Trust estates

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SCHOOL OF LAW. S
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0 UT LINE THESIS TRUST EST ATES.
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I. FORMATION AND DURATION OF TRUST ESTATES.
(a). Growth from the English Law.
(b). Creation and purposes.
(c). Powers of Trustees.
(d). Duration of Trusts.
II. DISPOSITION OF THE IIiCOME OF TRUST ESTn.TES.
(a). Cases in which the beneficiary
becomes a sub-trustee.
(b). Extent to which income of trust
estate is subject to trustee's
direction.
III. BUSINESS TRUSTS.
(a). Trusts and Partnerships.
(b). Advantages of the trust.
(c). Formation and operation.
IV. CONCLUSION.
FORTuIATION AND DURATION OF T3UST E STATE S .
(a). Growth from the English Law.
The accumulation of property and the continual
development of business has gradually caused the relations
of life to beoome more complex and to create new co mplica
tions for whioh there had to be developed more rules and
laws to embrace the many new relations, duties and respon
sibilities.
The first trusts were developed under t he juris
diction of the civil law. In the early Roman law it was a
rule that a testator could not nam e a devisee to succ eed the
first devisee of property, but the first devisee took the
absolute legal and beneficial ownership of the propert y .
In other words, according to Perry, "a testator could not
direct and control the use of his property after hi s death."
However, this rule was gradually modified, first b allowin J
the testator to name a succeeding heir i f the first heir
died too young to make a will. This trust was c alled fidei
oonunissum, but there were no means whereby the performance
of this commisswn could be compelled.
Centuries later the clergy of England when f or ced
to avoid the operation of the Statutes of ~ ~ortmain , which
said statutes were intended to prevent the accumulation of
lands in the hands of the various religious cor porations,
adopted the practice of appointing a fidei commissum, or ,
in other words, they would convey lands to one pe r s on for
the use of another, or for the use of their corporation.
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Thus, the effect was to have the legal title in one indivi
dual, but the beneficial use was in another. It was to pre
vent this policy of establishing trusts that caused the
English Parliament to pass the now famous statute of uses.
This statute caused the beneficial use to be converted into
the legal ownership. In other words, if lands were conveyed
to A but to the use of B, the statute converted the use into
a legal estate in Band divested all title out of A. It was
not long, however, until the religious corporations designed
the system of establishing a use upon a use. Consequently
if A deeded to B to the use of C in trust for D, the statute
automatically transferred the le al estate in C and extin
guished all title or interest in B, but, of course, the
statute could not go far enough to effect the use of D.
The statute of uses was passed before the colonists
left England, and it therefore became a part of the law for
practically all of the colonies, and likewise the system of
uses (or trusts as they are now known) which grew up upon
the statute of uses was adopted and has been followed in
America.
(b). Creation and purposes.
Sir Ed,vard Coke defined a trust as follows: "A
trust is a confidence reposed in some other not issuing out
of the land, but as a thin collateral, annexed in privity
to the estate of the land , and to the person touching the
land, for which cestui que trust has no remedy but by
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subpoena in chancery ''.
Trusts a.re divided,·in re erence to their creation,
into (1) express trusts; (2) implied trusts; (3) resulting
trusts; and (4) constructive trusts. An express trust is one
which is created in express terms in the deed, writing or will.
The terms, to create an express trust, will be oufficient if
it can be fairly collected upon the face of the instrument
that a trust was created. Implied trus t s are defined by Perry
to be "Trusts that the courts imply from the words of an in
strument, where no express trust is declared but such words
are used that the court infers or implies that it was the pur
pose or intention of the parties to create a trust ''. Result
ing trusts are defined by Perry to be ' Trusts that the courts
presume to arise out of the transactions of parties, as if
one man pays the purchase money for an estate, and the deed
is taken in the name of another. Courts presume that a trust
is intended for the person who pays the money". constructive
trust is defined by Perry to be "One that arises when a person
clothed with some fiduciary character, by fraud or otherwise
gains some advantage to himself. Courts construe this to be
an advantage for the cestui que trust or a constructive trust."
The express trusts, with which 1 shall deal mostly,
is also knovm as a direct trust, that is a trust which is
created by an instrument that states directly and expressly
the property, persons and purposes of the trust. These ex
press trusts may be ei t .er discretionary or i1nperative, ab
solute or on condition.
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The com.on law rules regarding the purposes for which
express trusts may be created have been car·ried over into the
body of the law of most of the states f the Union. However,
in the State of California the Civil Code, section 857, provides
for what purposes express trusts may be created, and they are
listed as follows:
"l. To sell and convey real property and to hold or
reinvest or ap )ly or dispose of the proceeds in accordance
with the instrument creatin the trust.
2. To mortgage or lease real property for the bene
fit of annuitants, or devisees or legatees, or other bene
ficiaries, OT for the purpose of satisfying any charge
thereon.
3. The receive the rents and profits of real pro
perty, and pey them to, or apply them to the use of any
person, whether ascertained at the time of the creation
of the trust or not, for himself or for his family dur
ing the life of such person, or for any shorter term,
subject to the rules of title two of division two of
part one of this code.
4. To receive the rents and profits of real pro
perty and to accumulate the same for the purposes and
within the limits prescribed by the same title; or
5. To convey, partition, divide, distribute or
allot real property in accordance with the instrument
creating the trust, subject to the l imitations of the
same title."
It can therefore be seen fr o a readin' of the fo r e
going section that there are few restrictions in the State of
California regardin the subject of trusts. They can be created
for practically any lawful purpose, and can engage in any enter
prise that an individual, fir or corporation can be enga~ed in.
(c). Powers of Trustees.
A trustees powers, except in the ca e of construe-
tive or a re ulting trust, re determined entirely nd absol
utely by the terms of the declaration of trust. It mav provide
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that he use his own discretion as to the investments or other
uses to which he may put the body of the trust. In this case
he is subject to the same responsibility as an executor or
guardian would be, and the measure by which the courts are
forced to determine whether or not he has abused hi s discre
tion is to determine vvhether or not an ordinaril prudent man
in the same circumstances would have done like ise.
The trustee's power cannot be delegated. If the
trustee ne lects to execute imperative po\.Versthe court will
execute them, and imperative powers created for the benefit
of others will not ail by the neglect of the trustee. In
many cases a trustee is allowed to exercise a iscretionary
power though none is given him in the declaration of trust,
and in no case will the court interfere with honest and rea
sonable exercise of discreti n. In short, a trustee's po ers
are measured by his duties, but the duty and the power must
be strictly performed.
(d). Duration of Trusts.
In order to prevent property from becomin unalien
able the English courts early began to establish the rule
against perpetuities. ~ perpetuity has been declared to be
"as estate unalienable, though all mankind should join in tne
conveyance''. It has been said to be na thing odious in the
law, and destructive to the commonwealth. It ·would stop com
merce and prevent the circulation of property". In short, it
has been described by .. r. Saunders as "a future limitation,
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restraining the owner of the estate fro alienatin the fee
simple of the property, discharged of such future use or estate
b efore the event i s determined or the period is arrived when such
future use or estate is to a ise. If t~~t period is within the
bound described by la , it is not a perpetuity." It must be re-
embered, however, that the rule a ainst perpetuities only ap
plies to cases in which the po er of alienation is suspended,
and that the creation of a truvt does not neces~arily result
in such suspension, for, as i s said by Perry , "a trustee may
have the right to alienate'. Tne rule a ~ainst perpetuities is
everywhere different. At co _on law the courts gradually estab lished and held as follows: Tha t the alienation of property
could not be susp ended f or a loner period than for the life or
lives of persons in being and twenty-one years and nine months
t'ereafte r . In ie v York t e rule is tat t he a~ienation of pro
perty cannot bes pendeu for more than two lives and a minority.
In California, the Civil Code, ection 715, up to A pril, 1917,
p1ovided that the absolute power of alienation could not be sus
pended by any l imitation or condition whatsoever for a loner
p riod than the duration or continuance of the lives of arsons
in being at t he creation of the limitation or condition. H owever,
in that year this ection v1as an1ended b the state le islature
nd now reads as follo,vs: 'Exc ept in the single case mentioned
in section 772, t he absolute pov,er of alienation cannot be sus
pended by any limitation or condition whatsoever f or a loner
period than s follows: 1. Durin the continuance of the lives
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of persons in bei1 at the er t i. n l e l i · · ,a.ti n
dition, or ( ) for a perio d not to exceed t wenty-five year
f rom the time of t he creation of the st 1spension."
However, as has been before pointed out, while t he
rule against per petuity prevented the accwnulating of re at
property hold ·n ~s and o restriotin~ t he develo pment of a
community or state, it is not necessary t h t t his rule be
fatal to t he t rust, so long as is included in t he declaration
of trust a discretionar y power to the trust ee to alienate any
or all of the trust at any time.
D I PO I TION O ~ E I i001IB OF T RUST ~STA TES .
(a). Cases in whic h the b eneficiary becomes a sub-trustee.
It has been custom with testators durin the l ast
hundr ed years to devise their property with a trust, the ords
of which gen .rally read as follo vvs: "I hereby devise, be queat h ,
etc., all of my property, of whatsoever nat ure, or Vi heresoever
situate, to my beloved wife (or son,etc.) to be held in tr ust,
however, for t he use and benefit of my sai d wife and ~hi l dren ,
and I direct m y said trustee t o keep and manage said estate ,
using the income ther efrom for the suppor t and ma i ntenance of
her my s aid wife and my s aid children", or reading to the ef
fect: "I dir ect that my said trustee shall keep a nd ana e
said e state, using t he income therefrom , or so m uch as may be
necessary, for the s upport and m intenance of my trustee and
my children, etc •• " This has led to the debatable u ,stion
as to whether or not t he testator in inserting uch a clau e
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in a tru t inton 'to ive hu tr tee the ull benefit, ri ht
and use of that portion of the income from the trust over a.nd
above the amount necessary to execute the other directions
which are set forth.
One of the oldest cases taking up the uestion of
where an estate is held in trust and the income therefrom is
to be applied to the support of the trustee and other benefi
ciaries is Byne v. · lackburn, re orted i 26 Beav. Rep. 41.
In this case a testator bequeathed a sum to trustees for his
daughter for life, and afterward~ to pay the dividends to her
husband durin his life, nevertheless to be applied b; them
for or towards the maintenance, education or benefit of the
daughter's children. There was a ift to the children after
the decease of the survivor of the ~ aughter and her husband.
Held: That the husband took for lifebeneficially and that he
could not have intended the father to act as a sub-trustee,
and if he had intended that t e chiMren have a direct and
positive interest in the fund durin the lie of their father
he would have directed his own trustees to make the payment to
the children.
See also Fitzpatrick v. Hope, 39 Texas Rep. 333;
Hendricks v. Isaacs, 6 L •.• A. -59• Clarke v.Leupp, 88 N.Y.R.228.
The above cited cases apparently would lead one to
believe that such clauses in a trust as have been mentioned
i r such cases would leave to the trustee the absolute right
to any portion of the inc me which by his thrift and ood an-
a ement he would be able to save over and above that necessary
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-or the s~pport and aintennnce o th
n rie ,
t-
ever burden has been placed upon the trust. However, it can
be seen th -t if such construction were placed upon trust estates
it Viould mean that the ri hts of the other bene iciaries under
the trust would be jeopardized and in some cases the power of
the trustee would become so unli.ited as to give the other ben
e iciaries practically no right of redress in the event o said
trustee's failure to properl r·ana e or onestly nana e said
trust.
In opposition to this theory, t rerefore, see the fol
lovving cases:
Chase v. Chase, 2 len 101. In this case the pro-
perty was iven to trustees to pay the i ncome yearly to a son
for the support of himself and family and the educ ation of his
children " . The court said in part:
'he intent of the te,tator to ive the benefit of
the income of the tru t fund created b his will to the
wife and children o his son Philip, as ~ell as t his
son, i clear and une quivocal . It as in ended for
their joint support, and for the education of the chil
dren. The only ue tion arising on the construction of
the will is N hether the inc me of tne trust fund, when
received by the son, is held bs lutely by him to e
isposed of at hi · ~cretion, or whether he takes ·t
in tru ts that the ife and children can seek to en
force its due appropriation, in part for their benefit,
in a court of e.quity. re cannot doubt that the latter
is the true con truction."
It mi ht be added that tr is case i cited by both
PerrJ and each in their text books on Trusts and Trustees .
and they both lay down the rule that tri is the law.
yde v. rason, 131 ass. 450. In this case the tes
tator ave to his son the income of certain stocks durin his
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life "the princi pal of
1
aid st k to be h ld b y r1 - cu tor
durin his li .e and at hi s decease I ivethe same to his child
or c hildren who shall survive him rovided that, if said
son shall leave his wifes rviving him , that his aid ife shall
be entitled to her support out of the same so long as she shall
re ain his widow." The son died after the testator leavin a
widow and infant child, o whom she was appointed uardian and
ave bond. H eld: '' I'he le ac~')T to the ch· 1d is iven enerally;
he effect of the s ubsequent provision is to i npose upon the
l e~atee the trust or duty of supportin his mother. If he should
ne ·lect his duty she could en orce it b y a roper bill in e qui t ~rn .
Chase v. Chase, 2 llen 101 io cited in support of this contention.
Buffington v. 11axa.m, 140 , ss. 557. In thi case a
testator had trree daughters, A, B nd c. His ill vas a s f ol
lows: a o my daug hter A I give my half of the farm, together
with produce, stock a nd arming i plements thereon, and the rest
and residue of all my pro~erty, whether real or per onal, of vhat
ever name or nature, for t he support of m dau hter C, except the
~a llowing legacies'. Held: here personal property is be ueathed
t o one f or tne s upport of another a trust is imposed upon the pro
perty, and the taker holds it in trust for the purposes named."
Proctor v. Proctor, 141 J'ass. 165. A testator b y his
will gave to trustees certain property i n trust to divide the net
income therefrom equall between the brother and the te ta.tor's
ife, the sum paid to the widow to be for her support and the
support of the testator's chil.dren. Held that the incom e di
rected by the will to re paid to the widow was eceived b her
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on a trust and the children had a vested bene icial interest in
it.
See also _ .. a old v. Hanna, 55 Fed. 790; Brooks v.
•
,
Raynolds, 59 Fed •• ep . 929; Bon er v. Kinnear, 2 Gi r. 1
ushman v. Filiter, 3 Ves. Jr. 7; Leach v. Leach, 13 Sim.
04·
'
Raikes v. V ard, 1 H re 445; ,oods v. oods, 1
1. c. 401;
Carr v. Living 28 eav. 644; Cole v. Littlefield, 35 1e. 439 .
(b). Extent to which income of trust estate is subject to
trustee's direction. ·
It i · safe to say that the case of Chcse v. Chase,
supra, has b8en cited no less than two hundred times by the
different courts of the United States in support of the conten
tion that the trustee holds the same relation to the income of
the trust property a s he does to the principal of the trust pro
perty,and th t if b y his thrift and mana ement he can accumulate
more roperty, his portion of that property,in such a case where
he is also a beneficiary, will only be that same proportion or
same interest as he has i n the principal of the trust estate.
Therefore, t~ better rule, and what seems no ~ to be the most
popular rule with the courts, is that the trustee shall always
be held t o the same accountability for the income of the tr st
roperty as he will be for the principal of the trust property.
BUSI IBSS TRUSTS.
(a). Trusts and Partnerships.
Very recently there has come into the field of business
so-called new type of or anization which is called the business
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trust. It i s i n fact but a carrying over of the old trust idea
a nd a pplying it in a si1nilar manner as ha s been the corporate or
par tn ership or anization. It has been developed prinarily because
of the growing dissatisf action with the corporate form of or ~ an
ization. I n the t·rst place it i s extremely clumsy in its func
tions. I t exi st s onl y in cont e plation of l aw, and therefore can
have no real rights or exi stence be yond t he boundaries of the
sovereignty which created it -- it i s not a citizen of the United
States within the meaning of Art i cle 4, Section 2 of the Constitu tion, and, therefore, is not entitled to privileges and i mmunities
of citizens of the United States. It can do business in th s t ates
other than that of its creation only as a matter of comity . Fur
thermore the public is prejudiced a ainst a corporation. It is
continually attacked by the le islatu e and the newspaper, and
the f eel ing is reflected m any- times by the decisions of the courts
and of juries. It has bee n sai d that
11
corp oration does not
smart under public disapprobation like a business m an. Lik e t ne
Judge i n the parable it ·eareth not God and regardet h not man.
It doesn't have a religion , a nd even Go d cannot put a corporation
i n Hell." In othe r ~ or ds, the eeling- i t ha t a corporation can
be co mposed of retired missi onaries, peace advocates and dear old
ladies, a nd y e t al l of their philant hropy would caus e no vibrati n
on the business end of the concern.
It is the above described feeling that has caused the
corporation to be run to death to make state and United States
overnment inquisitorial reports. In f act, in 1 918 the three
hundred an i ty thousand corporations in t he United States,
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1th
r
rose incomes of ~79,500,000,000 and net incomes of ; l0,730,000,00<
id to the federal overnment alone in taxes over · ·2 ,142 ,000 ,000.
As to the partnership, it is not at all suited to lar e
enterprises. In the fir t place, under the California law ever
eneral partner is separately liable for all of the indebt dness.
In the second place, one person can incur too r.any liab.lities and
has too much influence over the success or failure of the enter rise.
It is bee use of the ab ve reasons that the idea of creating a busi
ness trust has ained s o much round in recent years.
(b). ~dvantages of the trust.
To begin with, it is, at the present time, subject to
none of the inquisitorial and other laws to which a corporation
1 ust adhere to. It can issue shares in much the same anner that
shares can be issued by a corporation. There can be no limit to
its size. It is citizen of the United States because it is act-
ing through i ndividuals and has the s am e ri hts as an individual.
here can be no stockholders' i bility because the trust pro perty
is the only propert that can be liable for ·ts debts. ur ther-
n1or e , it is not subj ct to the same taxation laws to hich a cor
poration is subject. In act, a business trust at present is
subject t o fe of the inconveniences, and has all of the adv
t a e , of corporation or · ar tner
. .
l. •
( C) •
operation.
The orJation of the business trust is particularl de-
scribed by one author as follows:
urt i .. created by the exec ution o· a declaration of
trust, usually by three or ore trustees, to whom there
has been, r will presently be, transferred o paid the
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property or money to consvitu e the corpus of the trust.
It recites (1) the pro erty to constitute the corpus of
the tru t and that the corpu shall be by the trustees
m naged and disposed of for the benefit of the holders
rom ti. e to tire of the transferable certificates of
shares, or beneficial interest issued and to be issued
by the trustee thereunder· ( ) if desired, the number of
shares or of beneficial interests that. ay be issued;
their character, whether com ,on or preferred, or both
(for both may be issued}; and the nominal or par value
if they are to have an expressed par value; (3) the busi
ness to be conducted b the trustees and an elaborate re
citation of the powers the may exercise in its prosecu
tion and in the manage1nent of the corpus; (4) usually
clause providing that creditors shall look only to the
funds n~ property of the trust for payment, and re uir
ing the trustees to incor orate in their contracts a re
vision to this effect; (5) that the shareholders shall
have no title to the trust property but onl the ri ht at
the ter1nination of the trust to share pro rata in the pro
ceeds of the sale of the property thereo , and m eanwhile
to income, which shall be distributed hen and as provided
therein· and that the death of a. sh reholder s all not
operate to terminate the trust or entitle his le gal re re
sentative to an accounting· (6) enerally a name and pro
vision for the auoption of a ~eal; (7) the trustees' con
pensation and the manner and tir e of choosin trustees and
filling vacancies; ( ) the extreme limit ~f time durin
which the trust may continue usu.all not more than twent -
one years after the death of the last surviving original
trustee. Such other provisions as ppear appropriate and
desirable may, of course, be added."
·A decl ration of trust would generally read in a simi-
1 r manner as a certificate or rticles o incorporation. To
further describe the trust I have taken the liberty to quote from
Jude , orks' rticle on the subject, which reads as follows:
"That the four persons executing the decl · ration are
to be the trustees, but that the term 'the trustee' when
ever hereinafter used, shall mean the trustee or trustees
hereunder for the tL e being, whether original or substi
tuted· that the term 'shareholder' * * 'shall mean holder
of record of the share receipt or share certificate from
the trustees hereunder; that the trustees may issue pre
ferred snares nd common shares of the par value of one
hundred dollars; that the total pr ferred shares shall not
exceed the amount of ·200,000; that the trustees may 'sell
the same at public or provate sale or exchange for other
sh res, securities, contracts, ervices or personal pro
perty upon such terms and or sue· rices an considera-
tions as they may deem expedient, ,, , - . th t the trustees
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shall have certain powers, which re state in ractically
the S[lIIle manner as the purposes of corpor tions are set
forth in articles of incorporation filed under our laws;
that the trustees may adopt by-laws for the ~overnment of
themselves and their a ants; that they may represent the
shareholders in all litigation, employi ~ counsel therefor
and that the may compromise all 1natters or submit them to
arbitration; that they may determine what oney or thins
constitute capital income and what ross or net income;
that the number, absence and incapacity of trustees, and
vacancies, shall all be re ulated and handled accordin to
a comprehensive s~stem provided by the declaration, the
only provisions necessary to mention bein that vacancies
in the number o.f trustees other than by re1noval are to be
filled by th J trustees, but that removals may be effected
by the common shareholders, re ulting vacancies to be filled
by the ; that the trustees may call eetin s of common share
holders at an y tim e and shall do so upon the re quest of
twent -five per cent of the common shares outstandin~, notice
and votin by proxy bein provided for; that the trustees
shall fix the compensation of all fficers or a~ents they
may appoint and their own compensation as well; that share
holders hereunder shall not be liable for any assess ent and
the trustees shall have no power to bind the shareholders
personally; that every act done, power exercised, or obli a
tion assumed by the trustees, pursuant to the provisions of
this agreement, or in carryin out the trusts herein con
tained, shall be held to be done,,exercised, or assumed,
as the case may be, by them as trustees, and not as indi-
vi uals, and every per on or corpo~ation contracting with
the trustees, as vell as every beneficiary thereunder, shall
look only to the fund and property of the trust for payment
under such contract, or for the payment of any debt, mort-
age, judgment, or decree, or the payment of any money that
may otherwise become due or payable on account of the trusts
herein provided for, and any other obligations arising under
this a ree ient in hole or in part; n neither the trustees
nor t~e shareholders, present or future, shall be personally
liable therefor; · : · "
The above, in as all way, il ustrates how the business
trust functions, and also ives an inklin as to the .ording of
the declaration of trust. Of course, the most obvious thing to
void in the drafting of a decl ration of trust of this kind is
to see th tit has no element in it which oul cause the courts
to construe the trust as a partnership or corporation. In Cali-
fornia t e co e
ction which w s p eviously cited in this article
is practically the only 1 w outside of the co on la which has
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any direct bearing on this subject, and the courts have ~s yet
not been called upon to construe in any way the le al entity of
a business trust.
CO ~CLUSION.
Swnmin up all tat has been said on the subject of
trust e tates , it mi ght be said that in gen ral their formation
and durat ion is as f ollows: The propert y i · conveyed to the trust
in the s ne manner as propert y is conve ed from one perso n to ano
ther. The po rver s of the trustees and their "' uties re ardin the
trust are controlled absolutely and entirely by the declaration
of trust itself. As to the duration of the trust , uch depends
upo n the lex rei sitae. The co on lavv follo .. s t e rule a ·ainst
.._
perpetuities and in t l is state the 1 : prevents the t yin up of
any pro erty for a loner period than the life or lives of per-
sons in being, or for a period of t went -five years. s to the
dispositi n of t e income of t .rust estates the better and pre-
ent rule sees to be that t he inco e of a tru t e ·t ate is s ub ject to the sa e rules that tne pri· cipal of the trust is, and
that for the trustee to digress from that rule 1ould make hi m
pe rso nally liable.
Finally, as to tne busine s trust, it can be seen that
ccordin ~ to t he resent law they ndoubtedly have any advan-
ta es over corporation or a p rtnership, but one must bear in
ind tat there are fe, decisions on the sub ·ect and the le isla
ures have passed practically no la· or l~vs controllin them.
rthenn e, the fed ral ove ' nment has not as ye t been calle d
-16-
upon to construe or to pass statutes rel tin to the lli , and
theref re what these statutes will be li ke and what for1 the
decisions of the courts will take, i still lar ely a matter
ot speculation, which in any event is an extre ely dangerous
procedure. W hile at some future date the law may become s o
definitely settled as to enable one t o build a busine s trt
upon a f irm foundation, it is, in yo in" n, as yet too earl
a date t o e t e too ar into tnis fie l d.
J.
-17-
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Asset Metadata

Creator Haight, Raymond L. (author)

Core Title Trust estates

Contributor Digitized in 2022 (provenance)

School School of Law

Degree Juris Doctor

Degree Conferral Date 1921

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112719528

Unique identifier UC112719528

Identifier Law J.D. '21 H149 (call number),etd-HaightRaymond-1921.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-HaightRaymond-1921

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Haight, Raymond L.

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230127-usctheses-microfilm-box6a (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email uscdl@usc.edu

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses