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Meeting the needs of nontraditional undergraduate students through inclusive pedagogy

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Meeting the needs of nontraditional undergraduate students through inclusive pedagogy

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Meeting the Needs of Nontraditional Undergraduate Students Through Inclusive Pedagogy

Kristian K. Klinger

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

December 2022

© Copyright by Kristian K. Klinger 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Kristian K. Klinger certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Nicole M.G. MacCalla
Douglas E. Lynch
Jennifer L. Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
Nontraditional students (NTSs) face a wide range of institutional, structural, financial, and
cultural barriers to successfully completing their undergraduate degrees. This study examines the
role of faculty, given they may be the primary and most constant point of contact NTSs have
with their institutions. This study specifically examines the factors influencing faculty members’
ability to meet the needs of NTSs enrolled in private on-campus undergraduate programs.
Twelve faculty from two different university sites were recruited. Each participant underwent a
1-hour videoconference interview, wherein they were asked about their instructional and support
experiences. The data were examined using thematic analysis. Study participants reported they
perceive NTSs have a need to (a) balance school and extracurricular responsibilities, (b) achieve
academic efficiency and effectiveness due to these extracurricular responsibilities, and (c) gain a
sense of confidence and belonging within the academic environment. To meet these needs,
participants reported that they offer adaptable deadlines, support, and class features; leverage
NTSs’ life experience in class; seek to understand and openly communicate with NTSs; build
NTSs’ confidence and school connectedness; and connect NTSs with needed support.
Participants expressed the need for professional training for faculty regarding NTSs’ unique
needs, instructional strategies appropriate for NTSs, and support available to students. While
more research is needed to confirm and extend these results, institution-wide efforts to establish
pedagogies of care and inclusion are advised to create conducive climates for NTSs and for all
students.

v
Dedication
To my parents, Klaus and Hannelore Klinger, I thank you for all of your love, support, and
guidance. You sacrificed so much to come to a strange country to make a life for yourselves and
for your sons. You continue to inspire me and embody the virtues of commitment, hard work,
unconditional love, and a positive and optimistic outlook. Although currently we are on opposite
coasts, you are with me daily in spirit and you motivate me to continue to strive and thrive.
Thank you, I love you!

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Acknowledgements
Life is a journey full of ups and downs, twists and turns. Along the way we encounter
anticipate and unexpected obstacles, challenges, disruptions, lessons, blessings and rewards. The
past couple of years have been particularly trying as universally we navigated the impact of a
global pandemic and social injustice. During the same time period I enrolled in a Doctor of
Education program through the USC Rossier School of Education and embarked on two job
changes that took me from the West Coast to the East Coast.
The strength, impact and influence of the Trojan Family never ceases to amaze. This
dissertation would not be possible without the assistance and support of my Dissertation Chair,
Dr. Jennifer Phillips and my committee members Dr. Niciole MacCalla and Dr. Douglas Lynch.
The evolution and completion of this dissertation was an outcome of hours of coaching,
questioning, prodding, encouraging and persistence of my esteemed committee members and
brilliant Cohort 14 classmates. The feedback provided was constructive and support absolute. I
would also like to thank my study participants for their valuable time and insights, as well as the
administrators who helped to connect me with the study participants.
I would like to thank all of my family members and friends who believed in me and
encouraged me as I pursued a dream. Each of you were there when I needed you and nudged me
just enough to regain positive progress when I was struggling or stalling. Your collective positive
outlook and absolute support lifted me up and helped get me to the finish line. I look forward to
life’s future ups and downs, twist and turn, knowing that I am not on this journey alone, I have
each of you with me every step of the way.

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Table of Contents

Introduction 1
Literature Review 12
Methodology 42
Sampling Method 46
Procedure 51
Data Analysis 53
Results 57
Research Question 1 65
Research Question 2 70
Research Question 3 80
Discussion 88
Recommendations 95
Conclusion 104
References 107
Appendix A: Study Invitation 132
Appendix B: Letter of Permission 133
Appendix C: Information Sheet 134
Appendix D: Faculty Interview Protocol 138

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List of Tables
Table 1: Faculty Practices That Foster a Pedagogy of Care 22
Table 2: Data Sources 48
Table 3: Research Setting Faculty and Student Populations 49
Table 4: Participant Demographics, Experience, and Education Descriptions 62
Table 5: Needing to Balance School and Extracurricular Responsibilities Constructs 71
Table 6: Needing to be Efficient and Effective Constructs 73
Table 7: Needing to Build Confidence and Belonging Constructs 75
Table 8: Participants’ Efforts to Support Nontraditional Students Through Adaptability 77

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Nontraditional students are distinguished from traditional students by having at least one
of seven characteristics: not possessing a traditional high school diploma, enrolling in college
following at least a 1-year gap after high school, taking courses part time, being financially
responsible for themselves or their families, having dependents other than a spouse, being a
single parent, and working full-time while enrolled (Radford et al., 2015). In contrast, traditional
students are between the ages of 18 and 24, live on campus, attend classes full-time, and are
financially dependent on their parents (Pelletier, 2010). Historically, those who attended college
were traditional students and institutional degree programs were designed with them in mind.
However, even as of 1986, 65% of undergraduate students were considered nontraditional. This
population grew to 70% of undergraduate students by 1992 (Horn & Carroll, 1996) and to 74%
by the 2011-2012 school year (Radford et al., 2015). Current estimates indicate that nearly three
of every four undergraduate students are nontraditional (Sheehy, 2013; Smith-Barrow, 2018).
Brock (2010) and Taniguchi and Kaufman (2005) estimated that in the 2019–2020 school year,
approximately 76% of all undergraduates will have at least one nontraditional characteristic.
The size of the NTS population introduces a problematic dissonance for many elite
private 4-year universities because NTSs have unique needs and require support from their
institutions in ways that are qualitatively different from that needed by traditional students
(Colvin, 2013; Quimby & O’Brien, 2006; Thompson-Ebanks, 2015). Nonetheless, institutional
structures and individual faculty members’ instructional approaches tend to remain designed for
traditional students (Quimby & O’Brien, 2006). Greater numbers of NTSs are enrolling in higher
education, but they are faced with various institutional, structural, financial, and cultural barriers
(e.g., Colvin, 2013; Giancola et al., 2009; Quimby & O’Brien, 2006; Thompson-Ebanks, 2015).

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Given that the primary point of contact NTSs have with their institutions is their faculty
(Thompson-Ebanks, 2015), this qualitative study explored faculty members’ understanding of
NTSs unique needs and faculty members’ ability to respond to those needs among
undergraduates at two private 4-year universities in the United States.
Context and Background of the Problem
It is important for faculty to have the necessary institutional support to teach a course
effectively (Ramlall & Ramlall, 2018). The faculty member must work together with the student,
relate with them, engage them, have a dialogue with them, and provide a model for them to
follow. Students who reflected on their biggest learnings often suggest that the modeling their
professor provided as an educator had a significant impact on their education and professional
trajectory (Anderman & Freeman, 2004). For the one who is caring to be successful at what they
do, the one being cared for needs to reciprocate the feeling to motivate the one caring to continue
to care (Hawk & Lyons, 2008). Therefore, one can offer that for the act of caring to persist, there
should be a symbiotic relationship or connectedness between faculty and their students.
Education must be designed to encourage and support positive relationships and connectedness
between faculty and students (Jorgenson et al., 2018).
It is important to examine the ability of private 4-year university faculty members to meet
the needs of NTSs for several reasons. First, according to the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), in 2017, there were 2,294 4-year private higher education institutions across
the United States. This is a decrease from 2015, when there were 2,378 4-year private higher
education institutions across the nation. This increased demand continues to drive up the cost of
a degree. Since 2000 the median cost, in constant dollars for a 4-year private institution went
from $22,493 to $49,383 (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2018).

3
Simultaneously, the increasing cost of higher education and the declining role of governments in
subsidizing higher education have affected higher education institutions in the way they make
decisions and operate (Schudde & Scott-Clayton, 2014). With college costs higher than ever
before, an unfinished degree is not simply a goal not met, but the unfinished degree is also
accompanied by debt that is not easy to repay (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011).
Second, rates of college attainment among recipients of financial aid are lower than those
of other students (Arum & Roksa, 2011). Decades of research studies have documented several
reasons for this with a deficit focus on the individual student, describing in great detail how
growing up without sufficient social and economic capital resources compromises academic and
social preparation for college, how living without enough funds in college changes the college
experience, and how the pulls of work and family sometimes divert financial aid recipients from
finishing degrees (Belley & Lochner, 2007; Benson & Goldrick-Rab, 2011; Bozick, 2007;
Goldrick-Rab et al., 2015; Lareau & Cox, 2011; Roksa & Velez, 2010). Davis (2012) found that
motivation to provide financial support and stability to their families contributed to persistence
among NTSs. By getting to know the students as individuals through the administration of a
survey as a “first day of class” activity professors are able to get to know their students and let
their students get to know them (Hawk & Lyons, 2008). This study seeks to shift the focus from
the student to the individual faculty member in their role to provide instructional environments
that are inclusive to the needs of all students.
Third, although NTSs’ commitment to school may be strong, their availability to dedicate
themselves to schoolwork may be limited. Hence, if a NTS is involved in the learning process
differently (because they have competing needs), a traditional, immersive, and individual
focused structure of higher education may not maximize efficacy (Babcock & Marks, 2011).

4
When students’ expectations and experiences are appropriately aligned and match the reality
they encounter, students are more likely to be satisfied with their college experience and to
persist to graduation. Black-Hawkins et al. (2009) concluded that it is how faculty address the
issue of inclusion in their daily practice that determines their inclusive pedagogical approach.
Inclusive pedagogy becomes a valuable strategy for supporting the learning of everyone when it
is used in an adaptable and innovative way rather than as a simplistic undeviating means of
sorting students into more or less able or prepared (Nind, 2005). Ultimately, faculty should
provide a safe, supportive, and fair learning environment where students are encouraged to share
their ideas and ask questions. Faculty who do these things express the desire to see students
succeed, make students feel welcome by learning and remembering their names, and
communicate availability. In short, they show an interest in their students’ academic and non-
academic affairs (Collier, 2005).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in
private on-campus undergraduate programs need, what faculty are doing to support NTSs based
on this perception, and what support faculty need from their institutions to support NTSs.
Multiple studies have found institutional, structural, financial, and cultural barriers present within
the university and college system that prevent students, including NTSs, from successful degree
completion (Colvin, 2013; Giancola et al., 2009; Quimby & O’Brien, 2006; Thompson-Ebanks,
2015). This study focuses on the role of faculty as institutional agents in providing instructional
support to meet the needs of their students. Three research questions were explored:
1. What do faculty perceive as the needs of non-traditional students?
2. In what ways do faculty try to meet the needs of non-traditional students?

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3. What support does faculty need from their institutions to meet the needs of non-
traditional students?
It was anticipated that this study would reveal that various factors affect faculty
members’ delivery of the instructional approach and support that NTSs need. Such factors were
anticipated to include lack of measurement within institutions regarding whether NTSs’ needs
are being met, lack of rewards to faculty for meeting these students’ needs, a lack of faculty
member time, and a range of other influences. The aim of this study was to uncover those factors
to determine what, if anything, might be done to better meet NTSs’ needs by better supporting
faculty members.
Importance of the Study
This study uncovered barriers related to faculty understanding of and response to NTS
instructional needs. The insights gained through this study are beneficial for private, four-year
United States universities to consider and implement so their faculty may be better prepared to
support NTS success academically and professionally. Given the significant size of the NTS
population, these adaptations are necessary and even overdue. The campus will remain the heart
of undergraduate education and the center of the university research enterprise. Consequently,
the college students of today are the labor force of tomorrow. The data suggest that the provision
of targeted support for NTSs can enhance their likelihood of success and help them develop the
resilience required for successful completion.
The higher education sector has withstood turbulent economic times in the past, and it
will withstand them again. Those in school at the time of the present study will typically be
working in the year 2050 or even 2060 (National Center of Education Statistics, 2020). Through
the offering of hybrid and experiential learning programs, universities are enabled to diversify

6
and expand their program offerings, increasing access to the university and support the diverse
learning needs of all students. In 2019, the foundations of the unique higher education
institutions ecosystem was impacted significantly by the rapid spread of the COVID-19
outbreak, creating uncertainty regarding the implications for higher education (Marinoni et al.,
2020). In the post-COVID-19 digital age, higher education institutions will be better placed than
ever to provide NTS with easy access and support for their education, ideally enhancing their
persistence. COVID-19 augments concern about the future of higher education institutions,
especially the difficulty for students to get back on track if they do not enroll in higher education
as soon as they finish high school. Conversely, COVID-19 has triggered a rapid expansion of
online education at United States colleges and universities. Technology will continue to facilitate
the evolution of higher education centered on a blending of the physical and digital worlds.
Providing NTSs with more of what they need can spawn a period of institutional growth rather
than utilitarian retrenchment (Causey et al., 2020).
The problem of higher education institutions not adequately supporting the instructional
needs of NTSs is important to solve for a variety of reasons. First, educational attainment and
persistence statistics indicate that institutions are meeting the needs of traditional students but not
those from lower socio-economic backgrounds or other nontraditional student groups (Bailey &
Dynarski, 2011; Carnevale et al., 2018; Quinn, 2013). A national study of more than 3,600
postsecondary institutions found that 64.1% traditional students compared to only 45.8% NTSs
achieved graduation within 6 years (Shapiro et al., 2016). Consequently, NTSs spend scarce time
and capital on college without accruing credits or attaining degrees (Bound et al., 2009; Shapiro
et al., 2016). Second, while tuition has increased every year, public institutions have awarded
less and less need-based financial aid since 1996 (National Student Clearinghouse Research

7
Center [NSCRC], 2019; Wang, 2013). Accordingly, it has become increasingly difficult for
students to afford tuition at any 4-year college or university (Quinn, 2013).
Third, solving the problem is important to meet United States workforce demands.
Universities are able to offer NTSs a ladder of socioeconomic mobility. Access to knowledge
and skills, rather than access to physical or financial assets, directly impacts the economic
prosperity of individuals and entire nations. Goldin and Katz (2011) postulated that the rapid
educational expansion of schooling in the 20th century had a powerful impact on the United
States economy and the role of technological change in explaining economic change. In the
1970s, the United States. had the highest college completion rate in the world. Today, the United
States ranks 14th among the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
countries (Levin, 2015). Even more concerning are survey results exposing that United States.
adults have fallen behind many other industrialized nations (NCES, 2018); there appears to be
little progress over the last two decades.
Methodology
This project employed a qualitative approach (Creswell, 2013) to afford an in-depth
exploration of the problem of practice. Qualitative interviews were used that focus on “how
people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they
attribute to their experiences'' (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 15). The use of open-ended interview
questions allows a researcher to gain “values and opinions” from the study participants
(Creswell, 2013, p. 190). Participants for this study were drawn from two private 4-year
universities—one located on the east coast (University A) and one located on the west coast
(University B) of the United States. From each of these settings, a sample of six faculty members
was drawn. These institutions were considered appropriate for this study because they enroll a

8
large student body, are private institutions, and of which more than half of the student body at
each site is comprised of NTSs.
Definitions
The following relevant terms appear throughout this dissertation:
• Access refers to any efforts to foster students’ pursuit of postsecondary education
(Stich, 2012).
• Andragogy refers to adult learning (Knowles, 1978).
• Attrition refers to the rate at which students do not persist or withdraw between one
semester and a subsequent semester, typically measured as a percentage (Tinto,
1993).
• Belonging refers to the feeling of security and support when there is a sense of
acceptance and inclusion for a member of a group (Perrin et al., 2014).
• Completion refers to a student enrolled full-time or part-time at a higher education
institution and completing a degree or certificate within 6 years (NSCRC, 2020).
• Continuing-generation college student is defined as an undergraduate who has at least
one parent with a bachelor’s or higher degree (NCES, 2017).
• Engagement refers to the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, and passion that
students show when they are learning, which impacts their level of motivation to
learn and progress in their education (Madonna & Philpot, 2013).
• First-generation students are those students who are the first in their family to attend
college (Rosenbaum et al., 2015).
• Full-time enrollment refers to a total credit load equal to or greater than 75% of the
full-time credit load at an institution (McFarland et al., 2019).

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• Part-time enrollment refers to a total credit load less than 75% of the full-time credit
load at an institution (McFarland et al., 2019).
• Middle-class refers to individuals and households who typically fall between the
working class and the upper class within a socio-economic hierarchy encompassing
60% of all households (Espinoza, 2012).
• Persistence refers to the degree to which students continue the completion of a
respective degree program (Ost et al., 2018).
• Retention measures the rate at which students persist in their respective degree
program, generally stated as a percentage (McFarland et al., 2019).
• Nontraditional student, also termed adult or post-traditional student, a nontraditional
student (NTS) refers to an undergraduate college student aged 25 years or older
(Bergman et al., 2014). NTSs also may have one or more of the following
characteristics: being independent for financial aid purposes, having one or more
dependents, being a single caregiver, not having a traditional high school diploma,
delaying postsecondary enrollment, attending school part-time, and being employed
full-time (Brock, 2010; Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Brock (2010) and Taniguchi
and Kaufman (2005) estimate that in the 2019–2020 school year, approximately 76%
of all undergraduates had at least one nontraditional characteristic.
• Private on-campus undergraduate program refers to a course of instruction delivered
within an in-person setting that leads to a bachelor’s degree awarded by a private
university. A private university is an institution whose funding comes from tuition,
investments, and private donors rather than from taxpayers. Private universities offer
undergraduate and graduate degrees. Unlike liberal arts colleges, private universities

10
often have significant masters and doctoral programs. Private universities often cost
much more than public universities. However, financial aid at private institutions
typically serves to make the cost of attendance less than that of a public institution.
Most large private universities have a strong focus on faculty and graduate research
and have robust athletic programs.
• Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s personal belief in their respective capabilities to
attain goals through the performance of tasks (Bandura, 2006).
• Social cognitive theory refers to the relationships between individuals, behaviors, and
the environment (Bandura, 2012).
• Traditional student refers to an undergraduate college student aged 18 to 24 years old
attending full-time immediately following high school (NCES, 2017).
• Working-class refers to the economically vulnerable, unionized manual laborers who
tend to harbor negative cultural stereotypes about higher education (Aronowitz,
2009).
Organization of the Dissertation
I have structured this study into five chapters. Chapter 1 has provided a brief introduction
to and overview of the study. Chapter 2 provides a literature review of scholarly sources and
provides an overview of current knowledge, theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.
Chapter 3 explains and defines the methodology and frameworks used in the study, including the
research design, research setting, researcher positionality, description of the data sources,
consideration of the study’s credibility and trustworthiness, ethics, and limitations and
delimitations. Chapter 4 presents the analysis of the study data. Chapter 5 offers a final

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discussion of the results, along with conclusions and suggestions for practice and continued
research.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This study examined the factors influencing faculty members’ ability to meet inclusive
instructional needs of nontraditional students (NTSs) enrolled in private on-campus
undergraduate programs. In support of this purpose, several areas of literature were examined
related to the NTS. First, future workforce demands are considered in light of the trends and
challenges facing all students and prospective students in today’s workforce. Next, the NTS in
higher education is defined and NTS trends are outlined. The next body of literature considers
the factors influencing NTSs persistence, retention, completion, learning, engagement, and sense
of belonging. Finally, instructional best practices for supporting NTSs are outlined. The chapter
closes with the presentation of a conceptual framework related to literature reviewed within this
study.
Understanding Current and Future Workforce Demands: Implications for Students
A college degree creates career options that do not exist for people who stop their
education with a high school diploma. Lehmann (2012) noted that college-educated people likely
switch more easily between jobs at roughly the same pay scale. A report by the United States
Department of Education found a positive correlation between higher employment rates and
higher levels of educational attainment among adults between the ages of 25 and 34 (McFarland
et al., 2019). According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021), adult workers
with a bachelor’s degree earn on average $26,104 more than those who entered the workforce
directly after high school. Even some college but no degree increases earnings by 11.66%.
Additionally, 56% of jobs offering at least $35,000 annual income for workers ages 25 and older
require a bachelor’s degree or higher (Carnevale et al., 2018). Furthermore, the unemployment
rate for individuals with a bachelor’s degree or higher in December 2019 (prior to the COVID-19

13
pandemic) was 2%, compared with 2.8% for individuals with some college, and 3.7% for
individuals with a high school diploma (Edwards & Smith, 2020).
The global need for college graduates has increased, but the number of new degree
holders continues to decline. Eighty-two percent of executives and 75% of hiring managers
believe a college education is very important or essential, and 82% of college degree holders
think that college was a good financial investment. At the same time, 69% of United States.
companies report facing a talent shortage—the highest in more than a decade, according to a
February 2020 Manpower Group Talent Shortage survey. Additionally, continued globalization,
and advances in automation, produce a growing demand for workers with higher skill and
education levels in the United States (Carnevale et al., 2018). In 2018, only 45.2% of Americans
ages 25 and older possessed a postsecondary degree (United States. Census Bureau, 2019).
Furthermore, patterns of immigration, movement across state lines, and changes in fertility mean
that states with increasing numbers of high school graduates predominantly will be in the
southwest and the northwest. Regions of the United States that will experience population
increases have not had high rates of college attendance, and those that will experience decreases
will likely be in areas that historically have had high college attendance rates.
These statistics are troubling given that access to knowledge and skills, rather than access
to physical or financial assets, directly impact the economic prosperity of individuals and entire
nations (Levin, 2015). Undergraduate enrolment rates continue to decline in the United States for
a variety of factors. Projections from a range of sources indicate college enrollment will continue
to decline, which creates uncertainty for future workforce employment sources. Supported by the
coming-of-age of the Millennial generation, higher education institutions experienced enrollment
growth over the past two decades (NCES, 2021). However, due to declining birth rates, the

14
number of high school graduates going to college is currently in decline. More than half of
colleges and universities say their number of students has declined. According to the NCES
(2021), just over 39% of students attend college part-time, and the percentage of NTSs is
expected to rise in the post-COVID-19 world. Finally, the NSCRC (2021) reported total
undergraduate enrollment for spring 2021 dropped by 4.5% compared to spring 2020. However,
it is still too early to understand the short and long-term effect of the COVID-19 pandemic
impact on higher education institutions. Meeting the needs NTSs offers institutions an
opportunity to supplement the drop in undergraduate enrollments by attracting, retaining and
graduating increasing numbers of NTSs.
Defining the Nontraditional Student in Higher Education
One of the most prevailing characteristics used to distinguish traditional from NTSs is
age (Chung et al., 2014). Traditional students are between the ages of 18 and 24, attend classes
full-time, enroll full-time directly after high school, live on campus, are financially dependent on
their parents, attend without interruption through to graduation, and have no dependents or
significant off-campus work obligations (Pelletier, 2010). Nontraditional students in contrast,
typically are between the ages of 26 and 45. Furthermore, the United States Department of
Education defines NTSs by seven characteristics: delayed enrollment in college by a year or
more after high school, enrollment in college part time, financially responsibility for themselves
or their families, full-time work while enrolled, support for dependents other than a spouse,
single parenting, or completion of high school through a General Education Development (GED)
certificate or certificate of completion (Radford et al., 2015).
Furthermore, according to a study conducted by the NCES (2018), as many as 74% of
college students may be considered nontraditional. Nontraditional students and first-generation

15
college students (FGCSs) share similar characteristics. Sixty-nine percent of undergraduate
students enrolled at private elite four-year research institutions are FGCSs (Center for First-
Generation Student Success, 2019). Six years after first entering postsecondary education, 56%
of FGCSs and 40% of continuing-generation students had not earned any postsecondary
credential (Center for First-Generation Student Success, 2019). Faculty’s ability to better meet
the needs of NTSs and FGCSs through inclusive pedagogy will improve enrolment and
graduation rates of not only NTSs, but all students.
Current Nontraditional Student Trends in Higher Education
More than 7 million students ages 25 and older attended college in Fall 2019 (Digest of
Education Statistics, 2019), and universities are increasingly aware of the population of NTSs in
their undergraduate student body and are making efforts to better support them. The Digest of
Education Statistics (2020) reported that approximately 38% of full-time undergraduate students
enrolled in college in Fall 2019 were under age 25 and 36% were aged 25 to 29 years, indicating
a sizable proportion of NTSs. Although the reasons for late or delayed college enrollment vary,
one study suggests NTSs may delay college due to the financial necessity of supporting
themselves and their families (Hout, 2012). Furthermore, evidence suggests that a growing
number of students are entering (or reentering) college after retirement (Smith-Barrow, 2018).
According to the Digest of Education Statistics (2019), looking towards 2028, they
project that 62% of all undergraduate students in the United States. will be aged 24 years and
younger, leaving 38% of all undergraduate students being aged 25 years and older. The college
experience is distinctive to every student, particularly for the NTS (Aud et al., 2012). Clearly, the
pendulum has swung in a direction for which many higher education institutions are not prepared
as many choose to continue creating policies, programs, and services that lack an inclusive

16
pedagogical underpinning. Furthermore, mass conversion to online leaning, which has been an
outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic, has only accelerated the adoption and acceptance of
flexible instructional curriculums (Watermeyer et al., 2021). While care is often not explicitly
recognized as part of the educational process, COVID-19 reinforced to many academics how
important care and inclusivity truly are to teaching and learning (Ore, 2016).
The COVID-19 pandemic pushed many higher education institutions into a fast-paced,
unstructured, remote education process. Educational institutions worldwide canceled face-to-face
classes and switched to remote classes. Globally, 91% of higher education institutions reported
in 2020 that in-person instruction had been replaced by remote learning (Marinoni et al., 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic led to a multitude of changes for higher education institutions, but the
physical infrastructure of education institutions has not yet been affected. The emergency
transition to remote learning brought about many challenges, and researchers have begun to
analyze the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on educational institutions (Dhawan, 2020;
Lassoued et al., 2020). A pedagogy of care, a practice that requires the attention of the individual
faculty member, affords students greater levels of flexibility, accessibility, and equity.
Pedagogy of Care: The Role of Faculty
Students, who perceive their teachers as caring, have been found to have a better sense of
belonging in school and tend to show more progress when it comes to learning (Beland, 2014).
Feeling a sense of fit and belonging at the institution is important because being validated by
faculty, staff, and peers helps students believe they can succeed (Hernandez, 2000; Suarez,
2003). The primary purpose of every educator must be to enhance and practice an act of caring
(Noddings, 2010). The current trends in social, economic, and cultural diversity in United States
classrooms and schools make it imperative that now, even more than before, educators need to

17
display the humanistic side of teaching to affect learning. Excellent professors encourage and
stimulate their students to dream and learn and help them find ways for those dreams to come
true. While academic knowledge and skills are important, research suggests students also need to
feel respected, understood, appreciated, and cared for to promote growth and learning (Noddings,
2002). Institutional and pedagogical inclusivity are synonyms for success.
Cloninger (2008) challenged instructors to put themselves in the mind and experiences of
their students as a demonstration of care. Institutional environments that are perceived by
students to be inclusive and affirming, and where expectations for performance are
communicated and set at reasonably high levels, are important to student learning (Kuh, 2001;
Kuh et al., 1991; Kuh et al., 2005; Pascarella, 2001). The research underscores the power of
caring relationships in education and the influence of students’ feelings on their ability to learn
(Noddings, 1984, 1992, 2005, 2010). Among the more effective teaching and learning
approaches related to productively introducing diverse perspectives are using interactive teaching
techniques, such as small group discussions, role-playing, and debates; a supportive, inclusive
classroom climate; and faculty members who see themselves as learners and reflect on how to
use the diversity present among members of the class to enhance learning (Noddings, 1984,
1992, 2005, 2010). The following sections describe important elements of a pedagogy of care,
including assuring students’ accessibility to education, equity in instruction, and flexibility for all
students.
Accessibility
Access refers to both gaining entry to higher education and to actually persisting and
completing a degree (The National Office of Equity of Access to Higher Education, Higher
Education Authority, 2008). Access generally is considered to result from the complex

18
interrelationships among individual factors ranging from finances to student attitude, preparation,
goals, and family background (Finnie et al., 2008). Access also relies upon systemic factors
including educational disadvantage, unequal access, and other forms of inequality in higher
education. Educational disadvantage can result from inconsistencies between a student’s school
and extracurricular experiences (The National Office of Equity of Access to Higher Education,
Higher Education Authority, 2008). For example, if the student was raised or currently lives
within an environment that discourages continued education, access may be diminished. Within
the school setting, “the extent to which different learning styles and learning needs are
accommodated in the education system” also can affect access (The National Office of Equity of
Access to Higher Education, Higher Education Authority, 2008, p. 16). Meanwhile, inequality in
higher education has been defined as lack of equality in terms of educational opportunities
(Vukasovic & Sarrico, 2010). Access to education has been addressed (Ziderman, 2013) from
four directions: broadening access, meaning increasing the number of students matriculating;
deepening access, meaning matriculating underrepresented student populations; sustaining
access, by examining and addressing factors that would increase attrition (e.g., tuition hikes), and
maintaining freshman enrolment levels by providing student loans.
With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, access also soon referred to having suitable
technical resources to participate in online schooling. Colleagues and administrators began
circulating resources about how to teach in the pandemic and, of course, how to use remote video
technology, such as Zoom, effectively. The research shows that continued school support for
internet access and devices—as well as live instruction and teacher feedback—was expected to
be critical for improving remote learning in the 2020–21 school year (Krishnan et al., 2020).
According to Krishnan et al.’s (2020) findings, students without appropriate connectivity or

19
devices for distance learning are less motivated and can complete fewer assignments than their
peers. There is the need to align the activities, assessments, and assignments with the class
outcomes and to demonstrate how class activities will help build the necessary and required
career skills later in life.
Equity
Supporting students is a dynamic challenge that requires tailoring support services to
complex individual student needs. To ensure that free dialogue and exchange of ideas is taking
place for all students, colleges and universities must eradicate all forms of discrimination
(Krishnan et al., 2020). Identifying practical examples of inclusive pedagogy that meet the
standard of extending what is generally available to everybody, as opposed to providing for all
by differentiating for some. Effective instructors demonstrate pedagogical care, concern, and
connectedness by tailoring their teaching and learning activities to the diverse needs of students
(Motta & Bennett, 2018). Students who are cared for and who are connected with their teachers
are exposed to diverse educational settings, adaptive pedagogy, and culturally responsive
curricula. These students also learn to accept cultural differences. Additionally, expressing care,
communicating respect, behaving sensitively, and remaining kind and engaged with students
affect the broader learning community.
Flexibility
Large private universities have tapped into the working adult segment by designing and
implementing online programs to cater to these hard-to-reach segments, which are much more
diverse than the traditional student body. This segment includes individuals from across diverse
categories, including FGCSs, military, disabled, academically unprepared, transfer, and
international students (Ladd et al., 2018; Marginson, 2016). Faculty must continue to recognize

20
that students are individuals who have diverse learning styles and backgrounds. Students may
anticipate a college-level workload, but the rigor of college-level work can present a more
difficult adjustment. In particular, Marginson’s (2016) study suggested the majority of students
have trouble adjusting to college lectures, but college professors used lecturing as a pedagogical
approach far more often than their high school teachers. The study found about half of the
students interviewed stated that they struggled in large lecture classes and several struggled with
taking high-stakes midterms and finals.
Nontraditional and traditional students were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Many
felt confused, overwhelmed, and anxious about remote learning while also trying to manage their
circumstances, including having children at home full-time, loss of income and jobs, illness, and
mental health effects of this pandemic (Mehrotra, 2021). Table 1 lists various practices
established in literature that foster a pedagogy of care.

21
Table 1

Faculty Practices That Foster a Pedagogy of Care

Practice Supporting literature
Students who perceive their teachers as caring have a better sense of
belonging in school and tend to show more progress when it comes to
learning
Beland, 2014
Continued school support for internet access and devices Krishnan et al., 2020
Faculty show that they genuinely care and make it a point to develop
meaningful relationships with their students irrespective of the
environment in which instruction is being delivered
Calabrese et al., 2005
Challenge instructors to put themselves in the mind and experiences of their
students as a demonstration of care
Cloninger, 2008
Provide professional development programs to improve use of technological
resources for course instruction
Hawk & Lyons, 2008
Flexibly adapting to connect with and support NTSs Mattanah et al., 2010
Expressing care, communicating respect, behaving sensitively, and remaining
kind and engaged
Jorgenson et al., 2018
Effective teachers demonstrate pedagogical care, concern, and connectedness
by tailoring their teaching and learning activities to the diverse needs of
students
Motta & Bennett, 2018
Introduce diverse perspectives by using interactive teaching techniques, such
as small group discussions, role-playing, and debates
Noddings, 1984, 2005
A supportive, inclusive classroom climate; and faculty members who see
themselves as learners and reflect on how to use the diversity present
among members of the class to enhance learning
Noddings, 1992, 2010
To promote growth and learning students need to feel respected, understood,
appreciated, and cared for
Noddings, 2002

Systemic Challenges Facing Nontraditional Students in Higher Education
For many NTSs, being a student is not their primary role, but the higher education system
often is designed in a way that privileges the traditional college experience over other
considerations. According to Grawe (2017), five choices that seem to affect student success are
type of institution attended, attendance status, housing arrangement, student loans, and

22
employment. Hoare and Johnston (2011) have suggested ways in which educational systems may
disadvantage mature students, such as not providing access to the formal support mechanisms
normally available to traditional students. Despite ever-changing demographics on college
campuses, policies have remained largely stagnant. If they are to succeed in today’s world,
colleges need to adapt to meet changing needs (Grawe, 2017), As a result of the structure of
higher education, some NTSs may take longer than expected to complete their specific course of
study or students may choose to discontinue the pursuit of higher education altogether (Aud et
al., 2012).
Enrollment status affects financial aid eligibility, but financial aid programs are designed
to support full-time enrollment. Students who are not enrolled full-time qualify for little, if any,
tuition assistance (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). As a result, tuition can become a financial
burden for the part-time student when compared to their full-time counterparts (Joo et al., 2008).
Furthermore, for the past couple of decades, a seemingly unstoppable increase in college tuition
has been the norm. While the median household income growth has remained relatively flat,
American higher education institutions’ tuition prices increased nearly 400% over the last 30
years. Cost, which according to the NCES (2021) is higher than ever before, is a hurdle many
students, including NTSs, must overcome. It has been well documented that financial concerns
represent a significant barrier to NTSs entering higher education (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011).
However, after decades of expansion the growth of tuition costs is growing more slowly (United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). This slowdown in tuition growth began prior to the
effects the COVID-19 pandemic had on higher education institutions.

23
Factors Influencing Persistence, Retention, and Completion for Nontraditional Students
This section reviews the factors specific to completion, persistence, and retention for
NTSs. One of the most evident reasons NTSs have a lower chance of completion is that it takes
them longer to complete each grade level (Pollard et al., 2008). According to the National Center
for Education Statistics (2018), 65% of full-time students attained a degree within 8 years.
Conversely, only 32% of part-time students graduated in 8 years. An increasing number of NTSs
persist and maintain their academic momentum over time despite delays. The following sub-
sections review systemic factors influencing persistence, retention, and completion.
Factors Influencing Nontraditional Students’ Persistence in College
The NSCRC (2019) defines persistence as the percentage of students who return to
college for their second year. According to Dörnyei (2001), motivation and persistence are
highest when people are competent, have sufficient autonomy, set worthwhile goals, get
feedback, and are affirmed by others. A study by Lovell (2014) suggested nontraditional students
report higher levels of internalized motivation and goal achievement compared to traditional
students (Lovell, 2014), and academic persistence is centered on the goals that drive an
individual (Jansen et al., 2015; Salchegger, 2016). However, what matters more is how educators
support students than what types of interventions get implemented (Salchegger, 2016). Sims
(2014) found that proactive advising benefits students’ academic self-efficacy and is associated
with students making changes to their academic behaviors.
Chung et al. (2017) reported that NTSs are more persistent than traditional students and
attributed NTSs’ higher level of persistence to having more life experiences, such as being a
parent or a full-time employee, that could help cultivate such a characteristic. Conversely,
additional age could deter college persistence and completion since older students may realize

24
that they have fewer remaining years to benefit from their academic credentials. According to
Chung et al. (2017), realizing that their costs of higher education, especially the opportunity cost
of cutting work hours, far exceed the expected payoffs can in turn lead to their decision to stop
attending college. However, other research suggests where strong supportive relationships
existed, such relationships provided an additional layer of social support that was advantageous
to student persistence (Lovell, 2014).
In an analysis of individual persistence, Hoffman and Reindl (2011) found that protective
factors, such as high intrinsic motivation and a significant adult relationship, can overcome some
of the worst risk factors, leading to improved persistence and retention and a successful outcome
despite prior experiences. Studies found that when faculty provided timely, specific, and
constructive feedback on activities, assessments, and assignments students felt more cared for
and were more engaged (Hawk & Lyons, 2008; Jorgenson et al., 2018). Students need to know
as early as possible how they are progressing in class and what they need to change in order to be
successful in class. Cloninger (2008) challenged instructors to put themselves in the mind and
experiences of their students as a demonstration of care. Students, who perceive their teachers as
caring, have a better sense of belonging in school and tend to show more progress when it comes
to learning (Beland, 2014).
Factors Influencing Institutional Retention of Nontraditional Students
For the purpose of this study, retention is defined as the percentage of students who
return to the same institution for a second year (NSCRC, 2019). Of particular concern are the
high attrition rates among NTSs (Goncalves & Trunk, 2014). Relative to dependent-status
students who enroll in college soon after graduating high school, NTSs have been found to have
higher attrition rates and lower graduation rates. In the case of NTSs, greater commitments

25
outside of school at times pose difficulties to academic success when accommodations are not
supported or provided (Baum, 2010; Kasworm, 2010; Pusser et al., 2007). Despite the gains in
completion overall, about 40% of students (around 1 million) are still leaving college without a
credential. This is especially concerning given the NSCRC (2019) report released in October
2019 that found 36 million adults have some college credits but no degree.
According to the NCES (2018), NTSs have significantly lower retention and graduation
rates when compared to their traditional counterparts. However, many of the factors that
potentially impact persistence are within the control of the individual institution, which includes
support for students through personal tutoring, targeted study support, and assistance with social
and academic integration. Enhancement of these areas could make a significant difference to the
continuation rates of students from non-traditional groups (Kazis et al., 2007; Pusser et al.,
2007). Moreover, faculty are the most consistent point of contact between the institution and
student (Stage & Hubbard, 2007), and this is particularly true for NTSs (Choy, 2002). Research
shows that professors who care, show concern for their students, and interact with their students
tend to be able to motivate their students more than those who do not (Ore, 2016). Institutions
that foster student success provide stimulating classroom experiences that encourage students to
devote more time and effort to their learning and help them develop good study habits (Kuh et
al., 2005; Volkwein et al., 2000).
An interaction between academic and personal experiences on students’ retention and
success has been identified in several studies (Hoffman & Reindl, 2011; Kazis et al., 2007;
Pusser et al., 2007). Wolter et al. (2014) reported that individual variables, such as students’
entry qualifications and personal background, are likely to impact retention, but these are
individual factors the institution cannot influence. However, as Fragoso et al. (2013) argued,

26
there is a need to challenge the widespread view of NTSs as a “problem” for higher education
institutions because this diverts attention from the need for institutions to change their culture
and practices. A study to explore retention in higher education (Seidman et al., 2012) showed
that while students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may be less likely to be retained than
more traditional students, this difference was less marked in NTSs. Marshall’s (2013) study
found that many NTSs were able to compensate for competing demands on their time through
their time management skills and maturity, resulting in higher completion rates. The need still
exists for higher education institutions to change their practices to better support students to
minimize conflicts and provide support to meet the needs of all students.
Factors Influencing Nontraditional Students in Completing a College Education
While college attendance rates have risen dramatically over the past four decades, college
completion has not kept pace. For this study, completion is defined as students enrolled full-time
or part-time at a higher education institution and completing a degree or certificate within 6 years
(NSCRC, 2020). Efforts to understand what matters in the success of NTSs have been
particularly emphasized in the past couple of decades (e.g., Hoffman & Reindl, 2011; Kazis et
al., 2007; Pusser et al., 2007), but more needs to be done to better understand and address the
needs of NTSs through instructional practices and institutional policies to support their degree
attainment. Census data indicate increases in short-term degrees among NTSs (Kazis et al., 2007;
Shapiro et al., 2013), but retention and degree attainment rates of these students remain behind
their traditional counterparts, particularly for associate and undergraduate degrees (Choy, 2002;
Horn & Carroll, 1996; Shapiro et al., 2012; Shapiro et al., 2013). Only 25% of NTSs are enrolled
at higher education institutions full-time (NCES, 2021). After controlling for the duration of
enrollment and receipt of financial assistance, research has found that part-time students are

27
substantially less likely than full-time students to complete a degree or certificate within 8 years
(Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005).
At elite private nonprofit institutions, completion rates range from 32% for first-time,
part-time students to 66% for non-first-time, full-time students. The adverse effect of part-time
enrollment on college completion is clear (Bettinger & Baker, 2014; Taniguchi & Kaufman,
2005). Although the median time for completing a bachelor’s degree is 4.33 years based on full-
time enrollment (NCES, n.d.), NTSs, who typically enroll part time, work full-time, and maintain
competing responsibilities, typically complete a bachelor’s degree in just under 8 years (NCES,
2021). Although part-time enrollment significantly defers college completion, the number of
prior enrollments has been found to facilitate it (Bettinger & Baker, 2014). One study suggests
that being relatively young, having high cognitive ability, and a high-status occupational
background increased the chance of completion (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Another study
found that when universities offer comprehensive support services—with the intention to provide
equity for incoming students with the greatest need—those services have substantial benefits to
students’ long-term success (Krishnan et al., 2020).
Another factor educational researchers have identified as having a negative effect on
student completion rates is delaying college attendance (Aud et al., 2011; Bozick & DeLuca,
2005; Horn et al., 2005; Niu & Tienda, 2013; Rowan-Kenyon, 2007). Bozick and DeLuca (2005)
reported that delayers are 64% less likely to graduate with a 4-year degree. Given that more than
half of all undergraduates attend college part-time and that 80% work while enrolled (McFarland
et al., 2019), it is crucial that institutions understand and adapt policies and procedures to adapt
to the needs of these students. Hawk and Lyons (2008) found that when professors demonstrated
clarity when it came to classroom behavioral and performance expectations student engagement

28
and completion improved. Faculty need to provide students clear class expectations. Each
learning objective and activity must come with a rationale. There is a need to provide students
with directions and examples for assignments using rubrics and samples of past and exemplary
work.
Factors Influencing Learning, Engagement, and a Sense of Belonging for Nontraditional
Students
Nontraditional students have so many success skills already at their disposal that higher
education institutions must stop asking themselves what these students need and focus on what
these students offer (Hout, 2012). Nontraditional students’ increased age, experiences, wisdom,
and many other features can all be success factors—not just for them, but also for the other
students with whom NTSs interact (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Furthermore, by recognizing
the differences among students, professors can begin to develop structures and policies that
support success for all students in higher education institutions (Aud et al., 2012). Traditional
students may be in greater need of academic assistance, but NTSs may need less academic
guidance and more help with their nonacademic responsibilities (Johnson & Nussbaum, 2012).
Importantly, students who have a stronger sense of connection to college report having greater
opportunities for development that can reduce the accumulation of further risks (Anderman &
Freeman, 2004). The individual faculty member plays a critical role in providing the classroom
environment that supports all students, including NTSs.
Feeling a sense of belonging and connection are critical psychological factors in college
students continuing their education. One operationalization of this phenomenon is the term
“sense of community,” which consists of feelings of belonging, membership recognition, and
connection to social supports and needed resources (Owusu-Ansah & Kyei-Blankson, 2016).

29
Yet, research indicates that NTSs often struggle to form connections on their college campuses,
and NTSs exhibit high rates of college incompletion as compared to their traditional peers
(Kornbluh, 2017). Caring is critical to guiding instruction, student discipline, school policy
formation, and other important details for daily operations (Collier, 2005). Viewing students as
whole people and disrupting the status quo by centering care as a pedagogical anchor requires
faculty to be wholly present (Owusu-Ansah & Kyei-Blankson, 2016).
A professor’s care is demonstrated in how they view and relate with their students.
O’Connor (2008) defined caring as showing “emotions, actions, and reflections that result from a
teacher’s desire to motivate, help or inspire their students” (p. 117). Other research has found
students also talk about the importance of small group discussions, assignments they completed
with a partner, and the learning communities created as significant to their success (Ramlall &
Ramlall, 2018). When students believe faculty care about their learning, they are more to be
engaged and be academically successful (Baker & Narula, 2012).
Factors Influencing Nontraditional Student Learning
As awareness of the needs of the NTS population continues to grow, colleges are
programs and services are evolving to support nontraditional learners. For years, traditional
nonprofit higher education institutions reached out to older NTSs with evening classes, weekend
sessions, and part-time pathways as a way for these students to gain access to a formal degree or
certificate (Stich, 2012). During this time, the private 4-year higher education institution model
remained traditional student-centric, campus-based, and framed around person-to-person contact,
which disadvantaged NTSs (Stich, 2012). The substantial disadvantage of having to physically
attend school at a specific time created a ripe opportunity for online education providers.
Research suggests NTSs value online options, transferability of credits, and classes they can take

30
while working around other obligations (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Students value
professors who are knowledgeable in their area of study, but what is more valued is a professor
who takes the time to demonstrate care while providing encouragement and developing a trusting
and respectful connection (Garza, 2009).
In the 2020s, global outreach and maintaining instruction during the COVID-19
pandemic both offered growth areas for online programming. According to a survey by Strada
Center for Consumer Insights (2020), nearly three-quarter of colleges and universities are
operating fully or primarily online, with some in-person instruction. In the same survey, 68% of
college students indicated that online instruction inhibited their ability to learn. This is because a
significant amount of learning takes place through experiential formats, which require active
participation in a living and learning community (Christensen & Fielding, 2011). This is one
reason traditional students were so eager to return to campus in Fall 2021, even in the midst of
COVID-19. Conversely, compared to Fall 2020, the share of nontraditional learners who are
enrolled or intend to enroll in a higher education institution’s program in the next 6 months
declined from 90% to 68% (Strada Center for Consumer Insights, 2021). As a result of the
COVID-19 economic crisis, half of American adults experienced an employment disruption in
some way.
Informal student-faculty interaction activities—being a guest in a professor’s home,
working on a research project with a faculty member, talking with instructors outside of class,
and serving on committees with faculty—are positively correlated with student learning and
development and are more likely for students living on campus (Kuh, 2003). Working on a
research project with a faculty member just once during college could be a life-altering
experience (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Additionally, most institutions “front load” or

31
concentrate resources on first-year students. Other institutions have developed learning
communities, which are particularly important in creating a social network for students at urban
and commuter campuses. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) suggest that good grades in the first
year appear to be particularly important to ensuring academic success and degree acquisition,
indicating that the performance significance of grades varies over time. Virtually everyone
agrees that student-faculty interaction is an important factor in student success (Astin, 1993b;
Black-Hawkins et al., 2009; Kuh, 2003; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Living on campus has long been associated with persistence and student success.
Students who live on campus generally interact more with faculty and peers and are more
satisfied with their undergraduate experience (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Full-time students
and students who live on campus (the vast majority of whom are traditional students enrolled
full-time) have been found to be more engaged. Because they live on campus, they have easier
access than their commuting peers to faculty members, other students, and other institutional
resources. As a result, they take more classes, read and write more, and spend more time
preparing for class than their part-time counterparts (Black-Hawkins et al., 2009). In addition,
full-time students tend to have fewer obligations, such as family responsibilities and off-campus
work, that might preclude them from taking part in certain educational activities, such as study
abroad or extracurricular events (Kuh, 2003).
Addressing challenges before they negatively impact an entity (proactive intervention)
requires that academic institutions align their services with the needs of NTSs (Jeffreys, 2007).
Solely identifying students who are at risk for poor academic performance and non-completion
may fall short of strengthening student learning success. Prolonged enrollment is easily
interrupted by periods of absence from school, and this can interfere with the continuity of

32
students’ learning (Jeffreys, 2007). Part-time students may thus have a more difficult time
progressing from basic to more advanced courses, and this disrupted progression can act as an
obstacle to degree completion. In addition, limited interactions with faculty and fellow students
outside classrooms can result in a more limited support system to help students when problems
arise (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Providing these support systems to meet the need of part-
time students rather than expecting the student to adapt to the model that institutions prefer, both
through administrative policies and practices and through the instructional practices of faculty, is
necessary to student success. This study focuses on the role of faculty in providing the support
students, particularly NTSs, need.
Faculty and their instructional practices play a critical role in the success of all students.
Madonna and Philpot (2013) argued that when first experience academic learning, a student can
have different views concerning his or her potential to acquire knowledge, perform skills, and/or
master material. Furthermore, Jansen et al. (2015) explained that several factors, such as goal
setting, information processing, and rewards from professors, provides students with ideas as to
how well they might be learning and how to use those factors to assess efficacy for later.
Trautwein and Möller (2016) argued that to raise a student’s academic self-concept, instructors
need to provide focused feedback that delineates specific skills and abilities. Faculty members
were largely traditional students themselves, typically trained within research universities and
may not have sufficient understanding of the needs of all students they will work with when
working within diverse institution types (Austin, 2002).
Faculty members may see NTSs as underprepared or uninterested; however, it is more
common that these students simply are struggling to navigate the college context. According to
two different studies, with a few exceptions, faculty on campuses supported the notion of

33
adapting their practices to meet students’ life conditions and learning needs; however, they
struggled to understand and accommodate this variation (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005;
Christensen & Fielding, 2011). Research has found there to be cultural attitudes to an
individual’s identity as a learner that are affected by several factors: the era in which they grew
up; their local environment while growing up, including how economically advantaged the area
was; their initial experience of schooling; how successful their schooling was; and, most
strongly, their parents’ social class and educational experience (Thiele et al., 2017).
Inclusive pedagogy focuses on how to extend what is ordinarily available in the
community of the classroom as a way of reducing the need to mark some learners as different
(Nind, 2005). Professors who are responsive to individual differences between learners but do
not isolate some because they are thought to need something different support an inclusive
pedagogy (Floriana & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Faculty sometimes engage in practices that seem
less inclusive than those that meet that standard of inclusive pedagogy (e.g., Benjamin et al.,
2003; Floriana & Black-Hawkins, 2011). This study was designed to explore questions about the
knowledge and skills needed for faculty to be inclusive in their practice and the implications for
faculty education and professional development that arise from it.
By focusing on the craft knowledge of faculty’s inclusive pedagogy professors and
administrators can identify several strategies that both meet the standard of inclusive pedagogy
and fulfill the conceptual criterion of attending to individual differences, while avoiding the
stigma of marking some students as different. Students with individual needs mustn't be
marginalized within the class. This involves providing rich learning opportunities that are
sufficiently made available for everyone so that all learners can participate in classroom life
(Black-Hawkins et al., 2009). Additionally, institutions need to invest in academic

34
support services designed for the needs of diverse students (Bailey & Alfonso, 2005). According
to Terenzini et al. (1999), students’ personal interactions with faculty are one of the most
powerful sources of influence on their learning.
Factors Influencing Nontraditional Student Engagement
When higher education institutions see different populations on campus not engaging or
getting involved in the ways that the system deems valuable, they assume that these students will
not be successful since they are not “engaged” (Pfleiler-Wunder, 2019). However, students’
experiences prior to college may deeply shape how they will identify themselves once they enter
college (McGee, 2015). Therefore, the institution’s positionality and those serving in leadership
roles must engage reflectively in critical discourse on students’ lived experiences in relationship
to the university’s demographics and identity (Pfleiler-Wunder, 2019). For the purpose of this
study, engagement refers to the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, and passion that students
show when they are learning, which impacts their level of motivation to learn and progress in
their education (Madonna & Philpot, 2013). Universities are very aware of this growing trend,
and universities are making efforts to better support a rising number of students who are juggling
classes with work, family, and other adult responsibilities (McGee, 2015). Additionally, research
has found NTSs value online options, transferability of credits, and classes they can take while
working around other obligations (Madonna & Philpot, 2013).
To keep students engaged while they learn, higher education institutions need to be able
to connect their effort to stackable learning progression (Pfleiler-Wunder, 2019). Research
suggests NTSs need more than just a list of courses they have to complete during their education,
they need demonstrable evidence of skills and competencies they have developed as part of their
degree (Madonna & Philpot, 2013). A means to help students pilot skill mastery involves badges,

35
milestones, and making connections to the student’s portfolio. Such tools are vital to helping
students understand how their education supports their career goals and attain desired objectives
(Madonna & Philpot, 2013). Higher education institutions might encourage institutional faculty,
who are likely to be unaware of a student’s enrollment status, to identify NTSs, closely monitor
their progress, and provide support as needed (Pfleiler-Wunder, 2019). This type of targeted
effort may not directly improve NTSs’ chance of obtaining a degree, but such an effort could
engage NTSs and motivate them to keep coming back to campus, which may eventually
facilitate graduation since persistence increases graduation (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005).
Organizational Factors Influencing Nontraditional Students’ Sense of Belonging
The largely impersonal nature of the traditional college environment threatens to alienate
NTSs at various points throughout their academic experience (Taylor et al., 2019). What often
causes many NTSs to consider leaving college are two negative considerations related to a sense
of outsiderness or a lack of belonging (Lanford, 2019). For the purpose of this study, belonging
is the feeling of security and support when there is a sense of acceptance and inclusion for a
member of a group (Taylor et al., 2019). Unclear instructions and/or requests from faculty can
create a crisis of confidence in students who are already uncomfortable with academic
expectations or unsure about their academic trajectories. For example, Newson et al. (2011)
described a 40-year-old student’s feeling of inadequacy and her attempts to avoid looking “silly”
as she tried to fit in a traditional college environment. For NTSs who value their self-esteem,
self-image, and public image, yet lack self-confidence, classroom activities and tutorials can be
threatening and produce strong negative emotions (Perrin et al., 2014).
The use of the traditional/nontraditional binary when referring to students in the context
of higher education is firmly established and enforced, and it inherently limits the ways in which

36
nontraditional students are treated and supported within the higher education context (Lanford,
2019; Lumsden et al., 2010; Perrin et al., 2014). There are conceptualizations of judgmental bias
that privileges the traditional student and consequently overvalues the traditional 4-year
residential degree granting institution (Perrin et al., 2014). Lumsden et al. (2010) asserted that
NTS success relies on shifting understanding about how NTSs may successfully transition back
into college. Lumsden et al. (2010) suggested that to positively impact a sense of belonging,
resources need to focus on the transition process. Waller’s (2006) research adds to this need for
resources. Waller found that many mature students often have their own social networks away
from their studies, but they feel a sense of social isolation while at university due to the age
difference between themselves and the rest of the student body. Also related to resources,
Marshall and Mathias (2013) found that many NTSs living at home (often with their families)
expressed some level of difficulty with the language they needed to use at university.
Higher education institutions are not impartial places, but they are spaces governed by
social norms and discourses that endeavor to position individuals in certain ways (Hook, 2016).
It can be argued that the higher education institution imposes the requirement to learn academic
English and its nuanced rules and style requirements, a dialect distinct from what students grew
up with (Paris & Alim, 2017). Academic language, subject vocabulary, and precise expression
can, in effect, be like another language for some students (Rees et al., 2014). Additionally, Rees
et al. (2014) suggest that this practice subjects’ students to public performance emotions until
their academic language skills become fairly automatic. Marshall and Mathias (2013) postulated
that in higher education institutions, credentials do not come with doing something for one’s self,
they come from doing it through a system. Consequently, for many NTSs, foundation programs

37
are particularly useful as these programs provide a pathway into a degree course for those who
lack the required levels of skills or attainment for direct entry (Milburn, 2012).
Nontraditional Students and FGCSs who overcome the odds and earn degrees and
certificates appear able to secure employment and compensation comparable to those whose
parents attended college (Nuñez ,1998; Nuñez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). What is striking is that
the grades of less prepared and lower ability students are positively affected by engagement in
educationally effective activities to a greater degree compared with higher ability students. Thus,
engagement appears to have a conditional, compensatory effect on grades. NTSs and FGCSs
who report more participation in group discussion, presentations, performances, research
projects, and group projects, and who more frequently discuss courses with other students, had a
higher probability of success (Amelink, 2005).
Best Practices for Supporting Nontraditional Student Degree Attainment
Meeting the needs of diverse student populations prompts a requirement for persistent
and continuing research that addresses the complexity of issues that impact student persistence,
retention, completion, learning, engagement, and belonging. Several studies have found that
NTSs more frequently use adaptive motives to focus on learning tasks and minimize distraction
as compared to traditional students (Johnson & Kestler, 2013; Johnson & Nussbaum, 2012;
Morris et al., 2003). Research also suggests nontraditional students may perceive the following
four experiences as having a positive effect on their degree attainment: (a) reestablishing and
maintaining academic momentum, (b) receiving institutional support, (c) relying on personal
development from delay activities, and (d) flexible course options (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000;
Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013; Schunk, 2008). The following sub-
sections describe these experiences in more detail.

38
Reestablishing and Maintaining Academic Momentum
For all students, the transition into university life is a complex one as they step away
from the known and familiar and enter a new phase of their lives (Keenan, 2012). There is strong
evidence that academic faculty supported counseling delivered within the higher education
institution setting can improve retention and graduation rates (Bloom & Sommo, 2005). In
Bettinger and Baker’s (2014) study of NTS counseling, they found that after 6 months, students
who received counseling were more likely to be enrolled than students who did not receive
counseling (Bettinger & Baker, 2014). Effects persisted for at least 1 year after the coaching had
concluded (Bettinger & Baker, 2014). The coaches also worked with students to help them
prioritize their studies, plan how to be successful, and identify and overcome barriers to students’
academic success. Moreover, Bettinger and Baker (2014) also found that assessing the NTS’s
life outside of school was a leading influencer of student persistence and completion. As a result,
coached students were 3 to 4 percentage points more likely to persist after 18 months and 24
months, representing a 15% increase in college retention among their sample (Bettinger &
Baker, 2014).
Receiving Institutional Support
To support the needs of the growing NTS population, many higher education institutions
have begun to provide counseling, academic, and career services with evening hours and online
services (Angrist et al., 2009). To improve interaction with their students, faculty members also
have adapted their individual practices and policies to meet NTSs’ needs (Jeffreys, 2007). A
caring and trusting relationship between the faculty member and student needs to be foundational
in any educational environment (Lake et al., 2014). Studies suggest faculty who show that they
genuinely care and make it a point to develop meaningful relationships with their students

39
irrespective of the environment in which instruction is being delivered, tend to have a positive
influence on their students and ultimately on their educational growth (Calabrese et al., 2005;
Hawk & Lyons 2008).
Personal Development from Delay Activities
The more prepared higher education institutions can be at assisting students who delayed
their enrollment, higher the rates of completion and degree attainment can be achieved (Jepson &
Tobolowsky, 2020). Institutions have begun to provide professional development programs to
improve use of technological resources for course instruction (Jepson & Tobolowsky, 2020). The
majority of accredited higher education institutions adhere to the Council for Adults and
Experiential Learning (2022), which allows academic credit to be rewarded for work and life
experience only if the student demonstrates they have acquired practical and theoretical skills
and knowledge from said experience. This requirement may present a barrier for many NTSs
seeking academic credit for work experience. However, students who choose to explore this
option have found it beneficial regardless of the outcome as it highlights and brings attention to
their unique life experiences (Jepson & Tobolowsky, 2020).
Flexible Course Options
Providing students with flexible course options may increase retention rates and full-time
enrollment, while shrinking the time to degree completion. Despite the need for more flexibility
in modes of course instruction and academic support, faculty members may be hesitant to move
away from the traditional model of course scheduling and delivery (Hurst, 2015). The traditional
scheduling model of morning and afternoon courses that meet two to three times per week over
the course of 16 weeks typically does not necessarily align with the needs of a NTS lifestyle

40
(Taylor et al., 2019). Online, weekend, evening, accelerated, and hybrid courses allow NTSs to
fit their academic career into their already packed schedules (Taylor et al., 2019).
Flexibly adapting to connect with and support NTSs has been noted as an evolving
practice by faculty members (Mattanah et al., 2010). While students anticipated a college-level
workload, the rigor of college-level work presents a more difficult adjustment. In particular,
students have trouble adjusting to college lectures; college professors used lecturing as a
pedagogical approach far more often than their high school teachers (Marginson, 2016).
Marginson (2016), found about half of the students interviewed stated that they struggled in large
lecture classes and several struggled with taking high-stakes midterms and finals. Faculty and
administrators must continue to recognize that students are individuals who have diverse learning
styles and backgrounds.
Conceptual Framework
Summary
Feeling a sense of fit and belonging at the institution is important because being validated
by faculty, staff, and peers helps students believe they can succeed (Hernandez, 2000; Suarez,
2003). The primary purpose of every educator must be to enhance and practice an act of caring
(Noddings, 2010). The current trends in social, economic, and cultural diversity in our
classrooms and schools make it imperative that now, even more than before, educators need to
display the humanistic side of teaching to affect learning. Excellent professors encourage and
stimulate their students to dream and learn and help them find ways for those dreams to come
true. While academic knowledge and skills are important, students also need to feel respected,
understood, appreciated, and cared for to promote growth and learning (Noddings, 2002).
Institutional and pedagogical inclusivity are synonyms for success. Institutional environments
that are perceived by students to be inclusive and affirming, and where expectations for

41
performance are communicated and set at reasonably high levels are important to student
learning (Kuh, 2001; Kuh et al., 1991; Kuh et al., 2005; Pascarella, 2001). The research
underscores the power of caring relationships in education and the influence of students’ feelings
on their ability to learn (Noddings, 1984, 1992, 2005, 2010).
The United States higher education institutions sector has faced various operating
challenges for some time, such as rising costs, shifts in demand preferences, intense competition
over students, flat enrollments, and increasing tuition discounting (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005).
Prior to the 2008 Great Recession, the higher education sector had experienced strong periods of
enrollment growth and institution openings as it expanded capacity to meet the demand of a
budding student population. However, emergence from the Great Recession stagnated enrollment
growth and institutional competition for students increased. Institutions offered a broader set of
programs and student services to increase enrollment (and with these efforts, academic and
operational costs). To compensate, institutions raised the cost of education on a per-student basis.
However, tuition increases did little to solve the substantial financial challenges beleaguering
public and private institutions (Bettinger & Baker, 2014). The COVID-19 pandemic only
intensified these pressures and increased the visibility of the challenges facing higher education
institutions. The unprecedented level of uncertainty and volatility introduced by COVID-19 in an
already fragile situation threatens to erode the very mission of higher education, which is to
provide access to quality education to its people, regardless of age, income level, race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status or gender. This study aimed to investigate a key lever for delivering on that
mission—uncovering the barriers to faculty understanding and support of NTSs. The next
chapter describes the methods that were used in this study.

42
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in
private on-campus undergraduate programs need and what faculty are doing to support NTSs
based on this perception, and what support faculty recommend to support NTSs. This chapter
describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study, including a restatement of
the research questions, overview of the design, description of the research setting, and
acknowledgment of my positionality and background as the researcher. Procedures related to
recruiting and enrolling participants, instrumentation, data collection and analysis, and assuring
the study’s credibility and trustworthiness are outlined. Finally, the ethical considerations of this
study are explained.
Research Questions
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. What do faculty perceive as the needs of non-traditional students?
2. In what ways do faculty try to meet the needs of non-traditional students?
3. What support does faculty need from their institutions to meet the needs of non-
traditional students?
The Researcher
I am a food and beverage, hospitality, higher education, and leadership executive. I also
am an educator and strive to serve, influence, and inspire individuals and groups at all levels. I
am a White, able-bodied, middle-class, middle-aged straight male, who also identifies as an
athlete and as a Christian, German-American United States Marine, and University of Southern
California Trojan. I have never thought that any of those identities were limiting, and I still do
not. However, looking at who I am through the lenses of my life experiences, upbringing, and

43
circumstances—particularly after absorbing and discussing the first 3 weeks of class readings in
the doctoral program in which I am now enrolled—I have some causes for concerns. For
example, during earlier coursework wherein I read and coded interviews for the first time, I often
caught myself relating with the interviewee and some of their answers. I was then reminded that
coding highlights the constructivist dimension of research and, thus, is as much about enacting as
it is about discovering. I learned to reread each transcript from multiple perspectives and through
different lenses in order to uncover the participants’ intended meanings. Saldana (2009)
postulated that during the act of coding a researcher must wear an analytic lens, and that how the
researcher perceives and interprets the data depends on what type of filter (positionality) covers
that lens. A key practice I engaged in during the coding process was self-consciousness and self-
reflexivity with respect to my own positionality so that I could remain aware of the lenses I see
through and how those lenses affect my approach and findings. As part of this process, I paid
particular attention to my multiple positions acknowledging there may be both advantages and
disadvantages that may have sweeping implications for the process of data gathering and
interpretation.
Overview of Design
Qualitative research relies on inductive reasoning to analyze and interpret the data
collected (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). In doing so, a comprehensive account of the topic being
investigated is created. Qualitative designs afford certain benefits, including flexibility, depth
and breadth of inquiry, yielding a rich and authentic description of the human experience
(Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Creswell & Creswell, 2017). At the same time, it is not without
limits, as substantial time is needed for data collection and analysis. Also inherent in qualitative
research is the inability to quantify the phenomena investigated or to determine causality.

44
Furthermore, sample sizes tend to be small, which makes validation and generalizability of the
findings problematic (although credibility and trustworthiness of the data are endeavored).
A qualitative study is appropriate when the goal of research is to explain a phenomenon
by relying on the perception of a person’s lived experiences in a given situation and when limited
extant research is available on the topic (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The needs of NTSs and
best practices regarding meeting the needs of NTSs are well established in the literature. As the
present study aimed to examine faculty members’ perceptions of the barriers to meeting NTS
needs and past literature was not found specific this perspective, a qualitative approach was
considered appropriate.
Multiple informants were recruited through purposive sampling to participate in the
study. Specifically, the participants underwent a one-on-one interview that yielded in-depth
descriptions of the phenomena of the instructional approach and support needs of NTSs at two
different private four-year undergraduate institutions. Table 2 describes how the two data sources
of faculty interviews helped satisfy the research questions defined for this study.

Table 2
Data Sources
Research questions Faculty interview
RQ1: What do faculty perceive as the needs of non-traditional students? X
RQ2: In what ways do faculty try to meet the needs of non-traditional
students?
X
RQ3: What support does faculty need from their institutions to meet the
needs of non-traditional students?
X

45
Research Setting
Participants for this study were drawn from two elite, private, United States four-year R1:
Doctorial Universities —one located on the east coast (University A) and one located on the west
coast (University B) of the United States. From each of these settings, a sample of six faculty
members was sought. Table 3 presents a profile of the total faculty and student populations at
these institutions. These institutions were considered appropriate for this study because they
enroll a large student body, are private institutions, and more than half of the student body at
each site is comprised of NTSs. Therefore, the faculty recruited likely had sufficient experience
teaching traditional and nontraditional students, which meant they were able to provide current
and relevant data.

Table 3
Research Setting Faculty and Student Populations
Segment University A University B
Student population

Undergraduate
14,479 19,500
Graduate and professional
6,843 26,500
Estimated nontraditional students
11,004 14,820
All university total
21,322 46,000
Faculty population

Full-time
1,743 4,706
Staff
3,554 16,614

Note. Data from 2020–2021 academic year according to the profiles of the two universities;
Estimate of nontraditional student population at each institution calculated based on estimates
that 76% of all undergraduates in 2019–2020 year had at least one nontraditional characteristic
(Brock, 2010; Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005).

46
Sampling Method
Data were gathered for this study through a one-on-one semi-structured interview with
each faculty member recruited for the study. In total, 12 interviews were desired. Semi-structured
interviewing is widely used in qualitative research (Qu & Dumay, 2011; Rowley, 2012) and has
been noted as a practical and efficient means for collecting data (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015).
Interviewing allows ample flexibility in determining question order, speed, and style of
administration, making it useful for surfacing holistic (Creswell & Creswell, 2017), richly
detailed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), important, and “often hidden facets of human and
organizational behavior” (Qu & Dumay, 2011, p. 246). The conversational nature of
interviewing may further explain the power of the method for eliciting participants’ experiences,
feelings, and opinions in their own words (Qu & Dumay, 2011), consistent with core aims of
qualitative research (Patton, 2015). Moreover, interviewing is a suitable means of data collection
when situations being investigated are not readily observable (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
At the same time, interviews are subject to certain limitations that should be evaluated.
First, collecting and analyzing interview data takes substantial time as well as researcher skill if
researcher and participant biases are to be mitigated (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Qu & Dumay,
2011; Rowley, 2012). The small sample sizes endemic to interview research also introduces
concerns about the credibility and transferability of the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2017),
necessitating care when recruiting participants.
Research interviewing was considered appropriate for this study because faculty
members’ obstacles and barriers to meeting NTS needs are best known to those experiencing
them and may not be readily observable. Moreover, these factors may be experienced within the
individual as a function of the faculty member’s personal thought and decision-making

47
processes. Furthermore, the faculty may not be fully cognizant of these dynamics to the extent
that they could be surveyed. For these reasons, it is believed that the interview conversation
would be the most effective way for eliciting and examining their thoughts, feelings, and
opinions related to teaching and support NTSs on undergraduate campuses.
Participants
Twelve participants (six faculty at each university) were recruited using a purposive
sampling strategy. The following sections describe the participant procedures related to sample
size, selection criteria, sampling strategy, and selection procedures. Participant profiles are also
provided.
Sample Size
Sample size in qualitative research is, by design, small. The specific size should be
dictated by the research question, the setting, and the research design such that a breadth and
depth of data can be gathered in service of constructing a rich description of the phenomena
(Miles et al., 2019). Eventually, data saturation is reached, wherein no new information is
emerging (Charmaz, 2006; Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam &
Tisdale, 2016; Patton, 2015). Creswell and Creswell (2017) advised a sample size of 3–10, and
Brinkmann and Kvale (2015) advised a sample of 5–25 depending upon the study design and
aims; however, the eventual sample size is best determined as the study proceeds and saturation
is attained (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). In this study, a sample of 12 participants was elected: six
faculty from each of the two research sites.
Selection Criteria
Participants in this study were required to satisfy four selection criteria at the time of data
collection: (a) they were currently employed as full-time faculty in the College of Arts and

48
Sciences at their respective institution, (b) they carried a course load at least nine semester credit
hours, (c) they had at least 2 years of full-time teaching experience, and (d) they had taught at
least two semesters of at least nine semester credit hours each in person and on campus. At both
institutions, undergraduate courses have been taught on campus since the Fall 2021 semester.
These criteria were designed to increase the likelihood that each participant has sufficient
experience teaching a variety of students on campus to be able to reflect on their experiences and
answer the interview questions.
Sampling Strategy
Qualitative studies rely on purposive sampling strategies, wherein participants are
identified, screened, and recruited in ways that promote data quality (Miles et al., 2019). This
approach assures that the participants selected can offer rich information and true-to-life
descriptions that enhance study generalizability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The specific
strategies used for this study included convenience, criterion, and snowball approaches (Miles et
al., 2019). Convenience sampling involves using the researcher’s personal and professional
networks to identify participants. To this end, I chose to conduct the research at schools with
which I have an existing or former relationship as a student. The convenience is limited to my
choice of the two institutions and is related to my professional contacts with the Deans of the
College of Arts and Science at these two institutions.
I did not employ a convenience sample in identifying specific participants for recruitment
based upon my prior personal or professional relationship with individual faculty members, and
participants were chosen based upon the established criteria identified above. Criterion sampling
involves assuring that participants possess needed characteristics. To enact this strategy, the

49
study invitations (see Appendix A) listed the selection criteria, and volunteers were screened for
these criteria by telephone upon first contact with me prior to conducting interviews.
Snowball sampling involves asking qualifying participants to suggest additional
participants. This strategy was enacted by asking participants to forward the study invitation (see
Appendix A) to anyone they think might qualify. These combined strategies assisted in reducing
the time needed to locate suitable participants, but these approaches did introduce the potential
for sampling bias (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Throughout recruitment it was critical to be aware
of confidentiality concerns, whereby any individual’s participation or nonparticipation was
known only to themselves and to me as the researcher.
Selection Procedures
Participant recruitment began by meeting by phone with the Dean of the College of Arts
and Sciences at each institution to describe the study and gain permission to recruit faculty from
the college. Meeting requests were emailed to both Deans as of the week of November 22, 2021.
A letter of permission was obtained from each study site (see Appendix B). Once permission was
obtained, names and emails for full-time faculty in the college were obtained from each dean’s
administrative assistant. Upon University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approval, the potential study candidates were emailed the study invitation (see
Appendix A). I conducted pre-coordination with the IRBs at the study sites regarding
requirements and the process for ceded IRB since I am a doctoral student at USC.
The email invitation to potential participants described the study and my role as
researcher, requested their participation, asked them to contact me to volunteer, and asked them
to forward the invitation to other faculty who may qualify and be interested in participating. A

50
follow-up email was sent to all invited potential participants within two weeks of the original
email.
Once a study candidate contacted me, I described the study, confirmed the faculty met the
selection criteria, reviewed the consent information (Appendix C) and confidentiality procedures,
addressed any concerns the candidate had, and solicited their involvement. If the candidate
agreed to participate and satisfied the selection criteria, an interview date and time was
scheduled. The information sheet for exempt research (Appendix C) was emailed to the
candidate, who was asked to review it in advance of the interview. All interview participants
were compensated with a $15 Starbucks gift card for their participation in this study. The first six
faculty at each site who met the selection criteria and completed an interview comprised the
study sample.
Instrumentation
An interview script was designed and used to collect data for this study. The type of
interview questions utilized in qualitative research is determined by the structure and purpose of
the interview. In the present research, a semi-structured interview script of open-ended questions
was used. The semi-structured script typically is structured to begin with warm-up questions that
ease participants into the conversation and build rapport between researcher and participant (Qu
& Dumay, 2011). Core questions are organized around themes of interest, as indicated in the
extant literature, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016;
Rowley, 2012). Probing and prompting questions are used to elicit rich responses as needed.
Closing questions help to diffuse any tension that has built up over the course of the interview
(Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015).

51
Rowley (2012) advised researchers to pilot the interview script before collecting the
study data to identify problems with wording, flow, or data elicitation prior to interacting with
study participants. This practice also helps promote the study’s eventual credibility and
trustworthiness, as it aids in assuring that the interview script facilitates quality data collection
(Yeong et al., 2018). I piloted the interview protocol with two college faculty who did not meet
the criteria defined for this study to assess and refine question clarity, sequencing, and timing as
recommended by Farooq and de Villiers (2017). Their responses were not incorporated with the
study data.
The faculty interview protocol (see Appendix D) contains 17 questions organized into
five categories: (a) introductory questions and demographics (three questions), (b) teaching
approach (two questions), (c) faculty assessment and recognition (three questions), and (d)
teaching traditional and nontraditional students (four questions). A final closing question
soliciting any additional information the participant would like to share. The questions were
designed to provide ample coverage of the research questions, concepts informed by the
literature to craft a conceptual framework that is not undergirded by a theoretical framework.
Procedure
The participant recruitment procedures were previously detailed in the subsection on
participant selection, and this section focuses on data collection during interviews. Following site
and participant selection (Creswell & Creswell, 2017), data collection centers on soliciting
information from the participants through the instruments suited to the research design and
purpose. For this study, data were collected using semi-structured interviews. Research
interviews have been defined as conversations (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Qu & Dumay, 2011)
guided by the interviewers, who serve as the primary research instrument (Brinkmann & Kvale,

52
2015). Achieving credible, trustworthy findings, in turn, requires skills such as sufficient
preparation (Qu & Dumay, 2011), rapport building (Farooq & de Villiers, 2017; Fontana & Frey,
2005), active listening (Rowley, 2012) evidenced by a nonjudgmental attitude while interviewees
both speak and silently reflect in response to questions (Hannabuss, 1996; Qu & Dumay, 2011)
as well as a “respect for and curiosity about what people say, and a systematic effort to really
hear and understand what people tell you” (Rubin & Rubin, 1995, p. 17). Doing this effectively
requires awareness of one’s positionality and potential biases as the researcher (Qu & Dumay,
2011).
Interview duration depends on the research questions as well as practical considerations,
such as participant availability and researcher resources, to both collect and analyze the data
(Rowley, 2012). Rowley (2012) suggested that novice researchers conduct either twelve 30-
minute interviews or six to eight 60-minute interviews, cautioning against collecting too much
data to feasibly analyze. The interview duration of this study was 60 minutes, given a sample
size of 12 study participants.
Interviews can be conducted one-on-one or in group format, using various media, such as
face-to-face conversation, video conference, teleconference, or email (in the case of structured
interviewing). Interviews can also be one-on-one or in a group format. Although in-person
interviews are considered optimal for rapport building and collection of nonverbal data (e.g.,
body language), research indicates that telephone interviews are sufficiently effective for data
collection and, further, offer distinct advantages in terms of time, costs, and convenience (Farooq
& de Villiers, 2017). Interviews for the present study were conducted one-on-one with individual
participants, recorded, and transcribed using Zoom video conference software given geographic
concerns and participants’ familiarity with the technology due to COVID-19 related shift to

53
online learning. I took supplemental notes as needed to track the conversation and capture
personal impressions that emerge during the conversation.
Data Analysis
Data for this study were obtained from the interview transcripts created by Zoom
conferencing software. The transcripts were stored in a password-protected file on my personal
computer. Any handwritten notes were stored in a locked filing cabinet in my home office. The
transcripts were examined using thematic analysis, which Braun and Clarke (2006) described as
a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns in data for the purpose of producing a
rich, detailed, and complex account of the phenomenon. The following six steps were taken:
1. Data review: complete, accurate transcripts were created by reviewing the Zoom
transcripts and incorporating any research notes. Each transcript was read multiple
times and initial coding impressions were noted.
2. Initial coding: psychologically distinct meaning units were identified and one or more
codes were assigned to each to reflect its meaning. A master code list was created
based on review of all the transcripts.
3. Secondary coding: initial codes and associated meaning units were organized into
groups of similar meaning, generally creating a hierarchy of themes and constructs.
4. Theme refinement: the coding hierarchy was reviewed and revised to reveal the
coherent themes and patterns in the data.
5. Theme definition: the nature, content, and meaning of each theme was described,
along with how the themes related to each other.
6. Report writing: the finalized analysis was reviewed and documented.

54
Thematic analysis is a powerful approach for examining qualitative data due to it include
its flexibility and relative ease of applying the method to data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Challenges of the thematic analysis include the subjectivity and variety of interpretations that are
possible. Braun and Clarke (2006) added that use of and adherence to extant literature and the
conceptual framework is helpful for deepening the range of data interpretation.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness in qualitative research refers to the general confidence achieved
concerning the researcher’s findings (Stahl & King, 2020). Trustworthiness relies on credibility,
transferability, dependability confirmability and (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Together, these
establish confirmability. Credibility refers to the degree to which study findings align with reality
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Credibility concerns affecting this study affect participant biases (e.g., hypothesis
guessing), faculty participants’ limitations regarding their self-awareness, and student
participants’ limited awareness of their faculty members’ awareness of, interest in, and efforts to
meet the needs of NTSs. Credibility was enhanced through environmental triangulation, which is
using more than one site (Stahl & King, 2020). The use of two sites in this study increased the
credibility of the study findings.
Transferability refers to the ability to apply the findings to other settings (Creswell &
Creswell, 2017). Transferability was enhanced by providing rich, thick descriptions of the
participants and methodology. This enables other researchers to better determine how and to
what extent the study’s findings may apply to their particular circumstances. I have employed
thick descriptions of the methodology for this study to support future researchers in assessing the
applicability of this study’s findings to other contexts.

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Dependability refers to the consistency and reliability of the research findings and the
degree to which research procedures are documented, allowing someone outside the research to
follow, audit, and critique the research process (Polit et al., 2006; Sandelowski, 1986; Streubert,
2007). Dependability is enhanced in this study through careful documentation of the study
methods and expert review and monitoring of the study by the doctoral committee.
Confirmability relates to the degree to which the study findings truly reflect the
participants rather than the researcher’s biases, motivations, and interests (Guba, 1981).
Confirmability is increased by showing how the results are clearly linked to the conclusions and
that the results can be repeated. In the present study, confirmability is enhanced by
acknowledging my positionality, carefully documenting the processes used to collect and analyze
data, and subjecting the study to expert review and monitoring by the doctoral committee.
Ethics
This study was reviewed, approved, and overseen by the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Consent information was reviewed with each
participant as part of recruitment before completing an interview. All participants were advised
that participation is voluntary and that they can withdraw from the study at any time without
penalty. Consequently, this study is perceived to have limited risk of coercion. Moreover, I had
no preexisting relationship with participants.
Participants’ answers were video recorded and automatically transcribed via video
conferencing software. As part of data review, I deidentified the transcripts by replacing any
personal identifiers with fake names. Data files were stored in password-protected files on the
researcher’s personal computer. Only I had access to the data in its original format, including the
individual video recorded data. My dissertation chair had access to the deidentified written

56
transcripts of the interviews to assist and approve the researcher's work. Data will be kept for 5
years and then permanently destroyed.
Summary
The purpose of this exploratory qualitative study was to examine faculty’s perception of
what NTSs enrolled in private on-campus undergraduate programs need and what faculty are
doing to support NTSs based on this perception, and what support faculty recommend to support
NTSs. This chapter described the research methods that were used to conduct the study. Twelve
faculty from two different university sites were recruited. Each participant underwent a 1-hour
videoconference interview, wherein they were asked about their instructional and support
experiences. The data were examined using thematic analysis as described by Braun and Clarke
(2006).

57
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in
private on-campus undergraduate programs need and what faculty are doing to support NTSs
based on this perception, and what support faculty recommend to support NTSs. Three research
questions were examined:
1. What do faculty perceive as the needs of non-traditional students?
2. In what ways do faculty try to meet the needs of non-traditional students?
3. What support does faculty need from their institutions to meet the needs of non-
traditional students?
This chapter describes the participants interviewed for this study and then reports the thematic
findings that emerged, organized by research question.
Participants
A total of 33 faculty were invited to participate in the study. Of the 33 potential
participants, 12 met the criteria for the study and were available to participate. Six participants
held faculty roles at Institution A and six participants held faculty roles at Institution B. All
participants are currently employed full-time at their institution, teach at least nine semester
credit hours, teach at least three undergraduate classes, have at least 2 years of full-time teaching
experience, and have taught at least two semesters of at least nine semester credit hours each in
person and on campus. All 12 participants reported the completion of a graduate or doctorate
degree. Eight of the 12 participants had pervious industry experience in their discipline. Table 4
presents the participants’ aliases along with the pseudonym assigned to their institution, and
simple background information about their teaching experience and field. Following the table, a

58
brief description of each participant is presented to contextualize their experience and
perspectives.

Table 4
Participant Demographics, Experience, and Education Descriptions
Alias Institution Years teaching
experience
Personal educational experience
(Traditional or Nontraditional)
Discipline
taught
Nadine East < 10 Traditional Journalism
Simon West < 10 Nontraditional Business
Gerald East > 10 Nontraditional Journalism
David East < 10 Traditional Economics
Richard West < 10 Traditional Language
Anne East < 20 Traditional Language
Sarah East < 10 Nontraditional Life Science
Lynn East > 10 Traditional Language
Sam West > 10 Traditional Finance
Ron West < 20 Traditional Business
Xavier West < 10 Traditional Business
Zach West < 20 Traditional Finance

59
Nadine
Nadine was a traditional student who received her undergraduate and graduate degrees
from the university she currently is a professor of practice. She found college engaging but not
overwhelming and feels she had outstanding instructors that helped shape who she is. Nadine did
not come up through academia. She was hired from industry with zero teaching experience and
had barely ever heard the word pedagogy and so we did have some. Nadine benefited from a
robust faculty development program and was assigned a mentor who was committed to her
success at University E. Nadine started instructing at University E in 2010 and became tenured in
2016. She earned her master's degree in higher education because she wanted to know more
about the students she was teaching and the challenges that they faced. Nadine reported that she
sets different goals for students based on their knowledge and experience when they join the
class, trying to elevate them over the course of them of the semester
Simon
Simon lived at home and commuted to and from campus his first year in college,
qualifying him as a nontraditional student. He moved into his fraternity house his second year
and off campus his third and fourth years. Simon completed his MBA in and is currently
working on his EdD. The last year of his MBA class he took a class from an instructor who
inspired Simon to become an instructor. In 2008 Simon was asked to develop an undergrad class
that taught business to non-business majors. Simon started his instructional career as an adjunct
faculty and has ascended to a full-time professor. He enjoys spending time outside of the
classroom with his students and tries to get as many students as he can on a personal basis.
Simon consults in the area of organization leadership on the side and plans on doing that fulltime
once he retires.

60
Gerald
Gerald attended a religious university and had intentions of becoming a sports journalist.
He started his profession his first month of college when he began an internship with a minor
league sports team. His most profound college experiences were shaped by career opportunities,
and he compromised quite a bit of his academic undergraduate experience in order to do jobs and
gain real-life experience. He worked full-time throughout college and would qualify as an NTS.
Gerald had just completed his fourth year as a professor of practice in the public relations
department at University E. From a teaching standpoint, his pedagogical perspective is to infuse
real-world experiences, latest trends, and clear concepts to help students understand how each of
these core components of teaching relate to being successful within public relations in the
industry. Gerald spent most of his career in the sports PR industry, and as a result, he developed
an elective on sports public relations and athlete advocacy. Gerald enjoys helping students create
projects of interest for sports PR and he has done a couple of collaborations with the industry in
recent years.
David
David is an economics professor of practice who is originally from Taiwan and who
studied in the United States. David was a traditional student and enjoyed his undergraduate
experience. He holds a PhD in Economics and began teaching in the United States after serving
in the Taiwanese military. According to David, he believes that if his students are not successful
in his class and even in life, he was not successful in teaching and developing them. To improve
class participation and student engagement, David reported he makes up to 20% of his grading
dependent on class participation. David teaches both introductory and upper-class classes and

61
enjoys observing students’ progression and learning and growth as they transition through the
classes that he teaches.
Richard
Richard went to a small liberal arts college. While there, he was given the opportunity to
be a teaching assistant because they did not have graduate students. He appreciated the smaller
class sizes that his college offered and most of his professors had an open-door policy where they
were around most the time. As an undergraduate, Richard really enjoyed working with his peers
and helping them. According to Richard, this led him to seek his PhD. He completed his post-
doctoral fellowship and then worked in industry. Richard then taught as an adjunct at University
E and at two other local colleges. He is a non-tenure track teaching faculty who teaches in the
fall, spring, and summer sessions. During the fall and spring semesters, Richard reported he will
have between 80–100 students per class, but in the summer, he usually has 25–35 students.
According to Richard, he believes strongly in instructing his students at a level that is
comfortable for them and making resources available so that students can do what they need to
do in a fashion that fits in their schedule and the time they have.
Anne
Anne was a traditional student who attended a small little liberal arts school where she
graduated with 400 others. After college Anne was a public-school teacher for 5 years and has
been an instructor at University E for over 20 years. Her first position at the university was a
part-time position teaching Spanish. Anne sees her instructional approach as being incredibly
communicative and very engaging and will do, on average, seven or eight or nine different
communicative activities in a class. Anne stated that she works hard to share resources with her
students during class and after class. Outside of class, she has reported that she offers office

62
hours, and she lets her students know that she is just as invested in their success as they are.
According to Anne, she makes herself available as much as possible to demonstrate she wants to
be able to help her students when they need that help.
Sarah
Sarah was raised by an educator; her mother was a high school English teacher. Through
high school Sarah did not plan on following in her mother's footsteps. Sarah her Associate
Degree in Culinary Arts. A few years later, after working in the industry, Sarah went back to
school and attended a hospitality program and earned her bachelor’s degree. As Sarah honed her
craft as a culinarian and ran her own business, she was asked if she would be interested in a
teaching assistant position at the local high school level. Sarah took the job for the health
benefits and soon discovered that being in the classroom was an incredible experience. Out of
necessity, she took a job at University E and worked in food services from 2000 to 2007. When
an opportunity to teach presented itself, Sarah took the opportunity. Sarah has been an instructor
for 15 years teaching nutrition and is currently an associate professor of practice.
Lynn
Lynn always wanted to be a middle and high school teacher for English and German, and
while she was doing that, she added a degree. She is a first-generation student; Lynn is originally
from Germany and followed her husband to the United States. While in the United States, she
earned her PhD. Lynn teaches German at University E and prefers to teach over doing research.
She began teaching German at a local liberal arts college and has been at University E for 6
years. Lynn is currently an assistant teaching professor. According to Lynn, it is important to her
to be transparent and to use teaching materials that are affordable. Lynn reported that she
prioritizes helping students learn, that it is okay to ask questions in class, that it is okay to make

63
mistakes, and that students learn from them. Lynn believes that students who work on the side,
students with children, and international students all bring notions and concepts and ideas to the
class that makes the classroom a better and more realistic place.
Sam
Sam was a traditional student who attended a large state institution, worked in industry,
and then received his master's degree when while working in the industry. Sam started his
teaching career as a part-time instructor at a local professional organization chapter. One of the
board members of the organization was a full-time faculty member at the University E. The
individual assisted Sam in gaining an adjunct professor position that eventually evolved into a
full-time professor of practice position at University E. Sam has his PhD, and in addition to
instructing at the university, he is a sought-after consultant. According to Sam, in order to
improve engagement with his students, he tries to get to know unique things about his students
and connect with them. In order to improve class discussion, Sam reported that he constantly
introduces current events to the class and asks for students to apply recent learnings to the
situations.
Ron
According to Ron, he never really liked being a student when he went to college, but he
knew he had to attend school. He was a traditional student as an undergraduate student. Ron then
worked as a marketing executive who started as a part-time adjunct professor at a state
university. He felt marketing was not being taught well in school and shared his concern with a
former professor. The following year Ron started teaching a Saturday marketing class at
California City College Eagle Rock in 1972. In 2006 Ron began teaching at University W as a
full-time assistant professor. After teaching at the university for 16 years, Ron retired in 2022 as

64
a professor emeritus, despite only being a full-time assistant professor. Ron described his 16
years of teaching as the most meaningful years of his professional years as he sincerely enjoyed
working with the students.
Xavier
Xavier went straight from high school to college as he and his parents never considered it
an option. He lived on campus 3 of the 4 years, joined a fraternity, and did “all of the things
undergrads do.” Xavier started a clothing business while attending University W. Xavier became
a hospitality industry executive and entrepreneur before he decided that he wanted to give back
to his alma mater through teaching at the business school. Initially, he had an opportunity to
share with classes as a guest lecture, which inspired him to continue to get more and more into
teaching. According to Ron, He enjoys sharing real-world experiences and current happenings in
the business world. Xavier reported that he prioritizes instructing on current and relevant
material and topics, and He stated that he appreciates the opportunity to help people on their
journey of life as it pertains to business and their success.
Zach
Zach’s undergraduate experience started at one of the military academies. Next, he
attended a large state university and studied electrical engineering. After working as an engineer
for a few years Zach went back to graduate school and started to learn business economics and
finance. The field was new and enticing to him, so he decided to obtain his PhD in economics
and finance. Zach self-reported that he is an experienced instructor and being an administrator
increased his awareness of campus resources available to students. Zach was an engineering
undergrad and attended some graduate school classes before working as an engineer. Zach
reported that he enjoys the beauty of the campus and prefers teaching over research or

65
publishing. He tries to emphasize theory, but more and more, he feels pressure to just teach skills
and practical applications.
Each participant recruited for the study took part in a one-on-one interview. The
remainder of this chapter describes the findings that emerged from these interviews. Findings are
presented as themes organized by research question.
Research Question 1: What Do Faculty Perceive As the Needs of Non-Traditional
Students?
The first research question sought to examine faculty perceptions regarding the needs of
nontraditional students. To examine this, participants were asked a series of questions about their
experiences as students and as instructors (see Appendix D). Per Braun and Clarke (2006), a
theme is determined based on a researcher judgment regarding what ideas and concepts
emerging in the research appeared significant to participants rather than by a predetermined
saturation level. Examination of the study data revealed three themes concerning NTS needs as
perceived by faculty. These themes were supported by five to eight participants each. The
following sections describe these themes in detail.
Theme 1: Faculty Perceive NTSs Have the Need to Balance School and Extracurricular
Responsibilities
Nine of the 12 participants reported they think NTSs need to balance the demands and
workload of school with responsibilities outside of school, including work, family, and other
commitments. Richard noted that NTSs are not “just college undergraduates, they're balancing
working full time, potentially have children at home, and have other responsibilities besides just
going to class.” Xavier added, “They often have some kind of outside pressures that require their

66
time and energy.” Simon further elaborated on how these outside commitments affect NTSs’
school performance:
What I have seen is nontraditional students struggle because of all of the outside
responsibilities they have. They are smart enough, but they struggle in trying to keep up
… and maybe [as a result aren’t] able to achieve their potential.
Table 5 presents key participant quotes related to participants’ perceptions of NTSs’ needs to
balance school and extracurricular activities organized by considerations participants described
as unique to NTSs.

Table 5
NTSs Needing to Balance School and Extracurricular Responsibilities Constructs
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Have many
outside
responsibilities
(n = 6)
Anne
Gerald
Nadine
Richard
Simon
Xavier
What I have seen is nontraditional students struggle based on all of the
outside responsibilities they have. They are smart enough but struggle and
they struggle in trying to keep up because they are not a traditional student.
Older people have more demands on their time and so they know how to get
things done and there's going to be a lot less drama, because they have other
things going on in their lives.
They more frequently run into some situations that the traditional students
might not run into. They often have some kind of outside pressures that
require their time and energy.

Have a family
(n = 4)

David
Richard
Sam
Sarah
They tend to have a family.
I had a student who had two kids his wife had a third kid while he was in
school.
Work full-time
(n = 2)
David
Richard
I find that for nontraditional roles they usually have a job somewhere. …
They tend to work.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

67
Theme 2: Faculty Perceive NTSs Have the Need for Efficiency and Effectiveness
The need for efficiency and effectiveness as NTSs navigate their education, for example
being more focused and needing to make the best use of their time, was cited by six of the 12
participants. The remaining six participants focused on other needs, such as needing to balance
school and extracurricular commitments (Theme 1) and the need for confidence and belonging
(Theme 3). Lynn noted that NTSs “are all very eager to learn, very reliable … the most reliable
students and work very hard.” Additionally, Richard shared that, “There’s certainly much more
of a drive and a focus from many [NTSs)] because they have to structure their time… and I’m
going to do that work right now and not put it off to a later date.” Sarah shared that she finds
NTSs exhibit a readiness to learn:
They come more ready to get it done they don't procrastinate. They are all very eager to
learn and very reliable. They are the most reliable students and work very hard. They are
more committed to leering than the typical undergrad.
Table 6 presents key participant quotes related to participants’ perceptions of NTSs’ need to
achieve efficiency and effectiveness organized by considerations participants described as unique
to NTSs. In describing NTSs as committed and hardworking (n = 4), businesslike (n = 1), and
needing to make good use of their time (n = 4), participants’ responses indicated they perceive
NTSs had a need to be effective (accomplishing their tasks) and efficient (accomplishing their
tasks with the least use of resources such as time).

68
Table 6
Needing to be Efficient and Effective Constructs
Constructs Participants Sample responses
NTSs are
committed
and
hardworking
(n = 4)
Lynn
Sam
Richard
Xavier
They are all very eager to learn very reliable. Like the most reliable students
are working very hard.
There's certainly much more of a drive and a focus from many of those
students some of them yeah have been really great students because … they
have that focus and determination.

NTSs make
good use of
time
(n = 4)
Richard
Sarah
Richard
Sam
They're much more focused, like, “Okay, I’m coming to office hours right
now because I need to get this done. I’m not going to put it off until
tomorrow.
Most of the time, I find they come more ready to get it done they don't
procrastinate.

NTSs are
businesslike
(n = 1)
Nadine Age makes a huge difference. I always found the oldest person in this class
because that's the person I wanted to work with. … They're just like very
businesslike about things and I really respect that, and so I tried to pay
attention to that also.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

Theme 3: Faculty Perceive NTSs Have the Need for Confidence and Belonging
Five out of 12 participants mentioned NTSs need to believe they can fit in and succeed.
Participants also emphasized that NTSs need to believe NTSs belong in the classroom with
traditional students. Simon shared that, “A lot of times, I see that [NTSs] feel wildly out of
place… sometimes it’s just the fact that they have an accent.” A number of participants noted
that those NTSs who experience a gap between high school and college can be rusty in certain
subjects. Richard shared that,
Many of them come in a little bit rusty on the math or they're intimidated by being in a
room of a bunch of 18-year-olds who all think they know the material… being a little bit
rusty on the content and then being thrown into a room full of 18-year-olds creates a level
of embarrassment.

69
David pointed out that generating awareness of NTSs situations would benefit NTSs:
I think that just the awareness to know that these people actually put themselves through
school and pay for themselves. Much different than 19-year-olds who are paid by their
parents, but these guys [NTSs] are paying out of their own pocket, and just that should
generate respect.
Table 7 presents key participant quotes related to their perception of NTSs’ need for confidence
and belonging organized by considerations participants described as unique to NTSs. In noting
that NTSs’ content-specific confidence is lacking because time has passed since they last learned
the material (n = 4) and that can they feel out of place (n = 2), participants indicated that they
generally believe NTSs had a need for confidence and belonging.

Table 7
Needing to Build Confidence and Belonging Constructs
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Content-specific
confidence is lacking
because time has passed
since they last learned
the material
(n = 4)
Gerald,
David,
Richard,
Ron
They are usually not as good at math because the last math class
has been years ago.
Many of them come in a little bit rusty on the math or a little bit
they're intimidated by being in a room of a bunch of 18-year-
olds who all think they know the material when they really don't
know the material.

Feel out of place (n = 2) Simon,
David
A lot of times, I see that they feel wildly out of place.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

70
Cloninger (2008) challenged faculty to put themselves in the mind and experiences of
their students as a demonstration of care. The first research question explored faculty’s
perceptions regarding the needs of nontraditional students. Faculty recognized that for many
NTSs, being a student is not their primary role. According to study participants, NTSs have the
need to balance school and extracurricular responsibilities, a need for efficiency and
effectiveness, and a need for confidence and belonging. Supporting students is a dynamic
challenge that requires faculty to tailor support services to complex individual student needs.
Research Question 2: In What Ways Do Faculty Try To Meet the Needs of Non-
Traditional Students?
The second research question explored the methods by which faculty reported they
attempt to meet the perceived needs of nontraditional students. After reviewing and coding the
transcripts, four themes regarding how faculty attempted to meet the needs of NTSs were
revealed. These themes were supported by four to 10 participants each. Per Braun and Clarke
(2006), a theme is determined based on a researcher judgment regarding what ideas and concepts
emerging in the research appeared significant to participants rather than by a predetermined
saturation level. The following sub-sections describe these themes in detail.
Theme 4: Offer Adaptable Deadlines, Support, and Class Features
Offering flexibility regarding deadlines that allow NTSs to work around their
commitments and specific life circumstances was a practice mentioned by 10 out of the 12
participants. Several faculty spoke to the reasoning behind the need for adaptability. For
example, Gerald highlighted the need for adaptability by sharing, “You can not really have
equity and inclusion with rigidity.” Nadine noted that accommodating parenting, work, and other
demands was important: “If I know that a student is a parent or something, that's going to change

71
a lot of things like due dates become a lot like deadlines become a lot different.” Xavier shared
that he perceived NTSs do not want special treatment, just understanding of their commitments:
“No one that I have ever had will flat out say I’m looking for special treatment. They may say, I
want to let you know I’ve got some commitments, things like that.”
The participants’ ideas are organized in Table 8 based on the five sub-themes, with
sample data supporting the subtheme and participants identified per subtheme. By describing
their efforts to be generally adaptable (n = 6), offering scaffolded support and customized
activities (n = 7), providing flexible deadlines (n = 5), creating flexible office hours (n = 5), and
holding flexible class meetings (n = 4), participants indicated that they made substantial efforts
to support NTSs through adaptability.

72
Table 8
Participants’ Efforts to Support Nontraditional Students Through Adaptability
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Scaffolded
support and
customized
activities
(n = 7)
Nadine,
Gerald,
David,
Anne,
Lynn,
Sam,
Xavier
It requires a concerted effort to make sure that you're including
nontraditional students—both their spoken and unspoken voices and the
things they're not willing to bring into that environment.
Discussions really motivate nontraditional students, in particular, because
they bring in so much life experience. So, they thrive in smaller discussion-
based classes ... Nontraditional students really need a real-life, more mature
lived examples.
It would be more beneficial for nontraditional students to get extra time on
exams and things like that.
Be adaptable
(non-
specific;
n = 6)
Gerald,
David,
Richard,
Sarah,
Xavier,
Zach
You can't really have equity and inclusion with rigidity.
They tend to have a family and they tend to also work, so in terms of the
time they put in, there should be some consideration in that regard.
Asynchronous material allows students to work at their own pace and
allows them to view the material as often as needed in a manner that works
for them.
Flexible
deadlines
(n = 5)
Nadine,
David,
Anne,
Lynn,
Zach
If I know that a student is a parent or something, that's going to change a lot
of things like due dates become a lot like deadlines become a lot different.
… If I know that you're working 30 hours a week somewhere else or you’re
a caregiver or whatever, then that is going to change.
I will be more understanding as things come up.
Flexible office
hours
(n = 5)
Richard,
Anne,
Lynn,
Sam,
Zach
I hold nontraditional office hours outside of the office hours I hold during
the week.
Offering some evening or weekend office hours are geared toward folks
who have different work schedules.
Flexible class
meetings
(n = 4)
David,
Anne,
Sam,
Xavier
For nontraditional students, classes should be smaller and the delivery of
the content should be more of a either case study or curriculum that poses a
challenge with some of the theory class.
I think they appreciate the different times online too, especially if they're
West Coast, if you can teach at 9 pm on the East Coast, they prefer that
because it's 6 o'clock over there.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

73
Theme 5: Incorporate Nontraditional Students’ Life Experiences in Class Learning
Nine of the 12 participants highlighted the importance and benefits of leveraging the life
experiences of NTSs in class. David suggested that recognizing and celebrating NTSs’ path and
drawing from their real-life experiences benefited all of the students in his class, “I notice for
nontraditional students that the discussions really motivate them because they bring in so much
life experience. They have so much experience and they enrich the class experience for
everybody. They bring so much lived experience.” According to Sarah, “I actually love having
nontraditional students get mixed in with a pack of traditional students, because they bring so
much to the maturity table.” Additionally, Nadine recognized the diverse benefits that
community college transfers and first-gen students bring to the classroom:
I am always really interested in the experience of transfer students from community
college to four-year universities. Because I think they share a lot of characteristics with
the both the traditional students and nontraditional students. I just think they bring
something else different to the table because their junior or community college
experience was probably way more diverse than the university where they have landed.
The participants’ ideas and sample data are organized in Table 9 based on two sub-themes:
bringing different experiences than traditional students to the classroom and these can be shared
(n = 6) and having real-life stories that reflect classroom concepts (n = 3).

74
Table 9
Incorporate Nontraditional Students’ Life Experiences in Class Learning
Constructs Participant
s
Sample responses
Bring different
experiences
than traditional
students to the
classroom and
these can be
shared (n = 6)
Nadine
Gerald
Anne
Lynn
Sam
Sarah
My colleagues who teach classes with a bigger mixed population
of the traditional and nontraditional students love those classes.
They find them incredibly rewarding both to teach and also
rewarding for the traditional students to be exposed to these
different perspectives.
I think we need to celebrate their experience
Nontraditional students just bring so much more life experience to
the table they're worth getting to know a little bit. I actually love
having nontraditional students get mixed in with a pack of
traditional students, because they bring so much to the maturity
table.

Have real-life
stories that
reflect
classroom
concepts (n =
3)
Simon
David
Richard
Their nontraditional path actually helps a lot in the lessons. For
example, the oldest of everyone else in class was about 21 or 22.
So when we talked about where you were working and what you
saw related to financial accounting and marketing, this
nontraditional student gave like real-world experiences. In that
case, he was more like a mentor that the students can go to and ask
real questions.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

Theme 6: Important for Faculty to Understand and Openly Communicate with
Nontraditional Students
Participants felt that understanding and openly communicating with NTSs contributed to
meeting the needs of NTSs. Eight out of 12 instructors described practices, such as meeting with
NTSs early in the semester, establishing shared expectations, and monitoring progress, as
practices that were beneficial for NTSs success. Nadine suggested that meeting with NTSs early
in semester to understand them, their goals, and their constraints was beneficial:
When I have had nontraditional students… I want to know what their story is so I will
ask them to come meet with me and get a sense of what their background is… I find that

75
students nontraditional students have different goals and also perhaps different
circumstances so that’s the kind of thing.
To better understand his students' proficiency of the subject, Richard reported that he conducts
an entrance survey providing an overview and questions on the material the class will cover:
Just to kind of get an idea of where students fall at the start of the semester… I ask them,
“Have you had chemistry at the high school level,” and that's where some students will
say, “Yes, but it was 2 years ago,” or “Yes, it was 6 years ago,” or something like that.
Finally, Xavier expressed that maintaining an open line of communication is key:
It is really about making sure that I create an environment that allows them to come talk
to me, whether it be an office hour, whether it be on a phone call so that they can tell me
what’s going on.
Table 10 presents the participants’ ideas and sample data organized in four sub-themes: create
open lines of communication (n = 3); gauge students’ readiness for the course (n = 3); learn their
story (n = 3); and identify their motivation, goals, and constraints (n = 2).

76
Table 10
Important for Faculty to Understand and Openly Communicate with Nontraditional Students
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Create open lines of
communication (n = 3)
Anne
Xavier
Zach
I try to have my lines of communication open at all
times, so they know they can email me or whatever they
need.
Gauge students’
readiness for the course
(n = 3)
Simon
Richard
Anne
During office hours, I talk to them about what they do
and don’t understand.
Learn their story (n = 3) Nadine
Ron
Zach
With a nontraditional student, I want to know what their
story is so I will ask them to come meet with me.
Identify their motivation,
goals, and constraints (n
= 2)
David
Nadine
I make sure to meet with them early in the semester to
understanding why they were taking the class and what
they wanted to get out of it.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

Theme 7: Build Nontraditional Students’ Confidence and School Connectedness
Nine of the 12 participants felt that building nontraditional students’ confidence and
school connectedness was an important factor that contributed to the academic success of NTSs
in their classrooms. Simon shared that:
A lot of times, I see that they [NTSs] feel wildly out of place … Create atmosphere that
allows them to feel equal to the other students: Instilling that confidence in them that they
are part of the university and not an admission error and that they belong here.
David reported that he encourages students to ask questions and provides them a safe and
respectful platform to share opinions and ideas:
Just be respectful and it's okay to disagree, but be respectful and civil and don't be a
middle schooler calling people names. This is why we should be aware, and we need to
share our ideas… I encourage people to ask questions and I try to give students time.

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Additionally, Lynn noticed disconnection and inequity begins even before enrollment; she
suggested that more needed to be done to incorporate NTSs:
We noticed that most students and parents (who do campus tours for interested students)
are White and the students are straight out of high school. Is there no funding to bring in
a more diverse body of students? It seems like incoming students who were not able to
take a tour have a disadvantage right from the start.
Table 11 outlines participants’ ideas and sample data organized in five sub-themes: create an
atmosphere that allows them to feel equal to the other students (n = 6), normalize course material
and content (n = 4), provide a safe environment for sharing diverse opinions and healthy debate
(n = 3), provide role models of successful nontraditional students (n = 3), and encourage all
students’ participation and engagement (n = 2). The participants reported using these strategies to
help build NTSs’ confidence and school connectedness.

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Table 11
Build Nontraditional Students’ Confidence and School Connectedness
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Create atmosphere that
allows them to feel equal
to the other students (n =
6)
Simon
Gerald
David
Lynn
Sam
Xavier
With a nontraditional student is again creating an atmosphere
where they feel that they are equal to everyone else.
I sense that with some of those students, they feel a bit out of
place and stigmatized. I’m a big fan of being civil and
respectful.
It takes it takes long to convince them to maybe look at the
things that connects them with the others, rather than
distancing themselves.
Normalize course
material and content (n =
4)
David
Richard
Ron
Xavier
Being a little bit rusty on the content and then being thrown
into a room full of 18-year-olds creates a level of
embarrassment of, “Okay, I don't remember all of this
because it wasn't a year or two ago, it was 5 or 6 years ago.”
There are going to be terms and things that people don't
understand. Making sure everyone has that comfort level of
if there's something that you're not understanding, you're
raising your hand and understanding that ninety plus percent
of the time you're not alone.
Provide a safe
environment for sharing
diverse opinions and
healthy debate (n = 3)
Simon
David
Richard
No matter what and if you have a very contrarian opinion, I
make it known that I will protect that opinion. I won't attack
it. I’ll will debate it, but I won't let anyone attack you for it,
and I think more systems have to be put in place so that so
that these kids feel comfortable.
Provide role models of
successful nontraditional
students (n = 3)
Simon
David
Sarah
Nontraditional students need to see more people like them,
who have succeeded or are in the process, or have figured it
out.
Having that peer-to-peer conversation with people the same
age, other nontraditional students who are similar in age and
have similar lived experience you would help because the 18
to 19-year-old will not understand.
Encourage all students’
participation and
engagement (n = 2)
Richard
Simon
Something I purposely do is I allows up to 15% of the final
grade to be participation and so I make it very clear that if
you don't participate, you are not going to get an A in this
class and I do want to hear your voice, and I do want to hear
your opinion.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

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Theme 8: Connect Nontraditional Students with Needed University Services
Connecting NTSs with university services available to help them was noted by four of the
12 participants as a practice that supported the needs of NTSs. Sarah believed that building
students’ ability to identify their needs and secure the resources to meet their needs, but not
doing it for them is important, “They don't know what to ask because they don't know what they
don't know… It's not that they don't want to make the decision, they just don't have any
experience with it.” Lynn believed incentivizing office hours or making them part of the grade
benefits NTSs, “In my experience, students don't use them unless you force them to so either I
give them an incentive, or I tell them this is part of what you have to do for this class.”
According to Zach, the students who really need support are not always the ones getting it:
This may just be anecdotal based on my small sample size, but my latest experience has
been that students that get accommodations on testing, which allows them time and a half
or double time, it is a lot of people that seem to be from pretty privileged backgrounds.
They have the awareness, quite often their parents support and are not afraid to ask.
Participants’ ideas and sample data reflected two sub-themes regarding how participants sought
to connect NTSs with needed university services: campus resources (n = 3) and office hours (n =
2; Table 12).

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Table 12

Connect Nontraditional Students with Needed University Services

Constructs Participants Sample responses
Campus
resources
(n = 3)
Lynn
Sarah
Zach

My soapbox in the classroom is that this is a very well-resourced
university: Use the resources! I can't rattle off what all those resources
are, but if somebody can't find one, I will move mountains, to help them
find it.
Office hours
(n = 2)
Lynn
Simon
I urge everyone to go to office hours.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

The second research question explored the methods in which faculty reported they
attempt to meet the perceived needs of nontraditional students. According to Salchegger (2016),
what matters most to NTSs is not what types of interventions get implemented but how educators
support students. When students believe faculty care about their learning, research suggests they
are more likely to be engaged and be academically successful (Baker & Narula, 2012). Faculty
participants in this study described adapting in several ways to meet the needs of their NTSs. A
number of these methods will be explained in Chapter 5.
Research Question 3: What Support Does Faculty Need From Their Institutions to Meet
the Needs of Non-Traditional Students?
The third research question sought to examine the support institutions provided faculty to
assist in meeting the needs of nontraditional students. To examine this, participants were asked a
series of questions about their experiences as students and as instructors (Appendix D).
Examination of the study data revealed three themes concerning institutional support of faculty.
These themes were reported by six to 11 participants each. The following sections describe these
themes in detail.

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Theme 9: Identification of and Special Support for Only Particular Nontraditional Student
Groups is Occurring
Eleven out of 12 participants identified that identification of and special support for
nontraditional students is not occurring at their institutions. Many of the participants discussed
practices at their institutions that only focused on particular categories of students. For example,
Simon noted that the only support and identification he was aware of was for first-generation
college students, “To my knowledge and I think the only when my university does is they look at
who put a big emphasis on first gen. Outside that, I’m sure there is, but it's not seen by faculty.”
David felt there was not an emphasis on all nontraditional students; the only support he is aware
of is for veterans, “For the veterans, I think there are supports. We have a center now for them.
Also, in terms of scholarship, but for the non-veterans I’m a bit vague.”
Anne also noted a focus on veterans in her institution, and she highlighted that she
believed providing faculty with training in regards to how to serve and support NTSs and their
specific situations and needs would benefit students, faculty, and the university:
I don't know I don't I honestly nontraditional students is not a population that are very
advocated for within the institution as far as I see, I think the veterans, yes…
Nontraditional students are separate like they're not even really considered, I mean you've
got the veterans thing but… we never been taught how to incorporate them or what you
know potential triggers are all of those things that potentially could be really beneficial or
harmful.
In Table 13, participants’ ideas and sample data are organized according to three sub-themes: the
university features no focus on nontraditional students (n = 6), students are mixed in the same
classroom (n = 4), and support exists only for other subgroups (n = 3).

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Table 13
Identification of and Special Support for Only Particular Nontraditional Student Groups is
Occurring
Constructs Participants Sample responses
No focus on
nontraditional students
(n = 6)
Gerald
David
Richard
Anne
Sam
Zach
I only know a nontraditional student is one because of their age, and
maybe if they have a conversation with me. That's the only way I
really know.
Nontraditional students are not a population that are very advocated
for within the institution as far as I see. They are not even really
considered.
Students are mixed in
the same classroom
(n = 4)
Nadine
Lynn
Ron
Xavier
Traditional and nontraditional students are mixed together.
Support exists only for
other subgroups
(n = 3)
Simon
David
Anne
To my knowledge, the university only puts a big emphasis on first
generation students.
There are supports for the veterans—we have a Center now for
them.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

Theme 10: Identification of and Additional Support for Nontraditional Students May be
Unethical or Impractical
Participants identified NTSs as those who are older and, for whatever reason (e.g.,
military service, medical issues, personal issues), had a gap of 1 year or more between high
school and college. Because NTSs are identified based on personal characteristics, eight of the
12 participants believed that identification of and additional support for NTSs may be unethical
or impractical even if it may be helpful.
Ron shared that in the real world, even if someone is a NTS or any other special
classification, “you’re going to have to figure it out, you have to adapt … And if there's a
problem let's talk about if something's not working for you let's find a way to make it work.” In

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contrast, Gerald felt that “Recognizing and supporting nontraditional students better may not
even be applicable right now given the university system overall. Maybe it's just my observations
of how all of our students have many other needs.” Anne suggested that the university may not
be able to distinguish NTSs because of privacy concerns. Anne does, however, feel that the
university needs to better identify in advance students needing accommodation:
I've had a few students with severe learning disabilities and that takes a little bit of time
to kind of uncover those things during the semester. I would have appreciated a little bit
more of a heads up with that because it changes the dynamic and the approach for that
student and for the whole class. You have to build in accommodations for that student to
help them thrive.
Table 14 presents participants’ ideas and sample data are organized according to four
sub-themes that reflect participants’ views that identification of and additional support for
nontraditional students may be unethical or impractical: all students have needs, so privileging
subpopulations is unethical (n = 3); privacy issues prevent their identification (n = 3); delivering
extra support precludes students from finding their own way (n = 1); and students are already
being supported to the extent possible (n = 1).

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Table 14
Identification of and Additional Support for Nontraditional Students May be Unethical or
Impractical
Constructs Participants Sample responses
All students have needs;
privileging
subpopulations is
unethical (n = 3)
Nadine
Gerald
Zach
I struggle with providing specific accommodations for a student
without making a general accommodation for all students. Why
accommodate only the student who makes their need known?
Privacy issues prevent
their identification
(n = 3)
Richard
Anne
Lynn
I don't think the university distinguishes nontraditional students,
and I don't think they can because of privacy.
Delivering extra support
precludes students from
finding their own way
(n = 1)
Ron My students would come in with their little note that they have
whatever learning disability and they get 50% more time to take a
test. I say, “Great, you don't have that problem because we're not
giving any tests.” The reality is that once you get in the real world,
you better learn how to cope.
Students are already
being supported to the
extent possible
(n = 1)
Sam For the most part, the university does a pretty good job of
supporting nontraditional students. Could we do more? Absolutely.
It's just a question of resources and time.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

Theme 11: Provide Professional Training for Faculty About Nontraditional Students
Providing additional training and resources to faculty to support NTSs was a
consideration that six out of the 12 participants felt their institutions could improve upon. David
shared that given the growing number of NTSs, identifying NTSs and improving awareness of
their needs:
I wish there would be a way to identify the nontraditional and know how many and what
they want. Hopefully, there'll be more awareness … I think we have more and more
nontraditional students in our classes, and we should be prepared on how to support them,
because they really contribute so much to the classroom.”

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Richard suggested offering NTSs an orientation would both help NTSs feel included and help to
identify NTSs to faculty:
It would be good to have a 1-week or 2-week refresher or a get-to-know-your-professors
event and let them know that we're there to help and understand that you might not
remembering everything that you did in high school because it was a few years ago.
With an increase in mental health issues, Nadine recognized the need to be more attuned
to and supportive of students states and needs as well as the institutional services and supports
available to instructors and students:
I think that a big challenge for faculty is learning to keep an eye on that stuff and being
much more aware of what supports are available for these students. I was talking to an
instructor last week and he was talking about retiring in 5 years or something. He said
that the job as much as so much more social work now than it was when he started his
career and there is much more that is asked of faculty to do. I am certainly more aware of
the services and supports we have for students and am more on the lookout to be able to
connect students with those resources.
In Table 15, participants’ ideas and sample data are organized according to four sub-themes
which reflected participants’ views that faculty need professional training related to supporting
NTSs: faculty need more awareness of programs to support nontraditional students (n = 5);

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teach faculty how to best support nontraditional students (n = 3); need to be able to identify, and
nontraditional students (n = 1).

Table 15
Provide Professional Training for Faculty About Nontraditional Students
Constructs Participants Sample responses
Faculty need more awareness of
programs to support nontraditional
students (n = 5)
Nadine
David
Richard
Lynn
Zach
I think that a big challenge for faculty is being much
more aware of what supports are available for these
students.
I wish I knew more about good resources. If I had more
of a toolbox to support them in differentiated and
individualized and ways that would be helpful.

Teach faculty how to best support
nontraditional students (n = 3)
Anne
Lynn
Zach
We’re never taught how to incorporate nontraditional
students.
The college has not invested in any kind of pedagogy of
care or inclusion training.

Need to be able to identify
nontraditional students
(n = 1)
David I wish there would be a way to identify the nontraditional
student.

Note. N = 12; NTSs = nontraditional students.

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A substantive body of research suggests that tailored support and adaptation for NTSs is
lacking within academic institutions. Krishnan et al. (2020) found that when universities offer
comprehensive support services for underrepresented populations those services have substantial
benefits to students’ long-term success. The third research question sought to examine the
support institutions provided faculty to assist in meeting the needs of NTSs. Study participants
reported that identification of and special support for NTSs is not occurring and may be unethical
or impractical. Faculty communicated a desire to meet the unique needs of NTSs and suggested
improvements in institutional awareness of support services and programs offered as well as
additional training for faculty as possible solutions to meet NTSs’ needs.
Summary of Results and Findings
The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in
private on-campus undergraduate programs need and what faculty are doing to support NTSs
based on this perception, and what support faculty recommend to support NTSs. To fulfill this
purpose, three research questions were examined concerning participants’ perceptions of NTS
needs, actions the faculty report taking to meet NTSs’ needs, and support the faculty need from
their institutions. To answer these questions and fulfill the research purpose, 12 faculty were
recruited from two private universities, and each interviewee underwent a one-on-one interview.
Analysis of their responses resulted in the identification of 11 themes concerning NTSs’ needs,
faculty members’ reported efforts to meet their needs, and support faculty members require in
order to meet NTSs’ needs. The next chapter provides a discussion of the results.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This chapter provides a discussion of the study findings presented in the previous chapter.
First, the key findings are reviewed and compared to concepts informed by the literature to craft
a conceptual framework that is not undergirded by a theoretical framework. that guided this
study. Based on these findings, recommendations for practice are offered. Limitations and
delimitations of the present study are then acknowledged and recommendations for future
research are outlined. The chapter closes with a conclusion.
Discussion of Findings
The previous chapter reported the thematic findings for each research question. This
section provides a discussion of these findings. The discussion for each research question
provides a summary of the data and illustrates the connections between the present study’s
findings and that found in the extant literature. The discussion is presented in order by research
question.
Research Question 1: What do Faculty Perceive as the Needs of Non-Traditional Students?
The first research question for this study examined what the faculty participants
perceived as the needs of NTSs. According to a majority of the study participants, NTSs have a
need to (a) balance school and extracurricular responsibilities, (b) achieve academic efficiency
and effectiveness due to these extracurricular responsibilities, and (c) gain a sense of confidence
and belonging within the academic environment. These findings indicate that the faculty
participants in this study perceived NTSs had a multitude of competing priorities and that those
priorities do not necessarily reflect NTSs’ commitment, desire, or ability in classes. The
perception of the participants is that NTSs’ preparation and understanding in the classroom also
is not necessarily an outcome of any lack of caring or ability. In fact, seven participants

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emphasized that they think NTSs had an increased level of focus, persistence, and maturity
compared to their traditional counterparts, which could create a source of advantage for these
students. The participants added that lack of participation or assignment completion often
reflects the significant limitations on NTSs’ availability and the time that has elapsed since their
exposure to the content. Faculty members were clear that NTSs had substantial competing
priorities and that these affected their availability but not necessarily their ability or commitment
to their education.
This study’s findings strongly align with extant literature on NTSs and adult learners. For
example, similar to Owusu-Ansah and Kyei-Blankson (2016), who emphasized NTSs’ need for
sense of community, consisting of feelings of belonging, membership recognition, and
connection to social supports and needed resources, faculty members in the present study
identified NTSs’ needs for a sense of connection. In a similar vein, Taylor et al. (2019) found
that the largely impersonal nature of the traditional college environment threatens to alienate
NTSs at various points throughout their academic experience. Other research has suggested that
the sense of outsiderness or a lack of belonging often causes many NTSs to consider leaving
college (Lanford, 2019). Participants’ identification of NTSs’ need for belonging suggests that
the faculty participants in this study had a relatively accurate understanding of NTSs in this
regard.
The implication of these competing priorities and differential levels of preparedness is
significant when comparing NTSs to traditional students. A number of study participants noted
that those NTSs who experience a gap between high school and college can be rusty in certain
subjects. Jepson and Tobolowsky (2020) found the more prepared higher education institutions
can be at assisting students who delayed their enrollment, higher the rates of completion and

90
degree attainment can be achieve. Faculty must continue to recognize that students are
individuals who have diverse learning styles and backgrounds. Krishnan et al. (2020) found that
when universities offer comprehensive support services—with the intention to provide equity for
incoming students with the greatest need—those services have substantial benefits to students’
long-term success. This section discussed the findings for Research Question 1 and compared
these to extant literature. The next section provides a discussion of the findings for Research
Question 2.
Research Question 2: In What Ways do Faculty try to Meet the Needs of Non-Traditional
Students?
Research Question 2 of the present study sought to identify the ways that faculty try to
meet the needs of non-traditional students. This study’s participants reported the following
behaviors and practices that they provided to support NTSs: offering adaptable deadlines,
support, and class features; leveraging NTSs’ life experience in class; understanding and openly
communicating with NTSs; building NTSs’ confidence and school connectedness; and
connecting NTSs with needed support. Faculty participants in this study described adapting in
several ways to meet the needs of their NTSs. For example, they described holding office hours
to meet a variety of schedules and hosting virtual and group office hours to allow students to
learn from each other and meet from any location. Faculty members additionally stressed the
importance of understanding the unique characteristics, background, and needs of each NTS so
that they could increase their level of care for students and even enrich the instructional
experience for all students by leveraging NTSs’ life and work experience. According to the
faculty participants, NTSs and traditional students both benefited from occasions when NTSs
were invited to share their experience and connect to the coursework in the classroom. The

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participants who discussed this benefit asserted that it increased NTSs’ sense of connection to
their classmates, courses, and overall school experience, and the faculty believed traditional
students benefited from the real-world perspective and relevance provided through these
dialogues.
Faculty participants also noted specific techniques they used to address NTSs’ needs.
They described drawing students into class discussions, connecting NTSs with other NTSs, and
informing NTSs of the special university services in place to help them. Notably, several
participants pointed out they did not know what resources were available to NTSs, which reveals
an opportunity to improve the support to faculty in meeting the needs of NTSs.
The findings drawn from this study strongly aligned with past research, particularly
regarding a pedagogy of care, which is a practice that requires the attention of the individual
faculty member and affords students greater levels of flexibility, accessibility, and equity.
O’Connor (2008) explained that a professor’s care is demonstrated in how they view and relate
with their students, which is consistent with participants’ reports that they seek to understand and
openly communicate with NTSs. Moreover, in leveraging NTSs’ life experience in class, faculty
members can help to create a supportive and inclusive classroom climate where faculty members
reflect on how to use the diversity present among members of the class to enhance learning
(Noddings, 1992, 2010). The finding that faculty members report seeking to build NTSs’
confidence and school connectedness is consistent with Baker and Narula’s (2012) findings that
students who believe their faculty members care about their learning tend to be more engaged
and academically successful.
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, flexibility and adaptability on the part of
universities and faculty members have only increased since past studies on adult learners and

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NTSs have been published. Extant studies on instructional approaches with NTSs further
indicated that NTSs exhibited increased graduation rates when faculty members provided
tailored support and mentoring to these students (Beland, 2014; Cloninger, 2008; Hawk &
Lyons, 2008; Jorgenson et al., 2018). It follows that these faculty behaviors should be continued
and expanded across and throughout universities in order to create more inclusive environments
and enhance the learning experience for all students.
The findings related to what faculty members report doing to meet NTS needs align with
the extant literature of this study’s conceptual framework. In this study, faculty members
displayed an understanding of the unique characteristics of NTSs, described several ways they
adapted to and attempted to meet those needs, and indicated a belief that they do have the ability
and opportunity to deliver appropriate support to these students.
Research Question 3: What Support does Faculty Need From Their Institutions to Meet
the Needs of Non-Traditional Students?
The third research question in the present study sought to uncover what support faculty
members need from their institutions to meet the needs of NTSs. The study participants reported
that identification of and special support for NTSs is not occurring and, in fact, may be unethical
or impractical. Nonetheless, the participants did identify the need for professional training for
faculty about NTSs related to their unique needs, instructional strategies appropriate for NTSs,
and support available to NTSs at their respective institutions.
A significant challenge facing faculty members’ ability to provide appropriate support to
NTSs is found in student privacy requirements such that many participants identified that they do
not believe the university legally able to identify NTSs. While explicit identification of these
students at an institutional level is not possible, faculty members still can identify students

93
needing additional support in several ways, as practiced by the participants in this study.
Examples provided by the participants included reviewing students’ records and transcripts to
draw inferences about their background, administering written in-class questionnaires for the
students to provide information about their needs and constraints, and seeking to get to know
students through informal conversations before or after class or during office hours.
A substantive body of research suggests that tailored support and adaptation for NTSs is
lacking not only due to the failure to identify these students but also due to the fundamental
assumptions upon which institutions of education are organized. Namely, student service
departments (e.g., academic advising, career services, tutoring and writing centers) often operate
weekdays during normal work hours only (Bowl, 2001; Council for Adult and Experiential
Learning, 2000; Philibert, Allen, & Elleven, 2008) and offer only in-person services (Fairchild,
2003). Although the pandemic has brought about some changes in this regard, classes are
predominantly offered during the day and faculty and administration presume that students have
few responsibilities outside of their schoolwork, which leads faculty and administrators to expect
students to prioritize coursework (Tyson, 2012). Marilia de Abreu Bengo (2020) found based her
phenomenological examination of 10 college professors that professors who teach mixed
undergraduate classrooms of NTSs and traditional students adapt by using student-centered
strategies including interactive lectures, group discussions, and debates in higher level classes.
Brown (2002) advised that novel service and support approaches are needed at the individual,
departmental, and faculty level to adequately serve NTSs.
Research suggests faculty members should increase the sense of inclusion among their
students by cultivating learning activities and practices that both reflect student diversity and
enable students to connect their unique experiences and knowledge to the coursework. Park and

94
Choi (2009) urged educators to orient themselves to their students’ unique situations so they
actively help them navigate the course, such as creating and implementing motivational
strategies, talking to students’ families (Park & Choi, 2009), maintaining positive faculty
attitudes toward NTSs (Abel, 2005; Kranzow, 2013; Tinto, 2010), and delivering a customized
orientation for NTSs that identifies the unique barriers they may face and outlines strategies
students can implement to reduce them (Brown, 2002). While these strategies could be helpful, it
may be more difficult for faculty members to get to know these students due to NTSs’ limited
time and presence on campus. These limitations underscore the need for faculty to make use of
the contact points they do have with students, especially given studies that identified faculty-
student interaction as a key leverage point for success (Beland, 2014; Calabrese et al., 2005;
Noddings, 2010).
Opportunities for improvement do remain at an institutional level. Past research
underscored a lack of support for NTSs (Bowl, 2001; Brown, 2002; Remenick, 2019) similar to
that identified by this study’s participants. Effective change and increased support for NTSs
likely needs to begin with a shift at the level of basic assumptions, wherein education is
considered within the larger framework of the large number of duties and responsibilities NTSs
tend to maintain (Tyson, 2012). Accordingly, past research has suggested student service
departments (e.g., academic advising, career services, financial aid, tutoring and writing centers)
should extend their hours to include evening and weekend hours (Bowl, 2001; Council for Adult
and Experiential Learning, 2000; Philibert, Allen, & Elleven, 2008) and also provide online
services (Fairchild, 2003). Classes also should be offered evenings and weekends, and online
courses should continue to be available.

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Specifically, several participants noted they lacked awareness of what supports exist
within the university to support these students and meet NTSs’ needs. A body of literature exists
regarding NTSs’ needs and how these might be supported (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi &
Renninger, 2006; Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013; Schunk, 2008). Additionally examining the
present study findings through a lens of a pedagogy of care and pedagogy of inclusion
underscore the idea that faculty members can make additional and significant strides in
delivering appropriate support to all students. While academic knowledge and skills are
important, students also need to feel respected, understood, appreciated, and cared for to promote
growth and learning (Noddings, 2002). The next section, recommendations for practice, describe
in more detail how these pedagogies may be better implemented.
Recommendations
Three recommendations for practice are offered based on this study’s findings. These
recommendations include establishing institution-wide pedagogies of care and inclusion,
allowing students flexibility to participate in class and complete academic work, and improving
faculty members’ awareness of the support programs that exist for students.
Recommendation 1: Establish a Pedagogy of Care and Pedagogy of Inclusion Institution-
Wide Incorporating Student Services to Support NTS Needs
This study found that nine of the 12 participants highlighted the importance and benefits
of leveraging the life experiences of NTSs in class. Instructors have a sizable impact on how
students feel and perform. Inclusive pedagogy becomes a valuable strategy for supporting the
learning of all students when it is used in an adaptable and innovative way rather than as a
simplistic, inflexible means for sorting students into levels of capability and preparation (Nind,
2005). How faculty demonstrate care and address the issue of inclusion in their daily practice

96
determines their inclusive pedagogical approach. Expressing care, communicating respect,
behaving sensitively, and remaining kind and engaged with students affect the broader learning
community (Motta & Bennett, 2018). The first recommendation of this study is to establish a
pedagogy of care and pedagogy of inclusion institution-wide that incorporates student services to
support NTS needs.
Although care is often not explicitly recognized as part of the educational process,
COVID-19 reinforced to many academics how important care and inclusivity truly is to teaching
and learning (Dhawan, 2020). The findings from this study align with the study’s conceptual
framework and the importance faculty report to place upon the outcome of student success as
they tailor instruction and support for their students. After being trained on the pedagogies of
care and inclusion, faculty must be encouraged and incentivized to apply what they learned to
show that they genuinely care and make it a point to develop meaningful relationships with their
students. While efforts to design, implement, evaluate, and refine such pedagogies are underway,
the evidence base for their contribution to inclusion is still in its infancy. For example, Gibbs et
al. (2021) documented their experience of team-teaching a 15-week masters-level gender theory
module at the London School of Economics to offer a practice-based interrogation into the
normative value of inclusion. The teaching approach included weekly lectures and highly
interactive seminars delivered to 15-student cohorts. Emphasis was deliberately placed on
student-led learning. Within this context, instructors enacted four classroom activities frequently
associated with improved classroom inclusion: setting mutually defined ground rules for how the
class operates (Center for Teaching Innovation 2019), upholding anonymity, implementing web-
based activities (Chester & Gwynne, 1998; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2011), and using practices that
encourage or require participation from all students (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999; Center for

97
Research on Learning and Teaching, 2015; Matheson & Sutcliffe, 2016). The researchers
concluded that each activity helped disrupt the classroom status quo, but their contribution to
inclusion was less clear. What can be concluded from past literature and the present study results
is that students value professors who are knowledgeable in their area of study and, further,
demonstrate care while providing encouragement and developing a trusting and respectful
connection (Garza, 2009). Additional annual and ongoing training and support for the faculty
will demonstrate and reinforce institutional support for fostering a pedagogy of care among
faculty members.
A pedagogy of care and inclusion also may be enhanced by assuring that student support
services are available to NTSs according to their needs and availability. Whitaker’s (2021) study
of five student affairs administrators at historically Black colleges or universities within the state
of North Carolina revealed that significant gaps remain relative to supporting NTS success.
Although Whitaker offered several suggestions, such as flexible schedules and online services,
social media-based support groups for NTSs, and ongoing evaluation to identify support gaps,
implementation and evaluation of these measures remains to be accomplished. Thus, the typical
student service departments present within institutions (e.g., academic advising, career services,
counseling services, financial aid offices, tutoring and writing centers) are well positioned to
help NTSs. However, these departments often operate under the assumption that most students
are seeking help on campus during regular weekday working hours (Christensen & Fielding,
2011). Accessing these resources is difficult for nontraditional students who have multiple
responsibilities, are enrolled online, commute to the campus, or are unable to get to campus
during working hours. Nine of the 12 participants noted that NTSs need to balance the demands
and workload of school with responsibilities outside of school, including work, family, and other

98
commitments. Better serving NTSs means staying open on evenings and weekends and offering
services online. The NTSs population is growing throughout higher education, but many NTSs
have far greater barriers to success than their traditional peers. One way to support the academic
success of this diverse population is through increased services. While support services are
useful, increased awareness of and access to these programs are critical to the success of NTSs.
Recommendation 2: Faculty Should Allow Flexibility for Students to Participate in Class
and Complete Academic Work
Faculty and administrators must continue to recognize that students are individuals with
diverse backgrounds and needs as it relates to their learning environment. Offering flexibility
regarding deadlines that allow NTSs to work around their commitments and specific life
circumstances was mentioned by 10 out of the 12 participants. The traditional scheduling model
of morning and afternoon courses that meet two to three times per week over the course of 16
weeks typically does not necessarily align with the needs of the NTS lifestyle (Taylor et al.,
2019). Online, weekend, evening, accelerated, and hybrid courses have been found to allow
NTSs to fit their academic career into their already packed schedules (Taylor et al., 2019).
Moreover, the mass conversion to online learning that accompanied the COVID-19 pandemic
only accelerated the adoption and acceptance of flexible instructional curriculums (Watermeyer
et al., 2021). Instructors must be trained on how to develop an intuitive approach to flexibility in
their teaching, not only in the planning stages, but also by being able to "read" the mood and
abilities of their class at a glance. Cloninger (2008) challenged instructors to put themselves in
the mind and experiences of their students as a demonstration of care.
Implied within this recommendation is that a skilled college professor is one who not
only possesses the needed academic qualification but who also has what it takes to (a) create a

99
learning environment conducive to learning, (b) motivate students to perform, and (c) encourage
students’ participation in class. Successful professors demonstrate pedagogical care, concern,
and connectedness by tailoring their teaching and learning activities to the diverse needs of
students (Motta & Bennett, 2018). Having the flexibility to adapt to various students’ needs is
key. Study participants’ focus on accommodating students’ schedules and competing priorities
imply, consistent with concepts informed by the literature to craft a conceptual framework that is
not undergirded by a theoretical framework.
Recommendation 3: Improve Faculty Awareness of the Support Programs That Already
Exist for Students
Many NTSs have responsibilities far beyond those of their traditional student
counterparts, and administrators and faculty have an obligation to acknowledge these adulthood
obligations through the development of the support services the intuition offers. Providing
additional training and resources to faculty was a consideration that six out of the 12 participants
felt their institutions could improve upon. Additionally, this study found that identification of
and special support for only particular nontraditional student groups is occurring. As awareness
of the needs of the NTS population continues to grow, college programs and services need to
evolve to support nontraditional learners. Additionally, faculty need training about NTSs,
specifically with regard to their specific situations, constraints, and needs for support.
Two prior studies have concluded that, with few exceptions, college faculty members
supported the notion of adapting their practices to meet students’ life conditions and learning
needs but struggled to understand and accommodate these variations in practice (Christensen &
Fielding, 2011; Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2005). Eleven out of 12 study participants shared that
special support for nontraditional students is either not occurring at their institutions or they are

100
not aware of any special programs designed specifically to support NTSs. A specific approach
that could help close this gap would be a quarterly email update to faculty that informs them
about available student services and what indicators to watch for to help identify students in need
of additional support. A monthly spotlight that, through the format of a 1-minute video or similar
medium, features a different service each month also may help to significantly raise faculty
awareness about the various offerings available to students.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study is delimited by its reliance on only two university sites. Moreover, participant
recruitment relied upon snowball sampling, which can result in a homogeneous sample (Creswell
& Creswell, 2017). The use of snowball sampling could explain the present study findings that
indicated that the faculty participants had a sufficient understanding of NTS needs. Few
limitations were identified in the data collected. Determining whether these faculty participants
are representative of other faculty members would require additional research beyond the scope
of this current study.
Triangulation is a limitation as the study only employed one method of data collection.
This limitation was mitigated by interviewing faculty from two locations and through a
comparison of the study findings to established literature. To enhance the transferability of the
findings, rich descriptions of the settings and participants are provided, but generalizability of
this study’s findings remains restricted beyond the two study sites. A second delimitation is
reliance on self-reported data, which is subject to a variety of biases, including hypothesis
guessing and socially desirable answering (Stahl & King, 2020). These biases may create the
impression that faculty are more attuned to NTSs than they are in practice. This delimitation was

101
reduced by assuring participants of the confidentiality of their responses and demonstration of a
patient, nonjudgment attitude during the interviews.
The shift to online learning necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic constitutes a
limitation wherein any communicative disconnects between NTSs and faculty may have been
exacerbated—not due barriers facing the faculty but due to the nature of online learning.
Challenges teaching NTSs also may have resulted from faculty members’ difficulties adapting to
teaching online rather than any limitations in their understanding of or ability to meet support
NTSs’ instructional needs. These factors had the ability to affect the trustworthiness of the
findings. This limitation was addressed by gathering rich accounts from participants and
reporting them in the study findings.
Recommendations for Future Research
Additional studies will be valuable for the purpose of building upon and expanding the
body of research related to how NTSs may be best supported on their educational journeys. Four
recommendations for additional research are outlined as a means for continuing the examination
begun in the present study. These recommendations are to examine how administrators can
support faculty members’ efforts, assess the accuracy of faculty members’ understanding of
NTSs, assess NTSs’ perceptions of support, and identify the needs of unique subpopulations of
NTSs. These suggestions are described in the following sub-sections.
Recommendation 1: Examine How Administrators Can Support Faculty Members’ Efforts
to Support Nontraditional Students
To advance this study’s findings, it is recommended that future research examine how
administrators train faculty on and provide awareness to programs and services that support
NTSs. The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in

102
private on-campus undergraduate programs need, what faculty are doing to support NTSs based
on this perception, and what support faculty need from their institutions to support NTSs. Such a
study could be qualitative in nature and utilize interviews with administrators. Several of the
faculty interviewed suggested that departmental awareness of support programs offered at the
university was inconsistent and limited to faculty members’ personal initiative to uncover
resources available to NTSs. A body of literature exists regarding NTSs’ needs and how these
might be supported (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Linnenbrink-Garcia
et al., 2013; Schunk, 2008), but administrators’ awareness and responsiveness to these needs
have not been as well examined. Conducting such a study could help illuminate where the most
powerful leverage points for change exist in assuring that higher education institutions are
meeting the needs of this important student population.
Recommendation 2: Assess the Accuracy of Faculty Members’ Understanding of
Nontraditional Students
Most of the faculty member participants in the present study appeared to have an
awareness of NTSs needs. However, it is important to note that 10 of the 12 participants reported
having followed a traditional college path and, thus, were traditional students themselves. Not
having been NTSs, it is uncertain how accurate faculty members’ perceptions of NTS needs are
in practice. Therefore, it would be helpful to examine and assess the accuracy of private college
undergraduate faculty’s awareness of factors that affect and limit NTSs college success. One-on-
one interviews consisting of open-ended questions that yield an understanding of faculty’s
academic path and why they perceive their instructional and support approaches meet the needs
of NTSs could be helpful. Moreover, a comparative study should be conducted that examines the
perspectives of faculty members who were NTSs themselves compared to faculty members who

103
were traditional students. Qualitative study is appropriate when the goal of research is to explain
a phenomenon by relying on the perception of a person’s lived experiences in a given situation
(Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Recommendation 3: Assess Nontraditional Students’ Perceptions of Support
Although this study produced valuable insights regarding faculty members’ perspectives
of the level of instruction NTSs needed and were receiving, additional research is needed to
gauge the extent to which NTSs enrolled in private on-campus undergraduate programs feel
supported and what needs remain unmet by college faculty, administrators, designated programs
and other support channels. A qualitative analysis consisting of in-person one-on-one interviews
with student participants who meet at least two or more of the NTSs characteristics is
recommended. Qualitative research relies on inductive reasoning to analyze and interpret the
data collected (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Alternately, survey methods may be used to gather
data from a larger sample of NTSs across institutions.
Recommendation 4: Identify the Needs of Unique Subpopulations of Nontraditional
Students
Study participants suggested that their university provided known services and support to
specific NTSs subsets, such as veterans, first-generation students, and underrepresented student
groups. However, additional research is needed to identify other NTS subpopulations who enroll
in private on-campus undergraduate programs and to examine what specific instructional and
support needs these populations may have. Such a study may be conducted using a qualitative
design, given the benefits of flexibility and depth and breadth of inquiry, which can yield a rich
and authentic description of the human experience (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Creswell &
Creswell, 2017). By identifying the needs of specific populations of NTSs, universities can craft

104
and provide support services that take the diverse needs of all NTSs populations into
consideration.
Conclusion
NTSs have been found to exhibit a far lower graduation rate than their traditional
counterparts (NCES, 2018), which can have adverse ripple effects throughout the workforce
given that employers seek college graduates for their positions. According to Carnevale et al.
(2018), 82% of executives and 75% of hiring managers believe a college education is very
important or essential, and 82% of college degree holders think that college was a good financial
investment. At the same time, 69% of United States companies report facing a talent shortage—
the highest in more than a decade, according to a February 2020 Manpower Group Talent
Shortage survey. Additionally, continued globalization and advances in automation produce a
growing demand for workers with higher skill and education levels in the United States.
Moreover, the population of individuals attending 4-year universities is shrinking, which could
continue to create issues for the universities and their communities.
Nontraditional students face a wide range of institutional, structural, financial, and
cultural barriers to successfully completing their undergraduate degrees. This study examined the
roles of faculty, given they may be the primary and most constant point of contact NTSs have
with their institutions. This study specifically examined faculty members’ perceptions regarding
the needs of NTSs, what they do to meet these students’ needs, and what institutional support
they need related to NTSs. Twelve faculty from two different university sites were recruited and
interviewed for the study. According to study participants, NTSs have a need to (a) balance
school and extracurricular responsibilities, (b) achieve academic efficiency and effectiveness due
to these extracurricular responsibilities, and (c) gain a sense of confidence and belonging within

105
the academic environment. To meet these needs, participants reported that they offer adaptable
deadlines, support, and class features; leverage NTSs’ life experience in class; seek to understand
and openly communicate with NTSs; build NTSs’ confidence and school connectedness; and
connect NTSs with needed support. Participants expressed the need for professional training for
faculty regarding NTSs’ unique needs, instructional strategies appropriate for NTSs, and support
available to students. While more research is needed to confirm and extend these results,
institution-wide efforts to establish pedagogies of care and inclusion are advised to create
conducive climates for NTSs and for all students.
The findings and recommendations emerging from this study are helpful for elite, private,
United States four-year R1: Doctorial Universities so they may better support NTS success
academically and professionally. The significant size of the NTS population nationwide suggests
that these adaptations are necessary and even overdue, especially given educational attainment
and persistence statistics that indicate that institutions are meeting the needs of traditional
students but not those from lower socio-economic backgrounds or other nontraditional student
groups (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Carnevale et al., 2018; Quinn, 2013). Solving the problem of
support for NTS is important to meet United States workforce demands, as universities can offer
NTSs a ladder of socioeconomic mobility, consequently uplifting the economic prosperity of
both individuals and entire nations. Institutions must continue to enact practices and policies that
welcome and support a greater diversity of students.
Increased access to higher education has resulted in multiple dimensions of diversity in
the classroom. A pedagogy of care and a pedagogy of inclusion embraces this diversity and aim
to engage all students in learning that is meaningful, relevant, and accessible. Students are more
likely to persist and thrive in university settings where:

106

• Students’ capacity to succeed is built, reinforced, and maintained throughout their
time at the institution.
• There are high-quality and frequent student-faculty interaction.
• Students can make meaningful connections with the content.
• Interactions within and outside of the classroom convey a positive learning climate.
These transformational practices must be considered so that not only NTSs needs can be
met, but so that all students’ needs can be met. Research shows the consequences of negative
climates range from students leaving an institution to students struggling to learn while trying
to fit into an institution's culture (Hausmann et al., 2007). Creating an inclusive environment
through one’s teaching can begin addressing this situation. By framing instruction through
lenses of a pedagogy of care and a pedagogy of inclusion, increasing flexibility, and
improving knowledge of and access to needed resources among faculty, NTSs may not only
have the attitude, means, and ability to return to college, but the support they need from their
faculty and institutions to persist and graduate.

107
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Appendix A: Study Invitation
Dear ________:
My name is Kristian Klinger and I am a student at the University of Southern California working
on my Doctor of Education in Organizational Change and Leadership degree. I am conducting a
research study entitled Meeting the Instructional Needs of Nontraditional Undergraduate
Students.

The purpose of this study is to examine the factors influencing how faculty meet the needs of
nontraditional students enrolled in private on-campus undergraduate programs.

The criteria to participate in this study are that:
• You are currently employed full-time at [institution name]
• You currently teach at least nine semester credit hours
• You currently teach at least three undergraduate classes
• You have at least 2 years of full-time teaching experience
• You have taught at least two semesters of at least nine semester credit hours each in
person and on campus

Your participation would involve an interview of 45–60 minutes conducted via Zoom. The
interview conversation will be video recorded.

Participation is voluntary and confidential. You would not be identified in the study and any
answers you provide would be pooled with others’ responses and reported in aggregate.

When I use an actual quote from a participant, I will indicate that it is from a participant using
pseudonyms or letters only so that no names will ever be associated with the findings.

If you have any questions about the research study or would like to participate, please call me at
315-443-9662 or email me at klingerk@syr.edu.

I sincerely thank you for your help!

Kristian K. Klinger
PhD Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

133
Appendix B: Letter of Permission
[Institutional Site and Address]

November 1, 2021

Institutional Review Board
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Pkwy
Los Angeles, CA 90089

To Institutional Review Board:

This letter is to convey that I/we have reviewed the proposed research study entitled, “Meeting
the Instructional Needs of Nontraditional Undergraduate Students” being conducted by Kristian
K. Klinger. In this study, he will recruit from my institution six full-time faculty members. Each
will undergo a 1-hour interview regarding their on-campus instructional experiences. Each
interview will be conducted outside of class time via Zoom.

I give permission for the described study to be conducted at this site. If you have any questions
regarding site permission, please contact: [contact information].

Sincerely,

[Company contact name, title, signature]

134
Appendix C: Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA

INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH

Study Title: Meeting the Instructional Needs of Nontraditional Undergraduate Students
Principal Investigator: Kristian K. Klinger
Department: Rossier School of Education

INTRODUCTION
We invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to read the
consent form. You may want to discuss it with your family, friends, or your personal doctor. If
you find any of the language difficult to understand, please ask questions. If you decide to
participate, you will be asked to sign this form. A copy of the signed form will be provided to
you for your records.

KEY INFORMATION
The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.

1. Being in this research study is voluntary–it is your choice.

2. You are being asked to take part in this study because you are a full-time faculty. The
purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in
private on-campus undergraduate programs need, what faculty are doing to support
NTSs based on this perception, and what support faculty need from their institutions to
support NTSs. Your participation in this study will last for the duration of the
interview, which is approximately one hour. Procedures will include a one-hour video-
recorded interview via Zoom where you will be asked questions about your
instructional on campus experiences.

3. There are risks from participating in this study. The most common risks are
inconvenience as the study will take away from your personal time, emotional
discomfort as you reflect on your instructional experiences, and possible breach of
confidentiality. More detailed information about the risks of this study can be found
under the “Risk and Discomfort” section.

4. You may not receive any direct benefit from taking part in this study. However, your
participation in this study may help us learn how to make the instructional
environment more supportive and conducive for nontraditional students.

5. You may decide not to participate in this research.

135
DETAILED INFORMATION

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to examine faculty’s perception of what NTSs enrolled in private
on-campus undergraduate programs need, what faculty are doing to support NTSs based on this
perception, and what support faculty need from their institutions to support NTSs. We hope to
learn what, if any, barriers exist surrounding faculty members’ ability to deliver the support and
instructional approaches needed by nontraditional undergraduate students. You are invited as a
possible participant because you are a full-time college faculty. About 12 participants will take
part in the study.

PROCEDURES

If you decide to take part, this is what will happen:

1. You will participate in an approximately one-hour interview via Zoom with the
researcher.
2. You will be asked questions about your instructional experiences.
3. The interview will be video-recorded and a written transcript of the interview will be
created.

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

Possible risks and discomforts you could experience during this study include emotional
discomfort as you reflect on your instructional experiences.

Interviews: Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can choose
to skip or stop answering any questions you don’t want to.

Breach of Confidentiality: There is a small risk that people who are not connected with this
study will learn your identity or your personal information.

136
BENEFITS

There are no direct benefits to you from taking part in this study. However, your participation in
this study may help us learn how to better support nontraditional students pursuing bachelor’s
degrees.

PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY

We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. Efforts will be
made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information, including research study and
medical records, to people who are required to review this information. We may publish the
information from this study in journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your
name.

The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) may review your
records.

Your data will be deidentified, password protected, and safely stored on the researcher’s personal
computer for 5 years, in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.
Only the researcher will have access to the data in its original format, including the video
recorded data. The researcher’s dissertation committee members will have access to the
deidentified written transcripts of the interviews for the purpose of assisting and approving the
work of the researcher.

Your information that is collected as part of this research will be used or distributed for future
research studies without your additional informed consent. Any information that identifies you
(such as your name) will be removed from your private information or samples before being
shared with others.

ALTERNATIVES

There may be alternative(s) to participating in this study. These include not participating in this
study.

PAYMENTS

You will be compensated with a $15 Starbucks gift card for your participation in this research.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

It is your choice whether to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change your mind
and leave the study at any time. Refusal to participate or stopping your participation will involve
no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.

137
If you stop being in the research, already collected data may not be removed from the study
database. You will be asked whether the investigator can continue to collect data from your
records. If you agree, this data will be handled the same as the research data. No new information
or samples will be collected about you or from you by the study team without your permission.

The study site may still, after your withdrawal, need to report any safety event that you may have
experienced due to your participation to all entities involved in the study. Your personal
information, including any identifiable information, that has already been collected up to the
time of your withdrawal will be kept and used to guarantee the integrity of the study, to
determine the safety effects, and to satisfy any legal or regulatory requirements.

CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions, concerns, complaints, or think the research has hurt you, talk to the
investigator, Kristian K. Klinger by phone at [contact information].

This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at
(323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

138
Appendix D: Faculty Interview Protocol
Thank you for meeting with me today. My name is Kristian Klinger, and I am a doctoral student
in Education at the University of Southern California. I appreciate your agreeing to participate in
the study and the time you have set aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should
take about one hour.

Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of what we will be talking about
today and answer any questions you might have about participating. This interview is part of a
study I am working on looking at how universities can support the success of nontraditional
undergraduate students. Do you have any questions about the study or the purpose of today’s
conversation?

I want to assure you that everything said here today is strictly confidential. All of the findings
will be reported in the aggregate. When I use an actual quote from a participant, I will indicate
that it is from a participant using pseudonyms or letters only so that no names will ever be
associated with the findings. I also want to assure you that none of the data I collect will be
shared with other participants or employers. Do you have any questions for me?

If you have questions about your rights while taking part in this study, or you have concerns
or suggestions and you want to talk to someone other than me about the study, you may
contact the IRB at (323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

The last couple of things that I would like to cover include the logistics of the interview process.
I will be audio and video recording our video conference call today, so that I can accurately
capture what you share. The recording helps me focus on our conversation and not on taking
notes. If at any time you wish me to stop recording, please let me know, and you may make
comments “off the record.” Your participation in all aspects of data collection is completely
voluntary. May I have your permission to record and get started?

139
Table D1
Alignment of Faculty Interview Questions with Research Questions, Extant Literature and the
Conceptual Framework
Interview question RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3
1. First, we will discuss some of your personal perspectives and values as they relate
to you as faculty. Tell me about your teaching career to date.

2. What would you say is distinctive about your teaching approach or philosophy?

X X
3. What was your undergraduate experience like?

X X
4. How do you typically approach the task of developing your class syllabus and
class outline?

X X
5. Tell me about a time, if any, when you recognized that your usual approach to
teaching needed some tweaking.

X X X
6. How do you define success for yourself in terms of your career as a faculty
member at your institution?

X
7. How does your program or institution define success as it concerns faculty
members?

X
8. What would you like to be recognized for as a faculty member?

X X
9. As faculty, what do you value most?

X X X
10. How is your performance evaluated by your institution?

X
11. In this study, I have a particular interest in discussing the needs of traditional
versus nontraditional students. Traditional undergraduate students generally are
aged 18 to 24 years old, attend college full-time immediately following high
school, and remain financially dependent on their parents. In contrast,
nontraditional, adult, or post-traditional undergraduate students generally are 25
years or older and have one or more of the following characteristics: being
independent for financial aid purposes, have one or more dependents, are single
caregivers, don’t have a traditional high school diploma, delayed college at least 1
year, attend school part-time, and/or are employed full-time.

First, please bring to mind a prototypical traditional student. What do you think
worked/works well for them in terms of support or your instructional approach?

X X

140
12. Now, please bring to mind a prototypical nontraditional student. What do you
think worked/works well for them in terms of support or instructional approach?

X X
13. What DIFFERENCES, if any, do you see between the instructional and support
needs of traditional versus nontraditional students?

X X
14. Are NSTs differentiated from traditional students at your school?

X
15. What type of support/incentives does your institution provide to you in relation to
supporting the needs of NTSs?

X
16. What, if anything, do you do differently to address NTSs’ instructional and
support needs?

X X
17. Is there anything else that I should have asked but did not ask related to your
experiences teaching NTSs?

Notes: RQ1: What do faculty perceive as the needs of non-traditional students? RQ2: In what ways do faculty members try to
meet the needs of non-traditional students?
RQ3: What support do faculty need from their institutions to meet the needs of non-traditional students?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Nontraditional students (NTSs) face a wide range of institutional, structural, financial, and cultural barriers to successfully completing their undergraduate degrees. This study examines the role of faculty, given they may be the primary and most constant point of contact NTSs have with their institutions. This study specifically examines the factors influencing faculty members’ ability to meet the needs of NTSs enrolled in private on-campus undergraduate programs. Twelve faculty from two different university sites were recruited. Each participant underwent a 1-hour videoconference interview, wherein they were asked about their instructional and support experiences. The data were examined using thematic analysis. Study participants reported they perceive NTSs have a need to (a) balance school and extracurricular responsibilities, (b) achieve academic efficiency and effectiveness due to these extracurricular responsibilities, and (c) gain a sense of confidence and belonging within the academic environment. To meet these needs, participants reported that they offer adaptable deadlines, support, and class features; leverage NTSs’ life experience in class; seek to understand and openly communicate with NTSs; build NTSs’ confidence and school connectedness; and connect NTSs with needed support. Participants expressed the need for professional training for faculty regarding NTSs’ unique needs, instructional strategies appropriate for NTSs, and support available to students. While more research is needed to confirm and extend these results, institution-wide efforts to establish pedagogies of care and inclusion are advised to create conducive climates for NTSs and for all students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Klinger, Kristian K. (author)

Core Title Meeting the needs of nontraditional undergraduate students through inclusive pedagogy

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-12

Publication Date 12/13/2022

Defense Date 11/11/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag elite private institutions,nontraditional student,NTSs,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogy of care,pedagogy of inclusion

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair), Lynch, Douglas (committee member), Macclla, Nichole (committee member)

Creator Email k2klinger@msn.com,kklinger@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112620676

Unique identifier UC112620676

Identifier etd-KlingerKri-11362.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-KlingerKri-11362

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Klinger, Kristian K.

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20221214-usctheses-batch-996 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu