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Sustainable fabrication: the development of bio textiles as a call to action

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Copyright 2022 Paola Espinosa

Sustainable Fabrication:
The Development of Bio Textiles as a Call to Action
by
Paola Espinosa

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSKI SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF FINE ARTS
(DESIGN)

December 2022

ii

DEDICATION

To the generation that comes after me, may you live in a world where respect is valued for all
humans and all other parts of the Earth.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my Mom, Dad, and Johnny for their endless support and motivation
throughout my studies.
I would like to extend my gratitude to my committee members Jason Fowler Ellenburg,
China Adams, Alexis Zoto, and Melancha Gupta for their support and feedback while
guiding me through the process of drafting this thesis. Their patience and wisdom were
invaluable throughout my academic journey. I would also like to thank Laurie Buruss, Brian
O’Connell and our director Ewa Wojciak for believing in me and giving me the tools
necessary to succeed.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... v
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 How Did We Get Here ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 A New Way to Live ......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Destination ....................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2: UNIFICATION: INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES AND NATURE................ 4
2.1 The People of the Amazon ............................................................................................... 4
2.2 The Maya ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Reciprocity Between Humans and Nature in 2022 .......................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3: THE PARADOX OF CHOICE .......................................................................... 9
3.1 Acceleration of Trend Cycles .......................................................................................... 9
3.3 Zero Waste ..................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Interlacing Design and Science ...................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4: TO DRINK OR TO WEAR.............................................................................. 20
4.1 Kombucha Leather ......................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Process and Development .............................................................................................. 20
4.3 Designing with Scoby .................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 5: FOOD WASTE TO FASHION ........................................................................ 29
5.1 Preparation ..................................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Practice ........................................................................................................................... 29
5.3 Outcome ......................................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 36
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 37

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Replenish the Earth 2021 ........................................................................................... 11
Figure 2 World Resource Institute ........................................................................................... 12
Figure 3 Discarded Textiles from Hill City ............................................................................. 15
Figure 4 Bucket Hats Developed and Sold from Discarded Textiles ...................................... 16
Figure 5 Top, Jacket, and Skirt Developed from Discarded Textiles ...................................... 16
Figure 6 Dress Made from Discarded Jeans and Scraps .......................................................... 17
Figure 7 Developmental Process of a Zero-waste Bag ............................................................ 17
Figure 8 Fabric Scraps Sewn Together with Biodegradable Fabric ........................................ 18
Figure 9 Fabric Scraps Sewn Together with Biodegradable Fabric ........................................ 18
Figure 10 Completed Purse with Kombucha Wallet ............................................................... 19
Figure 11 Scoby Growth at Week 4 ......................................................................................... 21
Figure 12 Scoby Getting Cleaned After Completed Growth ................................................... 21
Figure 13 Scoby is Dyed Though a Tie-dye Method ............................................................... 22
Figure 14 Scoby is Being Dyed Through a Dip Dye Method .................................................. 23
Figure 15 Woven Scoby........................................................................................................... 23
Figure 16 Tie-died Scoby......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 17 Complete Leather After Being Dried and Coated ................................................... 25
Figure 18 Pleated and Sewn Leather ....................................................................................... 26
Figure 19 Completed Leather Wallet ....................................................................................... 27
Figure 20 Completed Garment Using Kombucha Leather ...................................................... 28
Figure 21 Sample 1 of Avocado Leather ................................................................................. 30
Figure 22 Sample 2 of Avocado Leather ................................................................................. 30
Figure 23 Sample 3 of Avocado Leather ................................................................................. 31
Figure 24 Preparation of Egg Leather ...................................................................................... 32

vi
Figure 25 Gathering Necessary Eggs ....................................................................................... 32
Figure 26 Turning Eggs into Powder ....................................................................................... 33
Figure 27 Eggs are Being Sifted to Remove Large Pieces ...................................................... 33
Figure 28 Fine Egg Powder ..................................................................................................... 34
Figure 29 Powder Being Poured into a Small Pan ................................................................... 34
Figure 30 Boiling Ingredients .................................................................................................. 34
Figure 31 The Contents are Then Poured into the Desired Mold to Set .................................. 35
Figure 32 Final Egg Leather .................................................................................................... 35
Figure 33 (L to R) Coffee leather, Egg Leather, Onion Leather, Citrus Leather ..................... 36

vii
ABSTRACT
What is our connection to the environment? Humans have an innate need to connect
to other forms of life on this planet like plants and animals. As technology progressed and
humans created a more industrialized world, this connection to the environment dwindled.
This thesis focuses on the exploration of the human connection to sustainable design and the
potential transformation of the individual “self” when wearing consciously made clothing.
Research in cultures that historically coexisted with the Earth provides an opportunity to
compare the industrialized western way of life to these cultures and explore what results in a
more ecologically responsive lifestyle. An outcome of this research is an ongoing project -
developing bio textiles made from waste for the utilization of clothing. With experimentation
and exploration, these new materials have the potential to replace polluting textiles and drive
innovation in an exceedingly pollutive industry.

Keywords: Sustainable Fashion, Bio textiles. Biomaterial, Kombucha Leather, Material
Futures, Zero Waste, Food Waste Textile

1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 How Did We Get Here
“The best way to predict the future is to create it” – Peter Drucker
It is difficult to say that one single factor has led me to design and, more specifically,
to sustainable design. Creativity and innovation led me to design, but our current
circumstances were the catalyst for furthering my exploration of sustainable design. Climate
change and its existence are unavoidable, and the current pandemic which has led humans
towards a state of complete isolation left me with an array of questions about the future. With a
newfound opportunity to explore faults in our political, social, and economic systems, we are
now left with the ability to implement radical change. My research and project attempt to
challenge these ideas and inspire a future that I currently can only dream of. This thesis
targets one key idea: our society’s current view of clothing.
Fashion allows individuals to identify with their community, express their beliefs, and
emotions to those who may not be familiar with them. Clothing is a window into how an
individual may see themselves and a doorway that gives them protection from the outside
world. It is our primal nature to yearn for material goods; spending long periods of time
isolated due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, has only exacerbated this desire. My thesis
project explores the connection between fashion design, our environmental responsibility,
and our connection to living an ecologically responsive lifestyle. Is it possible to live in a
world where unconscious material consumption does not harm the environment but rather
brings us closer to it?

2
Fast fashion and textile waste are some of the leading causes of pollution. Textile
mills cause one-fifth of the world's industrial water pollution, along with 20,000 chemicals-
mainly carcinogenic- used to produce clothing
1
. The pandemic has brought many of these
issues to light. Consumers have an increased desire for sustainability, yet conscious living has
been impacted by the bi-products of cheap fashion and the enormous Amazon-fueled spike in
home deliveries. This has led to the increased success of fast fashions and our adoration with
companies who carry everything all in one place like Amazon because they are both
convenient and affordable
2
.
My thesis was influenced by the desire to analyze my own shopping habits. What I
discovered was an almost complete halt in my own consumption of clothing. Due to my
awareness of the clothing industry's destructive nature and my decision to build a career in
this same industry, I felt a pang of guilt to not only produce clothing but also to simply stop
purchasing so much of it. Rather than further contributing to the problem, I had to find a way
to become part of the solution. Most sustainable brands continue to add to the issue of
overproduction and the cost of these products can often be inaccessible to the everyday
consumer. I began to research solutions to these significant problems that explored forward-
thinking options like designing with natural fibers and paying workers a livable wage.
Ultimately, I landed on a group of designers, artists, and scientists who want to
reinvent the industry and leave no impact on the environment at all by following one simple
idea: clothing that biodegrades. Live organisms are used to grow biodegradable textiles,
resulting in environmentally friendly materials made in the laboratory and some even without
factory assembly. These researchers believe that tomorrow's apparel could be bioengineered

1
Linda Greer et al., “Encourage Textile Manufacturers to Reduce Pollution,” NRDC, June 16, 2017,
https://www.nrdc.org/issues/encourage-textile-manufacturers-reduce-pollution, 1.
2
Karen Weise, “Amazon's Profit Soars 220 Percent as Pandemic Drives Shopping Online.,” The New York
Times (The New York Times, April 29, 2021), https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/29/technology/amazons-
profits-triple.html.

3
from materials like food waste, yeast, fungi, living bacteria, animal cells, and algae. When the
materials are discarded, they break down into non-toxic substances and are fed back into the
environment.
1.2 A New Way to Live
Climate change is often viewed as an overwhelming problem, too giant and intimidating
to tackle, leading many to brush it off as someone else’s problem or ignore its existence
entirely. Global warming’s effects and projections leave the current generation without the
luxury of neglecting its presence any longer.
The time is past when humankind thought it could selfishly draw on exhaustible
resources. We know now that the world is not a commodity; it is not a source of revenue;
it is a common good; it is our heritage. And the consequences of climate change are fully
known now – we are not talking about theories anymore; we are talking about certainties.
- François Hollande
Humans and nature have always had an innate connection wherein one cannot function
without the other. We need to shift the conversation of climate change from one that seems
daunting to something more personal because it affects every living thing on this planet.
Through the design process, my thesis showcases an intimate relationship between clothing,
nature, and the alleviation of further destruction of the Earth.
1.3 Destination
The following project and accompanying thesis can be divided into various categories
that inform its organization and conclusion. The first category is research: examining the
indigenous communities of the Amazon and the Mayan people. Specifically, researching their
coexistence with the earth and how the relationship led to the rise of their historic
civilizations, provides a counterpoint for comparison with the modern western world. The
second category is the exploitation of new materials: aligning science and design. The final

4
category is looking to the future: imagining what the future could look like post-
implementation.
CHAPTER 2: UNIFICATION: INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES AND NATURE
2.1 The People of the Amazon
The Amazon is the most biodiverse terrestrial of havens which spans eight countries-
Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname- and French
Guiana, an overseas territory of France. This extraordinary landscape is home to more
mammals, birds, and plants than anywhere else in the world. You can find 10% of the world's
biodiversity there and 30% of the world's species
3
. It plays a crucial role in absorbing carbon
and moderating the climate, and it cycles about one-quarter of the Earth's freshwater.
To understand the relationship between humans and their environment, we must look
at the indigenous tribes that inhabited the land before us. The indigenous people of the
Amazon had mutual respect for their environment and themselves. Scientists and
anthropologists studied early Amazonian tribes and found that they lived without leaving any
detectable loss or disturbances to their environment. Scientists who did studies in Peru found
that after searching layers of soil for microscopic fossils of anthropogenic debris there was no
evidence that the environment was significantly altered
4
. The immense knowledge about their
forest and environment allowed the indigenous people to help preserve their biodiversity by
designing their community to support all the life forms on the land.
Many hunter-gatherer groups lived nomadic lifestyles in small settlements for 4-5
years until they used their natural resources and then moved to a new location. Due to
colonization and deforestation, many modern-day tribes are now in danger of extinction.

3
“Amazon,” WWF (World Wildlife Fund), https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/amazon.
4
Dolores R. Piperno et al., “A 5,000-Year Vegetation and Fire History for Tierra Firme Forests in the Medio
Putumayo-Algodón Watersheds, Northeastern Peru,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no.
40 (July 2021), https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022213118.

5
Colonization led many local tribes to be forced into sedentary lifestyles. These changes have
not only destroyed their traditional lifestyles, but also forced them to lose control of their
territory. When the Europeans arrived in South America, about 6.8 million indigenous people
were already there. The colonists brought diseases that the tribes were not immune to and
enforced slavery and persecution, leaving communities close to the rivers as the first
affected
5
. Deforestation of the Amazon is occurring at an alarming rate, and climate change is
threatening the survival of millions of species. Many developmental projects add to the
environmental loss as deforestation is 20 times higher outside of indigenous areas
6
.
The immense knowledge that indigenous communities share about their land and their
spiritual connection to the environment allows them to live ecologically responsive lifestyles.
They are living proof that humans can and should respect the land they reside on. To ensure
the survival of the planet’s remaining forests, we must ensure the safety of the indigenous
people who live there. Non-indigenous people must stop stealing the land of those who
protect it and, in turn, learn how to heal the land that we currently inhabit.
From learning about the tribes in the Amazon, I understood that I had to change my
thinking to address climate change issues. I considered, what were ways that clothing had
impacted the environment, and what was locally available to me that could be used to
develop new material? Reconnecting with the environment could help to understand nature. I
wanted to find a way to accentuate this connection through clothing. Clothing made using
materials from our environment can help change our relationship with the environment
around us. Studies have shown that clothing has a symbolic meaning for the wearer and
therefore can affect the wearer's behavior
7
. If we focus on developing clothing that is

5
“Amazon People,” WWF,
https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/about_the_amazon/people_amazon/.
6
Survival International, “Deforestation,” Survival International,
https://www.survivalinternational.org/about/deforestation.
7
Kim Johnson, Sharron J Lennon, and Nancy Rudd, “Dress, Body and Self: Research in the Social Psychology
of Dress,” Fashion and Textiles 1, no. 1 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-014-0020-7.

6
significantly focused on the reduction of climate change, it can also change the wearers
perception on the environment. Following this idea, I wanted to look at the textiles that the
Maya developed since they had a direct connection to using and preserving materials that
honor the land.
2.2 The Maya
The Maya believed that all of nature was sacred. Their belief system is called
animism, which is the belief that objects, places, and creatures possess a distinct spiritual
essence or soul
8
. For the Maya, everything is considered alive and respected, such as weather
systems, rocks, plants, and animals. This awareness created a sense of unity between them
and the Earth. From about 600-900 AD, the Maya had a large civilization of people who held
a unanimous understanding that their existence would not be possible without the nature that
housed them. Surrounded by dense farmsteads, the Calakmul and Caracol were some of the
largest cities housing 80,000-120,000 people
9
. These large cities had palaces, temples, ball
courts, plazas, and reservoirs. Their stone homes were highly decorated and valued as
materials that were honored in a ritualistic manner. To sustain their environment, they learned
to engage with the rainforests, creating an equal ground between them and everything else on
the earth. This acknowledgment led their hunting and gathering to be done with respect and
reciprocity. Nothing was overused, all resources were allowed adequate time to regenerate.
Their civilization has no known trace of causing extinction to the ecosystem
10
. The Maya did
not rely on one of anything, diversity was their solution to creating a sustainable way of life.

8
“Maya Religion,” HISTORY'S HISTORIES: Maya Religion, http://www.historyshistories.com/maya-
religion.html.
9
Carol Hills, “Scientists Turn to the Ancient Mayans for Lessons on Sustainability Carol Hills,” Scientists turn
to the ancient Mayans for lessons on sustainability, July 5, 2021, https://theworld.org/stories/2021-07-
05/scientists-turn-ancient-mayans-sustainability-lessons.
10
Carol Hills, “Scientists Turn to the Ancient Mayans for Lessons on Sustainability Carol Hills,” Scientists turn
to the ancient Mayans for lessons on sustainability, July 5, 2021, https://theworld.org/stories/2021-07-
05/scientists-turn-ancient-mayans-sustainability-lessons.

7
Textiles, just like their way of life, were complex and ritualistic. The intricate patterns
and bright colors adorned more than just their bodies, but also their stone houses in the form
of rugs and carpets. Traditionally, the craft was an important ritual passed from mother to
daughter. The art of weaving for the Maya was and still is a ritualistic process. The various
designs and motifs hold symbolic religious importance. The teaching of this craft is often
passed down from mother to daughter. Today the development of textiles holds little to no
value to the creator or the machine that has created it. This causes the exploitation of
resources, and the consumer has no connection to the garment created. The lack of
knowledge about the developmental process of the materials allows for the disconnection to
be almost inevitable. Access to an understanding of the supply chain process can reignite the
urge for connection needed to create change within the industry. Today, as we look for
answers to reinviting a sustainable fashion industry, it is crucial to recognize the indigenous
communities who continue to nurture a holistic relationship between craft and product, a task
in westernized society often believed impossible.
For the Maya, reciprocity was fundamental to maintaining their connection between
humans and nature. Their knowledge and ceremonies that developed through this reciprocal
relationship allowed the civilization to protect their natural resources, lands, and territories.
With the ability to view and acknowledge indigenous knowledge and customs as valuable
resources, we have the potential to recultivate a partnership with nature that will assist in
healing our Earth
11
. The ancestors were stewards of their environment, creating sustainable
lifestyles without the quick depletion of resources. By understanding and having a profound
respect for nature, we can reignite a sense of place and belonging. Ancient ways of life can

11
“Restoring Mother Earth: Wisdom from Maya Communities to Heal the Environment,” Multicolores,
September 3, 2021, https://multicolores.org/restoring-mother-earth-wisdom-from-maya-communities-in-
guatemala/.

8
inform modern methods of sustainability practices, influencing our use of natural resources
and nature conservation.
We all play an important role in restoring and healing Mother Earth. We are part of
the natural world and depend on other species and natural resources to survive. We
need a healthy Earth to support our livelihoods, health, and happiness. As we
celebrate this day with reflections, discussions and looking for solutions, it is
important that we also recognize the vital role that Indigenous Peoples around the
world play as custodians of the land and protectors of natural resources and make a
commitment to learning from their sustainable practices and empower them in their
knowledge and skills, as this is key four our future.
-Mae Ardón
2.3 Reciprocity Between Humans and Nature in 2022
In a westernized society, nature is used as a commodity. Humans have continuously
disconnected from nature as technology has progressed. We live from the abundance provided
by nature but are conditioned to think of it as our human right to take. Destroying rainforests,
ruining the natural habitats of animals, poisoning our waters, building roads and highways,
destroying environments for more space to throw waste, or adding homes, buildings, and
offices. As if the world is just a collection of objects.
The reality is that our world is an ecosystem that carries billions of living organisms, and
humans are just one of them. As humans, we have gained the ability to overpower nature with
the help of science, but we have exploited our power and left nature vulnerable to our
destruction. There is no time left to think about making changes, we must act now. By
looking into the past, we can see that the possibility of living in unison with the natural world
is not only possible but is also achievable. Taking steps into undoing the current mistakes
allows for the development of a fruitful world for nature and humans to live in reciprocity.

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Preserve and cherish the pale blue dot, the only home we've ever known
- Carl Sagan
When looking into the future, sustainable design is important as it seeks to reduce the
negative impacts on the environment. Clothing can be seen as a portable microenvironment
for the human body that could not only protect us from nature, but also bring us closer to it
12
.
By adjusting our design practices, specifically in the fashion industry, we will be able to
make strides towards bettering the climate crisis. In the United States alone, garments
purchases have tripled since the 1970s and globally more than 80 billion items of clothing are
purchased a year. The 2018 Pulse of the Fashion Industry Report states that seventy-five
percent of fashion supply chain material ends up in landfills. This amounts to the equivalent
of one garbage truck of textiles per second.
CHAPTER 3: THE PARADOX OF CHOICE
As the number of choices grows further, the negatives escalate until we become
overloaded.
― Barry Schwartz
3.1 Acceleration of Trend Cycles
A trend can be defined as a general direction in which something is developing or
changing; fashion trends are popular styles of clothing and accessories at a particular time. In
industry, trends were structured through fashion shows: Spring/Summer, Autumn/Winter,
Resort in the Spring, and Pre-Fall in the Winter. Since the late 1900s, everyday consumers
began to demand fashionable clothing at affordable prices. This rising demand revolutionized
supply chains and consumers' purchasing power leading to a new industry that prioritized
high fashion at a low price. The seasonal calendar that we knew before was no longer

12
Teruko Tamura, “Climate and Clothing,” Journal of the Human-Environment System 19, no. 1 (2016): pp.
001-011, https://doi.org/10.1618/jhes.19.001.

10
satisfactory as it no longer met the desires of consumers. Manufacturers had to adapt their
design, production, and delivery times to allow them to keep their costs low and production
high. This seemed to be the industry's answer to help their consumers. The new pressure
allowed them to increase their profits and sacrifice the quality of clothing produced. This
acceleration in the fashion cycle has led to more significant waste being produced.
Consumers now buy more pieces to keep up with the large volume of overlapping trends that
quickly go out of style.
During the pandemic, consumers fled to social media for entertainment. Social media
influencers have now become trendsetters as they are viewed wearing new clothing every
day. The people who look up to them are then sent to fast fashion websites to purchase the
trending item. For the first time, singular pieces are trending and rushing through the trend
cycle. The increased popularity and rapidness of production being introduced to consumers
though social media has played a role in trends lasting weeks or months instead of years.
Direct to consumer and e-commerce initiatives that were once trending have now morphed
into a survival strategy as many customers were forced to stay home, providing a dramatic
year-over-year growth with fifty to sixty percent
13
. Along with influencers, social media
users are being targeted with product ads that give them accessibility to purchase within the
platforms, so they no longer need to rely on the retailer’s websites.

13
Ina Benjamini, “How Covid Accelerated Changes in the Fashion Industry - Insight,” Keyrus,
https://keyrus.com/us/en/insights/how-covid-accelerated-changes-in-the-fashion-industry.

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Figure 1 Replenish the Earth 2021
In a study done by students at the Goa Institute of Management, they found that 65%
of social media users come across fashion brands at least once a day on their pages. This
accessibility to multiple products, with the gratification of instant purchase, puts consumers
in a difficult position. The choice to consume impetuously for instant gratification or
consciously consume with the possibility of never reaping results can make it difficult for
consumers to decipher the correct way to shop, as each decision comes with its own set of
consequences.

12
3.2 Clothes for Life vs. Clothes for Compost
As accessibility to clothing has increased through social media, so has the awareness
of the detrimental effects of fast fashion. Consumers now have quick access to explore
companies that want to change the industry for good. By realizing what our future can hold,
the changes in the fashion industry need to happen rapidly as the current system is not
working effectively. For example, currently, it takes about 2,700 liters of water to make a
single cotton t-shirt.

Figure 2 World Resource Institute
What are possible solutions and how can we effectively create change? We are seeing
a new wave of fashion companies developing products made from lasting materials in
addition to products that can biodegrade. Many companies are creating new initiatives to
ensure they are producing durable clothing with easy access to repair and recycling options.
For instance, Levi Strauss has created options for their customers to hold off throwing away
their jeans for as long as possible. Some initiatives they have taken include creating a Levi’s

13
tailor shop to take old products and design/repair them to their liking (they also share DIY
videos on YouTube
14
). Another example of a positive change can be seen in companies who
are developing materials that are biodegradable. Some of these materials are made from food
waste, bacteria, fungi, algae, and yeast. The idea behind these new materials is to develop
products that are environmentally sustainable. Depending on the catalyst used, the new
material grown in a laboratory has the potential to produce nearly complete garments without
the need for assisted assembly. Creating garments that are bioengineered propose solutions
that make the reduction of pollution and waste possible. Many of these materials can fit in
molds which allows for only the appropriate amount of textile to be created, thereby reducing
the excess waste. An example of this can be seen in algae-based yarn developed by Theanne
Schiros, an assistant professor at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York City, and
her team of students and faculty. In order to create this yarn, they use sugar that is derived
from kelp. The alginate powder is turned into a water-based gel, then dyed with a plant-based
color like carrot juice. They then extrude the gel into long strands of fiber that can be woven
into fabric
15
.
Some of the biodegradable materials that are beginning to appear in the market are
fruit leather. Fruit leathers are vegan leather alternatives; one of the most popular is pineapple
leather. Piñatex is a natural fiber made from the waste of pineapple leaf fibers developed by
Dr. Carmen Hijosa. This innovation alone has saved 264 tons “by using instead of burning
825 tons of waste leaves from the pineapple harvest – the burning of which would release the

14
“REPAIR. REIMAGINE. RECYCLE,” Levi.com, January 2020,
https://www.levi.com/US/en_US/blog/article/repair-reimagine-recycle.
15
Erica Cirino, “The Environment's New Clothes: Biodegradable Textiles Grown from Live Organisms,”
Scientific American (Scientific American, September 14, 2018), https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-
environments-new-clothes-biodegradable-textiles-grown-from-live-organisms/.

14
equivalent of 264 tons of CO2 into the atmosphere. This is equivalent to charging more than
33 million smartphones
16
”.
When I came across these innovations it sparked my own interest in the development
of textiles to support the industry in a positive way. I wanted to think about materials
differently and start looking at everyday “wastes” as endless possibilities. As I began to
explore what creating textiles in my own home could look like I thought about what might be
more important: is clothing that will last a lifetime more important or is biodegradable
clothing the better way to go. I believe that both are equally important. We all have items in
our wardrobe that we constantly use, while others we don’t particularly value and tend to
rarely use.
3.3 Zero Waste
Zero waste fashion refers to giving materials a second life and using them to their full
capacity without producing excess textile waste. The main purpose is to recycle the textiles
that are already heading to the landfill regardless of their material content. Although this
doesn’t not solve the textile waste problem it does help give a temporary solution to the
reduction of waste. My first introduction to sustainable fashion was zero waste. During my
time in undergrad, I had the ability to work with several brands who wanted to reduce their
“textile consumption” as they would donate large quantities of their textile scraps to my
university, so that students like me could use them. This was not the best solution for the
brands as this does not solve their textile waste problem, but this does give students insight
into the realities of how much waste is being produced.

16
“About Us,” Piñatex, April 26, 2021, https://www.ananas-anam.com/about-us/.

15
The first project that I was assigned, required me to take discarded samples of merino
wool, silks, and plastics and create items with them. In Figure 3 below, some samples of wool
are pictured. Following the selection process, I was able to decide what I wanted to create
with the pieces that I had collected. I chose to create five pieces: two bucket hats, a top, a
skirt and a jacket (shown in Figures 4 and 5). These were some of the first pieces that I
created with an eco-conscious mind set. Even as I was cutting the patterns and deciding the
formation for the textiles, I found it difficult to avoid creating excess waste from the
remaining scraps. Since it was my first project that dealt with waste, I wondered if I was able
to push this idea even further.

Figure 3 Discarded Textiles from Hill City

16

Figure 4 Bucket Hats Developed and Sold from Discarded Textiles

Figure 5 Top, Jacket, and Skirt Developed from Discarded Textiles
As I was nearing the end of my time in undergrad, I again had the opportunity to work
with discarded textiles. The textiles that I was provided with for this project were old jeans
and tulles. When creating my garment, I wanted to try and solve the issues that I had
encountered constructing the first project. This time around I created a dress (shown in Figure
6) that used excess scraps to adorn the dress around the breast area. Although this did help me
get rid of some larger scrap pieces, it was not helping me use all the waste that I was creating.

17

Figure 6 Dress Made from Discarded Jeans and Scraps
Still not satisfied with the results of not creating a fully “zero waste” design, as a
master’s student, I began to tackle the challenge once again. This time when I began to
experiment, I started by strategizing the way I wanted to lay down the scraps (shown in
Figure 7).

Figure 7 Developmental Process of a Zero-waste Bag
After being satisfied with the way, I had set them up. I found a water-soluble fabric
that I was able to use to sandwich the materials together; this allowed me to keep all the small
pieces inside without having to throw anything out. As depicted in Figure 8, I was then able

18
to sew all the scrap fabric into a single piece. During the sewing process, this material even
allowed me to play with style and embroidery techniques that helped keep all the scrap pieces
together. Once the sewing had been completed, I was able to run the completed design
through ruining water as seen in Figure 9. In the photograph, you can see the top layer slowly
dissolving while leaving all the scraps together.

Figure 8 Fabric Scraps Sewn Together with Biodegradable Fabric

Figure 9 Fabric Scraps Sewn Together with Biodegradable Fabric
As pictured in Figure 10, I was able to complete a fully zero-waste bag, which unlike
my previous attempts, had no excess threads; everything was pristinely added back into the
bag itself. Working on this project made me realize how far we truly must go to change the
life cycle of our garments.

19

Figure 10 Completed Purse with Kombucha Wallet
3.4 Interlacing Design and Science
After completing my zero waste projects, I started researching other possible
solutions. I became interested in learning to design with biomaterials. Biomaterials are a term
that is used to describe any material that is derived from living organisms such as animals,
plants, and fungi. This interested me as a possible solution as research seemed to be
promising in terms of changes it might provide within the fashion industry. Unfortunately,
due to the pandemic I did not have access to the proper materials and labs. This led to the
opportunity to learn about the development of biomaterials with only the materials readily
available at home. I conducted several experiments that explored possible leather alternatives,
including research on serval bacteria, food waste, and different fungi.

20
CHAPTER 4: TO DRINK OR TO WEAR
4.1 Kombucha Leather
My first experiment began with growing leather made from Kombucha, a type of
fermented tea. During the fermenting process, a bacterium begins to grow; the term
‘SCOBY’ is the acronym used to describe a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast. This
scoby was used to create the leather alternative.
4.2 Process and Development
The process of developing kombucha leather is quite simple. It begins with
brewing my choice of black or green tea and adding sugar to it before allowing it to
cool. Once cooled I added a baby scoby which is a small piece of the needed bacteria
for the fermenting process to begin. At this point I chose my desired container (it
needed to be the length and width of my desired leather) and I added the mixture into
the container and closed it with a tight lid. I placed the container under a heating mat
and in a location that did not get much light, adding a dark colored sheet on top to
make sure it was not being exposed to light.
The mixture was left to ferment, and I checked on it throughout each week to
make sure that it had not grown any mold and my scoby was growing to my desired
length and width. At about 4 weeks (as shown in Figure 4), the scoby was ready to
harvest, as it was thick enough to create a leather material. The timing of this process
can vary as the conditions of every scoby may be different.

21

Figure 11 Scoby Growth at Week 4
Once the scoby was removed from the container, it was transferred into a new
container with a small amount of natural soap and warm water. It was time for the scoby to
be washed and prepped for dying.

Figure 12 Scoby Getting Cleaned After Completed Growth

22
I washed the scoby gently with soap and water to remove any residue and to remove a
bit of the smell that arose from the fermenting process. When the wash was complete the
scoby was ready to be dyed in whatever form was desired.

Figure 13 Scoby is Dyed Though a Tie-dye Method
For this scoby, I decided that I wanted to try a tie-dye process to see if I could create
any sort of pattern on the scoby. For this dye I used cochineal, a scale insect from which
carmine, a red natural dye, is derived. I created the patterns that I wanted and used cardboard
and rubber bands to hold them in place. I then put the scoby inside the pot with the dye and
let it simmer for a couple of hours.
Another method of dying scoby is the dip dye method. As pictured in Figure 14, I
created a dye bath using a mix of red wine and sangria. I then dipped the scoby into the dye
until my desired color wash was achieved. If I wanted the scoby to be very dark or if the
specimen was very thick, it was left in this dye overnight.

23

Figure 14 Scoby is Being Dyed Through a Dip Dye Method
There were other ways of creating a pattern with the scoby specimen. In Figure 15 the
scoby was woven to my desired length and size. This specimen was woven to be small and
long as it was going to be used as a strap.

Figure 15 Woven Scoby
Once the dye method of choice was completed the scoby was ready to be laid out to
begin the drying process. In Figure 16 we see the scoby that was being tie-dyed ready to be
dried. We can see that it catches the desired pattern almost perfectly.

24

Figure 16 Tie-died Scoby
From this point, the scoby was laid out onto a large piece of wood. It needed to dry
for about 3-5 days. Because the original scoby held a lot of water it shrank in thickness by
90% leaving a thin sheet of leather. The drying process took place in an area that was not
humid but had a constant air flow. Once the drying process was complete it was time to treat
the fabric so that it could become water resistant.
I mixed beeswax and coconut oil together, which served as the base. I began to heat
the beeswax and slowly incorporated the coconut oil. After everything was melted, I used a
paint brush and brushed a thin layer of wax onto each side of the leather. To create an even
layer, there needed to be a constant source of heat between the wax and the leather so that
hardening did not occur too soon. I used a hair dryer for this process to even out the wax and
make sure that there was only a thin layer on the leather. Once complete, the leather was
hung out to dry for 24 hours. In Figure 17 we can see the completed leathers after they have
dried, and the wax has been set.

25

Figure 17 Complete Leather After Being Dried and Coated
4.3 Designing with Scoby
After completing the scoby leather, I started studying its durability and experimenting
on with how to sew the material. I found that the leather is extremely durable; it is very
difficult to rip. I also determined that if the scoby did not dry evenly there were parts that
were more brittle, but if the scoby had an even thickness it had great durability. The material
was also quite easy to sew and moved smoothly though the sewing machine. A couple of
days after the leather had been coated with the beeswax it was a bit sticky to touch, but after
it had been dried for a couple of extra days the stickiness went away, and it felt like thin
leather. Figure 18 shows the leather sample sewn and pleated. There were no issues during
this process.

26

Figure 18 Pleated and Sewn Leather
After a bit of testing was done, I created my sample piece, a Kombucha leather wallet.
This wallet was easy to sew and very durable. I used the wallet for about two weeks of testing
to see if I noticed any changes in the material and the durability of the stitching. Some key
takeaways
- The wallet was a bit sicky for the first couple of uses
- The stitching was unraveling in areas where the leather was thinner
- The leather carried a sweet smell to it, but it was not bothersome

27

Figure 19 Completed Leather Wallet
Shown in Figure 19, the wallet is mostly intact with a couple of loose threads from
the two-week trial period. After completing other samples, I went on to create a piece to be
used for my thesis exhibition show.
For the thesis exhibition, I wanted to create a garment that not only addressed the
issues that are currently occurring within the fashion industry but also provided a structural
solution. I used Kombucha leather and coffee leather to create a dress titled ‘A New Reality’.
The dress was made to represent what our future clothing could look like. It showcased the
development of an entirely zero waste and environmentally friendly life cycle. The dress,
once completed, could naturally decompose back into the environment leaving no trace of its
existence. This is the ideal lifecycle scenario for garments, a scenario for all garment
manufacturers should strive for.

28
Figure 20 Completed Garment Using Kombucha Leather

29
CHAPTER 5: FOOD WASTE TO FASHION
5.1 Preparation
Following kombucha, I decided to attempt to develop leather-like materials from food
waste as it was the most abundant waste material that I found in my own home and is an issue
that can be found in most American homes as well. In the United States, food waste is
estimated to be “between 30-40 percent of the food supply. This figure is based on estimates
from USDA’s Economic Research Service of 31 percent food loss at the retail and consumer
levels, corresponding to approximately 133 billion pounds and $161 billion worth of food in
2010” (USDA.gov). There is enough food being produced to feed everyone in the world who
is hungry, but much of our food just goes to waste. It is important for there to be more
awareness around food waste and an increase in conscientiousness when purchasing and
preparing food.
In order to create leather from the food waste, I spent a week logging the items that I
was throwing away most regularly. I discovered that most of my waste came from eggshells,
avocados, onion, citrus, and potatoes.
5.2 Practice
I did research on preliminary recipes that could help me get started in the
development of food waste leathers. I began with simple bioplastic recipes and tweaked them
to accommodate the particular materials that I was using. I began by dehydrating each of the
food scraps so that I was able to make a thin powder out of them. Figure 21 was my first
attempt using dehydrated avocado pits and a bioplastic recipe. This first sample was a failure.
I did not use enough avocados and the sample did not harden. It stayed partially liquid.

30

Figure 21 Sample 1 of Avocado Leather
The following sample 2 in Figure 22, was also a failure as mold began to grow inside
the petri dish.

Figure 22 Sample 2 of Avocado Leather
Sample 3 in Figure 23 was also a failure as this time, there was a thin top layer of
liquid created.

31

Figure 23 Sample 3 of Avocado Leather
After three failed attempts, I decided to use a different discarded material and make
new adjustments to the recipe. This time I kept in mind I wanted to create a bio textile not a
bioplastic. The main difference between a bio textile and a bioplastic is that a bio textile has
texture and is thick, while a bioplastic is smooth and thin. My second choice for waste was to
use eggshells. I began collecting the eggshells that I used and then rinsed them with soap and
water. Once they were rinsed, I laid them out to dry. Once fully dry, I put them in the oven at
the lowest temperature for 6-8 hours to kill any bacteria to avoid mold growing later in the
development process. In Figure 24 the eggs have been collected and left out to dry, in Figure
25 the eggs are dried and are ready to be used in the development of the bio textile.

32

Figure 24 Preparation of Egg Leather

Figure 25 Gathering Necessary Eggs
Once the eggs had been taken out of the oven and cooled, they were put in a blender
to create a very fine powder. This process took several minutes as the eggs took a while to
break down.

33

Figure 26 Turning Eggs into Powder

Figure 27 Eggs are Being Sifted to Remove Large Pieces
Once the eggs were broken down into small pieces, they were sifted until all the large
pieces had been removed. The large pieces went back into the blender, while the small
powder was then used to create the leather.

34

Figure 28 Fine Egg Powder
Once the fine powder was created, it was transferred into a pot (Figure 29) with a
mixture of other ingredients and was taken under a heat source.

Figure 29 Powder Being Poured into a Small Pan
This mixture was then left to boil for about 3 minutes. Once boiled, the mixture was
ready to be poured, where it was left to dry for a couple of days. This can be viewed in
Figures 30-31 on the following page.

Figure 30 Boiling Ingredients

35

Figure 31 The Contents are Then Poured into the Desired Mold to Set
5.3 Outcome
Once the material was dried, it was then coated with beeswax similar to the kombucha
leather and was then ready to be used.

Figure 32 Final Egg Leather
After having experimented with the egg and found that I liked the recipe that I had
created I went on to replicate the experiment with other types of food waste like onion skins,
citrus, and coffee grounds. Below in Figure 33, you can find examples of the completed
leathers. Moving forward with experimentation, I would like to create a series of pieces using
leather-like materials to test how they will withstand wear and sewing.

36

Figure 33 (L to R) Coffee leather, Egg Leather, Onion Leather, Citrus Leather
I would also like to adjust some of the recipes to see if I find certain ingredients to
increase or decrease the leather’s durability.
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
The fashion industry has historically been capable of generating awareness. Clothing
can share one's culture, values, ideas, and creativity. It has allowed society to thrive as it
learns to adjust to the change in consumer demands. Fashion prides itself on breaking the
norm. For the industry to continue thriving as it always has, it must learn to break the
conventional molds placed upon it. Our ecosystems are in desperate need of help, and it is our
time to start creating change. We must understand that our fashion purchases have a
cascading effect on our environment. Sustainable fashion design considers the entire lifecycle
of the garment and supply chain--from where the garment is made to where it will end up in
the landfills (Colter 2019). As consumers, it is our job to keep clothing accountable and force
them to make changes for the better. This thesis sheds light on the industry’s issues and
presents research that can help pioneer a new approach in fashion. With the help of artists,
designers, and scientists, bio textile design can evolve into a future endeavor that will value
the social integration of people and the environment

37
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract What is our connection to the environment? Humans have an innate need to connect to other forms of life on this planet like plants and animals. As technology progressed and humans created a more industrialized world, this connection to the environment dwindled. This thesis focuses on the exploration of the human connection to sustainable design and the potential transformation of the individual “self” when wearing consciously made clothing. Research in cultures that historically coexisted with the Earth provides an opportunity to compare the industrialized western way of life to these cultures and explore what results in a more ecologically responsive lifestyle. An outcome of this research is an ongoing project - developing bio textiles made from waste for the utilization of clothing. With experimentation and exploration, these new materials have the potential to replace polluting textiles and drive innovation in an exceedingly pollutive industry.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Espinosa, Paola (author)

Core Title Sustainable fabrication: the development of bio textiles as a call to action

School Roski School of Art and Design

Degree Master of Fine Arts

Degree Program Design

Degree Conferral Date 2022-12

Publication Date 09/08/2022

Defense Date 09/07/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bio textiles,biomaterial,food waste textile,kombucha leather,material futures,OAI-PMH Harvest,sustainable fashion,zero waste

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ellenburg, Jason Fowler (committee chair), Adams, China (committee member), Gupta, Malancha (committee member), Zoto, Alexis (committee member)

Creator Email Design@paolaesp.com,paolaesp@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111764647

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