplexing, and she/he sought information from
course materials. Both of these early field experience journal entries demonstrate an
attempt on the part of the preservice teachers to connect course content with
observed events.

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Journal entries and lesson plan reflections written during student teaching
included significantly less discussion of educational theory. In the program under
study, student teaching occurs in the final two of the four semesters of the teacher
education program. The shift in content during the student teaching practicum
focused on procedural and technical aspects of teaching.
I got very frustrated during this lesson because of some behavior issues
which were my own fault because of management of the pattern blocks,
white board and too many materials. I was flustered before I began because
of the organization of some of the materials and I was being observed… The
lesson would have been managed better had I not had the pattern blocks out
at the very beginning, but rather wait to bring them out until practice. They
were too tempting to play with before that and during the demonstration. All
together, I think the students did get the basics of equivalent fractions, and I
learned a lot from the experience. I don’t have to get through everything!
(Student #342)

The reflective content of the journals warranted exploration, because it
provided information for the teacher educators about how the teacher education
program impacts the development of teacher candidates. The content provides the
context, along with identifiable issues that the preservice teachers perceive as
significant. McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) arrived at a similar conclusion in their
study of promoting reflection in preservice teachers. Their study on the development
of reflection in early field experiences was grounded in the idea that systematic
reflection plays a central role in professional growth. McLaughlin and Hannifin
“recognized that the type of reflection would be influenced by the context specificity
of the situation, in which it was generated and nurtured” (p. 4).

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In the following section, I will discuss areas of coded content that emerged
from the analysis of the teacher candidates’ journals and lesson plan reflections,
beginning from early field experience and extending through the student teaching
practicum. I will also discuss the degree to which course related content was evident
in the journals and reflections. The analysis of course related content in the journals
and reflections provides information about what elements of the teacher education
program in this study were more salient for the teacher candidates in terms of
thinking about teaching and their knowledge of instructional practice. The
categories for coding the content area analysis are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Categories Generated from Preliminary Analysis: Student Teacher Lesson
Plan Reflections, Teacher Candidates eFolio Journal Entries
Reflection Cultural
Implications of Coursework Socio-Economic
Teaching English Learners Reflection on Student Learning
Discussion of Theory Types of Instructional Methods
Reflection on Lesson Outcomes Elements of Student Teaching
Critical Experiences Preservice Teacher to Teacher

I will first discuss the analysis of the pre-student teaching journals, and will
then follow with a discussion of the journals and lesson plan reflections written
during the student teaching practicum. The rationale for dividing the analysis
between pre-student teaching, and student teaching experience, is to be able to

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examine the trajectory of development of the teacher candidates, as well as to focus
on the experiences of early fieldwork and student teaching.

Journal Content in Foundation Coursework and Early Field Experience
Preservice teachers were required to submit weekly journals during their
foundation teacher education coursework. A field experience component consisting
of observation hours in a variety of classrooms is required in the foundation courses.
The journal assignment had no set topic requirement or prompts; however, each
student titled each reflection with a topic heading. Because the journals were written
for teacher education courses that included an early field experience component, the
analysis sought to examine the content of the journals with a focus on how field
experience supported the development of knowledge about teaching and learning.
Preservice teachers generally wrote about an event observed during field experience,
a foundation course topic and/or a current event about some aspect of education.
Table 5 provides a sample of topics generated by two preservice teachers.
The topics are varied and cover a wide range of issues, theories and instructional
practices. From the topic headings, it is difficult to discern a specific developmental
trajectory or format.

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Table 5: Two Student Comparison of Early Field Experience Journals
Student # 342 Student # 384
Week 1 Social Language of ELL
Students
Classroom Participation
Week 2 Learning Problem - “Gloria” Variety in the Classroom
Week 3 Rehearsing a Play-Arts Reprimanding a Student
Week 4 Racial Violence in Los Angeles
Schools
Salaries for Teachers
Week 5 Group Projects for Middle
Schools
Behaviorist Approach
Week 6 The Concept Attainment Classroom Technology
Week 7 Assessment in 7
th
Grade SAT Prep

The pre-student teaching journals were coded using the same categories as
the weekly journals written during student teaching and the student teaching lesson
reflections. Figure 1 indicates the frequency of student responses to the coded
categories for the journals written in the foundation courses. As Figure 1 indicates,
there were a variety of responses, in 12 specific categories. Most prevalent were the
responses in the Reflection on Student Learning and Critical Experiences categories.
The fewest responses were found in the categories of Reflection on Lesson
Outcomes, Reflection, and Teaching English Learners. In the following section of
the analysis, I will describe and provide examples of the responses in each of the
categories.

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Figure 2. Preservice Foundational Coursework Journals

As Figure 2 illustrates, there were categories in which the preservice
teachers’ journals included many responses. The category of Reflection on Student
Learning accounted for 44% of the total responses for the journals written during
early field experience. It should be noted that the responses for the category of
Reflection on Student Learning were greater in number partly due to the keywords
used in the coding. In general, the preservice teachers used the words “students” and
“learning” frequently in their journals. The depth of the content for the category
Reflection on Student Learning will be discussed in the next section of the analysis.
These statistics are significant for this study because the frequency of the
references for each of the categories identifies issues and content perceived as
significant by the preservice teachers. Additionally, the frequency of responses

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allows a comparison of the responses within each of the categories over the course of
the teacher education program. The comparison between the journals and lesson
plan reflections written over the four semesters of the teacher education program
allows for the examination of development of knowledge and the integration of
theory into practice.
I have divided the coded categories into sub-categories under Teaching and
Learning and Program Influences. In the first part of this analysis I will discuss
what was prevalent in the journals that were related directly to teaching and learning.
The second part of the analysis will discuss categories that relate more directly to the
program influences. I divided the categories into sub-categories in order to make
sense of the areas of impact in the teacher education for prospective teachers.

Teaching and Learning
The most prevalent aspect of the journal analysis involved the examination of
how course content was integrated into field experience observation as evidenced by
the weekly journals. This analysis sought to discover what impact the foundation
courses and the early field experience had on the prospective teachers’ beliefs about
content, teaching and learning. Clift and Brady (2005) assert that, although research
in teacher education “reports that methods courses and field experience have an
impact on prospective teachers’ beliefs about content, learning and teaching, it is
difficult to predict what impact a specific course or experience may have” (p. 331).

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Text and coursework in this study appear to provide a framework for the
prospective teachers in thinking about as well as making sense of what they
observed. This was evident from the categories Reflection on Student Learning,
Implications of Coursework, Discussion of Theory, Teaching English Learners, and
Types of Instructional Methods.
The category Reflection on Student Learning was used to describe how the
teacher candidates viewed and discussed student learning in their journals. Figure 3
illustrates the number of relevant responses within each preservice teacher’s journal.

Figure 3. Frequency: Reflection on Student Learning
(N=307, 44% of total responses)

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There was a significant range in the frequency of responses for this category. One
weekly journal contained 22% of the total responses for Reflection on Student
Learning. This teacher candidate used the word ‘learning’ with high frequency,
which resulted in the elevated number of responses. The high response rate may be
in part due to the coding schema.
The majority of the journals included a discussion and description of learning
strategies employed in their observation classrooms. The journal entries
incorporated aspects of topics about learning that were presented in their foundation
courses. The integration of coursework content was evident in the journal content, as
the teacher candidates cited course texts with an event or experience from their
classroom observation. The preservice teachers wrote about group work,
differentiated instruction, cooperative learning and problem solving as important
features of teaching for student learning. One preservice teacher wrote that “learning
must be intentional” (Student #344). Another student wrote about differentiated
instruction and how it would be an effective teaching method in low socio-economic
schools. In the journal entry below, the preservice teacher describes the classroom
learning structure, and observes that the teacher might be able to help all the students
in the class by employing the method of differentiated instruction.
It soon became obvious to me that the teacher just did not have enough time
to devote to the students who had fallen behind without seriously hurting the
other students by cutting their teaching time. This led me to think that the
answer to the question of what low socio-economic status schools need is a
method of teaching that works to use the students’ different levels of progress
to help them.

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In this journal entry, the preservice teacher not only made an observation about the
academic level of the students in the classroom, but also included in the observation
a link between the students’ levels of progress and the socio-economic status of the
school. The preservice teacher saw an instructional dilemma and proposed a solution
based on course materials to improve student learning.
As used in this classroom, the groupings of these 3rd graders functions more
to isolate them than anything else, consequently preventing them from
advancing and ensuring they slowly fall further behind. When I was
researching for the Module 1 project in this class, I read an interesting book
on differentiated teaching. The Differentiated Classroom, by Carol Ann
Tomlinson, describes how differentiated education makes use of students’
diversities. This is accomplished through heterogeneous groupings rather
than grouping the children according to their academic level. In the
classroom I observed, the three tables could function as learning centers or
have tiered activities. Most importantly, the teacher can assign students to
specific learning centers based on their academic readiness. In differentiated
classrooms, assessment of students is ongoing so they will continually be
advanced as they learn and master skills. (Student #350)

In this entry, the preservice teacher integrates the course text and the course
assignment with the observation to develop a way of thinking about the learning that
is taking place in the observation classroom.
Further indications related to the impact between field experience and course
content were seen from the category of Implications of Coursework. The journal
content focused primarily on linking observations from the early field experience to
the course text. The preservice teachers incorporated the required textbook,
Curriculum and Instructional Methods for the Elementary and Middle School (a
course book required in their general methods course) by Lemlech (2006), into their
journal discussions. The journals included descriptions of what was observed and

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how their observations corresponded to the text. Figure 4 illustrates the frequency in
which preservice teachers cited coursework, course text or the course instructor in
their weekly journals. The category Implications of Coursework comprised 10% of
the total weekly early field experience journal responses.

Figure 4. Frequency: Implications of Coursework (N=69, 10% of total responses)

As Figure 4 indicates, there was a wide discrepancy between response levels in this
category. Three preservice teachers accounted for 66% of the total responses, and
three preservice teachers included no references to coursework in their journals. The

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variance between response rates may be attributed to the limited structure and
prompts for the journals. Preservice teachers used the course text to help them attach
meaning to the aspects of teaching and learning observed during the field experience.
The combination of observation experience and the course text provided the
prospective teachers with a context in which to think about the development of their
teacher self. The content of the journals in the categories of coursework and
teaching methods provides teacher educators with information about the degree to
which the preservice teachers are able to make connections between teacher
education courses and early field experiences. Darling-Hammond et al. (2005) assert
that teacher education programs that coherently integrate related methods across
courses and field experience have a greater impact on the beginning conceptions of
teacher candidates.
Several teacher candidates under study focused on teacher and student
interactions. In the following journal entry, the preservice teacher writes about
making learning meaningful and personal.
When I read or learn about educational theories, instructional methodologies,
curriculum, etc., I often treat them as academic matters rather then seeing
their applicability to the classroom and their effect on the students. I am
experiencing a marked disconnect…I want to see beyond my academic
approach and distaste for bureaucracy and actually see the students as
individuals, not just playing pieces…

This preservice teacher demonstrates the belief that the most important aspect of
teaching is the personal relationship between the teacher and the student. For
preservice teachers, educational theories and curricula often serve as barriers to

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instructional practice. This preservice teacher cannot yet see how instructional
practice facilitates student learning.
As Johanna Lemlech writes, “interaction with students describes the ways
teachers talk to and care about their students, recognize individual
differences, and provide learning experiences that are developmentally
appropriate and geared toward students’ interests and needs” (7). Most
importantly, a personal relationship with my students will allow me to
contextualize the content they are learning so that it can be made relevant to
their everyday lives. (Student #375)

The preservice teacher in the above journal entry expressed the perceived conflict
between academic theory and practical teaching. The content of this journal
provides the teacher educator with the opportunity to help the prospective teacher
mitigate the perceived conflict in the form of a reflective response to the journal
entry. The prospective teacher used the text to assist in resolving some of the
confusion, struggling with understanding how pedagogical theories impact student
learning. Linking theory to practice early in the field experience may require, for
this preservice teacher, a more structured approach to observation and a grounded
response to reflection. Often, as Darling-Hammond et al. (2005) suggest, it is
“important for learners to be able to use theories and practices that can help them
make sense of the phenomena they experience and observe rather than encountering
mixed messages, contradictory theories and ideas that are superficially conveyed” (p.
394).
Attitudes about peer relationships among teachers in this study were also
discussed in journal entries. After observing an end of the year faculty meeting, the
teacher candidate in the following journal entry makes a statement about teachers

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supporting one another. The candidate has connected the course text to support a
developing belief about workplace attitudes and peer-to-peer relationships.
As the Lemlech textbook suggests, taking advantage of peer relationships can
be a great source of help and inspiration for teachers. The meeting was called
for them to get help and to generate ideas, but instead, it started about 15 to
20 minutes late…and most of the time was spent complaining. Overall, I
carried several things away from that meeting. One, that teachers are most
definitely not perfect. Two, districts can put unreasonable last minute
changes and rules on you. And finally, despite all that, one can choose to
either make the best of it or grumble and drag his or her feet and make things
more unpleasant than they need be. (Student #351)

In both of the previous two journal entries, the preservice teachers appear to be
forming new thoughts and concepts related to teaching and teacher identity. While
there is not enough information to conclude that their beliefs are changing, the
preservice teachers are looking for sources of information — the course text — to
develop a framework by which to think about teaching and their professional identity
development.
Along with citing the course text, the teacher candidates also referenced the
course instructors for the Teaching and Learning in U.S. Schools and Foundations of
Language Education courses, two foundational courses that occur in the first
semester of the program under study. While not mentioned as frequently as course
text was cited, the course instructors appear to have had some impact on how the
teacher candidates were beginning to frame their thinking. The teacher candidates
related discussion about diversity, literacy, history of the standards, and various
suggested reading, in their journals. The following journal entry demonstrates the

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preservice teacher realizing that awareness and understanding of diversity is
important to becoming a teacher.
As teachers, as we have discussed consistently in EDUC 503 and 520
[foundation courses], we must become aware of the fact that we are a diverse
society, and as such, it would be an error on the teacher’s part, and a sad
deficit on the part of the students, if we as teacher don’t put up the effort to
actually acknowledge it in our teaching methodologies, the homework we
give out, etc. (Student #355)

The information provided by the course instructors in the foundation courses
was incorporated into the weekly journals, and reflects the awareness of the
prospective teachers in framing their teacher beliefs and professional identity. There
appears to be a developing awareness and understanding that effective teaching
requires more than technical teaching competence. The literature on teaching
diverse learners (Hollins & Guzman, 2005) asserts that teachers’ attitudes and
expectations — as well as their knowledge — about the communities, cultures and
experiences of their students, can significantly impact what students learn. The
content of the journal cited above was written for the foundational course. The issue
remains as to whether the beginning awareness of this teacher candidate is sustained
in the student teaching practicum during semesters three and four of the 13-month
program.
This integration of course content with field experience continued to be
evident in the journal entries prospective teachers wrote about educational theories.
The discussion of theory in the journals focused primarily on behaviorism and
constructivism. As illustrated in Figure 5, there were 34 responses for the coding of

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Discussion of Theory, which accounted for 11% of the total responses for the weekly
early field experience journals. Nine out of the fifteen teacher candidates included
some discussion of theory in their journals.

Figure 5. Frequency: Discussion of Theory (N=34, 5% of total responses)

As Figure 5 indicates, only three preservice teachers included a significant
number of references to learning theories in their journals. One explanation for the
minimal references to theory may be that the preservice teachers did not understand
what to look for in their early field experience. Or, perhaps the preservice teachers

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were focused on the operational aspects of instruction. One teacher candidate
included 10 responses related to Discussion of Theory, although the responses
occurred in two journal entries which discussed behaviorism and constructivism. In
the journal entry on constructivism, the preservice teacher provided a description
from the coursework lecture on the constructivism’s eight components. Since the
preservice teacher used the word constructivism often, there was a higher rate in the
coding process:
The learning theory that we discussed in class that I hope to use most in my
classroom is Constructivism. Constructivism holds that knowledge is not
transmitted unchanged from teacher to student, but instead that learning is an
active process of recreating knowledge. This theory also states that teaching
is facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, and setting the
conditions. There are eight components of constructivism that help facilitate
the learning theory in the classroom. (Student #343)

This entry demonstrates understanding of the theory but does not link the
theory to a practice experience.
The journal entries included descriptions of how the preservice teachers were
witnessing examples of learning theories of behaviorism and constructivism in their
early field experience observations. Several students referred to either of the
learning theories in terms of a strategy. In the entry below, the preservice teacher
writes about the use of behaviorism. This journal entry was entitled “Behaviorist
Approach to Education.”
The past few weeks I have observed at an elementary school in a
kindergarten classroom. I noticed how the use of behaviorism was effective
in promoting a comfortable and supportive context for learning and for
teaching the language. When the students were going over short vowels and
their sounds, the teacher would stand at the front of the class and have her

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students on the carpet sitting down in front of her. The teacher would hold
up a word on a piece of paper, usually a three or four letter word, and ask the
students to “read” it back to her and say the word multiple times.
(Student #384)

It is apparent that the preservice teachers are attempting to integrate the
learning theories that they are introduced to in their foundation coursework with
events and actions that are being observed in early field experience. The teacher
candidates do not, however, talk about the perspective and how it connects to child
learning, nor its effectiveness. Integration of theory and practice is seen as important
in helping teacher candidates examine their beliefs, behaviors and understanding
with regard to teaching and learning (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Foundation teacher
preparation courses introduce the theoretical frameworks for teaching and learning.
The early field experience components of the foundation courses in this study do not
appear to impact the thinking of prospective teachers, as evidenced by the few
references in the weekly journals to theory as seen in practice, as shown in Figure 4.
Included in the early journals were discussions about Teaching English
Learners. This category demonstrates further which aspects of the material
introduced in the coursework are integrated into the observation. Approximately one
percent of the journal responses dealt with English learners. As Figure 6 illustrates,
only 6 out of the 15 preservice students included any aspects of teaching English
learners in their weekly early field experience journals.

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Figure 6. Frequency: Teaching English Learners (N=7, 1% of total responses)

The content of these entries primarily discussed aspects of teaching EL that
the preservice teachers observed during field experience. Most often, the preservice
teachers in this study noted seeing Specially Designed Academic Instruction in
English (SDAIE) methods used in the classroom. SDAIE is a teaching style
intended for teaching non-English students various non-language subjects using the
English language. SDAIE requires the student to possess intermediate fluency in
English, as well as mastery of their native language. The instruction is designed so

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that students access the English language content supported by material in their
primary language (Lemlech, 2006). In the following entry, the preservice teacher
writes about her observation in a kindergarten class. The teacher explains how she
accommodates the learning needs of the EL students, and includes a statement on
how important it is to know how to teach EL students, since it is most likely that
there will be EL students in her classroom.

This teacher was such a good instructor! All of her students were really well
behaved and did everything that she asked them to do. I asked her how many
EL students she had in her class and how she accommodated their needs. She
had told me that she used the SDAIE method. She showed me the dolls that
she would use when she was telling them a story to help them identify certain
animal characters with actual figures. I also noticed that she would have the
EL students in smaller groups that would consist of native English speaking
children as well… As future teachers we should start preparing and writing
down various methods for accommodating these students in our classroom.
(Student #356)

This journal entry provides a description of how the preservice teacher has
observed effective SDAIE instructions. She appears to be aware that SDAIE
methods are strategic in the teaching of EL students. The journal content is linked to
course readings in EDUC 520 and 503, two foundational courses in the MAT
program. The early field experience provided a link to teaching methods in practice.
Additionally, the preservice teacher talks about professional growth, by stating that
“As future teachers we should start preparing and writing down various methods…”
(student # 356), as well as demonstrating her knowledge of the profession.
In the entry below, the preservice teacher writes about a contradictory
experience during the classroom observation. The classroom teacher’s explanation

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of how SDAIE methods are used in the classroom is not what the preservice teacher
has observed.
During the teacher’s free moments I asked him about what kinds of
strategies he uses to make sure the EL students were able to keep up
with the rest of the regular class. He told me that he uses SDAIE
strategies such as scaffolding, modeling and repetition (saying aloud
the answers, writing them out, and having them write it down as
well), visual learning (writing points and answers on the board), and
integration of vocabulary into lesson plans…. Unfortunately, contrary
to the teacher’s stated intentions, I did not observe him implementing
the strategies really in regards to the EL students. True, he repeated
points discussed and wrote things on the board, but much of his
lessons were all spoken lectures…. As it has been mentioned in class,
long-term learning comes from building new knowledge upon the old.
By using the students’ knowledge of Spanish, the teacher could have
built a bridge from that towards English. (Student #351)

In this entry, the preservice teacher attempts to integrate coursework
knowledge with the classroom observation. The preservice teacher analyzes what
she/he has observed in the classroom, and appears to have developed an emergent
theoretical perspective about teaching EL students. The coursework and field
experience have provided a critical experience that seems to have made an impact on
the preservice teacher’s thinking about teaching and student learning.
The five preservice teachers who wrote about teaching EL students in their
journals addressed strategies for teaching English learners. The primary pedagogical
strategy cited was the use of SDAIE methods. Although the teaching of English
learners is addressed in depth in the second semester coursework, topics related to
teaching English learners are primarily addressed in one of the foundation courses in
the teacher education program in semester one of four. It is significant that only one

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third of the 15 journals analyzed included topics about English learners, since the
MAT program is designed to prepare teachers for diverse learners in the urban
school setting. While the preservice teachers appeared to focus most of their
attention on the classroom teachers, they often neglected to discuss the
corresponding student behavior in their entries.
In examining the array of topics that the teacher candidates included in their
journals, I found that they discussed various types of instructional methods. Again,
the connection between information learned in coursework and observed practice
was noted to be observed during the early field experience. The category Types of
Instructional Methods was used to describe what the preservice teachers wrote
related to the observation of instructional methods. The category sought to code how
the preservice teachers constructed meaning from the material learned in the
coursework, and whether they related the coursework to the early field experience.
The types of responses did not vary greatly from the responses coded as Reflection
on Student Learning. As Figure 7 indicates, two thirds of the teacher candidates
wrote about instructional methods in their journals. Overall, the category made up
5% of the total early field work journal responses.

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Figure 7. Frequency: Types of Instructional Methods

Essentially, only two preservice teachers included significant references to
Types of Instructional Methods in their weekly journals. Minimal references to types
of instruction may be attributed to the limited understanding of recognizing
instruction in practice. The journals were not prompted; therefore, the preservice
teachers may not have been interested or motivated to discuss types of instruction.
One teacher candidate included 10 references to types of instruction in the weekly
journals. Eight out of the ten references came from one weekly journal, in which the

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preservice teacher observed the classroom teacher using direct instruction to teach a
phonics lesson.
This teacher used many of the direct instruction teaching hints in
Lemlech’s book Teaching in Elementary and Secondary
Classrooms…. First, the teacher demonstrated a skill that consisted of
a phonetics lesson on Mondays and Wednesdays. (Student #344)

In this excerpt, the preservice teacher describes the observation teacher’s
teaching strategies as “teaching hints.” This statement suggests that the preservice
teacher perceives teaching as something that is learned directly from a manual.
Direct instruction may have been included in the journals more often, since it is a
common method of instruction.
Reflections included references to group-work, direct instruction, concept
attainment and problem-based learning. The preservice teachers referenced
instructional strategies from their field experience observations. In the following
journal entry, the teacher candidate discusses the variety of instructional methods
that the field experience classroom teacher used. The preservice teacher observed
that the variety of approaches kept the students engaged in the lesson.
In terms of instruction, Mr. M used multiple instructional strategies to
implement his lessons. His variety kept the students engaged with and
excited to explore the content. He used direct instruction on the overhead to
model the proper format of a compare and contrast essay. He also facilitated
a discussion, which ended up being primarily student led, to analyze a short
story from their literature text. The students first discussed their ideas in
pairs and switched partners to discuss even further. (Student #375)

This preservice teacher’s observation is significant as it suggests that the
early field experience had provided the opportunity to see a practice in action. The

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preservice teacher appeared to be motivated by the observation. Another preservice
teacher wrote a journal entry titled Small Groups Really Work. During the weeks of
observation, the preservice teacher found group work to be an effective instructional
strategy.
Every day during small groups I noticed that the noise level decreased, the
students’ focus level increased and I felt a strong connection with each
student. For example, last Tuesday the students were working on their
sentences in their journals and I was able to help each student with grammar,
punctuation, spelling or capitalization…. I also noticed that the small group
work motivated students to share their sentences within the small group and
amongst the students in the larger group…. I noticed that within each small
group the students became more comfortable helping each other and
exhibited exceptional listening skills in order to grasp the concept of each
new small group activity. I believe that small groups are a positive and
effective method when trying to impose a difficult skill upon a child and it
helps each student to become confident in their ability to communicate with
the instructor and their peers. (Student #344)

It appears from this journal entry that the preservice teacher’s experience in
the field experience classroom provided her with a positive opinion of group work
strategy. As Clift and Brady (2005) note, it is important to understand the impact of
the experience in terms of how the preservice teachers are rethinking their
assumptions about teaching and learning. In the journal entry above, the preservice
teacher concludes with a statement about believing that small groups can be an
effective strategy.
The journal entries related to coursework reflect the impact that the texts,
readings and instructors have in shaping the thinking of the teacher candidates in
their foundational teacher education coursework. The categories that reflected how
prospective teachers were thinking about learning and teaching demonstrated that

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during the foundational courses, along with the early field experience component,
preservice teachers had begun integrating course content into their field experiences.
There appears in this study to be an early connection to the concepts of pedagogy
addressed in the foundational courses.
The following section will address the content of the journals that pertains to
how preservice teachers make connections to learning to teach that require a broader
context for student learning.

Program Influences
Along with the content categories of teaching and learning, the weekly
journals contained content that focused on experiences gained from being in the
teacher education program. These program influences included the sub-categories of
Preservice Teacher to Teacher, Cultural, Socio-economic and Elements of Field
Experience. The sub-categories reflect how the foundational courses, in conjunction
with the field experience, shape the thinking of the teacher candidates. The journals
presented insight into the prior beliefs and knowledge of the teacher candidates.
Figure 8 indicates the frequency of responses in the sub-categories included in the
weekly journals.

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Figure 8. Frequency: Program Influences

The sub-categories for Elements of Field Experience and Preservice Teacher
to Teacher were critical elements of the teacher education program as cited by the
preservice teachers. Elements of Field Experience examined themes concerning
what preservice teachers gleaned from their early field experience. Overall, this sub-
category accounted for 4% of the total journal responses. The sub-category
Preservice Teacher to Teacher, which accounted for 7% of the total journal
responses, considered aspects of how the prospective teachers were beginning to
form attitudes and perspectives towards becoming teachers. The journals of ten
preservice teachers included some references to aspects of field experience. Two
teacher candidates included substantially more references in the field experience and
preservice categories.

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The themes that emerged from the category Preservice Teacher to Teacher
centered on the teacher candidates writing about what they hoped to accomplish by
becoming teachers. This category had relatively few responses. Only 7% of the
journal responses were coded for this category. The preservice teachers shared
idealistic views about teaching as “producing the future of socially responsible
citizens of tomorrow” (Student # 355). Other preservice teachers shared why they
had decided to become teachers. The journals included discussions on the preservice
teachers’ past influential educational experiences that shaped their beliefs about
teaching and education. The teacher education literature reveals that teacher
candidates bring their own beliefs, attitudes and perceptions with them when they
enter a teacher education program (Britzman, 2003; Hollingsworth, 1989; Lortie,
2002). An example of how past experiences shape beliefs is seen in the following
journal entry. The preservice teacher explains that she would like to become a third
grade teacher because she believes third grade is a pivotal year for developing
academic and social skills.
I am writing this on the evening before I am to start my school observation
assignment at Wildwood Elementary School. I am slated to observe Mr.
Fay’s 3rd grade Class…I am rather excited to begin visiting this class
because I hope to teach 3rd grade myself….The 3rd grade is a key year for
developing social and academic skills. It is during this year that the student
learns writing composition. (Student # 350)

The belief that third grade is the year for developing social and academic
skills is based on the preservice teacher’s own experience in third grade. Based on
her past experiences, this preservice teacher offers a strategy for developing

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academic skills. She has constructed her identity as teaching third grade, based on
previous experiences. The following excerpt reveals the influence of the teacher’s
personal experience on her identity as a teacher.
A good way to develop social skills along with these newly acquired
academic skills would be to divide the class into small groups and have them
write group compositions. I know that when I was in the 3rd grade, my
teacher divided my class into small groups and had us each compose a
composition on a different planet in our solar system…. For me, the 3rd
grade was instrumental in shaping my character. (Student #350)

At the end of the journal entry the preservice teacher describes the impact
that her third grade teacher had in building self-confidence. The third grade teacher
took extra time to help her catch up academically. This preservice teacher’s prior
knowledge of teaching, combined with the introductory field experience, appears to
have led to a romanticized perspective of teaching. This journal provides an
example of how the “apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, 2002) often contributes
to the formation of teacher identity. The literature on teacher change (Hammerness
et al., 2005) has documented that preservice teachers tend to focus their beliefs about
teaching on “affective qualities of teachers (for example, caring), teaching styles and
individual children, with little appreciation of the role of social contexts, subject
matter or pedagogical knowledge” (p. 368). Focusing primarily on the affective
qualities of teaching may lead to an underdeveloped understanding of the role of
content and context in teaching. This experience, as shared in the journal entry, was
an instrumental factor in the preservice teacher’s thinking and decision making

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process as a future teacher, and her development of teacher identity. The journal
ends with the statement:
I know it sounds idealistic to think that as a teacher I will have the time and
ability to help all my students the same way. But I want to enter into the
teaching profession with the knowledge that even a small amount of time,
like a recess break, can make a significant impact on a student, one that
results in renewing their enthusiasm for learning. This is the most important
goal I have as a future teacher. (Student #350)

Included in the content of the journals were discussions about the day to day
realities of the teaching profession, which reveal attitudes about its culture. Writing
about low teacher salaries, one preservice teacher describes that teachers are
underpaid for the work that they do in the classroom. The content of this journal
entry reveals the beliefs that teachers are underappreciated, and have low salaries —
discouraging highly-qualified candidates. The journal entry referred to national data
on current salaries.
Over the past few months I have not only begun to extremely appreciate
teachers, but I have also realized that teachers go above and beyond the work
of what they’re paid for… Teachers are obviously teachers because they
love what they do, not because they can easily support their families. Due to
the low salaries, less people are motivated to become teachers… As a future
teacher I am disappointed that the salaries have not increased much in the
past 10-20 years…. Such low salaries are discouraging great applicants from
entering into the teaching profession… I feel that increasing the salary
would not only attract more qualified teachers but it would acknowledge
teaching as a respected profession that definitely deserves a higher pay.
(Student #384)

This journal entry offers insight into the formation of attitudes that preservice
teachers develop early in their teacher education programs. Teacher compensation
can usually become a rallying point regarding teachers as professionals. The excerpt

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appears to denote an undeveloped sense of teacher identity. These attitudes
influence development of professional identity. The preservice teacher suggested a
teacher belief and an assumption that highly qualified people do not enter the
teaching profession.
Within their journal entries, the preservice teachers made some critical
statements about the classroom teachers they were observing. They commented that
the classroom teachers did not engage the students, that the classroom environment
was not conducive to learning, and that the lessons the teachers taught failed to teach
the students anything. The importance of the critical stance taken by the preservice
teachers is that it reflects a questioning of the teaching practices of those they
observed. While the preservice teachers did not appear to be directly answering the
question “What makes a good teacher?”, there is an acknowledgement of conditions
that may not be conducive to student learning.
I was in shock the moment I walked into Mr. X’s classroom. I felt as though
I had just entered a prison cell. The classroom seemed blank. Although Mr.
X’s methodologies were very rigid, his classroom was neat, the students were
respectful and each lesson plan for the day was met. However, unfortunately
I was allowed to look at his grade book, a little less than half of the class was
failing. Perhaps a contributing factor to those students who are failing might
result from the invisible curriculum. I noticed a lot of things that were not
being taught, explored and presented in Mr. X’s lesson plans and
methodologies.

At this point in the reflection, the preservice teacher has begun to make
assumptions about why the students are failing. He cites the lesson plans and
methodologies. As the reflection continues, the preservice teacher does not identify
any specific methodologies observed in the classroom, but, rather, continues to

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address the uninteresting classroom environment as a cause of the poor student
learning.
First, the environment was not interesting. When students are not interested
and motivated by their classroom appearance it might affect their interest in
the class, thus affecting their participation. The classroom lacked social
interaction. Students were not only deterred from speaking without
permission but they were unable to communicate with their peers.
(Student #344)

The content of this journal entry indicates that the preservice teacher is
beginning to understand the complex elements of instruction that are necessary for
student learning and engagement. The preservice teacher identifies the classroom
environment, social interaction and the curriculum as components not present in the
observation. The preservice teacher may not yet be able to attach theoretical
underpinnings to the insights presented in the journal, however the thinking about the
problem is clearly present. The preservice teacher has found some aspect of the
observation uncomfortable. Perhaps by connecting this reflection to the preservice
teacher’s own learning experiences, they would be more prepared to make sense of
what is being learned in the teacher preparation program and what is being observed
in the early field experience. This entry provides an opportunity for the teacher
educator to intervene and discuss the issue with the candidate, connecting course to
practice. Bransford et al. (2005) write that prospective teachers should reflect on
their own learning in order to make their assumptions about teaching and learning
explicit. Such an exercise would help the prospective teachers under study to make
their personal theories about teaching and learning clear and less ambiguous.

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The coding for the sub-category of Cultural looked for references related to
how the teacher candidates viewed culture in relation to education. Five percent of
the coded references in the journals written in the foundation courses were in this
sub-category. The primary focus of the responses was the notion of diversity in the
classroom. The preservice teachers expressed the view that “diversity within the
classroom was extremely important” (Student #384). One preservice teacher stated
that “students can learn a lot from each other especially with diversity in the
classroom” (Student #343). The preservice teachers discussed diversity as important
in the classroom, however none of the journal entries included discussions of how
they felt about diversity, or included a discussion of their beliefs and assumptions
about teaching diverse students. The preservice teachers shared their fears about
possible tensions in their classrooms, and acknowledged that the tensions stemmed
from the diverse population of students. In a journal entry that was written about the
importance of community in the classroom, this preservice teacher grapples with an
urban classroom environment:
It was a summer school course (high school geometry), there were varying
ages and people who just wouldn’t in any other situation be “caught dead
around each other.” This was the case for two students, which I will call
students A and B, who, from what I would decipher, seemed to be, or claim
that they were, from opposing gangs… Though both smiling as they half-
jokingly spewed out their repertoire of disses, I really could feel the tension
in the room. Had the teacher had more command of his classroom, possibly
by using one of Lemlech’s teaching hints such as that of using group work to
diminish prejudice, or helping the students define the problem, including the
cause, then students A and B would see that they were in the same boat and
stop, at least in the classroom, their road towards violence…

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In this passage, the preservice teacher describes an event in the classroom,
and attempts to suggest a solution from one of the “teaching hints” from the course
text. The preservice teacher is making assumptions about the students and the
teacher. This excerpt offers some insight into the beliefs of the preservice teacher
regarding classroom management and stereotypes.
I feel that as a teacher, the most important job one has, and one of the jobs
that we most fear, is that of the mediator. As teachers in urban areas, we
must be aware always of the fact that not everyone in our classrooms will get
along with each other. This is just a fact of coming from such a diverse area
of living as California, especially Los Angeles, California… It is in these
situations that teachers’ skills are tested the most. This is why I feel that
classroom management is so important, especially in urban areas where
diversity in the classroom is a given. As teachers we must be prepared for
the unexpected when it comes to diversity and conflict in the classroom…
(Student #355)

The passage above includes beliefs and perceptions that are real to the
preservice teacher with respect to urban schools. The preservice teacher sees an
issue in the classroom and seeks a solution using the text (Lemlech, 2006). The
content of the passage denotes a sense of fear about teaching in the urban setting and
fear connected to working with diverse learners. The preservice teacher states that
classroom management is an important component to teaching in urban schools. In
learning to teach diverse learners, Banks et al. (2005) discuss the importance for
teacher educators in helping prospective teachers learn about themselves:
Activities and experiences that place students face to face with their entering
beliefs and assumptions both about themselves and others, and about
learning, schooling, intelligence, are essential as novice teachers prepare to
teach students who are often different from themselves in schools that are
also different from the ones they attended, in a society that is changing with
rapid intensity every day. (p. 266)

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The preservice teacher cited above has made some assumptions about
teaching in urban schools, and those assumptions need to be made explicit. As
Banks et al. (2005) posit, simply providing more urban and diverse experience is not
a sufficient solution for addressing issues of diversity for teacher candidates.
Prospective teachers need to be supported in addressing their fears, beliefs and
assumptions in order to develop a “commitment to teach all children to high
standards” (p.274). Teacher educators should include guided reflections, in
conjunction with field experiences, to help teacher candidates explore their own
beliefs, attitudes and assumptions about culturally diverse learners.
The same concerns and fears emerged from the coding for Socio-economic
influences. The Socio-economic category was based on themes that emerged
regarding socio-economic topics in education. The preservice teachers wrote some
provocative journal entries about socio-economic issues they were thinking about in
terms of K-12 schools and instruction. Table 3 illustrates that the Socio-economic
sub-category comprised a total of only 4% of the responses. Ten preservice teachers
included topics related to socio-economics in education in their journals.
The journal entries offer a foundation for examining how teacher candidates
view socio-economic issues. The teacher candidates wrote about violence in
schools, children who come from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds,
classroom management in urban schools, and limited technology and other resources
in urban schools. The journal entries by the teacher candidates denote some
apprehensions and concerns related to teaching in urban settings. The review of the

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research on preparing teachers for diverse populations yielded similar results. In
their research on teaching diverse populations, Hollins and Guzman (2005) found
that early field experiences in urban settings did not necessarily elicit real change in
attitudes or classroom practices.
In a journal entry titled Racial Violence in Los Angeles Schools, one
preservice teacher wrote about how teachers and schools might begin a discussion
with students and parents about biases, stereotypes and associated “hate crimes.”
I am very concerned with the re-surfacing of racial violence in Los Angeles
and how it affects the schools. I believe that a crucial element in dealing with
gang violence and hate crimes is education. Children need in-depth, hands-
on multicultural education from the very beginning… I also think that it is
important to bring the parents together to discuss and work through
stereotypes, biases and issues that bring forth such violence. (Student #342)

This preservice teacher revealed a set of personal beliefs about violence in
schools. The journal is tainted with implicit beliefs that school violence is in part
attributed to parents and attitudes learned in the home. These implicit beliefs, left
unpacked, could impact the preservice teacher’s instructional practice, by causing
them to view students’ learning difficulties as a function of family and community
deficits.
No, the schools shouldn’t have to take care of all social problems, but I think
it is a crucial starting place… If the teachers and administrators of
elementary schools can better understand the cultural biases that are coming
from home, they will better be able to handle issues that surface at school in a
productive manner. Young children imitate what they see at home, older
children imbed these values as their own, internalize morality, individually
define right and wrong. (Student #342)

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In this entry, the preservice teacher makes assumptions about the community
context in which the school is situated. This preservice teacher would have benefited
from a guided reflection, to encourage them to make their assumptions explicit. The
following journal entry excerpt presents another comment about urban schools, in
which the students are viewed as coming from a “harsh environment.”
I observed a third grade summer school session…. I will call this male
student, with behavioral problems, student X…. The students were reading a
non-fiction story about thunder and lightning…Student X constantly blurted
out comical remarks like “Would you get electrocuted if you were naked in
the shower?” I spoke with the teacher about this student’s vocabulary and
knowledge of mature subjects. She told me that this kind of knowledge is
very prevalent and not surprising to her at this school. I came to realize that
my exposure to sexual or vulgar student knowledge will be prevalent at many
urban schools because these children are exposed to harsh and uncensored
environments… My question is how would an urban teacher handle these
types of situations and students if it is an extreme problem with a significant
amount of students? (Student #344)

This journal entry demonstrates that the preservice teacher was perplexed by
the behavior of one student in the field experience classroom. The classroom
teacher’s response reflected an opinion and belief about the home environment of her
students as being defective. It appears from this journal entry that the preservice
teacher is left with the assumption that having a student exhibit inappropriate
behavior is primarily an urban classroom issue. The prevailing belief is developed
that urban classrooms need a different kind of classroom management system. The
underlying belief or notion that being a teacher in an urban school requires extra
toughness is evident in other journal entries. These assumptions may lead
developing teachers to focus on external loci of control in classroom management,

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and preclude the use of culturally-relevant instruction. The perception of teaching in
urban schools evident in the early field experience journals is that teachers need to be
tough classroom managers.
I feel that as a teacher, the most important job one has, and one of the jobs
that we most fear, is that of the mediator. As teachers in urban areas, we
must be aware always of the fact that not everyone in our classrooms will get
along with each other. This is just a fact of coming from such a diverse area
of living as California, especially Los Angeles, California. (Student #355)

The weekly journals reflect a sense of fear and apprehension about teaching
in urban schools. As Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), and Pang and Sablan (1998),
reveal, these fears and attitudes should be approached and unpacked early in the
teacher education program. In their review of research on field experiences to
improve the preparation of teachers for diverse populations, Hollins and Guzman
(2005) found that “candidates in urban school placements had many concerns about
understanding and motivating their students, providing meaningful instruction and
developing positive relationships with students and mentors” (p. 502).
Preservice teachers in this study also included content in their journals that
addressed areas of inequity in the schools. A teacher candidate wrote about the
inequity of a traditional approach to parental involvement: “Socio-economic and
cultural/linguistic differences make traditional methods of parental involvement
unrealistic and often impractical in the context of their students’ needs and interests”
(Student # 375). Citing issues in equity, another preservice teacher wrote about the
differences in access to technology and computers between a low-SES and a high-
SES school. This preservice teacher noted that the high-SES school had an

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abundance of technology that was provided by the school’s foundation. The
following journal excerpt demonstrates an awareness of the inequity in public
schools, although the teacher candidate did not link the disparity in technology to a
larger, socio-political context.
The high school I observed at was in a low SES. It’s the largest high school
in LAUSD and so they were using their funds to build new rooms and to
renovate. Not to fix or replace the old, broken computers in the rooms or to
hook them up to the Internet. There was a computer lab, but it wasn’t for all
the students to use…. However, the elementary school I observed at was in a
high SES, so the school foundation provided 3-5 computers for each
classroom and built a computer lab with 45 computers in it. The lab also had
a projector so the computer teacher, who is also paid by the foundation, could
show everyone what to do, while the students were sitting in front of their
own computer. (Student #395)

The preservice teacher in this excerpt acknowledges the differences between
high- and low-SES schools, but does not expand on the disparity in terms of student
learning and school environments. Nor does the preservice teacher reflect on other
instances where the disparity between funding and resources is prevelant. In the
development of the teacher in being able to provide equal educational opportunities
for all students, they need to be aware of the structural differences that determine the
allocation of educational funding and opportunities (Banks et al., 2005).
One journal entry approached the subject of examining stereotypes and biases
as developing teachers. The teacher candidate wrote about the importance of self-
reflection in recognizing one’s own biases in order to provide an equitable and
democratic classroom for all students. Self-reflection and learning about oneself
have been identified (Banks et al., 2005) as important activities for teachers

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preparing to teach students who are different from themselves. According to
transformative learning theory (Cranton, 2006), “learning occurs when an individual
encounters an alternative perspective and prior habits of mind are called into
question.”
I think as future teachers, we need to remember and keep in mind that we
also have biases and stereotype tendencies that are embedded in us that
sometimes we may not overtly recognize. I think a key to ensuring that
interactions with students are equitable is to recognize one’s own biases and
to make adjustments. Once we rid our own tendencies, we can begin to help
our students by providing a multicultural atmosphere in our classroom and
school that models democracy in which all students are treated equitably and
fairly. Our goal should be to help students learn to respect differences and to
interact within and across ethnic and cultural groups. (Student #391)

In this entry, the preservice teacher has developed a sense of awareness that
cultural differences exist among students. The preservice teacher appears to be ready
to approach a discussion in beliefs, perceptions and prior experiences in a critically
reflective manner. The opportunity is ripe for the teacher educator to engage in a
discussion related to implicit biases and stereotypes, equity in schools and culturally
relevant instruction. The journal entries for the Socio-economic sub-category reflect
some areas of thinking by the teacher candidates related to urban classrooms and
urban school environments. The early field experience in this study appeared to
offer the prospective teachers the opportunity to observe the practice of teaching
with limited participation. The analysis of what the preservice teachers wrote in
terms of the practice they observed offers further insight into how practice is shaped
for prospective teachers. The content of the journals provides a lens onto how
prospective teachers develop their own instructional perspectives about teaching.

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There is nothing more important than assuring that the students are learning
what the teacher is teaching, so I know now how essential it is for me, as a
teacher, to develop a lesson plan that will be tailored to each student, yet
applicable and useful to the whole class… Although I was only in the
classroom for one week, I learned numerous teaching techniques and
methods that will help me to become a better teacher in the future.
(Student #383)

Preservice teachers reflected on concerns about issues they may be faced with
when they become teachers. These concerns were discussed in the context of their
classroom observation. Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) assert that teacher
candidates’ concerns and fears emerge from practical experiences. In the journal
entry below, the preservice teacher shares concern about gaining the respect of the
students. The content of this journal exposes preconceptions about classroom
management and the preservice teacher’s feelings of self-efficacy.
The chapter (in Lemlech) also talked about keeping track of students’
misbehavior and that one shouldn’t just call the students’ home to report bad
news, but to report good news as well. I have to admit that this is the only
factor about teaching that makes me nervous. How am I going to gain the
respect of all my students and have them respect me to the point that I won’t
have many disciplinary problems? Are the parents going to respect me,
especially since I look so young? My mother had this problem when she first
started teaching. (Student #356)

The preservice teacher in the above journal entry began to write about
practical concerns that may become real during student teaching. According to
Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), teacher educators should begin to address these
concerns early in the teacher candidate’s field experience in order to resolve
concerns and fears before the student teaching experience. According to
Hammerness et al. (2005), these unexamined preconceptions should be made explicit

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and explored. Preservice teachers are often more prepared to make sense of what
they are learning in their teacher preparation program when they have had the
opportunity explore and reflect on their own educational experiences and connect
them to their field experiences. Unfortunately, the exploration of personal learning
experiences is not evident in the content of the early field experience journals in this
study.
Another preservice teacher expressed concerns about the struggle to make
connections to the theories and academics learned in the coursework, during the
observations. Often, as Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) contend, the academic
forming of theoretical perspectives may be too far removed and abstract from the
practical situations of the classroom.
Throughout the past few weeks, I have been struggling to connect the
literature we have read and the information discussed in class to the actual
classroom. While my observations have helped a little bit in this respect, it is
still a challenging task. When I read or learn about educational theories,
instructional methodologies, curriculum, etc., I often treat them as academic
matters rather then seeing their applicability to the classroom and their effect
on the students. I am experiencing a marked disconnect and it is very
frustrating because I have always vowed to keep the students first and to see
things from the students’ perspective. (Student #375)

This excerpt is significant, as the prospective teacher appears to be trying to
decide what knowledge will be most necessary to learn. The student documents her
struggle with connecting course content to field experience. McIntyre (1993)
contends that often the issue for prospective teachers is figuring out what theoretical
knowledge to learn from the vast amount of educational content presented in teacher
education programs.

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Some of the themes that the preservice teachers chose to discuss in their
journals could be used as springboards to meaningful discussion related to diversity
and urban settings. This could occur in associated coursework. There appear to be
tacit assumptions and beliefs that the preservice teachers in this study have brought
to their field experience, which need to be explored and made explicit. Salisbury-
Glennon and Stevens (1999) suggest that a “personal history-base serves as an
invaluable framework into which new knowledge about teaching and learning can be
integrated” (p. 741). The content of the early field experience journals revealed
assumptions and personal beliefs about becoming a teacher, diversity and teaching in
urban schools. The entries speak to the need for course instructors to discuss journal
contents in courses so that students can process their reflections in the context of
course topics.

Journal Content in Student Teaching
Weekly journals and student teaching lesson reflections were written during
the two semesters of student teaching. The weekly journals were open-ended and
unprompted. The student teachers were free to choose any topic to write about, and
submitted their journals electronically via eFolio. The university student teaching
supervisors read and responded to the journals. (It should be noted that the
supervisors’ responses are not part of this study.) A sample of the topics the student
teachers wrote on is provided in Table 6.

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Table 6: Comparison of Two Sets of Reflection Topics Written During Student
Teaching
Student # 350 Student #395
• Classroom management • Classroom management
expectations
• Differentiation in the
classroom
• Seeing students in a
different light
• Ability groups • Unmotivated students
• Standardized testing • Nature
• Classroom management • Substitutes
• Problem solving • Rainy days
• Group investigation • Field trips
• Cultural diversity • A child's home life
• Hands-on activities • All-day teaching
• Anecdotal records and other
methods of recording
information
• Observing a teacher from
the neighborhood school
• Open house • "Visitors"
• My full days of teaching • Magnet program
• My last week • Different schools
• The first week: observations
and impressions
• Classroom management
• English language development • Repeating grades
• Teaching mathematics • Assemblies
• Science in the classroom • My classroom
management
• Collaborative learning groups • End of the year
• Students with special needs
• What I learned

The written discussions in the student teaching experiences were varied and
unprompted. Classroom management appeared often as a journal topic. The list of

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topics shown in Table 6 suggests that the student teachers were writing about a broad
range of subjects and concerns. The student teaching lesson reflections were written
at the end of a lesson and submitted electronically. As with the weekly journals, the
lesson plan reflections also had no specific prompts and were primarily associated
with lesson self-evaluation.
Figure 9 illustrates the 12 categories and themes that emerged from the
coding of the weekly journals. The coding process for the journals and reflections
written during the student teaching practicum used the same schema as the coding
process for the weekly journals written during the foundational coursework and
associated introductory field work.

Figure 9. Journals in Student Teaching

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Figure 10 illustrates the category frequencies in the coding of the student
teaching lesson reflections. The category Reflection on Student Learning had a total
of 33% of the responses. The high percentage of responses for this sub-category
may be attributed to the coding process, which included the keywords ‘student’ and
‘learning.’ Those two words were used abundantly in the journals. The content of
the entries for the Reflection on Student Learning sub-category will be discussed in
the next section of analysis.

Figure 10. Lesson Plan Reflections

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Elements of Student Teaching accounted for 24% of the total responses. Here
again, the high rate of response is due in part to the coding process, which included
the keywords ‘student’ and ‘teaching’ (see Appendix C).
The findings for the content analysis of the weekly journals and the student
teaching lesson reflections are grouped by two primary topics: Teaching and
Learning and Program Influences. Teaching and Learning is concerned with
categories related to methods coursework, as well as how methods course content
was integrated into student teaching. Program Influences includes categories that
reflect experiences gained from being in the teacher education program.

Teaching and Learning
That student teachers think about and include knowledge learned in their
teacher education coursework is clear from some of their reflections. They included
aspects of teaching including Reflection on Student Learning, Types of Instructional
Methods, Implications of Coursework, Teaching English Learners and Discussion of
Theory, in their journals and lesson reflections. These categories include content that
linked methods, theories and coursework, to practice. Overall, the content of the
journals and reflections written during the student teaching practicum discussed
aspects of learning and teaching, but failed to include content concerning the
effectiveness of practice or student learning outcomes. Elements of teaching and
learning that related to teaching English learners and theoretical aspects of pedagogy

139
were underrepresented. Teaching English Learners represented only 2% of the total
responses, and Discussion of Theory represented a mere 1% of the responses.
Student Learning: The keywords ‘engagement,’ ‘motivation,’ ‘assessment,’
‘outcome,’ and ‘student learning,’ were used in the category of Reflection on Student
Learning. Student teacher reflections centered primarily on engagement and
motivation. The weekly journals included aspects of motivation and engagement, as
well as some discussion of assessment. Motivation and engagement appeared to be
interpreted as the level of excitement or participation of the students in the
classroom. The reflections generally describe student motivation in terms of whether
the students demonstrated interest and attentiveness in the learning task (Lemlech,
2006). Discussions related to motivation and engagement centered on a specific step
in the required lesson plan format. The student teachers did not appear to be
discussing motivation in terms of goal-directed behavior (Schunk, 1991).
The following lesson plan reflection entry is indicative of how the student
teachers described their lessons in terms of student learning.
This lesson went really well. I was happy with the way the motivation went,
even though I took more than probably 35 minutes just on the motivation and
demonstration. The kids enjoyed thinking about the picture and I'm glad I
had them talk with their neighbor because it got the students excited.
(Student #342)

In the analysis for student learning, the pattern was similar to that of learning
outcome. The student teachers’ reflections provide descriptions of what was taught.
Student learning is assumed, and lesson outcomes are speculative. The student
teachers often wrote “I think the lesson went well” (Student #356). The student

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teachers appear to understand student engagement and motivation as lesson
components.
I really enjoyed teaching this lesson. The students were engaged throughout
the lesson and had fun identifying homographs. They were excited to get to
work with a partner during the guided practice, and were eager to share the
sentences that they and their partner came up with. The students’
independent project assignment turned out great. I think they liked getting to
choose their own homographs, write sentences, and draw pictures for it.
(Student #343)

Engagement and motivation were often stated as reasons why a lesson went
well. This appears to be one form of affirmation for the student teachers.
Engagement is critical in teaching, although in the lesson reflections engagement is
often described in terms of performance outcomes. The level of student engagement
has a direct effect on the student teachers’ sense of efficacy. They use the students’
cues of participation to assess their ability to teach. This seems to be the sentiment
of the student teaching reflection entry shown below.
I felt really good about this lesson because the students were so engaged the
entire time! They all wanted to participate and come to the front and look up
the words in the dictionary and report back to the class. Even the quieter
students had their hands raised high in the air and wanted to share their new
word knowledge with the entire class!! I find that I get more volunteers (and
not just the loud and outgoing students) when I ask for them to volunteer in
front of the room as opposed to volunteer from their specific desks.
(Student #360)

In the excerpts cited above, the student teachers make a correlation between
the success of their teaching, and the level of student engagement: if the students
were engaged and eager to participate, then the lesson must have been successful, per
that student teacher. It is clear that the student teachers understand that in planning

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and teaching a lesson, multiple strategies of engagement can be effective. They do
not, however, link engagement to student learning. The discussions of motivation in
the student teaching reflections refer more to an extrinsic focus than to how
motivation affects students’ learning from their perception of ability, their level of
effort, and goal orientation. The deeper, theoretical understanding of motivation as a
cognitive process related to goal attainment is not expressed in the journals or lesson
reflections. In the following lesson plan reflection, the student teacher refers to
motivation as a step in the lesson plan.
This lesson began extremely well. The students loved the ‘Student Scramble’
game and were all engaged throughout the motivation and into the
demonstration. They all seemed to grasp the concept fairly quickly, but
again, this was a review for them, so that was expected. Where we went
wrong was when we asked the students to make up a word problem for
someone else to use to make a multiplication equation. This did not work
well with the majority of the students because we never explained or modeled
how to write a word problem. [My student teaching partner] and I both
overlooked and assumed their abilities to come up with a problem on their
own. Some kids were writing stories that had nothing to do with math, others
wrote addition problems. A few students definitely were capable, and did a
great job, but for the most part, the end of our lesson was more educational
for us as teachers than for the students. (Student #383)

In the above excerpt, the student teacher comes to an awareness that the
lesson benefited the educator, but not the students.
Engagement and motivation are themes in the lesson plan reflections. They
are not connected to student learning. Less evident were journals and reflections that
addressed assessments and the monitoring of student learning. The lesson reflections
and journals did not include discussions of how lesson objectives were measured, or
how lessons were planned in terms of students’ assessed needs.

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Types of Instructional Methods and Implications of Coursework: The journals
contained many references to Types of Instructional Methods and Implications of
Coursework. These categories are interrelated, since both are concerned with
elements of teaching learned in the teacher education program. The sub-category for
types of instructional methods was coded using keywords that emerged from the
preliminary review of the journals and reflections: ‘advanced organizer,’ ‘graphic
organizer,’ ‘group work,’ ‘direct instruction,’ ‘guided instruction,’ ‘puzzlement,’
‘concept attainment,’ ‘jigsaw,’ ‘unit of study,’ ‘culturally relevant,’ and ‘inquiry.’
These concepts are generally taught in the methods course. Figure 11 illustrates the
frequency of responses for both the weekly journals and the lesson plan reflections
for types of instructional methods and implications of coursework.

Figure 11. Frequency: Types of Instructional Methods and Implications of
Coursework

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Teacher preparation coursework was rarely referenced in either the weekly
journals or the lesson plan reflections. Types of Instructional Methods were
referenced by all but two student teachers.
During the student teaching practicum the student teachers wrote extensively
about models of teaching (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2004). Models of teaching are
tools used in education that seek to teach students to become competent learners by
providing them with learning skills. The MAT teacher education program under
study incorporates models of teaching in writing lesson plans. Student teachers are
required to demonstrate lessons that are written and executed using the ‘models.’
Journals and lesson plan reflections written during the student teaching practicum
included statements about success and struggles with using a specific model.
One example of a struggle with models of teaching was written in a weekly
journal. In the excerpt below, the student teacher appears to be intimidated by
writing complicated lesson plans that incorporate icons and graphic organizers,
which were introduced during a methods course.
Almost the entire day in Ms. G’s class was dedicated to language arts… One
of the most intimidating things about teaching in her class was incorporating
the depth and complexity icons the methods instructor created. The Master
Teacher was always presenting such complicated lesson plans. They always
managed to include a big idea, or some great graphic organizer.
(Student #383)

Student teachers often referred to finding the right model of instruction to fit
the lesson. It was difficult to discern whether their instructional choices were linked
to theory or to assessments of student need. These reflections and journals indicate

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that the student teachers seem to be absorbed in learning and demonstrating
performance with the models. In the following excerpt, the student teacher writes
about success in using the group investigation model.
This was the first group investigation that I did which I felt really fit the
model. It matched a lot of standards, not only history, but also in Language
Arts as well. The kids were excited by the idea because we hadn't done that
many group investigations with them before, and the concept attainment I did
as an introduction/warm-up to the group investigation got them thinking
about national monuments and memorials.
(Student #351)

The journals and reflections included statements made by the student teachers
that they were surprised that a model of teaching was successful. For the student
teachers, success appears to be measured by how they felt about delivering the
lesson, rather than what the students learned. In the following lesson reflection, the
student teacher reflects on a lesson using the model of the advanced organizer.
The students were engaged throughout the lesson, and were very interested in
learning about frogs and toads. They seemed to grasp the concept of the
Advanced Organizer that I presented. When I asked for students to share a
characteristic, practically every student had their hand up. I was actually
surprised by some of the characteristics that students remembered. Some of
them even used their prior knowledge of frogs and toads (from books they
read) and shared it with the class. Overall, I think the objective of my lesson
was met. (Student #343)

This student teacher does not indicate how she knows that the students
grasped the concept, and she does not discuss how she chose which model to use.
Success with the teaching model was measured by the student teacher’s comfort
level. The student teachers rarely include a statement about how success was
measured in terms of student outcomes. The journals and lesson reflections do,

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however, include rationales as to why the student teachers chose a specific model in
lesson planning, and how this linked to student need.
While some student teachers chose specific models of teaching based on
content to be learned, or on their own comfort level, it appears that other student
teachers chose to use a specific model of teaching because of how students react to
it. In the following entry, the student teacher describes choosing the model of
concept attainment because the students in the classroom seem to like the format. It
is unclear, though, whether it is reading dialog with intonation that the students find
engaging, or the model of teaching.
Concept attainment is one of my favorite models of teaching because the
students think they are playing a game, and they approach the lesson in a
different way. This lesson in particular was good for them because the
students LOVE reading dialogue with intonation and making voices for those
who are speaking. So during this lesson they had the opportunity to read a lot
of dialogue, and we even had a mini lesson reminder on why we read
dialogue and how. (Student #383)

Reflections with respect to types of instructional methods primarily
referenced models of teaching. Student teachers wrote about their struggles and
trials using the models. This makes sense, considering that using models is a new
skill to be learned. Moreover, the student teachers are evaluated and graded on their
performance using the models of teaching. This may explain why the student
teachers measure the success of their lessons on their performance, and not
necessarily based on student learning.

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Alongside models of teaching, the reflections and journals included
statements about coursework. These references were less frequent than those about
instructional methods. As Figure 13 illustrates, the majority of the references to
coursework were written in the weekly journals. There were only four references to
coursework in the student teaching reflections. References on coursework in the
journals centered on using specific strategies that the methods course instructors had
provided, as well as references to course readings. Journals and reflection content
consisted of strategies learned in the math and science methods courses. No other
methods courses were mentioned in the weekly journals and lesson plan reflections.
Most of the journal entries and lesson plan reflections discussed specific, hands-on,
practical strategies. In the following entry, from a lesson plan reflection, the student
teacher realizes that the instructor’s suggested use of geometric tiles was probably a
good technique.
If I were to redo the activity I would have used the polygon tiles in a different
manner – namely to have an outline of a particular shape done ahead of time
and ask them to fill in the outline and find the area and perimeter that way, as
per the activities that Mr. A in our math methods class had shown us. This
would have been more productive and suited for their motor skills.
(Student #351)

The student teacher has realized that there was a problem with the execution
of the lesson, and searches for practical solutions. The student teacher forgoes
critical thinking for problem-solving the issue with the tiles. Genor (2005) labels
this kind of reflection unproblematized reflection; the student teacher is more

147
focused on practical strategies to solve the problem, than learning about the needs of
the students.
In order to examine the impact of the methods courses in the student teaching
practicum, I cross-referenced the student teachers’ weekly journals with their lesson
plan reflections. If a student teacher referenced coursework in the weekly journal, I
coded for those references in the student teaching reflections. In the journal entries
below, the student teacher discusses the importance of learning in the math methods
course how important it is to make real world connections in math instruction. The
impact of the methods course is evident in this student teacher’s weekly journal. The
student teacher appears to want to try the ‘making connections’ approach to teaching
math.
In my math methods class, we read about how to help students develop
operation sense, which is a highly integrated understanding of the four
operations and the many different yet related meanings these operations take
on in real contexts. I think it is important to connect math to the real world
so that students can see the purpose and usage of math in settings outside of
the classroom…. During my student teaching math lessons, I always make a
point to connect the math skill/concept I am teaching the students to
something relevant to them in the real world. Another important concept I
learned when teaching addition and subtraction, it is necessary to show
students how the two operations are connected.
(Student # 343)

However, real-world connections to teaching math were not evident in any of the
lesson plan reflections submitted by the student teacher. In the lesson plan reflection
below, the student teacher acknowledges that the students need support with
concepts, but does not refer back to strategies from the methods courses.

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I think this was a good topic to introduce the students to. They really enjoyed
the motivation and demonstration portion of the lesson. The students will
need more practice with multiple-step problems though because many of
them understood it when we solved a problem as a class, but had difficulties
doing it on their own. They would use the wrong operation first or mix up
the numbers they were supposed to use in each step.
(Student #343)

The student teachers often linked student enjoyment with lesson success. The
success or effectiveness of a lesson is rarely measured in terms of student learning,
or linked to assessment of the lesson objective.
Several teacher candidates referenced how the methods coursework helped to
inform their teaching practice. In the following weekly student teaching journal, the
student teacher writes about making the connection between university teacher
education coursework and attending a school-based teacher workshop. The
preservice teacher writes about seeing a link between preservice and in-service
learning.
On Friday there was a teacher workshop held at the school. I’ve never been
to a teacher workshop and I was glad I attended… I liked how the speaker
gave various examples and had us do hands on activities… I noticed that a lot
of what the speaker was talking about were ideas and theories that we've
discussed in our coursework, such as strategies for writing good objectives
and what they should include. (Student #356)

The impact of the methods coursework in this study is consistent with the
research findings on connecting theory and methods to practice. Reference to
theory-based instruction and concepts discussed in foundational and methods courses
were virtually absent from the student teaching journals and post lesson reflections.
Clift and Brady (2005) write that prospective teachers often have difficulty

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translating concepts learned in methods courses into their classrooms. The reflective
process did not facilitate the integration of theory and strategies in instructional
practice. Issues and assumptions remained unexamined. Genor (2005) found similar
results in her study.

Reflection on Lesson Outcomes: The sub-category for lesson outcome
examined what student teachers wrote about following the execution of a lesson, in
terms of how they referenced assessments, learning objectives and student
achievement. Reflection of lesson outcome used the keywords ‘lesson objective,’
‘making connections,’ ‘different way,’ ‘student achievement,’ and ‘outcomes.’
Figure 12 illustrates the number of references for Reflection on Lesson Outcomes
from the weekly journals and lesson plan reflections. Only two students discussed
lesson outcomes in their journals and lesson reflections. Four student teachers did
not mention lesson outcomes. The number of references remained low across the
data sets.
As Figure 12 indicates, the student teachers included little content about
lesson outcomes in their journals and lesson plan reflections. Rodgers (2002) writes
that beginning teachers are often responding to the question “What did I teach
today?” What is absent from the content of the journals and reflections is a
discussion of “What did I teach and how do I know the students learned what I
taught?” The emphasis in the journals and reflections was more on the “what,” and
less on the “how.”

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Figure 12. Frequency: Reflection on Lesson Outcomes

Several student teaching lesson reflections included statements about making
connections and learning in different ways. There appears to be a developing “open-
mindedness” (Freese, 2006; Rodgers 2002) towards incorporating teaching methods
that fit the students’ learning styles.
I believe that this lesson was successful. The students were engaged, I was
able to have them respond to higher order thinking questions, and the
majority was able to meet the objective. I think it a good lesson because it
allowed students to learn art in different way than they are probably
accustomed to. Art tends to be taught in the direct instruction model without
the introduction of big ideas. The students were able to take an idea and
relate it to a collage art, which made a relevant and more meaningful…. I was
impressed with the students’ creativity and their ability to tell me the purpose
of collages and its elements. They were able to tell a story through their
collage. (Student #343)

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The student teacher writes that the students were able to meet the objective. While
the reflection does not specifically state how the lesson objective was measured, the
student teacher uses the final art product and the students’ verbal explanations as an
indicator of meeting learning outcomes. The student teacher focused this reflection
on student engagement. There is awareness on the part of the student teacher that
student engagement is a necessary component of student learning.
In the following journal entry, the student teacher exhibits an awareness that
different instructional methods may lead to better learning outcomes. There is no
evidence, though, that the student teacher tested this premise.
This week made me realize the importance of finding ways to “spice up” the
curriculum. Reading out of a text book and performing the routine schedule
over and over each week can become so mundane and dull for students. I
realize this wee that adding in new components, such as games, multi-media
lessons and other performing acts can ultimately enhance engagement and
lead to better learning outcomes. (Student #391)

Teaching English Learners: The journals and lesson plan reflections written
during student teaching that included a discussion of EL referred to specific
strategies for enhancing lesson delivery for the English language learner. Figure 13
illustrates the responses per teacher candidate for Teaching English Learners.

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Figure 13. Frequency: Teaching English Learners

The frequency of responses for this category is low, given that there are several
foundational courses and methods courses in which teaching English learners is a
predominant focus. Only two of the fifteen student teachers included significant
references to teaching English learners in their reflections and weekly journals. As
Figure 13 illustrates, not all student teachers discussed teaching English learners in
their weekly journals or lesson plan reflections.
In general, the student teachers discussed the use of specific strategies to help
with English learners, but the theory behind such strategies was not mentioned. The
following excerpt from a lesson plan reflection demonstrates the student teacher’s
thinking about specific teaching strategies to use with English learners. The excerpt

153
indicates an awareness of directing lessons towards instructing English learners. The
student teacher comments in the lesson plan reflection that she decided to use a
strategy that one of her professors incorporates in lectures.
When I did the demonstration I remembered that my methods instructor
always draws pictures while she talks, and because all the students in this
particular class are English Language Learners I decided it would help them
understand the concept of cause and effect.
(Student #383)

This excerpt demonstrates an attempt to teach a concept, although the student teacher
does not explain whether the strategy achieved the desired outcome, and from what
perspective she made the instructional decision. Within the student teaching journals
and lesson plan reflections, the student teachers discuss strategies for increasing
comprehension and understanding in their lesson planning. The discussion does not
however extend to thinking about whether strategies were effective in terms of the
lesson objectives and student learning outcomes, nor does it discuss the instructional
decision-making process.
I thought that the students enjoyed this lesson. They seemed very eager to
express themselves in another way than writing. I did have them writing a lot
the last couple days, and since anyone can copy and re-write facts, I thought
that if I made them draw out their biographies, I could really see who
understood the life of the person. When someone has to explain something in
different ways, it really checks your comprehension on the subject. I also
thought that this would give the EL students a chance to explain their
biographies without worrying about spelling or proper use of language.
(Student #356)

These excerpts from student teaching reflections indicate that the student
teachers are seeking and attempting various strategies to support content area
instruction for the English learners in their classrooms. The excerpts do not discuss

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the decision-making processes that student teachers used in making instructional
choices. In their exploration of instructional strategies, the student teachers in this
study do not refer to strategies and theoretical frameworks as sources of information
and support. Nor do the student teachers mention discussions they might have had
with their methods instructors, master teachers or university field experience
supervisors for support or suggestions related to discussions.

Discussion of Theory: The coding for the Discussion of Theory sub-category
was aimed at looking at where teacher candidates discussed theories of instruction in
their reflections and journals. The coding sought to examine if preservice teachers
cited learning theories in their discussions of instruction and student learning. The
coding for this category used the keywords ‘theories of learning,’ ‘constructivism,’
‘behaviorism,’ ‘humanism,’ ‘Mager’s managerial theory,’ ‘John Dewey,’
‘differentiated classroom theory,’ ‘cognition,’ and ‘transmission of knowledge.’ As
shown in Figure 14, this sub-category yielded a response rate of 1% in the weekly
journals, but the lesson plan reflections yielded no responses.
It is significant that only two students included references to theory in their
weekly student teaching journals. No references were included in lesson plan
reflections. While one student teacher referenced theory eight times, those eight
references were included in a single journal entry, and the same is true for the other
student teacher. I re-read the lesson plan reflections and journal entries in order to

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Figure 14. Frequency: Discussion of Theory

find evidence of theoretical discussion that might have been hidden, but I did not
discover more references. The journals of these two student teachers referenced
John Dewey’s philosophy in relation to group investigation, and metacognition in
developing critical thinking skills. The student teacher who explored the concept of
group investigation made the connection between one of the models of teaching and
Dewey’s philosophy of education.
This week, my student teaching partner and I taught a lesson plan to our
second grade students using the Group Investigation model. The purpose of
this model is to teach young students how to become active members of their
own learning. This is based on the idea of collaborative learning. That is,
students have to learn how to work or collaborate in groups. The foundation
of the Group Investigation model lies in John Dewey’s philosophy of
education… Dewey believed that children are by no means simply passive
learners…he believed that cooperative learning was a way to help students

156
understand the democratic ideals of learning in a group. The Group
Investigation model of teaching seeks to prepare young citizens for
democratic society because of its emphasis on learning to cooperate and
negotiate with peers…. Having just learned about the inquiry possibilities this
model holds, I was excited to teach a Group Investigation lesson to my class.
I thought a science lesson would be a great subject for this model.
(Student #350)

The student teacher attempted to bridge theory to practice. They did not,
however, talk about why they chose the model. Was the decision to choose the
group investigation model linked to student need? The journal excerpt demonstrates
the process of thinking about strategies for teaching by thinking about theories of
learning.
The other student teacher wrote a weekly journal entry about metacognition.
This journal entry was written during the last week of student teaching, and
demonstrates the student teacher’s thinking about developing critical thinking skills.

When students lack the ability to consider their own thought processes, they
become passive consumers of knowledge and fail to organize their learning in
personal and meaningful ways. Most importantly, the ability to assess one’s
metacognition is an important component of reflection as it relates to
becoming an informed human being. Students must understand the way in
which they organize and construct knowledge. This is a foundational
understanding that must be developed in order for students to begin thinking
about things from multiple perspectives. Without first considering their own
metacognition, students cannot truly attempt to assume and analyze from
different perspectives. To achieve this goal, I believe that it definitely takes
explicit instruction and practice to develop reflective processes.
(Student #375)

In this excerpt, the student teacher writes about developing reflective processes in
students. It is not evident that the student teacher relates the reflective process to her
own learning. In their development as teachers, preservice teachers appear not to

157
identify with their own learning process. While both of the student teachers cited
above wrote about the theoretical underpinnings of instruction in their weekly
journals, none of the lesson plan reflections included similar discussion. That the
student teachers use pedagogical theory to support a method of teaching appears
absent from both the weekly journals and student teaching reflections. These
findings are consistent with the findings from the analysis of content for English
learners.
Through analysis of the content of the journals, there appears to be a
developing awareness and understanding of why lesson planning should incorporate
learning about students. Additionally, there appears to be an awareness that content
should be presented in meaningful contexts. It is apparent from these journal entries
that the student teachers have begun to integrate concepts related to how students
learn. The inclusion of concrete experiences, building on prior knowledge and
problem solving (Schunk, 1991), are also evident in the reflections.

Program Influences

Along with content themes related to Teaching and Learning, the weekly
journals and lesson plan reflections contained content that focused on experiences
gained from being in the teacher education program. These program influences
included the sub-categories of Elements of Student Teaching, Preservice Teacher to
Teacher, Socio-Economic and Cultural.

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Elements of Student Teaching: Coding for Elements of Student Teaching
used keywords that reflected environmental aspects of student teaching: ‘master
teacher,’ ‘fieldwork coordinator,’ ‘collaboration,’ ‘lesson plan,’ and ‘school
environment.’ Discussion of the elements of student teaching occurred in the weekly
journals posted during student teaching. This sub-category was intended to capture
how the student teachers were thinking about their development in the classroom
practicum. Research (Genor, 2005; Korthagen and Wubbels, 2001; Risko, Roskos,
and Vukelich, 2002) suggests that the student teaching experience has an immense
impact on the development of teacher candidates. Four main themes related to the
student teaching experience emerged in this study from the journals and lesson plan
reflections. The first theme was the benefits of the paired student teaching
assignments. The second theme dealt with the student teachers’ relationships with
their master teachers. The third theme was issues with classroom management. The
fourth theme included student teachers writing about lesson plans and lesson
planning.
Figure 15 illustrates the difference in frequency between the lesson plan
reflections and the weekly journals. The majority of the student teachers included
discussions about student teaching in their weekly journals. A smaller percentage of
student teachers referenced aspects of student teaching in their post lesson
reflections.

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Figure 15. Frequency: Elements of Student Teaching

Student teachers highlighted the impact of the paired student teaching
experience. Student teachers in the multiple-subject credential program under study
are assigned to teach in pairs: two student teachers are placed together in a classroom
with one master teacher. In the journal entries written towards the beginning of the
student teaching practicum, the student teachers expressed initial nervousness about
beginning student teaching, in terms of their placements and their performance as
teachers. They wrote about the experience of student teaching in pairs as beneficial
to their development as teachers. It provided the opportunity for them to observe one
another and provide collegial feedback. The student teacher in the following journal
entry wrote that a beneficial aspect of the MAT program was the prospect of team
teaching.

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One of the aspects of the MAT program that interested me before I even
entered the program was the fact that I would be paired for the first student
teaching assignment... I’ve always been a fan of group work because I enjoy
seeing how other people view things and express their ideas. I am also
extremely aware that having a second set of eyes almost always helps to see
things clearly…. I think we also do a good job giving each other constructive
criticism…looking at my own teaching from an outsider’s point of view. It
can be very difficult to critically judge one’s own abilities without the help of
others, but after this experience I am well aware of the need, and will
continue to reflect on and judge my own experiences as a teacher for the
betterment of not only my teaching skills but for my students and their
success in my classroom. (Student #383)

This student teacher expressed that team teaching offers the opportunity for growth
as a professional in a collaborative setting. Collaboration is viewed as an important
critical experience in teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2006) and in the teacher
education program. In the journal entry below, the student teacher describes the
value of collaboration in facilitating learning and professional development for
beginning teachers. The student teacher sees the value of teaching in pairs, as
offering not only support but also growth through cooperative criticism and
compliments.
I’ve always thought of teaching as a very cooperative and collaborative
profession. Therefore, I naturally expected that the MAT program would
place us with a peer during our first half of student teaching. I think having a
peer around as a beginning/trainee teacher is extremely important. We go
through the same hardships, challenges, and accomplishments each day, and
knowing that we have each other makes the days go by so much easier, and it
is extremely comforting to know that you have a partner who is there to help
you and support you along as you develop into a teacher. I pick up my
partner’s strengths and weaknesses, and through her criticism and
compliments, I analyze my own teaching performance and reflect on what I
have to do to improve professionally. (Student #391)

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The student teachers wrote about their master teachers in terms of providing
classroom management support and guidance, modeling collaboration, and
establishing positive classroom environments. In general, the student teachers
described their master teachers as helpful and insightful. The following student
teaching reflection provides an example of how the student teachers felt that their
master teachers assisted them in their classroom instruction. Master teachers were
seen as offering guidance in instruction and in how to respond to students. The
student teachers looked to the master teachers for support.
I had to explain the concept a few different ways, because there were still a
few students who didn't quite get how to convert from scientific notation to
standard notation. I glanced at my master teacher and he jumped in to help
me out. I was so grateful that he was able to help. He didn't finish my lesson
and quickly handed the class back, but he was able to answer the question in
a different way. I know I’m not always going to have someone there to help
me out every time I get stuck, but I know that with more time and practice I
will know how to answer the same question in many different ways. Besides
that, I think that my lesson went well. (Student #356)

In this excerpt, the student teacher views learning to teach as a function of a
practiced skill that improves over time. The student teacher did not question what
she/he could have done differently.
Student teaching in this study was viewed as the venue or experience in
which to learn classroom management techniques. Classroom management appeared
to be the topic that most student teachers wrote about in their student teaching lesson
reflections. They were concerned about how to manage group learning and maintain
control of the classroom. Pacing and time-management seemed to be areas in which
student teachers occasionally felt stymied. They wrote in their weekly journals and

162
reflections about the support master teachers provided with respect to classroom
management. Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) identified that student teachers come
into the student teaching experience with fears concerning classroom management
and classroom control. The student teachers in this study sought support from their
master teachers in learning how to manage a classroom and deal with discipline
issues. In the following excerpt, the student teacher writes about the anxiety of
learning classroom management skills.
This semester of student teaching, I really want to learn how to have effective
classroom management. I know I will be able to learn a lot from my Master
Teacher, because she seems to have good classroom management skills and
knows how to talk to her students well when they have misbehaved. I have a
feeling that it will be difficult for me to exercise management skills initially,
especially since it is not my classroom and I know that there is a teacher
watching me. It’s as if I do not want to step on any toes by reprimanding a
student, as I should. (Student # 343)

This journal entry conveys the belief of the student teacher that classroom
management is a skill that is acquired through modeling. Self-efficacy related to
classroom management is low. The lesson plan reflections and journals suggest that
the student teachers were struggling to find their professional identity and style with
respect to classroom management.
Classroom management has been a particularly hard area for me in my
student teaching experience. It is actually funny when I think back to the first
week of teaching when I was afraid the students would not like me or would
think I was “mean” if I was too firm with them. I remember my master
teacher telling me that she was the same way her first year of teaching. She
turned to me and asked, “Do you want them to like you, or do you want them
to learn?” Well, of course I knew what the answer was, but it was still hard
to really embrace the concept of classroom management. (Student #350)

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The development of teacher identity is evident in the discussions of classroom
management. In the excerpt above, the student teacher identifies with the master
teacher. Struggling with classroom management during the first year of teaching is
seen as a rite of passage. For some of the student teachers it appears to be a matter
of discovering a certain demeanor for controlling the class. They appear to working
out a personal perspective on classroom management. This is evident in the
following journal entry. The student teacher is grappling with being “meaner” as a
method for improving classroom management.
It's been pretty discouraging in this class. I guess I'm not harsh enough on the
classroom management. The master teacher keeps saying I can be meaner to
them and I guess I will have to do that but I'm not sure that will exactly make
things much better. (Student #351)

The student teacher in this excerpt describes classroom management as a function of
control that is solely dependent on the teacher’s demeanor. No other options related
to student learning are explored. The student teacher questions her internal locus of
control, and appears to have struggled in developing a teacher identity that matches
her personality.
Only one journal entry referenced the teacher education program in relation
to classroom management. The journals and lesson plan reflections discussed
classroom management as something that is either learned from the master teacher,
or a skill learned over time. In the following entry, the student teacher writes about
attempting to employ disciplinary strategies learned in the teacher education
program. There appears to be the impression that lesson planning and classroom

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management are two separate activities. The journals and lesson reflections reflect
the attitude that the lesson planning and classroom management are mutually
exclusive. This attitude is conveyed in the following lesson plan reflection.
This lesson was okay in that my classroom management could have been
more effective. I saw students wandering off into their own worlds, in effect
becoming very dismissive of the fact that I was in the middle of teaching a
lesson. I was quite shocked at the fact that students of such a young age
could be so dismissive of their teachers, so much so that I lost my train of
thought more than once in the span of this lesson and couldn't seem to get
back on track. In the end, I did try a few classroom management techniques
learned while in this program such as complimenting students for paying
attention and participating. Still, it seemed like an issue of “too little, too
late.” I really need to be more conscious of my students’ behavior earlier on
in my lessons rather than later. (Student #355)

Classroom management is perceived as an external locus of control. The students’
behavior was described as dismissive. The student teacher did not attribute the
students’ dismissive behavior to the content or context of the lesson. Classroom
management was viewed as a set of techniques or tricks used on students. The
following weekly journal entry is significant because it demonstrates frustration with
being prepared for lessons and still not having classroom control. The student
teacher appears perplexed about being well prepared and yet encountering issues in
classroom management.
I started this week anticipating that once again I would be trampled over by
my students, and to a great extent I was. Monday’s lessons were great, I had
prepared myself meticulously for how I would present my math and language
arts activities and still I faltered in getting my students engaged, and in that,
attuned to my position as their educator. As I discussed my plight with not
only my student teaching partner and Master Teacher, but also my
coordinator from last semester’s seminar and a few of my colleagues, I
started to wonder that maybe the problem wasn’t in the preparation that I laid
out night after night for the lessons to be taught the following day, but maybe

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the root of my problem centered on my lack of classroom management.
(Student #360)

The student teacher in this excerpt does not understand the connection between
appropriate and meaningful student learning, and classroom management.
The journals and lesson plan reflections included content about writing lesson
plans. As with classroom management, the student teachers reflected on struggling
with the lesson plan format. In the entry above, and also the following entry, the
student teachers appear to interpret the function of lesson planning as what
ultimately makes a lesson successful. Missing from the discussion in the journals is
the notion of the content or context of the lesson, and how those elements might
affect classroom management and the format of the lesson. Also absent from the
entries is a discussion of how student assessment links to lesson planning. The
weekly journal entry below illustrates the effort of trying to write a formatted lesson
plan. The student teacher seems confused with finding the appropriate lesson plan
format.
This week I began writing out my lesson plans in full format, direct
instruction structure. It was great practice and each time became much easier
to get through and create activities for each category; however it was a bit
frustrating as well. We have been told that the direct instruction format was
to be used when teaching a skill. However many of the lessons we were
teaching were not necessarily skills and therefore created some difficulty in
trying to plug everything into a specified category. Even though we made it
work somehow, it still didn’t feel right, and when it came to actually teaching
the lesson felt a bit unnatural. (Student #376)

The use in this study of models of teaching in the teacher education program, is
introduced at various times throughout the semester during the methods course. The

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student teacher in the excerpt above appears to be confused about the use of the
direct instruction lesson plan. This may be a programmatic flaw. Student teachers
need to plan lessons based on student assessment, instructional context and student
need.
In the following weekly journal entry, the student teacher confesses that she
is not a fan of writing lesson plans, but has found that it results in better lesson
execution than just “winging it.”
Throughout the next four days, I began to notice a drop in my confidence
levels. I began reflecting on this decrease in my self-assurance and realized
that what I was experiencing was the difference between well planned lessons
and those I basically “winged.” On a few occasions, I conducted lessons that
did not have full-blown lesson plans to go along with. I realized that without
the organization provided by lesson plans, I felt lost and nervous about their
execution, even though I had written notes on what I was going to do.
Although I despise the lesson writing process, especially the scripting, I
realize it serves a function and a purpose. I now understand the importance
of writing lesson plans and how easily my teaching can be affected by the
lack of organization and support I get from writing lessons. (Student #383)

Having a lesson plan structure appears to have raised the student teacher’s self-
efficacy in teaching. Understanding the purpose of planning is part of the
development of a teacher identity.
During the progression of the student teaching semester, more models of
teaching were introduced. Even though the student teachers appeared to become
more familiar and comfortable with the use of the various lesson plan formats, their
journals and lesson reflections did not indicate growth in their ability to analyze their
teaching in terms of student learning. The goal of teaching, as Hiebert et al. (2007)
write, is to support student learning. Heibert et al. posit that teachers need to be able

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to assess the achievement of student learning goals, and to be able to identify how
and why instruction was successful or not successful in the achievement of the
learning goals.
The analysis of the student teaching weekly journals and lesson plan
reflections revealed that the student teachers regarded their master teachers as the
most influential support providers. They valued the opportunity to student teach in
pairs. Classroom management and lesson planning were most often cited as the
main areas of difficulty and frustration during the student teaching experience. In
their weekly journals, several student teachers wrote about their student teaching
practicum as a learning and growth experience.

Socio-economic and Culture: Coding for the sub-categories of socio-
economic and cultural issues examined the discussions in the lesson plan reflections
and weekly journals that included aspects of teaching students of diverse cultures, as
well as discussions about teaching in urban schools.
Figure 16 illustrates that not all of the student teachers included references
to socio-economics and culture in either their weekly journal entries or their lesson
plan reflections. Less than half of the student teachers included mention of socio-
economic issues in their weekly journals. There were no responses for socio-
economics in the lesson plan reflections. References to culture were minimal.

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Figure 16. Frequency: Cultural and Socio-economic

The responses coded as Culture were 1.6% of the total journal responses, and Socio-
economic made up 2% of the weekly journal responses.
The keywords for coding the socio-economic sub-category were: ‘social
problems,’ ‘socio-economic,’ ‘neighborhood,’ ‘privilege,’ ‘urban,’ and ‘poverty.’ A
small number of student teachers included responses that related to culture. The
keywords for culture were: ‘multicultural education,’ ‘bilingual education,’
‘diverse/diversity,’ and ‘Latino and African-American.’ The significance of the
coding for these categories is that it triggered content in the journals that addressed
subject matter related to teaching in urban schools. The early field experience
journals were coded using the same schema. This study sought to investigate if the
categories Socio-economic and Cultural increased in saliency over the course of the

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teacher preparation program as student teachers gained more critical experiences in
urban settings.
References to culture in the student teaching reflections primarily addressed
aspects of incorporating culture into their lesson plans. There was a particular effort
by two of the student teachers to include both historical and present-day issues
regarding race in their instruction. Both of the following entries describe attempts to
incorporate deeper discussions of race into lessons.
This lesson was modeled after a lesson I did about presidents of the United
States. I wanted to have the students follow the same lesson, but learn about
important African Americans in our nation’s history. The timing was perfect
for these two lessons because President's Day and Black History Month were
just weeks apart, so the students were able to have a lesson based on what
was going on at the time. (Student #383)

In the excerpt above, the student teacher relates teaching about culture to holidays
and tokenism. For this student teacher, teaching about important African Americans
appears to be a separate subject within American history.
I ended up reviewing key points the next day at the beginning of our Gold
Rush reading lesson to insure understanding. I think it is interesting that it is
still hard for students to remember African Americans, Native Americans,
Mexicans and women in terms of their roles in history, even though I have
reiterated it in every lesson. Making the connections between events is very
difficult, i.e., Native Americans lost their land, now there aren’t many in CA,
or Mexicans lost power and were discriminated against, or African
Americans were slaves elsewhere, came to CA for freedom, new life. I am
surprised that students are not interested in writing journals from the POV of
a historic figure as much as doing a “made up” person. (Student #342)

This student teacher makes the assumption that fourth grade students can relate to
historical events without relating them to their prior knowledge and real-life context.

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The student teacher assumes that if she/he finds the assignment interesting, the
students should be equally interested.
In discussing the demographics of the student teachers’ practicum placement,
only one student teacher indicated that the school was in a predominantly Latino
neighborhood. This student teacher describes being open to learning as much as
possible about the school, the students and the neighborhood.
I knew that the location and demographics of the school was going to add to
my experience. The school neighborhood is considered a low socio-
economic status area. The neighborhood is predominately Latino as well as
the school demographics…. I am currently working for my BCLAD and am
taking a Latino culture class. I found that this class has given me some useful
information about Latino culture, Mexican culture in particular. Learning
about the values and morals of a particular culture really gives some insight
into how they raise their kids and what & who is considered important…such
as child behavior problems. I believe that working in this community will
give me more insight into the Latino culture/neighborhood and the values and
morals important to them. This will help me to differentiate my teaching.
(Student #342)

Discussion of culture in the weekly journals and lesson plan reflections focused on
including culture in teaching, and the demographics of a school. Absent from the
journals were discussions of culturally relevant pedagogy, aspects of multi-cultural
education, and diversity. Also absent from the journals were discussions of theories
of learning for planning and instructing diverse learners. The student teachers did
not acknowledge the diverse settings, or the diversity within their classrooms. The
handful of student teachers who did include references related to culture, referenced
it at the surface level, as either holidays or historical fiction.

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There were similar results from the coding for socio-economic issues. A few
student teachers approached socio-economic issues in education by noting the
differences in resources between schools. The reflections centered on what was
missing or different at schools. None of the student teachers set the disparity
between schools in a wider socio-political context. The following weekly journal
entry highlights the difference in resources from the first student teaching placement
to the present placement.
Not only are the two different schools different in the demographics of the
students, the academic level of the students in the fourth grade at H
Elementary is beyond what I imagined. The students are extremely bright
and academics are very important to them…. I've observed several times
students ask the teacher about their grades, showing concern. The parent
involvement is also completely different. At my first school, not one parent
came into the classroom to help out. I've been at H Elementary for a total of
4 days now, and I've seen 2-3 parents come in…. I think I have been given an
opportunity to really see the extremes. I'm going to have been at an urban
and a suburban school…. Unfortunately in my last experience I did not see
much art…. At my new school and in the fourth grade the students have the
opportunity to do so much with art. For example, they have the privilege of
having an art teacher and they rotate every six weeks getting (dance, art,
theatre and music). (Student # 384)

The student teacher in this excerpt indicates that they have been given the
opportunity to see the “extremes” between urban and suburban schools. They appear
to have interpreted the “extremes” in terms of student motivation and parental
involvement, and not in terms of student learning opportunities. The student teacher
does not question why it is that the students at the higher-SES school are performing
at a higher academic level, and merely makes the assumption that academics are
more important to the students and parents at that school. Also the student teacher

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makes assumptions about the differences in the schools based on beliefs and prior
experiences related to the importance of art instruction. Left unexplored, these
assumptions and beliefs could become grounded in the development of the student
teacher’s professional identity. The student teacher could develop lower
expectations for students in low-SES schools. This student teacher needs to unpack
and explore the assumptions made in the journal entry; otherwise, those assumptions
and beliefs could follow them into the classroom.
In the next excerpt, the student teacher remarks on the bleak playground
situation at the school. The student teacher observes that grass would be a great
addition to the neighborhood. This excerpt is similar to the previous journal entry, in
that the student teacher does not situate the disparity between schools in a larger
socio-economic and political context. Again, the student teacher does not question
why some schools have grass and landscaped playgrounds and other schools have
only blacktop.
As I was outside with the students after recess one day, I looked around on
the playground and realized something…I wanted the students to go outside
onto the playground and find different types and sizes of leaves so they could
practice measuring. I was planning ahead and this is why I was looking on
the playground. But what did I see? Only a few (three or four) small trees
surrounded by blacktop…there were no handball courts, jungle gyms,
monkey bars, slides, swings, or grass! I understand if there isn’t any
equipment on the school grounds, because it may be due to safety issues, but
grass? The playground at my school is so boring. I also believe that it
would be good for them to see something different from what they are used
to in their neighborhood. (Student # 395)

The weekly journal entries and student teaching reflections had a limited
number of entries for the culture and socio-economic categories. The issues

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identified by the student teachers dealt with differences in school resources, as well
as school demographics. The experiences did not appear to effect change in beliefs
regarding student academic achievement, inequity of resources, parental involvement
and student expectations. Only a few student teachers acknowledged culture or
socio-economic differences in their placements. The journals and reflections did not
appear to be avenues for challenging and unpacking beliefs and assumptions related
to cultural and economic diversity. These assumptions and beliefs shape the
development of the teacher’s identity.

Comparison of Early Field Experience and Student Teaching Reflections
Analysis of the content of the journals and lesson plan reflections written
during the early field experience and foundations coursework produced emerging
themes and topics that were salient for prospective teachers, but also demonstrated
areas of content that were either absent from the journals or weakly represented.
This analysis serves to highlight the experiences and coursework during the teacher
education program that had the least and greatest impact on the thinking, learning
and belief systems of the teacher candidates enrolled in the program. As the results
of the analysis indicate, there were areas of conceptual knowledge that were
undeveloped.
The findings indicate that four coded categories had the fewest responses
across all three data sets — early field experience journals, weekly journals written
during student teaching, and student teaching lesson reflections. Figure 17 illustrates

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the four content areas that had a consistently low percentage of the responses:
Teaching English Learners, Discussion of Theory, and Cultural and Socio-economic
issues. These findings are consistent with the teacher education literature (Clift and
Brady, 2005; Hollins and Guzman, 2005), which suggests that prospective teachers
experience difficulty in linking the practice of teaching to the perspectives of
teaching. It may also be the case that prospective teachers focus on the content of
instruction during the early field experience, and focusing less on why the classroom
teacher is using certain strategies and methods. This speaks to their limited
understanding of the links between student assessment and high quality instruction.

Figure 17. Percentages of Least Referenced Categories

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The journals written during the early field experience and corresponding
foundational coursework had a slightly higher percentage of Discussion of Theory
and Cultural responses. In these journals, the preservice teachers focused on
learning strategies and the integration of coursework into the field experience. The
weekly journals included discussions of course texts and readings that incorporated
some degree of evidence of practice gleaned from classroom observations. Although
the reference rate is low, these findings appear to concur with Darling-Hammond’s
(2006) findings that early field experiences assist teacher candidates in developing an
image of what teaching involves. The journals contained more references to
observing what teachers do, than to how and what students learn. The early field
experiences for the program reviewed in this study provided an opportunity for the
preservice teachers under study to explore their beliefs about teaching and to begin to
develop their professional identity. In contrast, the emphasis placed on the models of
teaching for lesson plans in the general methods course resulted in the student
teachers focusing on performance of the technical process rather than teacher
learning and developing connections to theory. Reflective thinking related to how
the students in the classroom were learning and how the context of the classroom
related to the method of instruction was also not present in student teaching related
journals. This finding is likely to be program and course specific, and tied to
generalist approaches in general methods courses.
As indicated in Figure 18, the most prevalent coded category for all three
data sets was Reflection on Student Learning. In the early field experience journals,

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the preservice teachers referenced student learning 44% of the time. This percentage
increases to 49% in the lesson plan reflections. In the student teaching weekly
journals, 33% of the responses referenced aspects of student learning.

Figure 18. Percentages of Most Referenced Category

Further analysis of the student learning category in the journals for this preservice
program indicated that the content within the student teaching weekly journals and
the student teaching lesson plan reflections primarily addresses motivation and
engagement specific to lesson development. Absent from the content was discussion
of assessment of student learning, or variance in student learning, or how to promote
student learning through curriculum planning. The preservice teachers did not link

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student learning to the assessment of student needs during their student teaching
process. These results are consistent with the findings in the journals written during
the early field experience. The higher percentage of references to “student learning”
in the journals and lesson plan reflections, as opposed to assessment of student
learning, may be the result of the teacher candidates bringing their personal beliefs
and perceptions to bear on their experiences. Although the teacher candidates were
provided with “real life” professional experiences through field work, theory to
practice in field experiences remained sparse. According to the literature on teacher
education, this problem with transference between theory and practice may be in part
a result of teacher educators, who, while stressing the value of practical experience,
often “work on the basis of an epistemic conception of knowledge” (Korthagen &
Wubbels, 2001, p. 29). In other words, teacher educators may approach the practical
experience of early field experience and the student teaching practicum from the tacit
presupposition of the technical-rationality model that the knowledge of teacher
candidates needs to be conceptual, external to them, and objective. However, the
preservice teacher is often too far removed from this conceptual, external knowledge
to understand how it relates to their own field based experience. The bridge between
theoretical perspectives on instruction, and the preservice teachers’ own belief
systems, determined by their past experiences, remained weak in the program under
study as demonstrated by analysis of the reflections. Preservice teachers bring
background knowledge about education to their preparation programs, and that
background knowledge should be unpacked and explored rather than dismissed.

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In the following section of this dissertation, I will discuss the findings from
the analysis of the depth of the journals and lesson reflections. This examination
informs teacher educators about the growth and learning opportunities of the
practicum. The process of inquiry, as Zeichner (1996) points out, promotes a focus
in the practicum that moves beyond “instruction with children in a classroom” (p.
217) to a focus that prepares teachers to take on a critically thoughtful stance as
ongoing students of education.

Evidence of Reflective Writing
The early field experience weekly journals submitted during the student
teaching practicum, and the lesson plan reflections, were analyzed for depth of
reflection using the framework of Hatton and Smith (1995), as outlined in Table 7.
The framework indicates a developmental sequence. As preservice teachers become
more able to give reasons for their actions, they move from technical to descriptive
reflection. As they become progressively more aware of the “problematic nature of
professional action, they begin an exploratory and tentative examination of why
things occur the way they do, here termed dialogic reflection” (Hatton & Smith,
1995, p. 46). Critical reflection requires the development of metacognitive skills
along with an understanding of ideological frameworks.

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Table 7: Criteria for the Recognition of Evidence for Different Types of Reflective
Writing with Percentages across Entries (Hatton & Smith, 1995 p. 48)

Descriptive
Writing
(100%)

- Not Reflective

- Description of
events that
occurred/report
of literature

- No attempt to
provide reasons/
justification for
events
Descriptive
Reflection
(80%)

- Not only a
description of
events but some
attempt to
provide a reason
or justification
for events or
action

- Recognition of
alternative
viewpoints in the
research and
literature which
are reported

-Two forms:
(a) Reflection
based on
generally one
perspective/
rationale
(b) Reflection
based on the
recognition of
multiple factors
and perspectives
Dialogic
Reflection
(20%)

- Demonstrates a
“stepping back”
from the
events/actions
leading to a
different level of
mulling about,
discourse with
self and exploring
the experience,
events and
actions using
qualities of
judgments and
possible
alternatives for
explaining and
hypothesizing.

- Such reflection
is analytical
or/and integrative
of factors and
perspectives and
may recognize
inconsistencies in
attempting to
provide rationales
and critique.
Critical
Reflection
(0%)

- Demonstrates
awareness that
actions and
events are not
only located in,
and explicable
by, reference to
multiple
perspectives but
are located in,
and influenced by
multiple
historical and
socio-political
contexts.

As Table 7 illustrates, all the preservice teachers engaged in descriptive
writing. These reflections resemble ruminations of a field experience. The majority
of the teacher candidates (80%) wrote descriptive reflections. Higher-level

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reflections were less evident in the journals included in this study. Only 20% of the
teacher candidates wrote reflections that met the criteria for dialogic reflections.

Descriptive Writing
Journal entries written during the first semester of the teacher education
program had consistently more entries that were coded as descriptive writing.
According to Hatton and Smith (1995), descriptive writing is not reflection, but
rather a report of literature or events. These findings are consistent with the
literature (Davis, 2006; Risko, Roskos, and Vukelich, 2002; Korthagen and Wubbels,
2001) related to a gap in the integration of teacher education course material in
written reflections. As Rodgers (2002) and Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) suggest,
there is a process that leads to reflection, which begins with an experience and
concludes with creating an alternative method of action or thought. This process is
important to the development of the preservice teacher, in that reflection supports
ways of knowing and learning (Rodgers, 2002). In this study, I have sought to
examine the influence of reflection on the development of preservice teacher
practice. Describing experience is the first step in this process. Evidence of
descriptive writing is apparent as this preservice teacher relates the events of an
observation from field experience.
Mrs. C. had the opportunity in her reading class to also use constructivist
learning theory in her classroom. Her students are constantly working on
vocabulary skills along with the story of the week. They are expected to use
the glossary at the end of their textbook in order to find the definition of the
words used in the story. Then, they are asked to draw a picture that will help

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them to remember what that word means. This is an example of
constructivism because it encourages creativity on behalf of the students.
(Student # 383)

Journal entries written in response to early field experiences and posted on
the eFolio platform for the corresponding teacher education course reflect preservice
teachers’ observations of learned course material. The preservice teachers under
study demonstrate development of beginning competencies or basic technical
competencies of teaching, which Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) contend form a
crucial foundation of the teacher education program. However, “technical
competence and reflective skills are not mutually exclusive” (p. 47). What is evident
in the preservice students’ reflections during the beginning coursework and
associated field experience is that they are developing grounding in technical skills.
Technical skill development is noted in the journal entry of a student in the reflection
that follows.
I was just reading an article written by Dr. Graham Cooper entitled “Research
into Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design at UNSW.” In this
article, Dr. Graham Cooper states that teachers of Creative Writing should
take into consideration the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) when designing
their students’ curricula…. Such knowledge would be put to good use in Mr.
G’s class, which consists of ELD 2, 3, and 4 students working towards
English proficiency. According to Cooper and EDUC 503 lectures, our
working memory works best when learning no more than 4 to 10 elements at
a time. (Student # 355)

This student’s reflection demonstrates that they are attempting to make sense of new
knowledge related to student learning. They situate the new knowledge gained in
EDUC 503, a foundational course, into the observation — although it is more of a
report or a recall of read literature with a surface level connection to student learning.

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Evidence of descriptive writing is also seen in written lesson plan reflections.
Hatton and Smith (1995) do not consider descriptive writing to have reflective depth.
Student teachers provided a replay of the events of the lesson, as well as a rating for
the lesson. The lesson summaries provide a superficial reflection about the teaching
performance. The occurrence of descriptive writing in the lesson reflections might
be attributed to the unprompted nature of the reflection, which provides few
scaffolding activities to encourage the student teachers to think systematically and
deeply about their teaching practice and student learning. Often, the lesson plan
reflections included primarily procedural concerns such as time management,
teaching the expected lesson, content objective, and classroom management. These
responses corroborate the findings of Moore (2003), who found that procedural
concerns were perceived as most important by the preservice teachers and mentors in
her study. The following lesson plan reflection demonstrates the student teacher’s
concerns regarding procedural issues, which provide little opportunity for inquiry.
This lesson is one of the best examples of my biggest fault: pacing. I have a
lot of trouble pacing myself when giving lessons. One of the reasons I take
so long is because I always feel the need to be very explicit in my lessons….
My master teacher bought me a timer, and I plan on using it A LOT next
year. I have confidence in most of my other teaching skills, so I am glad to
have something specific to work on. (Student #383)

Time management and pacing are important aspects of teaching for this student
teacher. The student teacher is concerned about the use of time, but never directly
related to student learning. Descriptive writing, the retelling of experiences or
actions, excludes the focus of student learning. There is a lack of questioning and

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critique in student teachers’ thinking. In the following lesson plan reflection the
student teacher is focused on their ability to perform the technical aspects of
teaching: classroom management, organization and planning.
This fraction trail mix lesson went really well in my opinion. I was very
prepared and organized and had I not planned enough this lesson could have
been very hectic and out of control. I had the students do this lesson with me
on the carpet instead of at their desks because they are in testing this week
and I wanted to give them a chance to get out of their desks and into a new
environment! That was fine, but there was some trouble with classroom
management down there on the rug. (Student # 360)

The student teacher who wrote this reflection made assumptions about the success of
the lesson, based on being prepared and gaining control over the classroom. This
student teacher views the issues with classroom management as an external locus of
control. Planning is viewed as the means for gaining classroom control, and student
learning and motivation were not considered as factors in classroom management.
What is missing from this reflection is a discussion of how changing the classroom
environment from desks to the rug facilitated student learning. Again, the procedural
emphasis that is of focus in the program’s general methods course may provide a
rationale for why this student teacher is reflecting at a descriptive level.

Descriptive Reflection
Descriptive reflection (Hatton & Smith, 1995) incorporates reasons for action
based on a student’s personal judgment or a consideration of literature that had been
read. In the analysis of both methods course journals and student teaching lesson
plan reflections, there were numerous examples of descriptive reflection. As Hatton

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and Smith (1995), Rodgers (2002), and Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) assert,
descriptive reflection is not merely a description of events. Rather, it seeks to
provide reasons and justifications for experiences or actions.
A field experience/observation component is included the first semester’s
coursework, in the program under study. The pre-student teaching journal entries
included discussion of specific theories and how the theories were observed during
observations in the classroom setting. Descriptive reflection is evident in the
following preservice teacher’s journal regarding a field experience observation. The
preservice teacher attempts to engage in meaning-making by linking material learned
in coursework to observed instances in the classroom.
In my observation classroom, the most prevalent learning theory that I
observed was Behaviorism…. One example of behaviorism that I witnessed
in the classroom is when the teacher had her students read the same poem
daily. Every morning, the teacher would have the students read a poem about
trees…. I think that behaviorism alone is not the best learning technique to
incorporate in the classroom. Behaviorism tends to ignore content learning
because it focuses on memorization. It is probable that the students I
observed did not learn much from the poem. (Student #343)

This reflection includes a statement of personal belief, which is important, since it
connects learned knowledge to the individual. The reflection identifies that a
problem may present itself if behaviorism is the prevalent learning theory used in
this classroom. Rodgers (2002) would classify this journal entry as spontaneous
interpretation of the experience. The preservice teacher makes an assumption that a
problem might exist, but goes no further in generating a possible explanation. It is

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noted that the preservice teacher is making an effort to assimilate coursework content
learned in the foundational courses, while participating in the observation setting.
In the following excerpt, the preservice teacher provides more than a
description of the events in the classroom (Hatton & Smith, 1995), and has attempted
to provide an alternative viewpoint by which to integrate the experience of the
observation with content learned from the teacher education program.
I did have the opportunity to interview this student and despite the fact that
he is doing okay in school he has no motivation to go to college. College is
not for everyone, but when college is the only key to a brighter future, it
becomes alarming when a student, who has potential to get a higher
education, chooses not to pursue a better life. I sat down with this student
and tried to figure out why he does not want to pursue college and his
response indicated that it was a waste of time. …I realized that this student
does not have a motivational role model and does not know the positive
results of pursing a college education. This student has two weaknesses. The
first involves an internal cause which stems from the attribution theory, and
the second is external — he lacks a role model.

This preservice teacher made the assumption that the student does not have a
motivational role model, and attempted to explain the student’s lack of motivation
through attribution theory, although without identifying the internal or external
causes.
In the reading, Educational Psychology, Woolfolk states, “They may attribute
their success and failures to ability, effort, mood, knowledge, luck, help,
interests, clarity of instruction, the interferences of others, unfair policies, and
so on” (p 344). This student states that college is hard, which is an external-
stable-uncontrollable excuse for him not to attend college. (Student #344)

It is important to note how in the reflection shown above the preservice teacher
makes the self-to-text and text-to-practice connection by integrating the information
that is being learned in the foundational education course. This preservice teacher

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moves from experience to a spontaneous interpretation (Rodgers, 2002) of the
experience. In naming the problem “student’s lack of motivation and role models,”
the preservice teacher leaps to assumptions based on her own personal beliefs, and
has found a theory to support those assumptions. The preservice teacher does not
generate further questions as to why the student is not motivated to go to college. In
addition, it is worth noting that the preservice teacher is attempting to integrate
theories of learning with observable examples in a classroom setting.
The literature on teacher education includes many references to the
preconceptions and beliefs of prospective teachers about education (Britzman, 2003;
Korthagen and Wubbels, 2001; Lortie, 2002). The excerpt above demonstrates how
the preservice teacher is working through the personal belief that college is important
for good students, and attempting to understand why a student would choose
otherwise. This is an example of linking personal beliefs (implicit theories) with
new explicit theories. The preservice teacher is seeking to understand the student’s
thinking by integrating newly-learned course material with the experience.
Unfortunately for the candidates in this study, personal beliefs and values appear to
interfere with full integration of the theoretical constructs associated with student
learning.
In thinking about education in terms of equity and diversity, in relation to
theories in education, the preservice teachers in this study wrote journal entries about
a variety of topics:

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On the first day of the classes, our Professor asked all of us to list a few
things that we thought a good school would be. We then cut the list down to
just four or five words/phrases by thinking, “Which item could the school
function without?” I raised my hand and said, “Diversity,” but was told that
it was a very important factor. . . The reason for my answer was due to my
own junior high/high school experience… My school was not very diverse,
yet I never felt that I wasn’t in the “real world.” I was aware that other
ethnicities existed and was taught to respect people not for what they are, but
who they are…. Now don’t get me wrong, I do understand the importance of
diversity. I, as a future educator, need to teach my students tolerance for
people of different backgrounds, as my teachers did when I was growing up.
We live in the center of a melting pot so we should use that to our advantage
and expose the students to different ethnicities from a young age. This would
result in less stereotyping. (Student #395)

The data analysis included many similar examples in the preservice students’
journals. The field experience component of the teacher education program provided
the opportunity to gain experience and practice in an educational setting. Rodgers
(2002) asserts that experiences alone are not enough to develop growth through
reflection. It is the meaning, the thought that “one perceives in and then constructs
from an experience that gives the experience value” (p.848).
Examples of descriptive reflection in the program under study were also
evident during the student teaching practicum. The teacher education program
required the student teachers to compose weekly journal entries as part of their
student teaching field experience requirement. The content of the preservice
teachers’ lesson reflections, associated with student teaching experiences, could be
described as technical in nature. They have an inward focus, to the preservice
teachers’ own self, as they respond to the contextual demands of the field.

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McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) found similar results in their assessment of
reflection content.
Student teachers posted lesson plan reflections following the execution of a
planned lesson. The general methods course requirement that student teachers use
certain “models of teaching” appears to have provided a performance focus for the
student teachers, rather than a goal oriented approach. The majority of the content
posted in the lesson plan reflections during student teaching was concerned with how
successful the student teacher was implementing a particular “model.” The
reflections demonstrate the learning process of the student teachers as they attempt to
conduct lessons based on a specific lesson plan requirement in the general methods
courses. Reflections appear to be personal reviews related to the performance during
the lessons. This is not surprising, as the student teachers are evaluated on their
performance and delivery of the newly learned techniques or “models” by their
university field supervisors. The reflections submitted by the student teachers focus
on the technical side of a teacher’s performance rather than an assessment driven by
instructional practice. While teacher candidates are interested in opportunities to
hone their skills, this is not sufficient preparation for the professional role of teaching
(Schulz, 2005). Teaching is more than set of technical skills; it requires the
development of the ability to analyze teaching, and the development of the ability to
reason about the cause-effect relationship between teaching and learning (Hiebert et
al., 2007).

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The majority of the lesson plan reflections in the program under study
included a description of what type of lesson was conducted. Lesson plan reflections
composed during student teaching also included statements about whether the lesson
plan was “successful.” The student teachers generally felt that their lessons were
successful based on how they were able to execute the particular lesson plan format
(performance based). The following lesson plan reflection indicates the student
teacher’s focus on implementation of the Concept Attainment “model” of teaching.
Since the focus remains on the student teacher’s ability to implement this particular
model, the depth of the reflection cannot move beyond descriptive reflection.
Concept Attainment is fun! The students were engaged and thinking very
hard throughout the lesson, as they had never done this before. It went pretty
much just how I had planned and exceeded my expectations in terms of
involvement of students. They were especially excited to show me what they
know by adding to the yesses and noes towards the end of the lesson. The
one thing they had difficulty with was the metacognition portion, although
with enough wait time a few of the students were able to vocalize what they
were thinking…. They also really enjoyed my reading aloud from the book at
the end and looking at the pictures in order to get some of their questions
answered. I really like this model as a stepping off point for a new unit.
(Student #342)

Developing confidence with the technical aspects of teaching may be
important, but the constant focus towards self neglects the need to explore below the
surface in terms of discussing professional issues and phenomena (McLaughlin &
Hannifin, 1994).
This was the first group investigation that I did which I felt really fit the
model. It matched a lot of standards, not only in history, but also in
Language Arts as well. The kids were excited by the idea because we hadn't
done that many group investigations with them before, and the concept

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attainment I did as an introduction/warm-up to the group investigation got
them thinking about national monuments and memorials. (Student #351)

This student teaching reflection demonstrates the student teacher’s development of
efficacy in practice. The student teacher included a statement about feeling
successful with the model. For this student teacher, a successful lesson is measured
by the students’ excitement level. However, while engagement is a key component
in teaching and learning, it does not necessarily follow that the lesson outcome was
achieved. In the excerpt below, the student teacher writes about an attempt to teach a
math lesson. The student teacher realizes that the first attempt to teach the lesson did
not go as well as planned, and attributes the disappointment to the energy level of the
students.
This lesson did not go over so well the first day that I tried to teach it! There
were a lot of factors as to why this lesson was not taught well and there are a
lot of factors as to why the class as a whole was unable to focus and learn at
this specific math time. What ended up happening was that I only got
through the demonstration portion of the lesson on the first day that I tried to
teach this lesson and it was pretty much a complete failure!! So, I attempted
this lesson the second day when the kids were more able to focus, they had
less wild/crazy energy and were more engaged and ready to learn. On day
two, this lesson went really well!!! (Student #360)

The student teacher provides an explanation for why the lesson failed on the first
day, and why it was more successful on the second day. It is curious that the student
teacher accepted little responsibility for the lesson, or for student learning. As the
next excerpt reveals, the student teacher learned from conducting this lesson, but is
not necessarily concerned with student learning.
So overall, the lesson failed miserably the first day that I tried to teach it but
not because the students were unable to understand the material and not

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because it was a poorly written lesson…but because it was just not the right
circumstances. The kids were very, very wild/ energetic/ hot/ in need of
discipline/ etc. …I need to be able to read my students and know what they
are and are not capable of at the time of each lesson. The first day, they were
incapable of learning this new material and I should have switched gears and
moved on to a new activity that allowed them to take some of their energy
out in a more constructive way. I really did learn a lot from this lesson!!!
(Student #360)

The student teacher provides a description of the problem and generates an
explanation based on external factors. It is not clear what the student teacher learned
from the lesson, nor is it clear what the students learned. What is missing in this
reflection is inquiry into the problem that generates a question and seeks a solution
(Hatton and Smith, 1995; Korthagen and Wubbels, 2001; Rodgers, 2002). The
student teacher jumps to the conclusion that the lesson failed because of the students.
The lesson itself, and its content, were not considered to be factors.
Struggles with technical aspects of teaching were evident in the journals and
reflections, in the teacher candidates’ discussions concerning classroom
management. In the following lesson reflection, the student teacher is preoccupied
with both classroom management and pacing issues.
I was so pleased with how our opera lesson went. It was especially strong at
the beginning. The students were really engaged in the music and the
coloring and even became really interested in the actual opera they will be
seeing on their field trip. Again classroom management is a bit difficult, but
I think that with more lessons I teach, the students will get more used to me
as a teacher, and will subsequently calm down. Another reason why the
lesson did not end as strong as it began was because of our timing. The entire
lesson took a lot longer than expected, therefore forcing us to rush the
independent practice and closing. Overall though I am extremely happy with
the way the lesson went and I am glad that the students will be well prepared
for the field trip and the performance. (Student # 376)

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The student teacher addresses the concerns regarding classroom management and
lesson pacing as a function of time and practice, instead of as a function of
instruction. Here again, the success of a lesson was viewed in terms of procedural
ability. Missing is the inquiry into how and why classroom management is difficult.
The student teacher jumps to the assumption that classroom management and lesson
pacing evolve from practice. The connection between learning theory and classroom
practice is diminished (Moore, 2003). The belief that learning how to teach
improves as a function of practice and time, as held by preservice teachers, is
prevalent in the journals and lesson plan reflections throughout the program.
The process of reflection and inquiry assists teachers in informing their
practice (Rodgers, 2002) by testing hypothesis regarding student learning and
instruction. One student teacher discovered an instructional strategy to assist with
management issues during the lessons. They utilized a strategy of blending peers by
ability levels. The thinking behind this strategy emerges in a weekly journal entry
written during student teaching, but not as a lesson plan reflection. The weekly
journal is a required component during student teaching, and the prompt for the
journal is open-ended. In the journal entry, the student teacher writes about an issue
with magnet schools. The master teacher had shared that state officials were coming
to visit to evaluate whether to continue magnet programs. The student teacher shares
a belief about magnet schools, and uses a theoretical perspective to support that
belief.

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Magnet programs and GATE programs are viewed as being elitist and I do
agree. They exclude students who are not considered gifted and do not give
them the chance to learn in a more challenging environment. Vygotsky says
that students acquire knowledge through social learning. I also believe that
and so if low-scoring students are mixed with high-scoring students, they will
learn by interacting with each other. (Student #395, 4/26/2006)

In a later lesson plan reflection, the student teacher writes about pairing students not
in terms of educational learning theory, but in terms of classroom procedure:
classroom management. When discussing instructional strategies, the connection
between theory and practice which had been made when the student teacher was
addressing a general issue in education, becomes lost.
Considering how rowdy my class can get, I think that this lesson went pretty
well. After setting up my classroom rules, the students have been responding
better to me. I also realized that when I incorporated games or something
different (i.e., throwing a penny and die) into my lessons, the students were
motivated to do the activities and/or class work. I did notice that some
students did not understand the big idea at first, but when I explained it to
them by doing other examples on the board or at their desk one-on-one, they
grasped the concept. Sometimes, my student helpers assisted their neighbor
if they didn’t understand what was supposed to be done. So throughout my
lesson, students were on task and learning constantly. I’ve learned
throughout this student teaching experience that by giving the rowdy students
the responsibility to teach/help another student, they begin to respond a lot
better to me. (Student #395, 6/16/06)

The student teacher uses the strategy of peer tutoring as a classroom management
tool. Peer tutoring supports the teacher, whereas the journal entry that the student
teacher wrote previously describes how the pairing of students supports student
learning.

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Dialogic Reflection
While the majority of the teacher candidates’ written journals and reflections
indicated engagement with descriptive reflection, demonstrated evidence of dialogic
reflection was more difficult to identify. In dialogic reflection, a “form of discourse
with oneself” emerges, and the student attempts to explore a problem and find ways
to explain an event or action. Dialogic reflection is analytical; it demonstrates an
understanding that there may be multiple factors and perspectives when thinking
about an experience or action. For dialogic reflection to occur, one must ask
questions and critique the problem observed more deeply. Schultz (2005) describes
that a preservice teacher may write about the concept of grouping children. The
reflection may not necessarily deal with the concept of grouping, but rather “whether
the preservice teacher problematized the concept” (p. 52). In essence, the reflection
would demonstrate that the preservice teacher discussed the question or perceived
problem in such a manner that impacted and transformed their practice. According
to Hatton and Smith (1995), dialogic reflection demonstrates a degree of critical
engagement with the experience or action. In the analysis of the data, teacher
candidates posed questions or sought to integrate learned pedagogical knowledge
into their thinking. Furthermore, Rodgers (2002) and Mezirow and Associates
(2000) assert that in descriptive reflection there is discussion of a problem or
disorienting event that leads to generating possible explanations, or generating
questions concerning the problem or event.

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In the following journal entry, the preservice teacher notices the learning
attempts of one student, and recognizes that the structure of the instruction is not
meeting the needs of all the students. The preservice teacher links concepts and
theories to guide her practice (Schultz, 2005), as well as seeking a solution to the
problem.
In doing my first class observation and the Module I project, I became
conscious of the fact that many students have learning problems. There is not
a more powerful experience than watching a student who is struggling at such
a tender age, especially if the teacher is unable to help that child. This was
the case for my Module I project, and watching the young student I re-named
“Steve” try his hardest and still fail was almost heartbreaking. So I developed
my lesson plan with him in mind and became a firm believer in Carol Ann
Tomlinson’s differentiated classroom theory. I felt like I knew what could
really help “Steve” and those like him overcome his learning challenge and
succeed academically. While I cannot help him now, I hope I will one day be
able to help students like him in my own class. (Student #350)

The experience of observing students struggle in the classroom indicates a revised
sense of understanding about students with learning problems. The preservice
teacher made a connection between the problem, learning problems, and a possible
solution: differentiated instruction. This journal excerpt, written during an early field
experience, demonstrates the impact that the experience produced in the preservice
teacher’s practice. During the student teaching practicum, this preservice teacher
demonstrated awareness of a student struggling during a lesson. In a lesson plan
reflection, the same student teacher not only states that she was aware that students
were struggling, she also states what she did differently and what results a change in
direction produced. In the post-lesson reflection the student teacher writes:

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I was momentarily caught off guard while teaching this lesson, as I soon
discovered that a good number of the students were struggling with division.
But I was able to adjust my teaching quickly and encouraged the students to
use operations other than division to solve for perimeter. This actually led to
a great discussion of problem solving strategies and I had students show their
classmates these alternative methods. (Student # 350)

The student teacher takes a critical look at what is happening during the lesson and
changes direction. This reflection demonstrates thinking that is “open-minded” to
looking at new ways to make the material and learning relevant to the students.
Being “open-minded” is an essential component to developing a reflective practice.
Dewey (1997) portrays open-mindedness as new ways of understanding and seeing.
It does not mean a blind acceptance to all new ideas, but rather the willingness to
consider alternative perspectives along with the understanding that there may be
some errors in our beliefs and thinking.
In dialogic reflection, one engages a degree of critical engagement with the
experience or action. There is evidence of dialogic reflection in a journal entry
written during the first semester of teacher education coursework (the early field
experience). The preservice teacher had the opportunity to observe a fourth grade
class during early field experience. In reading Dr. Tomas Gordon (2003), author of
Teacher Effectiveness Training, the preservice teacher begins to question specific
beliefs about what it means to be a good teacher.
One of my biggest concerns in becoming a teacher has always been, “What
does it take to be good teacher?” As a teacher, I want to be as open as I can
with my students, helping them in any possible way, but I find that the line
between that which is socially acceptable and that which is inappropriate
sometimes mesh into shades of grey. I want to be a good teacher, but I find
myself feeling overwhelmed by the fact that in this day in age, a teacher

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really must watch their back when dealing with their students. And, is this
type of community, in which the teacher is always on his/her guard,
conducive to the best possible education we can provide for our students?
(Student #355)

The preservice teacher fears that teaching may not turn out to be the rewarding
career that was imagined.
Dr. Tomas Gordon states that teaching should be one of the most rewarding,
gratifying and exciting professions, but unfortunately, it has been the case for
many teachers that their experiences have been quite the opposite… I don’t
want to become this. As I observe in Mr. G’s class, I see the signs that this
poor teacher has experienced: the putting down of students by other students,
the laziness, the cheating…all of this is part of my observation experience
and I don’t like it. It is very disheartening to see such acts present in a fourth
grade class, it really does almost make me want to cry. (Student #355)

This preservice teacher works through the myths of “good teachers.” There is a
sense of relief in the journal entry that to be a “good teacher” does not mean that you
have to be super-human. There appears to be some disequilibrium in the preservice
teacher’s thinking about “good teachers.”
“Myth 6: Good teachers are consistent. They never vary or make mistakes.
Again I stress, teachers are not perfect nor are they superhuman.…” Myth 8:
Good teachers support each other. In last week’s lecture, [our instructor]
stressed that teachers will only work together when forced to by the
administration, so again, this is one very false assumption made on teachers’
behalf…. As Gordon states, “the essential fallacy here is basic: these myths
ask teachers to deny their humanity.” (Gordon, 21) If we as teachers accept
our humanity, we will, as a result, come into our own as teachers. Our
success is determined, to a great part, through our acceptance of our
imperfections. Only then can we really hope to succeed as teachers.
(Student # 355)

During student teaching, this student teacher continued to conduct a self-check on
their progress in becoming a teacher. The student teaching reflection includes an

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examination of how this process of teacher development is progressing, and offers
some insight into their thinking about their personal journey to develop their teacher
identity.
In reading my observation notes from the last lesson observed, I have come
to the conclusion that on the way towards becoming a competent teacher, I
still have a ways to go. But this is okay..., I am still learning, after all, I am
still ‘novice,’ and will be so entering the profession next year. And, is this
not the place and time for me to make mistakes (hopefully not at the expense
of my students’ education) and learn from those mistakes how to become a
competent teacher content in what she is doing in her profession of choice?
...I just feel that as a class, my students have been slightly cheated in terms of
‘how’ ‘why’ and ‘what’ they are being introduced to and instructed in…. I
believe that it is this in particular: how students are introduced to learning,
how it is laid out for them (is it connected to their experiences or is there a
sort of discontinuity to the lesson and their own experiences), and ‘why’ is
something being taught...why is it important to the student to learn about this
particular topic, that is in effect highly correlated with how students perform
in the future both in and outside of school. In this sense, my students are
truly lacking in the future. (Student #355)

This journal entry demonstrates inquiry that steps back from the events. The student
teacher is searching for possible alternatives for explaining student learning. In
addition, there is a self-reflection concerning the student teacher’s personal growth in
becoming a teacher. The student teacher recognizes the need for continued learning
and growth, and the need to analyze student learning. This student teacher has
recognized some inconsistencies in classroom instruction (Hatton & Smith, 1995).

Critical Reflection
Evidence of critical reflection was difficult to distinguish in this study. For
critical reflection to occur, thinking must expand beyond multiple perspectives and

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delve into the understanding of experiences by looking at multiple historical and
socio-political contexts. Critical reflection, according to Genor (2005), entails a
better “understanding of the conditions that exist outside of the classroom” (p. 58).
Critical reflection occurs when a teacher examines the impact of socio-economic
conditions on curriculum, assessment, instruction and educational policies. It
requires the teacher to develop a broader lens by which to examine conditions that
impact teaching.
The analysis of weekly journals and lesson plan reflections demonstrates that,
based on the framework of Hatton and Smith (1995), the teacher candidates engaged
in the beginning stages of reflection during the 13-month program. The largest
portion of the journal entries were coded primarily for descriptive reflection.
Dialogic reflection was present in about 30% of the coded written documents. No
journals or lesson plan reflections represented critical reflection. Journals written
during the beginning teacher education coursework were coded as descriptive
writing. Descriptive writing is not reflective, but rather a description of events that
occurred, or a report of literature (Hatton & Smith, 1995). Technical reflection is the
obvious beginning point for prospective teachers. In order for the writing to be
considered reflective, there needs to be an attempt to provide some justification or
reason for the events reported. In other words, according to Genor (2005), for
prospective teachers to engage in critical reflection means developing:
…insight in the teaching context by seeking to understand the student
population, the social and political conditions of the community that
influence the students’ lives and their success in schools, and the resources

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available to meet the diversity of the needs present in the specific setting.
This increased understanding leads preservice teachers to question existing
beliefs that confront their new-found insight. (p. 56)

The journals included a lot of material in terms of thoughtful topics, but none of the
reflections indicated that the preservice teachers had internally confronted any issues
that compelled them to problematize their thinking and critically reflect about an
experience.

Summary
The findings from this study answered the four research questions that were
presented in Chapter 1. The following section of this study provides the results of
the study as related to the research questions.

What role do preservice teacher education programs play in informing and
influencing teacher belief systems?
The results of the study indicate that the preservice teachers’ theoretical
perspectives did not develop over the course of the teacher education program, and
show little evidence that the preservice teachers were able to link theory to practice.
Essentially, the degree to which the preservice teachers included discussions of
theory, teaching English learners (EL), socio-economic implications and culture,
varied little between the early field experience journals and reflective journals
written during student teaching. These findings concur with the literature on teacher
education research (Clift and Brady, 2005; McMahon, 1997; Freese, 2006; Moore,

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2003), which reveals that early field experience has the potential to set in motion the
linking of theory to practice, as well as to explore teachers’ prior beliefs and
attitudes. Analysis of the content of the journals in this study revealed that the
preservice teachers attempted to make connections between the foundation course
content, and their early field experience observations. The content of the early field
experience journals offered insight into significant assumptions and beliefs that the
preservice teachers held related to teaching in urban schools, classroom
environments and educational strategies and practices. It is not clear that these
assumptions and beliefs were unpacked and made explicit as an activity or
experience during the teacher preparation program coursework. Analysis of the
journals and lesson plan reflections written during student teaching shows no
increase in references to theories, student learning outcomes, and teaching in urban
schools.

Theoretical Reflection in Early Field Experience Journals: The journals
written during the early field experience component of the core foundational courses
included a wide variety of topics. The study results revealed that the preservice
teachers were impacted by the teachers, students and classroom environments visited
during their observations. The journals suggest that the preservice teachers were
beginning to contemplate their development as teachers. They touched on issues that
are important for teachers to consider, but the thinking only skimmed the surface.

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Research has focused on teacher candidates’ examination of their prior beliefs
towards schools, teachers and students as an important part of investigating a wide
range of theoretical perspectives. Studies of preservice teachers’ prior beliefs (Au,
1998; Davis, 2006; Gupta, 2004; Hollingsworth, 1989; Pang and Sablan, 1998) have
illustrated that under-processing of prior beliefs and attitudes results in teachers
teaching as they were taught (Lortie, 2002). As the number of teachers teaching
students from diverse backgrounds increases (Hollins and Guzman, 2005; U.S.
Department of Education, 2005), teacher educators must prepare teachers who can
teach students utilizing pedagogically-based theories and evidence-based practices
that will result in high student achievement. The student-directed journal topics in
this study were random and somewhat unstructured. The journals included many
statements about surface-level observations, rather than analytical inquiry. Absent
from the journals were references to and reflection on how students were learning,
and teacher choices for pedagogy and curriculum.

Theoretical Reflection in Student Teaching Journals: The journals and
reflections written during the student teaching practicum were primarily focused on
the technical aspects of teaching. Essentially, the findings of this investigation
suggest that the preservice teachers under study showed increases in theoretically-
based understanding tied to their teaching practice during the course of the teacher
education program. References to, or discussion about, learning theories tied to

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practice were virtually absent from the written journals. The journals rarely included
discussions of and references to theory and teaching English learning. Additionally,
sparse references were made to teaching and learning with respect to associated
socio-economic and cultural implications. The focus of the journals was “what I
taught in the lesson,” and “how I taught the lesson.” The preservice teachers were
often preoccupied with “what I taught today,” and became stuck at a surface level of
self, without development of their identity as novice teachers. Rodgers (2002)
asserts that while the self is important, it is only important as it connects to the other
element of teaching: the learner. Rodgers (2002) writes that:

…reflection is not an end in itself but a toll or vehicle used in the
transformation of raw experiences into meaning-filled theory that is grounded
in experience, informed by existing theory and serves the larger purpose of
the moral growth of the individual and society. (p. 863)

The overall pattern of the content of the journals suggests that the student teachers
did not realize the complexity of teaching in practice. Absent from the journals is a
realization of the impact of setting and context on teaching (Schultz, 2005). It was
unclear from the analysis if the student teachers thought about what it means to be a
teacher and a learner, and how school and classroom environments shape educational
experiences. A conclusion from my analysis of the content of the journals and lesson
plan reflections is that the teacher candidates were writing with the sole purpose of
completing the journal assignments. Cranton (2006) warns that often the journal
process leads to students writing what the instructor wants to read. Rarely did the
journals in this study reflect a stance of inquiry that sought to go beyond

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understanding what works in a classroom. In other words, the journal content did
not indicate that the preservice teachers appeared to be making sense of new
experiences or to be broadening their field of knowledge.
Analysis of the content of the journals is linked to the findings from analysis
of the depth of the journals and lesson plan reflections.

What role do reflective journals play in informing teacher candidates’ practice?
And what role do preservice beliefs play in their reflections?

Research in the area of teacher learning asserts that a necessary and desirable
function of teacher education (Schulz, 2005; Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001; Ostorga,
2006; Rodgers, 2002) is teaching teachers to utilize inquiry and reflection to inform
their practice. Technical knowledge often limits teachers in understanding how
children are learning. As evidenced in the analysis of the teacher candidates’
journals and reflections in this study, the majority of the teacher candidates focused
their reflections and journals on what they were teaching and how they were
teaching. Analysis of the depth of the reflections (Hatton & Smith, 1995) showed
that most of the teacher candidates’ reflections were at the descriptive reflection
stage. Their journals and lesson plan reflections contained writing that was largely
based on personal judgment, or from the course readings. Van Manen (1977)
maintains that, unless they are urged to think more deeply, most preservice teachers
usually stay in a place of reflection that focuses primarily on technical issues of
teaching. The student teaching journals and lesson plan reflections contained

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numerous references to concerns about student teaching performance, lesson
planning and classroom management. Most frequently the written discussions were
unproblematized examples of reflective response, and demonstrated the teacher
candidates’ thinking about a topic related to teaching in a generalized, surface-level
and abstract manner. Typically, the preservice teachers approached an issue by
looking for practical strategies to implement in their teaching, rather than by
examining the question or issue more critically. Genor (2005) found similar results
in her study, which investigated the depth of inquiry and reflection in preservice
collaborative discussion groups. One explanation for the limited depth in the journal
writing may be that the preservice teachers were writing descriptions of their
observations and student teaching experiences, rather than using reflection as a tool
for problem solving and learning. Unless teacher candidates perceive that there is
some element of disconnect or problem between their beliefs and their perceptions
regarding schools and education, there is little basis for reflection. Dewey (1997)
and Rodgers (2002) frame this process as generating possible explanations for a
problem or question posed, developing hypotheses, and then testing or
experimenting with the hypotheses. The results of my study clearly demonstrate that
the phases of generating possible explanations, developing hypotheses, and then
experimenting with hypotheses, were absent from the majority of the written journals
and reflections.
From my study results, I am left with the possibility that perhaps the weekly
journals and lesson plan reflections do not constitute “true” reflections. The term

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‘reflection’ is used often in teacher education research and practice, but
understanding how it is developed in teacher candidates, and how it is measured, is
often lost in the teacher education cliché (Rodgers, 2002). Hatton and Smith (1995)
argue that the terms ‘reflection’ and ‘critical reflection’ are often ill-defined, and
loosely used in teacher education to embrace a wide range of strategies and concepts
associated with teacher preparation and teacher development.

What Role Can Teacher Educators Play in Transformative Learning Processes in
Teacher Candidates during Preservice Programs in Urban Settings?

In this study, I investigated how reflective writing contributed to the
development of teacher candidates in their teacher education program. The results
presented in Chapter 4 indicate that, for the specific teacher education program in
which I gathered my data, the journals and lesson reflections showed little evidence
of transformation of perceptions from student to teacher that reflected the
complexities of teaching in urban schools. Much of the research in teacher education
suggests results similar to those of this study when a course-by-course strategy is
utilized to facilitate the transformation of teacher candidates’ perceptions (Clift and
Brady, 2005; McMahon, 1997; Hollingsworth, 1989; Risko, Roskos, and Vukelich,
2002). Other research indicates that a change in teacher candidates’ perceptions can
occur when the teacher education program shifts from a traditional approach to
teacher education, to an approach based on experimental learning and purposeful
reflection (Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001). While reflection is an accepted teacher

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education performance expectation, by state and national standards, my study
concurs with the body of research which posits that reflection does not
spontaneously occur during the time a teacher candidate spends in a teacher
education program (Genor, 2005; Hatton and Smith, 1995; Moore, 2003; Rodgers,
2002; Ostorga, 2006; Hutchinson and Allen, 1997). In order for authentic reflection
on practice to develop, teacher candidates need to engage in meaningful inquiry
about the beliefs and perceptions they bring with them as apprentices of education
(Lortie, 2002). Hutchinson and Allen (1997) ask an important question: “What
causes one person to experience a situation and remain virtually unchanged while
another person is able to use the experience to reconfigure her or his belief system?”
(p. 227). What a person chooses to do with an experience begins the process that
initiates growth.

Conclusion
The analysis of the weekly journals and lesson plan reflections examined the
breadth of content and depth of reflection over the 13-month teacher education
program. The findings from this study conclude that the developmental trajectory of
the teacher candidates showed minimal growth in terms of the integration of
pedagogical knowledge as well as the development of critical inquiry skills. The
impact of the early field experience showed potential for the integration of theory
into practice. Early field experiences, along with the student teaching practicum,
provided opportunities in which the preservice teachers could make meaning out of

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the experiences. Transformative learning theory asserts that learning is making
meaning out of experiences that question assumptions based on prior beliefs
(Cranton, 2006). As Cranton asserts, “Transformational learning is a process of
examining, questioning, validating and revising our perceptions” (p. 23). In the
journals and lesson plan reflections in this study, there was little evidence of
problematic references.
The analysis of the content of the journals revealed categories that were
consistently absent: theory, teaching EL, socio-economic and culture. Without the
theory with which to reflect on different ways of doing, the depth of the reflections
remained at the level of descriptive reflection, with only a few journals reaching
dialogic reflection. In addition, without situating the classroom experience gleaned
from their field experience observations and student teaching practicum, the teacher
candidates were not able to produce critical reflective journals. Student teaching
journals were about how and what the student teachers taught, and the weekly
journals addressed a specific random theme that the students chose to write about for
the week. It was difficult to see connections between the two sets of journals for the
program under study: lesson plan reflections and weekly journals. This researcher
attempted to align weekly journals with lesson plan reflections posted during the
same time-frame, but it was very difficult to see any direct relationship. It was as
though the teacher candidates were writing for two different audiences.
In general, the reflections in the program used as a study site for this
dissertation had more breadth than depth. Salient aspects of the content across all

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levels of reflection were issues concerning the development of teacher/professional
identity, locus of control, performance orientation, surface levels of understanding of
diversity, and surface levels of understanding of student assessment and learning.
These findings have educational psychology principles at their core. The findings
inform teacher educators about the development of teaching and learning in the
practice of teacher candidates. This study utilized written reflections to follow the
development of preservice teachers through their preservice teacher education
program. The findings from the study inform teacher educators about the
effectiveness and impact of early field experiences, the importance of connecting
field experiences to foundational and methods coursework assignments using a
deliberate reflective practice as a means for promoting teacher learning, and the
importance of connecting the student teaching experience to assessment-based
course assignments that stretch beyond procedural assignments as critical elements
of teacher preparation.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

Once contradictions are apparent, teachers (and teacher educators)
have two choices; they can become shrewdly clear of their need to be
reactionary, or they can accept a critical position to engage in action
to transform reality. — Freire

This study employed qualitative research methods to retrospectively analyze
journals and lesson plan reflections written by teacher candidates during the 13
months that they were enrolled in a Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) program in a
top-tier university-based urban teacher education program. The purpose of the study
was to investigate the development of preservice teacher transformative learning, and
the development of the teacher professional identity. The study also sought to
examine the breadth and depth of the content of the journals and lesson plan
reflections. Analysis of the breadth of the journals and lesson plan reflections
centered on examining what aspects of the teacher education program the teacher
candidates found important to include in their reflections. With respect to the depth
of the journals and lesson plan reflections, the study examined the processes and
levels of reflection and inquiry. A comparison of journals for both depth and breadth
was included, with the purpose of examining the development of the teacher
candidates’ knowledge of pedagogy over the trajectory of the teacher education
program, as a means of documenting the teacher development process throughout the
program.
The data presented in this dissertation was derived from a selection of the
journals and lesson plan reflections written by 15 randomly-selected preservice

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teachers. The electronically-archived journals and lesson plan reflections were
written over the duration of the teacher education program. The data included
journals collected from the core foundational courses, which included early field
experience components, and journals and lesson plan reflections collected from the
16 weeks of student teaching during the program. The results of this study were
described in Chapter 4. In this chapter, I will discuss the insights that I gained from
investigation of the journals and lesson plan reflections. I present the general
implications that this study has for the field of teacher education. I qualify these
implications, as the study represents findings through the self-study of only one
teacher preparation program, and may not easily be generalized to other programs.
This is particularly true since the review of teacher education literature reveals that
preservice programs vary greatly in content, structure and design. Finally, I make
preliminary recommendations for teacher educators based on the findings of this
study.
This study incorporated the framework on teacher reflection by Hatton and
Smith (1995) for analysis of the depth of the reflections written by the teacher
candidates. Additionally, the theory of transformative learning (Mezirow and
Associates, 2000; Cranton, 2006) guided the analysis of the reflections. The study
utilized grounded theory for data analysis, in an effort to find emerging themes in the
content of the journals and lesson plan reflections.
Schultz (2005) suggests that there is an unspoken assumption in teacher
education that teacher candidates enter a teacher education program knowing how to

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reflect on their learning, and that they understand the concept of reflection as a
means for growth and learning. In the teacher education program studied here, there
were no prompts for the journals, or guided reflections. In the early field experience,
related reflections connected to the program’s foundational courses, however there
were prompt-based course assignments tied to field assignments, which guided the
reflective responses. As Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) argue, learning from
practice is not always productive. During student teaching, and their first years of
professional teaching, teacher candidates and beginning teachers become stressed by
the experience, resulting in the diminishing use of theory-based practice learned
during the preservice teacher education program. The literature on reflection stresses
the importance of developing an attitude and stance of problem solving in teacher
candidates, which is necessary in order to enable them to learn from their own
experiences by means of reflection. According to the research, the ultimate goal of
reflection is the “ability to continue to develop when the preparation program is
over” (Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001, p. 47). This outcome with respect to reflection
might be considered to be a “growth competence.” It can also help teachers play an
active role in educational change and thus promote their innovative capacity.
Structures or models of reflection described in the literature were cited in
Chapter 2 of this dissertation.
Hutchinson and Allen (1997) describe a reflection integration model (RIM),
which consists of four components: (1) a pre-experience; (2) experience; (3)
reflection; and (4) integration. The RIM model is based on the concept of

213
experiential learning theory, which is founded on the assumption that people learn
from experience. The question that Hutchinson and Allen (1997) ask is not if people
will learn, but what they will learn. The learning outcome of an experience is
dependent on whether the experience is processed. This approach to reflection is
designed to facilitate preservice teachers in becoming reflective learners. The RIM
model provides teacher educators and preservice teachers with a mechanism for
developing a reflective approach to processing experiences.
Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) developed a five-step model describing the
process of reflection, which uses the acronym ALACT: (1) Action; (2) Looking back
on the action; (3) Awareness of essential aspects; (4) Creating alternative methods of
action; and (5) Trial. This model is formulated around the “realistic” approach to
teacher education, which proposes that reflection in teacher education should take
student teachers’ experiences and their concerns as a starting point for learning
(Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001). ALACT is an inductive approach that weaves
together experiences and reflection, and builds on the perceptions of the prospective
teachers as they approach concrete learning situations. The ALACT model, like the
RIM model, is based on the experiential learning theory.
Rodgers (2002) offers a four-step inquiry model. The first step in Rodgers’
model is the presence of the experience. The experience must represent a real event
that a teacher can learn from, and which offers the opportunity to foster reflection.
The second step in the inquiry model is observation and description of the
experience. In this stage, teachers collect the facts of the experience. Important to

214
this stage is that the preservice teacher not jump to conclusions. All the data must be
gathered and examined before analysis can occur. In analysis of the experience, the
third stage, teachers interpret what they have observed and/or gathered, and blend the
observations with their previous experience and/or formal knowledge to develop an
informed interpretation. Exploratory hypotheses begin to explain the experience.
The final step, intelligent action and further experimentation, leads to the decision-
making process regarding what to do instructionally. Further experimentation refers
to assessment and evaluation as ways of continuing to gather evidence and refine
hypotheses.
Each of these models — which are outlined in Table 8 — includes the
guidance of teacher educators.
Table 8: Three Models of Reflection
Hutchinson & Allen
(1997) — RIM
Rodgers (2002) Korthagen & Wubbels
(2001) — ALACT
Pre-experience Presence of experience Action
Experience Description of experience Looking back on the
action
Reflection Analysis of experience Awareness of essential
aspects
Integration Intelligent
action/experimentation
Creating alternative
methods
Trial

All three models presented begin with an experience or action, and build
from that experience. Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) assert that, in the ALACT

215
model, theory is integrated into the process at the third stage: awareness of essential
aspects. Theory becomes integrated into the reflective process as preservice teachers
are confronted with issues and problems. All three models provide a structure for
developing and supporting reflection in teacher education. I recommend that these
models be utilized by the program that I studied as a means of providing links across
coursework tied to field experience. If a goal of the program that I studied is to
promote teacher development, the three models provide a means for this goal to be
achieved.

Implications for Teacher Education Research
In this study, I have used electronically archived written journals as a means
of analyzing the reflective process and development of pedagogical knowledge in
preservice teachers. The findings of this study confirm some of the current research
from teacher education related to reflective practices. The methodology of this study
could prove beneficial for teacher educators who engage in self-studies such as the
one completed for this dissertation. Zeichner and Conklin (2005) argue that trying to
isolate the effects of a particular field experience, foundation course or methods
course in teacher education does not generate much useful information. According
to Zeichner and Conklin (2005), “Close study of the inner workings of a teacher
education program will help illuminate the critical features of programs that make a
difference in producing desired outcomes” (p. 700). Importantly, my research
supports the understanding that early field experience, combined with educational

216
coursework, must connect theory to practice with a deliberate connection from
course assignments and course learnings to field-related assignments, in order for
teacher development to occur. This concurs with the review of the literature on
preservice teacher reflection. Models of reflection presented by Hutchinson & Allen
(1997), Korthagen and Wubbels (2001), and Rodgers (2002), suggest that systematic
reflection on field experiences that takes into account the prior experiences and
knowledge of preservice teachers, may produce a more positive learning outcome.

Limitations
This study is limited by several caveats. Firstly, it is a study of a single
teacher preparation program, during only its second year of operation with a
particular design. Additionally, the reflections under study were retrospectively
analyzed. The analysis did not include a review of the responses made by course
instructors, or the university field supervisors who provided guidance to the teacher
candidates during their field-related program experiences. Additionally, since the
onset of this study, the program faculty have conducted assessments of the program
and made program changes to reflect teacher candidates’ needs. Accordingly, the
results cannot be generalized to the teacher education field as a whole.
Additionally, while this study spanned the entire program trajectory during
one academic year, it did not follow the teacher candidates into their first years of
teaching. Nor did this study include the teacher candidates’ voices, or consider their
demographic information. In terms of specific data limitations, I did not interview

217
the teacher candidates or course instructors. Interviews may have provided more in-
depth information about how the teacher candidates viewed the reflective writing
assignments related to the development of their professional identity. Furthermore,
interviews with the course instructors in the teacher education program might have
offered some insights into how the instructors view the purpose of reflection and
inquiry in teacher education. Again, this study was a self-study of a single MAT
program that may not be generalized to teacher preparation programs with differing
models and foci.
As a retrospective analysis, this study served to provide an analytical
framework by which to monitor the learning and development of teacher candidates
in a teacher education program. While the results of the study may not be
generalized to all other self-studies, the methodology of the research may be
replicated for other teacher reflection-related studies, to evaluate program changes
related to new courses, field experiences and strategies.

Recommendations
Teacher Educators
In the following discussion, I make recommendations for teacher educators
based on the findings of this study.
The results of the study suggest that reflection as an activity in teacher
preparation programs should be clearly defined, and deliberately positioned in
purposeful field-related course assignments where reflection is a major assignment

218
component. My findings reveal that when this process occurred, reflection was tied
to theory and had greater breadth and depth. Teacher educators should
programmatically examine the task, nature and process of reflection. Furthermore,
analysis of the journals and reflections revealed that not all the preservice teachers
enter the program with a similar knowledge base, or are at the same level of
reflection. Reflection should be incorporated into all courses tied to field experience,
and structured as a factor of growth. Evident from the study was a preoccupation by
the student teachers with the technical aspects of teaching during the practice
experiences that were associated with their general methods coursework. I would
suggest that the technical aspects of teaching be introduced, practiced and explored
early in the teacher preparation program, but this should be connected to and guided
by student assessment that is connected to theoretical perspectives, particularly as
they relate to learning and language development.
Examining the task of reflecting: The results of this study have significant
implications for teacher educators and teacher education programs. Fostering
inquiry and reflection in teacher education is complex, yet “reflection” is a
requirement in the professional standards for teaching (National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2002). The research (Genor, 2005; Schultz,
2005; Korthagen and Wubbels, 2001; Hatton and Smith, 1995) contends that for
teachers to become critical “reflectors” requires time and guidance. The limited
breadth and depth of the journals and lesson reflections in this study may be related
to the structure and guidance provided by the teacher educators. I was unable to

219
understand this process and its critical components or focus, as I did not collect data
from either the teacher educators in the program or the program’s university field
supervisors. Simply writing about an experience or action does not constitute “true”
reflection or inquiry — as defined by Rodgers (2002) — which moves the person
forward into different thinking and practice-based learning. The journal reflections
in this study appeared to have no set topic requirements or prompts as far as I could
determine; I did not analyze course syllabi or guidance provided by course
instructors or supervisors. The lesson plan reflections also appeared open ended and
procedurally-focused. Accordingly, the preservice teachers superficially evaluated
the procedural aspects of their lessons as they related to performing a “model of
teaching,” a component of the program prescribed in the general methods course.
The result was that the student teachers most often reflected on how they performed
a lesson, rather than providing a problem-based analysis of their development as
teachers. A typical lesson plan reflection might begin with the statement, “This
lesson plan went well” (Student #350). Hatton and Smith (1995) and Korthagen and
Wubbels (2001) contend that teacher education should begin with a focus on
technical skills. The technical form, as Hatton and Smith (1995) write, becomes “a
useful starting point addressing the concerns of students, who can then be
encouraged to move on from that basis to understanding and using the other forms”
(p. 46). Moving beyond the technical form, preservice teachers can focus on
assessing lesson outcomes, in addition to the students’ responses to lessons. It may
be more effective for student teachers to be prompted to respond to teaching events

220
by reflecting on what the students learned, and on what evidence they have for
deciding what the students learned. Deeper dialogic prompts might ask student
teachers to discuss why a lesson is important. In order to analyze reflective writing,
teacher education programs need to have a programmatic definition of “good
teaching” and its relationship to reflection. The question remains how to
operationalize powerful, knowledge-mediated reflection. It appears that tying it to
coursework with deliberate foci on linking theory to practice may be effective.
Elements of this process were present in reflections associated with the early field
experiences that were connected to the foundations courses in the program under
study. The theoretical framework of reflection used by a particular program depends
primarily on its purpose and focus. Korthagen and Wubbels (2001) posit that teacher
education programs should commit to self-reflection in order to come to a
programmatic definition of inquiry and reflection. They propose several questions
that may help teacher education programs define reflection and develop strategies for
reflection: (1) what do we consider as good teaching?; (2) what is the role and nature
of reflection in that view of good teaching?; and (3) what are the characteristics that
distinguish reflective teachers from their less reflective colleagues? (p.132). Based
on the findings of this study, I recommend that teacher educators develop a
programmatic theoretical framework for reflection, to help them structure
experiences and activities in coursework and field experience. There did not appear
to be a deliberate theory-based, course-connected structure for reflective journals in
the student teaching-related reflections in this study. As Hatton and Smith (1995)

221
write, “The theoretical framework for reflection adopted by a particular program will
depend upon the purpose and focus, and therefore upon the assumptions about
teaching and teacher education upon which these are based” (p.35). Teacher
educators should identify techniques and methods that can be used to strengthen the
relationship between teacher candidates’ experiences in practice, and their reflections
on their practice.
The findings of this study suggest that coursework knowledge may not be
universally and deliberately integrated into practice in the program I reviewed.
Teacher education instructors should consider using electronically-posted written
journals and reflections to measure course objectives with respect to preservice
student learning. Journals and reflections become a source of self-reflection for
teacher educators and for teacher education programs. Additionally, if preservice
teachers are required to submit a journal reflection across teacher education courses,
which connects the courses together, instructors would be able to monitor the
integration of course material and texts. This would allow instructors to modify
course activities, assignments, content and field experiences to support the
development of mediated knowledge for the preservice teachers.
Incorporating reflection as a factor for growth: If reflection is a process of
growth, as teacher educators we must begin to guide and mentor the reflection
process by teacher candidates at the beginning of the teacher education program, and
continue facilitation of developmentally-focused reflection throughout the program.
If reflection and inquiry are the processes by which teacher candidates begin to

222
examine their beliefs and attitudes about teachers, education, schools and students,
then we must begin pedagogical instruction, working from teacher candidates’
beliefs and values, and create experiences and generate discussions that question
those beliefs and force deep reflection throughout the program. Teacher educators
should include guided reflections, in conjunction with field experiences, to help
teacher candidates explore their beliefs, attitudes and assumptions related to schools,
student learning, and teaching. These tacit assumptions and beliefs need to be
explored and made explicit. Left unexplored, these assumptions and beliefs could
become grounded in the development of the student teachers’ professional identity.
Without a question or a challenge, reflection cannot occur (Dewey, 1997).
Teacher candidates who become stuck in technical or descriptive reflection
experience difficulty in relating to the issues and challenges of urban education and
their connection to larger societal problems. Zeichner (1996) and Hatton and Smith
(1995) argue that if teachers cannot reflect critically, it is not possible for them to
become agents of change. Perhaps the transition from descriptive writing to critical
reflection can occur when preservice teachers have the opportunity to confront their
fears and anxieties about technical issues related to students and classroom
environments early on, and be guided in exploring the roots of these difficulties early
on in the program.
Additionally, teacher educators may want to examine the role of response to
individual reflective entries, and the role of response to the reflective component in
methodological and foundational coursework, in facilitating the development of

223
linking theory into practice and problem solving in the context of learning and
teaching.
Approaching technical issues of teaching early: Teacher education can help
preservice teachers think about technical problematic issues early in student teaching
at the beginning of the program. Front-loading these difficulties may help to address
them early on, and help teacher candidates to dig deeper in their learning and teacher
identity development throughout the preservice teacher educational process. Moore
(2003) concluded from her study of preservice teachers’ field experiences that by
addressing topics such as classroom management and lesson planning early on as
true concerns for preservice teachers, teacher educators can help student teachers to
make a connection between procedural issues, their beliefs, the role that they play in
student learning, and the importance of educational theory. Korthagen and Wubbels
(2001) make a similar assertion in their realistic approach to teacher education. They
suggest an alternative approach to teacher education that begins with practical
experiences, and the preservice teachers’ perceptions of these experiences, and then
extends to developing a theoretical framework for learning. In the Realistic Teacher
Education Program at the Institute of Education, Utrecht University (Korthagen and
Wubbels (2001), there is “frequent commuting from experience to reflections on
those experiences” (p. 37). This pedagogical approach is fostered by the assumption
that it is important to build on teacher candidates’ preconceptions about education
(Korthagen and Wubbels, 2001) as they form their perceptions of practical situations.

224
Exploration of other forms of reflection: Is reflection overused and under-
examined? Teacher educators should explore additional opportunities other than
written journals and reflections in developing inquiry. Reflection is often thought of
as a written process. Studies such as the one by Genor (2005) have approached
reflection in other forms, including reflective conversations in courses, and peer-
mediated reflection. Teacher education programs should explore such alternative
activities and strategies to develop reflective teachers.
Schultz (2005) posits that reflection and inquiry develop in a social
constructivist environment, and that reflections can be fostered in reflective
discussion circles. If reflection is a social activity, then perhaps reflective discussion
groups based on field experience could foster a deeper sense of inquiry. Consider
the use of videotapes for self-reflection, as Freese (2006) used with her students.
McLaughlin and Hannifin (1994) concluded that the written form of reflection did
not consistently “represent the depth and complexity of thought” (p. 12).

Conclusion
One of the reasons I chose to research reflection for this dissertation was that
I had questions about how reflection and inquiry were effectively fostered in teacher
education. I had not seen a clear and deliberate purpose or function of the process of
reflection in teacher education in the programs in which I had participated. My
review of the literature on teacher education and reflection provides a clear

225
understanding that a reflective learner is able to move beyond the technical aspects
of teaching and into a pedagogically-based practice that utilizes problem solving and
inquiry to teach, develop, and learn. Many prospective teachers do not enter
teaching with an inquiring disposition, and immersion into the classroom does not
deliberately foster the development of inquiry. Therefore, it is important to promote,
inform, and guide a habit of inquiry during teacher preparation, as well as to support
teacher candidates in understanding the vital role that inquiry and reflection have in
learning to teach, and in student learning. Prospective teachers should not feel that
reflection is just another required assignment, but, rather, teacher educators should
assist preservice teachers in understanding how reflection contributes to their
development and identity as professional educators.

226
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235
Appendix A:
Criteria for the Recognition of Evidence for Different Types
of Reflective Writing (Hatton & Smith, 1995 p. 48)

Descriptive
Writing

- Not Reflective

- Description of
events that
occurred/report
of literature

- No attempt to
provide reasons/
justification for
events
Descriptive
Reflection

- Not only a
description of
events but some
attempt to provide
a reason or
justification for
events or action

- Recognition of
alternative
viewpoints in the
research and
literature which
are reported

- Two forms:
(a) Reflection
based on
generally one
perspective/ration
ale
(b) Reflection is
based on the
recognition of
multiple factors
and perspectives
Dialogic
Reflection

- Demonstrates a
“stepping back”
from the
events/actions
leading to a
different level of
mulling about,
discourse with
self and
exploring the
experience,
events and
actions using
qualities of
judgments and
possible
alternatives for
explaining and
hypothesizing.

- Such reflection
is analytical
or/and integrative
of factors and
perspectives and
may recognize
inconsistencies in
attempting to
provide
rationales and
critique.
Critical
Reflection

- Demonstrates
awareness that
actions and
events are not
only located in,
and explicable
by, reference to
multiple
perspectives but
are located in,
and influenced by
multiple
historical and
socio-political
contexts.

236
Appendix B: Percentage Distribution of Enrollment in
Public Elementary and Secondary Schools

Race/ethnicity 1993 2003
White, non-hispanic 66.10% 58.70%
Black, non-hispanic 16.60% 17.20%
Hispanic 12.70% 18.50%
Asian, or Pacific Islander 3.60% 4.40%
American Indian/Alaska Native 1.10% 1.20%

237
Appendix C: Coding Schema

Reflection Cultural
Anecdotal records
Real world connections
Teachable moments
Teaching content
Inductive reasoning
Classroom
management
Discipline
Multicultural
education
Bilingual education
Diverse/diversity
Latino
African-American
Socio-economic Implications of Coursework
Social problems
Socio-economic
Neighborhood
Privilege
Urban
Poverty
EDUC 417
EDUC 415
Math methods
Science Methods
Lemlech
Teaching English Learners Reflection on Student Learning
English language
learners
ELD
BCLAD
SDAI
Realia
Teaching EL
English Instruction
Student learning
Learning
Assessment
Engagement/
engaged
Motivation
Outcome
Discussion of Theory Types of Instructional Methods
Theories of learning
Constructivism
Dewey
Behaviorism
Constructivism
Humanism
Mager’s managerial
theory
John Dewey
Differentiated
classroom theory
Cognition
Transmission of
Knowledge
Advanced organizer
Graphic organizer
Group work
Direct instruction
Guided instruction
Puzzlement
Concept attainment
Jigsaw
Unit of study
Inquiry
Culturally Relevant
Reflection on Lesson Outcomes Elements of Field Experience / Student
Teaching
Different way
Lesson objective
Making connections
Outcomes
Individual differences
Master Teacher
Field experience
Coordinator
Collaboration
Lesson Plan
School Environment
Critical Experiences Preservice Teacher to Teacher
Reflective
Reflection
Observation
Student teaching
Coursework
Methods courses
Field Experience
School Study
Ethnography
Future
Beliefs
My future
I still remember
Teaching profession

238
Appendix D: Journal Count: Student Teaching and Early
Experience

Case IDs Discussion of Theory
Critical Experiences
Types of Instructional Methods
Implications of Coursework
Program Influences
Cultural
Reflection on Student Learning
Socio-economic
Preservice Teacher to Teacher
Teaching English Learners
342 Journal 7 11 19 3 8 3 32 1 8 52
343 Journal 14 13 4 4 6 7 58 1 8 19
344 Journal 3 18 16 20 10 4 40 6 17 43
350 Journal 12 42 15 11 27 11 100 0 38 74
351 Journal 0 34 6 7 2 5 22 2 7 77
355 Journal 5 27 3 19 5 14 39 2 9 24
356 Journal 0 21 1 5 4 1 10 0 6 39
360 Journal 4 6 2 5 0 0 54 0 3 29
375 Journal 6 22 2 4 3 2 55 4 26 39
376 Journal 6 6 3 2 2 5 16 2 16 25
383 Journal 5 12 9 6 3 5 24 0 22 37
384 Journal 9 9 2 4 3 6 29 3 19 28
391 Journal 4 11 2 11 4 2 109 6 26 28
395 Journal 11 8 1 0 7 5 20 4 14 42
402 Journal 14 13 1 0 0 9 33 3 11 27

239
Appendix E: Lesson Plan Reflection Count

Case IDs Discussion of Theory
Elements of Student Teaching
Implications of Coursework
Cultural
Reflection
Socio-economic
Reflection on Lesson Outcome
Reflection on Student Learning
Teaching English Learners
Types of Instructional Methods
342 Lesson Plan reflection 0 2 0 4 6 0 2 24 1 7
343 Lesson plan reflection 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 17 0 5
344 Lesson plan reflection 0 8 0 0 1 0 1 33 0 17
350 Lesson plan reflection 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 6
351 Lesson plan reflection 0 7 2 0 3 0 1 27 0 14
355 Lesson plan reflection 0 3 1 0 5 0 0 18 6 3
356 Lesson plan reflection 0 5 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 0
360 Lesson plan reflection 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 17 0 4
375 Lesson plan reflection 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 9 0 2
376 Lesson plan reflection 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 11 0 2
383 Lesson plan reflection 0 10 1 1 1 0 1 16 1 19
384 Lesson plan reflection 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 1
391 Lesson plan reflection 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 5 0 0
395 Lesson plan reflection 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
402 Lesson plan reflection 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0
Total 1 50 4 7 25 0 11 210 9 80

Abstract (if available)

Abstract A prevalent dilemma in preservice teacher education is the effort to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Researchers working within teacher education engage in a process of examination to understand how preservice teachers develop over time in response to the teacher education program, and how they have developed their professional identity as they finish the program. This study examines the critical elements of an urban-focused program in which teacher candidates participate, so that the relationship between student thinking and program components can be connected.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Myck-Wayne, Janice R. (author)

Core Title Linking theory and practice in teacher education: an analysis of the reflective-inquiry approach to preparing teachers to teach in urban schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/11/2007

Defense Date 06/14/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,preservice teachers,reflection,Teacher Education

Language English

Advisor Ragusa, Gisele (committee chair), Hollins, Etta R. (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email jmyckway@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m609

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Identifier etd-MyckWayne-20070711 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-519452 (legacy record id),usctheses-m609 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MyckWayne-20070711.pdf

Dmrecord 519452

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Myck-Wayne, Janice R.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu