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Exploring student perceptions and experiences regarding the role of diversity courses and service-learning on cross-racial interactions

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Exploring student perceptions and experiences regarding the role of diversity courses and service-learning on cross-racial interactions

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THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
EXPLORING STUDENT PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES REGARDING
THE ROLE OF DIVERSITY COURSES AND SERVICE-LEARNING ON
CROSS-RACIAL INTERACTIONS

by
Wendy Catherine Stewart

____________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Wendy Catherine Stewart
ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This dissertation marks both an end and a beginning of both a professional and
personal journey. I have truly been blessed to have shared my experiences along the
way with both old and new friends and acquaintances, and of course, my family. I
would first like to thank God who made all of this possible. I would especially like
to thank my family, my Mother, Father, and sister Fawn. They are the true definition
of unconditional love and support and I could not have physically, spiritually, or
mentally achieved this accomplishment without their encouragement, love, and even
at times, sacrifice. I also thank my grandmother, Nan, who I know was watching
with pride from above and in whose memory I dedicate this degree. I would like to
thank my friends and Delta family and my co-workers at Miramar College for their
patience and support as I “burned the candle at both ends.” I especially would like to
thank my partner in life, Eddie, who shared in my final steps towards completing this
process and who gave love, patience, prayer, and understanding when I most needed
it. I would also like to thank my fellow students, my LA weekend warriors, Laura
and Guadalupe who were with me when I first started this journey, and Sonja and
Emily who helped motivate me and keep me on track. I was lucky to have the
opportunity to learn from amazing faculty at USC, including the members of my
dissertation committee, Dr. Melora Sundt, Dr. Patricia Tobey, and Dr. Darnell Cole
who through moments of both brilliance and humor walked side by side with me
through all the trials and finally tribulation of my dissertation process.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ii

List of Tables v

Abstract vi

Chapter One 1
Introduction & Background 1
Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose of the Study 4
Assumptions and Research Questions 5
Significance of the Study 6
Limitations & Delimitations 6
Definition of Terms 7

Chapter Two 9
Introduction 9
Conceptual Frameworks 10
Pre-College Variables 12
Impact of College on Adolescent Development 13
Positive Outcomes of Cross-Racial Interactions 14
Impact of Diversity Courses on Positive Student Outcomes 17
Institutional Responsibility 20
Positive Outcomes of Service-Learning 21
Women in College Environments 25
Summary 28

Chapter Three 30
Site Selection 31
Population & Sample 33
Data Collection & Instrumentation 35
Data Analysis 37
Ethical Concerns 40
Role of the Researcher 42
Limitations 43
Timeline of the Study 44

Chapter Four 45
Introduction to Fifteen Student Participants 50
Diversity and Non Courses, Common Student Experiences 52
The Relevance of a Diversity Course Requirement 54

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Discussion Sessions versus Lectures,
the Ideal Environment for Interactions 58
Diversity Courses, a Catalyst for Change 61
Service-Learning and Diversity, a Matched Pair 64
Service-Learning, the “Real” Context of Diversity 66
The City and Its Impact on Student Perception 70
Summary 76

Chapter Five 78
Introduction 78
Summary of Findings 80
The Relevance of a Diversity Course Requirement 84
Discussion Sessions versus Lectures, 85
the Ideal Environment for Interactions
Diversity Courses, a Catalyst for Change 86
Service-Learning and Diversity, a Matched Pair 87
Service-Learning, the “Real” Context of Diversity 87
The City and Its Impact on Student Perception 89
Implications for Theory 91
Figure 1: Allport‟s (1954) Conditions in a College Context 92
Implications for Policy 93
Implications for Practice 96
Limitations 99
Future Research 100
Conclusions 104

References 106

Appendices:
Appendix A 119
Appendix B 121
v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Overview of Themes, Findings, and Quotes 47

Table 2: Participant Profile 51

Table 3: Participant responses to Classroom Presence 53
of Cross-Racial Conditions

Table 4: Participant Course Compliment to SLP 64

Table 5: Participant High School and Neighborhood Background 73

Table 6: Overview of Themes, Findings, Literature, and Implications 81

vi

ABSTRACT
As population demographics continue to diversify in the United States and U.S. industries
expand their markets and workforces to include communities abroad, college graduates will
increasingly need strong intercultural communication skills to successfully enter the
workforce. Further study to assess how vehicles currently in place at college campuses can
contribute to student cross-racial interactions is both warranted and timely. This study
employed a qualitative approach to explore diversity courses and service-learning
environments and the ways that they shape student cross-racial interactions. Allport‟s
(1954) intergroup contact theory provided a framework for understanding how conditions
and environment plays a role in diverse interactions. Semi-structured individual interviews
were conducted with 15 participants currently enrolled at a large private university located in
a major, urban metropolitan city and participating in a service learning project. Utilizing
grounded theory as a tool of analysis, six major themes emerged: a) that students felt there
was relevance to the university having a diversity course requirement, b) discussion sessions
provided an ideal environment for diverse interactions, c) service-learning provided students
with a “real-life” context to diverse curricula, d) students recognized diversity courses, social
issues courses, and courses relevant to the city and learning about different cultures as the
best compliment to service-learning, e) the location of the university in a major metropolitan
urban city had an impact on students perception of diversity, and finally f) student
experience in diversity courses changed their perception of diversity and diverse
interactions. The findings of this study succeeded in underscoring the relevance of both
diversity courses and service-learning in addressing the issue. There are also several
implications for contextualizing Allport‟s (1954) theory in a college environment and be
utilized by the university, students, and institutional agents to benefit both students and the
vii

community. More research is warranted to further inform the field and provide institutional
agents with applicable ways to address the issue.
1

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction & Background
Changing demographics in the U.S. have brought to light now more so than
ever, the need for all individuals, regardless of ethnic and racial background, to be
aware of how to effectively interact in diverse settings (Western Interstate
Commission [WIC], 2008). The potential demographic changes facing high schools
mirror trends in the population nationwide. Minorities (defined as Black, Hispanic,
Asian, and Native populations) currently comprise one in three residents and are
projected to grow to approximately half of the total population in 2050 (“U.S.
Interim Projections,” 2004). Currently public high schools in the United States are
projected to produce increasingly more graduates, with minorities anticipated to
make-up the majority of growth over the next six years (WIC, 2008). In particular,
Hispanic graduates, projected to have the largest growth of 54 percent, will more
than supplant the decrease in White non-Hispanic graduates, projected to decrease 11
percent.
This shift translates to a change in how high schools define majority and
minority status (WIC, 2008). Such changes speak to the challenges facing education
in the years to come to ensure that the fastest growing members of society are both
productive and able to contribute to the nation‟s economy and ability to compete
globally (WIC, 2008). However, these projections do not just speak to challenges
facing the K-12 system, but present both challenges and opportunities for higher
2

education institutions to be prepared to meet the educational needs of increasingly
diverse incoming students (WIC, 2008).
Demographic changes will also impact the workforce as employers
continually seek future workers who can be effective in a diverse environment and
with diverse peers (Bikson & Law, 1994). College graduates will be entering a
workforce where adequate preparation will have implications on employability and
the nation‟s overall ability to compete in the larger global community (WIC, 2008).
Given the impact of college on student development (Astin, 1993; Gurin et al., 2002;
Hurtado, Dey, P. Gurin, G. Gurin, 2003; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991),research
points to higher education as being an ideal forum for students to both experience
and develop skills interacting with others from different racial backgrounds (Gurin et
al., 2002). Higher education institutions play a crucial role in student cross-racial
interactions as college represents a time of growth and development where student
encounters with diverse peers can challenge preconceived beliefs and lead to
increased awareness of difference (Astin, 1993; Gurin et al., 2002; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
To address the issue, institutional agents must enable students to have
effective and positive interactions with individuals from different racial and ethnic
backgrounds than their own. In 2002, the Association of American Colleges and
Universities (AACU) facilitated an initiative entitled “Greater Expectations: A New
Vision for Learning as a Nation Goes to College” geared towards identifying barriers
and key goals for undergraduate institutions for the twenty-first century. A national
3

report was generated that, amidst several recommendations for student learning,
highlighted a student‟s ability to place themselves in a diverse world and
communicate in a diverse settings and with diverse groups (AACU, 2002). The
report also emphasized the importance of employing a range of teaching methods
that imbued students with an understanding of others from different backgrounds
(AACU, 2002). Such efforts are paramount to preparing students for success in the
world beyond the walls of the academy.
One strategy that can be used to address the issue is to assess mechanisms
already in place that can serve as a bridge for students entering with preconceived
views of race to increase awareness of racial dynamics and teach students how to
successfully interact with others from different racial groups. Increased exposure to
diverse ideas and information in college plays a crucial role in prompting increased
involvement in diverse environments and activities outside of the classroom (Milem,
Umbach, Liang, 2004). In addition, students participating in service-learning
environments demonstrate increased awareness of diversity and tolerance of
difference in diverse peers (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Marullo, 1998). Given the positive
student outcomes of student participation in diversity courses and service-learning,
assessing such entities already in place in many colleges, may serve as a valuable
vehicle for higher education institutions to address student cross-racial interactions.
Further examination is both timely and warranted given the implications on student
success beyond the walls of the academy.

4

Statement of the Problem
While there have been numerous studies that have offered persuasive
arguments regarding the inherent educational benefits of student cross-racial
interactions (Astin, 1993; Astin, 1999; Chang, 1999; Gurin, Dey, Hurtado & Gurin,
2002; Hurtado, 2001; Milem, 1994), far less have examined the conditions that
support higher level and positive interactions (Chang, 2007). In addition, studies
that have focused on linking intergroup interactions to educational outcomes have
made arguments based on conceptual rather than empirical foundations (Chang,
2002). Previous studies have also attributed positive outcomes to diversity courses
and diverse curricula (Chang, 2002; Downey & Torrecilha, 1994; Henderson-King &
Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott, 2005) as well as service-learning experiences
(Barber, 1992; Jacoby, 1996; Kendall, 1990; Sapp & Crabtree, 2002; Sedlak,
Doheny, Panthofer & Anaya, 2003). However, there is limited assessment regarding
the role of diversity courses in the production of cross-racial interactions and service-
learning as a tool for reinforcing the process. Furthermore, Gurin et al. (2002) pose
that while studies support the positive outcomes of cross-racial interactions, the lack
of “templates” for diverse student interactions to take place poses challenges to
creating opportunities to promote such exchanges in a college environment (p. 362).
Purpose of the Study
This study will build upon already established research that has demonstrated
the benefits of cross-racial interactions as well as the positive outcomes of diversity
courses and service-learning experiences for students. Considering the dramatic
5

demographic changes on the horizon, diversity courses and service-learning
experiences may play a key role in both instilling skills in effective cross-racial
communication in student populations as well as providing opportunities for cross-
racial interactions to take place. The aim of this study is to engage in qualitative
inquiry for the purposes of generating empirical research that further examines the
role of diversity courses and service-learning in enhancing cross-racial interactions
in the hopes of establishing these institutional entities as possible “templates” for
such interactions to take place. Such findings may provide both policy and practice
implications for institutional practitioners. As such, the focus of this study is to
examine diversity courses and service-learning and their influence on cross-racial
interactions as well as the ways in which both entities in tandem impact student
experience.
Assumptions and Research Questions
This study is based primarily on two main assumptions: a) factors affecting
cross-racial interactions within the context of diversity courses and service-learning
can be analyzed using qualitative measures, and b) the ways in which cross-racial
interactions are affected, can be observed. Based on these assumptions the following
research questions are examined:
1. In what ways do diversity courses shape students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the classroom? Are there
differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and experiences in
courses that do not meet the diversity requirement?
6

2. How does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity
courses?
3. In what way does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity course,
shape students‟ cross-racial interactions?
Significance of the Study
In an increasingly diversified society, there is a need to better understand
cross-racial interactions in the college context. The ability to effectively interact
with diverse peers is a skill valued by employers and can serve as a gateway or
gatekeeper to the workforce for graduates. Understanding how entities within the
college environment can promote cross-racial interactions can aid institutions in
ensuring that graduates are adequately prepared to enter the workforce it is necessary
to understand how entities in the college environment can promote cross-racial
interactions. By understanding how diversity courses and service-learning shape
cross-racial interactions, institutional stakeholders can utilize such entities as
vehicles for reinforcing such interactions. In addition, given the impact of college on
student development, institutions will be able to better understand student experience
in diversity courses and service-learning and the relationship between both entities.
Limitations & Delimitations
There are some limitations in the method of qualitative analysis chosen that have
potential impact on the overall study. This study will employ grounded theory where the
researcher plays a significant role in the process of explaining observed processes and
7

generating theory (Creswell, 2007). As such, there is the potential for researcher bias and
agenda to influence the results (Charmaz, 2000).
It is not the intention of this study to generalize findings and conclusions
from the sample population to the larger campus population, but rather, taking a
qualitative approach, focus on examining student experience and perspective and
ground findings in the data.
Definition of Terms
 Categories: events, instances, or happenings represented by a unit of information
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
 Cross-racial interactions: interactions that take place between individuals from
different racial backgrounds.
 Diversity Courses: while there are variations in diversity course curriculum and
structure across institutions of higher education (Chang, 2002), for the purpose of
this study, diversity courses reference courses that meet the diversity requirement at
the University of Pacific Coast.
 Diversity course takers: student enrolled in a course that fulfills the university
diversity requirement defined as: “. . . designed to provide undergraduate students
with the background knowledge and analytical skills necessary to understand and
respect differences between groups of people.” (“Diversity Requirement,” 2009, p.
1).
 Non-diversity course takers: students enrolled in any course that does not meet the
university diversity requirement.
8

 Service-learning: while there are several definitions for and variations of service
learning in higher education settings (Kendall, 1990; Sigmon, 1994; Furco, 1996;
Jay, 2008), for the purpose of this study, Jacoby‟s (1996) definition of service-
learning as a type of experiential education that engages students in community
activities geared towards the promotion of student development and learning will be
used. Service is linked to an academic component where course goals and content
are tied to service experiences (Jay, 2008).

9

CHAPTER TWO
Introduction
Psychologist Gordon Allport (1954) defined the field of social psychology as “an
attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other human beings” (p. 3). Such
interactions are destined to be influenced by both culture and the environment in which such
interactions take place. Social psychological theory can be utilized to address both the
process of development in the context of the college experience and a framework for
understanding cross-racial interactions.
This literature review will assess the research on cross-racial interactions within the
context of diversity courses and service-learning and provide a foundation for this study.
The first section encompasses the conceptual framework engaged as a foundation for
examining cross-racial interactions. The second and third sections discuss pre-college
characteristics and the impact of college on adolescent development and student experience.
The fourth and fifth sections review empirical studies on the positive outcomes of cross-
racial interactions and diversity courses respectively in college environments. The sixth
section bridges diversity to institutional responsibility and the impact on student outcomes.
The seventh section reviews relevant research on the positive outcomes of service-learning
with the eighth section discussing significant outcomes for women in college environments.
Finally, a summary is included at the end of this review that provides a synopsis of the main
themes in the literature that inform this study.

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Conceptual Framework
This chapter begins with an overview of the conceptual framework used to
operationalize the necessary components for positive cross-racial outcomes to occur and the
connection between diversity and student outcomes. Allport‟s (1954) intergroup contact
theory serves as the preeminent foundation for understanding the environmental conditions
necessary for positive cross-racial interactions to occur. Gurin et al. (2002) is utilized as
supporting research, establishing college as a period of development connected to diversity
and student outcomes. Together, the main foundational theory as well as supporting
empirical study serve as the underpinnings of this study and are necessary to explain the
environment necessary for cross-racial interactions and the relevance of diversity and
diversity courses.
Allport‟s (1954) intergroup contact theory serves as the dominant framework for
examining cross-racial interactions (Chavous, 2005; Chang, 2007). The theory rests upon
the assumption that prejudice is caused by a lack of exposure and knowledge about groups
different than ones own (Allport, 1954). However, Allport (1954) conducted several studies
and found that increased involuntary contact among different groups would not, by itself,
lead to improved interactions or change stereotypical beliefs. Instead, four conditions were
necessary for positive interactions to take place: equal status, common goals, intergroup
cooperation, and support of authorities, law, or custom (Allport, 1954). In this context, the
conditions within which contact takes place play as crucial a role, if not more, than the
contact itself (Allport, 1954). Allport‟s theory is helpful in providing a framework for
understanding how environment plays an important role in positive cross-racial interactions,

11

as the conditions that exist often dictate whether the interaction will prove beneficial or not
(Allport, 1954; Chang, Denson, Sáenz, Misa, 2006).
Gurin et al. (2002) employs sociological theory to connect adolescent development
to developing understanding and awareness of issues of diversity in college and student
preconceived belief‟s regarding other cultures and races. Expanding upon Erikson‟s concept
of psychosocial moratorium, Gurin et al. (2002) identified adolescence as an ideal period of
time for a “confrontation with diversity and complexity” (p. 334), where students undergo
challenges to entrenched previous experiences giving them the opportunity to actively create
new ones. Gurin et al. (2002) recognized that higher education presented an optimal
environment for students to face such experiences and that adolescents learn best during this
phase. Acknowledging the variety of different ways students encounter and experience
racial and ethnic diversity, Gurin et al. (2002) identified three different types of diversity
experiences students may have: structural diversity, informal interaction diversity, and
classroom diversity. Structural diversity is defined as numerical representation of diverse
groups and refers to the recruitment and retention of minority students, faculty, and staff
(Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Peterson, & Allen, 1999). Different than structural, informal
interaction diversity addresses student interactions in regards to quality and frequency and
can occur in a variety of campus environments (Gurin et al., 2002). Finally, classroom
diversity captures the type of experiences derived from exposure to and learning about
diverse individuals and groups (Gurin et al., 2002). While all three types of diversity play a
role in a student‟s experience, this study will focus on informal interaction diversity in the
context of cross-racial interactions and classroom diversity in the context of diversity
courses. Gurin et al. (2002) build upon previous sociological studies including Coser‟s

12

(1975) argument that individual autonomy can only be obtained when an individual faces
challenges to roles and everyday norms that conflict with preconceived expectations. Within
this context, individuals operate within “complex social structures” where individuals
experience interactions that challenge current thinking and lead to unpredictability and
ultimately develop a stronger comprehension of the social world and sense of individuality
(Coser, in Gurin et al., 2002). Encounters with new experiences for which previously held
beliefs and scripts do not account for and that differ from past experiences can create new
paradigms and increase active thinking (Langer, in Gurin et al., 2002). Gurin et al. (2002) is
able to successfully provide a key bridge between the sociological impact of diversity in the
college environment and student development outcomes.
Pre-College Variables
Assessing the characteristics and traits that students bring to college is paramount to
understanding the impact that college has and the resulting growth or changes (Astin, 1993;
Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991). Astin (1993) termed such characteristics as “inputs” which
can be inclusive of demographic and admissions measures such as race or ethnicity, gender,
age, religious preference, and test scores as well as a student‟s own predictions and
expectations about their college experience. Panos and Astin (1968) analyzed data from a
four-year longitudinal study using national sample from the National Merit Scholarship
Coorporation with follow-up data from the American Council of Education and associated
specific input measures with likelihood of dropout. They found that students with lower
high school grades, came from low-income backgrounds, and had parents with lower
educational levels were more likely to dropout from college than their counterparts with
higher grades and backgrounds.

13

Inputs can also have an impact on how significant the effects of college are to a
student. Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, and Terenzini (2004) conducted a study utilizing
longitudinal data from the National Study of Student Learning where students from 18
schools were followed for a three year period. They found that while first-generation to
college students are less likely to participate in extracurricular activities and peer
interactions, they derived greater outcomes benefits than other students after matriculating
into college.
In summary, input variables vary in many ways, but ultimately have a significant
influence on the way that college impacts a student and their subsequent experience. As
such, inputs serve as a relevant measure taken into account in this study, to accurately
measure the impact of diversity courses on student‟s cross-racial interactions.
Impact of College on Adolescent Development
Much of the research in higher education has focused on student development due to
the growth and maturity that takes place in the context of the college environment (Astin,
1991; Hurtado, Dey, P. Gurin, G. Gurin, 2003; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
Attendance in college itself is attributed to observed change in students above and beyond
that which would normally be observed due to maturation or societal changes (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991). College marks a critical time where many students experience their first
encounters with individuals with different beliefs, backgrounds, and attitudes (Astin, 1993).
Students are not only challenged in their prior beliefs that they bring to the college
environment, but also, college provides the opportunity for change and to adjust and affirm
opinions, values, principles and worldviews (Astin, 1993; Erikson, 1946; Feldman &

14

Newcomb, 1969; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). Astin‟s (1993) study of college
impact found that students engaging in diversity activities demonstrated higher levels of
cultural awareness and understanding. Astin (1993) further posited that a student‟s
experience in college can have a significant impact on their development and their
experiences in the college environment presents an opportunity for change in a student‟s
behaviors and beliefs. This is particularly relevant since a students‟ background prior to
coming to college may predispose them to perpetuate the same behaviors and patterns in
college (Sáenz, Ngai, & Hurtado, 2007). Gurin et al. (2002) posit that a student‟s identity
development may actually be impeded by attending college in the same or similar
homogenous environment as their home community. The literature presents a compelling
argument that not only is exposure to difference and challenges to beliefs in college
connected to positive outcomes, but also, negative outcomes can result from students who
lack this experience.
Positive Outcomes of Cross-Racial Interactions
Research regarding student cross-racial interactions often begins with a discussion
focused on the racial composition of the campus population (Antonio, 1998). Several
empirical studies examine structural diversity, having a diverse campus climate, as a
foundation necessary for cross-racial interactions to occur by providing the environment for
diverse exchanges (Chang, Astin, & Kim, 2004). Gurin et al. (2002) assert that a culturally
diverse campus provides the optimal educational environment for students. Chang, Astin,
and Kim (2004) support this finding in their study using longitudinal data collected at both
the time of entry to college and four years later that indicated higher education institutions
could further enhance cross-racial interactions by increasing populations of students of color.

15

However, while structural diversity has clear benefits, increasing the numbers of minority
students in and of itself is not always enough to optimize the educational advantages of
diversity (Gurin et al., 2002). Improved interactions and increased understanding are not
guaranteed to occur by simply increasing the possibility for interactions amongst groups of
different racial backgrounds (Chang et al., 2006; McGarty & de la Haye, 1997). Studies
have shown that in some cases increasing the numbers of minority students can have a
negative affect. In a study assessing attitudes regarding integration amongst white and black
populations in the south, Fossett and Kiecolt (1989) found simply increasing the numbers of
minority students in a college environment can lead to increased negative feelings in the
dominant culture regarding ethnic groups and increased racial tensions. Furthermore,
increased numbers of underrepresented students in the population do not always lead to
increased cross-racial interactions for nonwhite students (Chang et al., 2004).
While structural diversity plays an important role in diversifying the campus culture,
its success is often predicated on one primary outcome, the increase of cross-racial
interactions (Chang, 1999; Chang et al., 2004; Gurin et al., 2002; Hurtado, Dey, & Treviño,
1994). However, to fully examine cross-racial interactions, one must look at several factors
beyond just structural diversity. Gurin et al. (2002) found that informal interaction with
diverse peers produced positive outcomes that could not otherwise be achieved solely by
having diverse numbers in the population. Achieving informal interaction diversity, such as
student cross-racial interactions, provides the missing piece to maximizing diversity
outcomes that cannot be sustained by structural diversity alone (Gurin et al., 2002).
Exposing students to diverse populations and preparing students for a diverse environment
entails addressing what happens after students enter into a college environment. In order to

16

maximize the benefits of diversity, students must be provided an environment where they
not only exist amongst diverse peers, but also have quality interactions (Gurin et al., 2002).
College represents a time of individual and social development for students and
often provides the first environment where students interact with different racial and ethnic
groups (Gurin et al., 2002). While there are several educational outcomes as a result of the
college experience, peer group is recognized as one of the most relevant influences in
college (Astin, 1993). Studies have shown that there are educational benefits for students
who socialize with peers from different racial backgrounds that include increased
opportunity to discuss issues concerning race and ethnicity (Chang, 1999; Astin, 1993),
increased cultural understanding (Astin, 1999; Milem, 1994), increased interest and
participation in the larger society (Astin, 1993; Gurin et al., 2002; Hurtado, 2001),
satisfaction with college experience (Astin, 1993; Chang, 1999), enhanced leadership
abilities (Antonio, 2001) and academic development and self-concept (Chang, 1999; Gurin
et al., 2002). In a study of the impact of college on student development, Astin (1993) found
that despite students‟ varied backgrounds and entering characteristics, frequent interracial
interactions were linked to higher levels of satisfaction with college and a commitment to
racial understanding.
Not only do student interactions with peers outside of their own race or ethnicity
have inherent benefits, but increased frequency of such interactions can lead to increased
openness to diversity and self-confidence (Chang et al., 2006). Students who interact with
peers in a diverse environment are also more likely to consider new and different beliefs than
their own accepted views after their first year in college (Pascarella, Edison, Nora,

17

Hagedorn, & Terenzini, 1996). Such outcomes can prove crucial if students are to be
successful in navigating an increasingly diverse society.
Impact of Diversity Courses on Positive Student Outcomes
Bennett (2001) gives a definitive structure to multicultural education and identifies
curricular reform in the K-12 sector as a crucial step. Such reform calls for changes in
traditional curriculum which predominantly encompass an Anglo Eurocentric focus and call
for the inclusion of curriculum that reflects a multicultural society (Bennett, 2001). Such a
movement has been underfoot in higher education institutions with the advent of diversity
course requirements. While there is a large body of literature focused on classroom diversity
from the perspective of racial diversity and interactions in the classroom (Terenzini, Cabrera,
Colbeck, Bjorklund & Parente, 2001; Antonio, 2004), only recently has the focus shifted to
diverse curricular content (Chang, 2002). Many institutions of higher education have at least
one diversity course as a requirement of their curriculum (Greene, 2000), as a means of
exposing students to issues of diversity with a range of options from which to choose. The
number of institutions adopting such requirements is increasing, with approximately 62% of
colleges and universities having or in the process of developing an undergraduate diversity
requirement, according to a national survey (Humphreys, 2000). Not all diversity courses
are specifically aimed at issues of race and ethnicity, but most seek to capture concepts
related to difference (Chang, 2002). Students often find diversity courses of particular
interest and find course material often contradicts preconceived racial stereotypes that can
exist in the media (Downey & Torrecilha, 1994).

18

Gurin et al. (2002) posit that establishing an environment where students learn both
“active thinking and intellectual engagement” is accomplished both through incorporating
diversity in the curriculum as well as diverse interactions with students from different races
and ethnicities (p. 336). Diversity courses could provide the opportunity for both elements
to exist in a learning environment. Empirical studies find that diversity courses also have
inherent benefits for student learning and development. Nelson Laird, Engberg and Hurtado
(2005) conducted a study utilizing data from the Student Thinking and Interaction Survey to
compare students enrolled in a management course or diversity course. The study assessed
students‟ classroom social and cognitive development for students who took either a
diversity or traditional course. Findings indicated that the students who were enrolled in a
diversity course demonstrated higher levels of social action engagement. It was also found
that diversity course enrollment was a positive predictor of students‟ diverse peer
interactions.
A key element in creating an optimal environment for positive racial interactions is
the recognition of racist elements embedded in the campus culture and actively working
towards establishing instead, a culture of inclusion free from such elements (Hurtado et al.,
1999; Smith et al., 1997). However, achieving such an environment is a challenging process
considering the unique and varied nature of institutions of higher education (Chang et al.,
2006). Diversity courses provide an opportunity for institutions to establish such a culture
and address issues unique to that specific institution. There is compelling support in much
of the literature on higher education that student exposure to multicultural or race-related
courses can lead to increased acceptance of peers from different backgrounds (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). There are also positive outcomes related to the discussion of issues related

19

to race and cross-racial socialization including intellectual self-concept (Chang, 1999; Cole,
2007).
While there are benefits to diversity courses, there are also challenges that can serve
as barriers to their success. There is the potential for negative stereotypes to be replicated in
diversity courses and for students to take on an expected role on an issue if the course is not
structured to yield critical thinking (Downey & Torrecilha, 1994). Another challenge to the
success of diversity courses is the limited amount of time and depth that can be dedicated to
what are often sensitive issues within the confines of the term and hours in which the course
is taught (Downey & Torrecilha, 1994). However, such challenges do not negate the
evidence which shows that there are positive changes in students who take diversity courses
that are not present in those who do not (Chang, 2002; Downey & Torrecilha, 1994;
Henderson-King & Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott, 2005). In a study of registered and not
registered students in diversity courses, Henderson-King and Kaleta (2000) found that
students who did not take a diversity course had increasingly negative views of Latinos,
African-Americans and men, and that without the presence of such courses, students
became less tolerant of other groups. Chang (2002) later conducted a study showing
increased positive views of African-Americans for students near completion of a diversity
course, regardless of whether the course was related to African-Americans. Both studies
demonstrate the impact of diversity courses on student judgment and acceptance of groups
different than their own and how such courses contribute to improving racial dynamics.
Students who complete a diversity course also report reduced racism and more tolerance
towards group differences than those who do not (Hogan & Mallott, 2005).

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Institutional Responsibility
Assessing student cross-racial interactions within the context of the college
environment calls for examination beyond individual interactions, but also an understanding
of the role the institution itself plays in the process. Higher education institutions themselves
impact student behavior in the way they are organized that can both help or hinder students
in their developmental process (Strange, 1994). Chang et al. (2006) suggest that students, as
part of their college experience, should not only benefit from cross-racial interactions, but
also from enrollment in an institution that upholds a positive environment for race relations.
From this perspective, the responsibility falls to the institution to establish such an
environment. Gurin et al. (2002) affirms that a culturally diverse campus provides the
optimal educational environment for all students including both minority and majority
cultures. Hurtado (2007) identifies diversity as a way for higher education institutions to be
progressive in addressing social issues regarding race and ethnicity and prepare graduates to
be citizens of a diverse culture. Institutional responsibility extends beyond the college
environment and outcomes for the larger society. Bensimon (2005) holds institutions
accountable for producing equal outcomes for students, starting with the acknowledgement
of the history of institutionalized racism and racialized practices in many institutions of
higher education. Bennett (2001) furthers this concept and identifies institutions as
responsible for incorporating a multicultural education approach where institutions must
actively work to “level the playing field” to allow all minority students the same
opportunities to succeed as their majority counterparts. This calls for institutional agents
taking an active role in acknowledging barriers and challenges to enact change (Bennett,
2001). The benefits of institutional active engagement extend to White students‟ as well,

21

who have been found to increase diversity involvement as a result of direct institution
intercession (Cole, 2007).
Institutional role also plays a part in the actual process of cross-racial interactions.
The fourth condition for successful intergroup contact according to Allport‟s (1954)
Intergroup Contact Theory is the support of authorities, law, or custom. Chang (2007)
speaks to this condition in his discussion of the influence of engagement on student‟s
experiences with racial diversity. In this context, diversity experiences are optimized when
campuses “intervene by coordinating a set of mutually supportive and reinforcing
experiences that promote engagement” (Chang, 2007, p. 28). Instituting diversity course
requirements is one method institutions can employ to achieve this end.
Positive Outcomes of Service-Learning
There have been several different definitions for service-learning that have often
blurred the differences between service-learning, internships, fieldwork, and community
service. Sigmon (1994) sought to distinguish between different types of service identifying
service-learning as a balance between outcomes and learning goals. Furco (1996) furthered
this concept differentiating student learning focused experiences such as fieldwork and
internships and recipient focused experiences such as community service and volunteerism
from service-learning which finds an equilibrium between the two. Others have viewed
service-learning opportunities as a means of providing students with experiential education
that speaks to both the accomplishment of learning goals as well as completing tasks that
speak to human and community needs (Kendall, 1990; Jacoby, 1996). One of the elements

22

that distinguishes service-learning from other types of volunteering and service is the college
academic component which ties the experience to course goals and content (Jay, 2008).
There is ample literature that cites inherent benefits of service-learning specifically
for student populations including critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, civic
responsibility and communication skills (Barber, 1992; Sapp & Crabtree, 2002; Sedlak,
Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). In a qualitative study of first semester sophomore
nursing students enrolled in their first major course at Kent State University, Sedlak,
Doheny, Panthofer, and Anaya (2003) found that students developed and utilized critical
thinking skills in their service-learning environments. The study demonstrated service-
learning experiences as promoting student self-esteem, self reflection, and self-confidence.
Additionally, Baxter Magolda (2000) identified the development of student self-authorship
as one of the core missions of institutions of higher education and offered service-learning
programs as a means of accomplishing this task. Jones and Abes (2004) also conducted a
study assessing the influence of service-learning on self-authorship in addition to identity
development in undergraduate students. In-depth interviews were conducted of eight
undergraduate students who had completed a 10-week theories leadership course with a
service-learning component. Students in the study reported experiencing continual self-
reflection and increased open-mindedness about new experiences, ideas, and people.
Additionally their service-learning experiences influenced their career choices towards those
engaging social issues.
Empirical research has further illuminated the connection between service-learning
and civic engagement. Barber (1992) posits that students‟ understanding of liberty is one of
the core elements of education in a democratic society and supports university community

23

service programs as means of engaging student interest in citizenship and civic education.
Research supports this supposition and the presence of civic engagement and democratic
values as an outcome of service-learning experiences (Astin, Sax, & Avalos, 1999; Eyler &
Giles, 1999; Jones & Hill, 2003; Youniss & Yates, 1997).
Due to the nature of service-learning which connects students to local communities,
issues of race and diversity are often unearthed in the process (Jay, 2008). As such, there
have been several positive outcomes from service-learning experiences linked specifically to
these areas. Service-learning experiences have been found to challenge student assumptions
about others from different backgrounds than themselves (Martin & Wheeler, 2000). Such
experiences provide an environment of reflection where students confront their own
preconceived values, beliefs, and attitudes (Leonard, 2004). Einfield & Collins (2008)
conducted a qualitative study of a university-sponsored service-learning AmeriCorps
program to explore changes in student perception. Participants included a sample of 10
participants who completed a significant number of service hours at a social service agency
throughout the year. Utilizing a constructivist approach, study findings indicated increased
awareness of society inequality and linked increased number of hours both per week and
throughout the year to increased opportunity for multicultural competence. In a study of two
race and ethnic relations classes, one with a service-learning component and one without,
Marullo (1998) compared pre and post-test data for students in both sections to observe
differences across a variety of variables. One of the findings showed students enrolled in the
service-learning section to demonstrate greater increases in awareness of issues of diversity
than those in sections with no service-learning component. Other studies have observed
increased awareness of social issues such as economic privilege, social inequalities, negative

24

stereotypes and tolerance of difference in students as a result of their service-learning
experiences (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Jones & Abes, 2004; Jones & Hill, 2001). Such studies
have implications for the possibilities of service-learning environments as vehicles for
increased awareness of issues of diversity.
There are also inherent benefits for the course to which service-learning is linked.
Service-learning was found to reinforce current as well as highlight new course and
curriculum objectives (Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). The connection
between service-learning and academic courses has been found to renew community
connections and join course objectives and curricula to community issues (Kaye, 2004;
Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). Eyler and Giles (1999) further expand upon
the connection between service-learning and community in their analysis of two service-
learning research studies. Through the review of data on various dimensions of learning and
development, service-learning was found to further connect the college experience to the
community. Their analysis also showed student participation in reflective service-learning
classes to show increased ability to analyze both causes and solutions to social problems.
Service-learning environments also give students a chance to further expand upon what is
learned in an academic environment. Boyer and Hechinger (1981) reference service-
learning as moving beyond knowledge acquisition to teaching students how to the engage
such knowledge in humane ways.
Empirical research on service-learning demonstrate several positive outcomes as a
result of student experiences including increased self-perception and awareness of issues
related to civic engagement and diversity. The benefits of service-learning also extend to the
course to which service experiences are tied, reinforcing community connections and

25

furthering analytical skills surrounding social problems. Service-learning experiences
present the opportunity to further enhance both student college development as well as serve
as a beneficial compliment to academic courses and curricula.
Women in College Environments
Women comprise a growing majority in college populations nationwide, generating
renewed interest in the gender gap in college environments as well as development factors
specific to female populations (Sax, 2009). While men comprised the majority of college
students in 1970 at 58%, women grew to a majority of 56% by 2000 and have stabilized
throughout the decade with 57% women making up college populations in 2010 (Freeman,
2004; “Gender equity in higher,” 2010). Such changes in demographics over the years have
called upon empirical research to address issues specific to college-age women that have
traditionally gone unaddressed in male-dominated literature (Sax, 2009). While there are
several theories that speak to the cognitive, moral and identity development of college
students, many have been recognized as neglecting gender differences in student
development. Gilligan (1982) criticized traditional theories on moral development including
Kohlberg‟s stages of development (Kohlberg, 1984) which often pathologized women and
failed to acknowledge the relevance of caretaking and relationships in female development.
Recognizing Erikson‟s (1963) epigenetic model for psychosocial development as utilizing
data based predominantly on work with males, Bingham and Stryker (1995) revised
Erikson‟s stages of psychosocial development to reflect growth within a social context and
stages more relevant to female development.

26

Several theories and research focus on female development as independent and
different than male development including how women construct knowledge (Belenky,
Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; King & Kitchener, 2002), intellectual and cognitive
development (Baxter Magolda, 1992; King & Kitchener, 1994; Pascarella et al., 1997; Whitt,
Edison, Pascarella, Nora, & Terenzini, 1999), moral development (Gilligan, 1982;
Hendershott, Drinan, & Cross, 1999), vocational and educational goals (Anthony, 1998;
Holland & Eisenhart, 1990; Lackland & DeLisi, 2001; Yeager, Terenzini, Pascarella, &
Nora, 1995), identity development (Gilligan, 1982, 1988; Jones, 1997; Poindexter-Cameron
& Robinson, 1997) and leadership development (Astin & Leland, 1991; Kezar & Moriarty,
2000; Whitt, 1994).
In particular, there are factors that impact female college populations differently
than male. Straub (1987) found that interpersonal relationships greatly impacted women‟s
development in college more so than male counterparts, particularly during the early years.
Studies have shown that student-faculty interactions have positive outcomes for both
genders, with positive outcomes specific to women including social self-confidence and
leadership abilities (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000), and increased self-confidence and intellectual
interactions (Komarovsky, 1985). In a longitudinal study of undergraduate students at
Miami University, Baxter Magolda (1992) observed that receiving knowledge, emphasizing
peer relationships and comfortable learning environments, and interpersonal knowing,
emphasizing rapport with peers and instructors, were more salient to female populations.
While there are several positive outcomes associated with female college
experience, several studies have also demonstrated that certain experiences can also produce
negative outcomes. The college experience can exaggerate student inputs such as gender

27

differences. Astin (1993) conducted a study assessing the impact of diversity on both
cognitive and affective student outcomes using longitudinal data from the Cooperative
Institutional Research Program (CIRP). He found that in the case of gender, college can
exaggerate stereotypical differences between men and women (Astin, 1993). In such cases,
women were more likely to drop out of stereotypically male fields such as law, medicine,
and engineering and stay in stereotypically female fields such as teaching, nursing, and
psychology (Astin, 1993). Whitt, Pascarella, Elkins Nesheim, Marth and Pierson (2003)
further affirmed this observation in a longitudinal study to assess differences in cognitive
outcomes of men and women in their first three years of college. Utilizing data from the
National Study of Student Learning with a sample of 23 students, the study revealed
differences accounted for by gender more so than other variables including precollege
characteristics and academic and nonacademic college experiences. The study found that at
different points during the three years, women reported lower math and science reasoning
scores than their male counterparts but higher critical-thinking and writing scores, mirroring
gender stereotypical differences. Additional studies based on national longitudinal data
attribute several negative outcomes with female students who perceive a chilly campus
climate (Pascarella et al., 1997; Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, & Terenzini, 1999).
While there are both positive and negative outcomes for women in college, overall it
is important to acknowledge that gender impacts college experience and that women have
different experiences and outcomes than men that warrants attention when addressing this
population.

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Summary
Allport‟s (1954) intergroup contact theory serves as a foundational framework for
this study with research from Gurin et al. (2002) providing relevant background on student
development and diversity. College continues to have significant impacts on student
development and varies in student experience depending on pre-college inputs (Astin, 1993).
Within this context of higher education, the literature presents compelling arguments for
both the relevance of cross-racial interactions and the connection to educational benefits in a
college environment (Astin, 1993; Astin, 1999; Chang, 1999; Gurin et al., 2002; Hurtado,
2001; Milem, 1994). Such diversity experiences can be maximized in an environment where
institutions assume the responsibility for both its promotion and reinforcement (Bennett,
2001; Chang, 2007). Diversity courses also have been demonstrated to have positive
impacts on both student development and awareness and openness to difference (Chang,
2002; Downey & Torrecilha, 1994; Henderson-King & Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott,
2005). Cultivating such awareness and development in students can further be supported
through service-learning experiences, which were found to have several positive outcomes
for student populations (Barber, 1992; Jacoby, 1996; Kendall, 1990; Sapp & Crabtree, 2002;
Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer & Anaya, 2003) as well as for linked academic courses (Einfield
& Collins, 2008; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Jones & Abes, 2004; Jones & Hill, 2001; Marullo,
1998). In assessing student experience and outcomes, it is necessary to take into account
gender as specific factors impact female populations differently than male (Belenky,
Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; King & Kitchener, 2002).

29

The literature supports the aims of this study both in recognizing the relevance of
diversity courses, service-learning and cross-racial interactions as well as an examination of
how such elements enhance cross-racial interactions in student populations.

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CHAPTER THREE
There have been numerous studies that have emphasized the inherent
educational benefits for students who socialize with peers from different racial
backgrounds and the positive outcomes of diversity courses and service-learning
experiences as referenced in the literature in chapter two of this study. While these
studies offer persuasive arguments for the relevance of both cross-racial interactions
and diversity courses, there is limited assessment regarding the role of diversity
courses in the production of cross-racial interactions and the role of service-learning
in enhancing diversity courses. Considering the dramatic demographic changes on
the horizon, further study to assess in more detail how diversity courses and service-
learning contribute to student cross-racial interaction is both warranted and timely.
To this end, the main research questions that serve as the focus of the study are:
1. In what ways do diversity courses shape students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the classroom? Are there
differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and experiences in
courses that do not meet the diversity requirement?
2. How does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity
courses?
3. In what way does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity course,
shape students‟ cross-racial interactions?

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This study will employ qualitative inquiry as a means of analysis defined as
being holistic, empirical, empathic, and interpretive in the process of furthering
knowledge of relationships (Stake, 1995). Data gathered and research methods in
qualitative inquiry focuses on depth of information gathered, not breadth (Patton,
2002). As such, the goal of this study is to further explore students‟ meaning making
regarding experiences related to cross-racial interactions both inside and outside of
classroom settings. To accomplish this goal, semi-structured individual interviews
were conducted with students currently enrolled at the University of Pacific Coast
(UPC). The sample size consisted of 15 participants enrolled in their first and
second year in college. In addition to interviews, descriptive data was gathered from
an intake survey utilized to further support interview observations and findings.
The focus of this chapter is to relay the design methodology utilized to
conduct qualitative inquiry for this study. Relevant elements of the process of
analysis will be discussed in detail including site selection, population and sample,
data collection and instrumentation, data analysis, ethical concerns, role of the
researcher, limitations, and a timeline of the study.
Site Selection
This was conducted at UPC, a large private tier-one university located in a
major metropolitan city. UPC has approximately 33,500 students (16,500
undergraduates and 17,000 graduate and professional students) and admits an

32

incoming freshman class of approximately 2,700 students each year. The
undergraduate campus population is made up of 46.6% White/Caucasian, 22.9%
Asian/Pacific Islander, 12.1% Hispanic, 5.4% Black/African-American, and 0.9%
Native American/American Indian (Unknown/Other and international students make
up the remaining population). In addition, 50.4% of the population is female and
49.6% is male. All undergraduate students are required to take at least one course in
fulfillment of the diversity requirement any semester before they graduate. Courses
designated as meeting the diversity requirement must meet five criteria defined by
UPC as necessary for a diversity course to be approved:
1. Diversity course requirement must examine two or more dimensions of
human diversity and must consider these dimensions in terms of their
social and/or cultural consequences.
2. As a rule, at least one third of the course should be addressed to these
issues, and this should be proportionately reflected in the assigned
readings, lectures, and topics for papers, quizzes, tests, or other graded
formal course requirements.
3. Each course should give students the opportunity for personal reflection
on the formation of their own attitudes toward other groups and the
effects of those attitudes on the institutions (e.g. cultural, professional,
political).

33

4. All syllabi are expected to show how the topics addressed related to
issues facing students in a contemporary context.
5. Course encourages comparative analytical thinking about issues of
diversity (University of Pacific [UPC], 2009a).
There are over 100 different course offerings taught by over 70 different instructors.
UPC was chosen as the site for this study both for the size and student compliment,
which is reflective of several private universities in the United States, and the
opportunity to conduct the study.
Population & Sample
This study will employ purposeful sampling, identified as an effective
strategy in qualitative analysis that yields cases for study rich with information and
description and emphasizing in-depth understanding (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 2002).
As the goal of qualitative inquiry is not to generalize to the overall population, but
instead to gather data that provides thick description that reveals the context of the
moment (Patton, 2002), a small population of 15 students was utilized for this study.
The participants in this study were first and second-year undergraduate students
enrolled at UPC, with 67% freshmen enrolled in their first semester at the university
and 33% sophomores enrolled in their first semester of their second year. The
participants for this study were limited to students enrolled in their first or second
year in college since, as previously mentioned in the literature review of this study,
this time period represents significant development in a students‟ time in college

34

(Astin, 1991; Astin, 1993; Hurtado, Dey, P. Gurin, G. Gurin, 2003; Pascarella,
Edison, Nora, Hagedorn, & Terenzini, 1996; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
Participants were chosen from students participating in the Service Learning Project
(SLP), a semester-long project where applied community experience in a
surrounding university neighborhood is coupled with academic coursework
(“Service Learning Project,” 2009). The majority of offered courses in Fall 2009
that met the diversity requirement at UPC were in departments from the fields of
humanities and social sciences (UPC, 2009b). As such, to ensure that both diversity
course takers and non diversity course takers comprised students with comparable
course experiences, participants were chosen only from students enrolled in SLP
linked academic courses from departments in the fields of humanities and social
science.
Of the students who participated in the study, 10 were enrolled in a diversity
course with the remaining five enrolled in a non-diversity course. While students
from both female and male populations were invited to participate in the study, only
female students volunteered to participate. The majority of participants were
traditional college age students entering as a freshman, with one student entering as a
sophomore transfer from a community college. Students represented a range of
ethnicities with 33% identifying as multiracial, 33% Asian/Asian-American, 27%
White/Caucasian, and 7% Mexican-American/Chicano. Participants also represented
a wide range of majors.

35

Data Collection and Instrumentation
Patton (2002) identifies multiple sources of data as a means of strengthening
a study. This study will utilize two main data sources: semi-structured interviews
and student intake surveys. Semi-structured interviewing consists of structured
questions to guide the topics being addressed to elicit open-ended responses
(Merriam, 1998). An open-ended response format incorporates a key principle of
interviewing where participants have the opportunity to express their own
perspectives and responses with respect to posed questions (Patton, 2002).
Semi-structured interviews ranging from 30 minutes to one hour in length were
conducted during the months of October and November of the Fall semester in 2009.
The interview protocols were geared to probe students‟ experiences surrounding
cross-racial interactions, diversity and non-diversity course environments, and
service-learning experiences (Appendix A). Interview questions were asked in the
context of the student‟s academic course directly linked to SLP. The interviews
were transcribed by an outside agency and then analyzed utilizing a specific method
of qualitative inquiry outlined in the following section. Interviews were conducted
individually with each participant. Individual interviews were conducted for their
strength in garnering information that is comprehensive and reflective of the
uniqueness of each participant‟s circumstance and experience (Hedges, 1985;
Robson & Foster, 1989). In addition, the use of individual interviews offers inherent
advantages in sampling, allowing for greater control of participant selection and
flexibility in the overall process (Cassell & Symon, 2004). Utilizing individual

36

interviews allowed for flexibility in scheduling, particularly since the population
included students who had both academic and service-learning commitments.
Employing individual interviews allowed for students to participate who had
schedules that differed greatly from each other and had limited available times to
schedule interviews.
Interviews were held at an on-campus location to provide students with easy
access to the interview site, familiarity in setting, and allow for flexibility with
student schedules with available times throughout the day. In preparation for each
interview, students were asked to identify a pseudonym to be used in reported data to
protect participant identities. Relying solely on memory to recall participant answers
can pose challenges towards accurate representation of interviewee responses and
reduce researcher bias (Chenail, 2009; McNamara, 2009). To avoid this pitfall, each
interview session was recorded and detailed notes were taken throughout the
interview to assist in recalling accurate and relevant participant responses for
analysis.
Student intake surveys were administered to students prior to the beginning
of interviews to yield additional demographic data that may not be captured in the
interview (Appendix B). The question protocols for the survey were geared towards
yielding information regarding participant ethnic background, academic background,
neighborhood and high school background in regards to ethnic make-up, and current
and previous diversity courses enrolled. This instrument was developed internally

37

through the USC School of Education by faculty associated with a Teagle
Foundation funded 3-year study “Assessing the Impact of Diversity Courses.” While
the instrument was designed to yield information from a variety of studies being
conducted related to diversity courses, information gathered from participants in this
study will be utilized to further inform interview data and ultimately, the research
questions.
Data Analysis
Creswell (2007) identifies five approaches to qualitative inquiry: narrative
research, phenomenology, Grounded Theory, ethnography, and case study. While
each approach has its own strengths and inherent assumptions, Grounded Theory
was chosen as a method of analysis this study. Different than other qualitative
approaches focused on explaining aspects of human experience to better understand
the social world, Grounded Theory is “grounded” in the data and focuses on the
generation of theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Patton, 2002). Utilizing this style of
inquiry calls upon the researcher to review and re-review data, coding participant
responses for the purpose of developing categories used to generalize hypotheses that
ultimately explain behavior under observation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Patton,
2002).
This method of qualitative analysis was chosen in particular for its strength in
the analysis of observations of the human experience as the foundation for
inductively generating findings, different than quantitative analysis focused on
testing an already deduced hypothesis (Patton, 2002). Instead, Grounded Theory

38

engages a process devoid of preconceived hypotheses or ideas prior to analyzing the
data. Grounded Theory also serves as an appropriate method of inquiry as a key part
of the analysis for this study is the comparison of participant responses in two
different groups, diversity course takers and non-diversity course takers. Glaser and
Strauss (1967) cite the comparison of group differences as a core element of
Grounded Theory. Grounded Theory lends itself not only to observing patterns in
the data, but also how such patterns differ under different conditions (Patton, 2002).
Utilizing Grounded Theory as a tool of analysis to answer the research
questions posed in this study, emergent themes and key factors for diversity course
takers as well as a comparison of themes between diversity course takers and non-
diversity course takers will be examined. A group comparison of developing themes
amidst diversity course taker and non-diversity course taker responses was
conducted to answer the first research question: in what ways do diversity courses
shape students‟ perceptions and experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the
classroom and are there differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and
experiences in courses that do not meet the diversity requirement. Utilizing Allport‟s
(1954) framework for identifying environmental conditions necessary for positive
cross-racial interactions to occur (equal status, common goals, intergroup
cooperation, and support of authorities) student responses to questions about
conditions present in their classroom environment for each of the two groups were
reviewed for emergent themes and factors which were systematically compared for

39

similarities and differences. Both diversity course taker and non diversity course
taker responses together were examined to answer the second and third research
questions: how does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity
courses and in what way does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity
course, shape students‟ cross-racial interactions. Themes related to cross-racial
interaction as well as how students experienced both service-learning and their
diversity course concurrently throughout the semester were explored.
Successful employment of Grounded Theory in data analysis requires the
researcher to identify both relevant categories and properties within the data as well
as generalize the relationship between such categories to generate hypotheses (Glaser
& Strauss, 1967). While the goal of this study is not to generate hypothesis, the use
of Grounded Theory to conduct comparative analysis of participant responses serves
as a key component of this study. Comparative analysis serves as a core component
of Grounded Theory, where theoretical comparisons are made amidst emergent
categories and properties (Patton, 2002; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). To accomplish
this task and accomplish both objectivity and systematic rigor, both key elements of
analysis in Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), coding was employed as a
means of analyzing data gathered from participant interviews. While there are
several techniques that can be utilized to code data, this study will employ
microanalysis where data is reviewed and coded line-by-line for the purposes of

40

creating categories and subsequently review the relationship between such categories
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Participant interviews were reviewed to identify relevant words and phrases
and their ascribed meaning, which in turn were each assigned a code. Each
interview was then re-reviewed to ascertain common codes to create relevant
categories. Interviews were then re-reviewed a final time to make comparisons and
identify differences and similarities in how participants and groups made meaning of
each category, leading to the development of overarching themes. The final stage of
analysis entails discussing themes both in the context of this study as well as its
relevance to the field and future study.
Descriptive data was also utilized from the student intake surveys. Answers
to each of the intake surveys for this study were entered into a Microsoft Excel
document and analyzed for variables that further informed the research questions and
gave support to themes generated from interview analysis.
Ethical Concerns
A key concern when conducting this study was the ethical considerations of
the participants involved. Concerns include the disclosure of information prior to
gaining participant permission and negatively impacting participants through the
process of collecting data (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). To avoid such errors,
Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines strictly guided my process as the

41

researcher in conducting this study. The appropriate IRB forms and documentation
were submitted and filed and all activities and methods of data collection were
disclosed. All methods, data collection, analysis, and reporting of data were made
available to IRB upon request. Permission was obtained by both the USC IRB as
well as the Associate Director, Research & Academic Affairs for the UPC Service-
Learning Project prior to proceeding with the study. I obtained both informed
consent and voluntary participation from student participants. Participant identities
were protected in the reporting of data through the assignment of a pseudonym. In
addition, transcripts and reports were made available to participants upon request.
Another ethical concern that can arise in qualitative study is the bias of the
researcher impacting the accuracy of findings (Patton, 2002). Objectivity was the
goal in the analysis of data for this study, particularly given the use of Grounded
Theory in data analysis, where effective coding is contingent upon the researcher‟s
ability to maintain objectivity (Patton, 2002). To achieve qualitative inquiry without
bias requires the awareness and assessment of the researchers‟ own blind spots and
cognitive limitations in both conducting the study and analyzing data (Simmons,
1998). As such, it was my goal as the researcher to be aware of internal biases to
accurately represent the opinions and responses of participants while maintaining
awareness of how the presence of the researcher inevitably impacts the data
gathered.

42

Funding for this study was provided through research grants from the Teagle
Foundation and the National Association of Student Personnel Administraton. Funds
were utilized to pay for ten dollar gift cards from Starbucks and the UPC bookstore
given to student participants and interview transcription costs. To ensure proper
usage of funds, the use of incentives for study participants was approved by the USC
IRB and met all established protocols and procedures. Transcriptions were
conducted through the USC Center for Higher Education and Policy Analysis. Use
of funds for transcription costs were supervised by dissertation faculty and met USC
IRB policies.
Role of the Researcher
Being an African-American women who grew up in Los Angeles County in
Southern California, I recognize that I view the relevance of cross-racial interactions
and diversity through the lens of my upbringing. Having grown up in such a diverse
community inevitably influences my views that cross-racial interactions are
necessary to successfully navigate through both social and work environments.
As an educator who has in the past advocated for inclusion of cultural based
curriculum, minors, and majors at the colleges where I have worked, I am aware that
I may bring biases into my role as the researcher. While my background in this area
is one of the reasons that I was initially drawn to conducting this study, I recognize
that it is important for me to be cognizant of how this may “color” my perspective.

43

As a College Counselor I have taken an unspoken oath to effectively serve the
diverse student population at the institution where I work. Therefore, my latent
assumption is that effective cross-racial interactions are beneficial and even
necessary in the college environment.
Limitations
There are some limitations in the method of qualitative analysis chosen that
have potential impact on the overall study. While utilizing Grounded Theory has its
strengths in regards to this study, it presents challenges that may arise in the process
of data analysis. Utilizing Grounded Theory, it ultimately falls to the researcher to,
through analysis, explain observed processes and interactions based on the data
(Creswell, 2007). As such, the researcher plays a significant role in this process and
subsequent discussion of findings in this study. While the goal of this style of
qualitative inquiry is to avoid preconceived hypothesis or categories at the beginning
stages of data analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Patton, 2002), failure to accomplish
this task can result in the researcher‟s agenda influencing the results (Charmaz,
2000). A technique that can be employed to avoid such bias is the systematic
process of coding, which helps to eliminate researcher agenda and focus the analysis
on the data and subsequently ensure that resulting themes are truly reflective of the
data (Patton, 2002; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). However, coding in and of itself
presents another challenge to Grounded Theory. If coding is not properly employed
and structured, categories and the resulting theories can lack relevance to the data

44

and fail to represent the topic being investigated (Charmaz, 2000; Glaser, 2001).
Adherence to the systemic nature of Grounded Theory in the coding and recognition
of significant themes in the data ensures that data analysis is successfully achieved
through constant comparison, not for the sole sake of generating new and exciting
concepts (Glasser, 2001). While interview questions were designed to garner
responses to further inform the research questions for this study, coding was
conducted objectively and without agenda to ensure that emergent themes were
accurately reflective of participant experiences.
In addition to limitations in the analysis methods for the study, there are
limitations in the sample population. Participants were elicited from both male and
female populations of students participating in SLP, however, only female students
volunteered to participate. While the aims of this study were not focused on
gathering data from all female populations, the data collected is inevitably influenced
by the gender of the participants. As such, research specific to female populations is
included in the literature review and taken into consideration in the recommendations
presented in this study.
Timeline of the Study
Data collection for the study commenced upon approval by the dissertation
committee members and the USC IRB in July of 2009. Data collection took place
during the months of October and November of the Fall semester in 2009. Analysis
and reporting of the results were completed in April 2010.

45

CHAPTER FOUR
The focus of this study is to examine the elements of diversity courses and
service-learning experiences that serve to enhance cross-racial interactions. This
chapter presents a qualitative analysis of data gathered for this study and the
subsequent findings which attempts to answer the three original research questions:
1. In what ways do diversity courses shape students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the classroom? Are there
differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and experiences in
courses that do not meet the diversity requirement?
2. How does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity
course?
3. In what way does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity course,
shape students‟ cross-racial interactions?
The data reflects questions asked of 15 participants in the study regarding their
experiences in the Service Learning Program (SLP) and in their corresponding
diversity or non-diversity course at the university. Using the constant comparative
method, data gathered from semi-structured interviews with the 15 participants was
carefully analyzed to yield emergent major and minor themes. Participants were
asked questions relevant to experiences in diversity course and non diversity course
classrooms and in service-learning environments. Data from student intake surveys
and pre and post SLP surveys were utilized to provide demographic data on student‟s

46

backgrounds and perceptions both prior to and after participating in SLP and
completing their course.
Amidst participant response and stories about their experiences in their
courses and at their SLP sites, five main themes and one minor theme emerged that
further informed cross-racial interaction, common to both diversity course and non
diversity course students:
 The relevance of a diversity course requirement
 Discussion sessions versus lectures, the ideal environment for interactions
 Diversity courses, a catalyst for change
 Service-learning, the “real” context of diversity
 Service-learning and diversity, a matched pair
 The city and its impact on student perception.
The chapter begins with an introduction to the 15 participants followed by findings
organized by observed themes, each corresponding to a specific research question
and coupled with a detailed description of observations and supporting evidence in
quoted participant responses. Table 1 provides a summary of research questions,
observed themes, detailed findings, and highlights of supporting participant quotes.

Table 1
Overview of Themes, Findings, and Quotes
RESEARCH QUESTION THEME FINDINGS PARTICIPANT QUOTE HIGHLIGHTS
1) In what ways do
diversity courses shape
students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-
racial interactions in the
classroom? Are there
differences when
compared to students‟
perceptions and
experiences in courses
that do not meet the
diversity requirement?
The Relevance
of a Diversity
Course
Requirement
 students felt a
diversity course
provided the
opportunity to be
exposed to difference
 the requirement gave
students an opportunity
they would not have
otherwise had or
initiated to take a
diversity course

Edna: “. . . especially, since college does gather people from like all
over . . . people do have to understand that there are differences and be
aware of them.”

Cindy: “I think it's really important just because I think there are a lot
of people that don't realize the culture of people around them . . . there
are people who have come here with groups of friends from high
school, and if not forced to, they would not open their eyes to the
things around them.”

April: “Yeah. I think, cause it will teach people a lot about other
people that they may not know of if they like weren't required to take
the course . . . it's like a good way to encourage interaction between
people from all like different background.”
1) In what ways do
diversity courses shape
students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-
racial interactions in the
classroom? Are there
differences when
compared to students‟
perceptions and
experiences in courses
that do not meet the
diversity requirement?
Discussion
Sessions versus
Lectures, the
Ideal
Environment
for Interactions
 participants felt that
their discussion session
better fostered student
interactions than their
corresponding lecture
classes
 discussion sessions
provided participants
with a more open and
comfortable
environment in which
to interact than lecture
classes
Isabella: “. . . in lecture it‟s harder to get to that issue because it‟s a lot
of just sitting there listening and there‟s not that much interaction, but
in discussion class, I think it‟s really fostered that we all kind of use
some of our personal experiences and also relate them to the readings.”

April: “the discussion session, definitely, encourages like people to
like from different countries to work together. But like the lecture
course, we don't really like have much like chances to interact. So, it's
more of like learning like from your PowerPoints about like people
from like other racial background”

Cindy: “It's a huge lecture. So, it's just the teacher talking to us . . .
But in the discussion group, which is once a week, everyone's talking .
. . everyone's kind of open about what they're going to say.”
47

Table 1, Continued
RESEARCH QUESTION THEME FINDINGS PARTICIPANT QUOTE HIGHLIGHTS
1) In what ways do
diversity courses shape
students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-
racial interactions in the
classroom? Are there
differences when
compared to students‟
perceptions and
experiences in courses
that do not meet the
diversity requirement?
Diversity
Courses, a
Catalyst for
Change
 exposure to diverse
curricula allowed
students to look at
interactions with
diverse peers from a
different perspective
and made students
more open to difference
in general
Rebecca: “I was like, ooh diversity, I already know a bunch of stuff, a
bunch of different things, but then, being in it, I‟ve gotten to see
different sides of it . . . what the different cultures are . . . I‟m really
glad that I‟ve been able to see that, so. And it‟s helped me to
understand the other world around me better.”

Eve: “I‟m taking a diversity course now and I came in a sophomore,
and I just feel it‟s opened my eyes to so many things, like everything
intertwines with everything else. It connects with one another, so I
mean if I didn‟t take this course I think – I just think it helps me open
me eyes.”

Lindsey: “. . . I was listening to stories about how some minorities –
they seemed like, oh, you got into UPC, oh, that's because you're
Latino, that's because your African-American. And I never thought
about it that way. I mean, just like those kind of interactions inform
you a lot about different perspectives from different backgrounds.”
2) How does service
learning enhance
students‟ experience in a
diversity courses?
AND
3) In what way does
service-learning, when
coupled with a diversity
course, shape students‟
cross-racial interactions?
Service-
Learning &
Diversity, a
Matched Pair
 diversity courses,
social issues courses,
and courses focused on
understanding the city
and difference serve as
the optimal course
couplings with SLP
Participant responses summarized in Table 4
48

Table 1, Continued
RESEARCH QUESTION THEME FINDINGS PARTICIPANT QUOTE HIGHLIGHTS
2) How does service
learning enhance
students‟ experience in a
diversity courses?
AND
3) In what way does
service-learning, when
coupled with a diversity
course, shape students‟
cross-racial interactions?
Service-
Learning, the
“Real” Context
of Diversity
 participants related
the material learned in
class as having more
relevance when they
were able to observe
the topics and subjects
in a “real world”
environment such as
their SLP site
 participants reported
increased diverse
interactions at their
SLP site more so than
in their classroom
setting
Gabby: “. . . it just like focuses your observation so that you‟re not
just randomly observing, you‟re taking it in and applying to stuff you
know so there sort of becomes a reason for why the actions happen
and so they like simultaneously work together to completely
understand everything.”

Connie: “. . . the SLP course [site] makes me interact with more of
other racial backgrounds than just in the class itself . . . So, for
example, I interact with many Hispanic students in my SLP course
[site] more so than in my diversity class.”

April: “. . . through the SLP, I get to work with kids from – that are
Mexican, Hispanics. And before, I've never really had that
opportunity. So, it teaches me a lot about like how to communicate
with them and like it's just a unique experiences like to me.”
2) How does service
learning enhance
students‟ experience in a
diversity courses?
AND
3) In what way does
service-learning, when
coupled with a diversity
course, shape students‟
cross-racial interactions?
The City and
Its Impact on
Student
Perception
 diversity courses
were valued
particularly given the
difference between
student background and
the city environment
 courses related to the
city were regarded as
the best course
compliment to SLP
experiences

Lindsey: “I'm from a high school that's really not diverse at all. And
for me to be in a school like this, I feel like I should be more informed
about the differences . . I'll be better prepared for how to deal with
different types of people, better understand the diversity at this school
and in this city.”

Mercedes: “Just classes that make you more aware of race and class . .
.there's a class called, Race and Class in the city . . . very specific stuff,
that if it was SLP, being able to better prepare themselves for areas in
the city, you know, where they have to impact.”

Jenny: “This city itself was a big difference and I think that my course
has really touched on that, like we talked about gangs and stuff and all
the racial ties with that. It‟s different to live here than it is to live in a
suburb in California. I mean the city versus where I‟m from is just a
big jump.”
49

50

Introduction to Fifteen Student Participants
Participants were all in their first two years of college with 67% freshmen in
their first semester and 33% sophomores in their first semester of their second year.
Participant majors represented a wide range of studies from technical and science
majors to social science and humanities. All participants were active at SLP sites off
campus and in inner city communities. The majority of participants were traditional
college-aged students entering as a freshman, with one student entering as a
sophomore transfer from a local community college. Participants represented a
range of ethnicities with 33% identifying as multiracial, 33% Asian/Asian-American,
27% White/Caucasian, and 7% Mexican-American/Chicano. Participant ethnicities
differed slightly from the larger campus population which comprises 23.5%
Asian/Pacific Islander, 5.5% Black/African-American, 13.4%
Hispanic/Latino/Chicano, .9% American Indian, 44.3% White/Caucasian, and 1.8%
Unknown/Other. Table 2 provides a summary of participant demographic
information including year in school, ethnicity, major, SLP corresponding diversity
or non diversity course, and the SLP site where the participant conducted their
service-learning project.

51

Table 2
Participant Profile
Participant
Year in
School
Ethnicity Major
SLP course
(*diversity course)
SLP site
Rebecca Freshman Mexican
American/Chicano &
White/Caucasian
Computer
Engineering/
Computer
Science
SWMS 210*
Social Issues in
Gender
Teaching
Assistant at
inner city
elementary
school
Edna Sophomore Asian
American/Asian
Occupational
Therapy
SOCI 169*
Changing
Family Forms
Volunteer at
inner city
Youth and
Family Agency
Caroline Freshman Multiracial: Asian
Indian, Spanish,
English
History SOCI 142*
Diversity &
Racial Conflict
Teaching
Assistant at
inner city
elementary
school
April Freshman Asian
American/Asian
Business
Administration
SOCI 169*
Changing
Family Forms
Volunteer at
inner city
daycare center
Lindsey Freshman Asian
American/Asian
International
Relations
SOCI 142*
Diversity &
Racial Conflict
Mentor at inner
city elementary
school
Natasha Sophomore White/Caucasian International
Relations
CLAS 280
Classical
Mythology
Mentor at inner
city elementary
school
Cindy Freshman White/Caucasian Communication HIST 200*
The American
Experience
Mentor at inner
city elementary
school
Beverly Freshman Asian
American/Asian &
Mexican
American/Chicano
Psychology PHIL 140
Contemporary
Moral and
Social Issues
Mentor at inner
city elementary
school
Mercedes Freshman African
American/Black &
White/Caucasian
International
Relations
SPAN 220
Spanish III
Teaching
Assistant at
inner city
elementary
school
Nicole Freshman Asian
American/Asian
Biology SPAN 220
Spanish III
Volunteer at
Optometric
Center
Gabby Freshman White/Caucasian Biology SOCI 142*
Diversity &
Racial Conflict
Mentor at inner
city elementary
school

52

Table 2, Continued
Participant
Year in
School
Ethnicity Major
SLP course
(*diversity course)
SLP site
Connie Freshman Asian
American/Asian
Accounting SWMS 210*
Social Issues in
Gender
Teaching
Assistant at
inner city
elementary
school
Isabella Sophomore
(transfer
student)
Asian
American/Asian &
White/Caucasian
English &
Gender Studies
SWMS 210*
Social Issues in
Gender
Conducting
archive
research at an
institute
Eve Sophomore Mexican
American/Chicano
Sociology SOCI 200*
Introduction to
Sociology
Teaching
Assistant at
inner city
elementary
school
Jenny Sophomore White/Caucasian Psychology PSYC 355 Volunteer at
inner city
daycare center

Diversity and Non Diversity Courses, Common Student Experiences
Students were posed questions regarding cross-racial interactions in the
classroom to answer the first research question, in what ways do diversity courses
shape students‟ perceptions and experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the
classroom and are there differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and
experiences in courses that do not meet the diversity requirement. Questions were
designed around Allport‟s (1954) four conditions necessary for positive cross-racial
interactions: common goals, equal status, intergroup cooperation, and support of
authority (Table 3). Interviews were conducted to yield students‟ stories regarding
the presence of these conditions in the classroom environment of a diversity and non
diversity course. Student responses were analyzed to determine if different themes

53

emerged amongst the two types of course takers. However, in reviewing the
narratives of both groups, the majority of students in both diversity courses and non
diversity courses gave positive responses in regards to all four conditions being
present in their class (Table 2).
Table 3
Participant Responses to Classroom Presence of Cross-Racial Conditions
Participants Conditions
Support of Authority Intergroup Cooperation
Common
Goals
Equal Status
Interview Questions
Students
felt
freshman
need to
take a
diversity
or social
issues
course
Students
felt the
university
should
require a
diversity
course to
graduate
Student felt
course provided
an environment
where students
are willing to
interact with
racial/ethnic
cultures
different than
their own
Student felt
course
encouraged
cross-racial
interactions
Students felt
course
provided an
environment
where students
are working
towards similar
or common
goals
Students felt that
they had equal
status in course to
other students
from different
racial/ethnic
backgrounds than
their own and
that students
viewed each
other as having
equal status
Rebecca Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Edna Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Caroline Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
April Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Lindsey Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Natasha Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cindy Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Mercedes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Beverly Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Nicole Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Gabby No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Connie Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Isabella Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Eve Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Jenny Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

54

Instead of significant differences observed between the two groups, two major
themes emerged that were common to all participants, regardless of course type: the
relevance of a diversity course requirement and discussion sessions versus lectures,
the ideal environment for interactions. A theme specific only to diversity course
takers also emerged: diversity courses, a catalyst for change. In the following
sections, each theme will be discussed including examples of participant responses.
The Relevance of a Diversity Course Requirement
Amidst all 15 participants, regardless of course type, a common theme
emerged across responses regarding the recognition of the relevance of a diversity
course to student interactions. When asked if students felt that freshmen should take
a diversity course and if the university should require a diversity course, 13 students
felt that there was value to the requirement for a variety of reasons that related to
interactions with diverse peers. Two significant findings were observed: a) students
felt a diversity course provided the opportunity to be exposed to difference and b) as
a requirement, a diversity course gave students an opportunity they would not have
otherwise had.
The first finding was observed in several student responses where individuals
felt that a diversity course had particular value in exposing students to different
viewpoints and perspectives. In particular, two examples include participants Edna

55

and Caroline. Edna, a sophomore from Maryland majoring in occupational therapy,
spoke to this finding in her discussion of the relevance of the university‟s diversity
course requirement in light of diverse student backgrounds:
. . . especially since, with schooling and like different family backgrounds
and just like how kids grew up, there is a lot of things that they might have
not been exposed to or be a little ignorant of, because they don't understand it
as well. And, especially, since college does gather people from like all over –
especially, like a school like UPC, where people come from like all over the
world, basically, and you have – like people do have to understand that there
are differences and be aware of them and – I don't know, it's just a necessity
to under – like to get a better understanding of just like life, in general.
Caroline, a multiracial freshman majoring in history, discusses this concept in her
response to why freshman needed to take a diversity or social issues course:
. . . starting college, I was pretty nervous, you know, not knowing what to
expect. And this is actually my favorite class right now, because it's really
interesting as opposed to my other classes, which are just cut and dry. And
like, in here, in the discussions we have, you know, we get to see things from
everyone else's point of view and I do find it pretty interesting.
Edna and Caroline represents a common sentiment raised by several of the
participants; that diversity courses played a key role in helping students to
understand peers from different backgrounds. This suggests that participants saw a
diversity course as an opportunity to gain exposure that would have overall benefits
including impact on interactions with students different than themselves.
The second finding reflected how students found value that as a requirement
to graduate, students were allowed to have an experience taking a diversity course
that they may not have normally chosen for themselves. Cindy and April provide

56

examples of participant responses that speak to this finding. Cindy, a Caucasian
communications major from Atlanta in her first year, discusses her perspective:
Yeah, I think it's really important just because I think there are a lot of people
that don't realize the culture of people around them. I mean, I'm in a dorm
with someone from Israel. So, like I'm with someone all the time who is of a
different nationality, and everything, and has a different perspective on
things. But there are people who have come here with groups of friends from
high school, and if not forced to, they would not open their eyes to the things
around them.
Similarly, April, a business administration major from China studying at the
university on a student visa, discusses why she thinks a diversity course requirement
is important:
Yeah. I think, 'cause it will teach people a lot about like, you know, other
people that they may not know of if they like weren't required to take the
course. So, it's like a good way to like encourage interaction between people
from all like different background.
Like Cindy and April, participants often referenced the impact of interactions with
students from diverse backgrounds and cultures in discussing the value they placed
on a diversity course requirement. This value was linked to an opportunity for
students to expand their experiences beyond the groups they interacted with prior to
coming college and would probably stay in if not encouraged to interact with
students from different backgrounds.
While all students felt that the university should require a diversity course to
graduate, two students felt the emphasis on freshman to take a diversity or social
issues course was not necessary. However, in their responses, both students still
spoke to the relevance of diversity and social issues courses on interactions with

57

students from different backgrounds. Beverly, a biracial psychology major in her
first year at the university, spoke to the importance of such a course:
I don't think it's necessary, but I think it definitely adds to your education, and
your experiences in college . . . for some people, it doesn't impact them as
much, but it's because they've already embraced it, or they already understand
it . . . for those that don't really understand diversity, I think it is very
valuable . . . I think it's a good baseline for everyone, and I think it's a good
standard to keep going, in that it will teach . . . it's definitely doing more good
than harm.
Gabby, a freshman majoring in biology who was born in South African but grew up
in the U.S., echoes similar sentiments:
I don‟t think it necessarily has to be freshmen that have to take it. I think
anybody should – like any age can take it, but I think it should be taken to –
just to see a different perspective of things and like even if it‟s not related to
your major it‟s still interesting to see kinda like – like mine is all – like we
just have studied up until like this like quarter sorta like how like the country
like formulated and why there are like the like racial conflict and how that
spurred between like African-Americans, Asian-Americans and like the white
and how the white definition changed depending on politics or economics
and stuff like that, so I think just learning that is stuff that I didn‟t know and
so I think understanding our country‟s history will also help kind of like open
everyone‟s minds a little bit.
Both participants discuss the importance of being exposed to curriculum that informs
students of different cultures‟ perspectives and the importance of diversity courses
for students not previously exposed to diversity.
The relevance of a diversity course represents a significant theme that
emerged amidst student responses. All 15 participants indicated a need for a
diversity requirement both in a student‟s personal development as well as their
ability to socialize in a diverse environment. The fact that all participants felt that a

58

diversity course should be required by the university and most felt it particularly
relevant to freshman, illustrates value placed on a diversity course both in the
classroom experience as well as in outside environments. Participants also
acknowledged relevance in a diversity course beyond solely fulfilling the university
requirement, but having a greater impact on behavior and perception. These findings
reinforce the university‟s aims in having a diversity requirement; to address different
dimensions of human diversity and elicit student self-reflection regarding attitudes
towards different groups. Findings suggest that diversity course requirements are
successful in meeting these goals.
Discussion Sessions versus Lectures, the Ideal Environment for Interactions
Another common theme across participants was the relevance of discussion
sessions versus lectures in providing an environment conducive to cross-racial
interactions. Without being prompted or asked, many participants reported diverse
experiences in their discussion sessions more so than their lectures. Two significant
findings were observed: a) participants felt that their discussion session better
fostered student interactions than their corresponding lecture classes and b)
discussion sessions provided participants with a more open and comfortable
environment in which to interact.
The initial finding was observed in participant comments that felt that they
were better able to interact in their discussion sessions more so than their lectures

59

environments which they perceived as static. Examples are demonstrated in the
responses of two participants, April and Isabella. In response to being asked if her
course encouraged cross-racial interactions, April, discussed the difference between
her lecture and discussion session experience:
I think the course, the discussion session, definitely, encourages like people
to like from different countries to work together. Like we have different
projects that where we have to work with other people from like other
countries. But like the lecture course, we don't really like have much like
chances to interact. So, it's more of like learning like from your PowerPoints
about like people from like other racial background.
Having a similar experience, Isabella, a sophomore majoring in English and gender
studies, contrasted her experience in her lecture to her discussion session in her story
about the class environment in regards to cross-racial interactions:
Well, I think in lecture it‟s kind of harder to get to that issue because it‟s a lot
of just sitting there listening and there‟s not that much interaction between
students, but in discussion class, I think it‟s really fostered that we all kind of
use some of our personal experiences and also relate them to the readings that
we have and a lot of our readings do come from different perspectives,
different, you know, classes, races, all dealing with the same issues of gender
which I think a lot of people can relate to and wanna talk about.
Other participants mirror April and Isabella‟s comments and identified discussion
sessions as providing an environment where students engaged in activities that
prompted students to interact more so than in lecture environments. Participants
acknowledged discussions sessions as promoting interactions because they provided
a more interactive setting that was conducive to interactions taking place.
The second finding was observed in participant discussions regarding how
they felt their discussion session facilitated interactions more so than lectures. Cindy

60

and Gabby are both participants that provide examples of this concept in their
responses. Cindy spoke to this concept in her response to how the class does or does
not provide an environment where students are willing to interact with racial or
ethnic cultures different than their own:
It's a huge lecture. So, it's just the teacher talking to us . . . But in the
discussion group, which is once a week, everyone's talking . . . everyone's
kind of open about what they're going to say. People do, I mean there are
like people of different backgrounds in there, but no one is afraid to say what
they want to in the class, which is good.
In a discussion of her interactions with students of different racial and ethnic
backgrounds in her class, Gabby discussed her experience in her discussion class:
I think one thing that‟s like – that stands out is in my discussion for that class.
We like went around one day and was like, „What do you consider your
identity to be and like where did you come – like how did you decide that and
like when was the first time you noticed that you were different?‟ or
something like that. I think just going around like the circle of the class – it
wasn‟t even our whole like diversity class. It was just like the discussion
group and even in those people every single person had a different
background and a different story and like I think that that just shows like
every single person like has their own diversity, not just like in their race but
in like everything.
Like Gabby and Cindy, participants valued not only the diversity of their discussion
class, but also the smaller class setting that provided an open environment where
students felt comfortable sharing personal stories and opinions.
Discussion sessions providing an environment that both promotes
interactions and establishes a comfortable setting for students to have such
interactions is a relevant finding of this study. Students valued the flexibility,
smaller environment, and interactive setting of the discussion sessions as an

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important element in both cross-racial interactions and in their overall discussions of
the relevance of diversity. This suggests that classroom environments where smaller
class sizes convene, students are engaged in activities, and feel open to share with
others promotes cross-racial interactions.
Diversity Courses, a Catalyst for Change
A theme that emerged amidst only the students enrolled in a diversity course
related to a change in their view of cross-racial interactions as a result of their course
experience. Several participants felt that exposure to diverse curricula allowed them
to look at their interactions with diverse peers from a different perspective.
Participants discussed being more open to difference in general. Responses from
Rebecca, Lindsey, and Eve provide examples of this finding.
Rebecca, a computer engineering major in her first semester at the university,
discussed how her perceptions of diversity changed by being enrolled in her Social
Issues and Gender class:
I was like, ooh diversity, I already know a bunch of stuff, a bunch of different
things, but then, being in it, I‟ve gotten to see different sides of it . . . what the
different cultures are . . . I‟m really glad that I‟ve been able to see that, so.
And it‟s helped me to understand the other world around me better.
Rebecca later commented on how her course experience paired with her SLP
experience changed her perceptions of her interactions with others from a different
background:

62

I think, also, like what I had talked about earlier, broadening someone's
perceptions and seeing the different sides or, maybe, where they're coming
from and from different issues and different situations. And, maybe, you
know, asking yourself, instead of getting angry, like, maybe, if they're against
you or whatever, I would be like, well, why would they do this? Maybe, it's
something from their background.
Lindsey, an international relations major who was born in Korea but grew up in the
US, discussed her experiences with students in her Diversity and Racial Conflict
class and how it changed both her perceptions and interactions with her fellow
students:
There was one sociology discussion class where we talked about affirmative
action. And my discussion class is very diverse. There are a lot of people – I
mean, I only thought about affirmative action in like one perspective. And by
having a lot of different people present, I mean, every single person,
basically, talked about their own opinions. And when I heard that, I just kind
of realized how – I don't know – how like diverse the opinions were. I mean,
there are some African-Americans that were against – what is it – affirmative
action, just. And then, their reasoning was, so, like, so logical. I was like,
oh, I understand that it's going on. I never thought about it that way. I
always thought minorities were for affirmative action most of the times. But I
was listening to stories about, you know, how they – how some minorities –
they seemed like, oh, you got into UPC, oh, that's because you're a _______,
you know, that's because your Latino, that's because your African-American.
And that I felt like from their stories, that really hurt them. And that made
them kind of say, oh, you know, I worked really hard to get here. And I don't
understand why people are not acknowledging that just because of my race.
And I never thought about it that way. I mean, just like those kind of
interactions inform you a lot about different perspectives from different
backgrounds.
Lindsey‟s experience with the curriculum is directly tied to the opinions and
comments of her diverse peers surrounding the topic. Her experience parallels many
of the participants in diversity courses who reported how their interactions inside the
classroom changed their outlook of their peers and their subsequent interactions.

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Eve, a sophomore sociology major in agreement that freshman need to take a
diversity or social issues course, discussed her personal experience in her
Introduction to Sociology class:
I‟m taking a diversity course now and I came in a sophomore, and I just feel
it‟s opened my eyes to so many things, like everything intertwines with
everything else. It kinda, you know, connects with one another, so I mean if I
didn‟t take this course I think – I just think it helps me open me eyes.
Later in the interview, Eve also discussed how her experience in her diversity course
changed her definition of diversity:
. . . when you asked me what the term “diversity” – before if you were to ask
me I would say it‟s something dealing with racial issues, you know, pretty
much. I would separate it into race but now I‟m separating to individuals and
so it‟s not based on skin color or based on gender, etc. It‟s just based on their
own self and what they can bring to the table as an individual. Culturally is
something, you know, like that. That‟s how I see it. It made me totally
change my views of diversity.
The impact of student experience in a diversity course and the subsequent
changes in student perception serves as a relevant finding in this study. Participants
reported both a change in their view of their interactions with others from different
backgrounds and their view of such interactions. This shift in perspective is
significant in understanding how students made meaning out of their diversity course
experience in relation to their interactions with students from different backgrounds.
It also speaks to the ways in which diversity course play a role in the promotion of
cross-racial interactions.

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Service-Learning and Diversity, a Matched Pair
Students were prompted to discuss what courses they felt were the best
compliment to the SLP experience to answer the second research question: how
does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity courses. The
majority of students identified diversity courses, social issues courses, or described
courses relevant to the city or learning about different cultures (Table 4).
Table 4
Participant Course Compliment to SLP
Name Recommended SLP Course Compliment
Rebecca Social issues (gender and racial diversity)
Edna Race & Class in LA, child development, changing family forms
Caroline Sociology
April Social issues and gender/communication
Lindsey Diversity courses/focus on LA
Natasha Culturally based courses, Cat 1 or 6 or diversity courses
Cindy History of LA, Spanish to relate to population
Beverly Psychology & Philosophy,
Courses that explore how people are raised and different experiences
Mercedes International relations courses, foreign language courses, courses
related to LA
Nicole Diversity/social issues classes
Gabby Diversity and racial conflict or any sociology class
Connie How different races learn and how race affects learning
Isabella Gender & language
Eve Sociology, psychology, liberal courses
Jenny Psychology, gender studies, maybe anthropology – something that
allows you to see what you are studying put into real life

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Responses centered on courses that helped students to understand difference in their
diverse interactions, particularly in light of the SLP experience. Several participants,
including Connie, Nicole, and Gabby, discussed how courses focused on race,
difference, and understanding behavior would also work well with SLP. Connie, an
accounting major in her first semester in college, describes what she feels the ideal
course match to SLP would be: “maybe how different races of students learn from
how they – how – different ways of learning and how race affects that.” Nicole also
related difference and diversity as good pairings to SLP: “. . . a lot of the classes
seem to be the diversity classes. Like social issues, kind of like community classes, I
guess. You're learning about differences among the human race.“ Gabby discusses
why courses similar to the sociology course she is currently enrolled in would help
students at their SLP site:
I think Diversity and Racial Conflict is a really good one ‟cause it‟s diversity
and racial conflict, but also I think probably like any – I think any sociology
class really ‟cause it‟s kinda like how – like why behaviors happen and stuff
like that. It kinda goes like into the roots and so I think why you‟re observing
SLP and like you‟re observing kids and interacting with them, then you have
that basis of perhaps why this is happening the way it‟s happening.
Beverly recommends a non diversity course, but one that focuses on exploring
difference:
I think courses about I think the way we're raised, maybe. I think everyone
has a different experience growing up, and I think that if there was some –
because I think philosophy does help, just the different approaches to look at,
different issues. Some philosophy class on how everyone's background, or
some psychology class on how your childhood effects will you become.

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Regardless of the specific course recommendation, students continually
underscored the importance for courses linked to SLP to educate students about
different cultures, views and experiences. Those that did not directly identify a
diversity course, social issues course, or a course related to similar topics still
identified their recommended courses in social science, foreign language, humanities
and math as a means of understanding students from different backgrounds and
taking course content and applying it to “real life” situations. Participants valued
courses that would assist students in adjusting to the SLP site environment and help
students better understand and interact with diverse peers and individuals at their
SLP site. This illustrates the relevance students placed on diversity or social issues
courses as crucial topics and how such courses served as the ideal marriage between
academic courses and SLP. This finding would suggest that diversity courses play a
role in enhancing service-learning experiences in providing the “why” for what
students‟ experience and observe at a SLP site.
Service-Learning, the “Real” Context of Diversity
A theme emerged from analysis of descriptions of diversity course takers
experiences to answer both the second and third research questions: how does
service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity course and in what way
does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity course, shape students‟ cross-
racial interactions. Students who were enrolled in a diversity course were asked to
discuss if they felt their participation in SLP complimented their classroom

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experience and impacted their cross-racial interactions. Two significant findings
were observed: a) several participants related the material that they learned in class
as having more relevance when they were able to observe the topics and subjects in a
“real world” environment such as their SLP site and b) participants reported
increased diverse interactions with their fellow students and individuals at their SLP
site more so than in their classroom setting. Responses from six participants, April,
Lindsey, Gabby, Connie, and Edna, are utilized to provide examples of responses
that support these findings.
The first finding was observed in student responses when asked if they felt
their course complimented their SLP experience. Several participants reported
differences in how they experience course material as a result of their participation in
SLP. April discussed the difference between her classroom experience and her SLP
site:
. . . you're learning a lot in class like about like the general ideas about like
either communicating with people from different ethnic backgrounds or like
the issues that are associated with gender. And then, you can go to the site,
and like see whether that's really true or not, if it still applies in like the
contemporary society or if that's just like a historical thing.
Similarly, when asked the same questions, Lindsey discussed how her SLP site
experience enhanced the information she learned in her course:
I feel like the SLP course is making me visualize all these numbers I see in
sociology class . . . SLP is really helping me understand those concepts a lot
better, because, sometimes, a sociology can be just really dry, like about
numbers, about, you know, theories, about, I don't know, you know . . .
because we talk about the textbooks and the course readers, like when we go
into class. But as I said, the reading is very dry, just like it's just like numbers

68

and it's just history. And doesn't really help me visualize those problems that
are existent. It's more of like SLP that's actually making me like realize those
numbers.
Gabby discussed how what she learned in her diversity course and her experience at
her SLP site had a symbiotic relationship:
The course material provides like – I think it provides a more like not narrow
but like – it just like focuses your observation so that you‟re not just
randomly observing and like, yeah, you‟re taking it in but you‟re taking it in
and applying to stuff you know so there sort of becomes a reason for why the
actions happen and so kinda like they like simultaneously work together to
completely understand everything.
Several participants spoke to these sentiments reporting that diversity course
material, held more significance and meaning after their experience at their SLP site
and that such experiences augmented their understanding and the way they engaged
course material.
The second finding was observed amidst student responses where students
felt that their SLP sites provided environments where students could interact with
others from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Connie discussed the difference
between her experience in her diversity class and at her SLP site in regards to
interactions:
. . . the SLP course [site] makes me interact with more of other racial
backgrounds than just in the class itself . . . in my SLP course [site] there‟s a
wider range of students with racial backgrounds than just like, as I said
earlier, the people who sit around me in that class. So, for example, I interact
with many Hispanic students in my SLP course [site] more so than in my
diversity class.

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Edna discusses how she particularly liked her SLP experience because of the chance
to interact with diverse peers:
Actually, I would say that SLP is a little bit more rewarding than the class
itself, just because I love working with people. And it's definitely and like
very different . . . and so, SLP, my site at my SLP site, it's predominantly
almost entirely Hispanic with also a few African-American kids there too . . .
I wouldn't say that it's like scary though, but it's definitely been like really fun
to talk to them and learn about their homes and learn about their families, and
just like how they think about the world based on like how they grew up and
where they grew up.
April discussed how she interacted with kids from different backgrounds than she
previously had:
. . . through the SLP, I get to work with kids from – that are Mexican,
Hispanics. And before, I've never really had that opportunity. So, it teaches
me a lot about like how to communicate with them and like it's just a unique
experiences like to me.
Similarly, Jenny discusses how her experience working with diverse children at her
SLP site differs greatly from her own experiences at the schools she went to:
I was a little bit surprised about the difference in the environment at the
school than at the elementary school that I went to . . . there are a lot of
Hispanic kids at the school, so I – like I said before, I work with the first
graders and there‟s this little girl, Brianna . . . Brianna was trying to teach me
some Spanish the other day, which is kinda cool. [Laughter] It‟s really cute
‟cause she wanted to share what she knew with me ‟cause I was trying to
share with her. That‟s cool.
When probed further regarding the differences between her SLP experience and her
previous experiences, Jenny added: “I‟ve always had my ideas, you know, and the
ideas of my friends in high school. We all had pretty much the same views, and it‟s

70

kinda cool to see different perspectives on social issues that are happening right
now.”
Students felt that SLP sites provided invaluable opportunities to interact with
diverse peers that led to a variety of outcomes including increased exposure to
racially different peers and improved communication skills with diverse peers.
The finding that service-learning provides students with greater connection to
course material and increased diverse interactions is relevant in this study. Students
attached value to directly experiencing and coming into contact with the diverse
material they were being taught in the classroom. This suggests that course material
was enhanced by students‟ SLP site experience, where they were able to gain
validation of the material by experiencing it “first hand.” Furthermore, in discussing
their SLP experience, many students found that they had increased interactions with
students from different backgrounds particularly at their SLP site. This observation
introduces the possibility that SLP plays an important role in providing students with
the opportunity and environment to interact with diverse peers
The City and Its Impact on Student Perception
Cross-analysis revealed a minor theme that re-occurred in the interviews with
10 students amidst questions designed to answer the first and third research
questions: in what ways do diversity courses shape students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the classroom and are there

71

differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and experiences in courses that
do not meet the diversity requirement, and in what way does service-learning, when
coupled with a diversity course, shape students‟ cross-racial interactions. Two
findings were observed: a) participants discussed the value of a diversity course, but
placed particular emphasis on the impact of the location of the university in an urban
metropolitan city on student experience and b) the city was a common theme in
student responses regarding what they felt were the best courses to compliment the
SLP experience. Responses indicated that participants experienced a difference
between the backgrounds that they came from and the city, particularly given
differences in demographics. Participants also discussed how placement at a SLP
site within the city greatly influenced their experiences and how they viewed what
course would be valuable to aid in that experience.
The first finding was observed amidst participants‟ frequent comments on the
difference between the city and where they were from, putting students in
environments where they had to interact with diverse peers. This theme can be
observed in the responses of four participant examples, Rebecca, Jenny, Lindsey, and
Nicole. Rebecca discussed the importance of a diversity course particularly given
the city surroundings:
. . . especially, since it is in this city, because there is so much diversity and
so many different cultures around here and different people and knowing
what there is and, especially, in like class interactions, you get a bunch of
different views and perceptions of things.

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Jenny, a Caucasian freshman who grew up in a predominantly European/Caucasian
neighborhood and high school, also discusses the impact of her surroundings on her
college experience:
This city itself was a big difference with all the different – and the university
is so culturally diverse. It‟s really cool and I think that my course has really
touched on that and like the – like we talked about gangs and stuff and all the
racial ties with that and stuff. It‟s different to live here than it is to live in a
suburb in California. I mean the city versus where I‟m from is just a big
jump. Like I have to be careful at night and stuff and stay on campus as
much as I can and I don‟t know. It‟s just – it‟s so bustle-y, which is really
cool. There‟s always something going on.
Lindsey further discusses this sentiment in describing her experiences coming to
UPC as a freshman:
I'm from a high school that's really not diverse at all. And for me to be in a
school like this, I feel like I should be more informed about the differences
and like just from being informed, I guess, I'll be better prepared for like how
to deal with different types of people or like, you know, better understand the
diversity at this school and, you know, in this city.
Nicole, a biology major in the first semester of her second year, in agreement with
the university requiring a diversity course states: “. . . it‟s nice to have to enter the
world with. So, I think it makes you less ignorant, you know? So you‟re more
aware of what‟s happening around you. Especially in this city.” Later when
discussing her SLP experience she talked about the impact of coming to college in
such a diverse city:
It‟s really eye-opening . . . I'm from Oregon. So, there's not very many
minorities. So, I have not seen such an enormous Hispanic population. Like,
here, I think 40 percent are Hispanic, and it's just, it's really different than
what I'm used to. Just a different culture. It really is.

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Rebecca, Jenny, Lindsey, and Nicole mirrored other participants who continually
referenced the impact of the diversity of the city in their discussions of their
experiences coming to college and in relation to the relevance of a diversity course.
Many of the students discussed how living in this environment differed greatly from
their previous experience and affected not only their perceptions and view of others
different than themselves, but also their perceptions of how they interacted with
students different from them.
The observation that students were particularly impacted by the diversity of
the city given their home environment is also supported in the collected student
intake survey data. Students reported the racial composition of the neighborhood
where they grew up and their high school background. The majority of students
(87%) came from neighborhoods with predominantly one or two ethnicities
represented with only two students (13%) coming from neighborhoods comprising a
mix of different ethnic groups (Table 5). Over half (60%) coming from high school
backgrounds with predominantly one or two ethnicities and the others (40%)
exposed to a mix of different ethnic groups (Table 5).
Table 5
Participant High School and Neighborhood Background
Name HS Background Neighborhood Background
Rebecca Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian
Edna Mix of different ethnic groups Mix of different ethnic groups
Caroline Mix of different ethnic groups Predominantly European/Caucasian
April Mix of different ethnic groups Predominantly Asian/Asian-American

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Table 5, Continued
Name HS Background Neighborhood Background
Lindsey Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian
Natasha Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian &
Latino
Cindy Predominantly African-American Predominantly European/Caucasian
Beverly Mix of different ethnic groups Predominantly European/Caucasian
Mercedes Mix of different ethnic groups Mix of different ethnic groups
Nicole Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian
Gabby Predominantly European/Caucasian &
Asian-American
Predominantly European/Caucasian &
Asian-American
Connie Predominantly Asian-American Predominantly Asian-American
Isabella Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian
Eve Mix of different ethnic groups Predominantly African-American
Jenny Predominantly European/Caucasian Predominantly European/Caucasian
Participants‟ value of a diversity course was impacted by their experiences
coming to the urban, diverse city where the university is located. Given many of the
students‟ came from neighborhoods and high schools comprising predominantly one
or two cultures, students‟ made meaning of their diverse interactions in the context
of the difference between their current environment and from whence they came.
The second finding regarding the impact of the city on student‟s perception
of diversity was observed in student responses regarding what they felt were the best
courses to compliment the SLP experience. Several students, including Edna, Cindy,
and Mercedes, discussed how placement at a SLP site within the city greatly
influenced their experiences and how they viewed what courses would be valuable to
aid in that experience. Edna connects the diversity of the city and SLP sites to the
type of ideal course compliment:

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. . . just classes that make you more aware of race and class, maybe, and – I
think, there's a class called, Race and Class in the city. You know, like very
specific stuff, that if it was SLP, they'll be – being able to better prepare
themselves for areas in the city, you know, where they have to impact. Yeah,
I think so.
Cindy talks about how having a background on the city would help her relate better
to the kids she is mentoring:
I think even like maybe a class that – they should have a class that talks about
the history of the city. They probably do. The history of the city, or since we
are so surrounded by Hispanic culture, something that directly relates to –
like, I'm going into a Hispanic school. So, to be able to have a background
on them would, I think would be helpful to help me in my teaching or
whatever it may be. But even like a Spanish class could be connected to SLP
too, because sometimes the kids just throw – I mean, I'm in Spanish I, but
sometimes the kids throughout Spanish phrases and I'm just like, „Okay,
repeat?‟
Likewise, Mercedes, an international relations major who grew up in Texas, also
mentions the city as relevant given the location of the college: “yeah, the study of
Los Angeles that would be good, because, I mean, it's the community were growing
up in.” Lindsey talks about the inherent benefits of a course that focuses on the local
area rather than just a comprehensive perspective:
I think, more than my course, the course called The City . . . one of my
friends has taken that class, and she's actually saying, „It's helping me a lot
more with the course.‟ I mean, like I am learning about like race and
diversity, but it's not focused in the city . . . she gets to see that a lot more.
Like mine's more of like a global perspective, rather than just like focus on
the city.
Edna, Cindy and Mercedes shared observations made by other participants
who related what courses best complimented SLP with the diversity of the city.
Participants discussed how interacting with diverse peers and the students at their

76

site would be benefited by courses related to social issues, diversity, and the
exploration of difference. Participants also felt that a course would better prepare
students for SLP sites, placing value on education about the diversity of races and
cultures present in the surrounding area
Overall, student responses across a variety of interview questions referenced
the influence of the city on both perception and experience. Participants discussed
how the city “played a role” in how students thought about diversity and the
diversity course requirement. Courses that served as the best compliment to SLP
sites in their ability to educate and exposure students to the surrounding city were
also acknowledged. This is a significant finding in that it suggests that diversity
courses can aid students‟ in adapting to and interacting in a diverse city and campus
environment. .
Summary
Participant stories and narratives in this study reveal several relevant themes
related to students‟ cross-racial interactions in a course context, both diversity and
non diversity courses, and in service-learning environments. The findings indicate
that students placed value on diversity course requirements and the resulting change
in perspective as a result of exposure to the courses. Participants experienced
diversity in a “real world” context at their SLP sites differently than in their courses
and felt that diversity and social issues courses and overall courses related to

77

difference were beneficial compliments to service-learning environments. In
addition, students felt that discussion sessions allowed for an environment conducive
to diverse interactions and several felt that the city itself played a crucial role in
student experience. Such themes reveal that there is more to learn regarding student
cross-racial experience in course and service-learning environments and provide an
opportunity for university stakeholders to better understand ways that student
experience in such environments can be further enhanced. These findings have
implications on theory, policy, and practice as well as hint towards opportunities for
future research, which will be addressed in the following chapter.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Introduction
The focus of this study was to investigate the elements of diversity courses
and service-learning experiences that are effective in promoting cross-racial
interactions through a qualitative approach. The purpose of the study was to explore
the conditions of a diversity course that influence cross-racial interactions and the
ways in which such interactions are enhanced by service-learning experiences. To
achieve this aim, semi-structured interviews were conducted, with questions
designed to explore student experiences in such environments.
This study worked with an all female population enrolled in their first or
second year of study at a major research university. The population consisted of
students currently enrolled in a service-learning program with both their site
experiences and the academic course tied to the service-learning as the focus of
interview questions. Students enrolled in both diversity courses and non-diversity
courses were chosen to explore experiences in both sets of classroom environments
and the differences therein. The rationale for the study was the belief that cross-
racial interactions are a necessary tool for graduates to be successful citizens in an
increasingly diverse social and work environment. An additional rationale is the
need for future research regarding institutional entities that can further enhance
cross-racial interactions and build upon previous studies regarding student
development.

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A literature review for this study demonstrated the educational and
developmental benefits of student cross-racial interactions (Astin, 1993; Astin, 1999;
Chang, 1999; Gurin, Dey, Hurtado & Gurin, 2002; Hurtado, 2001; Milem, 1994),
diversity courses and diverse curricula (Chang, 2002; Downey & Torrecilha, 1994;
Henderson-King & Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott, 2005), and service-learning
experiences (Barber, 1992; Jacoby, 1996; Kendall, 1990; Sapp & Crabtree, 2002;
Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer & Anaya, 2003). In addition, Allport‟s (1954) four
conditions necessary for positive cross-racial interactions (equal status, common
goals, intergroup cooperation, and support of authorities) served as a framework for
defining ideal elements of cross-racial interactions in diversity courses and service-
learning environments. As such, this study was informed by the expectation that
diversity courses and service-learning programs embody elements that have the
potential to enhance cross-racial interactions, and that such interactions have a
positive impact on student development and student interaction in a diverse
environment. This chapter summarizes the significant findings of the study,
discusses the implications for theory, policy, and practice, discusses limitations,
addresses areas for future research, and provides a conclusion to the overall study.
This study was guided by three research questions:
1. In what ways do diversity courses shape students‟ perceptions and
experiences toward cross-racial interactions in the classroom? Are there
differences when compared to students‟ perceptions and experiences in
courses that do not meet the diversity requirement?

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2. How does service-learning enhance students‟ experience in a diversity
courses?
3. In what way does service-learning, when coupled with a diversity course,
shape students‟ cross-racial interactions?
Summary of the Findings
The findings from this study illuminate the relevance of students‟ experience
with diversity content and diverse interactions both inside and outside a classroom
environment as well as the importance of service-learning as a catalyst for such
interactions to take place. Five major themes and one minor theme emerged as a
result of data analysis of participant responses using grounded theory: 1) the
relevance of a diversity course requirement, 2) discussion sessions versus lectures,
the ideal environment for interactions, 3) diversity courses, a catalyst for change, 4)
service-learning and diversity, a matched pair, 5) service-learning, the “real” context
of diversity, and 6) the city and its impact on student perception. Several findings
were observed relative to each theme. The following sections will be organized by
theme and discuss significant findings in reference to each theme and how they relate
to the literature. Table 6 provides a summary of observed themes, detailed findings,
supporting literature, and implications for theory, policy, and practice.

Table 6
Overview of Themes, Findings, Literature, and Implications
THEME FINDINGS LITERATURE IMPLICATIONS
The Relevance
of a Diversity
Course
Requirement
 students felt a diversity
course provided the
opportunity to be exposed
to difference
 the requirement gave
students an opportunity
they would not have
otherwise had or initiated
to take a diversity course

 positive changes in students who enroll in a diversity
course including increased tolerance of group
differences and decreased stereotypical views (Chang,
2002; Downey & Torrecilha, 1994; Henderson-King &
Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott, 2005)
 Gurin et al. (2002) definition of classroom diversity,
where students are exposed to and learn about diverse
individuals and groups
 institutions themselves can influence student
behavior that can aid student development (Strange,
1994)
 reinforces Chang‟s (2007) assertion that student
experiences with diversity are optimized when
institutions promote engagement through intervention
 POLICY: campus administrators
and faculty at institutions with no
diversity course requirement
 POLICY: reinforce campuses that
do have requirement; further informs
curriculum committee

Discussion
Sessions versus
Lectures, the
Ideal
Environment for
Interactions
 participants felt that
their discussion session
better fostered student
interactions than their
corresponding lecture
classes
 discussion sessions
provided participants with
a more open and
comfortable environment
in which to interact than
lecture classes
 Allport (1954) identified working towards common
goals in a non-competitive environment as a key
element for groups to accomplish positive cross racial
interactions
 low student-faculty ratio has a positive impact on
student satisfaction and has a positive impact on
student degree completion (Astin, 1993)
 less empirical evidence to support the specific
benefits of discussion sessions more so than lectures in
the promotion of cross-racial interactions

 THEORY: contextualize Allport‟s
(1954) conditions for positive cross-
racial interactions in a college
environment by identifying settings
such as discussion sessions, where
students optimally experience
conditions
81

Table 6, Continued
THEME FINDINGS LITERATURE IMPLICATIONS
Diversity
Courses, a
Catalyst for
Change
 exposure to diverse
curricula allowed students
to look at interactions with
diverse peers from a
different perspective and
made students more open
to difference in general
 Increased acceptance of peers from different
backgrounds when diversity course outcomes tied to
exposure to multicultural curricula (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005).
 students enrolled in a diversity course demonstrate
higher levels of social action engagement (Nelson,
Laird, Engberg, & Hurtado, 2005)
 students who complete a diversity course also report
increased tolerance towards group differences (Hogan
& Mallott, 2005)
 POLICY: reinforces relevance of
university required diversity course on
student experience and development
 THEORY: contextualize Allport‟s
(1954) conditions for positive cross-
racial interactions in a college
environment by identifying settings
such as classrooms with diverse
curricula, where students optimally
experience conditions
Service-Learning
& Diversity, a
Matched Pair
 diversity courses, social
issues courses, and courses
focused on understanding
the city and difference
serve as the optimal course
couplings with SLP
 programs that connect academic courses and
service-learning have benefits including renewing
community connections and connecting curricula to
community issues (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kaye, 2004;
Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003).
 less empirical research that examines what specific
type of course best compliments service-learning
experiences
 POLICY: informs the vehicles that
universities utilize to both reinforce
student exposure to diversity and
achieve increased cross-racial
interactions across student populations
 POLICY: encourage material
relevant to the city incorporated in the
curriculum
 PRACTICE: benefits of marketing
diversity courses and service-learning
programs both within and beyond
college into the workforce
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Table 6, Continued
THEME FINDINGS LITERATURE IMPLICATIONS
Service-
Learning, the
“Real” Context
of Diversity
 participants related the
material that they learned
in class as having more
relevance when they were
able to observe the topics
and subjects in a “real
world” environment such
as their SLP site
 participants reported
increased diverse
interactions with their
fellow students and
individuals at their SLP
site more so than in their
classroom setting

 literature focuses on diverse curricular content
and/or benefits of linking academic courses to service-
learning; far less that examines the ways in which
service-learning enhances diverse curriculum
 Boyer and Hechinger (1981) reference service-
learning as an opportunity for students to move beyond
knowledge acquisition to learning how to engage
knowledge in humane ways
 future research warranted to explore further
including the impact of specific service-learning sites
on student experience & long-term effects of service-
learning experiences

 PRACTICE: service-learning
utilized to educate students in a way
that furthers student comprehension
and understanding of academic content
 PRACTICE: student learning
outcomes - linking service-learning to
an academic course can provide a
tangible means for departments to
gather data regarding student
application of course material outside
of the classroom
 THEORY: contextualize Allport‟s
(1954) conditions in a college
environment by identifying settings
such as service-learning environments,
where students optimally experience
conditions
The City and Its
Impact on
Student
Perception
 diversity courses were
valued particularly given
the difference between
student background and
the city environment
 courses related to the
city were regarded as the
best course compliment to
SLP experiences

 underscore the relevance of student pre-college
variables in examining the impact of college on student
experience and development (Astin, 1993; Pascarella,
Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004; Saenz, Ngai, &
Hurtado, 2007).
 conditional effects of diversity; how challenges in
addressing issues of diversity can be unique to
individual institutions (Chang, 2007)
 differs from much of the literature which focus
discussions regarding diverse climates on structural
diversity within campus populations (Chang, Astin, &
Kim, 2004; Gurin et al., 2002).
 PRACTICE: underscore the
possible benefit of students taking such
a course in their college career
(students coming from predominantly
homogenous backgrounds)
 THEORY: contextualize Allport‟s
(1954) conditions for positive cross-
racial interactions in a college
environment by identifying settings
such as universities located in diverse
cities, where students optimally
experience conditions
83

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The Relevance of a Diversity Course Requirement
Two significant findings were observed in reference to this theme: a)
students felt a diversity course provided the opportunity to be exposed to difference,
and b) the requirement gave students an opportunity they would not have otherwise
had or initiated to take a diversity course. While not all participants agreed that such
a requirement was necessary to be taken the freshman year, all 15 participants agreed
that a diversity course should be required and that the requirement had potential
impact on student‟s ability to socialize in diverse environments and personal
development. Gabby, April, and Cindy are participants who spoke to having a better
understanding of peers from different backgrounds, nationalities, and races as a
positive outcome of having a diversity requirement.
These findings are consistent with empirical studies that support that there are
positive changes in students who enroll in a diversity course including increased
tolerance of group differences and decreased stereotypical views (Chang, 2002;
Downey & Torrecilha, 1994; Henderson-King & Kaleta, 2000; Hogan & Mallott,
2005). There is also consistency with what Gurin et al. (2002) define as classroom
diversity, where students are exposed to and learn about diverse individuals and
groups. While not directly related to diversity course environments, Astin‟s (1993)
supposition that the college environment offers the opportunity for change in student
behavior and beliefs serves as an additional empirical support for these findings.
In her discussion regarding the relevance of a diversity requirement for
students who interact with the same groups they did in high school, Cindy states that

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“if not forced to, they would not open their eyes to the things around them.”
Similarly April describes the impact of a diversity requirement on students: “it will
teach people a lot about like, you know, other people that they may not know of if
they were like weren‟t required to take the course.” These comments are reflective
of other participant responses in support of a diversity requirement and suggest that
not just a diversity course, but the fact that it is required by the university to graduate
plays a role in student experience of diversity. This finding is supported by similar
findings in the literature which identify that institutions themselves can influence
student behavior that can aid student development (Strange, 1994). This finding also
reinforces Chang‟s (2007) assertion that student experiences with diversity are
optimized when institutions promote engagement through intervention.
Discussion Sessions versus Lectures, the Ideal Environment for Interactions
Two relevant findings were observed in reference to this theme: a)
participants felt that their discussion session better fostered student interactions than
their corresponding lecture classes and b) discussion sessions provided participants
with a more open and comfortable environment in which to interact than lecture
classes. Participants such as April and Isabella used words such as “encouraged”
and “fostered” to describe the ways in which discussion sessions promoted student
interactions with diverse peers. In addition, participants described discussion
sessions as having a more open and comfortable environment conducive to student
engagement in diverse interactions. This finding suggests that smaller and
interactive classroom settings are important factors in establishing an environment

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that both promotes and facilitates cross-racial interactions. This finding is consistent
with Astin‟s (1993) study of college impact where students in smaller classroom
environments where there was a low student-faculty ratio showed to have a positive
impact on student satisfaction and on student success. Additionally, one of Allport‟s
(1954) conditions for cross-racial interactions, intergroup cooperation, speaks to this
finding. While size of group was not considered in the development of the
condition, Allport (1954) identified working towards common goals in a non-
competitive environment as a key element for groups to accomplish positive cross
racial interactions. This finding illustrates the presence of similar elements in
discussion sessions. Participants reported group willingness to share diverse stories
in discussion sessions further allowing students to have diverse interactions.
However, there is less empirical evidence to support the specific benefits of
discussion sessions more so than lectures in the promotion of cross-racial
interactions. As the findings suggest that discussion sessions play role in this
process, additional research is warranted to further explore this area.
Diversity Courses, a Catalyst for Change
One relevant finding was observed in reference to this theme: exposure to
diverse curricula allowed students to look at interactions with diverse peers from a
different perspective and made students more open to difference in general.
Participants including Rebecca, Lindsey and Eve used phrases such as “helped me to
understand,” “broadening someone‟s perceptions,” and “opened my eyes” to
describe the change in their perspective as a result of being enrolled in a diversity

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course. Empirical research supports this finding with diversity course outcomes tied
to exposure to multicultural curricula leading to increased acceptance of peers from
different backgrounds (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). This finding is similar to the
findings from Nelson Laird, Engberg, and Hurtado‟s (2005) study which observed
that students enrolled in a diversity course demonstrated higher levels of social
action engagement. Students in this study demonstrated a greater awareness of both
difference and larger societal concerns as a result of being exposed to diverse
curricula. This finding is also consistent with Hogan and Mallott‟s (2005)
observation that students who complete a diversity course also report increased
tolerance towards group differences.
Service-Learning and Diversity, a Matched Pair
One significant finding was observed in reference to this theme: diversity
courses, social issues courses, and courses focused on understanding the city and
difference serve as the optimal course couplings with SLP. Participants discussed
how these types of courses were ideal matches because of their ability to assist
students in adjusting to SLP environments and promote increased understanding of
diverse peers and peer interactions that often took place at SLP sites. This finding is
supported by the literature which identifies programs that connect academic courses
and service-learning as having several benefits for students including emphasizing
current and new course objectives, renewing community connections and connecting
curricula to community issues (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kaye, 2004; Sedlak, Doheny,
Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). However, there is less empirical research that examines

88

what specific type of course best compliments service-learning experiences. This
finding indicates an area where future research may prove beneficial to further
examine the optimal types of courses to be paired with service-learning experiences.
Service-Learning, the “Real” Context of Diversity
Two pertinent findings were observed in reference to this theme: a)
participants related the material that they learned in class as having more relevance
when they were able to observe the topics and subjects in a “real world” environment
such as their SLP site, and b) participants reported increased diverse interactions
with their fellow students and individuals at their SLP site more so than in their
classroom setting. April, Lindsey, Gabby were participants that spoke to the first
finding using phrases such as “see whether that‟s really true,” “visualize all these
numbers,” and “focuses your observation” when referencing the ways in which their
service-learning experiences impacted course material. These comments reflect
other participant responses identifying service-learning experiences further affirmed
the meaning of course topics and augmented student understanding of the material.
The second outcome was observed in participant responses such as Connie, Edna,
and April, who used phrases such as “wider range of students,” “more rewarding
than class itself,” and “teaches me a lot about how to communication” in describing
the outcomes of service-learning experiences versus classroom environments.
Students reported opportunities for interactions with diverse peers in their SLP site
which had benefits including better communication skills and increased exposure to
difference.

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There is ample literature that supports diverse curricular content and the
discussion of issues related to diversity as having beneficial outcomes for students
(Chang, 2002; Cole, 2007, Gurin et al., 2002; Nelson Laird, Engberg & Hurtado,
2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005) and the benefits of linking academic courses to
service learning (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kaye, 2004; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, &
Anaya, 2003). However, there is far less literature that examines the ways in which
service-learning enhances diverse curriculum and speaks to the specific findings of
this study within this particular theme. Boyer and Hechinger (1981) do reference
service-learning as an opportunity for students to move beyond knowledge
acquisition to learning how to engage knowledge in humane ways. The door is open
for future research to explore how such opportunities can aid students in connecting
to curricular content to “real world” experiences, therefore making it more
meaningful.
The City and Its Impact on Student Perception
Two significant findings were observed in reference to this theme: a)
diversity courses were valued particularly given the difference between student
background and the city environment, and b) courses related to the city were
regarded as the best course compliment to SLP experiences. The first finding was
observed in student responses regarding coming to a college located in a diverse
neighborhood. Rebecca and Lindsey used phrases such as “so much diversity and so
many different cultures around here” and “I‟m from a high school that‟s really not
diverse at all” in their descriptions of how the city influenced their experiences. The

90

second finding was observed in participant responses regarding ideal SLP and course
linkages also reflected the influence of the city. Courses that could assist students in
adjusting to and interacting in the diverse location of the university were commonly
referenced in participant response regarding ideal courses for SLP. These findings
are perhaps the most unexpected outcomes of this study as the significance of
university location was not anticipated to be a salient factor in student‟s experiences.
However, this finding is consistent with studies that underscore the relevance of
student pre-college variables in examining the impact of college on student
experience and development (Astin, 1993; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, &
Terenzini, 2004; Saenz, Ngai, & Hurtado, 2007).
This finding differs from much of the literature which focus discussions
regarding diverse climates on structural diversity within campus populations (Chang,
Astin, & Kim, 2004; Gurin et al., 2002). However, the underlying tenants of such
studies, that exposure to individuals and groups from different backgrounds is a key
factor in the production of cross-racial interactions, is consistent with this finding of
the study when the environment is expanded to include settings beyond just campus
environments.
Literature that examines the role of campus physical location and the impact
of urban communities on student experience with diversity was not reviewed as the
role of the city on student experience was not anticipated as an outcome of this
study. However, Chang (2007) speaks to the conditional effects of diversity and how
challenges in addressing issues of diversity can be unique to individual institutions.

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While UPC is not unique in its location in a large, metropolitan, urban city, this
finding suggests that examination of influences on student experience with diversity
and diverse interactions at specific campuses is key to understanding relevant factors
that impact student perception.
Overall, these findings underscore the influence of environments such as
discussions sessions, diversity courses, service-learning sites, and university location
on student cross-racial interactions and perception of diversity. Findings also
emphasize the impact of service-learning on students experience with curricula,
whether in a diversity course or a non-diversity course. While themes did not
demonstrate observed differences between how students perceived cross-racial
conditions in diversity courses differently than non-diversity courses, student
responses did illuminate experiences of students in diversity courses as well as
students‟ experience of different classroom environments.
Implications for Theory
Grounded theory was employed as a mode of analysis for this study for the
purposes of generating theory inductively from participant narratives and
observations garnered from interviews (Patton, 2002). Several themes emerged
through this process that has implications on the framework used for this study,
Allport‟s (1954) four conditions, equal status, common goals, intergroup
cooperation, and support of authorities, relevant to positive cross-racial interactions.
Based on the findings of this study, four college components shaped students‟
perception of diverse interactions: discussion sessions, experience of diverse course

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curricula, service-learning experience, and university location. These findings
suggest that college environment plays an important role in the presence of Allport‟s
(1954) conditions. Allport‟s (1954) original theory can be expanded upon to include
relevant environments that enable students to optimally experience these conditions
in a college setting (Figure 1). Such findings have implications on contextualizing
theory and observations made through research to understand the „within institution‟
environments that influence student perception and experience.
Figure 1

Allport’s (1954) Conditions in a College Context

Contextualizing Allport‟s (1954) theory in a college context is further
supported by Gurin‟s et al. (2002) view of higher education as an optimal
environment for students to have preconceived experiences with and views of

93

diversity challenged to create new ways of thinking and interacting, both inside and
outside of the classroom. There is additional support in Astin‟s (1993) supposition
that the college environment offers the opportunity for change in student behavior
and beliefs. The findings of this study affirm that such changes not only happen, but
that college environment can play a significant role in what kind of changes take
place. Participants in this study demonstrated that changes can range from a
paradigm shift in their view of diversity as a result of a diversity course or
experiencing their classroom environment as being supportive of diverse interactions
in small group discussion sessions different than larger lectures.
Expanding upon Allport‟s (1954) framework “opens the door” to look at how
the conditions for positive cross-racial interactions, originally developed in
environments outside of education, can be utilized to examine college age
populations and college environments where conditions exist and optimal student
diverse interactions can be achieved. Furthermore, this study can add to the body of
literature that explores the specific conditions that support higher level and positive
interactions in student cross-racial exchanges, an area that has received less attention
than previous studies focused solely on the inherent benefits of student cross-racial
interactions (Chang, 2007).
Implications for Policy
Institutions of higher education increasingly seek to expose students to issues of
diversity through incorporating a diversity course requirement as part of the
curriculum (Greene, 2000; Humphreys, 2000). Such requirements are typically

94

aimed at exploring concepts related to difference across a range of different topics
and give students an opportunity to take courses that contradict preconceived
perceptions and stereotypes (Chang, 2002; Gurin et al., 2002). This study has
several policy implications in regards to achieving this aim.
One of the findings of this study identified diversity as a catalyst for change.
Participants observed that exposure to diverse curricula both allowed them to look at
diverse interactions from a different perspective and also made them more open to
difference in general. This finding illustrates how students‟ experience in diversity
courses can change how they view and define diversity. It also reinforces both the
relevance of having a diversity course as a graduation requirement and the inherent
benefits that taking such a course provides for students. In addition, participants
discussed how having a diversity course required by the university represented an
opportunity to learn about different cultures that many students would not normally
engage in if given the option. Given the impact that college has on student
development, perceptions, and views (Astin, 1993; Hurtado, Dey, P. Gurin, G.
Gurin, 2003; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005), a university required diversity
course can serve to meet institutional goals of graduating students who are prepared
to succeed in an increasingly diversified society. This finding can further inform
campus administrators and faculty at Institutions of higher education not currently
requiring a diversity course to consider incorporating such courses into requirements
taking into account the inherent benefits to students and graduates. This finding also
provides administrators and faculty at institutions who currently do employ a

95

diversity course requirement reinforcement to continue this policy. Institutional
agents who sit on curriculum committees charged with overseeing the development
of standards for diversity course requirements and course approval can utilize this
finding to further inform their process.
Another finding demonstrated service-learning programs and diversity and
social issues courses, particularly those relevant to contemporary and local
communities, to be the most relevant to recognizing the importance of diversity and
diverse interactions for students as well as the best compliment to service-learning
experiences. This finding has implications on the vehicles that universities utilize to
both reinforce student exposure to diversity and achieve increased cross-racial
interactions across student populations. There is evidence in the literature that
connections between service-learning and academic course have been found to foster
community connections (Kaye, 2004; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003).
Given the diverse location of the university where the study was conducted, SLP
served as a way to connect students to the larger community and increase awareness
of societal issues beyond the walls of the academy. This finding has implications for
universities located in larger metropolitan urban environments. Particularly for
faculty and administrators who oversee the process of course development at such
institutions, this finding can further inform this process and encourage that material
relevant to the city is incorporated in the curriculum.

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Implications for Practice
One of the stated purposes for this study is to further explore the significance
of cross-racial interactions in college populations, given both the demographic shifts
projected in the United States and an increasingly diversified workforce and work
environment. One of the findings of this study illustrated that exposure to diverse
curricula changes and broadens student perceptions of diverse interactions and
allowing students to be more open to difference. In addition, participants were found
to have increased diverse interactions with peers in a service-learning setting, more
so than in a classroom setting. Recognizing that there are specific environments that
further engage students in understanding how to interact with others from different
backgrounds and how to engage in such interactions has implications beyond a
student‟s experience in college. Students demonstrating effective intercultural
communication skills will be more desirable to employers who are continually
seeking future workers who can successfully interact in a diverse environment and
with diverse peers (Bikson & Law, 1994). Graduates with such skills will also be
more effective in a workforce where interaction with the larger global community is
becoming increasingly more frequent (WIC, 2008). Therefore, the benefits of
service-learning programs and diversity courses extend beyond the college
environment and have the potential of increasing a graduate‟s chances of being
employed and achieving success in the workforce. This finding can further inform
admissions officers and department heads about the possible benefits of marketing
entities such as diversity courses and service-learning programs as leading to such

97

positive outcomes. Such efforts could lead to increased student participation and
engagement in diversity courses and service-learning programs.
This study also illuminates the positive linkages between academic courses
and service-learning experiences. Previous studies have shown that such linkages
both reinforce curricular objectives as well as connect curriculum to community
issues (Kaye, 2004; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). A finding of this
study showed that students often felt that the connection fosters understanding of
curricular content and further legitimizes subject matter when it can be observed “in
the real world,” outside of the classroom. In addition, students were able to apply
diverse curricula in community settings outside of the classroom. This finding
further informs the teaching modalities that faculty employ. Research has
demonstrated that utilizing a variety of methods to teach students how to
communicate in a diverse world is a key to student success post-graduation
(Association of American College and Universities, 2002). Service-learning
opportunities can by utilized to educate students in a way that furthers student
comprehension and understanding of academic content and materials. This finding
also has implications for academic departments and instructors seeking to identify
ways to meet and assess course student learning outcomes in the areas of diversity.
Linking service-learning to an academic course can represent both a curricular
objective to increase student diverse interactions as well as provide a tangible means
for departments to gather data regarding student application of course material
outside of the classroom, assessing service-learning experiences.

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Another finding illustrated the impact of the city on a student‟s college
experience and the value of a diversity course in light of differences between the
backgrounds that students come from and the diverse city where the university is
located. There are implications for students coming from high schools or
neighborhoods with predominantly homogenous backgrounds who attend a
university located in a diverse urban community. Studies have shown that both
diversity courses and service-learning experiences challenge students‟ assumptions
and preconceived notions about others from different backgrounds than themselves
(Einfield & Collins, 2008; Gurin et al., 2002; Leonard, 2004; Martin & Wheeler,
2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). This finding further supports this observation,
illustrating that diversity courses can play an important role in assisting students
from different backgrounds to adjust to a diverse city environment as well as achieve
a greater understanding of the surrounding community. This finding can be useful to
administrators and faculty who oversee undergraduate graduation requirements and
underscore the possible benefit of students taking such a course in their college
career.
Furthermore, this study has several implications for practitioners concerning
the benefits of different college entities on students‟ concept of diversity and diverse
interactions. A finding of this study highlighted the influence of diverse curricula on
broadening student perception to difference. Particularly for those educators such as
academic/program advisors and student affairs personnel who regularly interact with
students outside of the classroom and can identify needed areas of development,

99

diversity courses can be utilized as recommended tool to encourage exposure to
diverse peers and further student growth in the areas of diversity.
Limitations
While the findings of this study indicate several relevant themes and
successes in the information unearthed, there were also limitations. While the goal
of qualitative study is not generalizability to the larger population (Patton, 2002),
additional departments would allow for rich and detailed narratives from a wider
variety of student experiences in departments not represented. In addition, a larger
sample of students would have also enriched the detail of the narratives gathered and
garnered more examples of how students made meaning of their experiences.
Another limitation lies in the sample composed of participants who
themselves volunteered for the study. It is more important to reduce sample bias in
qualitative research, than to achieve generalizability (Morgan, 1997). The use of
purposeful sampling coupled with voluntary study participation in this study could
result in sample bias. There is no way to determine if the receptivity of the type of
student willing to participate in a study is truly reflective of the gambit of opinions
and experiences of SLP students in diversity and non diversity courses.
Another limitation of the studies is the lack of gender diversity in the sample.
While issues specific to female populations was previously referenced in the
literature review, this study was not by design intended to focus on only female
populations. While women currently make up the majority of college populations
and serve as a focus of studies on the gender gap in college environments (Sax,

100

2009), a sample made up of only female participants excludes the male experience
which is relevant to the studies objectives and may have changed the findings. In
addition, an all female population does not accurately reflect the population of the
university where the study took place, which consists of a 49.6% male populace.
Future Research
Empirical studies have shown that there are inherent benefits to linking
academic courses and service-learning (Boyer & Hechinger, 1981; Eyler & Giles,
1999; Kaye, 2004; Marullo, 1998; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003).
Students in this study identified diversity courses, social issues courses, or courses
relevant to the city or focused on different cultures as the optimal course pairing for
service-learning programs. This observation merits additional research to explore if
there are specific types of courses in these categories that serve as better matches
than others and what elements of such courses make them the best compliment to
service-learning experiences. To accomplish this aim, this study can be replicated,
but with a focus on examining the differences in findings for students enrolled in
different academic courses but at the same SLP site. Similarly, this study can be
replicated with a focus on students in the same course but at different SLP sites.
Such research may play a significant role in speaking to university requirements such
as diversity courses and the best ways to achieve objectives such as exposing
students to diverse cultures. There are also implications for service-learning
programs seeking to maximize student experience by making the optimal pairing of
academic course with service-learning site

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Much of the literature on service-learning in college environments illustrates
positive outcomes for student participation including critical thinking skills,
problem-solving skills, civic responsibility and communication skills (Barber, 1992;
Sapp & Crabtree, 2002; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya, 2003). Additional
research that further explores student outcomes at different service-learning sites
would prove beneficial in examining the specific dynamics that influence student
experience. While students‟ specific SLP site was not the focus of this study, it did
influence student experience, particularly given the wide range of site options from
working in a healthcare clinic to tutoring inner-city children. This study could be
replicated with a focus on differences in experiences and emergent themes between
different sites. Such a study would call for a larger number of participants so as to
gather rich and detailed narratives from groups of students at each of the sites.
Additional research in this area would further assist service-learning programs in
identifying effective sites for service-learning programs to have the maximum
influence on students. Such research also speaks to a variety of factors including
how specific site selections interact with paired academic courses and how students
from certain backgrounds interact differently at various sites.
Another avenue for future research lies in exploring the role of gender in
studies such as this one. There is ample literature that examines female development
as different than male development (Anthony, 1998; Baxter Magolda, 1992;
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; King & Kitchener,
2002; Pascarella et al., 1997; Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, Nora, & Terenzini, 1999).

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The sample for this study was entirely female students, which warrants additional
study into how this population in particular experiences diversity courses and
service-learning environments. The fact that only women responded to the study is
in and of itself a possible area for future study. Such research can help to explore not
only what students‟ experiences are in diversity courses and service-learning, but
also if gender plays a role in the types of students who participate in such programs
and enroll in such courses initially.
Research has shown that service-learning is successful in connecting students
to local communities, increasing awareness of issues of diversity and civic
engagement (Barber, 1992; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Jay, 2008; Jones & Abes, 2004;
Jones & Hill, 2001; Sapp & Crabtree, 2002; Sedlak, Doheny, Panthofer, & Anaya,
2003). While it was not the focus of this study, several participants discussed how
they became more aware of community issues as a result of their service-learning
experience and how it changed their view of the larger community. Research to
explore the long-term effects of student participation in service-learning beyond their
first and second year in college and further away from the time of their service-
learning may speak to the longevity of the impact of service-learning on a student‟s
behavior. Given the current decreasing levels of civic participation and connection
to community amidst youth (Keiser, 2000; Hart, 2002; Camras, 2003; Wilkinson,
1996), further research in this area has implications for how college graduates
become active and contributing members of society which has national implications.

103

Findings from this study reflected a range of student perceptions regarding
diversity courses from the value of diverse curricular content to the impact of the
requirement itself. Further research is warranted to explore these concepts
individually to determine how they specifically impact student perception and
experiences in college. Due to the limitation of possible sample bias with students
voluntarily participating in the program, replicating this study where all students in a
diversity and/or non diversity course participate increases the variety of descriptions
in student experiences as well as the variety of students themselves in the study.
While this study focused on student experience and perception, empirical
research points to faculty instruction as a relevant factor in positive student outcomes
(Cole, 2007; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Additional studies are warranted that
explore student perception of the role of faculty in student peer cross-racial
interactions. In addition, further exploration regarding the role of faculty in student
perception of diversity requirements and classroom experience in diversity courses
would further inform the field of the relevant factors impacting these areas.
Several findings from this study can be used as a springboard for future
research regarding Allport‟s (1954) conditions relevant to positive cross-racial
interactions: equal status, common goals, intergroup cooperation, and support of
authorities. While no perceived differences between student perception of conditions
in a classroom setting was reported amidst diversity and non diversity course takers,
several themes emerged that could speak to the ideal college environments for these
conditions to exist. The findings in this study demonstrated that college environment

104

influences both student diverse interactions and the establishment of a supporting
setting to engage in such interactions. This study can be replicated with a focus on
examining the differences in student experience of Allport‟s (1954) conditions for
positive cross-racial interactions in a classroom setting in discussion session and
lecture environments. Such a study would further explore the role of college settings
in producing such conditions as well as the ideal environments to achieve diverse
student interactions.
Conclusions
With changing demographics on the horizon both in the United States
population and subsequently in the educational system, the need for individuals
entering the workforce to be prepared to interact in a diverse society is paramount.
As entities focused on educating tomorrow‟s leaders, higher education institutions
are challenged with ensuring that graduates are amply prepared to be successfully in
the workforce. This challenge needs to begin early in a student‟s development as
research has demonstrated that early experiences in college prove to be impactful on
changing student‟s preconceived views and exposing students to cultures different
than their own. The aims of this study was to explore ways in which diversity
courses, more so than non-diversity courses, can achieve this aim through
incorporating conditions that promote positive cross-racial interactions. Service-
learning was also examined to determine ways in which such experiences enhance
diversity courses. What was found reinforced what empirical studies have
concluded, that diversity courses and service-learning both play a role in students

105

perception of diversity and diverse interactions. However, rather than uncover
distinctions between diversity courses and non-diversity courses, the significance of
college environments in both settings was revealed including the influence of
university location, discussion session settings, and how service-learning reinforces
curricular aims. In addition, service-learning was found to reinforce courses with
diverse curricula such as diversity courses, social issues courses, and courses focused
on teaching about different cultures and provide students with a “real world”
application of course material. Given the repercussions of a student‟s ability to learn
effective intercultural communication, both inside and outside college environments,
the findings of this study succeeded in underscoring the relevance of both diversity
courses and service-learning in addressing the issue. In addition, strategies were
presented to clarify how such information can be utilized by institutional agents to
benefit both students and the community. More research is warranted to further
inform the field and provide institutional agents with applicable ways to address the
issue. Only through continued assessment and focus on the issue will higher
education institutions be prepared to successfully meet the oncoming changes facing
our country and establish themselves as a bridge into the workforce for students soon
to be the future of our society.

106

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APPENDIX A
Student Interview Protocol
General Information
1. What JEP course are you taking?
Defining Diversity Courses
2. What is your definition of diversity?
3. What is the purpose of a diversity course?
4. Do you think freshmen need to take a diversity or social issues course?
a. Why/why not?
5. Do you think the university should require a diversity course to graduate?
a. Why/why not?
Cross-Racial Interactions
6. How do you think that the course you are enrolled in (specify course) does/does not
provide an environment where students are willing to interact with racial/ethnic
cultures different than their own?
7. How is this course adding to your understanding of racial/ethnic cultures different
than your own?
8. What is your interaction with students of a different racial/ethnic background in this
course?
a. Please give examples of some activities.
b. Do you feel this course encourages such interactions?
9. How do you feel this course does/does not provide an environment where students
are working towards similar or common goals? Please give examples.
10. How do you feel that you do/do not have equal status in the course to other students
from different racial/ethnic backgrounds than your own?
a. Why or why not?
b. How do you feel that students in this course, regardless of difference in
racial/ethnic background, do/do not view each other as having equal status?
1. Why or why not?
11. What is your interaction with the professor teaching your course?

120

12. How do you feel your participation in SLP has enhanced your interactions with others
from different racial/ethnic backgrounds?
a. Please give examples.
b. Do you feel that SLP encourages such interactions?
13. How do you feel your participation in SLP compliments your experience in your
course?
a. Please give examples.
14. What kinds of courses do you feel best compliment the student experience in JEP?

Additional Questions for students enrolled in a Diversity Course
Diversity Content
5. What type of topics have you discussed in class?
6. What type of assignments have you done/are you doing for your course?
7. Do you think the assignments provide you with a better understanding of the topics
discussed in class?
8. Is your course adding to your understanding of diversity?

121

APPENDIX B

Student Intake Survey
Please read each question carefully and answer it to the best of your
knowledge.

1. Name (First & Last)
_____________________________

2. 10-digit UPC ID
_____________________________

3. What is the name of the course you are taking?
_____________________________

4. Why did you enroll in this course?
Topic is of interest to me
Degree requirement (e.g. Major, Minor)
Course fit my schedule
Course was recommended by Counselor/Academic Advisor

5. Gender
Female
Male

6. Class Standing

122

Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior

7. Major
_____________________________
8. What country were you born in?
_____________________________

9. What is your citizenship status?
U.S. Citizen
Permanent Resident (Green Card)
Student Visa

10. In what country and state did you attend high school?
_____________________________

11. Are you?
African American/Black
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian American/Asian
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
Meixcan American/Chicano
Other Latino_____________________________
White/Caucasian
Multiracial _____________________________

123

Other _____________________________

12. Is English is your native language?
Yes
No

13. If English is not your native language, what is your native language?
_____________________________

14. What is the highest level of education completed by your mother?
Less than high school
High School graduate
Associate’s Degree
Bachelor’s Degree
Master’s Degree
Professional/Ph.D.
Do not know

15. What is the highest level of education completed by your father?
Less than high school
High School graduate
Associate’s Degree
Bachelor’s Degree
Master’s Degree
Professional/Ph.D.

124

Do not know

16. How would you describe the racial/ethnic composition of the high
school you attended?

I went to a high school that consisted of predominantly
European/Caucasian American students
I went to a high school that consisted of predominantly Asian
American students
I went to a high school that consisted of predominantly African
American students
I went to a high school that consisted of predominantly
Latino/Hispanic American students
I went to a high school that consisted of a mix of different ethnic
groups
Other

17. If you answered "other" to question 16, please describe the racial/ethnic
composition of your high school:

18. How would you describe the racial/ethnic composition of the
neighborhood where you grew up?

I grew up in a neighborhood of predominantly European/Caucasian
American people
I grew up in a neighborhood of predominantly Asian American people
I grew up in a neighborhood of predominantly African American
people
I grew up in a neighborhood of predominantly Latino/Hispanic
American people

125

I grew up in a neighborhood of a mix of different ethnic groups
Other

19. If you answered "other" to question 18, please describe the racial/ethnic
composition of your neighborhood:

20. Please CIRCLE the course (s) in which you are CURRENTLY Enrolled,
and CHECK all courses that you have COMPLETED.

AHIS-250m Modernity and Difference: Critical Approaches to Modern Art

AHIS-304m Italian Renaissance Art: Old Masters and Old Mistresses

AHIS-363m Race, Gender, and Sexuality in Contemporary Art

AHIS-364m Myths, Arts, Realities: Visual Culture in California, 1849 to the Present

AHIS-365m African American Art

AHIS-475m Blackness in American Visual Culture

AMST-101m Race and Class in Los Angeles

AMST-135gm Peoples and Cultures of the Americas

AMST-200m Introduction to American Studies and Ethnicity

AMST-202m Interethnic Diversity in the West

AMST-206m The Politics and Culture of the 1960s

AMST-220m The Making of Asian America

AMST-250 The African Diaspora

AMST-252gm Black Social Movements in the U.S.

AMST-274m Exploring Ethnicity Through Film

AMST-285g African American Popular Culture

AMST-330m Jazz and the Political Imagination

AMST-332m Post-civil Rights Black America

AMST-342gm Law and Identities

AMST-357m Latino Social Movements

126

AMST-373m History of the Mexican American

AMST-377m Legacies of Viet Nam

AMST-378m Introduction to Asian American History

AMST-395m African American Humor and Culture

AMST-448m Chicano and Latino Literature

AMST-449m Asian American Literature

AMST-466m The Psychology of African Americans

ANTH 240gm Collective Identity and Political Violence: Representing 9/11

ANTH-316gm North American Indians in American Public Life

ANTH-328gm Culture Change and the Mexican People

ANTH-371m Cross-Cultural Research on Urban Gangs

ARCH-440m Literature and the Urban Experience

ARCH-442m Women's Spaces in History: "Hussies," "Harems," and "Housewives"

BUCO-333m
Communication in the Working World -- Managing Diversity and
Conflict

CLAS-320gm Diversity and the Classical Western Tradition

COLT-374gm Women Writers in Europe and America

COLT-445m Eurocentrism

COMM-324m Intercultural Communication

COMM-383m Sports, Communication and Culture

COMM-395m Gender, Media and Communication

COMM-458m Race and Ethnicity in Entertainment and the Arts

COMM-465m Gender in Media Industries and Products

CTCS-192m Race, Class, and Gender in American Film

EALC 335m Literature of Korean People

EASC-160gm China and the World

EDCO-102xm Human Diversity: People, Power and Politics

EDCO-324m Asian American Psychology

127

ENGL-444m Native American Literature

ENGL-445m The Literatures of America: Cross-Cultural Perspectives

ENGL-447m African-American Narrative

ENGL-474m Literature, Nationality and Otherness

ENGL-476m Images of women in Contemporary Culture

ENGL-478m Sexual/Textual Diversity

FBE-428m Principles of Employment Law

FREN-370m Equality and Difference Around the Enlightenment

GEOG-
100gm Los Angeles and the American Dream

GEOG-
215gm Ethnicity and Place

GEOG-340m Latino L.A.

GEOG 350m Race and Environmentalism

GERO-380m Diversity in Aging

GERO-435m Women and Aging: Psychological, Social and Policy Implications

HIST-102gm Medieval People: Early Europe and Its Neighbors, 400-1500

HIST-200gm The American Experience

HIST-245gm Gender and Sexualities in American History

HP-400m Culture, Lifestyle, and Health

HP-420m Gender and Minority Health Issues

JOUR-466m People of Color and the News Media

JOUR-468m The American Press and Issues of Sexual Diversity

MDA-166gm Poverty and Welfare in America

MDA-167gm Marginal Groups in America

MOR-385m Business in a Diverse Society

MUJZ-100xm Jazz: A History of America's Music

MUJZ-419m The Jazz Experience: Myths and Culture

128

MUSC-400m
The Broadway Musical: Reflection of American Diversity, Issues, and
Experiences

MUSC-420m Hip-hop Music and Culture

MUSC-430m Music and the Holocaust

MUSC-450m The Music of Black Americans

PHIL-137gm Social Ethics for Earthlings and Others

POSC-333m Stigma and Society: Physical Disability in America

POSC-424m Political Participation and American Diversity

POSC-441m Cultural Diversity and the Law

POSC-442m The Politics of Human Differences: Diversity and Discrimination

PPD-100m Los Angeles, Enduring the Pueblo

PPD-250m Third World Cities

PPD-260m Planning, Diversity and Space

PPD-300m Design and Quality

PPD-302m Urban Sleuths: Exploring People an Places in Cities

PPD-352am Los Angeles Mini Semester

PPD-372m Public Service in an Urban Setting

PPD-485m U.S. Immigration Policy

PSYC-462m Minority Mental Health

REL-145m Religion in Los Angeles

REL-336m Re-viewing Religion in Asian America

SOCI-142gm Diversity and Racial Conflict

SOCI-150gm Social Problems

SOCI-169gm Changing Family Forms

SOCI-200m Introduction to Sociology

SOCI-250gm Grassroots Participation in Global Perspective

SOCI-305m Sociology of Childhood

SOCI-342m Race Relations

129

SOCI-355m Immigrants in the United States

SOCI-356m Mexican Immigrants in a Diverse Society

SOCI-360m Social Inequality: Class, Status, and Power

SOCI-366m Chicana and Latina Experiences

SOCI-375m Asian Americans: Ethnic Identity

SOCI-376m Contemporary Issues in Asian American Communities

SOCI-432m Racial and Ethnic Relations in a Global Society

SOCI-435m Women in Society

SOCI-437m Sexuality and Society

SOWK-
200xm Institutional Inequality in American Political and Social Policy

SPAN-413m Social and Geographic Varieties of Spanish

SWMS-
210gm Social Issues in Gender

SWMS-301m
Introduction to Feminist Theory and the Women's and Men's
Movements

SWMS-364m Racial and Ethnic Women in America

SWMS-384m Overcoming Prejudice

SWMS-385m Men and Masculinity

SWMS-455m Gender and Sport

THTR-393m Cultural Identities in Performance

THTR-395m Drama as Human Relations

THTR-476m African American Theatre

THTR-488m Theatre in the Community

Abstract (if available)

Abstract As population demographics continue to diversify in the United States and U.S. industries expand their markets and workforces to include communities abroad, college graduates will increasingly need strong intercultural communication skills to successfully enter the workforce. Further study to assess how vehicles currently in place at college campuses can contribute to student cross-racial interactions is both warranted and timely. This study employed a qualitative approach to explore diversity courses and service-learning environments and the ways that they shape student cross-racial interactions. Allport‟s (1954) intergroup contact theory provided a framework for understanding how conditions and environment plays a role in diverse interactions. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with 15 participants currently enrolled at a large private university located in a major, urban metropolitan city and participating in a service learning project. Utilizing grounded theory as a tool of analysis, six major themes emerged: a) that students felt there was relevance to the university having a diversity course requirement, b) discussion sessions provided an ideal environment for diverse interactions, c) service-learning provided students with a “real-life” context to diverse curricula, d) students recognized diversity courses, social issues courses, and courses relevant to the city and learning about different cultures as the best compliment to service-learning, e) the location of the university in a major metropolitan urban city had an impact on students perception of diversity, and finally f) student experience in diversity courses changed their perception of diversity and diverse interactions.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Stewart, Wendy Catherine (author)

Core Title Exploring student perceptions and experiences regarding the role of diversity courses and service-learning on cross-racial interactions

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/21/2010

Defense Date 04/15/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag classroom experience,cross-racial interactions,diversity courses,OAI-PMH Harvest,service-learning

Place Name USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cole, Darnell (committee chair), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member), Tobey, Patricia (committee member)

Creator Email wcstewart@ymail.com,wstewart@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3205

Unique identifier UC1325883

Identifier etd-Stewart-3967 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-350895 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3205 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Stewart-3967.pdf

Dmrecord 350895

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Stewart, Wendy Catherine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu