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Kingmakers of Oakland: systematic change for African American male achievement in California

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Kingmakers of Oakland: Systematic Change for African American Male Achievement in
California
by
Natalie Nicole Keithina Hart

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2021

© Copyright by Natalie Nicole Keithina Hart 2021
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Natalie Nicole Keithina Hart certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Rudy Castruita
Alan Green
David Cash, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2021

iv
Abstract
Meeting the learning needs of African American male students with varying cultures and
balancing the issues society places on them presents challenges for many teachers. To date, there
is limited research on the factors that influence African American males’ graduation rates. An
exploration of programs comprised of a teaching staff that mirrors African American males and
how they implement instructional strategies that support these students’ learning needs is missing
from the research. This study provides insight into the African American Male Achievement
(AAMA) Program and Kingmakers of Oakland to highlight their impact on African American
male achievement in Oakland, California. This study investigates the innovative Manhood
Development Program curriculum and its focus on culturally affirming pedagogy. This study
covered the life experiences of African American male students and the impact of the AAMA
Program and the Kingmakers of Oakland. This is a qualitative case study. Interview participants
were three AAMA program leaders and three alumni. Survey participants were alumni. Factors
that impact pathways to graduation for African American males were investigated using
interviews. The results of the study provided a clearer picture of what the program does to raise
the bar for African American male students. Shedding light on a model, race-based, and gender-
exclusive classroom will inspire advocates of education reform looking to combat the issues
troubling our education system, especially when it comes to our African American male
students. This study provides insight into the effective strategies instructors developed to sustain
a model program that is now being replicated in other school districts.
Keywords: African American male achievement, Black boys, student achievement,
Kingmakers of Oakland, race-based, gender-exclusive classrooms, Black joy, transformative
learning

v
Dedication
To the academic advisor I met with my first quarter at the University of Washington, who told
me “my people don’t do well in school.” Thank you for lighting a fire in me to become a shining
example of “my people.” You’re right, we don’t do well in school, we do exceptional! I look
forward to our reunion one day. You can now address me as Dr. Hart.

vi
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I am extremely grateful to my dissertation chair, Dr. David Cash and
for his invaluable advice, continuous support, and patience during my Ed.D study. His immense
knowledge and plentiful experience encouraged me during my academic research. Thank you,
Dr. Rudy Castruita and Dr. Alan Green, for your technical support on my study. I would like to
thank Dr.Veridiana Chavarin for her mentorship and Angie Guerro for giving me my first job on
campus! Thank you to the SAAS department in USC Athletics for being a support for me and
pushing me to be great, especially Dr. Cory Buckner, Dr. Martin Jauregui, Dr. Kevin Bolen, Dr.
Howard Croom, and my sorority sister, Cheryl Taplin. It is with their mentorship and support
that I was able to give back to students on campus. I would like to express my gratitude to my
parents, Martha and Keith Hart, my brothers, Nicholas and Jonathan Hart, my sister, Irene
Torres, and her beautiful children, Angel, Richie, Daniel, Justyn, Jacob, Mikey, Issac, Priscilla,
and Anthony. A special shout out to my Brother-in-Law, Richard, who we lost on March
20,2020, just as Covid-19 caused a global shut down. Without your tremendous understanding
and encouragement in the past few years, it would have been impossible for me to complete my
study. You are all my motivation and my WHY! Remember to be bold in the face of adversity!
Finally, I’d like to thank the folks that checked on me daily, reviewed chapters, and pushed me to
the finish line, especially Dr. Ikoko Mikle, Dr.Patricia Salazar, Dr. Cynthia Villarreal, and Dr.
Christian Love. I am grateful that you went out of your way to do that for me. In closing, a final
shout out to Ana Parada and Garrett Mar, you gave me a little piece of Washington whenever I
was missing home! I have some amazing friends that mean so much to me and if you helped me
on my path, just know that I love you and will never forget your impact in my life. This was for
all of us and my hometown, Tacoma, Washington, we made it! Eastside Tacoma kids got it!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 6
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ........................................................................ 6
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 10
Segregation ....................................................................................................................... 10
Reform Strategies.............................................................................................................. 14
Mass Incarceration ............................................................................................................ 15
Theoretical Frameworks ................................................................................................... 17
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 21
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 25
Purpose of Study ............................................................................................................... 25

viii
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 25
Selection of the Population ............................................................................................... 26
Design Summary ............................................................................................................... 27
Instrumentation and Protocols .......................................................................................... 29
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 30
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 31
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 32
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 34
Demographics of Survey and Interview Participants........................................................ 35
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 40
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 40
Coding of Data .................................................................................................................. 40
Findings............................................................................................................................. 41
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 65
Findings............................................................................................................................. 67
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 75
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 76
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 78
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to School Districts Considering the Kingmakers
of Oakland and the Manhood Development Curriculum ...................................... 80
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 80
References ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Appendix A: Interview Cover Sheet ............................................................................................. 88

ix
Appendix B: African American Male Achievement Program Alum Survey ............................... 92
Appendix C: General Recruitment Email Cover Letter ................................................................ 96

x
List of Tables
Table 1: The Effects of Social Comparison. 21
Table 2: Survey and Interview Selection Criteria of African American Male Alumni, Staff,
and Administration 27
Table 3: Barriers African American male students faced in school while working towards
graduation 57

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Triangulation of the Data 32
Figure 2: Respondents’ Annual Income Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3: Involvement in the AAMA/Kingmakers of Oakland Program 36
Figure 4: Years of Involvement in AAMA program 37
Figure 5: Answers to Involvement in the AAMA Program and Graduation 37
Figure 6: Highest Degree Earned 38
Figure 7: High Schools from which Respondents Graduated 39
Figure 8: Years of Participation 43

xii
List of Abbreviations
AAMA African American Male Achievement

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
“Being Black and being male is a powerful position, so much so, that it can be
intimidating to others. Those who feel intimidated have historically found ways to oppress
African Americans.”
– Chris Chatmon, AAMA Program executive director, Oakland Unified School District.
To combat systemic structures that attack African Americans’ social mobility, we must
dismantle the system from the inside out. Major structural changes and reforms must take place
in the political economy of the United States in order to create equal educational opportunities
for African American youth and other youth who are victims of institutionalized racism, poverty,
and marginalization (Givens et al., 2019). African American male students represent one of the
highest impoverished populations and are lacking the basic needs to be successful in our
classrooms. Institutionalized racism is still woven in our country’s laws, and African American
males consistently show up last when it comes to school success rates.
Several key proponents of Afrocentric education in Oakland were instrumental in
promoting the significance of identity and culture and, by extension, supporting the academic
achievement of Black students (Givens et al., 2019). In 2010, with support from Oakland Unified
School District (OUSD) Superintendent Tony Smith, the Office of African American Male
Achievement was established with the mission to create the systems, structures, and conditions
that guarantee success for all African American male students in the district (Givens et al.,2019).
This office was an expression of a long history of Oakland’s educational activism and brought
stakeholders like community activists, parents, religious leaders, and teachers together to create
the first school district in the United States with a dedicated office designed specifically to
address the needs of African American male students. Oakland’s rich history of activism,
2

community engagement, and “unapologetically Black” culture served as a powerful catalyst and
foundation to continue the work of Black educational excellence.
“No task is more urgent for racial justice advocates today than ensuring that America’s
current racial caste system is its last!” (Alexander, 2012, p.19). It has been said that access to an
equitable education is the civil rights issue of this generation. With large system changes in a
place like the African American Male Achievement (AAMA) Program, we can decrease the
divide between our African American students and their White counterparts and provide a
pathway for social mobility and an equitable education system for all.
Background of the Problem
Watson (2018) found that the vulnerability of Black males and the risks they face as a
result have been particularly evident in education for years. On all the indicators of academic
achievement, educational attainment, and school success, African American males are
distinguished from other segments of the American population by their consistent clustering in
categories associated with failure and marginalization (Watson, 2018). They are overrepresented
among students who are disciplined, suspended, and expelled and underrepresented among those
in honors and Advanced Placement courses or who are labeled as gifted. These are not new
patterns. In fact, these patterns have been in place in schools throughout the United States for so
long that, in most places, the problem has been normalized and accepted as an unfortunate aspect
of the status quo (Watson, 2018).
In 1995, the Oakland Board of Education formed a task force to investigate the academic
performance of African American students in the district. They found that the district was ill-
equipped to effectively educate Black students (Givens et al., 2019). Black male students in the
district had high rates of chronic absence and persistently performed lower on standardized tests
3

than their White counterparts. African American male students also face disproportionately harsh
school discipline; in the 2011–2012 academic term, African American males comprised 16% of
the population but accounted for 41% of students who received one or more suspensions (Givens
et al., 2019). By using data, the AAMA Program identified entry points into schools, networks,
and central offices to “increase equity, improve cultural competency, and implement practices
that support African American students” (Givens et al., 2019, p.21) Dr. Vajra Watson (2018)
encompasses the current state of African American students in our United States education
system with this idea:
What happens when we ask students to inadvertently choose between who they are as
human beings and who we expect them to be as students? The question is like a loaded
gun, especially in most low-income schools where disconnections between educators and
children are vast, even detrimental. To put it another way, if your education teaches you
to internalize your own oppression, it is injurious (xv-xvi).
By conducting this research on programs that are equitably serving students who have
been historically left behind, educators can learn how the education system can implement
innovative programs that lead to true equity in our schools.
Statement of the Problem
The American education system is failing students from the most impoverished
backgrounds. African American males consistently show up last in all testing categories and are
disproportionately disciplined in comparison to their White counterparts (Gramlich, 2019).
According to the Gramlich (2019), another way of considering racial and ethnic differences in
the nation’s prison population is by looking at the imprisonment rate, which tallies the number of
prisoners per 100,000 people. In 2017, there were 1,549 Black prisoners for every 100,000 Black
4

adults, nearly six times the imprisonment rate for Whites (272 per 100,000) and nearly double
the rate for Hispanics 823 per 100,000; (Gramlich, 2019).
Alexander (2012) found that a large percentage of African Americans are not free to
move up at all, not just because they lack opportunity, attend poor schools, or are plagued by
poverty. African Americans are barred by law from doing so (Alexander, 2012). Major
institutions with which they meet are designed to prevent their mobility. The current system of
control prevents African Americans from accessing mainstream society and economy by
operating through our criminal justice institutions. This system functions more like a caste
system than a system of crime control. Like Jim Crow (and slavery), mass incarceration operates
as a tightly networked system of laws, policies, customs, and institutions that operate collectively
to ensure the subordinate state of a group defined largely by race (Alexander, 2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide insight into the lives of African American male
students and their experiences with a program outside of school designed for them in a holistic
and culturally relevant manner. This study covered these students’ life experiences and the
program’s impact on their pathways to high school graduation. Surveys provided demographic
data on alumni. Interviews were conducted to understand the formal and informal learning
experiences of program leaders and alumni.
This study examined the life experiences of African American male students in Oakland
and how their success trajectories have positively changed because of the AAMA Program. The
program components and its culturally affirming pedagogy changed the way innovative
leadership is viewed and perpetuated the idea of true equity in our school systems. The Manhood
Development curriculum is woven into the school day and provides a space for young men to
5

engage in courageous conversations with leaders who mirror them and their experiences.
Unpacking race and culture in schools allows us to see how our students can benefit from
learning about themselves by being empowered and affirmed in their own identities.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What strategies are utilized in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland that support the completion of a high school diploma in the
Oakland Unified School District?
2. What barriers did students in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland have to overcome to reach graduation from Oakland Unified
School District?
3. How does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers of
Oakland create, sustain, and evaluate the effectiveness of its strategies?
This study explored the journey of OUSD students who are involved in the AAMA
Program and Kingmakers of Oakland and how their involvement in this program changed their
educational success trajectory. It examined the roles of African American males in K-12
educational leadership, Oakland’s district-wide adaptation of this program, and its effect on
African American male students. Through a transformative worldview, this study examined how
African American males overcome barriers to develop a new sense of self-worth and purpose
through involvement in this program. Transformative research provides a platform for
participants to improve their lives by focusing on inequities based on gender, race, ethnicity,
disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class to explain why the problems of
oppression, domination, and power relationships exist (Creswell, 2014). The participants’
6

experiences were determined by utilizing a narrative analysis approach, compiling their
summative experience in high school as they reached graduation.
Significance of the Study
This study provides insight into the AAMA Program in Oakland, California. This study
examined the Manhood Development curriculum and its focus on culturally affirming pedagogy.
Shedding light on a model, race-based, and gender-exclusive classroom inform advocates of
education reform regarding solutions to combat the issues troubling our education system,
especially when it comes to our African American male students.
This study proposes a solution to failures in urban public schools and other complex
social and educational issues. Stakeholders like teachers, principals, and other district officials
will benefit from learning about the AAMA Program and how a district-wide initiative raised the
expectations of African American males and their success trajectories. This program aims to
push African American males to persist in school and ultimately reach graduation. The
program’s model has been the catalyst for programs across the nation to transform school
systems into equitable foundations for all students.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to African American male students who were involved in the
AAMA Program in the OUSD in Oakland, California. Their self-reported personal narratives as
young men of color combating the harsh environments of Oakland were collected to give the
most authentic view of their lives. Interview questions related to perceptions of life and the
education system in Oakland and participation in the AAMA Program were limited to the
relevance of the participants’ personal experiences.
7

This study was delimited to African American males, a specific geographic region, and a
set number of survey and interview respondents.
Definition of Terms
• Achievement Gap: Closely related to the learning gap and opportunity gap, the term
achievement gap refers to any significant and persistent disparity in academic
performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, such as
White students and minorities, for example, or students from higher-income and lower-
income households (Great Schools Partnership, 2013a).
• Culturally Relevant Education: a conceptual framework that recognizes the importance
of including students’ cultural backgrounds, interests, and lived experiences in all aspects
of teaching and learning within the classroom and across the school. Culturally relevant
education is viewed as critical in improving student engagement and achievement, and
college readiness and success for all youth, particularly for youth of color (Milner, 2017).
• Cultural consonance: The level of an individual’s or group’s knowledge, use, and
synchronicity with the cultural norms or a community or institution (Tredway et al.,
2015).
• Educational Debt: Comprises historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral components.
Ladson-Billings (2006) coined the term “education debt” to describe the cumulative
impact of fewer resources and other harm directed at students of color.
• Equity: In education, the term equity refers to the principle of fairness. While it is often
used interchangeably with the related principle of equality, equity encompasses a wide
variety of educational models, programs, and strategies that may be considered fair, but
not necessarily equal. It is has been said that “equity is the process; equality is the
8

outcome,” given that equity—what is fair and just—may not, in the process of educating
students, reflect strict equality—what is applied, allocated, or distributed equally ( Great
Schools Partnership, 2013b).
• Equity Trap: The possibility of relying on a constricting view of the situation that limits
the ability to take responsibility for achieving outcomes for students. The equity traps
include deficit thinking or conversations, erasure (acting as if one does not see racial
categories), the gaze (diminishing expectations in racially diverse schools and keeping
peer teachers “inline” in terms of what is expected of teachers), and paralogical beliefs
like attributing low performance to external factors by not assuming personal
responsibility (Leadership Connection Rubric, 2017).
• Opportunity Gap: Closely related to “achievement gap” and “learning gap,” the term
opportunity gap refers to the ways in which race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, English
proficiency, community wealth, familial situations, or other factors contribute to or
perpetuate lower educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment for certain groups
of students (Great Schools Partnership, 2013c).
• Stereotype Threat refers to the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an
individual’s racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group. The term was coined by the
researchers Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson, who performed experiments that showed
that Black college students performed worse on standardized tests than their White peers
when they were reminded, before taking the tests, that their racial group tends to do
poorly on such exams. When their race was not emphasized, however, Black students
performed similarly to their White peers (Great Schools Partnership, 2013d).
• Transformative Research Paradigm: Set of assumptions and procedures used in research:
9

o Underlying assumptions that rely on ethical stances of inclusion and challenging
oppressive social structures.
o An entry process into the community that is designed to build trust and make
goals and strategies transparent.
o Dissemination of findings that encourage the use of the results to enhance social
justice and human rights (Creswell, 2014).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provided an overview of the
study and introduced data to present the causes of hindrances to success and persistence in K-12
for African American male students in California. This chapter also includes definitions of terms
used in this study. Chapter Two presents a literature review in the following four areas: culturally
affirming pedagogy, race and gender-based classrooms, effective instructional practices for
culturally diverse students, and race and education in the United States. Chapter Three describes
the methodology selected for this study and includes sample and population selection, interview
questions, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four is a report of the research findings.
Chapter Five is composed of a summary of findings, implications for practice, conclusions, and
recommendations. References and appendices are included in the conclusion of this study.
10

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
African American males are disproportionately overrepresented among students who are
disciplined, suspended, expelled and underrepresented among those in honors and Advanced
Placement courses or labeled as gifted. The re-segregation of American public schools has a
significant influence on the achievement gap, civil rights equity issues, political and legislative
agendas, and local and national economies. It is important to study this issue to shed light on
how a model, race-based, and gender-exclusive classroom serves as a solution to issues troubling
our education system, especially when it comes to our African American male students.
In this chapter, I will first review the effects of segregation on African American students
and the effects of “White flight.” I will emphasize integration as a reform strategy in our
American education system. I will then review the literature on mass incarceration and zero-
tolerance national policy changes. After that, I will address the importance of race-based gender-
based classrooms and end the chapter by presenting two theoretical frameworks.
Segregation
Since the founding of the American School system, African American students were seen
as inferior and unable to achieve scholastic gains in the same way as White students. It was
believed that an inferior education is what an inferior population deserves. Therefore, African
American students were separated. This was not the initial intention of segregation, but it was the
result (De la Roca et al., 2014). Segregation across neighborhoods need not necessarily be
troubling. If caused by different groups affirmatively choosing to live in different neighborhoods,
with no broader negative consequences, then there might be little reason for concern. However,
segregation is troubling if it is caused by discrimination or the actions of sellers, landlords,
11

realtors, and lenders to restrict the choices of underrepresented people and keep them out of a
White neighborhood (De la Roca et al., 2014).
Noting the decline in segregation between Blacks and Whites over the past several
decades, some recent work argues that racial segregation is no longer a concern in the 21st
century. Discriminatory barriers have developed over time from blatantly excluding people of
color from White neighborhoods to subtly leaving out information about the number of units
available or taking longer to respond to families that do not fall into the demographic that fits the
wealthier neighborhood (De la Roca et al., 2014). Studies suggest that racial differences in
income and wealth, differences in search patterns, and preferences for racial composition all
contribute to racial segregation in neighborhoods today. Many White families refuse to move
into integrated and largely Black neighborhoods due to race-based stereotypes they hold about
the quality of life they may receive by living in these neighborhoods and interacting with the
people in them (De la Roca et al., 2014). Limited opportunities to neighborhoods outside of the
economic reach of many Black families have also shaped the access to schooling for Black
students.
Segregation Today
Today the American Education system is slowly reflecting the segregated classrooms
from decades ago. The facts that remain clear: White and Black segregation has declined over
the past few decades, Latino and Asian segregation has remained unchanged, Blacks and Latinos
continue to live in more disadvantaged neighborhoods, and they have the most access to lower-
performing schools and exposed to more crime than their White counterparts (De la Roca et al.,
2014). How we provide equal educational opportunity to an increasingly diverse population of
students is one of the principal concerns facing the country today. As a nation, however, we are
12

currently allowing a confining system of school district boundary lines to dictate the geographic
distribution of learning opportunities (Genevieve Siegel-Hawley, 2020).
Currently, access to quality schools and resources, employment opportunities, dependable
transportation, municipal services, exposure to pollution, and tax rates differ across
neighborhood lines. Some of America’s largest cities are divided into racially and
socioeconomically different spaces which offer very different services to their residents (Siegel-
Hawley, 2020). This leads to segregation in schools based on a fight for the best resources.
Segregation in Schools
Many students of color in the current U.S education system are not often reinforced with
positive and/or high expectations from their teachers or administrators. Many of these students
must carry the burden of stereotype threat. Members of minoritized groups know they are labeled
with a stigma or stereotype that they are deemed inferior intellectually to Whites and Asians,
they perform in line with the stereotype: badly (Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016). Black students in all-
Black schools suffer a double such reminder. First, they suffer the damage the Supreme Court
warned of in Brown vs. Board of Education, internalizing the message that they are not good
enough to go to school with White students. They suffer a second reminder when, as is often the
case in the newly re-segregated schools, most teachers and administrators are White. The
teacher, White, and an authority figure is in charge. The students must measure up or else suffer
to society’s standard of them (Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016).
We need more scholarship on the empirical views of students in our classrooms today.
These studies can inform strategies to assist students towards success in tomorrow’s classrooms.
Studies have found that Whites may avoid individuals they perceive to be low-status, whether by
13

moving to all-White or mostly White neighborhoods or enrolling their children in all-White or
mostly White schools (Renzulli & Evans, 2005).
White Flight
A growing body of school choice research has found that when school choice policies are
not designed to integrate schools racially or socioeconomically through “colorblind” policies,
they generally manage to do the opposite, leading to greater stratification and separation of
students by race and ethnicity across schools and programs. White, advantaged parents are more
likely to enroll their children into the highest-status schools regardless of the school choice
policies (Roda & Wells, 2013). White families will do what they can to ensure their students will
have access to the best resources. The scarcity of resources has historically led White families to
compete for status and institutional access to the best schools for their students. The resources
are often scarce and limited to the people who know about them and how to advocate for them
(Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016).
White flight has not led to the best opportunities for White families. Despite the appeal of
homogeneity and the comfort of being in a neighborhood with access to the best schools with
families and students who mirror them, White parents have put their students in a more
competitive playing field, which has led to unintended consequences. (Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016).
This danger is much greater in a predominately White, upper-class school. For example,
Columbine was a White flight school. At integrated, mixed-race schools, one sees shouting
matches and the occasional fist fight, but the type of brooding that can lead to murderous rage
occurs mainly in all-White suburban schools (Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016). All the serial school
shootings carried out by students occurred in settings like these. (Rosiek & Kinslow, 2016).
Studies have found that the safest and healthiest school for a child navigating the struggles and
14

stresses of adolescence is a diverse, multiracial one. There, every student is apt to find a peer
group and learn to function in the realities of society from this microcosm of real life (Rosiek &
Kinslow, 2016).
Reform Strategies
The United States has experienced much ridicule in how its education system is set up.
All students are not educated equitably, and many of them slip through the cracks. Without
proper pathways to create a more equitable pipeline to success, we will continue to fail our most
vulnerable students. The status of our education system today is in peril. Educational leaders
have considered a myriad of ideas that challenge policies around the structure of schools, schools
that are private, standardized testing, tracking systems, and disciplinary action. Many of these
changes have been to reach a status of reform in education (Ravitch, 2016). Since the Reagan
administration, there has been a significant change in the purpose and function of public
schooling. We have seen a shift in priorities from a desire to create more equitable classrooms to
an era classified by excellence. School leaders and ideas continue to shift, and new ideas are
implemented in hopes of moving the needle of success for students (Ravitch, 2016).
Integration
U.S. schools never achieved complete building-level racial integration in its schools, and
there was never a significant national effort to address classroom-level racial segregation within
racially integrated schools (Dumas, 2014). Racial integration of public schools eliminated a
whole sector of middle-class teaching jobs in African American communities (Ladson-Billings,
2004). It put the hearts and minds of Black children in the care of an overwhelmingly White
teaching profession without providing the tools to unlearn their implicit biases and perpetuating
institutionalized racism (Dumas, 2014).
15

Mass Incarceration
Mass imprisonment during the 1990s is connected to two shifts in politics and economics.
The growth of harsh sentencing policies and a punitive approach to drug control began with a
rightward shift in American politics, first visible at the national level in the mid-1960s (Western
& Wildeman, 2009). President Clinton’s Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of
1994 introduced life sentences for third-time federal felons. This law cracked down on many
Black and Brown communities disproportionately, when compared to White communities. By
1999, both political parties supported $9.9 billion for prison construction and the campaigns to
grow the penal population (Western & Wildeman, 2009). Drug addiction, petty offending, and
public idleness all afflicted the most disadvantaged neighborhoods. Young men in underserved
neighborhoods made up a large population of inmates in the prison system (Western &
Wildeman, 2009).
School to Prison Pipeline
The path from concentrated economic disadvantage to mass imprisonment runs partly
through the mechanism of crime, but policy also played a central role. Mass incarceration also
strains the family life of poor African Americans in urban neighborhoods of concentrated
poverty. Emerging only in the closing years of the 1990s, mass incarceration has routinely drawn
young Black men and their families into the penal system (Western & Wildeman, 2009). Many
African American males who lacked the structure and routine of going to class every day due to
being targeted for disciplinary actions in the classroom fell victim to the justice system. In 1972,
fewer than 350,000 people were being held in prisons and jails nationwide, compared with more
than 2 million people held today (Alexander, 2012).
16

Continuing the practice of unjust jailing of African American males will perpetuate a
system of oppression in the United States. In California, many public schools and police officials
engage in a wide variety of criminalizing policies and practices that contribute to the
disproportionate number of minority students pushed out and incarcerated (Smith, 2009).
Students in public schools in California walk through metal detectors or are subjected to
magnetometer inspections if deemed to look suspicious. This behavior sets students up for
normalizing prison practices embedded in their everyday lives (Smith, 2009).
Zero Tolerance
In American classrooms currently, there is a growing link between students who have
been disciplined and the penal system. The school-to-prison pipeline refers to the pattern of
tracking students out of educational institutions, primarily via zero-tolerance policies and,
directly and/or indirectly, into the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems (Heitzeg, 2009).
While several trends in education facilitate the school-to-prison pipeline, it is most directly
attributable to the expansion of zero-tolerance policies. These policies have no measurable
impact on school safety but are associated with a few negative effects, racial disproportionality,
increased suspensions and expulsions, elevated drop-out rates, and multiple legal issues related
to due process. A growing critique of these policies has led to calls for reform and alternative
ways for students to stay in the classroom (Heitzeg, 2009).
Research has documented that punitive school discipline policies not only deprive
students of educational opportunities but also fail to make schools a safe place in which African
American males can thrive (Gonzalez, 2012). The presence of zero tolerance increases the
likelihood of future disciplinary problems and contact with the juvenile justice system
(Gonzalez, 2012). In many school districts across the nation, children are more likely to be
17

arrested at a school than they were a generation ago, and the number of students suspended from
school each year has nearly doubled from 1.7 million in 1974 to 3.1 million in 2000. In 2006, 1
in 14 students was suspended at least once during the academic year (Gonzalez, 2012).
Understanding punitive policies’ impact on students in the care of American school leaders helps
unpack embedded issues of institutionalized racism and oppressive tactics that combat the
opportunities African American males have to succeed.
Race-Based/ Gender Exclusive Classrooms
As policies begin to develop and change, one demographic of students continues to fall
behind. African American males fail to gain access to high-quality education (Howard, 2015).
Black males constitute close to 4 million, or 7% of the U.S. student population (Howard, 2013),
yet they receive the harshest disciplinary actions in school, underperform academically, and
graduate at lower rates than their White male counterparts.
In public schools, the normalization of failure for African American males is detrimental
to the success of these students and their ability to learn. African American males are often
assumed to be at risk because they are “too aggressive, too loud, too violent, too dumb, too hard
to control” (Noguera, 2009). Focusing on culturally relevant teaching and employing a teaching
staff that mirrors the African American male student population can help curb the issues that
many African American male students face inside and outside the classroom (Givens et al.,
2019).
Theoretical Frameworks
Two theories influence the research on African American male student success: critical
race theory and social comparison theory.
18

Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory (CRT) is important to examine why so few African American male
students are graduating from public high schools and contributing to some of the highest
numbers of males incarcerated in the prison industrial complex. Recognizing that race and
racism work with and through gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality, and the nation as systems of
power, contemporary CRT relies upon investigations of these intersections (Howard, 2014).
Research on the experiences of African American males must account for all sides of the African
American male identity within the context of learning intuitions and social spaces. Critical race
theory has been a transformative theoretical concept that has assisted researchers in
problematizing race in education. It is imperative to observe what ways CRT influenced school
practice and policy.
Critical race theory has proven an important analytic tool in the field of education,
offering critical perspectives on race and the causes, consequences, and manifestations of race,
racism, inequity, and the dynamics of power and privilege in schooling. This theory pulls
together both foundational writings in the field and more recent scholarship on the cultural and
racial politics of schooling (Howard & Navarro, 2016). Critical race theory scholars developed
the following five tenets to guide research and inquiry on educational equity and racial justice:
1. Centrality of race and racism—All CRT research within education must centralize race
and racism, including intersections with other forms of subordination such as gender,
class, and citizenship.
2. Challenging the dominant perspective—CRT research works to challenge dominant
narratives and re-center marginalized perspectives.
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3. Commitment to social justice—CRT research must always be motivated by a social
justice agenda.
4. Valuing experiential knowledge—CRT builds on the oral traditions of many indigenous
communities of color around the world. CRT research centers the narratives of people of
color when attempting to understand social inequality.
5. Being interdisciplinary—CRT scholars believe that the world is multidimensional, and
similarly, research about the world should reflect multiple perspectives (Solorzano &
Bernal, 2001).
Using CRT allows for an examination of what students are missing from the system and
how this system can better serve them. Leaders in education might see students of color through
a deficit perspective, which, for African American males, means they are seen for what they lack
before they enter the institution’s doors. Our leaders should look at what African American
students contribute and how they can enhance their experiences.
Social Comparison Theory
Developed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger, social comparison theory creates
poses the idea that individuals determine their social and personal worth based on how they stack
up against others. Later research found that people who regularly compare themselves to others
may find the motivation to improve but may also experience deep dissatisfaction, guilt, or
remorse and engage in destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating (Festinger, 1954).
According to Festinger (1954), people will not evaluate their opinions or abilities by comparison
with others who are too divergent from themselves. If another person’s ability is too far from
one’s own, either above or below, it is not possible to evaluate one’s ability accurately by
comparison with this other person (Festinger, 1954). Students who create these comparisons
20

must feel they are in the same arena as another student to either feel better than another group of
people and maintain their status with this group or feel that they need to work harder.
Competitive behavior protects one’s superiority in a group wherein one feels more intelligent
than the other members. Pressures to create uniformity arise, and students who cannot keep up
will legitimize their lack of ability to keep up with a dominant group due to restraints in their
environment (Festinger, 1954).
Social comparison theory creates competition among groups of people that can help or
hinder them. African American males in the American public school system are stigmatized to
believe they are not as smart or as good as their White counterparts (Nasir & Givens, 2019).
When these students receive low marks, it is normalized to do worse than White students. White
students use social comparison to reinforce their status of success in the classroom relative to
African American students.
Social comparison is a bi-directional phenomenon wherein we compare ourselves to
people who are better (upward comparisons) or worse (downward comparisons) than us. This
fulfills the basic human desire for self-evaluation (Festinger, 1954). Downward comparisons
boost our self-evaluation, while upward comparisons can hurt our self-esteem. Students in
constant competition to be successful tend to compare themselves to others who are doing worse
to feel good about their progress. Students who do not do well will often engage in upward
comparisons, which create feelings of jealousy, regret, or, in some cases, motivation to do better
(Festinger, 1954).
Identifying these student behaviors early can help leaders build students’ growth mindset
and use their abilities and talents to improve themselves. Students with a fixed mindset can build
competitive behaviors such as envy, or unhappiness, which bring a downward spiral of negative
21

thinking (Festinger, 1954). This theory is relevant in changing the students’ mindsets, especially
African American males who may feel discouraged in comparison to their classmates who may
be excelling. Table 1 shows the negative and positive effects of upward comparison and
downward comparisons.

Table 1
The Effects of Social Comparison
Upward Comparison Downward
Comparison
Positive Effects Hope, Inspiration Gratitude
Negative Effects Dissatisfaction, Envy Scorn

Critical race theory and social comparison theory are used as lenses to interpret findings
as to why African American males face barriers to success in the American public education
system. These two theories highlight a need for awareness of constraints and barriers that may
prevent high school graduation and successful college or career attainment.
Conclusion
Understanding the barriers that people of color face across the United States gives way to
the gap between African American males and their success trajectories after graduating high
school. The number of students in this demographic who are successful wanes in comparison to
White students. According to a 2010 study from the Schott Foundation for Public Education,
only 47% of Black male students graduated from high school in 2008 with peers in their entering
cohorts (Harper & Kuykendall, 2012). To support the interpretation of the gap, a significant body
of literature reinforces that there are barriers that African American males face when striving for
22

graduation from high school and navigating the U.S public education system (Harper &
Kuykendall, 2012).
Research noted several barriers that work against African American males reaching high
school graduation and pursuing post-secondary college or career success. Segregation of schools
hindered African American students’ access to the same resources as White students.
Neighborhoods continue to be impacted by segregation, forcing people of color to live in lower-
income areas. While segregation levels between African Americans and Whites have declined,
they remain high. Latinos and African Americans continue to live in the most disadvantaged
neighborhoods and have access to lower-performing schools and more exposure to violence and
crime (De la Roca et al., 2014).There needs to be continued research on how to create more
ethnically diverse neighborhoods that can increase the representative diversity of students in
schools (Whitehurst, 2017).
White flight is another barrier that has affected African American students’ advancement.
The age of school choice and allowing parents to choose schools that were “most effective” to
educate their children often pushed students of color away from resources and created a pipeline
of resources for White students (Renzulli & Evans, 2005). Social comparison theorists argue that
the roots of collective action and resource mobilization lie in competition for scarce resources,
including status and institutional access (Renzulli & Evans, 2005). Students of color need
equitable access to resources that bring them to the level of their White counterparts. More
research is needed to address the importance of diversifying schools for disenfranchised groups
and the mental health of the White majority (Whitehurst, 2017).
The literature found that students on the receiving end of disciplinary actions in school
are victim to strict zero-tolerance policies. These policies have negatively affected African
23

American male students at high rates (Gonzalez, 2012). In 2006, 1 in every 14 students was
suspended at least once during the academic year. In the same year, African American students
representing only 17.1% of public-school students, “accounted for 37.4% of total suspensions
and 37.9% of total expulsions nationwide” (Gonzalez, 2012, p.283 ). More research should be
conducted to reform Zero Tolerance policies and implementing alternative effective programs in
bullying prevention, threat assessment, and restorative justice practices (American Psychological
Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008).
Disproportionate disciplinary actions contribute to African American male students
dropping out of high school and being incarcerated. Studies have also determined that suspension
and expulsion policies cannot be correlated with any certainty to overall school safety or
improved student behavior (Gonzalez, 2012). More studies around educational equity reform
efforts and criminal justice reform are needed. Educational equity advocates and others
concerned about social justice should work to dismantle the mass incarceration system and
address the impact it has on education and social mobility for African American males (Majd,
2010).
African American males are being encouraged to reach graduation, yet the rate at which
they do so is lower than those of the White majority. According to Beaudry et al. (2015),
“approximately 47% of Black Males graduated within 4 years from U.S high school in 2008,
compared to 78% for White males” (p.12). The same study found that the state of California
graduates African American male students at a rate of 61%, which is only 2% higher than the
national average of 59%, while their White counterparts are graduating at 82% (Beaudry et al.,
2015,p.12) . Research has found that for African American male student graduation rates to rise,
they must be in classrooms where the curriculum is culturally and socially relevant to them
24

(Howard, 2013). More research is needed around culturally responsive and critical pedagogy
approaches and their influence on the school experiences and academic outcomes for African
American males (Howard, 2013)
Lastly, research is being developed around the notion that early intervention within
schools may be the most effective way to prevent some of the problems facing African American
male students after they graduate high school. More research highlights that the educational and
social challenges confronting African American male students could be halted through single-sex
education, and schools specifically designed for young men of color are proliferating across the
nation (Howard, 2013). The literature encourages more research on schools that conduct single-
sex/gender-exclusive classes that are graduating African American males at high rates. These
institutions support academic skill development and create environments that lead to African
American male students’ success (Howard, 2013).

25

Chapter Three: Methodology
Our American education is failing students from the most impoverished backgrounds.
Our African American males consistently show up last in all testing categories and are
disproportionately disciplined compared to their White counterparts. According to the Pew
Research Center (2019), another way of considering racial and ethnic differences in the nation’s
prison population is by looking at the imprisonment rate, which tallies the number of prisoners
per 100,000 people. In 2017, there were 1,549 Black prisoners for every 100,000 Black adults,
nearly six times the imprisonment rate for whites (272 per 100,000) and nearly double the rate
for Hispanics (823 per 100,000) ( Gramlich, 2019).
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to provide insight into the lives of African American males
who are students in the OUSD and their experiences with the AAMA Program and the
Kingmakers of Oakland. This study examined the participants’ life experiences and the impact of
the AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland on their pathways to graduation.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What strategies are utilized in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland that support the completion of a high school diploma in the
Oakland Unified School District?
2. What barriers did students in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland have to overcome to reach graduation from Oakland Unified
School District?
26

3. How does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers of
Oakland create, sustain, and evaluate the effectiveness of its strategies?
Selection of the Population
I surveyed 11 program alumni and interviewed three program leaders to better understand
the barriers that impede participants from graduating and the practices that change their success
trajectories, ultimately leading them to graduation and college or career attainment. Gaining this
knowledge will support education leaders in creating a program that prioritizes African
American males’ academic success, close the opportunity gaps between African American and
White males, and close the school-to-prison pipeline.
Interview participants were three alumni and three staff members who ran the AAMA
Program during the 2020–2021 school year. Information on participants was retrieved from the
AAMA Program alumni database and from the OUSD. The survey and interview participants
were African American male alumni, staff, and administrators of Oakland public schools. The
AAMA Program serves nearly 750 students and is active in 21 schools: nine elementary schools,
four middle schools, and eight high schools. Table 2 displays the survey and interview criteria
for the participants.

27

Table 2
Survey and Interview Selection Criteria of African American Male Alumni, Staff, and
Administration
Survey Interview
Years with the AAMA Program: 2 years or
more

African American male
Years with the AAMA Program: 2 years or
more

African American male

Participant in the AAMA Program in OUSD
either as an alumnus, staff member, or a
part of the administrative team
Participant in the AAMA Program in OUSD
either as an alumnus, staff member, or a
part of the administrative team

To conduct this study, I used snowball sampling since I wanted to interview and survey
African American males who graduated from the AAMA Program and staff who worked with
these students. Snowball sampling supported the study since I knew the respondents who
participated would be able to refer other program graduates to be interviewed. I started with staff
members who run the program and had them program graduates (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam,
2009). In addition, I was purposeful with the sampling since the study needed to be comprised of
African American males who graduated from the program and those who run the program. I
utilized purposeful sampling since it is used when there are unique attributes needed for an
interview (Merriam, 2009). Since my focus was on African American males who graduated from
the AAMA Program and the men who run the program, there were three alumni and three
leaders.
Design Summary
For this study, it was important to conduct a qualitative case study to interact with the
participants in their natural setting and interpret how they make sense of their world and their
28

experiences (Merriam, 2009). Further, the qualitative case study approach also enabled me to
produce results and support evidence to address the research questions (Maxwell, 2013).
This study was conducted according to Merriam’s (2009) and Creswell’s (2014) steps for
conducting a study. The study focused on the research problem and purpose outlined in Chapter
One and the literature review presented in Chapter Two. Chapter Three addresses how the data
were collected, and Chapters Four and Five present the data analysis, interpretation, and
reporting.
Methodology
The methodology included gathering quantitative data from surveys using a questionnaire
and qualitative data from open-ended interviews. When developing the interview protocol, I used
semi-structured questions to have the protocol less structured and allow for flexibility, depending
on how the interviewees responded (Merriam, 2009). In addition to understanding the barriers
that African American male students may encounter living in Oakland and being a student in the
American public education system, it was necessary to interview and survey those who work
with the AAMA Program to understand what strategies they use to support students while they
worked towards graduation and took advantage of post-graduation opportunities. Lastly, staff
members were interviewed and surveyed to understand how the AAMA Program creates,
sustains, and evaluates the effectiveness of its strategies. All three research questions were
addressed in both the interview and survey questions.
Qualitative Case Study Method
To ensure internal validity, a qualitative case study approach of triangulation was used to
check for consistency of findings among the survey and interview data and the literature review.
29

In addition to employing these sources of data, the theories of CRT and social comparison theory
were utilized to connect the findings within these larger perspectives.
Instrumentation and Protocols
Qualitative Instrument
The qualitative data were gathered through interviews, and the interview questions were
written to ensure they targeted the research questions. The interview protocol consisted of 20
questions for the alumni and 16 questions for the leaders and instructors of the program (see
Appendix A) (Merriam, 2009). I decided to conduct interviews via the Zoom online platform to
capture the data. Interview questions were open-ended and semi-structured. I took notes on the
interviews as I conducted them (Creswell, 2014).
Quantitative Instrument
The quantitative data were gathered via a survey. The survey had four parts with a total
of 35 questions (see Appendix B). All questions focused on the four research questions. Part I of
the survey centered on the demographic information, Parts II and III focused on Research
Question One, and part IV targeted Research Questions Two, Three, and Four. All survey
questions were closed questions. I made sure the questions would be meaningful to the
respondents, used standard language rules, and avoided biased words and phrases (Fink, 2009).
In addition, I designed the survey to incorporate a 5-point Likert-type scale in Parts II and III:
“not a major barrier” to “major barrier.” Part IV used the following descriptors: no, probably
not/rarely, maybe/occasionally, likely/almost always, and yes/always. The survey instrument was
accessible to 50 African American males who are currently working for the AAMA Program or
graduated from it by utilizing Google Forms. I created the survey to provide a numeric
30

description of the attitudes and/or opinions of the African American male students and the
African American male staff members (Creswell, 2014).
Data Collection
I followed Creswell’s (2014) and Merriam’s (2009) data collection steps when
conducting the research for this study: (a) locate the individual and/or site, (b) follow steps to
gain access and create a relationship, (c) purposefully sampling, (d) collect the data, record the
information, (f) solve any field issues that may have occurred, and (g) store the data. To collect
the quantitative data, surveys were accessible to 50 alumni respondents selected using the criteria
previously stated. A cover letter accompanied the survey and stated the purpose of the study (see
Appendix C).
To collect the qualitative data, I conducted interviews with three of the lead
administrators who work at the OUSD Office of Equity and three AAMA Program alumni. As
mentioned in the previous sections, I used purposeful sampling to select interview participants
who met the criteria to best answer the research questions and address the purpose of the study. It
was to have their consent prior to the interviews so that they knew their answers would be
confidential (Maxwell, 2013).
I asked all interviewees a month ahead of time about what day and time would be
convenient for them. It is important to provide interviewees enough notice and allow them to
select their time to support their being comfortable with the interview (Maxwell, 2013)). Finally,
I made sure to emphasize that I would record the Zoom interviews as well as take notes during
them. I asked the subjects if they agreed to be video recorded during the interview since they
should be asked this question to support their comfort during the interview (Maxwell, 2013).
Each of the interviews took approximately 45 minutes to complete. Follow-up phone calls were
31

made as necessary to clarify pertinent information to target the research questions. I transcribed
and reviewed all the interviews.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative case study approach, incorporating both quantitative data
from the surveys and the qualitative data from the interviews. All the items in the survey and
interview protocols were directly linked to the research questions. The research questions guided
the data analysis.
After collecting the data from the surveys and the interviews, I wrote separate reports
documenting the findings from each source. I transcribed and coded All interview and survey
responses and developed an analysis from the information (Creswell, 2014). Through concurrent
triangulation (see Figure 1), I compared the findings from the quantitative and qualitative data to
the findings in the literature review to determine convergence, divergence, or a combination of
both for the findings (Creswell, 2014). I then linked the findings to the larger perspectives of
CRT and social comparison theory. I ensured participants’ confidentiality throughout the entire
process.

32

Figure 1
Triangulation of the Data

Validity and Reliability
Throughout the study, I made every effort to ensure that there was strong validity and
reliability. I followed Patton’s (2002) belief that it is important to carry out the study with
“intellectual rigor, professional integrity, and methodological competence.” (p. 570). I followed
multiple steps to promote validity and reliability throughout the study, such as triangulation of
the data, member checking, adequate time spent collecting the data, researcher self-reflecting on
any assumptions, worldviews and/or biases, peer review, audit trail, and purposefully seeking
variation in the sample selection (Merriam, 2009).
Summary
This study used a qualitative case study approach, quantitative data from surveys, and
qualitative data from interviews. The data were analyzed to target the three research questions
33

regarding barriers African American male students must overcome to graduate from OUSD
schools, strategies the AAMA Program utilizes to help students graduate and connect with post-
graduation opportunities, and how the program is created, sustained, and evaluated to measure
effectiveness. Chapter Four presents the results, which are then discussed in Chapter Five.

34

Chapter Four: Findings
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected from the study, which aimed to
explore the impact of the Kingmakers of Oakland and the AAMA Program on African American
male students and explore the barriers they face when pursuing their education. Understanding
these barriers will help educators and policymakers create an environment that better serves
African American males and other students of color who encounter these barriers, which impede
graduation and force students out of school (American Psychological Association Zero
Tolerance Task Force, 2008).
Currently, African American males make up the highest demographic of student
suspensions, expulsions, and other disciplinary actions (Gonzalez, 2012). This same
demographic also feeds into the school-to-prison pipeline at a 6:1 ratio compared to their White
counterparts (American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Data were
collected via a survey using electronic Google forms questionnaires distributed to 30 OUSD
graduates who are all alumni of the AAMA Program and the Kingmakers of Oakland. The
alumni had to meet three criteria: (a) identify as Black or African American, (b) have been in the
AAMA Program for at least two years, and (c) have graduated from an OUSD high school.
Eleven surveys were answered, providing a response rate of 36.67%.
Qualitative data were gathered using one-on-one interviews with three AAMA Program
staff members and three alumni. Of the respondents from the surveys, three of these alumni were
selected and interviewed. The staff members were recommended by the founder and CEO of the
Kingmakers of Oakland who also founded the African American Male Achievement Office and
the AAMA Program. The AAMA Program alumni interviewed are herein referred to by
pseudonyms: Alumnus 1, Alumnus 2, and Alumnus 3. The three staff members opted to use their
35

names: Chris Chatmon, Jerome Gourdine, and Obasi Davis. I made sure the confidentiality of
each alumnus and staff member was preserved throughout the entire process of conducting and
reporting on the study.
I used a semi-structured interview approach when conducting this research. The
interviews consisted of 16 questions. The semi-structured protocol allowed the flexibility to
probe and ask additional follow-up questions as needed. The interview protocol captured the
behaviors and feelings that could not be observed (Merriam, 2009).
Surveys and interviews provided qualitative data. I then interpreted and analyzed the data
using the process of triangulation where multiple sources of information were applied to support
the findings. The sources of data were interviews, surveys, and two frameworks: social
comparison theory and CRT. All data were maintained and protected for confidentiality,
especially age, marital status, and the number of children for each of the participants.
Demographics of Survey and Interview Participants
Age
All 11 AAMA alumni who responded to the electronic questionnaires were between the
ages of 18 and 25, with eight being between the ages 21 and 23. This means that they graduated
from the program between 2015 and 2018.
Number of Children
Of the 11 respondents, 10 indicated that they have chosen to wait to have children. One
respondent had one child.
Annual Income
All (100%) respondents receive income from gainful employment or their educational
institution. Eight receive an annual income between $10,000.00 and $20,000.00. One earned
36

between $20,000.00 and $30,000.00. One made between $30,000.00 and $40,000.00. One made
more than $100,000.00.
Involvement in the African American Male Achievement Program
Of the 11 survey respondents, 10 were involved in the AAMA Program for three or more
years. One was involved for two years. So, most survey respondents were involved in the
AAMA for three of the four years they were in high school. They were surveyed to inquire
whether graduation would have been possible without AAMA Program at their schools. Five
respondents indicated that they would not have graduated or maybe would have graduated
without being involved in the AAMA Program and having the influences of the staff of the
Kingmakers of Oakland.

Figure 3
Involvement in the AAMA/Kingmakers of Oakland Program

37

Figure 4
Years of Involvement in AAMA Program

Figure 5
Answers to Involvement in the AAMA Program and Graduation

38

Highest Degree Obtained
All 11 respondents to the survey graduated from high school on time. That means all
survey respondents graduated from high school. Six had already earned a bachelor’s degree or
are currently a bachelor’s degree at a four-year institution.

Figure 6
Highest Degree Earned

39

Post-Secondary Graduation Career Standing
All 11 respondents to the survey were pursuing a four-year degree or were gainfully
employed. Professions written in by respondents ranged from Kindergarten teacher to after-
school program instructor, United States Marine Corps, and security services.
High Schools Attended
Of the 11 respondents to the survey, four attended Oakland Technical High School. Three
attended Castlemont High School. Two attended Oakland High School. The other schools listed
were San Leandro High school where only 1 respondent attended and St. Mary’s College High
School where another attended.

Figure 7
High Schools from which Respondents Graduated

40

Research Questions
The findings in this study were guided by the following research questions:
1. What strategies does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers
of Oakland utilize to support the completion of a high school diploma in the Oakland
Unified School District?
2. What barriers did students in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland have to overcome to reach graduation from Oakland Unified
School District?
3. How does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers of
Oakland evaluate the effectiveness of its strategies?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of the Kingmakers of Oakland and
the AAMA Program on African American male students and explore the barriers they face when
pursuing their education in OUSD schools. This study collected the experiences of graduates of
the AAMA Program regarding how this program affected their graduation attainment and
preparation for life after graduation. The surveys provided demographic data from students in the
program and the leaders who run the AAMA Program. Interviews were conducted to understand
the formal and informal learning experiences of both the leaders and alumni and how the
Manhood Development curriculum impacted them.
Coding of Data
To conduct data analysis to answer the research questions, I consolidated, reduced, and
interpreted what the participants stated in the interviews and what they answered on the survey
(Merriam, 2009). As Maxwell (2013) stated, the first step I took in the qualitative analysis was to
41

reread the interview transcripts, and then I listened to the interview recordings. I completed each
of these steps and then reviewed the notes I took during the interviews. I then developed
categories for the data. I looked for recurring themes in the data to align with the research
questions (Merriam, 2009). When I reviewed the interviews, I placed codes to pieces of the data
that supported the research questions to begin to construct categories. According to Merriam
(2009), this process of assigning the codes is referred to as “open coding.”
After reviewing the interview data as well as the data from the survey, I finalized
categories and subcategories and coded the information. Each of the categories had multiple
subcategories. I reviewed the subcategories, made connections to the literature review, and saw
some of the same themes from the data documented in previous research. After all the data were
formally coded, I conducted a formal analysis to identify findings directly tied to the research
questions.
Findings
Study findings suggest that strategies like creating a brotherhood, hiring Black male
teachers to lead the classroom, utilizing the KHEPERA curriculum for courses in manhood
development, creating a student leadership council, and developing district-wide conferences
have been of primary importance for the participants’ successful retention and graduation from
OUSD schools.
According to Merriam (2009), after creating the categories and coding the data, it is
important to speculate how the data is interrelated and move toward an explanation of the data’s
meaning as it pertains to the research questions. The data analysis that follows is from the study,
which aimed to examine the leadership of the Kingmakers of Oakland and the impact of the
42

AAMA Program on the African American male students in OUSD schools. The data gathered
from the interviews and surveys were analyzed to answer the research questions.
Research Question 1: What Strategies Does the African American Male Achievement
Program and Kingmakers of Oakland Utilize to Support the Completion of a High School
Diploma in the Oakland Unified School District
Creating a Brotherhood
The AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland have assisted students by offering
many supports to guide them to graduation. Creating a brotherhood has been key in each
student’s classroom persistence. The district also documented reductions in disciplinary
infractions, including a 50% reduction in the Black male suspension rate and improvements in
these students’ academic performance, including a 10% increase in Black students on the honor
roll and an 18% increase in cohort graduation rates. These reports were careful to note that the
changes could not be directly attributed to the AAMA Program, but they do suggest positive
changes occurring in the district as the program developed (Watson, 2018). The 11 AAMA
alumni surveyed answered questions on a Likert scale that best described the reasons African
American male students would utilize the AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland while
they worked towards graduation. The three alumni interviewed indicated how they utilized the
program while they were in high school.

43

Figure 8
Years of Participation

As seen in Figure 8, all 11 survey respondents (100%) graduated, and each one was a part
of the AAMA Program during high school. The survey data revealed the participants’ greatest
involvement in the AAMA Program was during 2015 and 2016. Alumnus One stated in the
interview that “AAMA helped me improve as a person,” and this brotherhood was a major asset
for him when he pursued his high school graduation:
I would like to answer this question in a different way. I think of it as how they helped
me improve as a person. It began with my mindset. I feel as though I was trained to think
that I wasn’t good enough or I wasn’t smart enough, so I began to act out because things
just came so easy to me. Then, I had to realize that it wasn’t fair to the other students. I
began to realize that I was probably the smartest person in any room I walked in,
depending on the topic, so I noticed I didn’t need to make jokes or get in trouble to get
others’ attention.
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Alumnus Two stated in the interview that “AAMA was the program I didn’t know I
needed.” He also shared that having a brotherhood allowed him to keep going. He found his
“why,” and that kept him invested in the program and school. The transition from a failing GPA
to a competitive GPA gave him a chance to pursue college and be awarded a scholarship to
attend and graduate without debt:
Honestly, when I think about it now, [an AAMA teacher] helped me find my “why.” I
know it sounds crazy, but my relationship with him didn’t really build until my mom
passed. He helped me find my reason for waking up in the morning. Then, he went with
me to go talk to all my teachers from the previous year, and we were able to get them to
agree to let me [do] independent studies for those classes to boost my GPA. My
sophomore year of high school, I had about a 0.5 all sophomore year. I was able to make
it up and graduate with a 3.5, I think. Scholarship writing as well. I wasn’t sure I would
be able to go to college due to the cost, but we figured it out, and I was able to graduate
debt-free. I had a group of people like me that I could count on. I even had an adult that I
could count on when I needed help, and that kept me accountable. I wanted to succeed
because other people wanted me to succeed.
African American male achievement is connected through a bond that mimics family. Jerome
Gourdine shared his experience in a historically Black fraternity and how brotherhood is crucial
in a fraternity. The members of AAMA could build that bond with each other and look out for
each other when an AAMA instructor was not present. This was how AAMA alumni were able
to navigate their spaces; they could lean on their brothers. Alumnus Two shared his connection
to the program through brotherhood and by being reminded that he was his brother’s keeper:
45

It is really brotherhood and community. That’s the biggest strategy. Building a
brotherhood is hard because not only do you have to build trust with somebody to be
considered as a brother, but you must want to learn this person, you must want to be
around these people, and we want them to be there. We had been placed in situations
where we needed to learn trust. We did trust activities where I remember we walked
through our development class and we walked through the school blindfolded, and we
had to hold on to our brothers. I had to learn to put my trust in my brother, and that
poured over into working with my brother in and out of the classroom. I think that really
goes to brotherhood we develop. We trusted each other.
Alumnus Three shared his experiences with AAMA as a fraternity and a brotherhood.
They felt like they were a part of something meaningful and something they could lean on when
they needed it:
So, my main point of bringing that up is that we did so much, and it was really like we
were fraternity brothers. It was like I really don’t want to use that word, but it was really
like a brotherhood. We travel, we went places, and we had to represent this organization
on a higher level. We spoke at places, and we have business cards. We would introduce
ourselves to high people, in high places. We have meetings with superintendents. We
have meetings with board of directors, whatever it was. I was always with my brothers.
Creating a brotherhood was inspired by the Black fraternities of the National Pan-
Hellenic Council. Jerome Gourdine, who co-founded the AAMA Program, is a member of Alpha
Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. He brought the essence of brotherhood he gained as a member of a
historically Black fraternity. Applying the principles Jerome Gourdine learned through his
46

membership to Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. to the AAMA Program as a strong connector
poured over into the growth and connectivity of the members (Nasir et al., 2019).
The results from the survey and the alumni statements support the research on
brotherhood at grade level as a strategy to keep African American male students engaged in
school and help them persist towards graduation. Watson (2018) shared students and staff utilize
the word “brother” and “king” to address each member of the AAMA Program. By utilizing
terms like this in the classroom, members reinforce the bond for which they are laying the
foundation.
Hiring Black Male Teachers to Lead the Classroom
The recruitment and vetting process for new staff members to lead in the AAMA
Program consists of learning about their commitment to the African American community.
Everyone who expresses interest in becoming an instructor for the program has either taken an
extensive amount of coursework about African American history, majored in African American
history, or has been deeply involved in the African American community. Some men come with
degrees, while others have a deep connection to the African American community with a
dedication to the advancement of African American male students. Those who interview to be
instructors must show that they can advocate for African American male students and can
influence other teachers and staff members. These instructors build relationships with teachers,
parents, and families, to create cultural change.
In Oakland Unified schools, the African American men hired without a bachelor’s degree
are given CTE credentials to teach and are then given the training to lead the Manhood
Development classes at any school district wide. The CTE credentialing program at UC Berkeley
Extension allows the program to recruit candidates from the community and enroll them in the
47

CTE credentialing program, which allows them to take courses over three years and facilitate
classes in the AAMA program.
All 11 (100%) survey respondents noted that if they had trouble at home or school, they
could turn to the leaders of the AAMA Program and the Kingmakers of Oakland. Having
someone who cares about them at the school encouraged them to return to school and want to
stay at school. Another strategy of the AAMA Program helped Alumnus One earn a high school
diploma. Alumnus One shared that having a Black male teacher encouraged him and built up his
self-confidence:
I believe there were a lot of things I was not ready for, but they built up my self-
confidence. I don’t think there is anything that I will ever face in my life that I cannot
face head-on. They instilled in me that I had all the tools I would ever need, right with me
the whole time. They cared about my development and well-being. My AAMA brothers
are always with me, whether it’s physically or not, I have so many other youths looking
up to me. This is why I can’t let them down. I learned you have to care for your brother
no matter what.
Alumnus Two stated that the importance of having a Black male teacher who mirrored
him in the classroom is exactly the strategy that school systems need. An AAMA classroom
should not be the only place an African American male can find someone who cares about him.
He felt that the school system boasts that their counselors will help them, but “that is an absolute
lie:”
I was told that your general school counselors are going to reach out to you, and they are
going to follow you, and they’re going to care for you. They’re going to check on your
grade to make sure you have everything you need. That is an absolute lie. Like, that is not
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what they do. They are too busy trying to sustain that title. They’re too busy to kind of
keep that up, and so how can they empower and help Black people. How do you know
what I need? The AAMA teachers gave me that. They cared about the things that the
counselor was supposed to be doing. I think Black young men and Black youth have to
care for each other. I think that’s the biggest thing. I think you have to care because if you
show you care enough, you reach out.
Alumnus Three stated that having a Black teacher made him feel like he could do
anything because he saw himself in this leadership position:
That’s for sure. Like, I don’t think I could have really been as successful in school if I
didn’t, you know, have access to a Black teacher, and even like just, I mean, anyway I
just think a lot of students will feel more comfortable if they have more teachers that look
like them and understands their background as African American. When I showed up to
class, I knew I could do anything because here was a man that looked like me who is
telling me that I can do anything.
The interview participants’ statements illuminated a common thread, which is the
importance of hiring African American males to run the curriculum in the AAMA Program. This
is also supported in research noting it is important to build a brotherhood among students so that
they can learn from their peers and support each other as they persist to graduation. African
American male teachers are needed to lead these classrooms and build these structures (Givens et
al., 2019).
The recruitment process and vetting process for new staff members to lead in the AAMA
program consists of learning about their commitment to the African American community. Each
African American male that expresses interest in becoming an instructor for the AAMA program
49

has either taken an extensive amount of coursework about African American history, majored in
African American history, or has been deeply involved in the African American community.
Some men come with degrees, while others have a deep connection to the African American
community with a dedication to the advancement of African American male students. The
African American men that interview to be instructors must show that they can advocate for
African American male students and can influence other teachers and staff members. These
instructors build relationships with teachers, parents, and families, to create cultural change.
In Oakland Unified schools, the African American men that are hired without a bachelors
degree, are given CTE credentials to teach in Oakland Unified schools and are then given the
training to lead the Manhood Development classes in any school district wide. The CTE
credentialing program at UC Berkeley Extension allows the AAMA program to recruit
candidates from the community and enroll them in the CTE credentialing program, which allows
them to take courses over a 3-year process and facilitate classes in the AAMA program.
Manhood Development Program Curriculum
Students in the AAMA Program attend one class period a day, with approximately 25
other African American male students, five days a week. The class includes students who may be
struggling academically, sitting on the bubble between success and failure, and some who are
excelling academically. The model of the program took inspiration from the Achievement Via
Individual Determination program, but the focus for AAMA is to expose African American male
students to racial identity development and empowerment.
Christopher Chatmon, the founder of the Kingmakers of Oakland and the founder of the
AAMA Program in OUSD schools, developed a framework for “healing the fish while treating
the toxic ecosystem.” Through this framework, Chris Chatmon, Jerome Gourdine, Obasi Davis,
50

and other leaders in AAMA who implement the Manhood Development curriculum found a way
to employ men from the Oakland community to teach their students. The curriculum is modeled
after the KHEPERA curriculum. This curriculum is used with a Socratic teaching style with an
emphasis on academic discourse. By asking relevant introspective questions based on the content
presented, the facilitator promotes and encourages understanding, analysis, and critical
evaluative thinking.
Challenging open-ended questions are often followed by a very specific group discussion
model. The core of this curriculum lies in the Mastering Cultural Identity class. Cultural identity
is a key point of intervention for African Americans and students of color, and this class focuses
on creating opportunities for students to make conscious, positive cultural identity choices, thus
better supporting academic trajectories, school engagement, and college and industry preparation
for success after high school. Instruction draws in part on the “180 Degrees” social-emotional
curriculum and includes units such as “The Emotional Character of Manhood” and “How Do I
See Myself/Life’s Hard Questions.”
Other units focus on culturally relevant perspectives on history and society. These units
include “The African American Holocaust,” “The Struggle for Liberation and Dignity,” and
“The Black Male Image in American Media.” The course also includes community-based
projects (e.g., oral histories of Black residents in Oakland). A study by Dee and Penner (2019)
provides the first evidence that access to the program significantly reduced the number of Black
males who dropped out of high school. The study found smaller reductions in the number of
Black females who dropped out as well, suggesting a possible spillover effect (Dee & Penner,
2019). Chris Chatmon had this to say about the importance of African American males learning
about their history:
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Well, we’ve won. We inoculate our kings. So, we know who our kings are and whose
they are. These men have many identities, and we learn what is important to them and
remind them why they are important, why they matter. The fact that we’ve engaged them
and broaden the access deposit of Black men, we’ve been able to inoculate them with
African-centered courses that teach them who they are and whose they are, so they can
have a sense of belonging, a sense of motivation, a sense of purpose. The fact that within
the system, we were able to create the conditions that we were able to increase the Black
male teacher pipeline significantly and the retention of those teachers that were able to
engage the community around a set of strategies where the system has to work in
collaboration with the community. This program is celebrating Black joy, Black genius,
and Black positivity. We hit the system at every level from the classroom to the
boardroom and stayed in it. And, for me, these strategies are still there and with the staff
as I transitioned out. I think that the legacy work. There’s been more failed attempts at
this work where folks have come and gone, and departments have opened and closed,
than there they are sustained. And the fact that in Oakland, we still have a sustained effort
within the institution that has the AAMA department, that’s still focused on Black boys,
that’s re-imagined what a school system and service of Black children looks like, feels
like, and sounds like. That’s my legacy. That’s our legacy.
Obasi Davis teaches the Manhood Development curriculum and has firsthand experience
in how the students have changed in their desire to attend school: “Students don’t want to miss
school because they don’t want to miss AAMA.” Obasi Davis was taught how to teach African
American males using KHEPERA, which is AAMA’s basis for the Manhood Development
curriculum. This curriculum refocuses learning using African-centered approaches to knowledge.
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KHEPERA is an ancient Kemetic word that means to come into being, to transform. Obasi Davis
stated the importance of connecting to students with curriculum in which they see themselves.
I think it’s just mainly about making sure students see themselves and what they’re
learning and being able to affirm who they are and not try to make them into something
else. The Manhood Development curriculum is successful. I mean, it’s been proven!
We’ve done this plenty of years, and it’s proven to work. Students who’ve come through
this program are way more ready to tackle life and all the things that they must go
through as Black men. If they’re not like the most scholarly student or person, if they
come to our class, they want to come to school. They want to come to our class; it’s like
their favorite class, so it keeps students at school and keeps students engaged.
AAMA co-founder Jerome Gourdine spearheaded the KHEPERA program. Jerome
shared that AAMA does more than teach about African history but provides building blocks for
students to feel like they belong in an educational setting. Jerome shared that he checks on
students’ progress in other classes to make sure he is addressing their success in all their course
work. He wants to see his students succeed and is not afraid to sit a student down to talk one-on-
one, talk to another teacher about a student, or call the student’s parents:
So, like, okay, they’re placed in the class, but also, they have that facilitator who has the
ability to connect with other teachers and advocate for each of their students case by case.
The support that those relationships gain and the connections those teachers provide will
create a line of support for their academics. I think that I feel that is a strategy that helps a
lot. It’s not enough to just lean on the counselor to give that to students. Many counselors
don’t know their entire caseloads. Through this curriculum, there is a targeted specialist
in the school who knows how college and career factor into these students’ lives. I think
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that helps as well. We now created a partnership with Merritt college starting in ninth
grade to do like this just more intensive dual enrollment experience, especially during this
pandemic. I think that is another strategy. We now get more involved in partnerships with
alternative education departments, you know, and seeing ideas on how to not just support
our kings who are currently in that space. But the kings who are like in ninth and 10th
grade and already fallen off track. We started thinking of ideas around supporting our
kings at all levels. That understanding that Yes, he’s in my class, but I keep
understanding what he’s doing in his other classes. I try to support if that student needs
help. And that’s something we’re trying to be more intentional about.
Students in the AAMA program will attend one class period a day, with approximately
25 other African American male students, five days a week. The layout of the classroom includes
African American male students who may be struggling academically, sitting on the bubble
between success and failure, and African American male students who are excelling
academically. The model of the program took inspiration from the AVID (Achievement Via
Individual Determination) program, but the focus for AAMA is to expose African American
male students to racial identity development and empowerment.
Student Leadership Council
AAMA Program leadership created a student leadership council to represent their peers’
voices. These students attend school board meetings and represent the needs of African
American male students in OUSD schools. These students are the ambassadors for the AAMA
Program and are chosen to speak about Kingmakers of Oakland at conferences around the United
States. I was introduced to the Kingmakers of Oakland at the Coalition of Schools Educating
Boys of Color (COSEBOC) conference. Students apply for a spot on the Student Leadership
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Advisory Committee and receive a stipend for giving their time to travel to speak at conferences
or within their surrounding community. Alumnus One felt tethered to the program and tethered
to the school. Alumnus One leaned on the expertise of people running the program:
When I got accepted, I realized I started learning more about our education system and
the complexities of how our system has been designed t keep out a certain group. You
kind of like know and then it helps build up another So, I was when I started learning in
the KHEPERA curriculum, I was more passionate about education because I’m like,
wait, this system is not really not set up for me. I had to learn how can I make what
they’ve set up against me work for me. So, sitting in those rooms and listening to Bob
and brother Jerome and all of them, you know, teachers in the program. I begin to take
education more seriously. Once you start learning the history behind our system and how
our country was designed and built, you kind of pay more attention to those things you
didn’t pay attention to, like how teachers interact with me, but I didn’t pay attention to
Mr. Peters interactions with me until I joined AAMA. Then, as I learned about the, you
know, the racism and stuff like that. Inside the school system. And I kind of looked at a
lot of my teachers differently, and so then I noticed that as time progressed, and I stayed
in the program, I was staying in school. I noticed I wanted to be there.
From the survey, 9 out of 11 AAMA alumni reported that a sense of belonging was
important to their success as an African American male in the school system. This question
received the highest ranking of all support system questions asked in the survey. Research has
concluded that it is important to develop valuable and supportive relationships with individuals
to feel connected to the school. This is an essential strategy that school districts should continue
to strive for as a means of support for African American males.
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Conferences
Throughout the evolution of African American male achievement in OUSD schools, a
unique aspect is the conferences or convening of community genius. Students of the Kingmakers
of Oakland program and the facilitators gather to present at conferences locally and across the
nation to spread this framework with other school districts. Students share testimonies of their
involvement in the program, and leaders like Chris Chatmon and Jerome Gourdine share the
framework of the program to educational staff of all levels. At a reoccurring and yearly
conference, Kingmakers of Oakland continues to be involved with is the COSEBOC. Students,
parents, and leaders of the AAMA Program alike are all involved in the structure of Kingmakers
of Oakland. The conferences allow students to build professional development skills that are
sometimes missing in the classroom. The crowds that these students are exposed to can range to
sizes upwards of thousands. Chris Chatmon has spearheaded many of these conferences, which
bring all members of the program to convene every spring to celebrate graduations and celebrate
accomplishments. Students regroup and recharge and are introduced to important figures in
manhood development.
The strategies found through this research confirmed the literature on African American
male students needing school supports led by instructors who look like them. The first strategy is
cultivating a brotherhood of students and instructors in the program. Students need to be
affirmed in who they are, and developing a brotherhood of African American male instructors
and students is key in a successful roll-out of the AAMA Program. The longer the students are
involved in the program, the more they are connected to the learning and become invested in the
work of the AAMA Program. The second strategy is the hiring of African American males to
lead this program. This strategy gives the students an accountable adult in whom they can see
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themselves. The students feel a connection to the AAMA Program that keeps them connected to
what they are learning, which keeps them coming back to school.
The third strategy was the African-centered teachings called KHEPERA, which is the
basis for the Manhood Development curriculum. The instructors reinforced the importance of
moving from a Eurocentric curriculum to an Afrocentric one that encourages the students to be
connected to their learning because they can see themselves in what they are being taught by an
African American man (Noguera, 2009). The fourth strategy is the creation of a student
leadership council. Members of the program become ambassadors for AAMA by traveling to
talk about the program and to represent it to community members and the school board. The
student leadership council allows students to have a role in being the voice for their peers when
decisions are being made about them. The fifth strategy was the development of district-wide
conferences and the participation in national conferences. These conferences allow students to
build professional development skills that are sometimes missing in the classroom and build up
their interpersonal skills.
Research Question 2: What Barriers Did African American Students in the African
American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers of Oakland have to Overcome to
Graduate from Oakland Unified School District?
Barriers Overcome to Reach Graduation
There were several barriers that the 11 AAMA alumni from the survey faced while
working towards graduation. As seen in Table 3, the major barrier AAMA alumni reported on
the surveys was the “Not seeing African American male teachers.” Of the 11 AAMA alumni, 7
(63.64%) reported this as a major/significant barrier.

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Table 3
Barriers African American male students faced in school while working towards graduation
AAMA Alumni,
n = 11

To What Extent a Barrier Number of Respondents Percent
Major Barrier 7 63.64
Significant Barrier 2 18.18
Modest Barrier 2 18.18
Minor Barrier 0 0
Not a Major Barrier 0 0

The second highest barrier on the survey was experiences of racism/discrimination.
Seven AAMA alumni (63.64%) reported having experiences of racism and discrimination as a
barrier, and this was also reported as a significant barrier when they are working towards
graduation from school. Survey data showed that students felt discriminated against by not being
offered opportunities because teachers thought they were not going to graduate or not capable of
being college ready. According to Noguera (2009), African American men will encounter more
situations of racism and discrimination throughout their educational journeys, inside the
classroom and outside of the classroom, than their White counterparts.
The third highest barrier reported on the survey was “lack of support system at school,”
which was selected by six respondents. In the survey, it was defined that support systems are “an
individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional support.” Research has shown
that not having a support system in place from family members to friends or staff at school can
be an obstacle to graduation for African American males (Howard, 2015).
“Lack of safe spaces” was the fourth-highest barrier reported on the survey by five of the
11 AAMA alumni (45.45%). Safe spaces on the school site were places that African American
males could be their most authentic selves without fear of punishment or threat to safety. AAMA
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Alumnus One reported during his interview that prior to being involved in the AAMA Program,
he did not know a safe space on campus. The area in East Oakland where his schools were
located was not an environment he wanted to be in:
And my father wasn’t exactly much of a role model, so I was having a lot of issues of
dealing with him and emotional trauma he put me through. So, finding a program with
Black male educators who have access to a space to help us through our emotional
vulnerability and gave me a father figure that I needed. As I got comfortable and got to be
myself, I saw others in the program, and we grew to be brothers. These are the brothers
who helped me get into Morehouse college. And it created this family. We have multiple
fathers to multiple students. I made friends with people who are different and had
different strengths and different things to teach me. That helped me develop and grow.
The survey results indicated that five (45.45%) of the 11 AAMA alumni reported they
lacked motivation. This was the fifth-highest barrier reported. AAMA alumni who selected this
as a barrier expressed a lack of motivation to want to go to school or lack of motivation to
graduate from high school. A lack of motivation was indicated as a barrier for the three AAMA
alumni. Alumnus 2 stated that they felt that school was not important because he did not have the
motivation to go. The following was reported by Alumnus Two:
I begin to take education more seriously because once I started learning the history
behind our system and how our country was designed and built, you kind of pay more
attention to those things you didn’t pay attention to, like how teachers interact with me. I
didn’t pay attention to how (name retracted for confidentiality) interacted with me until I
joined AAMA. Right, so then as I learned about the, you know, the racism and stuff like
that was going on inside the school system. I kind of looked at a lot of my teachers
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differently. So then I noticed that as time progressed and I stayed in the program. I was
staying in school; I was motivated.
The results from the surveys and the interviews were supported by previous research on
racial discrimination, lack of motivation, lack of safe spaces, and the necessity to have African
American males leading in classrooms. Several studies continue to demonstrate that schools are
hiring African American males at a disproportionate rate to the number of African American
male students in our school systems (Givens et al., 2019; Noguera, 2012).
Research Question 3: How Does the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland Evaluate the Effectiveness of Its strategies?
Student Self-Evaluation
The AAMA Program founders, Chris Chatmon and Jerome Gourdine, were interviewed
and asked how the program created and sustained evaluation metrics to measure strategy
effectiveness. Obasi Davis, who is a current instructor in the program, was also interviewed
about the program’s impact. Chris Chatmon is the founder and CEO of Kingmakers of Oakland,
which is the basis for the AAMA Program. Chris Chatmon was also the first executive director
of the Office of African American Male Achievement. Kingmakers of Oakland now operates
outside of OUSD schools to bring the model to other school districts:
You know, we have origin stories, so a lot of qualitative and quantitative processes. So,
right now, we’re doing origin stories with all seven districts that we work with. I showed
you the qualitative data around pre-and post-assessments of a King’s assessment of how
he sees himself before the class and then as a King. We administer that same works
survey after they’ve taken the courses or a course. So, then they can share how they see
themselves after we also process this product. And, so, you know, what are the new
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processes that systems adopt that when sustained lead to improve educational outcomes
for Black boys, and that is high hiring a designated leader within their district for African
American male achievement, having a department focused on African American male
achievement. These are processes, a listening campaign, and a feedback loop where
Black boys are informing from classroom instruction to hiring to the school board and
policy.
Students utilizing the surveys to evaluate themselves gives them the opportunity to reflect
on how they have grown through this experience. This ensures that the content being taught not
only covers the curriculum but, more importantly, fosters student voice by delving into their own
life experiences. By having African American male students reflect on what they are learning,
AAMA leaders and instructors can heighten student engagement, achievement, and potential.
Students meet with leaders and instructors of the AAMA Program individually to discuss how
each student has grown and what they want to get out of the program. Watson (2018) found that
data regarding self-evaluation of African American male students allows the leaders and
instructors of AAMA to shape how the program transforms. This has proved to be unique to a
program of this caliber (Watson, 2018).
Afrocentric Evaluation Metrics
Co-Founder of the AAMA Program Jerome Gourdine shared the importance of the
AAMA Program’s innovative evaluation tactics. AAMA has developed metrics not rooted in the
traditional (Eurocentric) data points but incorporates socio-emotional learning. The AAMA
founders wanted this program to progress with evaluation that is AfroCentric and values what the
students need to thrive, not just survive. For example, students who may have had trouble with
getting to school on time due to transportation issues may be punished for always being late, but
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in the AAMA Program, students are valued for showing up and participating. This positive
reinforcement for attendance encourages students to feel motivated to attend school to participate
in AAMA. Co-Founder Jerome Gourdine introduced the idea of calling students “kings” to
replace negative labels they may use in connecting with their friends. Jerome Gourdine wanted
students to be reminded they are kings every time they address each other, which helped bring
the curriculum to life every day:
Those are things that we do! And a myriad of others, but I’d say heaviest on qualitative,
just because we don’t have the metrics of, well, what is left when White supremacy is
gone, what are those measures? And until we measure it for that, if we use the same racist
Eurocentric, antiquated metrics, then we are not moving our kings forward. We were
measuring the wrong thing and it could suggest that it works? Does it work? We need to
measure what a system looks like in service of Black boys that is anti-racist and there is
no disproportionality or racialize outcomes. I think that we have been able to provide
some support to our kings by reminding them they are kings, and they do that when we
are not around by calling each other kings outside of the classroom.
Using Afrocentric evaluation measures to gauge where students are has helped the AAMA
Program break away from metrics that are antiquated and moves African American male
students forward (Watson, 2018). AAMA leaders gather the community and discuss how the
program is working to be in service of Black children. These voluntary school study teams target
what is failing Black children and demonstrate what could be done at school sites throughout the
district. This evaluation method is unique to the AAMA Program and is creating a new standard
of evaluation (Watson, 2018).
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Graduation Rates of African American Male Students
Obasi Davis is an instructor in the African American Male Achievement Office currently
leading the Manhood Development courses and is influencing African American males to be
successful. Obasi Davis found that students will ultimately see the fruit of their efforts by making
it to graduation. Obasi Davis shared in his interview that African American males who go
through the curriculum find something to connect with in the courses or even the staff that helps
them persist through high school and on to post-secondary goals.
Well, we’ve won! We inoculate our kings, so we know who our kings are, whose they
are! The fact that we’ve engaged them and broaden their knowledge of self, they now
have access to resources who look like them. We’ve been able to inoculate them with
African-centered courses that teach them who they are and whose they are, so they can
have a sense of belonging, a sense of motivation, a sense of purpose. The fact that within
the system, we were able to create the conditions that increased the Black male teacher
pipeline significantly and the retention of those teachers that were able to engage the
community around a set of strategies where the system has to work in collaboration with
the community. It’s systematic change, the Manhood Development curriculum, and
ultimately seeing our students cross the finish line at graduation. They leave with a post-
secondary goal that continues to push them.
The results from data analysis confirm that without the AAMA Program, they would
have not made it to graduation. The necessity to create non-Eurocentric metrics has been at the
program’s forefront. Chris Chatmon and Jerome Gourdine use metrics that focus on social-
emotional learning to measure the program in a way not used before. Chris Chatmon shared that
metrics like “Black joy” and “feeling empowered in the classroom” help students share their
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voice and allow the leaders and instructors to make meaningful connections with students by
showing an interest in the things they enjoy and encouraging them to take risks and step outside
of their comfort zones. This is how the AAMA Program evaluates effectiveness. Using newly
created metrics to include factors that cannot be measured numerically, the program’s foundation
can transform to meet African American male students where they are in their educational
journey. The focus on serving students is the focal point of qualitative data for the program. The
literature supports these outcomes. African American males persist in school when they are
connected to the curriculum and the instructors (Noguera,2009).
Summary
This chapter reported the findings from 11 AAMA Program alumni as well as three staff
members. The results indicated that participants continue to face barriers as they work towards
graduation. As indicated in the results, the strongest barrier respondents faced while persisting
towards graduation was not seeing an African American male leading their classroom. This
finding aligns closely with the work of Howard and Navarro (2016) in that using CRT enables an
examination of what students are missing from the system and how we can better serve them.
African American males need to see African American males leading their classrooms.
Further, the participants reported that the KHEPEREA curriculum, self-empowerment,
and the brotherhood they experienced were strong traits that enhanced their achievement and
pushed them to want to be their best selves. These findings authenticate social comparison theory
in that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up
against others. People who regularly compare themselves to others may find the motivation to
improve (Festinger, 1954). In addition, social comparison theory states that students who create
these comparisons must feel like they are in the same arena as another student to either feel
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better than that other student, maintain their status, or feel that they need to work harder
(Festinger, 1954). The research and theories support that African American males need to
continue to find a sense of belonging on their school campus. Having an African American male
leading the KHEPERA curriculum through Kingmakers of Oakland will provide the brotherhood
and self-empowerment they need to thrive in the classroom.
In Chapter Five, there will be a discussion of the research, further conclusions, and
implications of the research. Finally, recommendations for future research will be reported.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes findings as related to implications for practice within the K-12
educational community and how they can be used to support African American students after
high school graduation. Key research findings are discussed with the intention of informing
current and future educational leaders of the leadership practices necessary to implement the
KHEPERA curriculum and Manhood Development courses that the Kingmakers of Oakland
have developed. Districts across the nation can utilize the strategic approaches to hire Black male
instructors to build relationships and connections with students to increase interest in school and
ultimately maintain positive teacher, student, and staff morale. These programs are essential to
understanding the challenges facing specific populations and strategies that can be employed to
foster a more welcoming and supportive environment. Campuses that seek to enhance outcomes
for Black students must have educators who ensure that their communities are engaged in
building a brotherhood that enhances their ability to support their Black/African American
community. Additionally, I provide recommendations for future research drawn from the context
of this study.
This study focused on problems associated with the rate of attrition among African
American male students in the K-12 education system across the nation with a direct focus on
Oakland, California (Watson, 2018). Complex circumstances often influence why students are
removed from their educational journeys. However, for African American male students,
specifically, systemic structures that have been in place long before these students entered the
school system continue to impede the pathway to their success. Students who are victims of the
racist structures embedded in the American public education system are pushed out of this
system. Throughout this study, the research indicated that alumni of the AAMA Program had a
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strong positive influence from sitting in a classroom where the KHEPERA curriculum was used
to inform them and influence their understanding of self. Each of these sessions occurred daily in
all-African American-male classrooms at all OUSD schools.
This study provided insight into the AAMA Program. This study affirmed the importance
of African American male leaders teaching in schools, the KHEPERA curriculum for teaching
African American history, and the influence on the innovative Manhood Development
curriculum. Lastly, creating a brotherhood in the classroom highlighted the focus on culturally
affirming pedagogy. The following questions guided this research:
1. What strategies does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers
of Oakland utilize to support the completion of a high school diploma in the Oakland
Unified School District?
2. What barriers did students in the African American Male Achievement Program and
Kingmakers of Oakland have to overcome to reach graduation from Oakland Unified
School District?
3. How does the African American Male Achievement Program and Kingmakers of
Oakland evaluate the effectiveness of its strategies?
This was a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014) involving analysis of alumni of the AAMA
Program who are graduates of different high schools in Oakland, California. This method was
bound around the AAMA Program. I gathered data from program leaders and alumni. Three
interviews were conducted with alumni and three with leaders. Additionally, alumni of the
AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland were surveyed regarding their current morale.
Qualitative analysis of the interviews was conducted in relation to quantitative findings to further
explain, refine, and develop the quantitative results.
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Findings
Study findings suggest that strategies like creating a brotherhood, hiring Black male
teachers, utilizing the KHEPERA curriculum, creating a student leadership council, and
developing district-wide conferences have been of primary importance for the successful
retention and graduation of Black male students in OUSD schools. The barriers that program
alumni overcame while working towards graduation were not seeing African American male
teachers in the classroom, experiences of racism and discrimination, lack of a support system at
school, and lack of safe spaces at school.
Findings further suggest that the AAMA Program created an evaluation system that
utilized an Afrocentric perspective to evaluate students’ success. The Afrocentric perspective is a
culturally grounded social work practice-based model that affirms, codifies, and integrates
common cultural experiences, values, and interpretations that cut across people of African
descent. For example, in traditional or Eurocentric metrics, a school district may be concerned
with the lack of students passing a certain subject on a standardized, traditional statewide test,
but using the Afrocentric perspective, the AAMA Program considers a student’s socio-emotional
learning. These metrics ask how a student may be feeling that day and gives them an opportunity
to reflect. Students get time to journal and share what they may not share with other teachers in
their school.
This study also found that students were asked to evaluate themselves and give feedback
to the facilitators and other leaders on their experience in the program. Feedback from the staff
and students is used to improve the program. This study found that alumni graduated from high
school because they connected to the curriculum and because of the relationships they built with
the teachers and other students in the program. Lastly, this study found that the program evolved
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to incorporate unique attributes that strengthen the bond that students have with the program.
The program created a student leadership program, which allowed students to receive a grant-
funded stipend and allowed them to travel to present at national conferences. The program also
created its own conferences held bi-annually for students from the district to come together and
share resources with each other and their community. Lastly, implementing a brotherhood
allowed students to have a fraternity aspect connecting them to the program over the years and
after they graduate. Thirteen themes emerged related to the study’s three research questions. This
section presents a summary and discussion of these findings in relation to the literature and
current practice.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 inquired, “What strategies does the African American Male
Achievement Program and Kingmakers of Oakland utilize to support the completion of a high
school diploma in the Oakland Unified School District?” Data related to Research Question 1
produced three findings. The first confirmed that creating a brotherhood is a strategy that
connects African American male students to school and what they are learning. This is vital to
their success in building and strengthening student morale (Howard, 2013). This finding was
consistent with the work of Nasir and Givens (2019), which established that culturally relevant
teaching and employing a brotherhood aspect in a classroom led by someone who mirrors the
African American male student population will have a positive influence on student morale.
Interview responses revealed that creating a brotherhood in the context of the African
American males, their peers, and program leaders was important in connecting students to the
classroom and what they were learning. The brotherhood aspect was a major factor in increasing
school attendance for students involved in the program. All 11 alumni of the AAMA Program
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conveyed that building a brotherhood and a support system with the staff and their fellow
participants kept them involved in the program year after year. Family was discussed by the
leaders in the context of creating a brotherhood among the students in a peer-to-peer aspect and
developing a connection with them as mentors in the program.
This brotherhood has evolved into a model that is representative of the historically Black
fraternities founded at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and predominately White
institutions. African American male students involved in the program found they can lean on
their brothers to navigate issues they experience because of the common foundation in the
AAMA Program and growing up in Oakland, California.
This finding is connected to the work of Noguera (2012), which encourages the idea that
schools can effectively prevent many of the problems facing African American males by
encouraging these students to be a part of AAMA. Students can feel safe to be themselves, and
peer culture reinforces the value of learning. This is a classroom where character, ethics, and
moral development are more important than rigid policies. In same-sex classrooms, students are
with young men of different ages who can model success for their younger peers. Young African
American males can build connections with each other through the shared experience of being in
the AAMA Program. That strength of brotherhood encourages each young man to keep going
because they want to succeed like their brothers before them. This influence impacts their
opportunities for success and pushes each student to push themselves and to push their
classmates in the brotherhood to do better and be better students.
The second finding that emerged in relation to Research Question 1 confirmed the
fundamental importance of hiring Black male teachers to lead the AAMA classrooms and
develop relationships with students through an established mentorship. Howard (2013) stated
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that to build a mentorship between teachers and students, teachers must believe in their students,
and through showing this care, students will begin to believe in themselves. Watson (2018)
established that district-wide reform cannot rely solely on one person or policy, but that one
connection can be an anchor for a student’s success. Howard (2015) confirmed the importance of
care being manifested by teachers and students in many ways, which is a tenet of culturally
responsive pedagogy.
The third finding was the importance of the KHEPERA curriculum, which influenced the
Manhood Development curriculum. Many education reform leaders agree that for African
American male student graduation rates to rise, they must be in classrooms where the curriculum
is culturally and socially relevant to them (Howard, 2013).
The fourth finding was the creation of a student leadership council. Students can join an
exclusive group of student ambassadors of the AAMA Program and the Kingmakers of Oakland.
Students must show their commitment to either program and have been involved for at least a
year. Students selected to be in the student leadership council receive a stipend for their
participation. These positions are coveted, and an application and an interview process is
involved. This finding is aligned with Watson’s (2018) findings on students creating a worldview
and culture of schooling policies, practices, and procedures by what they experience in school.
The way a teacher speaks is foreign to the ways of being inside the family circle. In a
Eurocentric education system, students can develop connections through special groups who
share commonalities. Students selected to be in the student leadership council encourage other
students to be their best selves and advocate for their needs.
The fifth finding was the development of conferences. Conferences allow students to
share testimonies of their experience in the program and gather with other members of the
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program from different schools, past and present. The local conferences allow leaders to share
strategies for working with their students. Chris Chatmon and Jerome Gourdine shared that they
call these conferences a “convening of community genius.” This finding is aligned with the work
of Nasir et al. (2019) which stated that to understand the multiple layers of African American
male identity, researchers and practitioners must engage in more robust examinations and
understanding of identity and self-concept. Through conferences, students have a platform to
share how to best serve their needs and what they deal with as they grow up.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 inquired, “What barriers did students in the African American Male
Achievement program and Kingmakers of Oakland have to overcome to reach graduation from
Oakland Unified School District?” Data analysis related to Research Question Two produced
four findings. The initial finding was that African American male students must overcome many
barriers to reach graduation from OUSD schools. Alumni of the AAMA Program were surveyed
and noted that not seeing African American male teachers was a barrier to reaching graduation.
This finding was consistent with the work of Nasir and Givens (2019), which found that focusing
on culturally relevant teaching and employing a teaching staff that mirrors the student population
can help to curb the issues that many students face inside and outside of the classroom.
The second highest barrier that AAMA alumni reported was experiences of
racism/discrimination. Survey data revealed that students were told they were not good enough
or not offered certain opportunities because they were not thought to be college material. Survey
data also revealed that students often encountered people in their community who assumed that
their skin color made them more violent or that they were members of gangs. This barrier of
racism/ discrimination aligns with the notion that African American males are often assumed to
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be at risk because they are too aggressive, too loud, too violent, too dumb, too hard to control
(Noguera, 2009). The normalization of failure for African American males is detrimental to their
success and their ability to learn.
Interview responses revealed the major role that racism and discrimination played in
hindering the successful roll-out of the AAMA Program in the initial days of implementation.
The program’s leaders discussed how district leaders blocked many of the programmatic features
in its inaugural years but allowed the program to continue. This proved discrimination was
present, as the program was intentional about the services being created exclusively for African
American males. With the leadership of the superintendent of OUSD schools and his willingness
to stand up for African American males, the district became the first in the United States to
create an office specifically for African American male achievement. Data revealed that alumni
felt supported and empowered in the AAMA Program classroom but did not receive that same
kind of support from other classroom teachers. According to Noguera et al. (2016), African
American men will encounter more situations of racism and discrimination throughout their
educational journeys than their White counterparts. Programs like Kingmakers of Oakland can
help African American males combat societal pressures of implicit bias and discrimination
(Noguera et al., 2016).
The third finding in relationship to Research Question Two was a lack of a support
system. Research has shown that not having support from family members, friends, or staff at
school can be an obstacle to graduation (Howard, 2015).
The fourth finding was the lack of safe spaces at school. Students and adults thrive in
spaces where they can feel safe and comfortable to be their most authentic selves. Students in the
AAMA Program found refuge in a classroom where they could be their most authentic selves
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without fear of punishment or threat to their safety. This finding is consistent with the work of
Gonzalez (2012) that emphasized the role that punitive school discipline policies have on
students. These policies deprive students of educational opportunities and fail to make schools a
safe place in which African American males can thrive (Gonzalez, 2012). The presence of zero-
tolerance policies increases the likelihood of future disciplinary problems and increased contact
with the juvenile justice system (Gonzalez, 2012). In many school districts across the nation,
children are more likely to be arrested at a school than they were a generation ago, and the
number of students suspended from school each year has nearly doubled between 1974 and
2000. In 2006, 1 in every 14 students was suspended at least once during the academic year
(Gonzalez, 2012). Understanding the impact of punitive policies on students helps unpack the
embedded issues of institutionalized racism and oppressive tactics that combat opportunities to
succeed.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 inquired, “How does the African American Male Achievement
Program and Kingmakers of Oakland evaluate the effectiveness of their strategies?” There were
three findings in response to Research Question 3. The first was student self-evaluations. A
student in the program can influence the structure and design of the class by evaluating
themselves and the program. This self-evaluation allows for an open channel of feedback that
increases the teachers’ and students’ ability to build rapport and positively influenced overall
student satisfaction. This finding is keeping with the work of Ravitch (2016), which established
that asking students to explain their ideas, gauge their value, and listen to the feedback from
others equips them with skills that help them become well-educated students in the 21st century.
Self-evaluations provide checkpoints for the program’s leaders on how students feel about
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themselves and their knowledge of self before they enter the program, while they are in the
program, and at the culmination of their time in the program. Using these data points helps the
program evaluate the effectiveness of its strategies and discover what students’ needs are at that
point in time. Based on this information, the program can be molded and shaped to meet the
students’ growing needs and help build new structures or develop resources to meet these needs.
If a practice is working for students to meet program and school district goals, it is sustained and
maintained. If a strategy is no longer working, leaders will revamp the program to help students
reach their goals and those of the program.
Responses to survey items linked to Research Question Three revealed that alumni
developed life skills that they still utilized. Additionally, they identified that the program
teachers and leaders were beneficial to their success. They expressed that having Black male
teachers helped them feel connected to the school and created a mentorship bond with someone
they grew to respect. Many survey respondents found that the program leaders helped fill the
void of the father figure they were missing at home. This was an authentic practice that
strengthened the relationship of trust between students and teachers. Results appeared to indicate
a positive effect on alumni and leaders in connecting to the program, its leaders, peers, and the
Kingmakers of Oakland.
The second finding was that the program used Afrocentric evaluation metrics to evaluate
its effectiveness. An item-level analysis of survey statements appeared to indicate the positive
effect of Afrocentric evaluation methods on African American male students, which was to
affirm these students in their progress and development. This finding further suggests students
were more likely to be involved in the program knowing they would not be measured by
traditional Eurocentric metrics. This conclusion is in keeping with the works of Ravitch (2016),
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Watson (2018), and Givens et al. (2019). Ravitch (2016) established that assessment practices
needed to build reform must move from the oppressive structures that built them. Watson (2018)
established that true educational reform deals with racial identity development and White
supremacy directly. Afrocentric metrics of evaluation provide an opportunity for authentic
recovery and resiliency. Givens et al. (2019) identified that schools can take important steps to
prioritize African American male achievement by addressing school and discipline policies and
making them a primary goal to reduce school- and district-level suspensions and expulsions.
Schools can eliminate these practices at the elementary school level and should create a district-
wide task force to address these disparities across schools in which discipline problems are most
prevalent.
The third finding was the positive correlation between the AAMA Program and the
increase of African American males graduating from OUSD high schools. Findings from Dee
and Penner (2019) state that access to the AAMA Program significantly reduced the number of
Black male dropouts, particularly in ninth grade, and increased persistence in high school.
Roughly 20% of Black male students were chronically absent across all grade levels, and despite
accountability mandates, just 28% of Black males met state standards in English, and 30% did so
in math (Watson, 2018). Through AAMA, OUSD schools kept African American male students
on campus and got them to high school graduation.
Limitations
Limitations of this study reside in three realms: generalizability given small sample size,
internal validity given the reliance on self-reported data, and access to survey participants due to
the COVID-19 pandemic, I did preserve the essential characteristics of the original protocol
regarding item categories, item statements, and item proportion within each category. During this
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study, a pandemic was occurring, and I was unable to access participants in person to gather
interview data and survey data. This may have hindered participation in the study. Furthermore,
because this study relied on self-reported data from surveys and interviews, limitations could
consist of respondent validity. Triangulation of findings assisted in overcoming this threat to
validity. Inability to generalize the findings may constitute a limitation of this study due to the
size and scope of the sample population. However, the purpose of this research was not to
generalize. Rather, the intention of this study was to provide a rich description of the AAMA
Program, Kingmakers of Oakland, and their impact on African American males who graduated
from OUSD schools. These descriptive findings, while not generalizable, do allow for contextual
inference and applicability through the depth of description.
Implications for Practice
This study examined the impact of the AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland on
African American male students in OUSD schools. Study findings established themes that
inform educational practitioners at the site- and district-level and provides valuable information
for school administrators and school district leaders regarding the critical nature of African
American male student success. To effect change in the educational system, school districts must
implement changes that focus explicitly on the demographic least served by the system, which
often is our African American male students. Regarding the scope of the study and resulting
thematic findings, implications for systematic changes and leadership practices were established.
The first implication for practice by school site administrators and school district leaders
emphasizes the importance of creating a brotherhood between African American males and the
leaders of the AAMA Program as a critical factor to student success. Triangulated study findings
appear to support the relationship between increased levels of African American male student
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success and connection to school through building relationships between peers and the leaders of
the AAMA Program.
The second implication for practice by school district leaders and school site
administrators highlights the critical role that school district leaders have in their hiring process.
Hiring African American male teachers and leaders of the AAMA Program creates a connection
to classroom learning and the curriculum. Students who can see themselves represented in school
and classroom leadership will be connected to the campus and what they are learning. The
relationships that students build with the trained leaders of the AAMA Program provide a
positive role model for the students. This study found that the students received the proactive
hiring of African American male teachers to facilitate the program well. Utilizing the leadership
of the Kingmakers of Oakland to advise and implement training as well as the district providing
career and technical education credentials helps to ensure more African American males do not
face barriers to becoming instructors in the district.
The third implication for practice addresses the importance of creating and maintaining
an office of African American male achievement to house the AAMA Program. The training to
form this office should be led by the Kingmakers of Oakland, who hold the blueprint for a
successful and sustainable program. To receive authentic input from African American male
students, a space in which they will be affirmed will encourage equitable education reform. Both
Alumnus One and Alumnus Two discussed a profoundly meaningful and intimate process of
connecting with the African American male program teachers at their schools because they have
built a connection that felt familial. Christopher Chatmon, Jerome Gourdine, and Obasi Davis
further emphasized that this created a foundation for designing leadership focuses and practices
to address student-identified needs and create a forum for ongoing feedback and input from both
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students and community supporters. Findings suggest that creating an office of African
American male achievement may be a beneficial practice for school districts and school site
administrators in designing effective critical race pedagogy.
Future Research
This study’s review of literature noted a need for further research regarding specific
educational equity reform efforts and criminal justice reform. More research is also needed
around culturally responsive and critical pedagogy approaches and their influence on school
experiences and academic outcomes for African American males. Lastly, the literature suggests
more research is needed on single-sex education, especially schools designed for young men of
color that are graduating African American males at high rates. While this study did assist in
providing additional contextual definitions of processes and practices that support African
American male success and ways that single-sex classrooms encourage high graduation rates,
further research is needed. Additional research is recommended to address three areas related to
this study.
The first recommendation for future research is to provide further insight into the
relationship between AAMA Program teachers and their students. The instrument used in this
study measured alumni’s experiences broadly, including assessing factors that could be
considered extraneous to the African American male teacher influence. Study findings revealed
factors identified by the program’s students and leaders that appear to positively impact students
during their time in the program and while they pursue graduation. It would be beneficial for
future research to investigate the correlation between specific AAMA Program and Kingmakers
of Oakland teaching practices with full autonomy given to the Kingmakers of Oakland to lead
the program without district influence.
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The second recommendation for future research is to strengthen the generalizability of
this study’s findings. While generalizability was not a primary focus of the research,
investigation of additional contexts would strengthen the applicability of implications for
practice. While this study’s strength resided in triangulation of interview and survey data,
practitioners could benefit from more in-depth analysis of specific contexts through a case-study
design. Expansion of qualitative data collection involving AAMA Program teachers and students
could allow further inference to be drawn regarding relationships between African American
male student success and the connection to other data points that help them reach graduation.
Specifically, research should expand qualitative AAMA alumni and leader samples within the
school district and examine the influence of the Manhood Development curriculum on student
success. Doing so, regardless of contextual diversity, could broaden the applicability of findings
for practitioners.
The final recommendation for future research is to investigate the replication of this
program in other school districts. This study’s findings identified the role that the AAMA
Program and Kingmakers of Oakland had in African American male student success in the
OUSD. Further investigation of practices in various school districts could add to the body of
knowledge describing effective district leadership relationships with Kingmakers of Oakland’s
nationally recognized model. Expanding the knowledge base through investigation of further
contexts could refine school district standards for practice regarding African American male
achievement.
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Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to School Districts Considering the Kingmakers of
Oakland and the Manhood Development Curriculum
Creating a Safety Net for African American Males
During the study, three AAMA alumni and three AAMA leaders were interviewed and
asked if there were any recommendations and/or advice they could provide to school districts
interested in hosting Kingmakers of Oakland and the Manhood Development curriculum. It is
important for districts to learn these lessons from those who are already able to do the work and
implement the Manhood Development program. To increase the number of African American
males graduating from the public-school system, it is critical that they have the space, support,
and agency to provide guidance to other African American male students and help them reach
graduation. Alumnus 3 shared that the Kingmakers of Oakland and the facilitators of the
Manhood Development program saved him:
To have a mentor and someone to guide them all the way to high school and beyond is
irreplaceable. I think that this program is not an option. It is essential to the growth and
development of our most vulnerable students, our Black boys. Without the staff who
facilitate this program, I would have not been here today. The Kingmakers of Oakland
saved me when I was losing hope. Without Kingmakers of Oakland, there would be a lot
of lost hope and a lot more lost soul. Every school needs this program.
Conclusions
This study found that the AAMA Program and Kingmakers of Oakland have vast
implications for educational leaders. While African American male teachers are just one of
multiple factors that assist African American male students to graduation, this study emphasized
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the role of these teachers in the classroom and found they are a main source of student learning
(Howard, 2013; Givens et al., 2019).
Study findings suggest that African American male teachers should build a brotherhood
and develop mentorship relationships with African American male students. This has proved to
be a successful strategy to help these students’ persistence towards graduation. These students’
achievement is related to overcoming barriers like not having African American male teachers in
the classroom, experiences of racism and discrimination, lack of a support system at school, and
lack of safe spaces on the school campus were found to be most important to participants in this
study.
Findings further suggest that the AAMA Program created an evaluation system that used
Afrocentric metrics to evaluate students’ success. These metrics value socio-emotional learning
over traditional (Eurocentric) metrics. This study also found that students were asked to evaluate
themselves and were able to give feedback to the facilitators and other leaders on their
experience in the AAMA Program. The staff improve the program using the feedback from the
students they are assisting. Furthermore, this study found that program alumni made it to
graduation by connecting to the curriculum and the relationships they built with the teachers and
their fellow students in the program.
Lastly, this study found that the program evolved to incorporate unique attributes that
strengthen the bond that African American males have with it. The AAMA Program created a
student leadership program, which allowed students to receive a grant-funded stipend and to
travel to present at national conferences. The AAMA Program also created its own conferences
that are held bi-annually for students from the district to come together and share resources with
each other and their community. Lastly, implementing a brotherhood allowed students to have a
82

fraternity aspect to connect them to the program over the years and after they graduate. This
study offers practitioners additional insight of the implications that school districts can utilize to
create systemic changes to improve African American Male achievement and success.

83

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88

Appendix A: Interview Cover Sheet
African American Male Achievement Program Alum
Name of Researcher:
Date of Interview:
Name of Interviewee:
City:
Authorizer’s Phone Number:
Authorizer’s Email Address:
Interview start time:
Interview end time:
Introduction
Hello, I am Natalie Hart, and I am a researcher at the University of Southern California’s Rossier
School of Education. I am conducting a study on African American Male achievement and the
impact of the African American Male Achievement program and the Kingmakers of Oakland on
graduates of the AAMA program in Oakland, California.
You are being asked to participate in research to gather information on African American male
students’ views on student academic success. I would like to interview you to get your ideas
about factors contributing to student academic achievement. My research will address the
academic achievement from the eyes of African American male students in hope of finding
answers to challenges and possible solutions for improving African American males’ academic
success. This research is important to me because it provides an opportunity to gather first-hand
knowledge, data and understanding from African American male students who are either staff or
alum on how the African American Male Achievement program has supported them in attaining
success in school.
You do not have to participate in this research project. You can stop whenever you want. If you
do not participate, it is quite alright. The interview will last from 45 to 60 minutes. Interviews
89

will be recorded remotely using the Zoom recording feature for the purpose of transcribing the
information accurately.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. I will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to capture information
that I may have missed. Would this be okay to do?
The interview should take approximately 45 minutes.
Thank you for your time.

Semi-Structured Interview Protocol for AAMA Alum:
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. How would you define academic success?
3. How will academic success affect your future?
4. Describe your academic performance in school.
5. What goals have you set for yourself?
6. Discuss study strategies that may contribute to your academic success.
7. Explain what role your parents play in your education.
8. Explain what the principal can do to help African American male students realize their
academic ability.
9. Explain what teachers can do to help African American male students realize their
academic ability.
10. What effect does the school environment have on African American male students’
ability to achieve academic success?
11. What can the community do to help African American male students achieve academic
success?
12. What can friends do to help African American male students achieve academics success?
13. Discuss other factors that may contribute to academic success for African American male
students?
14. What may hinder African American male students from achieving academic success?
90

15. What solutions do you have for African American male students to become successful in
their academics?
16. Explain how prepared you are for life after school.
17. Explain how the African American Male Achievement program has assisted you to
graduation.
18.What strategies does the African American Male Achievement program use to ensure the
success of its students?
19. What feedback would you like to give the AAMA program to influence any changes? What
would you like to keep the same about the AAMA program?
20. Some would say that the AAMA program is not needed, What do you want others to know
about the AAMA program?

Semi-Structured Interview for AAMA Staff/Admin:

Semi-Structured Interview Protocol:

1. Tell me about yourself.
2. What is your role with the AAMA program?
3. What inspires you to work for this program?
4. Why do you believe the AAMA program exists?
5. What goals do you have as you work in the AAMA program?
6. Explain what role parents play in the education of African American male students.
7. Explain what the principal and teachers do to help African American male students
realize their academic ability.
8. What effect does the school environment have on African American male students’
ability to achieve academic success?
91

9. What can the community do to help African American male students achieve academic
success?
10. Discuss other factors that may contribute to academic success for African American male
students?
11. What may hinder African American male students from achieving academic success?
12. Explain how the AAMA program prepares students for life after school.
13. Explain how the African American Male Achievement program has assisted students to
graduation.
14. What strategies does the African American Male Achievement program use to ensure the
success of its students?
15. How do you feel other school districts could benefit from the AAMA program being
present in their schools?
16. What do you want school districts and education policy makers to know about the
program?
Additional Questions that came up in the interview:
How did the Kingmakers program come to be?
What year did the other branches of the Office of Equity come about?
How have you adjusted to the needs of students due to Covid-19?
How did you recruit facilitators for the AAMA program?
What core course work does the AAMA program satisfy to assist students in graduating?
How do you evaluate the effectiveness of the Kingmakers program?

92

Appendix B: African American Male Achievement Program Alum Survey
Part I: Demographic Information
Please circle the most appropriate answer.
1. What is your age?
a. 18-21
b. 22-25
c. 26-29
d. 30-33
e. 34-37

2. What is your marital Status?
a. Single
b. Married
c. Widowed
d. Divorced or separated
e. Partnered

3. What is the number of Children that you
have?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
e. 4 or more

4. What racial/ethnic group best
represents how you identify
yourself? (Circle all that apply)
a. Native American
b. Asian/Pacific Islander
c. Hispanic
d. Black/non-Hispanic
e. White, non-Hispanic
f. Multi-racial

5. What is the highest degree that you have
earned?
a. BA or BS
b. Master’s
c. Doctorate

6. What is your current profession?
a. __________________
7. What years did you participate in the
AAMA program?
a. 2010
b. 2011
c. 2012
d.2013
e.2014
f.2015
g.2016
h.2017
i. 2018
j.2019
k.2020

8. What is your current annual income?
a. Less than 2,000
b. 2,100-4,000
c. 4,100-9,000
d. 9,100-20,000
e. 20,100-30,000
f. 30,100-50,000
g. 50,100-70,000

93

9. Would you have graduated without the
presence of the AAMA program?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Other ( write in)
10. What was helpful about the AAMA
Program?

a. Write in

11. What would you change about the
AAMA program ?

a. Write in____________________

12. Why did you become involved in the
AAMA program?

a. Write in_______________
13. How would you describe the AAMA
program to someone who has never
heard of it before?
_____________
14. How did the AAMA program
prepare you for life after graduation?
__________________

Part II: Barriers that impeded African American male students towards graduation
Q. 15. Please fill in the bubble on the scale that best describes possible barriers that African
American male students must contend with when working towards graduation.
Question Not a
Major
Barrier

Minor
Barrier
Modest
Barrier
Significant
Barrier
Major
Barrier

1. Not encouraged by
peers and/or family to
graduate high school.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Lack of motivation. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Experiences
Racism/Discrimination
1 2 3 4 5
4. Not having the support
at home
1 2 3 4 5
5. Not having the support
from your teachers
1 2 3 4 5
6. Lack of Safe Spaces 1 2 3 4 5
7. Lack of a Mentor 1 2 3 4 5

Part III: Barriers African American male students must contend with while in school
Q. 16. Please fill in the bubble on the scale that best describes possible barriers that African
American Students must contend with while in school.
94

Question Not a
Major
Barrier

Minor
Barrier
Modest
Barrier
Significant
Barrier
Major
Barrier

1. Discrimination
based on gender.
1 2 3 4 5
2. African American
males are seen as
lacking skills in
school
1 2 3 4 5
3. Feeling like you
belong
1 2 3 4 5
4. Lack of
navigation of
school pathways
1 2 3 4 5
5. Lack of support
system.
1 2 3 4 5
6. African American
males being
viewed by staff as
not being able to
succeed
1 2 3 4 5
7. The idea of being
smart not being
associated to
African American
males
1 2 3 4 5
8. Lack of a mentor 1 2 3 4 5

Part IV: The AAMA program as a support towards graduation
Q. 17. Please fill in the bubble that best describes how African American male students
utilize the AAMA program while working towards graduation
Definition:
• AAMA program: African American Male Achievement Program

Question No Probably
Not/Rarely
Maybe/
Occasionally
Likely/Almost
Always
Yes/Always
1. When I have
school
concerns, I
seek advice
from leaders in
1 2 3 4 5
95

the AAMA
program.
2. When I have
career
concerns, I
seek advice
from my
teachers in the
AAMA
program at
school.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I feel that
AAMA
program was
important in
achieving
graduation
status from
high school
1 2 3 4 5
4. I feel that
AAMA
program
support system
was important
in navigating
school
1 2 3 4 5
5. The AAMA
program were
beneficial to
my success as
a high school
senior.
1 2 3 4 5
6. The teachers/
leaders in the
AAMA
program are
beneficial to
my success as
an alum.
1 2 3 4 5

96

Appendix C: General Recruitment Email Cover Letter
Dear (Name),
My name is Natalie Hart, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at
University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation,
which examines the African American Male Achievement program and how African American
male students that graduate from that program have an increased opportunity for post graduate
success and learn strategies to overcome societal barriers. You are cordially invited to participate
in the study. If you agree, you are invited to complete an online survey that contains multiple
choice questions.
The online survey is anticipated to take no more than 15 minutes to complete. Depending on
your responses to the survey and your availability, you may be asked to be interviewed via
Zoom. The interview is voluntary and anticipated to last approximately 45 minutes and may be
vid.
Participate in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will always
remain confidential during and after the study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me via phone or email:
-Cell Phone: 253-414-3302
-Email: nhart@usc.edu
Thank you for your participation,
Natalie Hart
University of Southern California
You may access the survey at the following link:
https://forms.gle/n24pQ5YpRfSgafuZ6

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Meeting the learning needs of African American male students with varying cultures and balancing the issues society places on them presents challenges for many teachers. To date, there is limited research on the factors that influence African American males’ graduation rates. An exploration of programs comprised of a teaching staff that mirrors African American males and how they implement instructional strategies that support these students’ learning needs is missing from the research. This study provides insight into the African American Male Achievement (AAMA) Program and Kingmakers of Oakland to highlight their impact on African American male achievement in Oakland, California. This study investigates the innovative Manhood Development Program curriculum and its focus on culturally affirming pedagogy. This study covered the life experiences of African American male students and the impact of the AAMA Program and the Kingmakers of Oakland. This is a qualitative case study. Interview participants were three AAMA program leaders and three alumni. Survey participants were alumni. Factors that impact pathways to graduation for African American males were investigated using interviews. The results of the study provided a clearer picture of what the program does to raise the bar for African American male students. Shedding light on a model, race-based, and gender-exclusive classroom will inspire advocates of education reform looking to combat the issues troubling our education system, especially when it comes to our African American male students. This study provides insight into the effective strategies instructors developed to sustain a model program that is now being replicated in other school districts.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hart, Natalie Nicole Keithina (author)

Core Title Kingmakers of Oakland: systematic change for African American male achievement in California

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2021-05

Publication Date 05/10/2021

Defense Date 04/23/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American male achievement,Black boys,Black joy,gender-exclusive classrooms,Kingmakers of Oakland,OAI-PMH Harvest,race-based,student achievement,transformative learning

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cash, David (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Green, Alan (committee member)

Creator Email nhart@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112720147

Unique identifier UC112720147

Identifier etd-HartNatali-9622.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-HartNatali-9622

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Hart, Natalie Nicole Keithina

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20210512-wayne-usctheses-batch-837-shoaf (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu