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Teachers’ role in improving advanced placement exam scores: a gap analysis

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Teachers’ role in improving advanced placement exam scores: a gap analysis

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Teachers’ Role in Improving Advanced Placement Exam Scores: A Gap Analysis
by
Lindsey Marie Vorndran

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Lindsey Marie Vorndran 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Lindsey Marie Vorndran certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Sandra Kaplan
Manuel Burciaga
Kenneth Yates, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
This study used the gap analysis framework to examine the gap in AP exam pass rates at Asgard
High School (AHS). The purpose of this study was to analyze the teachers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that were contributing to the gap in AP exam pass
rates. This study made recommendations to improve the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that were contributing to this gap. This study collected qualitative data
from six AP teacher interviews and a focus group of 10 AP students. Additionally, AP teachers
provided artifacts for the purposes of document analysis to triangulate the data. After collection,
data was coded in order to identify trends in responses and inform solutions for closing the
identified gap. Findings from this study revealed that teachers do not have all of the conceptual
and metacognitive knowledge needed to align instruction and practice exam opportunities to the
AP content and skills for their respective courses. Additionally, findings revealed that there are
organizational factors preventing teachers from carrying out their role in closing the gap in AP
pass rates. Therefore, the recommendation was to implement a program based on the New
World Kirkpatrick model. Based on the findings, additional resources and organizational
supports in the form of professional developments and regular, strategic support from school
leadership are recommended. These recommendations are designed to bridge the gap in low AP
exam pass rates, and thereby, help students from underprivileged groups better access higher
education.

v
Dedication
To the actual best parents in the world, Kenny and JoAnn, I would not be the woman I am today
without you, your love, and your faith in me. Thank you for always believing in me and my
dreams. I know that my success comes at the cost of sacrifice on your part, and for that, I will
forever be grateful for all that you have and continue to do for me. Know that I will continue to
work hard and do good. I love you.

To my mano, my first best friend, Kyle, thank you for reading through and editing literally every
paper I have submitted in this program. Thank you for all that you have done to help me get to
this point; you are truly the best brother. I appreciate you more than you will ever know and am
grateful that I can count on you to have my back, no matter what. (And yes, you can claim 10%.)
Junie, I love you.

To my cousin and pseudo-big brother, Bryan, I could not imagine having anyone else seated next
to me on Thursday nights. You and I are connected in so many ways, and I am happy that we are
able to share in this moment as well. Thank you for always being a source of advice, guidance,
and wisdom when I need it.

To my sister-in-law and friend, Meagan, I both will and will not miss our study sessions,
complete with Disney and In-N-Out. Thank you for cheering me on and being so supportive
always.

vi
To my Uncle Rick and Aunt Barbara, thank you for the example you have set as educators and
lifelong learners. Thank you for encouraging my love of education (and for making sure I could
do long division in the 3
rd
grade).

To my roommate, Jaci, thank you for reminding me that it is okay to take a break, for picking up
my slack with the house chores, and for being an all-around good person. You are the best
roommate I’ve ever had.

To my family, thank you for always being a part of my cheering section, from my dance recitals
to now. I am grateful to you all for all you have done to help get me to this point.

To my friends, thank you for your support throughout this whole process. No matter what crazy
idea I come up with, you’ve always got my back. You have rooted for me, checked on me, and
been so uplifting. I appreciate you all.

To the best boy, Thor, and the best girl, Korra, thank you for laying with me and keeping my feet
warm on the couch so that I could write this dissertation. You are the best dogs.

To myself, you did this. Never forget what you have accomplished here. Never forget what you
can achieve when you believe in yourself and pursue your dreams. Never forget that you are
strong, smart, beautiful, and capable of anything.

vii
Acknowledgements
To my committee chair, Dr. Kenneth Yates, thank you for your patience, support, and
encouragement throughout this process. Thank you for putting up with my late-night spurts of
motivation and for being willing to meet almost daily and in the early mornings so that I could
finish this study. I am especially grateful to you for introducing me to the Yates method of
writing; your method and your Learning class definitely impacted my own teaching practice.
Know that your influence has definitely expanded far beyond your students at USC.
To my committee member, Dr. Sandra Kaplan, thank you for helping me to understand
more about who I am as an educator and who I want to be. You see in me what I did not see in
myself and for that, I am truly grateful. When I grow up, I want to be as wise and knowledgeable
as you. You are a true educator and I am honored to have been your student.
To my committee member, Dr. Manuel Burciaga, thank you for your guidance on this
journey. We’ve come full circle in a way that neither of us could have ever foreseen. As you and
Gilroy were present to celebrate my first USC graduation, it seems only fitting that you are a part
of my last USC graduation as well. Thank you for your kindness, your support, and for the
opportunity to be a part of the magic that is Northview.
To my Northview colleagues, thank you for your support of this study. I know I am still
the new girl on campus and many of us are still getting to know each other, but I am honored to
be able to work alongside you all. Thank you for your encouragement throughout this process.
To my Trojan Squad, both old and new, thank you for being you. You challenge me to be
a better person and educator. I am thankful to have found you and look forward to our continued
growth together. A special thank you to the Thursday night crew—Christopher, Praisy, and
Danielle—for holding it down when those nights in WPH dragged on. Fight On Forever!

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1
Importance of Addressing the Problem .............................................................................. 2
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 3
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 4
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 4
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 5
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ....................................................................................... 5
Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................ 6
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................. 7
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ...................................................................... 8
Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Project ................................................................................................. 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 10
History of the Advanced Placement Program ................................................................... 11
Advanced Placement and College-Readiness ................................................................... 13
Improving Advanced Placement Pass Rates ..................................................................... 14
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 16
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ............................... 17

ix
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 29
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 29
Assessment of Performance Influences ............................................................................ 31
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ............................................................. 41
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 43
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 44
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 45
Trustworthiness of Data .................................................................................................... 46
Role of Investigator ........................................................................................................... 46
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 47
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 48
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 48
Determination of Assets and Needs .................................................................................. 49
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes .................................................................... 49
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes .................................................................... 56
Results and Findings for Organization Causes ................................................................. 61
Results and Findings for Student Focus Group ................................................................ 68
Summary of Validated Influences .................................................................................... 71
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation ......................................................................... 77
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences .... 77
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................... 96
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 113
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 116
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 116
References ................................................................................................................................... 118

x
Appendix A: Teacher Recruitment Email ................................................................................... 123
Appendix B: Student Recruitment Email ................................................................................... 124
Appendix C: Teacher Information Sheet .................................................................................... 125
Appendix D: Student Informed Consent Form ........................................................................... 127
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol ................................................................................... 131
Appendix F: Student Focus Group Protocol ............................................................................... 133
Appendix G: Immediate Evaluation Tool ................................................................................... 134
Appendix H: Delayed Evaluation Tool ....................................................................................... 135
Appendix I: Visual Representation of Data Findings ................................................................. 136

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance
Goals
6
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Teachers’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal
20
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Teachers’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal
24
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Teachers’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal
27
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 33
Table 6: Summary of Motivational Influences and Method of Assessment 37
Table 7: Summary of Organizational Influences and Method of Assessment 40
Table 8: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 72
Table 9: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 74
Table 10: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 75
Table 11: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 79
Table 12: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 85
Table 13: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 90
Table 14: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 99
Table 15: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 101
Table 16: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 102
Table 17: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 109
Table 18: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 110

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Gap Analysis Process Model From Clark and Estes (2008) 30
Figure I1: Representation of Data Prior to Program Implementation 136
Figure I2: Representation of Data After Program Implementation 136

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Advanced Placement (AP) students are better prepared for college as they are more likely
to enroll in and graduate from degree-awarding institutions (College Board, 2020). Furthermore,
students who pass the AP exams that correspond with the courses they take can earn college
credit upon enrollment (College Board, 2020). Schools that promote enrollment in AP courses
and provide the support needed to pass the exams, are thus, graduating students who are college-
ready. However, according to College Board (2020), the average student in the state of
California is earning a 2.94 on their AP exam, which is less than the 3 needed to pass. This
indicates that the average student who takes the AP exam is not passing. A score of not passing
on an AP exam could prevent students from being accepted to increasingly competitive degree-
awarding institutions. As AP exams are intended to be college-level courses for high school
students, this problem represents the larger national problem in education of equal access to
higher education, particularly for students in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas.
Background of the Problem
The problem of low AP exam pass rates is important to solve for various reasons. AP
exam pass rates are used as an indicator of college-readiness by both secondary and post-
secondary organizations alike (Smith et al., 2017; Warne et al., 2015). As a result, AP exam pass
rates are used both to determine eligibility for post-secondary institutions and as a barometer for
persistence in undergraduate education (Kolluri, 2018; Mattern et al., 2013). Historically,
underprivileged students (or, marginalized, low-income, minority, etc.) have struggled to access
higher education. College Board (2020) reports that nationally only 32% of Black students and
44% of Hispanic students are passing their AP exams. Furthermore, research shows that over
50% of Black and Latin students who enter a four-year college will fail to complete their degree

2
within six years (as cited in Museus & Quaye, 2009, p. 68). Therefore, low AP exam pass rates
suggest that students are not prepared to meet the demands of a college-environment, which
impacts their access to various degree-awarding institutions.
The Federal Higher Education Act (2008) was originally passed in 1965, and most
recently reauthorized in 2008, with the intention of supporting programs geared at increasing
college enrollment and completion rates for economically disadvantaged and underprivileged
youth. However, the consistent discrepancies in college persistence rates in underprivileged
youth remains. Thus, educators need to take a step back and consider how the gap in AP exam
pass rates is contributing to this larger issue.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem with low AP pass rates is important to solve. First and foremost, a passing
score on an AP exam translates to college credit at most degree-awarding universities in the
country (College Board, 2020). In the long run, this translates to money and time saved in post-
secondary education. Depending on the number of AP exams passed, students have the ability to
earn credit for anywhere from one college course to an entire year of general education courses.
This incentive is especially appealing to students from low socioeconomic backgrounds as it
helps to cut down tuition costs significantly. Furthermore, low AP pass rates indicate that the
organization is failing to meet its goal of graduating students who are college-ready. AP courses
and passing scores on corresponding exams are indicators of college-readiness. If students are
failing to pass their AP exams, this suggests that students are not college-ready, thereby
defeating the purpose of AP programs. Additionally, the University of California public
collegiate system in California recently announced that SAT and ACT scores would no longer be
required for admission to their schools (University of California, 2020). Without these exam

3
scores to set students apart during the admissions process, participation in AP courses and AP
exam scores is one of the few remaining components of a student’s application that will
demonstrate college-readiness. Thus, AP courses and exams are even more critical in providing
students access to college than before.
Organizational Context and Mission
Asgard High School (a pseudonym; AHS) is a public high school located in a
predominantly middle-class community. The mission of Asgard High School (AHS) is to ensure
that all students graduate from high school prepared to meet the demands of a college
environment. However, Asgard High School’s (AHS) location near the border of two
neighboring low-socioeconomic cities means that there is a large population of students who
come from a low socioeconomic background. As a result, 72% of the student body is eligible for
free and reduced lunch. The demographics of the student population are as follows: 82.6%
Hispanic, 8.2% White, 3.8% Black, 2% Asian, and less than 1% Alaskan Native or Native
American. In addition to a student body comprised mostly of minority groups, 3.3% of students
are English Learners (EL) and 5.1% are homeless. The teacher and administration populations
are both ethnically diverse, although there is no official data that breaks down these
demographics, based on casual observations during staff meetings, the majority of approximately
50 teachers are White and Hispanic.
The mission of AHS is to graduate students who are college- and career-ready.
Ultimately, AHS wants all students to graduate college-ready, so that they can make the decision
to apply to and attend degree-awarding universities at any time starting with Senior year of high
school. Currently, AHS’ district enrollment is declining and has been for several years. This
decline in enrollment suggests that the neighborhood does not have the same faith in the Nine

4
Realms School District [a pseudonym] and its mission as they once did. If this continues, then
AHS and its ability to fulfill its mission are also in jeopardy.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem driving this study is low AP exam rates. The
goal is to have 100% of students pass their AP exams each Spring. During the 2018-2019 school
year, only 33% of administered exams received a passing score. This number has dropped
roughly 5% as the pass rates for the past 3 years have been approximately 38%. Therefore, not
only is there a large gap to be closed, but currently, the gap is getting bigger each year. In order
for AHS to fulfill its mission by graduating students who are college- and career-ready, it is
crucial that the gap in AP test scores be addressed. Failure to do so could result in the gap
continuing to get worse each year. The consequences of this are large, and at times extreme, as a
failure to close the gap could lead to fewer students being admitted to degree-awarding
universities, fewer students persisting in college, or fewer students enrolling in AHS altogether.
Organizational Performance Goal
AHS’ goal is that by May 2022, 100% of AP students will pass their exams with a score
of 3 or higher and thus, be eligible to earn college credit at a degree-awarding institution. The
Administration and Instructional Leadership Team established this goal after a meeting in which
AP exam scores were identified as an area of focus for all stakeholders. Progress will be tracked
periodically over the course of the school year with course assessments designed and
administered by teachers. The ultimate measure of the success of this goal will come from May
2022 AP exam data.

5
Description of Stakeholder Groups
At AHS, there are four key stakeholders that play a role in the success of students and the
school community. These stakeholders are students, parents, teachers, and administrators.
Administrators are responsible for creating the structures needed to guide instruction and student
learning. Administrators also coach teachers in their instructional practice in order to better assist
teachers in educating their students. Teachers are responsible for reinforcing the structures
established by the administrators. They are also responsible for maintaining their expertise in
their content areas as well as staying up to date on evidence-based changes or developments to
instructional strategies. Students are responsible for attending school daily and on time, engaging
in the learning experiences offered in each classroom, completing their work, and mastering the
skills needed to progress into college. Parents are responsible for ensuring that their children
have the resources needed to do well in school. While this does include school supplies such as
pencils and paper, it also includes basic necessities such as food, clothing, and proper sleep.
Parents are also responsible for following up with their children regarding homework, school
projects, and ultimately, progress in their classes. This study will focus on the role of teachers
and their contributions to the organizational goal.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1 provides the mission, organizational goal, and stakeholder goals for AHS.

6
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
AHS strives to establish and empower a community of problem solvers who effectively
collaborate, think critically, and communicate.
Organizational Performance Goal

By May 2022, 100% of AHS AP students will pass their exams.
Administrators AP Teachers Students Parents
By August 2021,
AHS administrators
will ensure that all
AP teachers have
the resources and
knowledge needed
to successfully
teach their AP
courses.
By August 2021,
100% of AP
teachers will
demonstrate the
content and skills
knowledge needed
to successfully
teach their
individual AP
courses.
By May 2022, 100%
of AP students will
have the content
and skills
knowledge needed
to pass their AP
exams.

By May 2022, 100%
of parents of AP
students will ensure
that their children
have the resources
needed to pass their
AP exams.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a thorough analysis would investigate the role of each of the identified
stakeholders, teachers interact with students the most day-to-day. Teachers spend the most
waking hours with students and are each responsible for educating students on the content and
skills needed to pass their AP exams. As a result, AP teachers will be the stakeholder of focus for
this study. By May 2022, 100% of AP teachers will know the content and skills required to
successfully teach for their individual AP exams. This knowledge will vary from teacher to
teacher as some AP exams are more skills-based, while others are more reflective of a mastery of
content knowledge. Therefore, some of this knowledge will require a focus on instructional

7
practice while some knowledge may require a review of the content. The implementation of this
new knowledge will likely require teachers to make adjustments to their daily instruction and the
way in which they approach the material. Thus, AHS’ gap between their current goal and where
they want to be is 100%.
Stakeholders’ Critical Behaviors
In order for the stakeholder of focus (teachers) to achieve the identified goal, the
following critical behaviors must be addressed.
1. Teachers will evaluate exam score reports from the previous exam year to inform
their teaching practices for the coming school year.
2. Teachers will teach the required content and skills as outlined by College Board.
3. Teachers will teach their respective AP courses using culturally relevant
pedagogy with fidelity.
4. Teachers will assess students using practice exams aligned to their respective AP
exams to gauge student mastery in preparation for the upcoming AP exam.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with AHS’ goal of 100% AP pass rates.
While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis is AP teachers. The analysis will begin by
generating a list of possible or assumed interfering influences that will be examined
systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering influences. Therefore, the study will
examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence teachers to achieve

8
their goal of demonstrating the content and skills knowledge needed to successfully teach their
individual AP courses.
The following research questions guide this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere
with teachers teaching 100% of the content and skills, using strategies appropriate
for the content, so that students pass the AP exam?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
This study will utilize Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, a systematic,
analytical method used to clarify organizational goals by identifying gaps between actual
performance levels and preferred performance levels. This study will employ qualitative methods
with descriptive statistics. Personal knowledge and related literature will be used to generate
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with achieving the
organizational goal. These influences will be assessed using interviews, a focus group, literature
review, and content analysis. Solutions will be recommended and evaluated based on the
research.
Definitions
● Advanced Placement (AP) Exams: These exams take place each Spring and are
administered on behalf of College Board. Degree-awarding universities use the presence
of these exams on a student’s transcripts as well as their scores as part of the admission
process.
● English Learners (EL): This refers to students whose primary language is not English.

9
Organization of the Project
This study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter One provided the key concepts
and terminology that is commonly used in discussions about AP Exams and their importance in
secondary and post-secondary education. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, as
well as the initial concepts of gap analysis, were also introduced in this chapter. Chapter Two
will provide a review of current literature that is relevant to the study. College-readiness,
measures of college-readiness, and instructional strategies will be among the topics addressed.
Chapter Three will examine the assumed interfering elements and the methodology as it pertains
to choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. Chapter Four will share the data and
provide details of how the data was assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five will use the data and the
literature to recommend solutions as well as the implementation and evaluation plan for said
solutions.

10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
AP exam pass rates represent an important component of high school education, not just
in the United States, but globally. AP exam scores are included in college applications and factor
into the admissions decisions. Furthermore, a passing score on an AP exam can earn a student
college credit towards their general education requirements, which in turn saves them money on
tuition. Underprivileged students have experienced difficulties accessing higher education, and,
as AHS is comprised predominantly of students from minority groups and low socioeconomic
families, it is crucial that the organization and its stakeholders prioritize anything that may help
to make this access more equitable. Research suggests that students who pass their AP exams are
more likely to graduate college within four years (Mattern et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2017; Warne
et al.; 2015). Therefore, closing the AP exam pass rate gap is necessary in order to assist AHS
students with not only being accepted into college, but graduating college as well.
This chapter will begin with a review of the pertinent literature, starting with a look at the
history of the AP Program, including the issues of equity and minority participation. Then, there
will be a review of the link between AP and college-readiness. Lastly, there will be a discussion
of the literature as it relates to improving AP pass rates with a focus on the teachers’ role, the
importance of instructional strategies, and using data to support instruction. Next, there will be a
review of teachers, accompanied by an explanation of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences lens used within the study. Finally, the focus will turn to teachers’
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences prior to ending the chapter with a
presentation of the conceptual framework.

11
History of the Advanced Placement Program
The AP Program began as an opportunity for students at elite high schools to gain easier
access to and graduate more quickly from Ivy League schools, but has since become readily
available to students and high schools across the country, regardless of socioeconomic status.
The AP Program was initially created to offer more challenging courses to gifted students.
Rothschild (1999) reports that the program began when professors from Ivy Leagues and the
elite American boarding schools were concerned about the quality of education for superior
students. They wanted to offer introductory college course equivalents to high school seniors as
an opportunity to earn college credit and skip the redundancy of taking similar courses in high
school and freshman year of college (Rothschild, 1999). However, participation in the AP
Program has seen exponential growth over the years. Fifty years after the creation of AP, the
program boasted over 1.1 million participants at high schools across the country (Schneider,
2009). While the AP Program was once only offered to select students and schools, it is now
offered at public and private schools nationwide to all high school students. Educators note that
AP is great for students who are both gifted and socially disadvantaged (Rothschild, 1999).
Furthermore, Rothschild (1999) reports that AP programs in schools that serve socially
disadvantaged students, particularly in inner-city schools, also help to change the opinion of the
community.
In short, the AP program began as an opportunity for students at elite high schools to gain
easier access to and graduate more quickly from Ivy League schools, but has since become
readily available to students and high schools across the country, regardless of socioeconomic
status. Despite the strides made to be more inclusive of students regardless of their
socioeconomic status or zip code, a disparity in the demographics being served remains.

12
The Issue of Equity in the Advanced Placement Program
In the early years of AP, these courses were reserved for the elite; although that access no
longer has the same limitations, gaps in enrollment between the socioeconomic classes remain.
Schneider (2009) reports that, initially, AP courses were only offered to the nation’s elite—
students who already had access to the best colleges in the nation simply because they could
afford to attend the best secondary schools in the country. Despite the number of high-achieving
students nationwide, AP classes were only “engaging and challenging the highest-achieving
students at the best US high schools” (Schneider, 2009, p. 813). In the years since the
implementation of the AP program, participation in AP has expanded to include secondary
schools across the nation, and the globe, regardless of the school’s ranking or status. However,
the gap in enrollment between socioeconomic classes continues to be large (Kolluri, 2018).
Klopfenstein (2004) reports that minority students are less likely to enroll in AP courses because
they are more likely to come from low-income families, and thus, families where there is no
support at home when it comes to navigating the world of education and the resources needed to
access higher education. As AP was historically offered to the elite and, thus, the financially
advantaged, students from lower socioeconomic classes may be less familiar with the AP
program and its importance and therefore, are less likely to enroll in these courses. This
discrepancy between the socioeconomic classes represents a gap between minority students and
their White counterparts as minorities are three times more likely to be low-income than White
students (Klopfenstein, 2004).
Minority Participation in Advanced Placement
As the number of jobs requiring a college degree expands, it is imperative that schools
foster a college-going culture, particularly in those areas that serve historically marginalized

13
populations. Kolluri (2018) highlights that the AP program offers the potential to expand
college-readiness. Furthermore, the federal government subsidizes exam fees for low-income
students, thus offering an incentive to pursue these courses regardless of socioeconomic status
(Kolluri, 2018). Again, it is important to note that students from low socioeconomic classes may
be less familiar with the AP program and its importance as part of college preparedness.
Therefore, as minority students are lacking in academic role models at home, it is imperative that
they have access to such mentors at school in order to understand the importance of taking and
passing AP courses and exams (Klopfenstein, 2004). In short, minority students are less likely to
enroll in AP courses due to their status as low-income and due to a short supply of mentors to
educate them on the importance of AP in college-going culture. It is clear that AP courses and
their exams are an important gateway into higher education, particularly for low-income,
minority students. Therefore, it is essential that AP teachers fully understand their role and how
best to support AP student success.
Advanced Placement and College-Readiness
AP courses are widely regarded as rigorous high school courses designed to prepare
students for college. Kolluri (2018) reports that AP courses on a high school transcript are
favored by colleges during the admissions process. Additionally, many degree-awarding
institutions also add a grade point for each AP course taken when calculating a student’s
cumulative GPA (Kolluri, 2018). Thus, participation in AP provides students with an advantage
during the college admissions process. Furthermore, research reports that students achieve higher
college GPAs if they passed the AP exam for the respective college introductory course (Warne
et al., 2015). Therefore, AP courses and exams translate to greater access to and success in post-
secondary institutions.

14
Students who pass their AP exams are more likely to graduate with a Bachelor’s degree
within four years of graduating high school. First, the act of enrolling in and completing an AP
course, regardless of the exam score, makes a difference. Students enrolled in AP courses are
more likely to enroll in and earn a bachelor’s degree (Warne et al., 2015). Furthermore, students
who not only take an AP course, but pass the exam are more likely to succeed in college. One
study reported that 60% of students who receive a credit-granting score on an AP exam graduate
from their chosen university within four years (Smith et al., 2017). Participation in the AP
program not only indicates a student’s likelihood of pursuing post-secondary education, but
passing scores serve as markers for college persistence.
Students who take and pass AP exams earlier in their high school career are more likely
to do so moving forward. High school juniors who score a 3 or above on their AP exams are
more likely to take and pass AP exams in their senior year (Smith et al., 2017). Additionally,
success on AP exams correlates with improved scores on other college placement exams, such as
the ACT. Warne et al. (2015) report a three to five-point difference in the ACT composite score
between students who did not and students who did pass their AP exams. In short, AP exams
contribute to the self-efficacy of students, not only during their high school years, but as they
move into post-secondary education as well. As AP exam scores are not only indicators of
student success in secondary and post-secondary education, but other college placement exams,
it is important that high schools make strides in improving the success of their students on these
exams.
Improving Advanced Placement Pass Rates
This section examines the role of AP teachers and the importance of their development in
student success on AP exams.

15
The Teachers’ Role
Teachers play a vital role in the success of AP students and their journey to higher
education. Not only is it essential for teachers to have strong content knowledge and teaching
skills, but they need to make certain that the most fundamental content and skills outlined in the
AP curriculum are covered (Burton et al., 2002). Furthermore, it is essential that teachers have
high standards of all students equally (Burton et al., 2002). This will help to promote success in
AP for all students, regardless of their ethnic or economic backgrounds. In addition to teaching
the content, teachers act as mentors and role models to their students in AP. Therefore, teachers
need to be comfortable with and able to provide their students with information and guidance
about their ability to take on a college course load and navigate a collegiate community (Burton
et al., 2002). These teacher-student relationships will prove to be especially important during the
college admissions process when students are in need of letters of recommendation and advice
during the decision-making process.
Importance of Instructional Strategies
Participation in College Board approved professional development opportunities allows
teachers to build a network of colleagues on whom they can rely for support and advice in
developing the lessons and instructional strategies implemented in their classrooms. AP Summer
Institutes and annual AP scoring, all completed by current teachers of those subjects, offer
reliable professional development and a trustworthy network of educators to collaborate with
throughout the school year (Schneider, 2009). These opportunities are especially helpful
considering that teachers need to use a variety of instructional techniques, particularly a variation
of group work, in order to get participation from all students (Burton et al., 2002). Therefore,

16
participation in professional development is a key component in providing teachers with access
to resources and strategies that can be used to adjust their instructional practice.
Using Data to Support Instruction
Data is a necessary component of every teacher’s practice as it reveals student mastery of
the intended outcomes. Teachers who know how to read and incorporate data are able to make
adjustments to instruction, provide supports to specific students, identify individual students’
strengths and weaknesses, and how to adapt and incorporate curriculum to better meet the needs
of all students (Hamilton et al., 2009). Furthermore, using research to inform instructional
practice has been shown to improve student performance (Lewis et al., 2010). Therefore, to
incorporate data effectively, schools need a data team to encourage and interpret data as well as
provide time for teachers to engage in collaborative discourse around data and its relationship to
instruction (Hamilton et al., 2009). In short, data is integral in making necessary adjustments to
day-to-day practice in an effort to ensure students are successful. Ultimately, teachers and their
chosen instructional practice have the largest impact on student success, even more so when they
are provided time to interpret their data for the betterment of themselves and the students.
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework for gap analysis focuses on knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences as the foundation for improving performance within an
organization. This framework is particularly suited for this study as the purpose is to investigate
the gap in AP pass rates to suss out possible solutions. This process begins by looking at the
organization’s goal and then the goals of stakeholders as they pertain to the organization’s goals.
Next, it is necessary to identify the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences according to general theory, the literature, and current understandings of the

17
organization. For the purposes of this study, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework will be
adapted for an improvement study that is looking to improve the AP exam pass rates at AHS. An
analysis of the assumed influences will be used as the basis for data collection in order to look at
potential causes for the identified gap and thus, potential solutions.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
The following critical behaviors have been identified in order to assist teachers in
achieving the desired goal and closing the gap in AP pass rates.
1. Teachers will evaluate exam score reports from the previous exam year to inform
their teaching practices for the coming school year.
2. Teachers will teach the required content and skills as outlined by College Board.
3. Teachers will teach their respective AP courses using culturally relevant
pedagogy with fidelity.
4. Teachers will assess students using practice exams aligned to their respective AP
exams to gauge student mastery in preparation for the upcoming AP exam.
However, for the purposes of this study, and in order to manage the scope of the study, the most
important critical behaviors have been given priority. During future research opportunities,
additional attention should be given to the remaining critical behaviors.
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills are examined using Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) definitions
for factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.
Factual Knowledge Influences
Factual knowledge refers to the very basic, foundational knowledge in the form of
concepts, terms, or facts a learner needs to know (Krathwohl, 2002). The factual knowledge

18
influences for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that teachers know (a) the required
content and skills as outlined by College Board for their classes and (b) the question types that
their respective AP exams use to assess student mastery. Burton et al. (2002) state that teachers
need a strong understanding of the content and skills needed to master their respective AP
classes and exams. The notion that AP students can teach themselves, thereby letting teachers off
the hook, is a “myth” (Burton et al., 2002, p. 23). Furthermore, Schneider (2009) reinforces that
participation in AP professional development opportunities provide teachers the opportunity to
develop their knowledge of the content, and the exam question types, in order to be able to better
assist their students with mastery. Clark and Estes (2008) note that in order for people to do
something, they have to know the necessary factual knowledge. This highlights the need to build
a strong foundation with factual knowledge, which in this case, starts with knowledge of the
content and the exam questions for teachers’ respective AP exams.
Conceptual Knowledge Influences
Conceptual knowledge reflects a learner’s knowledge or understanding of the principles,
theories, and concepts needed to engage with the content material (Krathwohl, 2002). The
conceptual knowledge influences for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that teachers
know (a) the relationship between the required content and skills outlined by College Board and
those taught and developed in their respective courses; (b) the interrelationship between the
exam score report and their classroom instruction; and (c) the relationship between what is being
taught and how it is being assessed. Burton et al. (2002) emphasize that teachers have a
responsibility to not only have strong content knowledge, but to ensure that the content and skills
taught in their respective courses align with the AP curriculum and how it is assessed. Hamilton
et al. (2009) emphasize the need for data to be used continually to improve instruction; thus, it is

19
essential that teachers are familiar with their score reports in order to better align instruction to
the skills and content being tested on AP exams.
Procedural Knowledge Influences
Procedural knowledge references a learner’s knowledge of how to do something—of how
to use the skills, methods, and techniques necessary to complete a task (Krathwohl, 2002). The
procedural knowledge influences for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that teachers
know (a) how to teach the required content and skills outlined by College Board for their classes
and (b) how to find or create practice exams aligned to their respective AP exams. Burton et al.
(2002) confirm that teachers need strong content knowledge and teaching skills in order to
support AP students as they prepare to pass their AP exams. Furthermore, access to quality
professional development opportunities aligned to College Board’s objectives are critical in
assisting teachers in mastering this content and skill knowledge (Burton et al., 2002; Schneider,
2009).
Metacognitive Knowledge Influences
Metacognitive knowledge alludes to higher order thinking skills, or an awareness or
knowledge of one’s own knowledge or thinking that went into accomplishing the task at hand
(Krathwohl, 2002). The metacognitive knowledge influences for teachers to perform their critical
behaviors are that teachers (a) recognize their own gaps in knowledge to deliver the required
content and skills; (b) examine the practice exam results in relation to AP exam results to
determine effectiveness; and (c) examine their teaching practice in relation to the exam score
report. Professional development is an important tool for developing existing subject matter and
professional knowledge to address potential gaps on the teachers’ part (Burton et al., 2002;
Lewis et al., 2010). However, professional development alone is not sufficient in addressing

20
these gaps. Teachers need to monitor their progress towards assisting students to achieve their
goal. Therefore, teachers need to know their students’ score reports, especially the correlation
between practice exams and the annual AP exams (Hamilton et al., 2009). This is necessary so
that teachers know where their students are excelling and struggling in order to adjust instruction
to better address student gaps. Table 2 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related
literature.

Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Factual Knowledge
Teachers know the required content and skills
as outlined by College Board for their
classes. (CB 2)
Burton et al., 2002
Teachers know the question types that their
respective AP exams use to assess student
mastery. (CB 4)
Burton et al., 2002; Schneider, 2009
Conceptual Knowledge
Teachers know the relationship between the
required content and skills outlined by
College Board and those taught and
developed in their respective courses. (CB
2)
Burton et al., 2002
Teachers know the interrelationship between
the exam score report and their classroom
instruction. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010
Teachers know the relationship between what
is being taught and how it is being
assessed. (CB 4)
Burton et al., 2002; Hamilton et al., 2009;
Schneider, 2009

21
Assumed Knowledge Influences Research Literature
Procedural Knowledge
Teachers know how to teach the required
content and skills outlined by College
Board for their classes. (CB 2)
Burton et al., 2002; Schneider, 2009
Teachers know how to find or create practice
exams aligned to their respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
Schneider, 2009
Metacognitive Knowledge
Teachers recognize their own gaps in
knowledge to deliver the required content
and skills. (CB 2)
Burton et al., 2002; Hamilton et al., 2009
Teachers examine the practice exam results
in relation to AP exam results to determine
effectiveness. (CB 4)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010
Teachers appropriately examine their
teaching practice in relation to the exam
score report. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009

Motivation
Motivation influences are examined looking at the values, self-efficacy, emotions, and
attributions of the stakeholders.
General Theory
Pintrich (2003) notes that motivation science is heavily influenced by an individual’s
need to feel competent, feel a desire to be in control, and feel the desire to belong to a particular
group. This study is looking to identify causes of low or high motivation in order to close the gap
in AP pass rates at AHS. Four underlying psychological constructs to these indicators will be
examined: value, self-efficacy, emotions, and attribution.

22
Value
Value refers to the importance an individual or group of people places on a goal (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The assumed motivational value influences for teachers to perform their critical
behaviors are that teachers value (a) data as evidence of student growth and mastery of different
content and skills and (b) practice exams as measures of student mastery and validation for their
own teaching practice. Hamilton et al. (2009) emphasize that teachers should pull data from a
variety of sources to inform decisions about instruction, including assessments aligned to their
end-of-year “high-stakes” exams like the AP exam, in order to better gauge student learning and
where adjustments in instruction need to be made. Therefore, it is essential that teachers are
provided the support needed to be able to effectively interpret their student data and thus, the
effectiveness of their instructional practices (Lewis et al., 2010).
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy involves a person’s beliefs about their own abilities to learn or perform
certain actions (Pajares, 2006). The assumed motivational self-efficacy influences for teachers to
perform their critical behaviors are that teachers are confident that (a) they can teach the required
skills and content outlined by College Board and (b) they can assess students using practice
exams aligned to their AP exams. Research shows that it is essential for teachers to have strong
content knowledge and that they use a variety of teaching techniques (Burton et al., 2002).
Teachers who are asked to teach an AP course often experience a boost in confidence from the
prospect of being asked to teach such a prestigious course with such high standards (Schneider,
2009). This suggests that these teachers are, therefore, confident in their ability to teach the AP
content and skills for their respective courses and prepare students for the end-of-year exam.

23
Emotions
Emotions are an important motivational factor to take into consideration. According to
Pekrun (2011), negative emotions are associated with negativity whereas enjoyment is associated
with positivity and thus, increased motivation. Therefore, it is critical that AP teachers feel
positive about their courses and the associated plans, decisions, and results. The assumed
motivational emotion influences for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that teachers
feel positive (a) about using previous exam data to inform the implementation of new strategies
and (b) about implementing materials that are aligned to the content and skills outlined by
College Board.
Attribution
Attribution refers to a person’s desire to understand their environment, and thus, make an
effort to understand why certain things happen (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). The assumed
motivational attribution influence for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that they
attribute their success or failure with teaching College Board content and skills to their own
efforts. As teachers are responsible for designing practice assessments and learning activities
throughout the year, it is their efforts that contribute to student learning (Hamilton et al., 2009;
Lewis et al., 2010). Therefore, their success as AP teachers and their students’ success as AP
students are a result of the teacher’s knowledge of content and skills as well as the instructional
practices selected. Table 3 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

24
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Motivation Influences Research Literature
Value
Teachers value data as evidence of student
growth and mastery of different content
and skills. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009
Teachers value practice exams as measures
of student mastery and validation for their
own teaching practice. (CB 4)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are confident that they can teach the
required skills and content outlined by
College Board. (CB 2)
Burton et al., 2002; Schneider, 2009
Teachers are confident that they can assess
students using practice exams aligned to
their AP exams. (CB 4)
Burton et al., 2002; Schneider, 2009
Emotions
Teachers feel positive about using previous
exam data to inform the implementation of
new strategies. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010
Teachers feel positive about implementing
materials that are aligned to the content and
skills outlined by College Board. (CB 2)
Burton et al., 2002; Schneider, 2009
Attribution
Teachers attribute their success or failure
with teaching College Board content and
skills to their own efforts. (CB 2)
Hamilton et al.; 2009; Lewis et al., 2010

25
Organization
Organizational influences are examined looking at the resources, cultural settings and
models, and policies, processes and procedures of the stakeholders.
Resources
According to Clark and Estes (2008), effective change efforts make certain that
stakeholders have the resources needed to do their jobs. Furthermore, if there are shortages, then
acquiring said resources becomes an organizational priority (Clark & Estes, 2008). The resource
organizational influences for teachers to perform their critical behaviors are that teachers (a) are
provided the time to examine their exam score reports during Direct Teacher Time at the start of
the school year; (b) that AP Summer Institute Registration fees are covered by the school’s
budgets for professional development; and (c) additional professional development sessions are
funded by the school, and when offered during the school day, are provided a substitute for the
day. For AP teachers, regardless of content, it is crucial that they are given the time and support
needed to digest their student score reports and analyze their data in order to support their
instructional decisions (Hamilton et al., 2009; Schneider, 2009).
Policies and Procedures
Policies and procedures, rewards, and messages that guide the work of an organization
and are aligned with the organizational goals and values are reflective of effective organizations
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The policies and procedures organizational influences for teachers to
perform their critical behaviors are that the school has a policy of (a) examining data as a whole
staff at the start of the school year and in departments and professional learning communities at
set times throughout the academic year; (b) sending AP teachers to their respective Summer
Institutes each year to stay up to date on the College Board expectations; and (c) offering

26
teachers the opportunity to attend specific professional development opportunities that align with
the desired practices. Hamilton et al. (2009) emphasize the importance of examining assessment
data from a variety of sources and using it to inform curriculum and instructional decisions
throughout the school year. Furthermore, providing teachers the opportunity to attend relevant
professional development opportunities, particularly those sponsored by College Board, is
necessary for developing quality AP teachers (Burton et al., 2002; Hamilton et al., 2009;
Schneider, 2009). These learning opportunities play a critical role in teachers’ ability to
effectively teach the content and skills outlined by the College Board curriculum guides.
Cultural Models and Settings
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) define a cultural model as the “normative
understanding of how the world works or ought to work” (p. 47). A cultural model refers to the
shared thinking between a group of people, usually a set of taken-for-granted assumptions until
this group comes into contact with a group using a different cultural model. Cultural settings are
something more homely and familiar, occurring when people come together to accomplish
something (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings involve the daily interactions
between people and as such, can be found everywhere — at home, at work, within any group or
organization.
The cultural models and settings organizational influences for teachers to perform their
critical behaviors are that teachers (a) use the curriculum guides provided by College Board to
teach the required content and skills; (b) assess students during the academic year using practice
exams aligned to their respective AP exams; and (c) use data from previous years to spark a
conversation and reflection for the upcoming school year. Curriculum is an important part of
instructional design and practice, as it lays the foundation for the content and skills needed to be

27
taught, and therefore, the content and skills that teachers need to have mastered (Hamilton et al.,
2009; Schneider, 2009). Furthermore, these curriculum guides help teachers to develop and align
practice exams and assessments to their respective AP exams. It is essential that teachers ensure
that assessments are aligned with their AP exams in order to better prepare students and to gauge
student mastery of the content and skills being taught (Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010).
Furthermore, it is important for organizations to provide teachers with the time and resources to
review their AP exam data from the previous year to assist in informing decisions for content and
instructional practices moving forward (Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010). Table 4 shows
the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Teachers’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
Resources
AP Teachers are provided the time to
examine their exam score reports during
Direct Teacher Time at the start of the
school year. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009
Additional professional development
sessions are funded by the school, and
when offered during the school day,
teachers are provided a substitute for the
day. (CB 3)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Schneider, 2009
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
The school has a policy of examining data as
a whole staff at the start of the school year
and in departments and professional
learning communities at set times
Hamilton et al., 2009

28
Assumed Organization Influences Research Literature
throughout the academic year. (CB 1)
The school has a policy of sending AP
teachers to their respective Summer
Institutes each year to stay up to date on the
College Board expectations. (CB 2, 4)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Schneider, 2009
The school has a policy of offering teachers
the opportunity to attend specific
professional development opportunities that
align with the desired practices. (CB 3)
Burton et al., 2002; Hamilton et al., 2009
Cultural Models and Settings
There is a culture of using the curriculum
guides provided by College Board to teach
the required content and skills. (CB 2)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Schneider, 2009
There is a culture of assessing students
during the academic year using practice
exams aligned to their respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010
There is a culture of using data from previous
years to spark a conversation and reflection
for the upcoming school year. (CB 1)
Hamilton et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2010

The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences described above will be used
for the purposes of data collection moving forward. Data collection, as described in Chapter
Three, will align with these influences in order to assist in finding solutions for the gap in AP
exam pass rates.

29
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with AHS’ goal of 100% AP pass rates.
While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis is AP Teachers. The analysis began by generating a
list of possible or assumed interfering influences in Chapter Two that will be examined
systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering influences. Therefore, the study
examines the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence teachers to
achieve their goal of demonstrating the content and skills knowledge needed to successfully
teach their individual AP courses.
The research questions that guide this gap analysis are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere
with teachers teaching 100% of the content and skills, using strategies appropriate
for the content, so that students pass the AP exam?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework was used for the conceptual and
methodological framework for this study. This framework allows for researchers to identify,
evaluate, and solve organizational gaps using a research-based methodology. First, the
organization’s goal is examined and then, the goals of individual stakeholders that align with the
organization’s goal. The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are also
examined according to general theory, literature, and the current understandings of the

30
organization. This approach allows theory and research to be applied to an organization’s
practice in order to close the identified gaps.
Utilizing the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, this study established the
assumed influences for knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors affecting AP teachers
at AHS. Interviews, a focus group, and document analysis were used to verify the causes, before
research-based recommendations and solutions are provided in Chapter Five. These
recommendations and solutions were targeted towards improving performance, and, therefore,
the goal in order to close the identified gap. The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process is
illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Gap Analysis Process Model From Clark and Estes (2008)

31
Assessment of Performance Influences
The literature review in Chapter Two identified the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that will affect AP teachers as they plan for and teach their respective
AP courses. This knowledge was assessed through individual interviews and document analyses.
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis as it relates to the identified
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and thus, the resources needed to improve
the AP exam pass rates within the organization. The following sections outline the interview
protocol and the documents that were analyzed to assess the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs.
Knowledge Assessment
The literature review provided in Chapter Two established the assumed knowledge
influences impacting AP teachers as they plan for and teach their respective AP courses.
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) four knowledge types—factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive—were used to establish the knowledge influences. This list of assumed influences
is outlined below along with the assessment methods that were used to collect data specific to
each knowledge type.
Factual Knowledge
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to know (a) the required content and
skills as outlined by the College Board for their classes and (b) the question types that their
respective AP exams use to assess student mastery. In order to assess an individual’s factual
knowledge, inquiry methods that require participants to explain or discuss what they know are
best (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, teachers were asked interview questions and
were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of factual knowledge. Table 5

32
provides the sample interview questions and documents that were analyzed.
Conceptual Knowledge
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to know the (a) relationship between
the required content and skills outlined by College Board and those taught and developed in their
respective courses; (b) the interrelationship between the exam score report and their classroom
instruction; and (c) relationship between what is being taught and how it is being assessed. In
order to assess an individual’s conceptual knowledge, it is recommended that inquiry methods
reflect the participant’s ability to demonstrate interrelationships between basic elements that
allow them to function together (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, teachers were asked
interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of
conceptual knowledge. Table 5 provides the sample interview questions and documents that
were analyzed.
Procedural Knowledge
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to know (a) how to teach the required
content and skills outlined by College Board for their classes and (b) how to find or create
practice exams aligned to their respective AP exams. In order to assess an individual’s
procedural knowledge, it is recommended that inquiry methods reflect the participant’s ability to
demonstrate how to do something (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, teachers were
asked interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of
procedural knowledge. Table 5 provides the sample interview questions and documents that were
analyzed.
Metacognitive Knowledge
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to (a) recognize their own gaps in

33
knowledge to deliver the required content and skills; (b) examine the practice exam results in
relation to AP exam results to determine effectiveness; and (c) appropriately examine their
teaching practice in relation to the exam score report. In order to assess an individual’s
metacognitive knowledge, it is recommended that inquiry methods reflect the participant’s
ability to demonstrate knowledge of their own strategies for learning and thinking (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Therefore, teachers were asked interview questions and were asked for
accompanying documents to provide evidence of metacognitive knowledge. Table 5 provides the
sample interview questions and documents that were analyzed.

Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
Factual Knowledge
Teachers know the required
content and skills as
outlined by the College
Board for their classes.
(CB 2)
What are the required content
and skills for your course as
outlined by the College
Board?
College Board Course Guide
Teachers know the question
types that their respective
AP exams use to assess
student mastery. (CB 4)
What are the question types
that your AP exam uses to
assess student mastery?
College Board published
exam
Conceptual Knowledge
Teachers know the
relationship between the
required content and skills
outlined by College Board
and those taught and
developed in their
respective courses. (CB 2)
Describe the alignment
between your course and
College Board’s outline for
the content and skills for
your course?
College Board Course Guide

34
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
Teachers know the
interrelationship between
the exam score report and
their classroom instruction.
(CB 1)
How does the exam score
report from the College
Board reflect your
instruction?
College Board AP Exam
Score Report
Teachers know the
relationship between what
is being taught and how it
is being assessed. (CB 4)
How does what you are
teaching in your course
align with the AP exam?
College Board Course Guide
Procedural Knowledge
Teachers know how to teach
the required content and
skills outlined by College
Board for their classes.
(CB 2)
Tell me how you teach the
required content and skills
outlined by the College
Board for your course.

Teachers know how to find
or create practice exams
aligned to their respective
AP exams. (CB 4)
How do you find or create
practice exams that are
aligned to the AP exam for
your course?
Teacher created practice
exams; College Board
published exams
Metacognitive Knowledge
Teachers recognize their own
gaps in knowledge to
deliver the required content
and skills. (CB 2)
Tell me how you recognize
gaps in your own
knowledge of the content
and skills for the course.

Teachers examine the
practice exam results in
relation to AP exam results
to determine effectiveness.
(CB 4)
How do you compare exam
results from both your
practice exams and the AP
end-of-course exams?
How is that data used to
inform your instruction?

Teachers appropriately
examine their teaching
practice in relation to the
exam score report. (CB 1)
How do you use the exam
score report in your own
instruction?

35
Motivation Assessment
The literature review provided in Chapter Two established the assumed motivational
influences impacting AP teachers as they plan for and teach their respective AP courses. Bandura
(2006) notes that in order to identify an individual’s perceived strengths and limitations in
capability, interview questions should be tailored to task demands. The list of assumed
influences is outlined below along with the assessment methods that were used to collect data
specific to each motivational influence.
Value
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to value (a) data as evidence of student
growth and mastery of different content and skills and (b) practice exams as measures of student
mastery and validation for their own teaching practice. In order to assess the motivational
influences pertaining to value, inquiry methods needed to elicit the importance teachers place on
tasks (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, teachers were asked interview questions and were asked
for accompanying documents to provide evidence of said value. Table 6 provides the sample
interview questions and documents that were analyzed.
Self-Efficacy
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to be (a) confident that they can teach
the required skills and content outlined by the College Board and (b) confident that they can
assess students using practice exams aligned to their AP exams. In order to assess the
motivational influences pertaining to self-efficacy, inquiry methods needed to assess a person’s
capability to execute functions performed in a group (Bandura, 2006). Therefore, teachers were
asked interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of

36
said self-efficacy. Table 6 provides the sample interview questions and documents that were
analyzed.
Emotions
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to feel positive (a) about using previous
exam data to inform the implementation of new strategies and (b) positive about implementing
materials that are aligned to the content and skills outlined by the College Board. In order to
assess the motivational influences pertaining to emotions, inquiry methods needed to assess
emotional reactions as they relate to personal experience (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010).
Therefore, teachers were asked interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents
to provide evidence of said emotions. Table 6 provides the sample interview questions and
documents that were analyzed.
Attribution
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need to attribute their success or failure with
teaching College Board content and skills to their own efforts. In order to assess the motivational
influences pertaining to self-efficacy, inquiry methods needed to assess whether or not teachers
attribute their success or failure as being within their control (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore,
teachers were asked interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide
evidence of said attribution. Table 6 provides the sample interview questions and documents that
were analyzed.

37
Table 6
Summary of Motivational Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
Value
Teachers value data as
evidence of student growth
and mastery of different
content and skills. (CB 1)
Tell me about the importance
you place on exam data
from the College Board as
evidence of student growth
and mastery.
College Board AP Exam
score report
Teachers value practice
exams as measures of
student mastery and
validation for their own
teaching practice. (CB 4)
Tell me about the importance
of practice exams as
measures of student
mastery and validation for
your teaching practice.
Teacher created practice
exams; College Board
published exams
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are confident that
they can teach the required
skills and content outlined
by College Board. (CB 2)
Tell me about your
confidence in teaching the
required skills and content
outlined by the College
Board.

Teachers are confident that
they can assess students
using practice exams
aligned to their AP exams.
(CB 4)
Tell me about your
confidence with assessing
students using practice
exams aligned to your AP
exam.

Emotions
Teachers feel positive about
using previous exam data
to inform the
implementation of new
strategies. (CB 1)
How do you feel about using
previous exam data to
inform the implementation
of new strategies?

Teachers feel positive about
implementing materials
that are aligned to the
content and skills outlined
by College Board. (CB 2)
Tell me about how you feel
about implementing
materials that are aligned
to the content and skills

38
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
outlined by the College
Board.
Attribution
Teachers attribute their
success or failure with
teaching College Board
content and skills to their
own efforts. (CB 2)
Describe your thinking when
things do not go well with
teaching College Board
content and skills.
Describe your thinking when
things do go well with
teaching College Board
content and skills.

Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
The literature review provided in Chapter Two established the assumed organizational
influences impacting AP teachers as they plan for and teach their respective AP courses. Clark
and Estes (2008) emphasize that organizational factors, such as culture, resources, policies, and
practices, contribute to performance gaps as well. This list of assumed influences is outlined
below along with the assessment methods that were used to collect data specific to each
organizational influence.
Resources
To perform their critical behaviors, teachers need (a) to be provided the time to examine
their exam score reports during Direct Teacher Time at the start of the school year; (b) to have
fees covered by the school’s budgets for professional development; and (c) additional
professional development sessions funded by the school, and when offered during the school
day, teachers are provided a substitute for the day. In order to assess an organization’s resources,

39
inquiry methods investigated for the resources needed to meet the performance goal. Therefore,
teachers were asked interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide
evidence of needed organizational resources. Table 7 provides the sample interview questions
and documents that were analyzed.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures
In order for teachers to perform their critical behaviors, the organization (a) has a policy
of examining data as a whole staff at the start of the school year and in departments and
professional learning communities at set times throughout the academic year; (b) has a policy of
sending AP teachers to their respective Summer Institutes each year to stay up to date on the
College Board expectations; and (c) has a policy of offering teachers the opportunity to attend
specific professional development opportunities that align with the desired practices. In order to
assess an organization’s policies, processes, and procedures, inquiry methods investigated the
alignment of current practices with the performance goal. Therefore, teachers were asked
interview questions and were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of needed
organizational policies, processes, and procedures. Table 7 provides the sample interview
questions and documents that were analyzed.
Culture
In order for teachers to perform their critical behaviors, organizations need (a) a culture
of using the curriculum guides provided by College Board to teach the required content and
skills; (b) a culture of assessing students during the academic year using practice exams aligned
to their respective AP exams; and (c) a culture of using data from previous years to spark a
conversation and reflection for the upcoming school year. In order to assess an organization’s
culture, inquiry methods assessed how the organization’s culture influences teachers as they

40
work towards the performance goal. Therefore, teachers were asked interview questions and
were asked for accompanying documents to provide evidence of organizational culture. Table 7
provides the sample interview questions and documents that were analyzed.

Table 7
Summary of Organizational Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed Organization
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
Resources
AP Teachers are provided
the time to examine their
exam score reports during
Direct Teacher Time at the
start of the school year.
(CB 1)
Tell me about the time you
are provided to examine
exam score reports during
Direct Teacher Time at the
start of the school year.

Additional professional
development sessions are
funded by the school, and
when offered during the
school day, teachers are
provided paid time off and
a substitute for the day.
(CB 3)
Tell me about the
professional development
opportunities for your AP
course and the time off
and/or funding you are
provided.

Policies, Processes, & Procedures
The school has a policy of
examining data as a whole
staff at the start of the
school year and in
departments and
professional learning
communities at set times
throughout the academic
year. (CB 1)
Tell me about the time you
spend examining exam
data as a staff, in
departments, and PLCs
throughout the school year.

The school has a policy of
sending AP teachers to
Tell me about how often AP
teachers are provided the

41
Assumed Organization
Influences
Interview Item Document Analysis
their respective Summer
Institutes each year to stay
up to date on the College
Board expectations. (CB 2,
4)
opportunity to attend their
respective AP Summer
Institutes.
The school has a policy of
offering teachers the
opportunity to attend
specific professional
development opportunities
that align with the desired
practices. (CB 3)
Tell me about the
professional development
opportunities offered
throughout the school year.

Culture
There is a culture of using
the curriculum guides
provided by College Board
to teach the required
content and skills. (CB 2)
How are the curriculum
guides provided by College
Board used to teach the
required content and skills?
College Board course guide
There is a culture of
assessing students during
the academic year using
practice exams aligned to
their respective AP exams.
(CB 4)
Tell me about the culture of
assessing students
throughout the year using
practice exams aligned to
your AP exam.
Teacher created practice
exams; College Board
published exams
There is a culture of using
data from previous years to
spark a conversation and
reflection for the upcoming
school year. (CB 1)
Tell me about how previous
year exam data is used to
reflect and plan for the
upcoming school year.

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this paper was teachers, specifically AP teachers
within the organization being evaluated for this study. There were 11 AP teachers within the

42
organization, each of whom teach different AP courses, but all of whom were responsible for
preparing students to successfully pass their respective AP exams. Although students are not the
stakeholder of focus, AP students were included in data collection in order to provide a student
perspective on the AP program at AHS and to better inform recommended solutions for closing
the gap in AP pass rates.
Sampling
The criterion used in the sampling for this study was that the participants interviewed
were AP teachers within the organization. As the goal of this study was specifically to close the
gap in AP pass rates, AP teachers were interviewed based on the identified critical behaviors and
information gathered in the knowledge, motivation, and organizational tables. Within the
organization, there are 11 teachers who met this requirement and were invited to voluntarily
participate in the study. The interviews were accompanied by document analysis, specifically
those that have been developed and utilized by the AP teachers as they relate to their respective
courses. Additionally, a focus group of 10 AP students was included for the purposes of data
collection. AP students were eligible to participate provided they were currently enrolled at AHS
and were currently or previously enrolled in an AP course. All identifying information was
removed to protect the identities of both teacher and student participants.
Recruitment
For the purposes of this study, the sampling strategy sought out participants via email.
Participants were invited to participate in the interviews and focus group using web conference
digital tools. Participants were not offered compensation in exchange for their participation in the
interviews and focus group. Interviews lasted approximately 30 minutes and the focus group
lasted approximately 45 minutes. With permission from participants, the interview was recorded

43
and the audio was transcribed to be analyzed. Permission for participation in the focus group was
granted via signed parental consent forms. These forms also granted permission for the focus
group to be recorded so that audio could be transcribed for the purposes of analysis. All
identifying information was removed from the transcripts and the video files were deleted to
protect the identity of participants. Another strategy was document analysis, which involved a
review of the AP teachers’ AP artifacts pertinent to the study. See Appendix A for the
recruitment email for teacher participants and Appendix B for the recruitment email for student
participants.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used for this study was a semi-structured interview protocol, semi-
structured focus group protocol, and document analysis that incorporated the assessment items in
Tables 5, 6 and 7. This section provides a description of each.
Interview Protocol Design
A semi-structured interview protocol was created for this study. The interview protocol
included 14 open-ended questions designed to validate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences for the critical behaviors used in the study. The questions were also
designed to allow for opportunities for other influences to emerge. Appendix E shows the final
interview protocol used for the study.
Document Analysis Design
Following the interviews, a variety of documents were analyzed in order to triangulate
the data collected from the interviews process. Documents, including the official College Board
course guides, score reports, and teacher created practice exams, were collected and analyzed to
further assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.

44
Focus Group Protocol
A semi-structured focus group protocol was created for this study. The focus group
protocol included three open-ended questions designed to validate the assumed motivation and
organizational influences for the critical behaviors used in this study. The questions were
designed to allow for opportunities for other influences to emerge. Appendix F shows the final
interview protocol used for the study.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants were solicited by email. Participants were provided with a brief information sheet in
lieu of a consent form and were individually contacted by a third-party investigator to arrange
the dates and times for interviews. Additionally, they were asked to provide the requested
documents for analysis. Focus group participants were provided with a parental consent form
detailing the purpose of the study and what participation in the focus group would entail. Signed
consent forms were required for participation. Interviews and the focus group were conducted
via video conferencing and all documents were submitted for analysis via email. Prior to the
interviews and focus group, participants were reminded that their participation in the study was
voluntary and that they were free to opt out at any time. See Appendix C for the information
sheet provided to teacher participants and Appendix D for the parental consent form provided to
student participants.
Interviews
The interviews took place utilizing Zoom’s video conferencing technology. A third-party
investigator conducted the interviews. Interviews took no longer than 45 minutes. Interviews
were recorded in order to generate a transcript. Transcripts were provided to the researcher with

45
all participants’ identifying information removed. Video recordings were then deleted to protect
anonymity.
Document Analysis
Participants submitted documents to be analyzed for the purpose of triangulating the
interview data. These documents included College Board published AP course guides, score
reports, and exams as well as teacher created AP practice exams. When participants confirmed
their participation in the study, they were asked to submit these documents at the time of their
interview. These documents provided additional information for the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs assessment.
Focus Group
The focus group took place utilizing Zoom’s video conferencing technology. A third-
party investigator conducted the focus group. The focus group took no longer than an hour. The
focus group was recorded in order to generate a transcript. The transcript was provided to the
researcher with all participants’ identifying information removed. Video recordings were then
deleted to protect anonymity.
Data Analysis
For interviews and the focus group, the collected data was read and coded into categories
representing the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. This coding process
highlighted the patterns and relationships that were presented in the findings of this report. The
codes used allowed me to focus on the most relevant information needed for analysis in Chapter
Four.
For documents, the collected data was coded into categories that aligned with the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The submitted documents allowed for a

46
comparison between interview responses and the course and exam materials teachers were using
to inform their instructional practice. The results of this data analysis are found in Chapter Four.
Trustworthiness of Data
In order to maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, triangulation was
achieved by using three sources of data and methods of data collection (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Six interviews were conducted with each AP teacher and each was made aware that their
responses would be de-identified, thereby encouraging honesty in the interviews. One focus
group was conducted with 10 AP students and each participant was made aware that their
responses would be de-identified, thus encouraging honesty in the focus group. Without fear of
judgement, this helped to improve the trustworthiness of the data. The interview and data
collections process represented adequate engagement in the field, leading to possible data
saturation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, the interviews and focus group recordings
were professionally transcribed to ensure validity and accuracy of data collection (Maxwell,
2013).
Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study was an employee of the organization. However, the
interviews were conducted by a third-party investigator. The third-party investigator was not an
employee of the organization, but was a graduate student. The investigator selected the sample
for the study, recruited participants, and secured consent. The investigator collected document
analysis data and conducted the analysis of the interview transcripts. The investigator was the
main person of contact for the study, although the third-party investigator was the person of
contact for the majority of interactions with participants. The investigator was responsible for
reporting the findings and discussion in Chapters Four and Five.

47
Limitations
The limitations of this study were the limited timeframe for the study, the small sample
size, and the professional relationship between the stakeholders of focus and the researcher.
While the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes were verified, more time
to complete a full gap analysis that includes all major stakeholders would provide a better
understanding of the identified gap and how to close it. Unfortunately, the number of AP
teachers within the organization was limited, therefore the pool of people from which to
interview was limited. In order to ensure that professional relationships did not factor into
interview and focus group responses, a third-party investigator, who was unaffiliated with the
organization, was recruited to conduct the interviews and provide the researcher with transcripts
stripped of any identifying information.

48
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter will set forth the findings gathered from data collection as it pertains to the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are impacting the gap in AP pass rates
at AHS. Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework is used to analyze the assumed causes
of the gap in pass rates as they pertain to the categories of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational culture. Qualitative data, in various forms, was collected to validate the assumed
causes. Three types of data were collected for this study: interview, focus group, and artifact
data. This data was used to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational challenges
AP teachers face when teaching AP courses and attempting to improve the pass rates for their
respective courses. Interview and focus group data was collected simultaneously, meaning that
interviews and the focus group were planned such that one could come before the other.
Ultimately, due to time constraints, interviews were scheduled and completed prior to the focus
group. Artifacts were collected for data analysis after the interviews were completed as artifacts
were collected from interview participants. The document analysis was used to triangulate the
data collected from the interviews.
Participating Stakeholders
Two stakeholder groups participated in this study. The first stakeholder group was
comprised of current AP teachers at AHS, the stakeholder of focus for this study. There were six
participants in the interviews for AP teachers, resulting in 55% participation for this stakeholder
group. It should be noted that the author of this study is also a member of this stakeholder group
and thus, was ineligible to participate so as not to threaten the validity of the study. The second
stakeholder group was comprised of AP students at AHS. The only criteria for participation in
the AP student focus group was that students were currently enrolled at AHS and that the

49
students had previously taken or were currently enrolled in AP classes. The desired focus group
size was 15 students, and 10 ultimately participated. An additional six students were unable to
participate due to scheduling conflicts. Demographic data was not collected for this study (i.e.
race, ethnicity, age, gender, years of teaching experience, number of AP classes taken, etc.).
Determination of Assets and Needs
This study used data from three sources: interviews, a focus group, and document
analysis. Qualitative data was collected through individual interviews of AP teachers in order to
determine whether the assumed influences being addressed were assets or needs. Saturation was
achieved at six interview participants, due to lack of volunteers and recruitment limitations as a
result of being required to collect data virtually. In order for an assumed influence to be
determined an asset, five out of six participants had to be in agreement. Therefore, responses that
had 80% or greater agreement were determined to be assets and responses with less than 80%
agreement were determined to be needs. Document analysis was used to validate interview
responses, where applicable. Documents were used to verify information shared during the
interviews.
Qualitative data was also collected through a single focus group of 10 AP students. The
student perspective will be used to inform recommendations in Chapter Five. As with the
interview findings, responses with 80% or greater agreement were determined to be assets and
responses with less than 80% agreement were determined to be needs.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
As noted in Chapter Three, not all influences were addressed during data collection due
to time constraints and the limited scope of the study. In addition, factual knowledge was not
measured in favor of procedural knowledge under the notion that if the participants could answer

50
the procedural knowledge questions, then the factual knowledge exists. The assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences were determined to be assets or needs based on the
findings.
Conceptual Knowledge
Influence 1
Teachers know the relationship between the required content and skills outlined by
College Board and those taught and developed in their respective courses.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 2
Teachers know the interrelationship between the exam score report and their classroom
instruction.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 3
Teachers know the relationship between what is being taught and how it is being
assessed.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked about how the way they taught their
respective AP courses aligned with their AP exams. All six participants noted that what they
taught in their classes was done with the intention of preparing students for the AP exam.
However, Participant 5 indicated that “Everything I teach them, usually is geared towards my

51
experience of teaching the class.” Additionally, Participant 6 reported, “Whatever my kids are
going to be tested on, that’s what I’m going to teach.” Neither expressly indicated that their
instruction was aligned to the content and skills outlined by College Board. Conversely,
Participants 1, 2, 3, and 4 all asserted that they use the standards, or models in the case of the
class submitting portfolios, provided by College Board to guide their instruction.
Document Analysis. The AP course guides were evaluated as these are the documents
that College Board uses to communicate the required content and skills for each AP course to
teachers. A review of these documents revealed that not only do the course guides outline the
content and skills needed for course mastery, but they provide traditional AP courses with
detailed unit breakdowns that include the order in which content and skill knowledge is to be
addressed. Also included are the progression of the standards and learning objectives for each
unit. For the non-traditional AP courses that require a portfolio submission to prove mastery, the
course guides include the content and skills required for mastery in the form of standards and
learning objectives as well as detailed requirements for final portfolio submissions.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers know the relationship between what is
being taught and how it is being assessed was determined to be a need according to the interview
results. Only 67% of interviewed teachers reported using College Board’s standards to inform
the teaching of their respective courses. Furthermore, document analysis for this influence
revealed that teachers have access to College Board’s outline of the skills and content to be
taught in each course. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.

52
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 4
Teachers know how to teach the required content and skills outlined by College Board for
their classes.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to describe how they teach the required
skills and content for their respective AP courses. Participant 3 noted that their lesson plans
“align to this concept and this thinking skill” from the AP course guide. Additionally, Participant
4 highlighted using “a lot of College Board benchmarks, videos, pre-assessments, and progress
unit checks” in their instruction in order to teach and assess the content and skills for their
course. Participant 5 also mentioned “using a lot of the previous tests and AP classroom stuff” to
teach the content and skills for their course. Participant 2 emphasized “scaffolding, checks for
understanding with engaging powerpoints, guided notes, and immediate feedback” as key
components of how they teach the content and skills for their course. Alternately, Participant 1
noted that while they do teach the content and skills for the course, it happens over a period of
three years as they work with students in different levels of their course before students enroll in
their AP course. Participant 6 acknowledged that they “let my students run with what they need,
because I know where I’m going,” preferring to teach to their “shortcomings in the moment.”
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers know how to teach the required content
and skills as outlined by College Board was determined to be an asset according to the interview
results. Eighty-three percent of interviewed teachers reported using a variety of strategies and
resources, many provided by College Board, to teach the content and skills for their courses.
Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.

53
Influence 5
Teachers know how to find or create practice exams aligned to their respective AP
exams.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked how they find or create practice exams
aligned to the AP exam for their respective courses. Five participants reported using practice
exams, mostly from previous AP exam materials, to some degree in their courses. Participant 1
teaches a non-traditional AP course, and therefore, does not administer a practice exam, but
instead focuses on providing students opportunities to build their portfolios. Participant 2 uses
both AP classroom and “Princeton Review multiple-choice quizzes” to provide students with
practice exam opportunities as well as rationale for the right and wrong answers. Both
Participants 4 and 5 referenced using released exams from previous exam years as practice
assessments within their respective courses. Participant 3 also used released exams from
previous exam years, however, they “don’t use them as assessments, instead we’ll cover a unit
and then look at a few questions.” Participant 6 emphasized “attend[ing] as many professional
developments” as possible, particularly where the speakers are responsible for writing the exams,
to find practice exam resources.
Document Analysis. The College Board website has published the full-length exams
with answer keys, writing samples, and rationales for both the multiple-choice answers and the
scores assigned to the writing samples. Anyone can access these exams for as far back as 1998
on College Board’s website. Out of the six participants, four provided samples of the practice
exams they use or incorporate into their instruction. These practice exams were all taken directly
from questions from previous exam years or from other test preparation resources, such as
Princeton Review.

54
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers know how to find or create practice
exams aligned to their respective AP exams was determined to be an asset according to the
interview results. Only 67% of teachers provided sample practice exams for their courses for the
purposes of document analysis. However, there are plenty of full-length exams available on the
College Board website and 83% of participants indicated in interviews that they use practice
exams to some degree. The remaining 17% are unable to do so due to the nature of the course.
Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence 6
Teachers recognize their own gaps in knowledge to deliver the required content and
skills.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to discuss how they recognize their gaps in
knowledge as it pertains to the content and skills for their respective AP courses. All participants
alluded to some level of reflection in identifying their gaps in knowledge. Participant 2 reported
that as this is their first year teaching their AP course, they recognize that there is much to learn.
As Participant 2 progresses through the material, they demonstrate for their students how they
are “filling in the gaps and showing them the skills I’m using to pick up the content.” Participant
3 sought guidance from a colleague in the English department to assist with improving their
writing instruction and feedback, because Participant 3 “knew a good essay when I saw it, but I
couldn’t give proper feedback.” Participant 4 reports that they are “constantly reading articles
and best practices, and reading new content and looking at stuff I've done before.” Participant 5
cited the “email we get every year” from College Board as helpful in recognizing their gaps in
knowledge. Participant 1 shared their struggle with communicating the content and skills to

55
different students as they do not come from a K-12 teaching background, but from a “college
teaching background.” Participant 6 was not asked this interview item due to human error.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers recognize their own gaps in knowledge
to deliver the required content and skills was determined to be an asset according to the interview
results. One-hundred percent of participants alluded to their ability to recognize gaps in their
knowledge to some degree. Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.
Influence 7
Teachers examine the practice exam results in relation to AP exam results to determine
effectiveness.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 8
Teachers appropriately examine their teaching practice in relation to the exam score
report.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked how they use the exam score report to
inform their instruction. This question was part of an optional extended set of interview
questions and not all participants elected to answer. Participant 2 acknowledged that they
“haven’t tried that” and that they “don’t even really use my past AP exam scores to drive my
instruction.” Additionally, Participant 3 replied, “I just don’t think that I do.” Similarly,
Participant 6 said, “I actually don’t.” Both Participants 4 and 5 had an alternate response.
Participant 4 pointed out that the score report tells them “where are the areas of growth, where

56
are my weaknesses, what do I need to work on.” Participant 5 uses the score report to “tell me
where the students might have been faltering a little bit” to inform their instruction moving
forward.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers examine their teaching practice based on
the exam score report was determined to be a need based on the interview results. While all
participants for this influence were aware of the existence of the exam score report, only 40% of
participants indicated that they look at and use the exam score report to reflect on and inform
their instruction. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Value
Influence 9
Teachers value data as evidence of student growth and mastery of different content and
skills.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 10
Teachers value practice exams as measures of student mastery and validation for their
own teaching practice.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked about the importance of practice exams as
evidence of student mastery and as validation for their teaching practice. Out of the six
participants, five indicated that they value using practice exams to some extent. Participant 2

57
noted that it is “really important for all AP teachers to be able to give a lot of practice tests.”
Participant 3 validated this idea in their interview when they noted that for students “seeing
[content and skills] on the practice tests helps.” Similarly, Participant 5 acknowledged that “the
more [students] see it, the more they’re going to make connections.” Participant 4 relayed that
they do “drills once or twice a week” in preparation for the AP exam. As Participant 1 teaches
the non-traditional AP course, they “substitute practice exams for critique” as a method of
providing feedback to students on their progress in the course. However, Participant 6 responded
that “I do use the practice test but I don't go strict on practices because they can be very different
from year to year.”
Document Analysis. Teachers have access to full-length exams for their courses as far
back as 1998, or in the case of newer courses, since the year the course was first offered. These
exams include the score reports, answer keys, and rationale for the various answer choices or
rubric scores. Out of the six participants, four provided samples of the practice exams they use or
incorporate into their instruction. These practice exams are either taken directly from College
Board’s published exams or from test preparation resources such as Princeton Review.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers value practice exams as measures of
their students’ mastery as well as validation for their teaching practice was determined to be an
asset based on the interview results. Of the six participants, 83% indicated that they valued
practice exams for these purposes. Additionally, an analysis of the practice exam materials
submitted by participants revealed that 67% value practice exams for these purposes. One
participant teaches a non-traditional AP course and is, thus, unable to provide a practice exam for
document analysis. Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.

58
Self-Efficacy
Influence 11
Teachers are confident that they can teach the required skills and content outlined by
College Board.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 12
Teachers are confident that they can assess students using practice exams aligned to their
AP exams.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to discuss their confidence with assessing
students using practice exams aligned to the AP exam for their respective courses. All six
participants expressed confidence in accomplishing this task. Participants 2 and 3 indicated that
they are confident with their approach to practice exams in assuring that students are exposed to
the types of questions they would be asked on the exam. Participant 2 shared that they are “not
just giving my students [bogus] answers or waste of time exams” and Participant 3 emphasized
that “[students are] seeing what’s coming. And for me, that’s pretty good.” Participant 4
referenced the information provided in the course guide as being helpful and shared, “I can
create essential questions or big ideas from the standards, so that I know I'm covering that, that
gives me the confidence.” Participant 5 aligned their confidence with being able to prepare
students, because “the more you do from these tests, like, the more you see, the more you
practice, the more you do, the more familiar the questions will be.” Participant 1 highlighted that
in lieu of practice exams, “it's all critique” as they teach a non-traditional AP course. Conversely,

59
Participant 6 emphasized using practice exams “as a guide only,” because “I'm not confident that
they will see those questions [on the exam].”
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers are confident with assessing students
using practice exams aligned to their AP exams was determined to be an asset based on the
interview responses. Of the six participants, 83% indicated that they were confident in the use of
their practice exams in preparing students for the exam. Therefore, the influence is determined to
be an asset.
Emotions
Influence 13
Teachers feel positive about using previous exam data to inform the implementation of
new strategies.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 14
Teachers feel positive about implementing materials that are aligned to the content and
skills outlined by College Board.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.

60
Attribution
Influence 15
Teachers attribute their success or failure with teaching College Board content and skills
to their own efforts.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to describe what they think about when they
consider the success or lack of success of their students. This question was part of an optional
extended set of interview questions and not all participants elected to answer. According to
Participant 5, “success is [the students’] feeling of accomplishment.” Additionally, Participant 2
reported that the “biggest thing I use for measuring students’ success, like, how well their writing
is progressing each year.” Participant 4 emphasized that daily they ask themselves, “why did it
go well? And then what was, what do I need to do better?” Similarly, Participant 6 expressed that
“I love it when they did it...then when they don't, like, okay, it's time to reteach.” Alternatively,
Participant 3 emphasized that for their class, while content is important, “the skill is the priority”
when it comes to success or failure.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers attribute their success or failure with
teaching College Board content and skills to their own efforts was determined to be an asset
based on the interview findings. Of the five participants interviewed for this influence, 100%
indicated that they looked to their instructional efforts to measure success or failure. Therefore,
the influence is determined to be an asset.

61
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Resources
Influence 16
AP Teachers are provided the time to examine their exam score reports during Direct
Teacher Time at the start of the school year.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to describe the resources they have access
to as it pertains to professional development, Direct Teacher Time, and resources of the like to
prepare for their course. Participant 1 noted that teachers “get our preps. I mean, I mean, we have
a PLC time,” but that “most of my professional development seems to be based on more
academic classes, and not on CTE or professional or art classes.” Participants 2, 3, and 4
emphasized that the organization provides teachers with the time needed to collaborate with
colleagues and prepare for their courses. Participant 2 noted being given “time to actually
collaborate with the other AP teacher to kind of lesson plan.” Additionally, Participant 3
described the organization as “very supportive” and Participant 4 said the organization “does an
amazing job giving us time.” On the other hand, Participant 6 referenced professional
development opportunities outside of the organization as being particularly helpful, “especially if
they claim to be an expert.” Participant 5 did not reference resources provided by the
organization, other than the textbook used to teach the course; instead, they referenced the “AP
website” and “AP videos” as being useful resources for preparing to teach the course.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that teachers are provided time to examine their exam
score reports during Direct Teacher Time at the start of the school year was determined to be a

62
need based on interview results. Of the six participants, 67% indicated that they had access to
resources needed to prepare for their course. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.
Influence 17
Additional professional development sessions are funded by the school, and when offered
during the school day, teachers are provided a substitute for the day.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
Influence 18
The school has a policy of examining data as a whole staff at the start of the school year
and in departments and professional learning communities at set times throughout the academic
year.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to describe the school-wide efforts to
prepare for AP by examining data as a staff, in professional learning communities, or
departments. Participants 2 and 3 highlighted the efforts of the organization to accomplish this
task. Participant 2 notes this type of “school culture pushes this college going atmosphere within
the school.” Participant 3 also explained that the “first meeting of the year in August is always
breaking down data and AP data as a group.” However, Participants 1, 4, 5, and 6 noted that such
school-wide efforts are lacking. Participant 1 notes that AP teachers meet as a group “to try to
figure out for the academic people,” but that these efforts do not often apply to the non-
traditional AP course. Participant 5 also explained that “we do have AP department meetings or
PLCs.” Participant 6 reiterated these sentiments by noting that AP teachers are “kind of on our

63
own,” but do meet to “talk about certain students and how we can help them.” Similarly,
Participant 4 shared that “I work with my 11th grade PLC, but that's 11th grade content. It's not
AP standards, so I'm sort of on my own private island.”
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that the school has a policy of examining data as a
whole staff, in professional learning communities, and in departments at set times throughout the
year was determined to be a need based on the interview responses. Only 33% of participants
reported that the organization offers opportunities for these efforts. The remaining 67% of
participants reported that such an examination of data does not happen and that they often feel as
if they are on their own in doing so. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.
Influence 19
The school has a policy of sending AP teachers to their respective Summer Institutes each
year to stay up to date on the College Board expectations.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 20
The school has a policy of offering teachers the opportunity to attend specific
professional development opportunities that align with the desired practices.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.

64
Cultural Models and Settings
Influence 21
There is a culture of using the curriculum guides provided by College Board to teach the
required content and skills.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 22
There is a culture of assessing students during the academic year using practice exams
aligned to their respective AP exams.
Interview Findings. No interview findings were made for this influence.
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. There is no summary to report for this influence.
Influence 23
There is a culture of using data from previous years to spark a conversation and reflection
for the upcoming school year.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked to describe how previous year exam data is
used to reflect and plan for the upcoming school year. Out of the six participants, four
participants indicated that this does not happen. Since Participant 1 teaches a non-traditional AP
course, a review of previous exam data is not as applicable in their case. Participant 2
emphasized that “I think we could do a better job with this at my school.” Additionally,
Participant 3 reported an emphasis on pass rates and less on the data in the exam score report
when they said, “I want to know my pass rate. And I had not traditionally looked at much of the

65
data. I actually didn't think the data was that helpful.” Participant 5 indicated that they do not
look at the exam data, because of the organization’s “culture where everybody who wants to try
the class can get into it.” On the other hand, Participant 4 was able to report “a little bit of growth
like maybe 2%” from one year to the next, but was unsure of how seriously to take current data
given the constraints to the learning process due to the current pandemic. Additionally,
Participant 6 reported that “We definitely look at them and. And we see, we actually track our
students individually more so than from year to year.”
Document Analysis. No document findings were made for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that there is a culture of using data from previous
years to spark conversation and reflection to inform plans for the upcoming school year was
determined to be a need based on the interview findings. In the interview findings, 33% of
participants reported that such a culture exists. However, 67% reported that there is not a culture
of doing this. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.
Additional Interview Questions for Teachers
How Do You Feel About Having Two Measures of Success, One That is Stipulated by the AP
Course and One That is Stipulated by Your Own Organizational Structure?
Participants were asked about the culture of having two measures of success, one set
forth by College Board and one by the organization. Participants highlighted that the
organization encourages all students to enroll in AP courses, and therefore, does not set
expectations for AP pass rates. Similarly, Participant 4 highlighted that although the organization
does not push high AP pass rates, if “kids do pass the test, we do bump them up a grade.”
Participant 6 also reinforced that “our school philosophy is anybody that wants to take a
particular AP class they're welcome so it's open.” Additionally, Participant 3 was appreciative

66
that in “my district, we have a lot of autonomy” while Participant 2 emphasized that in their
previous experiences, the effect of pushing high AP pass rates “could diminish your college
going atmosphere within your school.” Participant 1 reported that “I try to make the way that I
work based on the AP” in an effort to achieve the goals set forth by College Board and the
organization. However, Participant 5 noted that they “would actually prefer, and I know I talked
about this before, that their grade be held until their AP scores came back.”
The assumption that there is a culture of having two measures of success, one determined
by College Board and one determined by the organization, was determined to be an asset based
on the interview findings. Of the interview participants, 83% found the organization’s culture
surrounding student enrollment in AP courses allowed teachers to feel less pressure about exam
results. Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.
How has this New Platform of Communication Because of the COVID Era Impacted Student
Performance?
Participants were asked how transitioning to an online platform for instruction and
communication with students, as a result of the COVID pandemic, has impacted student
performance. This question was part of an optional extended set of interview questions and not
all participants elected to answer. Participant 3 found that the transition online “is tremendously
impacting their mental health” but that student writing has greatly improved due to opportunities
for “immediate feedback” afforded by the digital platform. Participant 4 also reported that “I feel
like they're trying, and they're there and they show up, but we're not getting the whole part of it,
and it's really sad.” Similarly, Participants 2 and 6 acknowledged a lack of connection between
students and teachers. Participant 2 replied, “I think there's a lack of connection with students
and students feel the same way. They don't really feel connected with their teachers.” Participant

67
6 also remarked that “[students] feel like they're suffering on their own, even though we're trying
to connect with them.” Participant 5 highlighted that student learning is difficult to measure,
noting that “COVID has definitely allowed for students to have better grades, I don't know if it's
better learning.”
The interview findings reveal that student performance has been negatively impacted as a
result of transitioning to an online platform as a result of the COVID pandemic. Despite one
participant mentioning one upside to the transition, 100% of participants interviewed for this
influence reported that the transition online has not been beneficial. Therefore, the influence is
determined to be a need.
How Do You Employ Strategies to Adapt Your Teaching to the Individual Differences of Your
Students, Which May Include Cultural Differences or Differences in Ability?
Participants were asked about how they adapt their teaching based on their students’
individual differences, such as cultural differences or differences in ability. Of the six
participants, Participants 4 and 6 noted group work as an important strategy for accomplishing
this task. Participant 4 stated that “culturally our students do really well in groups, in group
settings, and working together and having conversations.” While Participant 6 acknowledged
that they “encouraged [students] to work together.” Participant 1 noted that they “try to make
sure everybody has the same equipment, everybody has what they need to get the job done. And
to give them time to do it, and the support that they need.” Additionally, Participant 2
emphasized that “knowing the cultural difference and pulling in some of my background and
abilities in school” was helpful in teaching for individual student differences. Participant 3 also
explained that it is a matter of recognizing where content does not translate between cultures.
Participant 3 told of a time when they “had to explain because idioms and maxims are not, these

68
colloquialisms don't cross over culturally.” Participant 5 takes a different approach by using the
“YouTube channel given to us by our district where I upload all the videos to every class that
I've ever taught” to provide students with access to class content when they are at home working
on their own.
The assumption that teachers adapt their teaching based on their students’ individual
differences was determined to be an asset based on the interview findings. Based on interview
responses, 100% of participants reported taking the individual differences of students into
account when teaching. Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.
Results and Findings for Student Focus Group
While teachers are the stakeholder of focus and the solutions in Chapter Five will reflect
as much, it became evident during the planning phase for data collection that the AP student
voice was a critical missing component. At AHS, students are encouraged to enroll in AP
courses, regardless of their backgrounds or prior learning experiences. In order to make
recommendations for closing the gap in AP pass rates, it was then necessary to understand why
students enroll in AP courses to begin with and what they feel may or may not be missing from
their experiences in an AP classroom. This data speaks to student motivation in terms of self-
efficacy and value, as well as student perceptions of organizational culture. This data will help to
inform solutions in Chapter Five. The findings for this section are organized by the focus group
questions asked of the students.
To What Degree has Participation in the AP Program Affected Your Perception of Self as a
Scholar or Learner?
Student participants in the focus group were asked how taking AP courses has affected
their perceptions of themselves as learners. Out of 10 participants, nine reported feeling better

69
about themselves as a result of taking AP classes. Student 1 and Student 7 both reported feeling
smarter. Student 1 noted that “I often feel like a little bit, I guess, smarter” while Student 7
acknowledged that AP courses “made me feel smarter in a way.” Student 2 emphasized a boost
in confidence after “passing that test, and basically doing it all in one semester.” Student 3
reported that “when I, like, still, like, don't give up and persevere and, like, learn, like, that
makes, like, such a huge difference of, like, how I see myself.” Similarly, Student 4 revealed that
they “feel more accomplished” as a result of taking AP classes and Student 6 added that “the fact
that I'm determined to take this class has definitely helped me personally like at a higher
standard.” Student 8 described participation in AP classes as “a confidence booster. Okay, it just
made me learn a lot about myself in terms of, like, what I can do.” Additionally, Student 10
reported that participation in AP classes “makes me feel better about myself as a student.”
Student 5 credits AP classes with helping them to “[define] self-innovation.” Student 9 reported
that their perception of self as a learner is dependent on “how I'm doing in class,” but also
reported that “overall, I like being in an AP class.”
The assumption that students value taking AP courses was determined to be an asset
based on the focus group findings. Based on focus group responses, 90% of participants reported
feeling better about themselves as a result of taking AP classes. Therefore, the influence is
determined to be an asset.
Why Did You Feel You Wanted to Participate in AP Courses?
Student participants in the focus group were asked why they felt they wanted to take an
AP class. Of the 10 student participants, eight reported being motivated to enroll because of the
benefits at the collegiate level. Student 1 enrolled in AP because they “would have colleges
interested in me” as did Student 6 who “wanted to be a more competitive college applicant.”

70
Student 7 also reported that they “took them to help set me apart, I guess, in college
applications.” Student 10 also reported a desire to “make my transcripts look as best as they
can.” Student 2 acknowledged they were motivated to take AP courses because “I get credits,
and it does look good on colleges.” Students 4, 5, and 8 reported a desire to challenge
themselves. Student 4 enrolled because “of the college credits, but also I'm someone who always
likes a challenge and, like, more and more classes.” Student 8 also reported a desire to “stand
out” on their college applications as a result of taking AP courses. Student 9 reported enrolling
“mainly for how it looks on college applications” but also because of “pressure from my parents
to, like, take the hardest classes.” Conversely, Student 3 explained that “I honestly did it because
I was, like, interested in, like, like, what it had, like, I didn't know what, like, human geo was.”
The focus group findings revealed that 90% of student participants enrolled in AP classes
because of the presumed benefits, especially those related to college admissions. The remaining
10% of student participants indicated interest in course content as the motivating factor for
enrollment. Therefore, the influence is determined to be an asset.
Do You Feel That You are Getting the Kind of Educational Experience That You Thought
You Would? If Not, Why Not?
Student participants in the focus group were asked if they felt they were getting the
educational experience they expected from an AP course. Of the 10 student participants, two
reported that they did get the experience they expected. Student 3 noted that their AP courses
“either (a) taught me something or, like, (b) like pushed me to do, like, something I honestly,
like, wouldn't do.” Student 10 reported that the “AP experience is what I expected,” but also
noted that “what I was not expecting was the, like, lack of variety of assignments in certain
classes.” Alternatively, Students 1 and 2 felt that the switch to virtual instruction as a result of

71
the COVID pandemic affected their experience. Student 1 said, “now that everything is online, I
feel everything is a tad bit easier” and Student 2 added, “it's definitely harder for me to, like,
grasp [the material] online, but I feel, like, if we were in the classroom, it would make more
sense.” Student 3 also shared these sentiments with online learning. Students 4, 7, 8, and 9
reported that they do not feel they have gotten the educational experience they were expecting.
Student 4 explained that “I kind of don't think I'm getting that experience I thought I would” and
also mentioned online being too easy with extended deadlines and busy work. Student 7 noted
that “it's definitely not what I thought it would be, but I think that's because it's online.”
Additionally, Student 8 felt that their educational experience did not meet expectations, because
the courses are “not even really about content, but instead of, like, taking the test.” Student 9
added, “I just feel like there's something missing in my educational experience. I didn't get it, but
technically, I, it was how I thought it would go because of, like, the, the requirements and stuff.”
On the other hand, Students 5 and 6 reported their experience depended on the course. Student 5
explained that in “one of my few classes, I do feel like I'm getting the educational experience I
thought I would” and Student 6 reported feeling “like I either had the educational experience I
expected or haven't depending on the class.”
The assumption that AP courses are offering students the educational experience they
expected was determined to be a need based on the focus group findings. Student participant
responses revealed that 80% of students did not feel they were getting the educational experience
they were expecting from their AP courses. Therefore, the influence is determined to be a need.
Summary of Validated Influences
Tables 8, 9, and 10 show the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences for
this study and their determination as an asset or a need.

72
Knowledge
Table 8 reveals that three of the five assumed influences that were addressed during data
collection were determined to be assets based on interview findings and document analysis.
Chapter Five will address recommendations to improve the assumed knowledge influences that
were not validated.

Table 8
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Knowledge Influences Asset or Need
Factual Knowledge
Teachers know the required content and
skills as outlined by the College Board for
their classes. (CB 2)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers know the question types that their
respective AP exams use to assess student
mastery. (CB 4)
No findings were made for this influence.
Conceptual Knowledge
Teachers know the relationship between the
required content and skills outlined by
College Board and those taught and
developed in their respective courses. (CB
2)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers know the interrelationship between
the exam score report and their classroom
instruction. (CB 1)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers know the relationship between what
is being taught and how it is being
assessed. (CB 4)
Need
Procedural Knowledge
Teachers know how to teach the required
content and skills outlined by College
Asset

73
Assumed Knowledge Influences Asset or Need
Board for their classes. (CB 2)
Teachers know how to find or create practice
exams aligned to their respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
Asset
Metacognitive Knowledge
Teachers recognize their own gaps in
knowledge to deliver the required content
and skills. (CB 2)
Asset
Teachers examine the practice exam results
in relation to AP exam results to determine
effectiveness. (CB 4)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers appropriately examine their
teaching practice in relation to the exam
score report. (CB 1)
Need

Motivation
Table 9 reveals that all three of the assumed influences that were addressed during data
collection were determined to be assets based on interview findings and document analysis.
Chapter Five will address recommendations to improve the assumed motivation influences.

74
Table 9
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Motivation Influences Asset or Need
Value
Teachers value data as evidence of student
growth and mastery of different content
and skills. (CB 1)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers value practice exams as measures
of student mastery and validation for their
own teaching practice. (CB 4)
Asset
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are confident that they can teach the
required skills and content outlined by
College Board. (CB 2)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers are confident that they can assess
students using practice exams aligned to
their AP exams. (CB 4)
Asset
Emotions
Teachers feel positive about using previous
exam data to inform the implementation of
new strategies. (CB 1)
No findings were made for this influence.
Teachers feel positive about implementing
materials that are aligned to the content and
skills outlined by College Board. (CB 2)
No findings were made for this influence.
Attribution
Teachers attribute their success or failure
with teaching College Board content and
skills to their own efforts. (CB 2)
Asset

75
Organization
Table 10 reveals that none of the three assumed influences that were addressed during
data collection were determined to be assets based on interview findings and document analysis.
Chapter Five will address recommendations to improve the assumed organizational influences
that were not validated.

Table 10
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Organization Influences Asset or Need
Resources
AP Teachers are provided the time to
examine their exam score reports during
Direct Teacher Time at the start of the
school year. (CB 1)
Need
Additional professional development
sessions are funded by the school, and
when offered during the school day,
teachers are provided paid time off and a
substitute for the day. (CB 3)
No findings were made for this influence.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
The school has a policy of examining data as
a whole staff at the start of the school year
and in departments and professional
learning communities at set times
throughout the academic year. (CB 1)
Need
The school has a policy of sending AP
teachers to their respective Summer
Institutes each year to stay up to date on the
College Board expectations. (CB 2, 4)
No findings were made for this influence.
The school has a policy of offering teachers
the opportunity to attend specific
professional development opportunities that
No findings were made for this influence.

76
Assumed Organization Influences Asset or Need
align with the desired practices. (CB 3)
Culture
There is a culture of using the curriculum
guides provided by College Board to teach
the required content and skills. (CB 2)
No findings were made for this influence.
There is a culture of assessing students
during the academic year using practice
exams aligned to their respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
No findings were made for this influence.
There is a culture of using data from previous
years to spark a conversation and reflection
for the upcoming school year. (CB 1)
Need

Chapter Five will introduce the recommended solutions for the influences that data was
collected for. These solutions will be based on the empirical evidence collected for this study.

77
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with AHS’ goal of 100% AP pass rates.
While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholder of focus for this analysis was AP Teachers. The analysis began by generating a list
of possible or assumed interfering influences that were then examined systematically to focus on
actual or validated interfering influences. Therefore, the study examined the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that influence teachers to achieve their goal of
demonstrating the content and skills knowledge needed to successfully teach their individual AP
courses.
The research questions that guided this study are:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere
with teachers teaching 100% of the content and skills, using strategies appropriate
for the content, so that students pass the AP exam?
2. What are the recommended knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
solutions?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The following three sections will consist of recommendations for solutions to assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are causing the gap in AP pass rates.
These recommendations are based on the data collected and the findings presented in Chapter
Four. Each set of recommendations will provide a brief overview, which includes a rationale for
prioritizing the validated causes to the gap. Also included is a table that lists the knowledge,
motivation, or organizational cause, whether it was determined to be an asset or need, the

78
evidence-based principles to support these recommendations, and the recommendation for each
based on the accompanying principle. Following each table is a brief discussion of the context
recommended solution. As data was not collected for all influences, it is assumed that these
influences will be covered by the recommendations based on the data that was collected.
However, both assets and needs will be addressed by the recommendations for the purposes of
continuity, consistency, and commitment. Continuity is key for orienting any new members to
the organization. Consistency is key for maintaining assets through reinforcement and rewards.
Finally, commitment is key for providing an example to follow for other organizations who may
want to address similar issues and achieve similar outcomes.
Knowledge Recommendations
Data collection revealed that two out of ten assumed knowledge influences were
determined to be a need. The two influences determined to be needs include one conceptual
knowledge influence and one metacognitive knowledge influence. Additionally, both procedural
knowledge influences and one metacognitive knowledge influence were determined to be assets
based on data collection. Data was not collected for the remaining five influences; therefore,
these influences have been marked as having no findings, but have been assigned
recommendations under the assumption that they represent a need. Table 11 lists the causes,
findings, principles, and recommendations. Following the table, a detailed discussion for each
knowledge type, recommendation, and the literature supporting the recommendation is provided.

79
Table 11
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Factual Knowledge
Teachers know the
required content
and skills as
outlined by the
College Board for
their classes. (CB
2)
No Findings Information learned
meaningfully and
related back to
previous knowledge
is stored more
quickly and
remembered more
accurately because
it is elaborated with
prior learning
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide teachers
with the required
content and skills
to be taught as
outlined by
College Board
and access to
exam materials
to assess student
mastery.
Teachers know the
question types that
their respective AP
exams use to assess
student mastery.
(CB 4)
No Findings
Conceptual Knowledge
Teachers know the
relationship
between the
required content
and skills outlined
by College Board
and those taught
and developed in
their respective
courses. (CB 2)
No Findings Integrating auditory
and visual
information
maximizes working
memory capacity
(Mayer, 2011).

Learning is increased
when learners are
provided access to
resources and
supports that
connect to future
expectations
(Mayer, 2011).

Provide teachers
with a resource
folder that
visually shows
best practices for
instruction and
assessments to
ensure alignment
with the content
and skills
outlined by
College Board.
Teachers know the
interrelationship
between the exam
score report and
their classroom
instruction. (CB 1)
No Findings
Teachers know the
relationship
between what is
Need

80
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
being taught and
how it is being
assessed. (CB 4)
Procedural Knowledge
Teachers know how
to teach the
required content
and skills outlined
by College Board
for their classes.
(CB 2)
Asset Modeling to-be
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
self-efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler et al.,
2009).

Continued practice
promotes
automaticity and
takes less capacity
in working memory
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Feedback that is
private, specific,
and timely
enhances
performance
(Shute, 2008).
Provide teachers
with access to
sample practice
exams and
continued
feedback on their
teaching and
methods of
assessment.
Teachers know how
to find or create
practice exams
aligned to their
respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
Asset
Metacognitive Knowledge
Teachers recognize
their own gaps in
knowledge to
deliver the required
content and skills.
(CB 2)
Asset The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).
Provide teachers
with specific
professional
development
opportunities to
analyze their AP
score report and
how it relates to
their teaching
practice.
Teachers examine the
practice exam
results in relation to
AP exam results to
determine
No Findings

81
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
effectiveness. (CB
4)
Teachers
appropriately
examine their
teaching practice in
relation to the exam
score report. (CB 1)
Need

Declarative Knowledge Solutions
Recommendations are made although no data was collected and, therefore, there are no
findings to support the factual knowledge assumed influences of (a) teachers know the required
content and skills as outlined by College Board for their classes and (b) teachers now the
question types that their respective AP exams use to assess student mastery. However, Schraw
and McCrudden (2006) would suggest that information learned meaningfully and related back to
previous knowledge is stored more quickly and remembered more accurately because it is linked
with prior learning. Thus, it is essential that teachers have access to the information needed to
teach their courses. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with the
required content and skills to be taught as outlined by College Board and access to exam
materials to assess student mastery.
It is critical that teachers ensure that the fundamental content and skills outlined by
College Board are covered as part of the annual curriculum (Burton et al., 2002). For this reason,
teachers have the appropriate credentials and have been trained in the best practices for their
respective subject areas. Shraw and McCrudden (2006) emphasize that information that connects

82
to previous knowledge is stored more quickly and, therefore, remembered more accurately. Thus,
the recommendation to ensure teachers know the required content and skills to be taught
provides the opportunity for them to connect this knowledge with their prior knowledge in their
respective subject areas. This same line of reasoning applies to the connection between their
prior knowledge of assessing student mastery and the College Board assessments.
Conceptual Knowledge Solutions
The findings and results demonstrated a need in conceptual knowledge as it pertains to
the assumed influences that teachers know (a) the relationship between the required content and
skills outlined by College Board and those taught and developed in their respective courses; (b)
the interrelationship between the exam score report and their classroom instruction; and (c) the
relationship between what is being taught and how it is being assessed. Mayer (2011) notes that
working memory is enhanced when auditory and visual information is integrated. Additionally,
learning is increased when there is access to resources and supports that connect to future
expectations (Mayer, 2011). This would suggest that teachers would benefit from access to
auditory and visual resources. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization provide
teachers with a resource folder that visually shows best practices for instruction and assessments
to ensure alignment with the content and skills outlined by College Board.
In a workplace with high demands, such as a school environment, access to job resources
assists in fostering work engagement (Bakker et al., 2007). As a result, providing teachers access
to resources and supports to do their jobs effectively is critical. Mayer (2011) reinforces that
learning is increased with access to resources and supports that connect to future expectations,
particularly when integrating auditory and visual information. Thus, the recommendation to
provide teachers with a resource folder that visually shows best practices for instruction and

83
assessments in AP would provide teachers with a clear understanding of future expectations, thus
fostering work engagement.
Procedural Knowledge Solutions
The findings and results demonstrated an asset in the procedural knowledge assumed
influences that teachers know (a) how to teach the required content and skills outlined by the
College Board for their classes and (b) teachers know how to find or create practice exams
aligned to their respective AP exams. Denler et al., (2009) suggest that modeling to-be-
learned strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance. Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) suggest that continued practice takes less capacity in working memory.
Furthermore, feedback that is private, specific, and timely improves performance (Shute, 2008).
Therefore, teachers would benefit from models, continued practice, and feedback. As such, it is
recommended that the organization provide teachers with access to sample practice exams and
continued feedback on their teaching and methods of assessment.
According to Khachatryan (2015), feedback “prompts teachers’ learning processes and
plans for changes in teaching” (p. 183). Furthermore, Shute (2008) emphasizes that specific and
timely feedback is key to enhancing performance. This further supports the notion that feedback
in the form of modeling expected strategies or behaviors for classroom instruction improves self-
efficacy, learning, and performance (Denler et al., 2009). Thus, it is recommended that teachers
be provided with access to sample practice exams and continued feedback on their teaching and
methods of assessment to continue to support their procedural knowledge influences.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions
The findings and results demonstrated a need in the area of metacognitive knowledge
based on the assumed influences that teachers (a) recognize their own gaps in knowledge to

84
deliver the required content and skills; (b) examine the practice exam results in relation to AP
exam results to determine effectiveness; and (c) appropriately examine their teaching practice in
relation to the exam score report. An emphasis on the use of metacognitive strategies facilitates
learning (Baker, 2006). This would suggest that teachers would benefit from opportunities to
employ such strategies. Thus, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with
specific professional development opportunities to analyze their AP score report and how it
relates to their teaching practice.
Professional development specific to AP is recommended for improving teaching and
learning (Paek et al., 2005). Thus, if teachers are provided professional development specific to
AP teachers, they could have the opportunity to reflect on and think about their practice as AP
teachers. The ability to participate in activities that use metacognitive strategies helps to facilitate
learning (Baker, 2006). Therefore, the recommendation that teachers be provided specific
professional development to analyze their AP score reports and reflect on their teaching practice
supports the gaps in metacognitive knowledge.
Motivation Recommendations
Data collection revealed that none of the seven assumed motivation influences were
determined to be a need. However, one value influence, one self-efficacy influence, and the only
attribution influence were determined to be assets based on the collected data. Data was not
collected for the remaining four influences; therefore, these influences have been marked as
having no findings, but have been assigned recommendations under the assumption that they
represent a need. Table 12 lists the causes, findings, principles, and recommendations. Following
the table, a detailed discussion for each motivation type, recommendation, and the literature
supporting the recommendation is provided.

85
Table 12
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Value
Teachers value data
as evidence of
student growth and
mastery of different
content and skills.
(CB 1)
No Findings Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the
learner values the
task (Eccles, 2006).

Provide teachers
with reminders
of the value of
practice exams
as measures of
student mastery
and validation
for their own
teaching.
Teachers value
practice exams as
measures of student
mastery and
validation for their
own teaching
practice. (CB 4)
Asset
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are
confident that they
can teach the
required skills and
content outlined by
College Board. (CB
2)
No Findings High self-efficacy
can positively
influence
motivation (Pajares,
2006).

Feedback and
modeling increases
self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006).

Feedback as well as
actual success on
challenging tasks
positively
influences people’s
perceptions of
competence
(Borgogni et al.,
2011).
Provide teachers
with positive
feedback and
encouragement
regarding their
efforts to assess
students using
practice exams
aligned to their
AP exams.
Teachers are
confident that they
can assess students
using practice
exams aligned to
their AP exams.
(CB 4)
Asset

86
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Emotions
Teachers feel positive
about using
previous exam data
to inform the
implementation of
new strategies. (CB
1)
No Findings Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have
positive
expectancies for
success (Pajares,
2006).
Provide teachers
with positive
feedback about
using previous
exam data to
implement new
strategies and
materials aligned
to the content
and skills
outlined by
College Board.
Teachers feel positive
about implementing
materials that are
aligned to the
content and skills
outlined by College
Board. (CB 2)
No Findings
Attribution
Teachers attribute
their success or
failure with
teaching College
Board content and
skills to their own
efforts. (CB 2)
Asset Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failures
to effort rather than
ability. (Anderman
& Anderman,
2009).
Provide teachers
with continued
time to reflect on
the successes or
failures of their
efforts to teach
College Board
content and
skills.

Value Solutions
The data and findings demonstrated an asset in value based on the assumed influences
that teachers (a) value data as evidence of student growth and mastery of different content and
skills and (b) value practice exams as measures of student mastery and validation for their own
teaching practice. Eccles (2006) notes that learning and motivation are improved when the
learner values the task. This would suggest that teachers are motivated by the value of practice

87
exams. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with reminders of
the value of practice exams as measures of student mastery and validation for their own teaching
practice.
Assessments are a key component of the learning process as they provide feedback that is
useful to both the teacher during the planning process and the student to self-assess for learning
improvement (Paek et al., 2005). As a result, assessments such as practice exams provide
valuable data for AP teachers. Furthermore, learning and motivation are improved when the task
is valued (Eccles, 2006). Therefore, the recommendation is to continue to remind teachers of the
value of practice exams.
Self-Efficacy Solutions
The data and findings demonstrated an asset in self-efficacy based on the assumed
influences that teachers are (a) confident that they can teach the required skills and content
outlined by College Board and (b) confident that they can assess students using practice exams
aligned to their AP exams. Pajares (2006) notes that high self-efficacy has a positive influence on
motivation. Self-efficacy increases due to feedback and modeling (Pajares, 2006). Furthermore,
feedback coupled with success on challenging tasks has a positive effect on perceptions of
competence (Borgogni et al., 2011). This would suggest that teachers would benefit from
feedback and modeling in order to feel confident. Therefore, it is recommended that the
organization provide teachers with positive feedback and encouragement regarding their efforts
to assess students using practice exams aligned to their AP exams.
Khachatryan (2015) encourages the importance of feedback from school leaders,
particularly as it pertains to instructional moves, in the learning process. Feedback, therefore,
plays a critical role in ensuring that teachers’ self-efficacy remains an asset. Thus, the

88
organization should continue to provide positive feedback to teachers about their use of practice
exams in AP classes in order to continue to build their self-efficacy with regards to preparing
students for AP exams.
Emotions Solutions
Recommendations are made although no data was collected and, therefore, there are no
findings to support the assumed emotions influences that teachers (a) feel positive about using
previous exam data to inform the implementation of new strategies and (b) feel positive about
implementing materials that are aligned to the content and skills outlined by College Board.
However, Pajares (2006) note that learning, and thereby motivation, are enhanced when there is
a positive expectancy for success. This suggests that teachers would benefit from positive
feedback. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with positive
feedback about using previous exam data to implement new strategies and materials aligned to
the content and skills outlined by College Board.
The ability to read and incorporate data is an important skill for teachers when making
adjustments to instruction, providing support to individual students, and adapting the curriculum
to meet the needs of all students (Hamilton et al., 2009). If such practices are reinforced, it would
encourage teachers to continue to do so, such that new strategies and materials might be
implemented and better aligned to the expectations of the AP course. Pajares (2006) notes that
learning and motivation are enhanced when there is a positive expectancy for success. It is thus
recommended that the organization provide teachers with positive feedback about using their
exam data to inform their instruction and implementation of the course guidelines as outlined by
College Board.

89
Attribution Solutions
The findings and results showed an asset in attribution as teachers attribute their success
or failure with teaching College Board content and skills to their own efforts. According to
Anderman and Anderman (2009), learning and motivation are enhanced when individuals
attribute success or failure to effort over ability. This suggests that teachers would benefit from
reflecting on their own efforts. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization provide
teachers with continued time to reflect on the successes or failures of their efforts to teach
College Board content and skills.
Postholm (2008) emphasizes the importance of reflection in analyzing their progress as
teachers and the progress of their students. Furthermore, learning, and thereby motivation, are
improved when people attribute their success or failure to their own efforts (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009). Thus, it is recommended that the organization provide time for reflection on
the successes or failures of the teaching process so that teachers might have time to consider
future adjustments to practice and curriculum.
Organization Recommendations
Data collection revealed that three out of eight assumed organizational influences were
determined to be a need. Each category of assumed organizational influences revealed one
influence to be a need. However, data was not collected for the remaining five influences;
therefore, these influences have been marked as having no findings, but have been assigned
recommendations under the assumption that they represent a need. Table 13 lists the causes,
findings, principles, and recommendations. Following the table, a detailed discussion for each
organization type, recommendation, and the literature supporting the recommendation is
provided.

90
Table 13
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Resources
AP Teachers are
provided the time to
examine their exam
score reports during
Direct Teacher
Time at the start of
the school year.
(CB 1)
Need Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources
(materials, staff,
time, etc.) needed to
do their job and that
if there are resource
shortages, then
resources are
aligned with
organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Provide teachers
with specific
time to examine
their score
reports and
attend
professional
development
sessions to help
them fill in any
identified gaps.
Additional
professional
development
sessions are funded
by the school, and
when offered
during the school
day, teachers are
provided paid time
off and a substitute
for the day. (CB 3)
No Findings
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
The school has a
policy of examining
data as a whole
staff at the start of
the school year and
in departments and
professional
learning
communities at set
times throughout
the academic year.
(CB 1)
Need Effective
organizations
ensure that
organizational
messages, rewards,
policies and
procedures that
govern the work of
the organization are
aligned with or are
supportive of
organizational goals
and values (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Provide teachers
with time to
examine data as
a staff, in
departments, and
in professional
learning
communities
throughout the
school year in
order to reflect
on and make
adjustments to
The school has a No Findings

91
Assumed
Organization
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
policy of sending
AP teachers to their
respective Summer
Institutes each year
to stay up to date on
the College Board
expectations. (CB
2, 4)
their teaching
practice.
The school has a
policy of offering
teachers the
opportunity to
attend specific
professional
development
opportunities that
align with the
desired practices.
(CB 3)
No Findings
Culture
There is a culture of
using the
curriculum guides
provided by
College Board to
teach the required
content and skills.
(CB 2)
No Findings Changes in the
environment can
affect behavior
(Daly, 2009;
Tuckman, 2009).
Provide teachers
with time to
evaluate the AP
data and provide
feedback on what
the priorities
have been, what
they should be,
and suggestions
for improvement.

Provide teachers
with monthly
meetings to
reflect on the
progress of their
AP classes and
assess where
changes need to
be made to
There is a culture of
assessing students
during the academic
year using practice
exams aligned to
their respective AP
exams. (CB 4)
No Findings
There is a culture of
using data from
previous years to
Need

92
Assumed
Organization
Influences
Asset/Need/
No Findings
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
spark a
conversation and
reflection for the
upcoming school
year. (CB 1)
achieve the
organization’s
goal.

Resources Solutions
The data and findings demonstrated a need in resources based on the assumed influences
that (a) AP Teachers are provided the time to examine their exam score reports during Direct
Teacher Time at the start of the school year and (b) additional professional development sessions
are funded by the school, and when offered during the school day, teachers are provided paid
time off and a substitute for the day. In order for change efforts to be effective, everyone within
the organization must have the resources needed to do their job, and if there are shortages, then
resources should be aligned with organizational priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). This would
suggest that teachers could benefit from additional resources. Therefore, it is recommended that
the organization provide teachers with specific time to examine their score reports and attend
professional development sessions to help them fill in any identified gaps.
Hamilton et al. (2009) emphasize that teachers who know how to read and incorporate
data are better able to adjust instruction, provide support to students, and implement curriculum
to meet the needs of all students. Teachers would, therefore, benefit from being provided time
and guidance for the purposes of accomplishing this task. In order for changes to be effective,
teachers need access to the resources necessary to carry out job expectations aligned with the
organization’s priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). Thus, it is recommended that the organization

93
provide teachers with the time and professional development needed to examine their score
reports and fill in any identified gaps in knowledge.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Solutions
The data and findings demonstrated a need in policies, processes, and procedures based
on the assumed influences that (a) the school has a policy of examining data as a whole staff at
the start of the school year and in departments and professional learning communities at set times
throughout the academic year; (b) the school has a policy of sending AP teachers to their
respective Summer Institutes each year to stay up to date on the College Board expectations; and
(c) the school has a policy of offering teachers the opportunity to attend specific professional
development opportunities that align with the desired practices. Clark and Estes (2008) note that
effective organizations work together to make sure that there is a shared voice when it comes to
messages, rewards, policies, and procedures governing the organization, and that they need to be
in line with and supportive of the organization’s goals and values. This suggests that teachers
require time together to examine data in support of the organization’s goal. Therefore, it is
recommended that the organization provide teachers with time to examine data as a staff, in
departments, and in professional learning communities throughout the school year in order to
reflect on and make adjustments to their teaching practice.
In order for data to be effectively incorporated, teachers must be provided time to engage
in collaborative discourse about their data and the relationship to instruction (Hamilton et al.,
2009). To this end, time with the respective groups who would benefit from an evaluation of this
data is encouraged. This would assist in ensuring that the organizational messages, rewards,
policies and procedures that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are
supportive of organizational goals and values (Clark & Estes, 2008). Thus, the recommendation

94
is to provide teachers with time to examine data as a staff, in departments, and in professional
learning communities throughout the school year for the purposes of reflection on and making
adjustments to their instructional practices.
Cultural Model and Settings Solutions
The data and findings demonstrated a need in the cultural model and settings based on the
assumed influences that (a) there is a culture of using the curriculum guides provided by College
Board to teach the required content and skills; (b) there is a culture of assessing students during
the academic year using practice exams aligned to their respective AP exams; and (c) there is a
culture of using data from previous years to spark a conversation and reflection for the upcoming
school year. Changes to an environment can impact behavior (Daly, 2009; Tuckman, 2009). This
would suggest that teachers could benefit from a change to the culture. Therefore, it is
recommended that the organization provide teachers with time to evaluate the AP data and
provide feedback on what the priorities have been, what they should be, and suggestions for
improvement. Additionally, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with
monthly meetings to reflect on the progress of their AP classes and assess where changes need to
be made to achieve the organization’s goal.
Lewis et al. (2010) note that the use of research to inform and make adjustments to
instructional practice has been shown to improve student performance. This would suggest that a
culture that promotes such practices would assist in improving student achievement, regardless
of the context. Such a change in organization culture would affect behavior (Daly, 2009;
Tuckman, 2009). Thus, there are two recommendations for the organization. One is to provide
teachers time to examine, analyze, and reflect on their AP data in order to make adjustments to
their instruction and curriculum. The second is to provide teachers with monthly meetings to use

95
their data to assess how things are progressing in relation to the organization’s goal and make
recommendations for where changes may need to be made.
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Recommendations
The recommendations for the assumed knowledge influences are based on evidence-
based principles and address both needs and assets. It is recommended that the organization
provide teachers with the required content and skills to be taught as outlined by College Board
and access to exam materials to assess student mastery. Additionally, it is recommended that
teachers be provided with a resource folder that visually shows best practices for instruction and
assessments to ensure alignment with the content and skills outlined by College Board.
Furthermore, teachers should be provided with access to sample practice exams and continued
feedback on their teaching and methods of assessment. Finally, it is recommended that the
organization provide teachers with specific professional development opportunities to analyze
their AP score report and how it relates to their teaching practice.
The recommendations for the assumed motivation influences are based on evidence-
based principles and address both needs and assets. It is recommended that teachers be reminded
of the value of practice exams as measures of student mastery and validation for their own
teaching. In addition, teachers should be given positive feedback and encouragement regarding
their efforts to assess students using practice exams aligned to their AP exams. It is also
recommended that the organization provide teachers with positive feedback about using previous
exam data to implement new strategies and materials aligned to the content and skills outlined by
College Board. Lastly, it is recommended that teachers be provided with continued time to
reflect on the successes or failures of their efforts to teach College Board content and skills.

96
The recommendations for the assumed organizational influences are based on evidence-
based principles and address both needs and assets. It is recommended that the organization
provide teachers with specific time to examine their score reports and attend professional
development sessions to help them fill in any identified gaps. Furthermore, teachers should be
provided with time to examine data as a staff, in departments, and in professional learning
communities throughout the school year in order to reflect on and make adjustments to their
teaching practice. Additionally, it is recommended that the organization provide teachers with
time to evaluate the AP data and provide feedback on what the priorities have been, what they
should be, and suggestions for improvement. It is also recommended that the organization
provide teachers with monthly meetings to reflect on the progress of their AP classes and assess
where changes need to be made to achieve the organization’s goal.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The mission of AHS is to ensure that all students graduate from high school prepared for
college or career. Ultimately, AHS wants all students to graduate college-ready, so that they can
make the decision to apply to and attend degree-awarding universities at any time starting with
Senior year of high school. AP courses and their respective exams play an important role in
achieving this mission as AP courses are meant to mimic a college environment. Therefore,
participation in an AP course, and definitely a passing score on the exam, demonstrate college-
readiness during the college application process. AHS’ goal is to have 100% of AP students pass
their exams with a score of 3 or higher by May 2022. A passing score on an AP exam could earn
students college credit at degree-awarding institutions. This goal was established after the 2018-
2019 school year results revealed that just 33% of administered exams earned a passing score.

97
This number reflected a 5% drop in passing exam scores as the years prior had seen 38% pass
rates. Therefore, implementing a plan to close this gap will assist the organization in achieving
its goals and directly impact students’ eligibility for degree-awarding institutions. The use of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational tools to achieve this performance goal will assist
teachers with their role in closing this gap.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Evaluation Model is a four-level
evaluation model used to evaluate the effectiveness of training or human performance programs.
Level 1 measures participants’ reaction to the program being implemented. Level 2 will measure
whether or not participants have learned the content and, hopefully, the results are positive.
Level 3 evaluates whether or not participants apply the concepts or skills learned to their jobs.
Level 4 evaluates the effectiveness of the learning and reinforcement on the intended outcomes.
The New World Evaluation Model is an effective model to use to plan a program to be
implemented within an organization in order to ensure that the program is focused on the
organization’s goals. It is essential to begin the initial phases of the planning process with Level
4 and then work down to Level 1. Level 4 focuses on the intended outcomes of the program and
thus, it’s alignment to the organization’s mission. Level 3 will help with identifying what is
needed to ensure that the program is applicable to the participants’ daily responsibilities at work.
Level 2 will allow program creators to plan for how participants will acquire new knowledge and
skills. Finally, Level 1 is necessary as it will be used to gauge participants’ reactions to this new
program.
While planning the program should begin with the desired end result and then should be
worked backwards, evaluating the program should take place in the reverse. Level 1 and Level 2

98
will measure the effectiveness of the program, focusing on the effectiveness of the training and
its alignment to participants’ daily work responsibilities. Level 3 will measure what actually
occurs daily within the organization as a result of the program, while Level 4 will measure the
outcomes of the program and whether or not they contribute to achievement of the organization’s
goals.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4: Results is the reason for implementing a training program within an organization
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). It is key that stakeholders understand the relationship
between the training program and the organization’s mission in order to understand the purpose
of the training program being implemented. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016),
results are defined as the extent to which targeted outcomes are achieved as a result of the
implemented training program. Leading indicators are the short-term observations and
measurements that indicate that the critical behaviors are progressing towards achieving the
organization’s mission (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In this study, the short-term
observations and measurements that would indicate that the desired outcome is being achieved
will come from staff and student feedback. Table 14 shows the internal and external leading
indicators as well as the metrics and methods for how the indicators will be observed or
measured.

99
Table 14
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased number of passing
scores on AP exams
reported publicly (school
website; social media)
Number of AP exams with a
score of 3 or better as
published publicly
Annual AP exam score report
Improved perception of the
organization within the
community
Number of positive mentions
in public forums (meetings,
media) and number of
students enrolled in the
organization.
Annual enrollment data and
public forum meeting
notes

Increased number of college
acceptances to CSU/UC
schools
Number of college
acceptances to CSU/UC
schools
Counselors’ annual college
acceptance data report
Increased number of students
who are graduating from
four-year colleges or
universities within six
years of graduating high
school
Number of AHS alumni who
are matriculating from a
four-year college or
university
Annual reports of AHS
alumni currently enrolled
and/or graduating from
four-year colleges and
universities
Increased school performance
rank in various public
publications
AHS position in rank Principal will track rankings
as released from various
publications
Increased school performance
rank within the school
district
AHS position in rank Principal will track rank
according to district office
data
Internal Outcomes
Increased number of passing
scores on AP exams
Number of AP exams with a
score of 3 or better as
recorded by the school
Annual AP exam score report
Increased staff satisfaction
with the progression of the
AP program
Number of positive survey
results from staff
Data collected by the
Assistant Principal who
oversees the AP program

100
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
Increased student satisfaction
with participation in the
AP program
Number of positive survey
results from students
Data collected by site
administration
Increased number of students
applying to CSU/UC
schools
Number of students who
apply to CSU/UC schools
Counselors’ annual college
application data report

Level 3: Behavior
Level 3: Behavior measures the extent to which people apply what they learned during
the training program to their jobs upon their return (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Critical
behaviors are the few steps that, if performed consistently and with fidelity, will have the largest
impact on the program’s outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). At AHS, teachers will
need to carry out four critical behaviors in order to achieve the program’s outcomes. First,
teachers will evaluate exam score reports from the previous exam year to inform their teaching
practices for the coming school year. Second, teachers will teach the required content and skills
as outlined by College Board. Third, teachers will teach their respective AP courses using
culturally relevant pedagogy with fidelity. Finally, teachers will assess students using practice
exams aligned to their respective AP exams to gauge student mastery in preparation for the
upcoming AP exam. Table 15 details the specific metrics, methods, and timing for evaluation of
these behaviors.

101
Table 15
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Teachers will
evaluate exam
score reports from
the previous exam
year to inform
their teaching
practices for the
coming school
year.
Number of
instructional
strategy mentions
to address gaps in
data during start of
the year planning
meetings
School leadership
leading the
planning meeting
Annually in August
prior to the start of
the academic
school year
2. Teachers will
teach the required
content and skills
as outlined by
College Board.
Number of positive
observations or
classroom walk-
throughs that
reveal that content
and skills are
aligned to College
Board expectations
School leadership
will conduct
observations or
classroom walk-
throughs
Monthly
3. Teachers will
teach their
respective AP
courses using
culturally relevant
pedagogy with
fidelity.
Number of positive
observations or
classroom walk-
throughs that
reveal the use of
culturally relevant
pedagogy
School leadership
will conduct
observations or
classroom walk-
throughs
Monthly
4. Teachers will
assess students
using practice
exams aligned to
their respective
AP exams to
gauge student
mastery in
preparation for
the upcoming AP
exam.
Number of practice
exams or
opportunities
provided to
students that are
aligned to the AP
exam
Teachers will report
number of practice
exams or
opportunities
provided to
students
Monthly Reports

102
Required Drivers
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define required drivers as the support and
accountability methods used by managers or supervisors to help program participants. Required
drivers can be any number of rewards, reinforcement aids, methods of encouragement, or acts of
monitoring. The motivational influences needed to drive the achievement of the stakeholder
outcomes include the value that teachers place on their AP exam results and methods used to
achieve these results. The organizational influences that are necessary to drive the achievement
of the stakeholder outcomes include a positive school culture that maintains current assets, but
implements changes to achieve a higher percentage of AP pass rates. Table 16 lists the required
drivers needed to support the critical behaviors.

Table 16
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Provide access to professional
development opportunities
specific to the needs of the
AP program
Quarterly 2, 3
Provide professional
development to support
teachers with analyzing AP
exam data and making a
plan for the school year
Annually 1, 2, 3
Provide access to resources
on the implementation of
instructional strategies and
practice exams aligned to
College Board content and
skills
Quarterly 2, 3, 4

103
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Encouraging
School leaders will coach and
mentor teachers as they
implement the strategies
aligned to gaps in data and
College Board content and
skills
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Highlight the purpose and
value of using previous
exam score reports to
inform instruction
Annually 1, 2
Highlight the purpose and
value of teaching the AP
content and skills using
culturally relevant
pedagogy
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Encourage teachers to
provide students with
practice exams or
opportunities to measure
student mastery of AP
content and skills
Monthly 1, 2, 4
Rewarding
Recognize AP teachers who
are effectively
implementing data plans
aligned to content and
skills as outlined by
College Board at whole
staff meetings
Quarterly 1, 2, 4
Reward AP teachers who
implement critical
behaviors with fidelity
with an extra paid day off
Annually 1, 2, 3, 4
External stakeholder groups,
including School District
Leadership such as the
Superintendent,
acknowledge and
At the start of each Semester 1, 2, 3, 4

104
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
recognize the progress of
the AP program at AHS
Monitoring
School leadership will
complete classroom
observations or walk
throughs to gauge
implementation of College
Board content and skills,
data plan, and practice
exams
Monthly 1, 2, 4
School leadership will
complete classroom
observations or walk
throughs to gauge
implementation of
culturally relevant
pedagogy with AP content
and skills
Monthly 2, 3
AP Professional Learning
Community will report on
the progress of
organizational goals based
on course development.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4

Organizational Support
The organization’s school leadership, including administration and teacher leaders, will
play an integral role in supporting the recommended critical behaviors. School site
administration will be essential during each phase of implementation. They will be responsible
for allocating the time and financial resources needed for AP teachers to attend the necessary
trainings. Additionally, they will need to allocate their own time to carry out the observations
and walk-throughs in order to monitor the implementation of the program. Department leaders

105
will need to reinforce implementation during their department meetings and classroom walk-
throughs.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2: Learning is defined as the extent to which participants acquire the intended
achievements of participation in the training program, be it knowledge, skills, attitudes,
confidence, or commitment (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). It is recommended that a training
program be designed such that it evaluates each component simultaneously and efficiently
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Therefore, the following training program is recommended to
assist and support teachers with closing the gap in AP pass rates.
Learning Goals
The learning goals listed below are recommended based on the data collected and
reported in Chapter Four. At the end of the training program, AP teachers will be able to:
1. Describe the College Board content and skills required for mastery for their
respective AP courses.
2. Explain the importance of practice exams or opportunities as measurements for
student mastery of the content and skills outlined by College Board.
3. Explain the importance of aligning instructional strategies to the AP course guide
and gaps in data.
4. Explain the importance of using culturally relevant pedagogy to teach AP content
and skills.
5. Generate a plan to implement instructional strategies aligned to the data and
course guide.

106
6. Provide feedback on implementation of instructional strategies designed to
address the gaps according to the exam score report.
7. Value implementing instructional strategies and practice exam opportunities
aligned to content and skills as outlined by College Board.
8. Attribute your success and failure with implementing instructional strategies to
your own efforts.
9. Feel positive about implementing instructional strategies aligned to the content
and skills as outlined by College Board.
10. Be confident that you can implement the identified critical behaviors with fidelity.
Program
The recommended program is designed to achieve the 10 learning objectives outlined
above to address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs identified in Chapter Four.
It is recommended that prior to the start of the school year, all AP teachers attend a
College Board approved AP Summer Institute training for their respective courses. This will
ensure that all teachers have up-to-date knowledge of College Board expectations for the course,
including an up-to-date course guide. Upon completion, teachers will be able to describe the
content and skills needed to demonstrate mastery for their respective AP courses and exams. The
AP Summer Institute will last one week. Next, AP teachers will be asked to meet separately with
school site administrators prior to the start of the school year to examine and evaluate the prior
year’s AP exam score report. Together, teachers and administrators will identify gaps in the data
and create a plan to address these gaps during the upcoming school year. Part of this process will
involve a discussion of the importance of instruction and practice exams or opportunities aligned
to the content and skills for the AP courses. Additionally, school leaders and teachers will

107
engage in a discussion of instructional practices that reflect culturally relevant pedagogy and
their applicability to the AP content and skills. This meeting will last for approximately two
hours during professional learning community breakout sessions at the start of the school year.
During this meeting, teachers will also have time to read through AP student feedback collected
during the focus group. Using this feedback, teachers will ensure that their plans for the
upcoming school year are both culturally relevant and aligned to the rigor of the expected
outcomes according to College Board.
During the whole staff portion of the start of the year meetings, school site leadership will
share the AP data with the staff. Teachers will be asked to break into department groups to
examine and analyze the data. Through this process, department teachers will make suggestions
for instructional strategies that might help to close any identified gaps. Furthermore, department
teachers will make suggestions for adjustments to department-wide strategies that might help to
better prepare students to meet the demands of an AP classroom in the years leading up to taking
those courses.
During the school year, school site leadership will conduct monthly walk-throughs or
observations in AP classes to gauge implementation of instructional practices that are both
aligned to culturally relevant pedagogy and the content and skills outlined by College Board.
Data from these events will be shared at monthly AP professional learning community meetings.
Teachers will then be provided the opportunity to reflect on the progress of the course and
thereby, the progress of the organization’s goal, for the purposes of making adjustments as
needed.

108
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Table 17 lists the methods and activities that will be used to evaluate the declarative
knowledge, procedural skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment of the teachers engaging in
the training program.

109
Table 17
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Discuss the proposed instructional strategies in
department teams and the AP professional
learning community.
During
Discuss the proposed instructional strategies in the
AP professional learning community.
During
Practice exams and the AP score report reflect high
scores.
After
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Verify that AP professional development
opportunities have been scheduled.
During
Complete an instructional plan to target gaps
according to the data and incorporate culturally
relevant pedagogy.
During
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Explain the importance of aligning instructional
strategies in department teams.
During
Explain the importance of aligning instructional
strategies in AP professional learning community.
During
Discuss implementation successes and failures with
department teams and AP professional learning
community.
During and After
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Practice implementing proposed instructional
strategies with a teacher peer.
During
Provide teacher peers feedback on plans for
implementation.
During and After
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create a plan to implement instructional strategies
aligned to gaps in data, culturally relevant
pedagogy, and College Board content and skills.
During

110
Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define Level 1: Reaction as the extent to which
participants of a training program find the program engaging and relevant in respect to their jobs.
Essentially, this is the part of the training program that evaluates the effectiveness of the program
and the instructor according to program participants (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 18
shows the methods or tools that will be used to determine whether or not teachers found the
training program to be effective, helpful, and engaging.

Table 18
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Active participation during group activities During training
Participants ask meaningful questions During training
School leadership observations During training
Relevance
Instructor pulse check during group
discussions
During training
Anonymous participant survey End of training

Customer Satisfaction
Instructor pulse check during group
discussions
During training
Anonymous participant survey End of training
School leadership observations During training

111
Evaluation Tools
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) note that program evaluation should take place twice,
both immediately after the training program and once a period of time has passed after program
implementation. Immediately following the training program, participants should be asked to
evaluate the effectiveness of the program based on Level 1 and Level 2 (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). After some time has passed and participants have had the opportunity to
implement what they have learned, participants should be asked to evaluate the effectiveness of
the program based on all four levels (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Therefore, participants
will be asked to complete a program evaluation both immediately after the training program and
at the end of each semester once their learning has been fully implemented.
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
Immediately following the training program, participants will be asked to complete a
brief evaluation survey. This survey will evaluate the program’s effectiveness based on Level 1
(engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction) and Level 2 (declarative knowledge,
procedural skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment) outcomes. The evaluation tool will
utilize seven Likert scale questions, with an additional two open-ended questions asking
participants for more specific information. See Appendix G for the Immediate Evaluation Tool.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
At the end of each semester, program participants will be asked to complete a brief
evaluation survey. This survey will evaluate the program’s effectiveness based on all four levels
of the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The evaluation tool will
utilize six Likert scale questions and include an additional three open-ended questions asking

112
participants for more specific information about their implementation of what they learned. See
Appendix H for the Delayed Evaluation Tool.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Once findings have been analyzed, results will be shared with district leadership, school
site leadership, and teachers. Findings will report the results from both the immediate and
delayed evaluation tools as well as the outcomes identified in Level 4 and the identified metrics
related to critical behaviors in Level 3. The communication of these findings will coincide with a
celebration of the implementation of the training program and expected outcomes. Therefore,
stakeholders will be presented with a visual representing the AP exam pass rate percentage
before and after program implementation. Following this reveal, the more detailed findings will
be shared as previously noted. Additionally, positive results will be shared with external
stakeholders as needed, and posted on the school website and social media pages where
applicable. See Appendix I for an example of the visual representation of the data to be shared
with stakeholders.
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model outlines a framework for the planning and
implementation of training programs that focuses on alignment to the organization’s mission and
desired outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The training program outlined in Chapter
Five has followed this model, beginning with Level 4 and working backwards to Level 1 to
ensure alignment from start to finish. If followed, this training program will assist the
organization in supporting teachers with their efforts to close the gap in AP exam pass rates.
The implementation of this training program will require school site leadership and
teachers to utilize the recommended tools and resources in their efforts to work together to

113
improve AP exam pass rates. This plan emphasizes the use of specific professional development
opportunities and activities as well as access to instructional resources designed to guide
participants towards achieving the desired outcomes. The use of data and College Board-aligned
resources will assist teachers with identifying gaps in their own practice and implementing
instruction and curriculum adjustments as needed. Overall, the mission of the organization is to
prepare students for college and career after high school. By focusing on closing the gap in AP
exam pass rates, teachers contribute to achieving this mission. The training program
recommended has been designed to support teachers with their role in this process.
Discussion
Current trends in the higher education application process suggest that participation in AP
courses and their corresponding exam scores are now more critical than ever. Now that
universities are no longer factoring SAT and ACT scores into their admissions decisions,
students are going to need the presence of AP courses on their transcripts to help demonstrate
college readiness and are going to need the exam scores to assist in distinguishing them from
other applicants. Where the SAT and ACT played to “intellectual inequity” (S. Kaplan, personal
communication, September 9, 2020), with the need for students to take extra preparation courses,
often at high costs that low-income students could not afford, AP courses are embedded in
schools and their curriculum. AP courses boast open access for all students, leveling the playing
field for students regardless of socioeconomic status. Therefore, closing the gap in AP pass rates
is more important than ever.
The data collected in this study indicates that there are a few changes that need to be
made across the organization and within the culture of AP programs. College Board releases a
detailed score report for each AP teacher who had students take the exam every year. These

114
score reports provide data on where students mastered the intended content and skills and where
their weaknesses remained. This information is helpful in planning for curriculum and
instructional practice from year to year. However, what appears to be missing from some of this
planning is the motivation factor. AP teachers need to ask themselves, “What can be done to
motivate my students to want to learn this material and ultimately, do well on the AP
exam?” Some of the answers to such a question need to come from the professional
development opportunities being offered to teachers. Part of the responsibility of leading
professional development is not just to provide teachers with a list of strategies to use in their
classrooms, but to help them understand how these strategies can be used to motivate students so
that they value their learning experiences.
This study also revealed that AP students (at the organization used for data collection) did
not feel they were receiving the educational experience they had expected in their AP
courses. The students who participated in AP were looking to be challenged in a way that they
felt was lacking. Despite the open access policy of AP, educators have a responsibility to
motivate their students, regardless of academic background, to want to do well in the course and
to challenge themselves to meet these advanced standards of college-readiness in high
school. This is where the difference lies in teaching students to be scholars or to pass a
test. With exams like SAT and ACT, students who took the preparation courses were being
taught to take a test. With AP, a different opportunity has been presented to teachers and
students. This opportunity allows teachers to show their students what it means to be a scholar,
what it takes to be able to master advanced concepts and skills, and when this is done with
fidelity, more students will pass their AP exams, regardless of their academic, ethnic, and
economic backgrounds. With this in mind, it is also College Board’s responsibility to provide

115
teachers with professional development opportunities that prepare them for this task. Annual AP
Summer Institutes need to support teachers in developing a curriculum that is challenging,
accessible, and motivating for their students, regardless of background. This will help to ensure
that the overall purpose of the AP program is being accomplished.
Limitations and Delimitations
Research for this study focused on the teachers’ role in closing the gap in AP exam pass
rates at AHS. The study collected data via teacher interviews, a single student focus group, and
document analysis. It is important to take note of the limitations and delimitations of this study.
The stakeholder of focus was chosen because teachers have the biggest role and most control
over closing the gap in pass rates. Teachers are responsible for implementation of curriculum and
instruction, and therefore, have the greatest impact. Teacher participants were limited to current
AP teachers at AHS. However, there are only 11 AP teachers at AHS, and the author of this
study was one of them. Thus, the already small population of potential participants was
automatically made smaller. Furthermore, due to the small population size, surveys could not be
conducted as it would not have been possible to reach saturation.
Students were also asked to participate in data collection for this study via a focus group.
However, eligibility for participation in the student focus group was limited to students who
were currently enrolled at AHS and currently or previously enrolled in an AP course.
Furthermore, participant recruitment and participation was limited to digital platforms as a result
of the COVID pandemic and associated social distancing requirements. Additionally, data
collection, and the study itself, was limited to one of three high schools within the district. This is
due to the fact that each school’s data and progress towards mission achievement is different.
Therefore, the recommendations made in this study may not transfer to the needs of the other

116
schools in the district. Finally, despite the use of data-driven methods and a third-party
investigator during data collection, it is impossible to guarantee that this study is devoid of the
author’s bias.
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research on closing the gap in AP exam pass rates at AHS
should begin with data collection from the remaining three stakeholders. Although a student
focus group was used in this study, further research could yield more thorough data to address
critical behaviors needed to achieve the organization’s mission. A focus on the remaining three
stakeholders would allow for a more complete gap analysis. Recommendations would then fully
encompass the needs of the organization.
Additionally, although the needs of the three high schools in the district are likely
different as they report different data, conducting research at each school would allow for access
to a larger population of potential AP teacher participants. This, in turn, would allow for data to
thoroughly be collected for all four critical behaviors identified in the study. Also, this would
incorporate district leadership as a potential stakeholder and reveal assets and needs at the district
level that may be impacting each school’s gap in AP exam pass rates.
Conclusion
This study examined the requirements to close the gap in AP exam pass rates at Asgard
High School. This study was initiated in 2020, when the organization established the goal of
improving the gap in AP exam pass rates by May 2022. This study used the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework to examine the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences contributing to the identified gap. Through data collection, needs and
assets were identified in association with assumed influences. Recommendations were made to

117
maintain identified assets and resolve identified needs. A training program was designed and
recommended based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016). These recommendations have
been carefully crafted to assist the stakeholder of focus, and thereby, the organization, in closing
the gap in AP exam pass rates. Without the implementation of the recommendations, the gap in
AP exam pass rates will remain and continue to prevent the organization from achieving its
mission. It is, thus, important to emphasize that the recommendations made in Chapter Five are
crucial, not only as supports for the teachers or the organization, but for the students the
organization aims to prepare for college and career after high school.

118
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Appendix A: Teacher Recruitment Email
Dear AP Teachers,

The following email has been sent to you on behalf of Lindsey Vorndran, a doctoral candidate in
the Educational Leadership program at the University of Southern California (USC) Rossier
School of Education, who is completing her dissertation under my guidance.

You are being asked to participate in a research study focusing on closing the gap in AP pass
rates at Northview High School. If you consent, you will be asked to participate in an individual
interview approximately 30 minutes in length. You will not be compensated for your time.
However, your participation will provide insight into the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences contributing to this gap.

Please review the attached information sheet for details on the study and data collection
procedure.

If you would like to participate, please reply to this email with your preferred method of contact.
To avoid coercion, a third-party data collector will contact you to arrange a date and time for the
interview. Please look for an email from Bryan Wierzchucki, a teacher at San Dimas High
School and doctoral candidate at USC, who will act as the third-party data collector.

Thank you in advance for your time and potential participation in this study. I greatly appreciate
you and your support. If you have any questions, please email me at: kenneth.yates@usc.edu

Sincerely,

Dr. Kenneth Yates
Professor of Clinical Education

124
Appendix B: Student Recruitment Email
Dear Parents/Guardians of AP Students:

The following email has been sent to you on behalf of Lindsey Vorndran, a doctoral candidate in
the Educational Leadership program at the University of Southern California (USC) Rossier
School of Education, who is completing her dissertation under my guidance.

Your child is being asked to participate in a research study focusing on closing the gap in AP
pass rates at Northview High School. If you consent, your child will be asked to participate in a
focus group approximately 1-hour in length. Your child will not be compensated for his/her time.
However, his/her participation will provide insight into the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences contributing to this gap.

If you and your child consent to participation, please review and sign the attached Informed
Consent form, and return it to: (insert Secretary name here).

Additionally, please reply to this email with your or your child’s preferred method of contact. To
avoid coercion, a third-party data collector will contact you with details regarding the date and
time of the focus group. Please look for an email from Bryan Wierzchucki, a teacher at San
Dimas High School and doctoral candidate at USC, who will act as the third-party data collector.

Thank you in advance for your time and potential participation in this study. I greatly appreciate
you and your support. If you have any questions, please email me at: kenneth.yates@usc.edu

Sincerely,

Dr. Kenneth Yates
Professor of Clinical Education

125
Appendix C: Teacher Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: Teachers’ Role in Improving Advanced Placement Exam Scores

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Lindsey Vorndran

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This
document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about
anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine the teachers’ role in and influence on closing
the gap in AP pass rates at Northview High School. The goal is to bring the current
school-wide pass rate up from 33% to 100%. We hope to learn where the gaps are in
an effort to make changes to increase the school completion rate. You are invited as a
possible participant because you are a current or former Advanced Placement teacher
at Northview High School. About 15 teacher participants will take part in individual
interviews for this study.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to:
1. Read through this document in its entirety and ask clarifying questions as
needed.
2. Provide your contact information so that the data collector, someone unaffiliated
with Northview High School and the Covina-Valley Unified School District, can
contact you to arrange a date and time for your interview.
3. The interview will be conducted using Zoom.
4. The interview will last approximately 30 minutes.
5. The interview will be recorded and transcribed. Following the transcription, the
recording will be deleted or erased. Your identity will be removed from the
transcription, so no one in connection with the study will know who you are.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

You will not be compensated for your participation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

126
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.

Your interview will be recorded. After the interview, the data collector will transcribe the
recording, removing your identity during the process. Once the transcription is complete,
the recording will be deleted or erased.

We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law.
However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential
information about you. Efforts will be made to limit the use and disclosure of your
personal information, including research study and medical records, to people
who are required to review this information. We may publish the information from
this study in journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your
name.
The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) may
review your records. Organizations that may also inspect and copy your
information include Covina-Valley Unified School District.

Your data will be on a password protected computer with access being limited to the
principal investigator and will be stored for a period of time per institutional policy.

Your information that is collected as part of this research will be used or distributed for
future research studies without your additional informed consent. Any information that
identifies you (such as your name) will be removed from your private information or
samples before being shared with others.

The investigators are required to report certain cases with the potential of serious harm
to you, or others, such as suicidality or child abuse, to the appropriate authorities.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Ms. Lindsey Vorndran via
email at vorndran@usc.edu or Kenneth Yates, Ed.D. via email at
kenneth.yates@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

127
Appendix D: Student Informed Consent Form
INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH
Study Title: Teachers’ Role in Improving Advanced Placement Exam Scores

Principal Investigator: Lindsey Vorndran

Department: USC Rossier School of Education

INTRODUCTION

If you are reading this form as the parent/legal guardian of a participant, “you”
refers to your child.

We invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to
read the consent form. You may want to discuss it with your family, friends, or your
personal doctor. If you find any of the language difficult to understand, please ask
questions. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. A copy of the
signed form will be provided to you for your records.

KEY INFORMATION

The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.

1. Being in this research study is voluntary–it is your choice.

2. You are being asked to take part in this study because you are a current
or former AP Student and can provide knowledge about the current AP
program at Northview High School from a student’s perspective. The
purpose of this study is to identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences contributing to the gap in AP pass rates. Your
participation in this study will last for about one hour. Procedures will
include participating in an hour-long group discussion referred to as a
focus group via Zoom. Upon completion of the discussion, nothing
further will be asked of you.

3. There are risks from participating in this study. The most common risks
include uneasiness answering certain questions and a breach of
confidentiality. More detailed information about the risks of this study can
be found under the “Risk and Discomfort” section.

4. You will not receive any direct benefit from taking part in this study.
However, your participation in this study may help us identify the

128
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to the
gap in AP pass rates.

5. You may decide not to participate in this research study; there are no
other activities that can serve as a substitute.

DETAILED INFORMATION
PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine the teachers’ role in and influence on closing
the gap in AP pass rates at Northview High School. The goal is to bring the current
school-wide pass rate up from 33% to 100%. We hope to learn where the gaps are in
an effort to make changes to increase the school completion rate. You are invited as a
possible participant because you are a current or former Advanced Placement student
at Northview High School. About 20 student participants will take part in the focus group
for this study.

PROCEDURES

If you decide to take part, this is what will happen:
1. The school will reach out to parents asking for student volunteers. If your
parents consent, they will ask you if you would like to participate.
2. If you decide you want to participate, your parents will be asked to return a
copy of this form signed by them and you.
3. A data collector, unaffiliated with your school, will contact you and your
parents with details regarding the focus group date and time.
4. The focus group will be conducted using Zoom. With your consent, your
parents may choose to attend, although their attendance is not required.
5. The focus group will last approximately 1-hour.
6. The focus group will be recorded and transcribed. Following the
transcription, the recording will be deleted or erased. Your identity will be
removed from the transcription, so no one in connection with the study will
know who you are.

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

Possible risks and discomforts you could experience during this study include:
1. The risk of a breach of confidentiality. There is a small risk that people who are
not connected with this study will learn your identity or your personal information.
2. The risk that you might experience some discomfort in discussing your
experiences as an AP Student.
3. The risk that you might experience some discomfort in discussing your teachers’
practices as AP teachers.

129
4. Some questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can choose to
skip or stop answering any questions at any point during the focus group.
5. There may be other risks that are not known at this time.
BENEFITS
There are no direct benefits to you from taking part in this study. However, your
participation in this study may help us identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences contributing to the gap in AP pass rates.
PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law.
However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information
about you. Efforts will be made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal
information, including research study and medical records, to people who are required
to review this information. We may publish the information from this study in journals or
present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name.
The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) may review
your records. Organizations that may also inspect and copy your information include
Covina-Valley Unified School District.

Your data will be on a password protected computer with access being limited to the
principal investigator and will be stored for a period of time per institutional policy.

Your information that is collected as part of this research will be used or distributed for
future research studies without your additional informed consent. Any information that
identifies you (such as your name) will be removed from your private information or
samples before being shared with others.

The investigators are required to report certain cases with the potential of serious harm
to you, or others, such as suicidality or child abuse, to the appropriate authorities.
ALTERNATIVES
An alternative would be to not participate in this study.
PAYMENTS
You will not be compensated for your participation in this research.
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

It is your choice whether or not to participate. If you choose to participate, you may
change your mind and leave the study at any time. Refusal to participate or stopping
your participation will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise
entitled. If you stop being in the research, already collected data may not be removed

130
from the study database. You will be asked whether the investigator can continue to
collect data from your records. If you agree, this data will be handled the same as the
research data. No new information will be collected about you or from you by the study
team without your permission.

CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions, concerns, complaints, please contact Ms. Lindsey Vorndran
via email at vorndran@usc.edu or Kenneth Yates, Ed.D. via email at
kenneth.yates@usc.edu.

This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The
IRB is a research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect
the rights and welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions
about your rights as a research participant or you have complaints about the
research. You may contact the IRB at (323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

STATEMENT OF CONSENT

I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been
given a chance to ask questions. All my questions have been answered. By signing this
form, I am agreeing to take part in this study.

Minor/Youth Participant (Ages 14-17 years)
If your child agrees to participate, have your child sign here.

______________________________________________________________________
Name of Child Child’s Signature Date Signed (and Time*)

______________________________________________________________________
Name of Parent Signature Date Signed (and Time*)

131
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol
Teachers’ Role in Improving Advanced Placement Exam Scores:
Interview Protocol - Teachers

Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I know that your time is valuable and
appreciate your willingness to allow me to take some of it.
Before we begin the interview, I’d like to give you a brief overview of the study. This interview
is being conducted on behalf of Lindsey Vorndran for her dissertation study examining the gap
in AP pass rates. We are particularly interested in teachers’ perspectives and the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors to consider when recommending solutions for closing this
gap. We are interviewing AP teachers to learn more about this topic.
Have you read the informational sheet provided to you? Great, I would like to reiterate after our
interview, I will remove any identifying information from the transcript and delete the video
files. Lindsey will only receive the transcripts with your identifying information removed.
Are there any questions or concerns before we begin?
Interview Questions
1. How does what you are teaching in your course align with the AP exam?
2. Tell me how you teach the required content and skills outlined by the College Board for
your course.
3. How do you find or create practice exams that are aligned to the AP exam for your
course?
4. Tell me how you recognize gaps in your own knowledge of the content and skills for the
course.
5. Tell me about the importance of practice exams as measures of student mastery and
validation for your teaching practice.
6. Tell me about your confidence with assessing students using practice exams aligned to
your AP exam.

At this point, we’re a little over halfway through the interview. Now we’re going to switch the
conversation over to the resources available to you.
7. Tell me about the resources you have access to in terms of professional development,
direct teacher time, etc. to prepare for your course.
8. Describe for me what the school-wide efforts are in preparing for AP (i.e. examining data
as a staff, in departments, in PLCs, etc.).
a. Is there a culture of doing this in the school?
9. Tell me about how previous year exam data is used to reflect and plan for the upcoming
school year.

132
10. How do you feel about having two measures of success, one that is stipulated by the AP
course and one that is stipulated by our own organizational structure?
11. How do you employ strategies to adapt your teaching to the individual differences of
your students, which may include cultural differences or differences in ability?
a. i.e. prior knowledge, self-efficacy, or cognitive ability?

Thank you so much for your time. That is the end of our needed interview items. However, if
you have the time and would like to continue this conversation, I do have some other interview
questions I would like to ask you.

If they are willing to continue, please ask as many of these as possible:
12. How do you use the exam score report in your own instruction?
13. As it pertains to teaching the content and skills for your AP course, when you think about
the success, or lack of success, of your students, what do you think about?
14. How has this new platform of communication because of the COVID era impacted
student performance?
If they decide to stop after #11, then please continue here:
Conclusion
Thank you so much for allowing me to interview you. I genuinely appreciate your candor and the
fact that you took time out of your day to help with this study. Your responses are going to be a
great contribution. If I find that there is a need for follow-up questions, would you mind if I
reach out to you via email to do so? Again, thank you for participating in this study.

133
Appendix F: Student Focus Group Protocol
Teachers’ Role in Improving Advanced Placement Exam Scores
Focus Group Protocol - Students

Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I know that your time is valuable and
appreciate your willingness to allow me to take some of it.
Before we begin the focus group, I’d like to give you a brief overview of the study. This
interview is being conducted on behalf of Lindsey Vorndran for her dissertation study examining
the gap in AP pass rates. At this point, we are particularly interested in students’ perspectives
when recommending solutions for closing this gap. We are interviewing AP students to learn
more about this topic.
Thank you for sending your signed consent form. I would like to reiterate that after this focus
group, I will remove any identifying information from the transcript and delete the video files.
Ms. Vorndran (Lindsey) will only receive the transcripts with your identifying information
removed.
Are there any questions or concerns before we begin?
Focus Group Questions
1. To what degree has participation in the AP program affected your perception of self as a
scholar or learner?
2. Why did you feel you wanted to participate in AP courses?
3. Do you feel that you are getting the kind of educational experience that you thought you
would? If not, why not?
Conclusion
Thank you so much for allowing me to meet with you all today. I genuinely appreciate your
candor and the fact that you took time out of your day to help with this study. Your responses are
going to be a great contribution. If I find that there is a need for follow-up questions, would you
mind if I reach out to you via email to do so? Again, thank you for participating in this study.

134
Appendix G: Immediate Evaluation Tool

Context: This training has been designed to support AP teachers with implementing the critical
behaviors needed to close the gap in AP pass rates. This survey has been designed to gauge the
effectiveness of the program.

On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following
statements. The scale ranges from 1 being strongly disagree to 5 being strongly agree.

1. The content was easy to follow. 1 2 3 4 5
2. The instructor was engaging and held
my attention.
1 2 3 4 5
3. The information presented in the
training will help me do my job better.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I was encouraged to participate
throughout the training.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I am confident that I can apply what I
learned in this training to my teaching
practice.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I understand where I can find
additional support and resources upon
returning to my job.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I am clear about what is expected of
me when I return to my job as a result
of this training.
1 2 3 4 5

8. What have you learned from today’s training that you plan to implement immediately?

9. What suggestions do you have for improving this training for future participants?

135
Appendix H: Delayed Evaluation Tool

Context: This training has been designed to support AP teachers with implementing the critical
behaviors needed to close the gap in AP pass rates. This survey has been designed to gauge the
effectiveness of the program after a period of time has passed and participants have had the
opportunity to implement what they learned.

On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following
statements. The scale ranges from 1 being strongly disagree to 5 being strongly agree.

1. I have had the opportunity in my job to
use what was learned during this
training.
1 2 3 4 5
2. In hindsight, this training was a good
use of my time.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I have successfully applied what was
learned in this training to my job.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I have received additional support and
resources in order to apply what was
learned during this training to my
teaching practice.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I have seen improvements in student
mastery in my AP class as a result of
this training.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I have contributed to the mission of
my organization as a result of this
training.
1 2 3 4 5

7. How did you use what was learned during this training in your class?

8. If you are not using what was learned during this training, why not?

9. What suggestions do you have for improving this training for future participants?

136
Appendix I: Visual Representation of Data Findings
Figure I1
Representation of Data Prior to Program Implementation

Figure I2
Representation of Data After Program Implementation

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study used the gap analysis framework to examine the gap in AP exam pass rates at Asgard High School (AHS). The purpose of this study was to analyze the teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that were contributing to the gap in AP exam pass rates. This study made recommendations to improve the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that were contributing to this gap. This study collected qualitative data from six AP teacher interviews and a focus group of 10 AP students. Additionally, AP teachers provided artifacts for the purposes of document analysis to triangulate the data. After collection, data was coded in order to identify trends in responses and inform solutions for closing the identified gap. Findings from this study revealed that teachers do not have all of the conceptual and metacognitive knowledge needed to align instruction and practice exam opportunities to the AP content and skills for their respective courses. Additionally, findings revealed that there are organizational factors preventing teachers from carrying out their role in closing the gap in AP pass rates. Therefore, the recommendation was to implement a program based on the New World Kirkpatrick model. Based on the findings, additional resources and organizational supports in the form of professional developments and regular, strategic support from school leadership are recommended. These recommendations are designed to bridge the gap in low AP exam pass rates, and thereby, help students from underprivileged groups better access higher education.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Vorndran, Lindsey Marie (author)

Core Title Teachers’ role in improving advanced placement exam scores: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2021-05

Publication Date 05/07/2023

Defense Date 04/19/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advanced placement,AP exam,AP exam pass rates,AP students,AP teachers,education,OAI-PMH Harvest,Secondary Education,Students,Teachers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Burciaga, Manuel (committee member), Kaplan, Sandra (committee member)

Creator Email lmvorndran@gmail.com,vorndran@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112720115

Unique identifier UC112720115

Identifier etd-VorndranLi-9609.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-VorndranLi-9609

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Vorndran, Lindsey Marie

Type texts

Source 20210510-wayne-usctheses-batch-836-shoaf (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu