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School to Work Program as a contributor to adult literacy skill development

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School to Work Program as a contributor to adult literacy skill development

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SCHOOL TO WORK PROGRAM AS A CONTRIBUTOR
TO ADULT LITERACY SKILL DEVELOPMENT

by

Elsa Nuno-Toledo

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2010

Copyright 2010 Elsa Nuno-Toledo
ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables iv

Abstract v

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 3
Importance of the Study 4
Definition of Terms 5
Organization of Study 7

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review 8
Types of Adult Education Programs 9
Participants of Adult Education Programs 11
Benefits of Adult Education Programs 15
Obstacles in Adult Education Participation 19
Adult Literacy and Adult Basic Education 23
Basic Skills Education within a Functional Context Learning 29
The School to Work Program and Adult Education 37
Conclusion 40

CHAPTER 3: Research Methodology 42
Research Questions 43
Research Design 43
The Sample and Procedure 44
Data Collection 46
Test of Adult Basic Education 46
Interviews 48
Observations and Document Analysis 48
Data Analysis 50

CHAPTER 4: Results 53
Results for Research Questions One and Two 53
Results for Research Question Three 57
Description of School to Work Program 57
Observations and Document Analysis 58
Student and Staff Interviews 62
Triangulation of Observation, Document Analysis and Interviews 66

iii

CHAPTER 5: Discussion 68
Motivation for Learning 68
Contextualized Literacy Practices 71
The Disconnect Between Motivation for Learning and
Contextualized Literacy Practices 74
Implications for Practice 76
Recommendations for Future Research 78
Limitations and Delimitations 79
Conclusion 80

References 81

Appendices 84
Appendix A: Student Interview Questions 84
Appendix B: Staff Interview Questions 85
Appendix C: Assessment Tool 86

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Candidates Attempting and Passing the GED: Ethnicity
and Gender (2008) 13

Table 2 Candidates Attempting and Passing the GED: California
vs. U.S., Gender (2008) 13

Table 3 Assessment Strategies and Reading Profiles 24

Table 4 Percentage of Adults Literacy Level and Skill Level 27

Table 5 Percentage of Adults with Below Basic Prose Literacy (2003) 27

Table 6 School to Work Program Participants: Age 44

Table 7 School to Work Program Participants: Demographics 44

Table 8 Summary of Lagged Analysis of Demographic Characteristics
on Post-test TABE Reading Scores 55

Table 9 Percentage of School to Work Program Participants
in this Study: Age 56

Table 10 Evidence of Adult Learning Principles within
Contextualized Setting 67

v

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the learning of basic
reading literacy skills in a contextualized, educational career technical training program,
specifically the School to Work Program. The study explores whether adult literacy rates
can change through students’ participation in a contextualized, educational and career
technical training program and investigates what factors are related to any change in adult
literacy rates. This is a mixed method study that uses 1) a quantitative analysis to
determine if there is a significant difference between pre- and post-test reading scores and
what factors influence those literacy changes, and 2) a qualitative analysis to explore the
specific characteristics in a contextualized, educational and career technical training
program. The findings indicate that participants in the study were able to raise their
reading test scores on the Test of Basic Education (TABE) by participating in this
program. Only a single demographic characteristic, age, served as a significant predictor
of participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. Three themes emerged as key issues in
the qualitative portion of this study: motivation for learning, contextualized literacy
practices, and the disconnect between the two. Implications for practice and
recommendations for future research are also discussed.

1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Of the total United States population of 16 to 24 year olds, 8.7% (3.3 million) do
not have a high school diploma (Cataldi, Laird, & KewalRawani, 2009), and more than
39 million (18 %) of adults aged 16 and older without a high school diploma and are not
enrolled in any educational program (American Council on Education, 2009). The
Division of Adult Education and Literacy in the Office of Vocational and Adult
Education (OVAE) administers the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, Title II of
the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), which is the department’s primary
program that supports and promotes services for adults who are educationally
disadvantaged. The purpose of the program is to provide educational opportunities for
adults over the age of 16 not currently enrolled in school, and who lack a high school
diploma or the basic skills to function effectively in the workplace and in their daily lives
(U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Research has found that of the six types of
programs identified by Kim and Creighton (2000), adults are most likely to participate in
work-related courses (23%) and personal development courses (23%), with only 2%
participating in adult basic education/general education development courses (Kim &
Creighton, 2000). Although adult basic education classes are offered, they may not be
utilized effectively by the intended population, since only 2% of the population
participates in them, despite the 39 million U.S. adults without a high school diploma not
enrolled in any educational program (American Council on Education, 2009).

2

Statement of the Problem
The success of the adult basic learner is connected to the learner’s literacy skill
level, because literacy is an integral and necessary component of life-long learning.
Individuals with limited literacy skills are more likely to find it challenging to pursue
their goals in everyday life situations, such as advancing in their jobs, helping their
children succeed in school, and making consumer decisions such as reading and
understanding an apartment rental agreement or buying a car (Sticht, 1990). By contrast,
higher levels of adult literacy will help improve the health and well-being of the adult
learner and their families, and contribute to the economic vitality of their communities
and the nation as a whole (Sticht, 1990).
Educators of Adult Basic Education programs and General Education
Development programs must utilize a teaching manner that emphasizes learning in a
contextual, hands-on learning manner (Belzer, 2004; Gillespie, 2002; Imel, 2000; Sticht,
2000; Tweedell, 2000). Using a functional context approach to teach basic education
subjects such as reading, writing, and arithmetic to adults is most beneficial and can be
taught within the context of teaching job skills (Sticht, 1999, 2000). The School to Work
Program in this study utilizes a contextualized career development approach that
integrates the teaching of academic, vocational, employability skills, and social
competencies through a combination of classroom, practical, and based learning
experiences to prepare young adults for stable, long-term, high-paying jobs (School to
Work Program Annual Report, 2006).
3

The adult basic learner’s literacy skill level can help determine the type of basic
adult education program that will suit the learner best and contribute to his or her success.
Research indicates that 22% of adults are in the Below Basic Level, which means they
possess no more than the most simple and concrete skills in quantitative literacy: 14% in
prose literacy and 12% in document literacy (National Center for Educational Statistics,
NCES, 2003). While research has revealed many statistics on these deficits among
American adults (high school dropout rates, poor literacy levels, etc.), what has not been
studied enough is whether do not adult literacy rates can change by participating in
educational and career technical training programs such as the School to Work Program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the learning
of basic reading literacy skills in a contextualized, vocational adult basic education
program like the School to Work Program. Learning basic academic skills within the
function of real-life experiences transforms basic academic skills into more than just
reading, writing and math to be learned. Rather, these reading, writing and math skills
now serve a larger purpose to aid in learners’ real-life obligations, not just passing the
GED. This is in contrast to the more traditional basic education programs whose main
goal is to accomplish the task of passing the GED. By embedding literacy learning within
the context of job training, adults will rapidly progress from literacy, to job training, to
employment (Sticht, 2000).
It is important to explore if adult literacy rates can change through students’
participation in educational and career technical training programs such as the School to
4

Work Program and to further investigate what factors are related to any change in adult
literacy rates.
Specifically, the following research questions are proposed to guide the current
investigation:
1. Is there a significant difference between pre-test and post-test reading scores in
the School to Work Program participants, as evidenced by their performance
scores on the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) in the subject domain of
reading?
2. What demographic variables such as age, gender, ethnicity, site location,
residency, and high school completion status, influence the difference mean
reading scores on the Test of Basic Education (TABE) for the School to Work
Program participants?
3. What are the specific, functional, and contextual characteristics of reading
instruction in a contextualized educational and career technical training program?
Importance of the Study
This study extended the research on adult basic literacy learning by investigating
the relationship between the learning of basic reading literacy skills in a contextualized,
hands-on, apprentice type adult basic education program like the School to Work
Program. The findings of this study reveal that the participants increased their TABE
reading test scores through enrollment in the School to Work Program. Furthermore, after
controlling for participants’ baseline TABE reading scores (prior to enrollment), only a
single demographic characteristic, age, was a statistically significant predictor of
5

participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. Specifically, older participants tended to
score higher at post-test.
In addition to the quantitative findings that demonstrated an increase in the
participants TABE reading sub-test scores, qualitative findings from the interviews,
observations, and document analysis revealed heavy use of the TABE, the TABE related
learning materials, and the Read 180 computer program. Although there was a significant
increase in TABE scores, the students interviewed did not appear intrinsically motivated
to become better readers, but were motivated primarily to increase their TABE scores.
This study is significant because it is important to determine what factors
influence the adult basic learner in his or her attainment of higher level reading skills.
Higher level reading skills will indirectly help the adult participant do well in the new
economy, help their children succeed in school, and better their living conditions
(Comings, Reder, & Sum, 2001; Sticht 2000).
Definition of Terms
School to Work Program: one of the nation’s largest residential, educational and
career technical training programs that serves at-promise youth ages 16 to 24. It utilizes a
contextualized career development approach that integrates the teaching of academic,
vocational, employability skills, and social competencies through classroom and based
learning experiences.
Adult Learner: adults over the age of 16 not currently enrolled in school, and who
lack a high school diploma or the basic skills to function effectively in the workplace and
in their daily lives (U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
6

Adult Literacy: an individual’s ability to read, write, and speak English, compute and
solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and society, to
achieve one’s goals, and develop one’s knowledge and potential.
Double-Duty Dollars: government funding that addresses the benefits of adult
education in the workplace and in the home (Sticht, 2000).
General Education Development (GED) Test: Only people who neither hold a
traditional high school diploma, nor have already earned a GED, are eligible to take the
GED. In addition, the individual must be at least 16 years of age and must not be enrolled
in an accredited high school.
National Reporting System: classifies adults seeking a high school credential into six
levels of functioning, ranging from Beginning Adult Basic Education Literacy to High
Adult Secondary Education Literacy (U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
New Economy: an economy in which adults are expected to not only utilize their basic
literacy skills like reading, writing and math but also higher level processing skills like
working in collaborative groups, problem-solving, computer literate and to be able to
think critically (Comings et al., 2001).
OVAE: the Office of Vocational and Adult Education, within which the Division of
Adult Education and Literacy is housed. OVAE administers the Adult Education and
Family Literacy Act, Title II of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220).
Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE): assesses adult basic skills in reading,
mathematics, and language skills, including optional spelling, vocabulary, and language
mechanics tests (TABE, 2008).
7

Organization of Study
Chapter 1 of this study presented a brief introduction and overview of the issues
and problems related to the adult basic learner, adult basic education programs, and their
relationship to adult literacy skills. Various benefits were cited that confirm the need for
adult basic learners to learn basic academic literacy skills to further enhance their
everyday life experiences and encourage life-long learning. This chapter culminated in
the purpose of the study, the guiding research questions to be answered, and the
importance of the current investigation. Chapter 2 is a review of the relevant literature
related to the present research topic. Chapter 3 presents the methodology employed in the
current investigation, including research design, sample and sampling procedures,
instrumentation and reliability and validity information, and the procedures for data
collection and statistical analysis. Chapter 4 presents the results of the current
investigation, followed by a discussion and analysis of the results in Chapter 5, which
culminates in the conclusion and recommendations for future research and practice.

8

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s 2007 Compendium Report
(Cataldi et al., 2009), approximately 3.3 million (8.7%) 16 to 24 year olds in 2008 were
not enrolled in high school and had not earned a high school diploma or GED. The
American Council on Education (2009) reports more than 39 million (18 %) U.S. adults
aged 16 and older lack a high school diploma and are not enrolled in any educational
program. Of the total 3.3 million 16 to 24 year olds cited above, only 1.7% took one or
more parts of the GED test, and even fewer passed it (American Council on Education,
2009). Of all the adults who lack a high school education and are not enrolled in any
educational program, only one out of every hundred attempted and passed the GED tests
in 2008.
The Division of Adult Education and Literacy in the Office of Vocational and
Adult Education (OVAE) administers the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act, Title
II of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 ( P.L. 105-220). This act is the Department’s
primary program that supports and promotes services for adults who are educationally
disadvantaged. The purpose of the program is to provide educational opportunities for
adults over the age of 16, not currently enrolled in school, and who lack a high school
diploma or the basic skills to function effectively in the workplace and in their daily lives
(U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
From 1975 through 1999 the number of adults enrolled in diverse government
funded programs increased at an average rate of approximately 118,000 per year,
9

growing from 1.2 million in 1975 to over 4.3 million in 1999 (Sticht, 2000). In addition
to the estimates provided by Sticht (2000), Kim and Creighton (2000) also estimate that
about 90 million adults were engaged in one or more types of adult education in the
twelve month period prior to their study. Furthermore, they found that participation in
adult education has steadily increased over the past thirty years, increasing to 46% in
1999 (Kim & Creighton, 2000).
Contrary to the belief that adults enrolling in adult education are less willing
participants, Sticht (2000) points out that in this 21
st
Century, millions of citizens with
less formal education are seeking and engaging in educational opportunities. Although
Adult Education and Literacy Development Programs, historically, have been seen as
part of a temporary, remedial, second-chance system, they should be seen and
recognized, instead, as opportunities for continued growth and knowledge beyond
graduation, or beyond completion of a program (Sticht, 2000).
Types of Adult Education Programs

In their study, Kim and Creighton (2000) identified six types of School to Work
Programs:
1) English as a Second Language (ESL) classes are for adults whose main language is
not English and who want to develop their English language skills.
2) Adult Basic Education (ABE)/General Educational Development (GED) are
preparation classes and adult high school programs that help adults improve basic
reading, writing, and math skills to prepare for a high school diploma or its
equivalent.
10

3) Credential programs are formal post-secondary programs that lead to a college or
university degree, or a post-secondary vocational or technical diploma.
4) Apprenticeship programs are formal, on the job training and other related
instruction leading to a skilled trade or craft.
5) Work-Related courses are those related to a job or career, other than post-
secondary credential programs or apprenticeship programs.
6) Development courses include various types of educational activities that have an
instructor and are not included in the above categories.
Along with the six School to Work Programs identified by Kim and Creighton (2000),
three types of adult educations services were identified in the National Literacy Summit
2000 Report (DeWitt Wallace/Reader’s Digest Fund, 2000):
1) Adult Basic Education (ABE) provides instruction to adults with low literacy
levels.
2) Adult Secondary Education (ASE) provides instruction that leads to a high school
certificate, such as a GED.
3) English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) provides instruction in speaking,
reading, and writing English.
As demonstrated in Kim and Creighton’s study (2000) and in the National
Literacy Summit 2000 Report (DeWitt Wallace, 2000), it appears there indeed are
various governmental departments and offices that have set up programs and services to
aid this population, providing adult secondary education services and Adult Basic
Education (ABE)/General Educational Development (GED) programs. Only a person
11

who holds neither a traditional high school diploma nor has already earned a GED is
eligible to take the GED test. In addition, the individual must be at least 16 years of age
and must not be enrolled in an accredited high school. To pass the GED and earn a GED
credential, test takers must score higher than 60% of graduating high school seniors
nationwide (American Council on Education, 2009).
Of the six types of programs identified by Kim and Creighton (2000), adults
were most likely to participate in work-related courses (23%) and personal development
courses (23%), with only 2% participating in adult basic education/general education
development courses (NCES, 2006; O’Donnell & Chapman, 2006). Kim and Creighton
(2000) also found that participation rates in work-related and personal development
courses increase across levels of education, from very low participation rates for
individuals without a high school diploma, to higher rates among those with more
education. This suggests individuals with a high school diploma are more likely to enroll
and participate in work-related and personal development programs than individuals
without a diploma.
Participants of Adult Education Programs

As indicated in the National Literacy Summit Report (DeWitt Wallace, 2000), the
majority of individuals participating in adult education are either young adults or adults
in their prime employment years. In 1996, 37% of participants enrolled in adult education
and literary programs were ages 16-24, with another 47% ages 25-44. In addition to their
relatively young age, the majority of participants were either Hispanic (38%) or White
12

(32%), with the remaining distributed as follows: 17% Black, 12% Asian/Pacific Islander
and 1% American Indian (DeWitt Wallace, 2000).
As further indicated in the Digest of Education Statistics (NCES, 2008), only
1.3% of individuals age 17 years and older were enrolled in adult basic education classes
during the 12 month period in 1995. The majority of participants in the adult basic
education program were 17-24 year olds, either Hispanic or more than one race,
unemployed making $5,000 or less reported annual household income, and having
completed 9
th
through 12
th
grade as their highest level of education.
As shown in Table 1, there were more males than females attempting and passing
the GED in 2008; 59.5% of those who passed were male and 40.5% were female
(American Council on Education, 2009). In terms of ethnicity, the majority of those
taking and passing the GED in 2008 were Anglo; they accounted for 52% of those who
attempted the GED, and 60.2% of those who passed. African-Americans and Hispanics
represented similar proportions of the population that passed that year, 18.3% and 17%,
respectively. It is worth noting both for the African-American population and the
Hispanic population more adults attempted the GED tests than actually passed the GED
test.
As shown in Table 2, in California, males also outnumber females in both
attempting and passing the GED, compared with national norms. However, fewer females
attempt the GED tests and fewer females pass the GED tests as compared to national
norms.

13

Table 1: Candidates Attempting and Passing the GED: Ethnicity and Gender (2008)

Ethnicity Attempted Passed
Anglo 52.0% 60.2%
African-American 23.7% 18.3%
Hispanic 19.3% 17.0%
American-Indian/Alaska 2.5% 2.1%
Asian 1.8% 1.8%
Pacific Islander/Hawaiian 0.7% 0.7%

Gender Attempted Passed
Male 57.1% 59.5%
Female 42.9% 40.5%
Source: American Council on Education, 2009

Table 2: Candidates Attempting and Passing the GED: California vs. U.S., Gender (2008)

Male Female

CA U.S. CA U.S.
Attempted GED 59.7% 57.1% 40.3% 42.9%
Passed GED 63.3% 59.5% 36.7% 40.5%
Source: American Council on Education, 2009

Regarding ethnicity, Hispanics and Asians are represented better in California
than nationally, with more Hispanics and Asians taking and passing the GED than
national norms. However, there appears to be a reverse pattern for African-Americans,
Anglos and American-Indians/Alaskans, where there are fewer taking and passing the
GED in California than national norms (American Council on Education, 2009).
14

The last characteristics of interest are age and highest grade completed among
those taking and passing the GED both in California and nationally. The mean age for
those taking the GED in California in 2008 was 26.8 years, while the national mean age
was 25.1 years (American Council on Education, 2009). For those passing the GED, the
mean age in California was 26.0 years, compared to the national average of 24.2 years.
While the mean age in California hovered around 26 years, there appeared to be fewer
older adults (ages 25-29) and fewer 18 year olds attempting the GED nationwide.
In both California and on national norms, the highest grade completed by adults
appears to be 11
th
grade: 46% of the California population taking and passing the GED
and 34.7% of the population nationwide. 10
th
grade follows in both California and
national norms (American Council on Education, 2009).
Comparing adult 16 to 24 year old “drop-outs,” or those who do not have a high
school diploma, with the adult 16 to 24 year old who passed the GED test, there are more
males than females who pass the GED test nationwide. Hispanics tend to dropout at a
higher rate than Anglos and African-Americans, yet Anglos tend to pass the GED test
more often than African-American or Hispanics. A pattern also appears within in the 20-
24 age range in that this particular group has the highest dropout rate, but interestingly
enough, it also has the highest GED pass rate nationwide.
In a sense, the data suggest that, not only are there fewer adults enrolled in adult
basic education programs in comparison to the majority population enrolled in other adult
basic education programs, but those adults enrolled are not successful in passing the
GED, despite this being the primary purpose of these programs.
15

Benefits of Adult Education Programs

All Americans must have a solid foundation of skills in order to succeed in their
adult roles as workers, parents, and members of their community. Of the total population
of 16 to 24 year olds living in the United States, 8.7% or 3.3 million do not have a high
school diploma, suggesting adult literacy in America is a significant national issue.
Those individuals with limited literacy skills are more likely to find it challenging to
pursue their goals in everyday life situations such as job advancement, helping their
children succeed in school, and making consumer decisions such as reading and
understanding an apartment rental agreement or buying a car (Sticht, 1999).
Higher levels of adult literacy skills will increase the prospects of the poorest and
minority groups, improve the health and well-being of families, contribute to the
economic vitality of communities, and the nation as a whole. Investing adult basic
education indirectly affects the family, the community and the nation; not just the adult
learner. For example, civic behaviors such as voting require strong basic literacy skills
(Sticht, 1999). A political mechanism, like voting, allows the adult learner’s voice to be
heard, so that he may influence the leaders of his community. Without strong basic
literacy skills, the adult learner’s voice is not fairly or equally represented in his
neighborhoods or in the nation. Strong literacy skills can empower the adult learner to
participate in community activities such as volunteering at their child’s school,
participating in the local neighborhood watch committee, or attending community
meetings (Sticht, 1999).
16

Sticht (2000) speaks of two investment strategies for adult basic education:
investing in programs that increase what he calls “intergenerational transfer of cognitive
skills,” and utilizing a functional context of education approach to instructional design.
He contends that using these two strategies will serve as “double-duty dollars,” because
government funding addresses the benefits of adult education in the workplace as well as
the home. He suggests that the U.S., as a nation, has a lot to gain from investing in adult
education. The challenges in society and the changes within the educational system
demand higher levels of literacy skills on the parents’ behalf, in order to support their
children’s learning. Indirectly, children profit from the support of educated, concerned
parents who can help them meet the learning challenges they face in the classroom and at
home. Sticht argues that, as a society, we are depriving millions of adults from serving as
educational role models to their children, by denying these parents quality based
education classes.
Evidence suggests focusing government funding on the education of the
children’s parents will lead to more employable parents (Sticht, 1990). Having better
educated, more employable parents increases the likelihood that children will succeed in
the K-12 school system, complete high school, go on to college, and achieve higher
levels of literacy as an adult (Sticht, 1999, 2000). It is crucial to understand the basic
premise that educating the parent will undoubtedly educate the child. Sticht’s notion of
intergenerational transfer of cognitive skills suggest that the parent transfers his use of
cognitive skills like reading, writing, math, and problem solving to the children with
whom he comes in contact. The children learn when the parent learns. Not only is there
17

the benefit of transferring the use and awareness of cognitive skills to the current
generation of children, but the next and future generations of children also prosper by
educating the adult in the family. Educated and literate parents greatly influence their
children’s literacy choices and exposure to literacy (Purcell-Gates, 1994). Better educated
parents also demand and get better schooling for the children, because parents inevitably
become involved with the education of their children (Sticht, 1999, 2000). More highly
educated mothers produce healthier pre-school children, and they also produce children
better prepared with knowledge, oral language skills, and literacy skills upon entering
school (Purcell-Gates, 1994; Sticht, 1999). Sticht (2000) among others, further points out
that parents’ education, especially the mother’s education level, is strongly related to
children’s tendency to stay in school and achieve higher levels of education.
Sticht (2000) further indicates adult education and literacy programs can increase
effectiveness at work, home, and community. He mentions, specifically, that
communities with better educated adults may attract better paying jobs in the community,
which indirectly provides a higher tax base that will support better law enforcement, day
care, and transportation, and promote a safer, supportive community that can produce
drug and violence free schools for better teaching and greater success (Sticht, 2000). He
offers a masterful plan that depicts the ultimate goal of the ever-evolving adult learner by
suggesting strong basic literacy skills can lead to safer, drug free communities. Workers,
parents, and citizens can better their communities as they better themselves through basic
School to Work Programs.
18

Sticht’s (2000) second strategy, using a functional context approach when
educating the adults, is important because the manner in which the adult learner is taught
will help solidify the cognitive skills that are to be transferred to the children. That is,
educators in Adult Basic Education programs and General Education Development
programs must utilize a teaching manner that emphasizes learning in a contextualized,
meaningful manner (Imel, 2000; Tweedell, 2000; Belzer, 2004). Using a functional
context approach to teach basic education subjects such as reading, writing, and
arithmetic to adults is most beneficial and can be taught within the context of teaching
job skills (Sticht, 1999; Tweedell, 2000), thus implying that the teaching of job skills and
basic skills can be integrated and learned at the same time.
Concurring with the idea of educating the adult learner in a manner that produces
an adult with higher-level skills, Comings et al. (2001) call for strong basic literacy skills
to match the demands of what they call the new economy (Comings et al., 2001). In the
new economy, adults are expected to not only utilize their basic skills like reading,
writing, and math, but also to use higher-level processing skills like working in
collaborative groups and problem-solving with your peers/colleagues. The new economy
also calls for adult learners to be comfortable and knowledgeable about computers and to
be able to think critically. They suggest that, in this new economy, a high school diploma,
in itself, is not enough. Adult learners who do not have strong basic skills will find it
difficult to meet the demands of continuous life-long learning and the demands of the
ever-changing world (Comings et al., 2001).
19

Based on the research presented thus far (Comings et al., 2001; Sticht, 1999,
2000), it seems fair to surmise strong basic skills in the form of strong literacy skills are
in integral and important component of adult basic education programs and life-long
learning, and consequently among one of the many benefits of basic School to Work
programs. As previously cited, Comings, et al. (2001) looked at the national workforce of
adults between the ages of 18 and 64 who are neither studying full-time nor
institutionalized. They found three categories that describe the immediate barriers for this
population, and one of these categories, the Educational Credential Challenge serves as
an example of the connectedness of literacy skills and the adult education student.
Comings et al. (2001) found 17% (23,247,930) of adults ages 18-64 dropped out of
school before achieving a high school diploma, never attaining high level literacy skills,
not studying full time, and consequently, not being productive members of the workforce.
Obstacles in Adult Education Participation
Sticht (2000) has labeled the group of adults seeking education and literacy
development a marginalized group. They are considered, by and large, a marginalized
group because, “As a group, they earn well below the median income of the nation, they
live largely, though not exclusively, in areas with lower education where there are higher
than average crime rates, unemployment rates and higher rates of other social problems”
(p. 11). Reflecting upon Sticht’s accurate labeling of this population as a marginalized
group, it can be agreed that social issues such as the high school dropout rate, poverty,
and level of education of adult learners can be seen as obstacles within this population.
20

Dropping out of high school is related to a number of negative outcomes, one of
which is income level (NCES, 2006). The median income of individuals 18 through 65
who did not attain a high school diploma was roughly $24,000 in the year 2007.
Meanwhile, the median income for those who completed a high school credential, such as
the General Educational Development certificate, was approximately $40,000 (NCES,
2006). In 2007, the dropout rate of students living in low-income families was
approximately 10 times greater than the rate of their peers from high-income families,
which is a consistent pattern found historically with this population (NCES, 2006). For
example, 9% of those from low-income families dropped out of high school in 2006,
whereas only 2% of those from high-income families dropped out of high school (NCES,
2006). The same pattern existed in 2005, where 8.9% of dropouts were from low-income
families, compared to 1.5% from high-income families (NCES, 2006).
The Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National Household Education Surveys
Program reports that 2% of the population taking General Education Development/Basic
Skills classes had a household income of $20,000 or less, compared to 1% of the
GED/Basic Skills population with a household income of $50,000 or less (O’Donnell &
Chapman, 2006). One percent of the GED/Basic Skills population were employed full-
time while 40% of the population were enrolled in work-related courses; 20% of those
enrolled in personal interest courses were employed full-time (O’Donnell & Chapman,
2006). Six percent of the adults in the GED/Basic Skills class surveyed reported they
were unemployed and looking for work (O’Donnell & Chapman, 2006).
21

It was noted that 30% of adults in the United States without a high school diploma
are at or below poverty status, with less than 20% earning less than $40,000 per year
(American Council on Education, 2009). These findings confirm that poverty as an
imminent factor in the lives of those adults who do not have a high school diploma or its
equivalent.
Comings et al. (2001) looked at the national workforce of adults between the ages
of 18 and 64 who are neither studying full-time nor institutionalized. They found three
categories that describe the immediate barriers for this population. They include: 1) the
language challenge: not having sufficient, well-developed English language skills; 2) the
educational credential challenge: not speaking English proficiently and having dropped
out of school before attaining a high school diploma or its equivalent; and 3) the new
literacy challenge: speaking English proficiently, having a high school diploma but
lacking in basic skills that are well-developed and considered sufficient in the workplace.
The data suggest that of the 41.8% of U.S. adults in the age range of 18-64 years of age,
4.7% have the language challenge, 17.0% have the educational challenge, and 20.1%
have the new literacy challenge (Comings et al., 2001). In this same age range, 17%
(23,247,930) have dropped out of school before achieving a high school diploma
(Comings et al., 2001). Echoing Sticht’s (1999, 2000) findings, Comings et al. (2001)
agree that without an investment in the education and basic skills of adult learners now,
our nation will have two very different populations: one population with strong basic
skills who will do well in the new economy, help their children succeed in school and
better their living conditions, and the other population that lacks basic skills and has low
22

literacy levels, leaving them and their families beyond the reach of opportunities and on
the sidelines of personal, civic, and social life (Comings et al., 2001).
Comings et al. (2001) use the concept of the new economy just as Boyer (2000)
uses the concept of a knowledge based economy, to expand further on the importance of
strong basic skills. Today’s adult learner must have strong basic skills to succeed in our
modern, knowledge based world. Research findings consistently cite the need for adult
learners to possess well developed skills to further enhance their personal lives, in their
homes, communities, and workplaces (Sticht, 1999, 2000; Boyer, 2000; Comings et al.,
2001).
Educational level and strong literacy skills together equal strong employability;
individuals with strong literacy skills are equipped to succeed in the workplace (Wallace,
2000). The National Center for Educational Statistics (2006) and the American Council
on Education (2009) identify 11
th
grade as the year most 16 to 24 year olds drop out of
high school. While it is easy to assume, based on this fact, that most high school dropouts
have a minimum 11
th
grade literacy level, this may not be the case. In the report Literacy
Skills for the 21
st
Century America: A Foundation for Creating a More Literate Nation
(DeWitt Wallace, 2000), the authors argued that schooling is not synonymous with skill
level and that grade level is not necessarily the same in regards to literacy level in adult
education. They cite an example of Laureen, an adult learner who reports:
I graduated in 1983, but I don’t really understand why I did. Although my math
skills were adequate, my grammar, spelling, and writing skills were terrible. I
really feel bad not being able to fill out job applications properly. Because of
my...mistakes, I’m sure I lost many job opportunities. (p. 9)

23

The goal of acquiring and developing strong basic literacy skills in adult basic
education programs is vital. Thus, the next section will explore the connection between
adult literacy skills and adult basic education.
Adult Literacy and Adult Basic Education
The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Adult and Vocational Education
(OVAE) is the agency that gathers data on adult learner outcomes through the National
Reporting System. It is important to understand the development of the Assessment
Strategies and Reading Profiles because, not only are the educational functioning level
descriptors derived from and used to provide direct funds to adult basic education
programs, but these profiles are also used to dictate the National Reporting Systems’
expectations for adult basic learning programs. The National Reporting System classifies
adults seeking a high school credential into six levels of functioning:
Low Beginning Adult Basic Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 0-1.9
High Beginning Adult Basic Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 2-3.9
Low Intermediate Adult Basic Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 4-5.9
High Intermediate Adult Basic Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 6-8.9
Low Adult Secondary Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 9-10.9
High Adult Secondary Education Literacy Grade Equiv. of 11-12
Learners in the Beginning Adult Basic Education focus on acquiring and
decoding skills, while learners in the Intermediate Adult Basic Education focus on
reading fluently and acquiring more vocabulary. Lastly, in the Adult Secondary Level,
24

learners focus on acquiring background knowledge, developing reading strategies and
writing to prepare for the General Education Development Test.
Using these levels as a framework, the Assessment Strategies and Reading
Profiles (National Institute for Literacy, date unknown) were developed to help identify
the different levels of reading proficiency of adult learners. The responses from a sample
of adult basic education participants were grouped into four clusters based on their levels
and patterns of performance on word recognition, word meaning (vocabulary), spelling
and silent reading comprehension. The four clusters were further divided and refined to
eleven profiles, as show in Table 3.
Table 3: Assessment Strategies and Reading Profiles

Reading Profiles Assessment Strategies
Profile 1:
Profile 2:
Profile 3:
Tops
Good but needs Word Meaning
Good but needs Print Skills
Skills in Profiles 1-3 fall approximately in the 9-12 GE
Profile 4:
Profile 5:
Profile 6:
Even on Skills
Low Print Skills
Low Even Skills
Skills in Profiles 4-6 fall approximately in the 6-8.9 GE
Profile 7:
Profile 8:
Profile 9:
High Print Skills
High Word Meaning
Low Even Performance
Skills in Profiles 7-9 fall approximately in the 4-5.9 GE
Profile 10:
Profile 11:
Native Speakers of English
Non-Native Speakers of English
Skills in Profiles 10 and 11 fall approximately in the 0-3.9 GE

Based on the approximate grade levels associate with each profile, Profile 11
indicates the least developed skills while Profile 1 indicates the better developed skills.
For example, in Profile 1, “Tops” (GE 9-12) indicates that although the participants are
good readers, their reading is not challenging enough to learn new vocabulary; they are
25

able to read familiar text with adequate speed and fluency. Among the study participants
who were grouped into Reading Profile 1, 96% spoke English, their average age was 28
years, and their average grade completed was 10
th
grade. Furthermore, 27% had trouble
with reading when they were in grades K-12 and 21% had trouble learning to read when
they were in grades K-3 (National Institute for Literacy, date unknown).
In comparison, for Profile 10, “Native Speakers of English” (GE 0-3.9),
participants had very limited oral and written language skills, they were not able to
manipulate sounds easily, and, therefore, had difficulty decoding words. One hundred
percent spoke English, their average age was 38 years, their average grade completed was
8
th
grade, 75% reported they had difficulty learning to read in K-12, and 44% reported
having trouble learning to read in K-3 (National Institute for Literacy, date unknown).
The Adult Reading Components Study from the National Center for the Study of
Adult Learning and Literacy (Strucker & Davidson, 2003), found that, of the 676 adult
basic education students, 51% had repeated at least one grade, 22% reported having
trouble with reading in grades K-3, and 53% reported getting either Chapter 1 (remedial
reading program) and/or special education services help in K-12. Participants’ mean word
recognition score was a 6.62 grade equivalent, their oral reading mastery level was 7.9
grade equivalent, and their mean receptive vocabulary was 6.5 grade equivalent.
Furthermore, 34% of the students fell in the GED/Pre-GED reading skills level, while
56% scored in the Intermediate level and 11% fell in the Lower Level/Beginning
students. In the GED/Pre-GED and Lower Level/Beginning reader levels, students have
reading skills similar to children at risk for reading difficulty, their reading
26

comprehension and reading fluency stalled at the middle school levels, and they have
poor phonemic and word recognition skills. In the Intermediate Level, students have
learned some word attack skills, but they do not make strong use of their skills. These
students do not have a middle school background knowledge in history, geography,
science, or math, and thus are inadequately prepared for the GED or for post-secondary
education.
Findings from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NCES, 2003) indicate
that in 2003, there were seven million adults, 16 years and older, who could not answer
simple test questions. In an attempt to measure functional English literacy, NAAL
measured three distinct types of literacy. Prose literacy refers to the knowledge and skills
needed to perform prose tasks such as searching for, comprehending and using
continuous texts, which include new stories, brochures, and instructional materials.
Document literacy refers to the knowledge and skills needed to perform document tasks:
searching for, comprehending and using non-continuous texts in various formats,
including job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, maps, tables, and drug
or food labels. Lastly, quantitative literacy refers to the knowledge and skills needed to
perform quantitative tasks: to identify and perform computations using numbers
embedded in printed material, such as balancing checkbooks, figuring out a tip,
completing an order form, or determining an amount.
Within each literacy level, there are also four skill levels: 1) Below Basic Level,
which is described as having no more than the most simple and concrete literacy skills, 2)
Basic Level, in which the adult learner can perform simple and everyday literacy
27

activities, 3) Intermediate level, in which the student can perform moderately challenging
literacy activities, and 4) Proficient, which includes performing complex and challenging
literacy activities. Tables 4 and 5 present 2003 data on these measures of literacy.

Table 4: Percentage of Adults Literacy Level and Skill Level (2003)

Prose Document Quantitative
Below Basic 14% 12% 22%
Basic 29% 22% 33%
Intermediate 44% 53% 33%
Proficient 13% 13% 13%
Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003

As can be seen from the information presented in Table 4, in this measure of
literacy, 22% of adults were in the Below Basic Level, which indicates these adults
possessed no more than the most simple and concrete skills in quantitative literacy, 14%
in prose literacy and 12% in document literacy.

Table 5: Percentage of Adults with Below Basic Prose Literacy (2003)

% of Prose
Below Basic
Population
% in Total
NAAL
Population
Did not graduate from high school 55% 15%
No English spoken before starting school 44% 13%
Hispanic Adults 39% 12%
Black Adults 20% 12%
Source: National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003

28

As noted in Table 5, in the Below Basic Prose Level, 55% did not graduate from
high school, yet high school dropouts represent only 15% of the total NAAL population.
Likewise, although Hispanic adults were only 12% of the total NAAL population, they
were 39% of the Below Basic Prose level, suggesting these various groups appear to be
over-represented in the Below Basic level.
Adding to Sticht’s (2000) discussion regarding the benefits of educating the adults
of our nation, it is imperative to acknowledge that, as a nation, we are not reaching the
adult population that does not have a high school diploma. Only one out of every 100
students have attempted and passed the GED tests. There are 3.3 million adults ages 16 to
24 who do not have a high school diploma, and less than 2% of these adults attempt the
GED Test. To further exacerbate the problem, statistics on those who pass the GED test
and their future employment are dismal (Tyler, 2002b). GED certification, itself, does not
create the same job market opportunities available to traditional high school graduates
(Tyler, 2002b). Since adults who pass the GED tend to earn more than high school
dropouts, yet less than a high school graduate (Tyler, 2002a), it is imperative to combine
GED completion with continued education or technical skill attainment. In his study,
Tyler (2002b) suggested that a GED certificate can only partially begin to address some
of the harsh economic realities that exist today. He found that, generally, it can take up to
five years for a substantial GED related difference to occur, and even with that, the mean
earnings of all high school dropouts in his study, with or without a GED, were very low.
The attainment of the GED certificate must be used as a means for seeking post-
29

secondary education, which increases the probability of much greater economic
opportunity.
The key is to motivate the dropout population, not only to take and pass the GED,
but more importantly, to participate in continued education/technical courses to become
life-long learners and better themselves, their family, and their community. As a nation,
we must determine how best to service the 3.3 million 16 to 24 year olds who do not have
a high school diploma and are not enrolled in any educational program. The message is
quite clear that, as a nation, we must invest in the adult learner and define the nation’s
mission to develop, nurture, and sustain programs that allow the adult learner to meet the
demands of what Comings et al. (2001) call the new economy and Boyer’s (2000)
knowledge based economy. We must incorporate the learning of literacy skills and work
skills at the same time, so that learning becomes meaningful to the adult learner, and, at
the same, time utilizes Sticht’s (2000) double-duty dollars to ensure government funding
stretches to as many populations as possible.
Basic Skills Education within a Functional Context Learning
In understanding the important role of context and meaning in basic adult
education classes, we must first understand why context and meaning are so important in
the adult learner’s literacy attainment. In his study, Beder (2006) focused on how
contextual factors in the classroom affect engagement in the adult learner. The author
looked at three beginning-level adult basic education classes, two adult high school
classes and one GED class. Using multiple sources for the data, including observations
and interviews, Beder found high levels of student engagement in the classes he
30

observed, which he attributed to three primary factors. The first factor was the
instructional system; the second factor is the teacher’s behavior in the role of
Individualized Group Instruction (IGI) as instructor and the last factor of classroom
norms. The instructional system included evidence of students working individually,
deciding when they would attend and engage in class, and engaging at his or her own
pace. Students had a considerable amount of control over their own engagement in the
class, thereby becoming more learner-directed rather than teacher-directed. The second
factor that shaped student engagement was the teacher’s role, performed as a facilitator of
learning, rather than as a conveyor of content, with the primary goals being to monitor,
encourage, and support student engagement. The third factor that influenced student
engagement was classroom norms. The predominant culture found within this classroom
was the students’ belief that learning was serious, which meant all behavior during class
time was directed toward either helping each other with the assignments/tasks or
completing one’s own assignments.
In another study by Belzer (2006b), the researcher interviewed 15 adults who had
made significant progress in their reading development. Belzer focused his study on the
quality and quantity of the adult students’ literacy practices. The quality and quantity of
the adult learners’ literacy practices were studied for those adults who attained the
competence and desire to read comfortably as part of their everyday lives. The findings
identified four key factors that contributed to adult learners’ success in reading
development: 1) motivation and determination, consisting of learners’ inner desire to
succeed and a clear sense of purpose, 2) the relationship with the teacher and the manner
31

of instruction, 3) reading outside of class time, and 4) a strong support system. Teachers’
instructional strategies that were most effective included assigning small group work, not
putting students on the spot, confirming what students truly understand, helping make
connections between the instructional material and the students’ lives, and using
interesting and relevant material. Beyond the relationship with the teacher and the
student’s internal motivation, adult learners reported that supportive family members and
friends were extremely important motivators.
Although not directly relevant to adult learning in the classroom, yet relevant to
the discussion of literacy learning, another study by Belzer (2006a) looked at what
literacy learners do outside of class to improve their reading. The data collection involved
investigating the literacy interactions outside of the classroom by interviewing three adult
students and their teachers. The three adult students interacted with texts in varying ways,
however their reading behaviors indicated a complex interaction between the learners’
beliefs about reading development, the teachers’ messages and behaviors about reading
development, and the adult students’ home environment (Belzer, 2006a). The findings
indicated that all three students seemed to think that school-like reading helped in
improving their reading skills, which encouraged them to put considerable effort into
completing academic exercises. Unfortunately, the time put into completing academic
exercises kept the students from engaging in authentic reading. They all reported their
teachers did not make any particular efforts to encourage outside reading, like reading for
pleasure. Belzer (2006a) concluded her study by suggesting that, although teachers are
most aware and in control of what happens in their classroom, they can increase the
32

potential of the adult learners’ reading in their everyday lives by conveying the message
that reading for a range of purposes is important and relevant to their lives. Belzer argues
that if teachers explicitly communicate this message, they might help their students re-
evaluate their beliefs about reading. Teachers also can create and extend class time to
give students time to read and encourage them to talk about their books during class time.
Additionally, in their studies, Taylor and Kroth (2009) and Cercone (2008)
emphasized Knowles, Holton and Swanson’s (1998) Andragogy model, Principles of
Adult Learning in their studies exploring the implementation of adult learning principles
in a law school environment and in an on-line learning environment, respectively. Taylor
and Kroth (2009) developed a model to identify the extent to which adult learning
principles were incorporated in teaching style. They found the Socratic approach,
commonly utilized in Law school, was focused more on pedagogical (information,
teacher-centered) than andragogical (experience, learner-centered) method. Consistent
with Knowles et al.’s (1998) principles, they proposed incorporating andragogical
approaches, not only in Law school, but throughout various disciplines, in order to
improve adult education, thereby positing that students may benefit more from
curriculum that incorporates practical experience. Cercone (2008) also capitalized upon
Knowles et al.’s (1998) principles of adult learning by demonstrating its application in
the design of on-line learning for adult students. Taken as a whole, with its focus on
experiential learning, self-directed learning, and compared to a constructivist theory such
as Transformative learning theory, Knowles et al.’s theory of andragogy was considered
33

by Cercone (2008) as the most comprehensive and optimal one for the on-line adult
learner.
Borrowing from Knowles et al. (1998), Cercone (2008) identifies several
assumptions that describe how the adult learner thinks and what the adult learner values
with regard to the learning process. As described in his Andragogical Model, Knowles et
al. (1998) explains the core principles of adult learning as:
1) Need to Know: adults need to know why they need to learn something before
undertaking to learn it.
2) Learners’ Self Concept: adults have a self-concept that includes being
responsible for their own decisions and lives; they resent and resist situations in which
they feel others are imposing their wills on them.
3) Learners’ Experience: adults approach an educational activity with greater
volume and a different quality of experience than do youth.
4) Readiness to Learn: adults become ready to learn the things they need to know
and do so in order to cope effectively with their real-life situations.
5) Orientation to Learning: adults are life-centered (task-centered/problem-
centered) in their orientation to learning (in contrast to children’s and youths’ subject-
centered orientation), and they learn new knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes most
effectively when they are presented in the context of application to real-life situations;
they are motivated to learn to the extent they perceive the learning will help them
perform tasks or deal with the problems they confront in their life situations.
34

6) Motivation: while adults are responsive to some external motivations, the most
potent motivators are internal pressures, such as the desire for increased job satisfaction,
self-esteem, and quality of life.
It is important to recognize and understand that adult learners learn best when
they are told why they are learning a particular task and how learning the task will help
them. Furthermore, adult learners are internally drive and responsible for their own
learning; they come with extensive prior knowledge; they are ready to learn real-life
things; they are process-oriented in learning; and they learn best in context (Knowles et
al., 1998). We can apply these six principles to the idea of contextualized learning to
further answer the question of why context and meaning is so important to adult learning.
In a sense, context and meaning are synonymous to one another in that when something
is presented in context, it has meaning.
Earlier in this paper, the importance of a Functional Contextual Education (Sticht,
2000) was discussed in regards to Sticht’s (2000) first strategy of intergenerational
transfer of cognitive skills. We now further discuss his second strategy, which calls for
the importance of applying a functional context approach when educating adult students.
Functional Context Education is viewed as an approach to education in which the
teaching of basic language, intellectual and cognitive skills, and the subject matter are
integrated into the functional context that engage people in the world outside the
classroom, with the primary belief that literacy is developed while it is being applied
(Sticht, 2000).
35

Very much like Knowles et al.’s (1998) principles of adult learning, Sticht (2000)
also identifies the following strategies found in a Functional Context Education as
applied in the School to Work Program. First, explain what the students are to learn and
why, in such a way that they can always understand both the immediate and long term
usefulness of the course contents. Second, consider the previous knowledge that students
bring with them to the course and build on it. Third, sequence each new lesson so that it
builds on prior knowledge. Fourth, integrate instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic,
and problem-solving into academic or technical programs as the content of the course.
Fifth, derive objectives from careful analysis of the explicit and tacit knowledge and skill
needed in the home, community, academic, technical training or employment context for
which the learner is preparing. Sixth, use learning context, tasks, materials, and
procedures taken from a future situation in which the learner will be functioning.
The similarities in these principles highlight the constructs of prior knowledge,
utility, usefulness, ownership, process-orientation, and meaningful context. Sticht’s
(2000) approach, however, extends Knowles et al.’s (1998) work to include content as
being functional with the goal of developing basic skills and job knowledge together.
Learning basic academic skills within the function of real-life experiences
transforms basic academic skills into more than just reading, writing, and math to be
learned. Rather, the reading, writing, and math skills now serve a larger purpose to aid in
students’ real-life obligations, not just for passing the GED. This is in contrast to the
more traditional basic education programs whose main goal is to accomplish the task of
36

passing the GED. By embedding literacy learning within the context of job training,
adults will rapidly progress from literacy, to job training, to employment (Sticht, 2000).
Using Functional Context Education, reading, writing and mathematics skills are
taught using materials that present content knowledge that is important to the adult
learner. For example, for job related content knowledge relevant to an office job, literacy
and mathematics are taught using materials from an office job. If the adult education
learner wants to work as a mechanic, then reading, writing and math are taught using
mechanic-related materials.
This idea of teaching academic skills within a meaningful context (job skills, for
example), is extremely relevant to the adult learner because of the motivational factor. If
an adult learner believes he will benefit directly from investing time in the program
because he is learning job skills that are of high utility to him, he will be motivated to
enroll and participate in the program. In laymen’s terms, the adult learner asks, “What’s
in it for me?” or, “What am I going to get out of this?” It is assumed that if a School to
Work Program uses a Functional Context Education approach, the adult basic education
learner will acknowledge he has much to gain from participating in the program (Sticht,
2000).
Research indicates that, by utilizing an educational approach that encompasses the
adult learning principles of prior knowledge, utility, usefulness, ownership, process-
oriention, and meaningful context, coupled with embedding literacy learning within the
context of job training, adults will rapidly progress from literacy, to job training, to
employment (Sticht, 2000; Knowles et al., 1998).
37

The School to Work Program and Adult Education
The School to Work Program is administered by the U.S. Department of Labor
and is currently authorized by the Title I.C. of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998.
The School to Work Program is an educational and career technical training program that
serves at-promise youth ages 16-24. The School to Work Program utilizes a
contextualized career development approach that integrates the teaching of academic,
vocational, employability skills, and social competencies through a combination of
classroom, practical, and based learning experiences to prepare young adults for stable,
long-term, high-paying jobs (School to Work Program Annual Report, 2006). The
curricula are designed to provide contextual training experiences that integrate academic
and career technical training. Contextual training allows the School to Work Program’s
young adults to apply the academic and career/technical skills they learn directly to their
chosen career field, in a sense encouraging an “apply as you learn” method of learning.
A majority of the students participating in the School to Work Program are
working towards completion of a high school diploma or General Education
Development (GED) certificate, along with viable employment opportunity. The School
to Work Program students demonstrate similar characteristics to the general population
enrolled in adult basic education classes. That is, the typical School to Work Program
participant has not completed high school, has never had a full time job, is between the
ages of 17 and 19, and comes from an economically disadvantaged home (School to
Work Program Annual Report, 2006). The School to Work Program utilizes a program
model that offers a comprehensive array of services, that include but are not limited to:
38

assessment of reading and math levels upon entry, integrated academic and career
technical training, workplace communication training, occupational exploration,
individualized career planning, registered apprenticeship opportunities, employability and
social skills/cultural awareness development, health and wellness programs, English
Language learner instruction, driver education, and work-based learning opportunities
(School to Work Program Annual Report, 2006). An example of the work-based services
offered by the School to Work Program is that it allows the young adult participant to
intern with various companies such as Holiday Inn, AAMCO, and Cisco Systems, Inc.
The Health and Wellness program aims to increase each participant’s employability by
establishing and maintaining the student in his or her optimal health.
The School to Work Program utilizes a training approach called the Vocation
Development Approach, which is comprised of four distinct stages: Outreach, Vocation
Preparation Period (VPP), Vocation Development Period (VDP), and the Vocation
Transition Period (VTP). During these stages, students work with the School to Work
Program counselors to explore careers and various youth development services; students
focus on personal responsibility, social skills and career exploration. They work on
technology and job search skills and learn to make informed decisions regarding the labor
market. During the Vocation Development Period, students learn and demonstrate career,
technical, academic, and employability skills. The School to Work Program promotes the
belief that this is an optimal opportunity for those students who did not graduate from
high school with a diploma or obtain a GED certificate. At this stage, students learn and
practice career technical skills at the actual work sites. Lastly, in the Vocation Transition
39

Period, School to Work Program counselors work with graduates for up to 18 months
after finishing the program, to help the graduate continue to move forward in life. The
services may include helping graduates find housing or health care, for example.
The School to Work Program also offers career technical and academic training to
prepare students for success in more than 100 occupations in a range of high-growth
industries (School to Work Program Annual Report, 2006). For example, in the School to
Work Program Center, career technical offerings and skill training include, but are not
limited to: automotive occupations to become a brake technician or an auto mechanic;
electronic occupations with training in computer repair, computer networking, mobile
electronics, and cable/telephone installation; health occupations to become a Certified
Nurse Assistant (CNA), dental assistant, vocational nurse, x-ray technician and child
development specialist. In the year 2006, 27% of the School to Work Program
participants chose career technical training in construction, 21% chose business and
finance, 18% chose healthcare, and 10% chose hospitality (School to Work Program
Annual Report, 2006).
Vocation Development training, through its contextualized career development
approach to learning and its hands-on curricula, provides students the support to succeed
and the opportunity to develop the expectation that learning is life long. The School to
Work Program is a stepping stone toward better realities for its young adult participants
who were once high school dropouts.

40

Conclusion
Of the six types of programs identified by Kim and Creighton (2000), adults were
most likely to participate in work-related courses (23%) and personal development
courses (23%), with only 2% participating in adult basic education/general education
development courses. Of the total population of 16 to 24 year olds living in the United
States, 8.7% (3.3 million) of 16 to 24 year olds do not have a high school diploma.
Another statistic by the American Council on Education (2009) reports more than 39
million (18 %) of adults aged 16 and older in the United States lack a high school
diploma and are not enrolled in any educational program. Of the total 3.3 million adults
without a high school diploma, only 1.7% took one or more parts of the GED test, and
even fewer passed (American Council on Education, 2009).
It is important to acknowledge the role context plays in adult learning. In this
study, the students appeared to acknowledge the relationship between learning to read
and future employment. When the teaching of reading skills were presented in context of
a vocational choice, learning to read appeared to have a more profound meaning to the
students. Research cites that adult learners learn best when they are told why they are
learning a particular task and how learning that task will help them (Knowles et al.,
1998). Furthermore, adult learners are internally drive and responsible for their own
learning; they come with extensive prior knowledge; they are ready to learn real-life
things; they are process-oriented in learning; and they learn best in context (Knowles et
al., 1998). In this study, we applied these learning principles to the idea of contextualized
learning to further answer the question of why context and meaning is so important to the
41

adult learner. The similarities in these principles highlight the constructs of prior
knowledge, utility, usefulness, ownership, process-orientation, and meaningful context.
Learning basic academic skills within the function of real-life experiences
transforms basic academic skills into more than just reading, writing, and math to be
learned. Rather, these reading, writing and math skills can serve a larger purpose to aid in
students’ real-life obligations; not just passing the GED. This is in contrast to the more
traditional basic education programs whose main goal is to accomplish the task of
passing the GED. By embedding literacy learning within the context of job training,
adults will rapidly progress from literacy, to job training, to employment (Sticht, 2000).
The School to Work Program serves as an example of teaching academic skills
within the context of teaching job skills (Sticht, 1999). Since 3.3 million 16 to 24 year
olds do not have a high school diploma (Cataldi et al., 2009) and 22% of adults are in the
Below Basic Level (indicating these adults possess no more than the most simple and
concrete skills), it was crucial for this study to explore if adult literacy rates can change
through individual participation in an educational and career technical training program
such as School to Work Program, and further, to investigate what factors are related to
any change in adult literacy rates.

42

CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The problem under investigation in the present study is the prevailing problem of
adult literacy in this nation. Of the total population of 16 to 24 year olds living in the
United States, 8.7%, or 3.3 million, 16 to 24 year olds do not have a high school diploma
(Cataldi et al., 2009). Adult literacy in America is a national issue in that those
individuals with limited literacy skills are more likely to find it challenging to pursue
their goals in everyday life situations such as advancing in their job, helping their
children succeed in school, and making consumer decisions such as buying a car or
reading prescription health information (Sticht, 1999). Therefore, the purpose of this
current study is 1) to determine if there is a significant difference between pre-test and
post-test scores on the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) in the subject domain of
reading for School to Work Program participants, 2) to determine how factors such as
age, gender, ethnicity, site location, residency, and high school completion status are
related to the TABE pre- and post-test difference in reading scores for the School to
Work Program participants, and 3) to determine the specific, functional and contextual
characteristics of reading instruction in a contextualized educational and career technical
training program.

43

Research Questions
Specifically, the following research questions are proposed to guide the current
investigation:
1. Is there a significant difference between pre-test and post-test reading scores in
the School to Work Program participants, as evidenced by their performance
scores on the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) in the subject domain of
reading?
2. What demographic variables such as age, gender, ethnicity, site location,
residency, and high school completion status, influence the difference mean
reading scores on the Test of Basic Education (TABE) for the School to Work
Program participants?
3. What are the specific, functional, and contextual characteristics of reading
instruction in a contextualized educational and career technical training program?
Research Design
This is a mixed method study that uses a quantitative analysis to explore research
questions one and two and a qualitative analysis to explore research question three. The
independent variables of this study are: age, gender, ethnicity, site location, residency,
high school completion status, and the functional and contextual characteristics of
reading in a contextualized, educational and career technical training program. The
dependent variables in the current study are the difference mean reading test scores that
will be derived from School to Work Program participants’ performance on the reading
sub-test of the Test of Adult Basic Education.
44

The Sample and Procedure
The unit of analysis in this study is the individual School to Work Program
participant, as well as the contextualized educational and career technical training
program itself. For research questions one and two, which investigated reading scores
from the Test of Adult Basic Education, the sample was taken from seven cohorts of the
School to Work Program. As shown in Tables 6 and 7, there were a total of 111
participants from all seven cohorts, with between two and 29 participants per cohort. 69%
of the sample was female and 31% male, with ages ranging from 17 to 26 years. The
sample was 58% Hispanic, 24% Black, 17% Asian, and less than 3% Anglo.

Table 6: School to Work Program Participants: Age

Participants’
Age (yrs)
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Totals
4
(4%)
19
(17%)
19
(17%)
24
(22%)
15
(13%)
9
(8%)
6
(5%)
9
(8%)
4
(4%)
2
(2%)

Table 7: School to Work Program Participants: Demographics

Gender Ethnicity HS Diploma Residence
M F Hisp. Black Asian White Other Y N Y N
34
(31%)
77
(69%)
64
(58%)
27
(24%)
17
(15%)
2
(2%)
1
(01%)
70
(63%)
41
(37%)
44
(40%)
67
(60%)

The participants in the School to Work program were administered the Test of
Adult Basic Education (TABE) when they began the program. After six weeks of
participation in the program, the participants took an alternate form of the TABE,
rendering post-test reading scores.
45

The School to Work Program is situated in large urban metropolitan area with a
diverse population in both ethnicity and socio-economic status. The students participating
in the School to Work Program either reside on campus or in their home. Whether they
reside on or off campus, the students attend classes on a regular basis on campus. In
addition to other academic classes, the students in this study were enrolled in either
Reading A class or Reading B class, each of which met on campus for approximately 45
minutes to one hour on a daily basis. Participants were assigned to their reading class
based on their reading score on the TABE reading sub-test. The Reading A class was
described by one teacher as the lower basic reading class, with students performing in the
range of middle school level, while the Reading B class was described as the higher or
advanced class, with students performing around the high school level.
For the third research question, which explored the specific, functional and
contextual characteristics of reading in a contextualized educational and career technical
training program, twelve students and two staff members were interviewed. The two staff
members interviewed were reading class teachers who taught on site with varying
“periods” of instruction throughout the day. Other than confirming that the participants
were 18 years and older, demographic variables including age, gender and ethnicity were
not collected for either the students or the teachers interviewed.
This an appropriate sample for the current research population because the sample
is similar to the population of interest: 16 to 24 year olds who did not graduate from high
school and would not otherwise be enrolled in basic adult education classes. Although the
sample does not exactly reflect the age range of the population of interest, since there
46

were no study participants younger than 18 years of age, the sample does reflect the 3.3
million 16 to 24 year olds who do not have a high school diploma.
Data Collection
Test of Adult Basic Education
The Test of Adult Basic Skills is based on current national standards and is
considered a valid and reliable tool for assessing skills in contexts important to adults,
such as life skills, work, and education (TABE Information Booklet, 2008). The TABE
has two parallel forms (9 & 10), to ensure valid results when retesting the same students.
The TABE forms 9 and 10 assess basic reading, mathematics, and language skills, with
optional tests in language mechanics, vocabulary and spelling. Because the emphasis of
this study was to investigate functional literacy as it relates to reading literacy skills, only
the reading subject area was investigated.
The TABE yields objective mastery information for basic skills and provides
percentile, scale scores and grade equivalent scores. The complete battery consists of five
levels: Level L (limited literacy) grade range is 0 to 1.9; Level E (Easy) grade range is
2.0 to 3.9; Level M (Medium) grade range is 4.0 to 5.9; Level D (Difficult) grade range is
6.0 to 8.9; and Level A (Advanced) grade range 9.0 to 12.9. The reading sub-test consists
of 12 items. The scores reveal whether students have mastered topics similar to those
covered by the new GED, or whether they will need more instruction and practice.
The TABE reading test includes test items that are highly practical; the contents
consist of business and personal communication, instructive texts, and informational
materials presented in visual formats such as web pages and advertisements (TABE
47

Information Booklet, 2008). The reading sub-test consists of multiple questions assessing
the areas in interpreting graphic information, including words in content, recall
information, construct meaning, and evaluate/extend meaning. A sample question that
might appear on Level E (Easy) of the reading sub-test is: “According to the passage,
which of these words best describes the main character?” with four multiple choice
responses provided.
As previously mentioned, for research questions one and two, School to Work
Program participants were administered the TABE when they began the program, as the
measure of their pre-test reading score. After six weeks of participation, the program
participants took an alternate form of the TABE, rendering post-test reading scores. This
researcher did not participate in the administration of the TABE test, but rather obtained
the participants’ pre-test and post-test reading scores from the School to Work Program
staff as part of a “data dump.” The data contained no personally identifiable information,
though it included the demographic variables of interest, including participants’ gender,
age, ethnicity, and high school completion status.
The third research question utilized qualitative methods, an inductive research
process by which the researcher builds concepts, themes or hypotheses from detailed,
unstructured information (Creswell, 1994). This study’s qualitative data collection
procedures included interviews, observations, and document analysis. The interviews
conducted were one-to-one and in-person. For the observations, the researcher was a
complete observer, with no participation. Lastly, the documents used for analysis in the
48

study would be considered private documents (Creswell, 1994), including class syllabi,
handbooks, and pamphlets.
Interviews
This researcher conducted individual interview sessions with School to Work
Program students and staff. The twelve students were attending their Reading A or
Reading B class when this researcher was introduced to the students, via the program
coordinator. The students were told by the program coordinator that she was completing
her doctorate at USC and needed their help to complete her dissertation. This researcher
then introduced herself as a USC student needing their assistance to complete her
research by answering a few questions. The students were informed that their names and
identities would not be utilized and that their responses would be confidential. The
students interviewed met individually with this researcher during their class time in a
quite, private section of the classroom. The interviews were approximately 20 minutes
long, during which participants were asked a minimum of six questions (see Appendix
A). The teachers were also interviewed on an individual basis, either during their class
time (while the students worked quietly on their assignments), or during their break time
(see Appendix B). Participants’ names and identifiable information were not requested
during the interview process; participants remained anonymous during the process.
Observations and Document Analysis
Because this researcher was previously introduced to the students and teachers of
the program during the interview process, she was able to perform the classroom
observations without a formal introduction from the program coordinator. The researcher
49

sat in an inconspicuous corner of the Reading A and Reading B classes while performing
the classroom observations. The observation was approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour in
duration, occurring once in Reading Class A and once in Reading Class B. During the
observation, this researcher looked for evidence of or omission of Knowles et al.’s (1998)
learning principles and Sticht’s (2000) principles, using the Assessment Tool form that
was developed by this researcher for this study (see Appendix C).
The last data collection component was the use of the Assessment Tool form (see
Appendix C) to analyze the documents presented to this researcher for review, including
the class syllabus, the School to Work program handbook, and various School to Work
pamphlets. This researcher reviewed the documents on the School to Work program
website.
The Assessment Tool form was used with all three distinct components of the
qualitative section of this study – which included the interview responses, the
observations, and the document analysis – to determine whether there was evidence of
the adult learning principles within a contextualized setting in the School to Work
Program. The Assessment Tool form contains five key principles illustrating the core
emphasis of Knowles et al.’s (1998) and Sticht’s (2000) learning principles. An example
of one of the core principles illustrated on the Assessment Tool form is “Principle 2: The
Adult learner perceives responsibility for own learning. Decision to learn is self-initiated.
They resent situations where others impose their decisions upon them.” This researcher
would determine if evidence of such a principle existed, and then indicate “yes” or “no”
on the form, citing examples.
50

Data Analysis
All quantitative data was prepared for statistical analysis using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 17.0 program. This researcher determined if
there was significant difference between pre- and post-intervention scores by utilizing a
dependent t-test for paired samples. This researcher obtained the reading scores from a
sample of School to Work Program participants in a standardized test (Test of Adult
Basic Skills) before their participation in the School to Work Program and then after
participation, thus rendering the sample of prior intervention scores (pre-test) and post-
intervention scores (post-test) for each participant. The samples are related in the sense
that each pre-test has a corresponding post-test, as both were obtained from the same
participant. The difference between each pair of scores was calculated using degrees of
freedom N-1 and the p-value, to determine if the difference mean scores was significant.
To determine how participants’ gender, age, residency status, race, and attainment
of a high school diploma/GED influence the TABE mean reading scores of the
participants, a Lagged Regression Analysis was utilized. Lagged analyses fulfill a similar
role to traditional difference scores comparisons, but they have the advantage of
addressing several methodological and statistical concerns that have come to be
associated with difference scores comparisons. Specifically, analyses that examine
difference scores directly are susceptible to two major weaknesses. First, research has
long noted that effects based on difference scores are particularly susceptible to
regression to the mean (Cronbach & Furby, 1970, as cited in Valente, 2002). In essence,
subjects with unusually high or low scores at baseline are likely, simply due to chance, to
51

have more moderate or typical scores at the time of a second testing, a finding that can
show artificial changes. In addition, simple difference scores comparisons make an
assumption of a prefect correlation between pre- and post-test scores, a sometimes-
untenable assumption that may be examined with lagged analysis (Valente, 2002).
In a Lagged Regression Analysis, several independent variables are used to
predict a dependent variable after controlling for participants’ pre-test scores. For this
specific study, a Lagged Regression Analysis allows the independent variables of gender,
age, residency status, race, and attainment of a high school diploma/GED to predict
reading scores on the TABE, ultimately describing how these independent factors
influence the post-test reading test scores of School to Work Program participants.
In addition to exploring the relationship between the TABE pre- and post-test
reading scores and their relation to the various demographic variables (research questions
one and two), this study also explored the characteristics of a functional, contextualized
adult learning reading program (research question 3), by interviewing twelve School to
Work Program students and their teachers.
Qualitative data analysis procedures were used to analyze the interviews,
observations, and documents in this study, following Tesch’s (1990, cited in Creswell,
1994) eight steps to engage a researcher in a systematic process of analyzing unstructured
data. This researcher analyzed the information gathered from the interviews,
observations, and documents in a general sense and proceeded to look for detailed
information in support of or contrary to Knowles et al.’s (1998) principles and Sticht’s
(2000) principles. This researcher used the Assessment Tool form (Appendix C) when
52

analyzing the interview responses, observations, and documents allowing the data to be
triangulated (Creswell, 1994) in order to find convergence among the three distinct
sources of data.
The qualitative portion of the study thus draws its results from each participant’s
individual experience citing individual comments, behaviors, or actions observed or
gleaned through the individual interviews, observations and document analysis. Guided
by the principles of adult learning and a contextualized education program as a structured
framework, this researcher looked for evidence throughout the data in support of this
framework.
The results obtained from the present research investigation will be reported and
thoroughly discussed and analyzed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 will conclude with a
discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the findings from the current
research effort, as well as implications for future research.

53

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the findings with regard to the three
research questions of this study, which are: 1) to determine if there is a significant
difference between pre-test and post-test scores in School to Work Program participants
as evidenced by their performance scores on the Test of Adult Basic Education in the
subject domain of reading; 2) to determine how factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, site
location, residency, and high school completion status are related to the Test of Adult
Basic Education difference mean reading scores of the School to Work Program
participants and 3) to determine the specific, functional and contextual characteristics of
reading instruction in a contextualized educational and career technical training program.
Results for Research Questions One and Two

Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference between pre-test and post-
test reading scores in the School to Work Program participants, as evidenced by their
performance scores on the Test of Adult Basic Education in the subject domain of
reading?
The paired-samples t-test that was conducted to determine whether School to
Work Program participants experience increases in their TABE reading scores revealed a
statistically significant improvement in participants’ TABE scores from prior to
enrollment (M
pre
= 496.78, SD = 42.78) to after program completion (M
post
= 543.60, SD
= 54.69; t
(111)
= 10.31, p < 0.001), suggesting the School to Work Program participants
54

performed better on the reading subtest of the TABE test by participating in this
educational and career technical training program.
Research Question 2: How do the independent variables of age, gender, ethnicity,
attendance rate, site location, residency, number of discipline incidents, highest grade
completed, and high school completion status influence the difference mean reading
scores from the Test of Adult Basic Education for School to Work Program participants?
Due to the methodological and statistical risks posed by simple difference scores
comparisons, a Pearson correlation analysis was run to determine whether lagged analysis
would be preferable to a direct pre- to post-test comparison. A difference score generated
from participant’s pre- and post-TABE reading scores was correlated with their pre-test
TABE reading scores. This analysis revealed a modest, negative linear correlation
between participants’ improvement and their pre-test scores (r = -0.28, p = 0.003). In
other words, subjects who scored higher on their pre-test TABE tended to have smaller
improvements at post-test, and vice versa. As a result, a lagged analysis was chosen to
control for any effects attributable to participants’ baseline TABE reading scores.
A simple hierarchical linear regression model was run with two blocks. In the first
block, participants’ baseline TABE reading scores were force-loaded into the model to
generate a lagged analysis. Due to the lack of a guiding theory regarding the order of
entry and relative contribution of the remaining potential covariates, the remaining
variables were entered together in a second block and selected using a stepwise approach,
to minimize the risk of Type I and II errors.
55

As shown in Table 8, the overall model predicted a substantial proportion (34%)
of the observed variance in participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. After controlling
for participants’ baseline TABE reading scores, only one single demographic
characteristic, age, was a statistically significant predictor of participants’ post-test TABE
reading scores. Specifically, older participants tended to score higher than younger
participants at post-test.
It should be noted that interpretations of stepwise analysis procedures must be
approached with some caution, as they are entirely data-driven and may result in
unreliable beta values. However, in the present study, only a single predictor was entered
through a stepwise procedure, so its associated beta value should be unaffected by the
data entry approach used.

Table 8: Summary of Lagged Analysis of Demographic Characteristics on
Post-test TABE Reading Scores

Variable B SE B 
Constant 194.92 61.24
Pre-test TABE Reading Score 0.76 0.12 0.55***
Age 7.38 2.26 0.28**
(N = 93) ** p < .01 *** p < .001 Note: R
2
for overall model = .34 (p < .001)

Regarding the second research question, age was the only demographic factor
studied that was a statistically significant predictor of participants’ post-test TABE
reading scores. Per the statistical analysis, factors such as gender, ethnicity, site location,
residency, and high school completion status were not statistically significant predictors
56

of participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. Specifically, older participants tended to
score higher than younger participants.
However, this finding and any conclusions drawn from it should be approached
cautiously, because less than 2% of the study sample are considered “older students,” that
is, 26 years old. As depicted in Table 9, the majority of the School to Work Program
participants in this study were between the ages of 18 and 20 years. Additionally, only
two percent of 26 year old “older students” in the study scored significantly higher in
their TABE post-test scores.

Table 9: Percentage of School to Work Program Participants in this Study: Age

Age (years) Percentage
17
<1%
18
17.43%
19
18.34%
20
21.10%
21
11.92%
22
7.30%
23
6.42%
24
8.25%
25
4.58%
26
1.83%

Although this finding is taken with some skepticism, it is somewhat consistent
with the literature that indicates the majority of individuals participating in adult
education are either young adults or adults in their prime employment years (DeWitt
Wallace, 2000). School to Work Program participants who range in age from 17 to 26
years could be considered young adults or adults in their primary employment years.
57

In addition, this finding is also consistent with the literature regarding age and
those taking and passing the GED. The mean age for those taking the GED in California
is 26.8 years, while nationwide, the mean age is 25.1 years (American Council on
Education, 2009); both are slightly older than the School to Work Program participants in
this study. For those who passed the GED, the mean age in California is 26.0, also older
than the national average of 24.2 years (American Council on Education, 2009).
Results for Research Question Three
Research Question 3: What are the specific, functional and contextual
characteristics of reading instruction in a contextualized educational and career technical
training program?
In addition to exploring the relationship between the TABE pre- and post-test
reading scores and their relation to the various demographic variables in research
questions one and two, this study also explored the characteristics of a functional,
contextualized reading instruction program (research question three) by interviewing
twelve School to Work Program students and two of their teachers. This particular
research question explores the specific, functional and contextual characteristics of
reading instruction a contextualized educational and career technical training program.
Description of School to Work Program
The School to Work Program curricula is designed to provide contextual training
experiences that integrate academic and career technical training. Contextual training
allows the School to Work Program young adults to apply the academic and career
58

technical skills they are learning directly to their chosen career field, in a sense,
encouraging an “apply as you learn” method of learning.
The School to Work Program utilizes a training approach called the Vocation
Development Approach, comprised of four distinct stages. The four stages are: 1)
Outreach; 2) Vocation Preparation Period (VPP); 3) Vocation Development Period
(VDP); and the Vocation Transition Period (VTP). The School to Work Program also
offers career technical and academic training to prepare students for success in more than
100 occupations in a range of high-growth industries (School to Work Program Annual
Report, 2006).
Observations and Document Analysis
The Reading A and Reading B classes were geared for self-learning in that, with
support and guidance from their teacher, the students were primarily responsible for their
own learning and for monitoring their own progress. As observed by this researcher, the
students understood the routine of collecting their folders and finding their place in the
class, working either at the computer or at their desk, on their worksheet packet.
For example, as stated in the General Lesson Plan: Reading A:
 Use the Reading TABE Success Exercises to help prepare the students for
testing.
 The 6 competencies reviewed in Reading A are: initial skills, interpreting
graphic information, words in context, recalling information, construct
meaning and evaluate/extend meaning.

59

According to the School to Work Program staff, the students are expected to
achieve reading competencies listed above by using the Reading TABE Success
Exercises, among other learning tools. Also, as it is documented in the lesson stages, it
appears many of the reading competencies to be mastered are done so through the use of
computers and TABE related learning materials as demonstrated in the following
excerpts from the general lesson plan:
 Lesson Stages: Rotation 1- Read 180 computer program for 30 minutes
(computer assignments emphasize vocabulary, reading comprehension and
spelling); Rotation 2-rBook Whole Group Lesson-i.e., The New
American; Rotation 3- Read 180 library for 30 minutes (each student has
been assigned a reading library level based on their Lexile score. Student
chooses a book for their reading level and read every day. Upon
completion of the book, each student must take the test on the computer in
the Reading Counts Program. Choose another book and continue the
process.
 For 45 days after the initial TABE the students study, do assignments and
take practice test until they are scheduled for the next TABE. If the
students make an educational gain or achieve a score of 416 or higher on
the reading TABE, they complete the Read A and can advance to the Read
C.
As documented in the general lesson plan for the Reading A class, the functional
and contextual characteristics of reading instruction in this program appear to involve the
60

student taking a test on the computer, reading a book based on that level obtained from
the computer test and then repeating this process of reading a book, and taking a test over
and over again until they reach a certain TABE test score. For example, the lesson plan
states, “Students study, do assignments, and take practice tests until they are scheduled
for the next TABE. If the students make an educational gain or achieve a score of 416 or
higher on the reading TABE, they complete the Read A and can advance to Read B.”
Furthermore, the functional and contextual characteristics of reading instruction in
a contextualized educational and career technical training program were also found in the
Course Syllabus: Reading A and the Wellness Reading, as indicated below (Lesson Plan,
work in progress as indicated by teacher, emphasis added):
 The main purpose of the class is to challenge students to reach high
academic standards in reading through relevant and engaging content in
health science and medical terminology. Increasing the interest of health
careers by introducing students to a wide variety of employment
opportunities.
 The integrated curriculum provides career related knowledge through
reading multiple levels using technology, print, adaptive and instructional
software, and high-interest literacy.
 Supplemental Reading Materials: magazines, newspapers and novels
 Course Objectives: Students will score 80% or higher on all tests
administered in the program. Students will actively participate in group
activities and discussion. Students will achieve sufficient gains in reading
61

and attain literacy skills needed to succeed in school and in the health
profession. Students will master challenging academics and technical
content and apply teamwork, critical thinking and problem-solving.
 Grading: The Read 180 software analyzes, monitors, tracks, and reports on
student progress. 80% or higher on each assignment is required.
The Course Syllabus: Reading A incorporates more use of health related terms
and concepts, setting forth evidence of a contextualized structure. Words such as,
“through relevant and engaging content in health science,” “medical terminology career
related knowledge,” and “achieve sufficient gains in reading and attain literacy skills
needed to succeed in school and in the health profession” appear to demonstrate evidence
of contextualized learning.
The Wellness Reading Lesson Plan, more specifically, incorporates literature and
verbiage to indicate the use of a contextualized academic and vocational emphasis,
however there still seems to be evidence to suggest the high use of computer related
learning materials, even within a vocationally contextualized setting. For example, the
lesson plan indicates that directed lessons are to be completed by the participant in the
computer directed lessons in the Reading 180 program: “Review current Reading TABE
score, and Read 180 computer program for 30 minutes on a daily basis.” Along with the
computer work, the students also were expected to participate in class discussions and
read class material on topics such as sleep, anxiety, stress reduction, diet and health.
Taking a step further, as indicated in the Wellness Reading Lesson Plan, emphasis is put
on ensuring success in everyday life competencies such as balancing a checkbook,
62

creating a budget for one month, finding an apartment, and finding a job in connection
with their vocation.
Unlike the General Lesson Plan: Reading A and the Course Syllabus: Reading A,
the Wellness Reading Lesson Plan incorporates the use of health related reading
materials, more so than found in the Reading A and B classes. Reading materials and
discussion include topics such as the importance of sleep, active communication, and
eliminating stress. Activities also appear to be contextualized to meaningful life
experiences, such as finding an apartment and creating a budget. It is, however, unclear
how much time is actually dedicated to these types of meaningful activities.
As seen through evidence presented from the document analysis, the functional
and contextual characteristics of reading instruction in this program appear to involve the
high use of the computer, worksheets and the TABE test and test materials. In addition to
the document analysis, the next section will present the results of each participant’s
individual accounts through comments, behaviors, or actions as observed through
individual interviews. Through the interviews, this researcher looked for evidence
through which to define better the functional and contextual characteristics of reading
instruction in this program, through the lens of the participants themselves.
Student and Staff Interviews
Although School to Work Program participants range in age from 16 to 26, for
this particular study, only participants 18 years and older were interviewed. When asked
their reason for participating in the School to Work Program, two out of the 12 students
indicated they had attended community college but decided to join the School to Work
63

Program because they could not get the classes they wanted at their community college.
The majority of the students interviewed shared the common prior experience of not
succeeding in a traditional school setting; all but the two community college students had
struggled academically, implying the majority shared the experience of struggling
academically and needing academic intervention.
Three out of the 12 students expressed a positive prior family history with the
School to Work Program, commenting that family members had enjoyed the experience.
One student explained that his mother had gone through the School to Work Program to
become a nurse, while another student said that her family member had participated in
the program and has been working for a major transportation company for many years.
All of the students interviewed understood and were able to explain why they
needed to take their particular reading class. They understood the immediate and long
term usefulness of the course content and how the course content applied to their outside
lives – they believed the increase in TABE would secure future employment. For
example, all of the School to Work Program participants interviewed (12 out of 12)
understood that taking the reading class would help them improve their reading skills, so
they could achieve the reading scores needed to be eligible for their vocation of choice.
They were able to cite their specific TABE reading score and its grade equivalent, and
they were able to state what specific TABE reading score they needed to be accepted into
their vocation of choice. For example, one student stated “My TABE reading scores are
at 7.4 (GE) and I need to get 12.9 (GE) to get into the CNN/LVN program.” Another
student reported, “I have good TABE scores, a 10.8 (GE) in English and a 10.5 (GE) in
64

math. I need to work up to a 12.9 (GE) for reading if I want to get into the program I
want.” One teacher explained that the reading classes are reading level specific, with
students grouped according to their academic reading level:
Students in this lower level basic reading class (Read A) need to score a 460 on
the TABE reading section to move on to the next reading class (Read B). Once
they score a 566 on the TABE reading section, in either class (Read A or Read B)
they are finished with reading.

All of the students appeared to acknowledge that they were responsible for their own
learning in that they knew their current TABE reading score and the score they needed to
reach their desired vocational program. They all felt the School to Work Program had
helped them increase their reading scores.
During the interviews, the students appeared to acknowledge the belief that they
were responsible for their own decisions, as one stated, “You can either take advantage or
not. You can learn at your own pace.” However, although they had the choice of taking
advantage of the program or not, they all had to follow an expected classroom routine and
structure that was imposed on them by the instructor. That is, all the students knew the
classroom routine of using the Read 180 Program during which they worked on the
computer, took quizzes either on the computer or on the worksheet, and then, based on
their performance on the quizzes, would either need to review the specific reading skill
missed or continue on to the next module. Yet a few students expressed wanting more
than worksheets. A student indicated it would be interesting to “do less worksheets and
maybe book reports instead.”
The students interviewed had positive comments regarding class discussions
about the importance of sleep and communication. Six out of the 12 students indicated
65

they enjoyed the various lessons and follow-up discussions on the importance of sleep
and the lesson on communication skills. With regard to other lessons, one student
particularly liked the lesson about the requirements of healthcare workers, while another
student felt watching movies and discussing the movie in a group was positive. In all, it
appeared many students enjoyed the group discussion format, and they wanted less
computer work and fewer worksheets.
It was clear that, in spite of the heavy use of TABE related learning materials, the
students were motivated to learn the reading skills necessary to do well on the TABE
score. They understood the direct connection between TABE scores and being eligible
for the vocation of their choice. One student commented, “My scores have improved a
lot. They went up two whole grade levels.” Two of the students felt their scores had not
gone up because they “already knew this stuff from high school,” however, they said it
did serve as a “refresher.”
In the interviews with the teachers, they expressed that there was a certain order
to their classroom, a classroom routine that will help their students function in the outside
world. One teacher commented, “I try to conduct class as if it were their job. I try to
encourage the student to have a ‘world of work sense.’” The teachers were consistent in
their use of the Read 180 Program in all classrooms. One teacher supplemented the Read
180 Program with outside reading, current events and reading specific websites.
Like the students, the teachers were well versed in the TABE reading scores and
their importance to student improvement and student vocation choice. The specific
reading classes were designed with different grade levels in mind, and with the use of the
66

TABE supplemental materials, they were able to work with the students to increase their
reading scores and, indirectly, their motivation. One teacher commented the most
important teaching tool is to “build confidence and have the student be secure in their
learning.”
Triangulation of Observations, Document Analysis and Interviews
As shown in Table 10, the observations, document analysis, and interview
responses were components of this qualitative study that looked at the specific functional
and contextual characteristics of reading instruction in a contextualized educational and
career technical training program. Utilizing the Assessment Tool form (Appendix C), this
researcher was able to combine information from the observations, document analysis,
and interviews that support adult learning principles in a contextualized, educational and
technical training program.
As illustrated in Table 10, this researcher found evidence of adult learning for
principle one, which involves the adult learner being told the importance of the task, in
both the document analysis and the interviews, but not in the observations of participants.
The researcher’s observations and document analysis indicated there was evidence of
principle two (adult learner taking responsibility for his or her own learning) being
utilized, however, interviews did not show this. Additionally, there was no evidence of
adult learning principle three (the consideration of adult learners’ prior funds of
knowledge on which to build new knowledge) found through the observations, analysis
of documents, or the interviews. Finally, this researcher found evidence in the document
analysis for the fourth principle (the adult learners’ process-oriented learning modality)
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and the fifth principle (intrinsic motivation of the adult learner), but evidence was not
found for these principles in the observations or the interviews. In summary, evidence of
the adult learning principles was found to be present mostly in the documents analyzed
by this researcher, but not through the observations or interviews.

Table 10: Evidence of Adult Learning Principles within Contextualized Setting

Principles Observation Document Analysis Interview
1. Adult Learner needs
to be told why task is
important to them in
their daily lives,
meaningful/real-life.
Need-to-know the
why, what, and how.
No evidence. Students
following expected
classroom routine or
chatting with buddy
with no meaningful
purpose.
There was evidence that
documents clearly
articulated what the
students needed to do to
get into their vocation of
choice (i.e. raise TABE
scores).
Students clearly reported
they knew high TABE
scores would secure
placement in their
vocation of choice.
2. Adult Learner
perceives
responsibility for
own learning.
Decision to learn is
self-initiated. Resent
situations where
others impose their
decisions over them.
Some evidence that
student knew what
teacher expected of
them regarding
classroom routine.
Some evidence in
documents of classroom
routine or assignment
expectations, however
they were imposed by
teacher.
No evidence. Students
did not appear to take
ownership. Only repeated
doing what the teacher
asked.
3. Adult Learner comes
with extensive prior
knowledge; consider
“old prior
knowledge” to build
upon “new
knowledge.”
No evidence. No evidence. No evidence.
4. Adult Learner ready
to learn. Learning is
process-oriented,
correlated to
developmental tasks,
contextualized with
knowledge and skills,
which adult perceives
as necessary to
perform tasks in
home, community, or
future employment.
No evidence.
Researcher observed
worksheets and
computer work.
Evidence found in the
Wellness academy used
terms/vocabulary
applicable to vocation.
No evidence. Students
reported worksheets and
computer work.
5. Adult Learner’s
strongest motivators
are internally driven
with personal
benefits (i.e.
increased self-esteem
or improved quality
of life).
No evidence. Observed
help with workbook and
students instructed to
work on computer.
Some evidence found in
reference to topic such as
stress reduction, sleep,
communication skills.
No evidence. Only
“external” TABE test
score was mentioned.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The Adult Education participants in this study were able to raise their reading test
scores and perform better on the reading sub-test of the TABE by participating in the
School to Work educational and career technical training program. Only a single
demographic characteristic, age, served as a statistically significant predictor of
participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. Specifically, older participants tended to
score higher than younger participants at post-test.
To facilitate a cohesive discussion and to help identify the specific, functional and
contextual characteristics of reading instruction in a contextualized educational and
career technical training program, the discussion will be presented with Knowles et al.’s
(1998) principles of adult learning embedded within Sticht’s (2000) principles of a
Functional Context Education as a theoretical framework. The core emphasis of this
model is for the School to Work Program to include academic content that is functional
with the goal of developing strong academic skills and job knowledge together, for the
benefit of the adult learner so he or she can see the usefulness of reading in their personal
lives. Additionally, motivation for learning, contextualized literacy activities, and the
disconnection between these aspects will be discussed further.
Motivation for Learning
The analysis of the interviews, the documents, and the pre- and post-test TABE
scores provided evidence of students increasing their TABE scores, and being motivated
to increase their TABE scores, because they wanted to get into the vocation of their
69

choice. This was seen despite the decontextualized instructional literacy practices found
in the reading classes. The students interviewed did not appear to be intrinsically
motivated to become better readers, but instead were motivated by the need to increase
their TABE scores to seek employment.
The students understood that raising their TABE scores would secure their
acceptance into the vocation of their choice, which appeared to be their ultimate goal and
the primary reason they were participating in the School to Work Program. Consistent
with current research, this study found that the School to Work Program participants were
highly motivated to participate in the program because it served a larger, more
meaningful purpose: future employment through acceptance to the vocation of their
choice.
Although seeking employment appeared to be students’ main goal, the program
could provide an excellent opportunity to nurture the belief in life-long and create self-
disciplined learners, in addition to helping students increase their TABE reading test
score (Belzer, 2006). In this study, it appeared that students equated TABE reading
scores, TABE worksheets, and Reading 180 computer programs with reading. They saw
the act of reading as scores, worksheets, and computer work that only happened in their
classroom and did not have any relevance to their outside lives. Furthermore, as
evidenced in the document analysis, it appeared the program itself promoted this view of
reading as being an isolated event that consisted of computer work, worksheets, and
TABE test scores. The program, with its high reliance on TABE testing and TABE
70

reading scores, in a sense, promoted the belief that reading skills were needed primarily
for test purposes and not for life-long discovery.
In the quantitative analysis of this study, it was discovered that age was the only
demographic factor studied that served as a statistically significant predictor of the
participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. In this study, the older participants’
readiness to learn and motivation may have influenced the increase in reading test scores.
One explanation offered is that older students performed better in the post-test TABE
reading scores than their younger counterparts because older students might bring with
them a sense of wanting or needing a vocation more so than the younger students. Being
26 years old versus 18 or even 20 years old might add a sense of urgency to finding a job
or vocation. Thus, the older student may bring this sense of urgency into the classroom
and to his development of reading skills. Unfortunately, the increase in reading test
scores for the students in this study, the older students in particular, did not appear to
transfer over to the students interviewed in this study. That is, the students interviewed in
the study did not express readiness to learn reading or motivation to read, other than to
increase their TABE test score to secure their vocation of choice.
The students interviewed were not motivated to become better readers, perhaps in
part because the instructional activities promoted in their reading classes emphasized
increasing their TABE scores. As seen through evidence presented from the document
analysis, the functional and contextual characteristics of reading instruction in this
program, the high use of the computer, worksheets, and the TABE test and test materials
appear to influence the students’ motivation to become better readers. The students
71

understood the correlation between increasing their TABE scores and attaining their
vocation of choice, which in turn, was promoted by the reading classes. It appears that,
because the pedagogical choices and the instructional activities primarily related to
increasing their TABE reading scores, the students in this study were less intrinsically
motivated to become more literate citizens (Beder, 2006; Belzer, 2006; Comings et al.,
2001; Sticht, 2000).
Contextualized Literacy Practices
Students interviewed in this study appeared to acknowledge the belief that they
were responsible for their own decisions, however, they all had to follow an expected
classroom routine and structure that was imposed on them by the instructor. The students’
orientation to learning did not appear to be consistent with either Knowles et al.’s (1998)
learning principles or Sticht’s (2000) principles of a contextualized education; although
students’ understood the usefulness of the course content to reaching higher TABE
scores, they were not able see the importance or relevance of the worksheets or computer
work in their outside lives. It seemed the students wanted more life-centered learning
activities that involved more group work and more opportunities to discuss meaningful
material. The students interviewed seem to fit into the category described by Comings et
al. (2001) as having strong basic academic skills, but also having higher level processing
skills, like working in collaborative groups and problem-solving within that group. This
is also consistent with research cited by Belzer (2006a, 2006b) and Bender (2006).
One instructional practice that might capitalize on the students’ motivation to
become eligible for their vocation of choice is the use of group discussions of material or
72

literature specific to their vocational interests. Group discussions using novels or outside
reading material allow students to discuss, analyze and interpret others’ perceptions of
the material. It allows the student the opportunity to connect what they are reading with
events, memories or circumstances in their daily lives that make reading more
meaningful (Belzer, 2006; Sticht, 2000)
During the interviews, a few students were able to cite reading strategies they had
learned while in the School to Work Program, such as high-lighting what one reads and
reading slowly to secure the accuracy of their reading. However, only one student was
able to demonstrate using these skills in his outside life. This student mentioned that
learning more vocabulary words was helpful to him outside of the School to Work
Program, because he was now better able to communicate with others. Applying course
content to the outside word is an integral component of adult basic learning and
contextualized learning. As cited in the research, adult learners need to possess well
developed educational skills to further enhance their personal life (Boyer, 2000; Comings
et al., 2001; Sticht, 1999). It was demonstrated that, although the students were ready and
motivated to increase their TABE reading test scores, few of the students interviewed in
this study could apply the importance of reading skills in their outside world.
The majority of the School to Work Program students shared the common prior
experience of not succeeding in a traditional school setting. For various reasons, the
students interviewed chose to participate in the program instead of their traditional high
school setting to meet their academic needs. Unfortunately, there was little evidence of
contextualized literacy practices, as demonstrated through the collective voice of the
73

students interviewed. The findings of this study revealed no evidence of learning that
builds upon prior knowledge, considers building new knowledge based on old
knowledge, or considers learning to be primarily social. Rather, the students interviewed
expressed a high reliance on computer work and learning in isolation, making meaningful
learning less available.
As demonstrated through the interviews and the document analysis in this study,
students appeared to be working on skills they did not fully understand; therefore they
were not utilizing their prior funds of knowledge. For example, one student mentioned,
“You take a test, and each section you fail, you get worksheets.” Another student
reported, “You get packet of worksheets. Then the teacher marks the worksheet with a
red pen and you get another packet.” Teaching to students’ strengths rather than to their
weaknesses might allow the students’ prior knowledge to help anchor their new learning
experiences. Another strategy might be to start with the skills students already know and
build upon those skills, each time comparing and contrasting with their prior knowledge.
For example, contrasting medial vowel sounds in words could be accomplished by the
students sorting through vocabulary words from their health related material and looking
for words with and without medial vowel sounds. Also, vocabulary can be developed
through the words students encounter in novels they read or current events.
Building upon prior knowledge also means building on their funds of knowledge.
Most of these students share the common experience of not doing well in traditional
school setting and struggling academically. Since worksheets may have been a common
practice in students’ previous learning environments, the program could capitalize on this
74

fact and recognize that it might be better (or at minimum, more exciting for the students)
to provide opportunities for students to discuss what they are learning in a group setting
and to be encouraged to take part in social learning.
The Disconnect Between Motivation for Learning and Contextualized Literacy
Practices
It is important to note that the students’ post-TABE reading scores did increase,
and the change was statistically significant. This infers that teaching “to the test” may
serve as a useful tool, if the desired outcome is only to increase TABE scores. It
appeared, however, that the School to Work Program students might have been capable
of learning more than what is necessary for the test. There appeared to be a disconnect
between what the students interviewed wanted and what the program offered. That is,
most of the students interviewed wanted more than just worksheets or computer work.
They seemed to want more teacher and peer interaction, to be social during the learning
process. The School to Work Program, as it currently exists in the Reading A class, can
combine its successful use of worksheets, computer work and TABE reading test scores,
with a more multi-dimensional teaching approach which incorporates many opportunities
for students to read and learn. The current program can capitalize on the students’
motivation to participate in the program. The students were motivated to increase their
test scores to get into their vocation of choice, but they also wanted a variety of different
instructional activities, some of which included discussion, book reading, and more
meaningful group work.
75

There also appeared to be a disconnect between the students’ understanding of the
program and what the program actually offered. That is, during the interviews, the
students all expressed their understanding of the implicit relationship between increasing
their TABE scores and being accepted into their vocation of choice. Although the
program was able to encourage and nurture a high value in reading, it appeared to
encourage and nurture primarily the increase in TABE scores, rather than the high utility
of reading in students’ outside lives.
As seen through the key issues thus far presented, the students interviewed in this
study indicated a high reliance on worksheets and computer use as well, however in spite
of the heavy use of these resources as learning tools, it does appear the high use of
worksheets and computers may contribute to an increase in TABE scores, as
demonstrated by the statistical analysis of the TABE reading test scores. There was
evidence found through the interviews to indicate that the School to Work Program
students understood the implicit correlation between higher TABE scores and acceptance
into the vocation of their choice.
Ultimately, the students interviewed in this study were not intrinsically motivated
to become better, more proficient, readers, nor were they able to see the meaningful
purpose of reading in their lives outside the classroom and beyond the TABE scores. The
reason for this disconnect was due primarily to the instructional practices promoted by
the program; it appeared the instructional practices were related mostly to increasing
students’ TABE scores rather than valuing reading.

76

Implications for Practice
This study has multiple implications for practice concerning the adult basic
education learner and the use of a contextualized learning environment with a vocational
emphasis:
1) Develop Staff: Assessing the staff’s understanding and level of knowledge
regarding contextualized literacy activities may bring further insight into the development
of contextualized literacy activities in their classrooms. In this study, the staff appeared
well versed in the TABE and TABE-related materials, and they were very successful at
increasing TABE reading scores. However, it appeared their high reliance on increasing
TABE test scores may have unintentionally excluded the use of other more meaningful,
contextualized literacy activities. Ensuring the staff have ample experience in
recognizing, developing, and implementing contextualized literacy activities is crucial to
creating a contextualized learning environment for their students.
2) Survey Student Interests: Surveying the students’ interests may prove
beneficial to the adult education staff, to ensure the staff know and understand what
factors or instructional strategies motivate the students to engage in their program. For
example, knowing that many of the students interviewed expressed the desire to have
discussion groups, in addition to the worksheets and computer work, can encourage staff
to develop instructional strategies that include class discussions, whole group reading
circles, or even partnered reading. Assessing the students’ level of engagement in the
classroom could possibly promote a connection between instructional strategies and
student motivation to engage in meaningful reading activities.
77

3) Promote Intrinsic Motivation for Reading: The program, although capable of
encouraging and nurturing a high value for reading, appeared to encourage and nurture
primarily the increase in TABE scores, rather than the high utility of reading in students’
lives outside the classroom. The students in this study were clearly successful in
increasing their TABE scores. However, the students interviewed were not able to cite
any examples of how reading had any relevance in their outside lives. The program can
promote the belief that literacy is knowledge and power, in both the classroom and in
students’ communities, rather than just focusing on increasing TABE scores. For
example, students can be exposed to, encouraged to investigate, and expected to become
familiar with various reading materials relevant to their vocational pursuits, as well as
their outside interests. Reading should be presented as not only a skill, but as a
contributing factor to students’ lives.
4) Encourage Reading. In addition to the computer and worksheet learning
activities, active reading from a variety of reading materials should be encouraged in the
classroom and implemented as a learning expectation of the program. For example, in
addition to students’ mandatory 30 minutes of computer work in the Reading 180
computer program, they could also be required to complete 20 minutes of reading in
class, from their book of their choice. After the 20 minute silent reading, the students
could pair with a partner or a small group to discuss and interpret what they read. This
kind of discussion about books nurtures students’ connection with reading. Implementing
these kinds of instructional strategies in reading classes can reinforce to students the idea
that reading can be meaningful and not just isolated skills.
78

Recommendations for Future Research
This study extends the research on adult basic literacy learning by investigating
the contextual characteristics inherent in a basic School to Work Program. Findings from
this study suggest that future research might investigate the School to Work Program
students’ use of reading skills, once they are actively engaged in their vocation of their
choice. Currently, students in the program must obtain a certain TABE score to become
eligible for their vocation of choice. Once the student obtains the specified TABE he/she
is no longer expected to take any other type of reading class. An assessment once the
student is fully immersed in the vocation of choice would be insightful in determining the
student’s level of reading success while in their vocation and answering the question “Do
students’ literacy skills transfer to their vocation, or is further reading skill development
necessary?”
Future research could also entail a more thorough, in-depth look at the literacy
practices utilized in this program. Generally, future research may also involve exploring
the extent of learning activities offered within this program. Specifically, since the Read
180 computer program and TABE-related worksheets appear to play a decisive role in the
program, one could assess their effectiveness and the use of contextualized learning
material, exploring the question “Does use of the Read 180 Program and the TABE-
related worksheets promote the use of contextualized literacy activities?”
Finally, future research might involve looking at other forms of assessment to
measure, not only the reading skill level of the student, but also the students’ level of
intrinsic motivation. In this study, the students increased their TABE scores, however
79

they did not appear to be intrinsically motivated to become more literate. The students
interviewed were not able to see beyond the TABE scores into a more meaningful
purpose for reading. Currently, it appears the only assessment of student performance is
limited to the TABE. While the TABE is a valid tool to assess isolated reading skills,
other measurements of student values and motivation towards reading taken while
students are in the program might prove beneficial.
Limitations and Delimitations

One limitation of this study includes issues regarding the sample of 16 to 24 year
old School to Work Program participants. The sample can be generalized to the general
adult learner population, since they represent adults who did not graduate from high
school and would otherwise not be enrolled in a School to Work Program. Another
limitation of this study is that the School to Work Program is a program that utilizes a
functional, hands-on academic and career technical training program, and thus may not
be generalized to a more traditional, non-apprenticeship adult basic education program.
The delimitations for this study utilize a framework that includes a literature
review and study proposed primarily to investigate the adult basic learner, and not an
exhaustive review of the adult learner in general. Thus, the boundaries of this study will
review and add information to the understanding of literacy skill attainment of the adult
basic learner, but excludes the general adult learner. In addition, the literacy skill levels
being investigated are primarily adult basic reading skill levels, excluding written
language and math skills. Finally, because School to Work Program participants range in
80

age from 16 to 24, the general adult population of 16 years of age and older will not be
considered as the sample population for this study.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the learning
of basic reading literacy skills in a contextualized, vocational adult basic education
program, specifically the School to Work Program. Findings for the first and second
research questions appear consistent with interview responses and document analysis,
citing the program’s emphasis on TABE test scores, TABE test skills, and the Read 180
Program. There was evidence through the interviews to indicate that the School to Work
Program students understood the implicit correlation between higher TABE scores and
acceptance into their vocation of choice, which implied possible future employment for
the student. As demonstrated by the significant increase in TABE test scores, the
possibility of securing future employment proved to be a powerful motivator for these
students.
If the program’s goal was solely to increase TABE test scores, then the program
met its goal. However, if the program’s goal was to increase TABE scores in addition to
nurturing the student’s intrinsic motivation to become more literate citizens, then the
program fell short of its goal. School to Work Program students might have been capable
of learning more than what was necessary for the test. The program, although capable of
encouraging and nurturing a high value in reading, appeared instead to encourage and
nurture primarily the increase in students’ TABE scores, rather than foster a high utility
for reading in students’ lives outside the classroom.
81

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84

APPENDIX A
STUDENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Overall, do you think the reading skills you are learning in this program have
helped you? How have these reading skills helped or added to your life?

2. Do you use the reading skills you are learning in this program at your Work-
Based Learning assignments? Can you give me an example?

3. How do the school lessons fit what you need to learn for your Work-Based
Learning assignments, work, or your personal life?

4. Do you feel the school lessons are about anything important or meaningful in
your Work-Based Learning assignments, work, or your personal life? How do the
school lessons add to your life?

5. Have you found any particular reading skills/strategies that is very helpful at your
job or in your personal life?

6. How much do you think your reading skills have improved since you have been
participating in this program?

85

APPENDIX B
STAFF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How do you promote reading literacy skills in your classroom, individual student
lessons, or overall curricula?

2. Of the reading literacy skills you are teaching, which do you find most relevant
and useful to your students?

3. Do you feel the reading literacy skills you are teaching have helped your
students? If so, how?

4. Do you feel your lessons fit what students need to learn for their jobs? Do you
feel the students find your lessons helpful and meaningful to their lives?

5. Do you feel this program has helped the students increase their reading literacy
skill level? What evidence of learning might show this increase?

86

APPENDIX C
ASSESSMENT TOOL: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION/DOCUMENT
ANALYSIS/PARTICIPANT INTERVIEW

Class A ______ Class B ______

Principle 1: Adult Learner needs to be told why task is important to them in their daily
lives, meaningful/real-life. Need-to-know the why, what, and how.

 Instructor explained learning objective, purpose/relevance of topic.
 Participant seems open to task. Sees purpose of what is being presented.
 Participant saw purpose of instructional tasks as relevant/applicable to their
personal/vocational life.

Yes____ No______

Notes: _______________________________________________________________

Principle 2: Adult Learner perceives responsibility for own learning. Decision to learn is
self-initiated. Resents situations where others impose their decisions upon them.

 Participant shows self-direction, independence, enthusiasm, positive attitude and
approach to classroom lesson/task.
 Instructor’s approach respects autonomy of student, open, inclusive, non-imposing.

Yes____ No______

Notes: _________________________________________________________________

87

APPENDIX C CONTINUED
Principle 3: Adult Learner comes with extensive prior knowledge; consider “old prior
knowledge” to build upon “new knowledge.”

 Instructor encourages, incorporates, or relates student’s previous experiences via
examples, group dialogue, or anecdotes.
 Participant openly discussed prior/experiential knowledge, skills, attitudes with
instructor and/or peers.

Yes____ No______

Notes: _________________________________________________________________

Principle 4: Adult Learner ready to learn. Learning is process-oriented which is
correlated to developmental tasks, contextualized with knowledge and skills which adult
perceives as necessary to perform tasks in home, community or for future employment.

 Instruction (material, approach, format) was relevant, applicable, and specific to
participant’s short term and long term goals. Topics seem to be applicable to real life
situations.

Yes____ No______

Notes:
________________________________________________________________________

Principle 5: Adult Learner’s strongest motivators are internally driven with personal
benefits (i.e. increased self esteem or improved quality of life).

 Instructor demonstrated supportive, respectful, personalized approach. Positive
classroom.
 Participant showed positive attitude, value towards instruction, task.

Yes____ No______

Notes:
________________________________________________________________________

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the learning of basic reading literacy skills in a contextualized, educational career technical training program, specifically the School to Work Program. The study explores whether adult literacy rates can change through students' participation in a contextualized, educational and career technical training program and investigates what factors are related to any change in adult literacy rates. This is a mixed method study that uses 1) a quantitative analysis to determine if there is a significant difference between pre- and post-test reading scores and what factors influence those literacy changes, and 2) a qualitative analysis to explore the specific characteristics in a contextualized, educational and career technical training program. The findings indicate that participants in the study were able to raise their reading test scores on the Test of Basic Education (TABE) by participating in this program. Only a single demographic characteristic, age, served as a significant predictor of participants’ post-test TABE reading scores. Three themes emerged as key issues in the qualitative portion of this study: motivation for learning, contextualized literacy practices, and the disconnect between the two. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are also discussed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nuño-Toledo, Elsa (author)

Core Title School to Work Program as a contributor to adult literacy skill development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/14/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adult education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email elsantoledo@yahoo.com,etoledo@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3448

Unique identifier UC1331813

Identifier etd-Toledo-4075 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-388107 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3448 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Toledo-4075.pdf

Dmrecord 388107

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nuño-Toledo, Elsa

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu