University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Reflecting Asian American students in our social studies curriculum through culturally relevant pedagogy: a gap analysis

(USC Thesis Other)

Reflecting Asian American students in our social studies curriculum through culturally relevant pedagogy: a gap analysis

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Reflecting Asian American Students in Our Social Studies Curriculum Through Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy: A Gap Analysis
by
Jee Young Kim

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2022

© Copyright by Jee Young Kim 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jee Young Kim certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Larry Picus
Lisa Wan
Darline Robles, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
organizational problem of the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural
contexts of Asian American students at Yishun International School (YIS). The stakeholders that
were focused on in this analysis were YIS social studies teachers from fourth to eighth grade.
The analysis focused on the causes of this problem due to gaps in the areas of teachers'
knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. Semi-structured interviews and
document analysis were conducted using a qualitative research approach to gather the data.
Findings indicated that teachers needed more professional development and support on
addressing the various perspectives and allow for continued coaching and support. The
recommendations given were through targeted learning opportunities for teachers on how to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy into the curriculum and PLC work, along with training
on reflecting on their ways of knowing and their practice, teachers will gain the skills and
knowledge to achieve their goals. Throughout the training, there will need to be multiple
opportunities to share the value of culturally relevant pedagogy, the students’ funds of
knowledge, and the United States history of Asian American.

v
Dedication
To my husband, Kenn, I could not have achieved this without your unending love and support
throughout my doctorate journey. Your constant support and encouragement to continue and
succeed in completing this dream of mine mean the world to me. Thank you for being the best
partner I could wish for and always willing to help me with any problems or give me that push to
keep going.

To my beautiful and precious daughter, Isabelle, who brings me so much happiness, joy, and
purpose as your mother. Thank you for all the snuggles, laughter, and love you give by being
you. May you continue to know that you can always accomplish anything you put your mind to.

To my mom and dad, who have always been my biggest cheerleaders in whatever I do. Thank
you for raising me, loving me, and allowing me to choose the path I set forth on, even if it is
thousands of miles away from you. Thank you for always sacrificing yourselves for your
children and helping take care of Isabelle so I can work on my dissertation.

vi
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the support and assistance from the following people who enabled me to
finish this doctorate journey:
• Committee Chair and Committee members: Darline Robles, Larry Picus, and Lisa
Wan
• My colleagues, who gave their time and energy to participate in my research.
• Our Singapore USC cohort, which we journeyed together for these past 3 years.
• My friends who supported me to keep going: Christine, Shuna, Ying, and Yuri.
• My family who stood by me and provided me with love and support.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice ................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1
Importance of Addressing the Problem .............................................................................. 3
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 4
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 5
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 5
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 5
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals ....................................................................................... 6
Stakeholder Group .............................................................................................................. 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................. 8
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ...................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 12
History of Asian Americans in U.S Education ................................................................. 12
Asian Americans Invisibility in U.S. Curriculum ............................................................. 15
Overview of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy ..................................................................... 18
Equitable Curriculum ........................................................................................................ 22
Professional Development Through Critical Reflection ................................................... 26

viii
Culturally Responsive School Leadership ........................................................................ 27
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 28
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 42
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 43
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 43
Assessment of Performance Influences ............................................................................ 44
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ............................................................. 51
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 52
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 56
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 56
Determination of Assets and Needs .................................................................................. 58
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes .................................................................... 58
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes .................................................................... 66
Results and Findings for Organization Causes ................................................................. 75
Summary of Validated Influences .................................................................................... 83
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation ......................................................................... 86
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Influences .......................................................................................................................... 86
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................... 97
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 111
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 111
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 111
References ................................................................................................................................... 113
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 118
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter ................................................................................................. 122
Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet .................................................................... 123

ix
Appendix D: Email Requesting Permission to Obtain YIS Documents ..................................... 125
Appendix E: Evaluation Tool To Be Used Immediately Following Training ............................ 126
Appendix F: Evaluation Tool Delayed for a Period After Training ........................................... 128

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and
Stakeholder Performance Goals
7
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s
Ability to Achieve the Performance Goal
34
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s
Ability to Achieve the Performance Goal
38
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s
Ability to Achieve the Performance Goal
41
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 46
Table 6: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 48
Table 7: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 50
Table 8: Participating Stakeholders 57
Table 9: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 83
Table10: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 84
Table 11: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 84
Table 12: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 87
Table 13: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 91
Table 14: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 94
Table 15: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal
Outcomes
100
Table 16: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 102
Table 17: Required Drives to Support Critical Behaviors 103
Table 18: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 107
Table 19: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 108

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 29
Figure 2: A Model of the Gap Analysis Framework 44

Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Research has shown that Asian Americans are consistently ignored in the U.S. curriculum
with little awareness or protest from the Asian American community. The lack and
misrepresentation of Asian Americans in literature, textbooks, and state standards have been
evident. Asian Americans have long been ignored and invisible in the U.S. curriculum. When
they are represented, it is often through the lens of historical events that emphasize the view of
Asian Americans as perpetual foreigners, such as the Chinese immigrants during the California
Gold Rush or the Japanese internment camps during World War II. It is challenging to find more
examples of Asian Americans in U.S. history, and not much research is available or known to
educators.
Yishun International School (YIS) has a significant Asian American population of
students and follows a U.S. curriculum. The goal of this study is that YIS's elementary and
middle school social studies (SS) teachers implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects
our students' Asian American cultural contexts through diverse resources, inclusive U.S. history,
and an equitable SS curriculum.
Background of the Problem
According to the NYU Center for the Study of Asian American Health (2011), Asian
Americans currently comprise approximately 17.3 million people in the United States. They are
the fastest-growing major ethnic-racial group in the United States Asian Americans represent a
diverse group of more than 30 different countries of origin (López et al., 2017). There are
various languages, cultures, ethnicities, classes, immigrant statuses, and religious backgrounds
represented by Asian Americans (Teranishi, 2002). However, they are placed into one
monolithic racial group portrayed with particular traits and behaviors, leading to racism,

2
misrepresentation, and inequity, as a minority group uniquely known as the "model minority" or
perpetual foreigners. Asian Americans are positioned differently than other minority groups
through racial triangulation that supports White supremacy and anti-Blackness (Kim, 1999). This
positioning of Asian Americans as a successful minority group causes conflict and tension with
other minorities, including African Americans. Asian Americans are viewed as high achieving
educationally, from middle/upper-class backgrounds, and culturally disposed to academic
success (Chae, 2007). Even though some stereotypes given to Asian Americans may have
positive connotations compared to stereotypes given to other minorities, these stereotypes can
marginalize them, deny them the support they need, and cause further inequity (Chae, 2007).
To fill in the gaps, the organization must recognize the organization's dominant
ideologies that perpetuate the inequities in the curriculum and pedagogy. Iftikar and Museus
(2018) stated how the model minority myth that Asian Americans face perpetuates racism, anti-
Blackness, and White supremacy. Therefore, teachers must know culturally relevant pedagogy
(Ladson- Billings, 1995) and critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 2013). In addition, Asian crit
theory (An, 2016; Iftikar & Museus, 2018; Teranshi, 2002) is a framework that recognizes the
limitations of CRT when applied to Asian Americans. Asian crit theory addresses how the model
minority myth is used as a tool for racial oppression (Iftikar & Museus, 2018; An, 2016). It also
helps analyze the role of racism in Asian American experiences and understanding of Asian
Americans within U.S. education.
Through the lens of using culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995), teachers
will hopefully be motivated to create an equitable social studies curriculum in elementary and
middle school. The organization will be able to bridge the gap by having teachers critically
reflect on their ways of knowing. This critical reflection will help uncover their biases and reflect

3
on the curriculum heavily influenced by White supremacy. Despite the diversity in the
organization, the SS curriculum fails to acknowledge and include the diverse history of Asian
Americans in the United States. The invisibility of the Asian American voices and narratives is
apparent in the SS curriculum. There is a lack of resources, texts, and counternarratives in the
curriculum.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of a lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American
cultural contexts for students at YIS is essential to solve for various reasons. An (2016) stated
that the troubling invisibility of Asian Americans in U.S history curriculum and standards shows
that Asian Americans are not legitimate members of the United States and have little place in the
history of the United States. This invisibility furthers the notion of Asian Americans as perpetual
foreigners as well. Therefore, in international schools with many Asian American students and
families, it is critical to present a more inclusive and accurate history. In addition to benefiting
the Asian American students in the school, culturally relevant pedagogy will positively impact
all the other students. Through culturally relevant pedagogy that includes the counternarratives
and lived experiences of Asian Americans, the curriculum will help advance social justice by
challenging the dominant narratives that perpetuate the model minority and continue the
narrative of Asian Americans as perpetual foreigners.
There is a lack of diverse resources available to social studies teachers currently within
the curriculum. Often textbooks are a shared resource used. However, they need to be critically
examined. Takeda (2015) stated that many textbooks reproduce the model minority stereotype of
Asian Pacific Americans despite criticisms from Asian American scholars. This
misrepresentation of Asian Americans in textbooks perpetuates the model minority myth with

4
this monolithic view. Takeda (2015) found that Asian Pacific Americans are often
misrepresented and underrepresented in textbooks. Therefore, teachers must carefully examine
and provide resources to support culturally relevant pedagogy.
Organizational Context and Mission
The mission of Yishun International School (YIS) is to give students an excellent
American educational experience with a worldview. YIS is located in Asia and was founded
more than 60 years ago. It is a large non-profit international school that follows an American
curriculum. It is accredited by WASC and follows the Common Core State Standards. The
campus has an early learning center, elementary, middle, and high school. YIS has over 4,000
students, and currently, the population is 54% American and 46% from other nations. There are
close to 400 teachers that make up the faculty, with about 75% from North America. The top 10
passports of students are from the United States, India, China, South Korea, Singapore, Canada,
Japan, Australia, United Kingdom, and Hong Kong. U.S. citizens comprise the largest group,
followed by Indian citizens, Chinese passport holders, then South Korean students. The average
stay for teachers is about eight years, which is longer than usual in international schools. The
average age of teachers is 45 years old. The teaching staff is 67% female and 33% male.
Currently, 4% of the teachers hold doctorate degrees, 78% have master's degrees, and 18% hold
bachelor’s degrees. Class sizes are limited to 16 students in the early learning center and 22
students in kindergarten through twelfth grade. The YIS leadership team of the school consists of
27 members of administrators, of which 13 of them are divisional principals or deputy principals.
The rest of the leadership team is responsible for various other school-wide responsibilities.
Students pay a fee of about 38,000 Singapore dollars a year to attend.

5
Organizational Performance Status
Culturally relevant pedagogy is not supported by professional development or explicitly
addressed in the curriculum. To fulfill the mission and continue providing an excellent American
education with a worldview, it is critical to provide culturally relevant pedagogy. The American
curriculum should reflect the Asian American experiences and history within the SS curriculum.
The curriculum must reflect the cultural contexts of Asian American students. The consequence
of not addressing this problem is an inequitable curriculum that focuses on the often-one-sided
perspective on history rooted in White supremacy.
Organizational Performance Goal
YIS’s goal is that by June 2023, it will implement culturally relevant pedagogy that
reflects the cultural contexts of the Asian American students within the SS curriculum from the
fourth to eighth grade. YIS’s institutional commitment states a common guaranteed viable
curriculum through the inquiry-driven, culturally responsive, and relevant curriculum. The units
are culturally responsive, provide opportunities for inquiry, and result in application and transfer
of learning. The YIS administrators set this goal. The achievement of YIS’s goal will be
measured by the implemented SS curriculum in 2023. To meet the institutional commitment of a
culturally responsive curriculum, the implementation of a SS curriculum that is culturally
relevant pedagogy and reflects the cultural contexts of the Asian American students will meet the
broader institutional goal.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The different stakeholders at YIS are the teachers, principals, students, and parents. These
stakeholders play an essential role in the performance goal as a valuable group with influence
within our school. The stakeholders that are most involved in achieving the goal are the

6
principals. The principals are the primary stakeholders who can directly influence whether this
goal is accomplished. As the key leaders in the school, they have the power to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy as a school and would be critical in supporting the teachers achieve
this goal as well. The principals can provide facilitation, oversight, and accountability in
following through with the implementation of the goal by Fall 2023.
Another key stakeholder group is the teachers at YIS. To implement culturally relevant
pedagogy, it will be necessary that the teachers are motivated, given professional development,
and feel confident in achieving this goal by Fall 2023.
The students are another stakeholder group whose goal is to receive the culturally
relevant pedagogy by Fall 2023. The students will benefit significantly from this goal as they
will receive culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the lived experiences of Asian Americans
through U.S. history. The parents are the other stakeholders and will need to support this new
social studies curriculum to be successful. They will support this goal by Fall 2023 when the
teachers will be rolling out the culturally relevant pedagogy. This provides the principals a year
to engage the other stakeholders, including parents and teachers, to achieve their respective
goals.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
The stakeholders of YIS include teachers, principals, students, and parents.

7
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational mission
The mission of Yishun International School (YIS) is to give students an excellent American
educational experience with a worldview.
Organizational performance goal
By June 2023, YIS will implement culturally relevant pedagogy that consistently reflects
the experiences and cultural contexts of the Asian American students within the social
studies curriculum from the fourth to eighth grade.
Teachers Principals Students Parents
By Fall 2023, SS
teachers will feel
confident in
implementing
culturally relevant
pedagogy that
reflects the lived
experiences and
history of Asian
Americans.
By Fall 2022, principals
will provide
professional
development and the
resources to
implement culturally
relevant pedagogy in
SS through their
instructional
leadership of an
equitable SS
curriculum.
By June 2024,
students will
receive culturally
relevant pedagogy
in SS that reflects
their lived
experiences,
including those of
Asian American
students.
By Fall 2023,
parents will
support the SS
curriculum
reflecting Asian
American lived
experiences and
cultural
contexts.

Stakeholder Group
The stakeholders of focus for this study will be the teachers. These stakeholders play a
crucial role in achieving the organization’s mission and will be the main focus of the study. By
focusing on the motivation and knowledge of teachers needed, school leaders will be able to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy within their organization. The process used to determine
the stakeholder goal came from reflecting on the organization’s mission and the problem of

8
invisibility seen in the SS curriculum in reflecting the Asian American students through U.S.
history. The measurable level of achievement was determined by considering the school year
calendar and how much time would be needed to implement culturally relevant pedagogy within
the SS curriculum. The measures that will be used to track progress toward the goal are by
examining the new units of study that are created by SS teachers and check-in with the teachers
on their progress. The importance to the teachers in achieving this goal is that it will provide a
more equitable and diverse learning environment through culturally relevant pedagogy. The risk
of not achieving this goal is furthering the dominant narrative of White supremacy through our
SS curriculum and continuing to reinforce the invisibility of Asian Americans in U.S. history.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
organizational problem described above, the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the
cultural contexts of Asian American students. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis are all YIS
teachers. The analysis will focus on the causes of this problem due to gaps in the areas of staff
members’ knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. The analysis will begin
by generating a list of possible or assumed influences that will be examined systematically to
focus on actual or validated causes.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What is the knowledge and motivation needed in relation to teachers to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural context of Asian Americans in
the curriculum?

9
2. What organizational factors are facilitating and/or inhibiting the enactment of CRP
for Asian American students?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred
performance level within an organization, will be implemented as the conceptual framework.
The goal is that YIS elementary and middle school SS teachers would implement an equitable
and responsive SS curriculum that reflects the Asian American cultural contexts of our students
through culturally relevant pedagogy, diverse resources, and inclusive U.S. history. The
organization needs to train teachers to effectively use culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects
the cultural contexts of our Asian American students. It will be important to provide teachers
with continued professional development. Another aspect is having teachers integrate critical
reflection habits (Brookfield, 2017). If teachers are committed to this stance of permanent
inquiry (Brookfield, 2017), it will help them uncover assumptions they have about the students
and how that impacts the curriculum and pedagogy that is used in the classroom.
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with
organizational goal achievement will be generated based on personal knowledge and related
literature. Through interviews, observations, curriculum document analysis, and literature
review, I will analyze the knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers of teachers in
implementing culturally relevant pedagogy that focuses specifically on Asian American student
population. Research-based solutions will be recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive
manner.

10
Definition of Terms
• Asian American refers to an American who is of Asian descent. They represent a diverse
group of more than 30 different countries of origin (López et al., 2017).
• Culturally relevant pedagogy refers to a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually,
socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge,
skills, and attitudes (Ladson Billings, 1955).
• Model minority myth is based on stereotypes of Asian Americans being good at math,
science, and generally working very hard and doing better than other immigrant groups
(Kiang et al., 2015). Another stereotype often associated is that Asian Americans as being
quiet and polite and coming from families that value education highly. It perpetuates a
narrative that Asian Americans are perpetual foreigners and a monolithic group. This
stereotype has a detrimental effect on them (Iftikar & Museus, 2018; Kiang et al., 2015;
Museus & Kiang, 2009).
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about how teachers can utilize
culturally relevant pedagogy in the social studies curriculum that will reflect the backgrounds of
the Asian American students at YIS. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well
as the initial concepts of gap analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of the
current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of the history of Asian Americans,
model minority myth, critical race theory, Asian crit theory, and culturally relevant pedagogy
will be addressed. Chapter Three details the assumed interfering knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements as well as methodology when it comes to the choice of participants, data

11
collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter
Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as
recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.

12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The problem of a lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American
cultural contexts of students needs to be addressed at YIS, throughout the United States and at
international schools around the world. Asian American students are in schools not only within
the United States but within the international school community as well. In this chapter, I will
first review the history of Asian Americans in the United States, the education system, their
invisibility in the U.S. curriculum, and then an overview of culturally relevant pedagogy and
curriculum. I will review the role of teachers, followed by an explanation of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences lens used in this study. Next, I will turn my attention to
the teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and complete the chapter by
presenting the conceptual framework.
History of Asian Americans in U.S Education
There is a long history of exclusionary immigration laws and discrimination against
Asians in the United States. Asian Americans have fought against discrimination due to their
race throughout U.S. history. Various cases of Asians not being allowed to attend all-White
schools due to segregation.
Immigration of Asians to the United States
Goodwin (2010) stated that the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act barred people of Chinese
descent into the United States. Soon afterward, acts and laws denied Asians citizenship, land
ownership, and education. These immigration laws continued to disempower Asian Americans in
society socially. This socio-historical-political context that Asian American immigrants were put
under as others and immigrants has affected the narrative they were given in the United States
(Goodwin, 2010).

13
Asians and Pacific Islanders are the fastest-growing racial group in the United States
today (Goodwin, 2010). The demographics of Asian Americans immigrating to the United States
are diverse in language, culture, and religion. The Asian American immigration experiences are
becoming more ethnically and nationally diverse. The abolishment of the 1965 Immigration Act
has significantly helped increase migration rates (Goodwin, 2010). Another result is an increase
in the diversity of Asians, and many Anti-Asian exclusion laws have been repealed throughout
history.
Hinnershitz (2020) recognized that Asian Americans fought against race-based
discrimination in schools throughout history. One of the critical stories of this race-based
discrimination was in 1884 with Mary and Joseph Tape, Chinese immigrants in San Francisco
(Hinnershitz, 2020). They sued the San Francisco Board of Education and the principal of Spring
Valley Primary School after their daughter, Mamie, was not allowed admission because she was
Chinese even though she was born in the United States Initially, the Superior Court ruled in
favor of the Tapes, but when the case was brought to the Supreme Court, the decision upheld the
lower court's decision. However, the School Board pushed for state-wide school segregation
legislation, and Mamie could not attend the school (Hinnershitz, 2020).
During Jim Crow segregation in the south, Chinese Americans were caught in this black-
white world (Hinnershitz, 2020). Another case of race-based discrimination that Hinnershitz
(2020) mentioned was a case where State law prevented Gong Lum's daughter, Martha, from
continuing to attend the White school she had been enrolled. Lum and his lawyer appealed the
decision to the U.S. Supreme court in 1927, arguing Martha was not White but ethnically
Chinese and unfit to attend the “colored” school. Parents were trying to protect their children's
identities as non-White, yet also not Black. Unfortunately, these unique experiences of Asian

14
Americans in the U.S. education system are few and lack historical resources. Not much research
is available on the history of Asian American education before 1965, when many of these race
and nation-based quotas were lifted.
Model Minority Myth
Asian Americans are labeled as a model minority which has many detrimental effects on
them (Iftikar & Museus, 2018; Kiang et al., 2015; Museus & Kiang, 2009). Asian Americans
have faced many misconceptions that led to tension with other minority groups, contributing to
anti-Blackness (Iftikar & Museus, 2018; Kim, 1999). Kiang et al. (2015) stated that the model
minority stereotype assumes that Asian students have a wide range of characteristics: intelligent,
ambitious, hard-working, talented in classical music, good at math/science, family-oriented,
quiet, and polite. These images and stereotypes of Asian Americans can damage intergroup
relations and create tension between Asian Americans and their non-Asian ethnic minority peers
(Kiang et al., 2015).
There are various misconceptions that Asian Americans face due to the model minority
myth (MMM) that multiple researchers have found. Museus and Kiang (2009) stated that a big
misconception is that Asian Americans are all the same. Racializing and oversimplifying various
groups are problematic as many ethnic subpopulations that are socioeconomically disadvantaged
are often misrepresented. Another misconception Asian Americans face is that they are not racial
and ethnic minorities (Museus & Kiang, 2009). Private and public funding agencies often
exclude Asian Americans from underrepresented racial/ethnic minority groups. However, Asian
Americans do face many challenges similar to other groups of color as a minority group. Museus
and Kiang (2009) also noted a misconception is that Asian Americans do not encounter
significant challenges because of their race. Therefore, Asian Americans do not seek or require

15
resources and support, contributing to the last misconception that college degree completion is
equivalent to success (Museus & Kiang, 2009).
The MMM continues to support White supremacy and racial hierarchies. Kim (1999)
stated that the use of racial triangulation to preserve White supremacy was evident. This allowed
Asian Americans to be portrayed as middlemen, which contributed to maintaining systemic
White supremacy (Iftikar & Museus, 2018; Kim, 1999). Asian Americans were positioned
differently than other minority groups through racial triangulation that supports White
supremacy and anti-Blackness. Iftikar and Museus (2018) also stated that the MMM was used as
a tool for racial oppression. The MMM is a simple stereotype of self-sufficient, high-academic
minority achievement and a much more subtle racial device used to hold up White supremacy
and racial hierarchies (Poon et al., 2016).
Asian Americans Invisibility in U.S. Curriculum
The continued invisibility of Asian Americans in the U.S. curriculum can be explained by
critical race theory and Asian crit theory. Asian crit theory comes from CRT, which emphasizes
the causes of race experiences for Asian Americans. It is critical to see how these two significant
theories impact the perception of Asian Americans and the impact it has on their invisibility in
the curriculum.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory (CRT) addresses how the school curriculum helps maintain White
supremacy. Ladson-Billings (2013) addresses that CRT was created in the 1970s by legal
scholars to address racism and White supremacy in legal practice but has been used by education
scholars in addressing how school curriculum and education experiences help maintain white
supremacy. CRT emphasizes using counternarratives to bring a voice and fight against racism

16
and inequity (Ladson-Billings, 2013). Delgado and Stefancic (2001) stated the central tenets of
CRT are that racism is expected in U.S. society, interest convergence, race is a social
construction, intersectionality, and anti-essentialism. CRT helps address racism and White
supremacy in the United States. However, it fails to address specifically how Asian Americans
are affected by racism and White supremacy in the United States.
Asian Crit Theory
There are various limitations when CRT is applied to Asian Americans because it cannot
capture specific experiences of race and racism that shape the Asian American experiences in
U.S. education. Therefore, Asian crit theory (Asian Crit) is a branch of CRT that addresses the
complex and holistic understanding of race issues that Asian Americans face (Iftikar & Museus,
2018). According to Iftikar and Museus (2018), the Asian Crit framework is seven interrelated
tenets: Asianization, transnational contexts, (re)constructive history, strategic (anti)essentialism,
intersectionality, story, theory, and praxis, and commitment to social justice. The first four
tenets of Asian Crit extend the CRT theory to address specific race realities of Asian Americans.
The last three are taken from the CRT tenets but are specific to how White supremacy intersects
with the Asian American experience.
Asianization is grounded in the idea that because of White supremacy in the United
States, Asian Americans are a monolithic group that is perpetual foreigners, yellow peril, and a
model minority. (Re)constructive history focuses on how Asian Americans are invisible and
voiceless in the history of the United States; we need to construct history.
Another Asian Crit tenet of strategic (anti)essentialism means, which builds from CRT's
anti-essentialism, that there's no one essential experience that a group of people faces and that
race is a social construction. Through this Asian Crit of strategic (anti)essentialism, Asian

17
Americans are not a monolithic group but a pan-ethnic group that can actively intervene in
racialization. The story, theory, and praxis tenet of Asian Crit focus on the Asian American
experience and how it can counter the dominant narratives embedded in White supremacy
through counter stories that can inform theories and praxis in powerful ways. Through the last
tenet of commitment to social justice, Asian Crit is fighting for the end of racism and other
aspects of social injustice that Asian Americans face.
The common perception that Asian Americans are successful in education has even
caused them to be excluded from racial discourse on educational issues. Teranishi (2002) stated
that Asian Americans are continuously treated as a single, homogeneous racial group. However,
Asian Americans are diverse ethnic, social classes, and immigrant subgroups that face different
social and institutional experiences (Teranishi, 2002). There are ethnic groups, and certain
groups of APA communities that faced economic hardship that exceeded that of other
communities of color.
Invisibility of Asian Americans in U.S. Social Studies Standards
An's (2016) research findings showed the near-invisibility of Asian Americans and their
experience in U.S. history standards are apparent when looking at states' standards. An (2016)
used the research method to analyze K–12 social studies standards from ten states. An's (2016)
research found that Japanese American incarceration was explicitly stated in the ten-state
standards. In addition, seven out of the ten states mentioned Chinese immigration during the
Gold Rush, the transcontinental railroad, and the Chinese Exclusion Act. Also, only Chinese and
Japanese were the only Asian Americans mentioned in the reviewed standards, which was
similar to other research done looking at textbooks. The research implication was that
Asianization is reinforced, in which Asians are lumped together as a monolith (An, 2016).

18
Therefore, the research findings suggest the importance of promoting social justice and including
Asian Americans in U.S. history and social studies classes.
Another qualitative study was done by Naseem Rodriguez (2018), an instrumental case
study in an urban school district in Texas, to show how three Asian American teachers taught
Asian American history in their elementary classrooms. Her study followed three elementary
Asian American teachers that gave specific lessons on Asian American history in elementary
schools. Even though it was challenging to teach the historical narratives of Asian Americans
because they did not learn this in school, they needed to make the history and stories of Asian
Americans visible. Naseem Rodriguez (2018) emphasized that much work must be done to
improve teacher preparation by encouraging more critical approaches to teaching social studies.
Another recommendation by Naseem Rodriguez (2018) was to provide more professional
development for teaching social studies that focused on critical pedagogical content knowledge
and on marginalized perspectives that challenge the dominant narratives.
Overview of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Ladson Billings (1995) stated that culturally relevant pedagogy is needed to reach
ethnically diverse students' needs in the classroom. Students will become empowered and think
critically about the world around them. It will provide more opportunities for academic success
by valuing the students' funds of knowledge they bring to the classroom. Culturally relevant
pedagogy is a pedagogy of opposition committed to collective empowerment (Ladson Billings,
1955).
Components of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Ladson Billings (1995) research stated three criteria based on culturally relevant
pedagogy. First, students must experience academic success. Then, students must develop and

19
maintain cultural competence. Last, students must develop critical consciousness in which they
challenge the status quo. Ruday (2019) stated that culturally relevant teaching should facilitate
students' academic success. Teachers need to incorporate students’ backgrounds and cultures into
their instruction to be sure they can identify the specific academic goal these cultural aspects are
being used to achieve. The cultural component should be aligned with the academic content that
students need to master. Culturally relevant teaching should value students’ home cultures.
Teachers should look for ways their cultural backgrounds can be integrated into instruction to
help them understand academic material. Culturally relevant teaching should help students think
critically about the world around them. Teachers must train students to look carefully at the
perspectives and ideas promoted in society and school. CRT promotes culture-focused critical
thinking.
Culturally Responsive Teacher
In addition to culturally relevant pedagogy, culturally responsive teaching is another
common term with similar and aligned views. Gay (2002) uses the term culturally responsive
teachers to use the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of their diverse students
to teach more effectively and meet the needs of the students. Gay (2002) stated that culturally
responsive teaching is defined as using ethnically diverse students’ cultural characteristics,
experiences, and perspectives as means of teaching more effectively. Students’ lived experiences
and frames of reference should be considered to make more meaningful learning experiences for
the students. Students’ cultural and experiential filters should be utilized to improve the
academic performance of ethnically diverse students.
Culturally responsive teaching has many layers and dimensions beyond awareness and
respect for other ethnic groups (Gay, 2002). There is a place for cultural diversity in all the

20
subjects taught in school. Gay (2002) provides different ways teachers can integrate culturally
responsive teaching by creating curriculum designs and instructional strategies. Teachers must
also create classroom climates conducive to learning for ethnically diverse students. Effective
cross-cultural communication is also essential. Since culture is deeply embedded in any teaching,
teaching ethnically diverse students must be multicultural (Gay, 2002).
Gay (2018) provided strategies and methods for implementing culturally responsive
teaching by utilizing the strengths and affirming the different cultural backgrounds of the various
ethnic groups of your students. Culturally responsive teaching uses the strengths of ethnically
diverse students by making learning encounters more relevant and effective for them. Culturally
responsive teaching is validating and affirming because it acknowledges the legitimacy of the
cultural heritage of different ethnic groups. Gay (2018) stated that culturally responsive teaching
builds bridges of meaningfulness between home and school experiences. It uses a wide variety of
instructional strategies that are connected to different learning styles. It teaches students to know
and praise one another's cultural heritage. It incorporates multicultural information, resources,
and materials in all subjects and skills taught in schools.
Gay (2018) noted that these various approaches to culturally responsive teaching help
students of color maintain identity and connections with their ethnic groups and communities.
This integrated approach integrates culturally responsive teaching into all curriculum content in
the classroom. Culturally responsive teaching encourages communal, reciprocal, and
interdependent learning, involving teachers, counselors, administrators, and support staff (Gay,
2018). Everyone in the school community is part of culturally responsive teaching, and the
responsibility is spread throughout the school. When culturally responsive teaching is utilized, it

21
allows for educational excellence, including academic success, cultural competence, critical
social consciousness, political activism, and responsible community membership (Gay, 2018).
From Theory to Practice
Strategies and supports must be encouraged to promote culturally responsive pedagogy in
the classroom. For example, including cooperative learning and integrating students’ culture and
community in the school will be beneficial. Tanase (2020) emphasized the importance of
collaborative learning as a critical tool for CRT because cooperation and collaboration are
prominent in educating marginalized Latinxs, native Africans, and Asian Americans. It is
essential that teachers utilize cooperative learning effectively to implement equity pedagogy.
Cooperative learning should enable students to construct knowledge and imagine new
possibilities for using that knowledge for societal change. Culturally relevant teachers must use
strategies that facilitate learning for all students. In Tanase’s (2020) research, she found that the
math and science teachers attempted to learn about their students' culture and community and
integrated this knowledge into their pedagogy. These teachers were able to make progress toward
becoming more culturally responsive. Some teachers were not as successful when they had more
difficulty with classroom management. The increased diversity of today's student population
means that CRT should become a reality in schools.
Brown et al. (2019) research focused on applying culturally relevant pedagogy in science
and math. They found that instruction must represent the different cognitive and cultural nuances
(Brown et al., 2019). STEM education research has found that cultural relevance has the
potential to allow students to gain a rich understanding of STEM and its connections to their
local communities. Using a theory-to-practice framework, they had urban STEM teachers
develop a deep understanding of how the content impacts the culture of their students while also

22
understanding what pedagogical moves they must make to improve student learning (Brown et
al., 2019). The participating teachers in this research thought initially that culturally relevant
education (CRE) was seen as an ideology that lived in the field of English education and did not
have STEM applications. None of them had received training on applying CRE principles, and
there were no free online CRE training sites that could be a good resource for teachers. Teachers
quickly adopted CRE as both theory and method after the training they received through this
research (Brown et al., 2019).
Sleeter (2019) stated that culturally responsive pedagogy is often understood in limited
and simplistic ways that fail to implement effectively. One of the ways that CRP is often
misunderstood is through cultural celebrations. Teachers will understand the culture in a way that
disconnects it from academic learning (Sleeter, 2019). Also, through trivialization by reducing it
to steps rather than understanding it as a framework for teaching and learning (Sleeter, 2019).
Essentializing culture by assuming culture to be a fixed characteristic of individuals who belong
to a group is another problem (Sleeter, 2019). Lastly, leaders are substituting culture for political
analysis of inequalities by maintaining silence about the conditions of racism and other forms of
oppression that underlie achievement gaps in schools (Sleeter, 2019).
Equitable Curriculum
Through multicultural teaching in schools, an equitable curriculum can be established.
This allows for social justice and equal opportunity for all learners. Even with specific standards,
teachers can adapt the curriculum to include students’ funds of knowledge. Teachers play an
essential role as they must reflect on their epistemology and have high self-efficacy to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy.
Role of Curriculum

23

Mathews (2018) stated that there are many different definitions of curriculum. However,
defining the word curriculum without describing its key characteristics is difficult. Curriculum
happens when people engage, a complex and observable phenomenon with many dimensions
(Mathews, 2018). Therefore, an effective curriculum is what learners take away from school.
Lumadi (2020) explained how the curriculum is derived from the Latin word “currere,”
which means to run or race. Today, it can be defined as an organized set of intended learning
outcomes leading to the achievement of educational goals (Lumadi, 2020). An equitable
curriculum would provide equal opportunities for all learners. Educational inequity takes away
the values of equality of opportunity and social mobility. Equality refers to treating every learner
the same, while equity means every learner has the support they need to succeed. When equality
and equity are interwoven, the level of social justice rises. A curriculum is an ongoing process
and holds its inherent value as a human right.
Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) found that using standards-based reform to eliminate
inequality has resulted in homogenizing curriculum, despite the growing diversity of classrooms
in the United States today. Researchers have noted that there has been an emphasis on high-
stakes testing that has guided and become the curriculum (Sleeter and Flores Carmona, 2017).
Through multicultural teaching, you are valuing diverse funds of knowledge; therefore, not
everyone will learn the same thing, which is a shift in pedagogy. There is value in not having
everyone learn precisely the same thing, which is different from the high-stakes testing that
requires a rigid and guided curriculum. Multicultural teaching, which aligns with culturally
relevant pedagogy in many ways, advocates valuing and learning from a much more
comprehensive array of knowledge than that which resides in traditional bodies of school

24
knowledge. Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) stated that even teachers with specifically
defined content standards and testing could usually find spaces for adapting, modifying, or
developing an intellectually rich multicultural curriculum.
Use of Standards
Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) found that there was a solid standards-based reform
movement that many thought would lead to more student learning. Many equity-minded
educators thought that setting clear standards for all students minimizes the degree to which race
and class structure inequitable access to an academically challenging curriculum. However, after
two decades of standards-based reform, the record does not show that raising standards and
testing students improves learning (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). Researchers found that
racial achievement gaps remain when looking at average scores on the National Assessment of
Educational progress (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). Therefore, standardizing what everyone
teaches and learns should be questioned to effectively implement a multicultural curriculum and
culturally relevant pedagogy in schools.
Funds of Knowledge of Students
A considerable shift in pedagogy is that a multicultural curriculum puts students and their
communities as sources and producers of knowledge instead of receivers (Sleeter & Flores
Carmona, 2017). The banking model puts students as empty vessels in which knowledge is
poured and retrieved later. Standards, textbooks, and standardized tests are commonly used to
define our curriculum. Therefore, it is the teacher's role in multicultural education to find out and
learn the knowledge students bring to school and organize the curriculum in a way in which
students can utilize that knowledge (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). Instead of using
stereotypes about students’ lives outside of school, teachers need to speak to parents and families

25
and learn about their students’ lives. Sleeter & Flores Carmona (2017) suggested that teachers
can also engage in the community through various means and strategies like conducting
walkthroughs of students’ neighborhoods and inviting adults to share about their community’s
culture and assets and upcoming events. Another approach to integrating the community would
be to interview their students or have students interview their parents/grandparents and collect
oral histories (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017).
Role of Teacher's Epistemology
Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) emphasized that epistemological beliefs are
assumptions about the nature of knowledge and reality. They are formed at home and school and
can change over time through education. Teachers need to examine their own epistemological
beliefs and reflect on their assumptions. In a multicultural education course, teachers will engage
in reflection on their assumptions and beliefs through studying concepts of positionality,
ideology, and epistemology (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). Teachers do this work by
engaging in self-reflexivity and critical thinking through reading various works written from
multiple ideological perspectives. Teachers will also engage in reflective writing.
Goodwin (2004) stated that teacher educators of color have much to offer about thinking,
acting in culturally responsive ways, and embracing a social justice agenda. Teacher education
programs often isolate multicultural teacher education as a single course. This is different from
how teacher educators of color define multiculturalism and cultural diversity. Teacher educators
of color also possess an empathic understanding of the lives of children of color, which results in
a strong interest in engaging in social action and redressing inequities.
Self-Efficacy of Teachers

26
A teacher's self-efficacy will affect teachers’ motivation (Bandura, 1977). Schunk (2020)
defined self-efficacy as a belief about what one is capable of doing. It refers to the perceptions of
one's capabilities to produce actions. Self-efficacy is a crucial variable in social cognitive theory
that Bandura stated. Teacher self-efficacy will influence teachers’ activities, effort, and
persistence with students. Teachers with higher self-efficacy are more likely to develop
challenging activities, help students succeed, and persevere with students who have learning
problems. Therefore, teacher self-efficacy can be a significant predictor of student achievement
and will play an essential role in their motivation.
Professional Development Through Critical Reflection
Teachers engaged in critical reflection will have positive outcomes and help them
become more effective educators. Brookfield’s (2009, 2017) research and work on critical
reflection showed its importance and how it can positively impact an organization when utilized
effectively. Critical reflection is a stance of permanent inquiry that helps teachers engage in more
vigorous professional work (Brookfield, 2017). Brookfield (2009) noted that critical reflection
allows externalizing and investigating power relationships. It also is a way to uncover hegemonic
assumptions. Critical reflection enabled adults to become acutely aware of what is happening
around them. According to Brookfield (2009), it allowed learners to free themselves from
oppressive social structures and to constrain ways of thinking.
Brookfield (2017) emphasized that critical reflection is necessary for survival as a
teacher. It is a stance of permanent inquiry, not just something that should be used when things
go wrong. Critical reflection becomes embedded into your daily pedagogic lives. It equates to
what it means to do good professional work, which helps educators make informed actions and
develop a rationale for practice. It also helps teachers survive the emotional roller coaster of

27
teaching, especially when things are not going well in the classroom. Critical reflection also
helps students think critically. Therefore, teachers engaged in critical reflection have multiple
opportunities to model the process for students. Through critical reflection, teachers and the
school they work for can become stronger and better at what they do.
Culturally Responsive School Leadership
Research has shown that school leaders must utilize culturally responsive school
leadership (CRSL) practices to keep culturally responsive schools (Khalifa et al., 2016).
Researchers have found that culturally responsive leadership is critical in maintaining good
teachers (Khalifa et al., 2016). Good leaders will know how to retain and recruit culturally
responsive teachers. Principals must promote cultural responsiveness in the school to be effective
and long-lasting. Culturally responsive school leaders have an essential role in countering the
oppression that minoritized students have been facing due to historically oppressive
structures. Culturally responsive school leadership (CRSL) is affirmative and seeks to identify
and institutionalize practices that affirm students' Indigenous and authentic cultural
practices. CRSL will challenge teaching and environments that marginalize students of color and
also identify, protect, institutionalize, and celebrate all cultural practices of these students.
Khalifa (2018) emphasized that leaders must be deep into the students’ communities to enact
culturally responsive school leadership effectively. Culturally responsive schools need leaders
that push beyond traditional forms of leadership. Principals can offer better leadership when they
strongly connect with and rely on community-based people, perspectives, epistemologies, and
voices. Khalifa (2018) proposed that leaders think of this work as an iterative cycle to create a
culturally responsive school. Brookfield (2017) also emphasized that leaders must consistently
engage in critical self-reflection. In addition, leaders must implement and reform policies and

28
practices that will make schools more culturally responsive. Through this iterative cycle,
leaders can keep schools culturally responsive.
Conceptual Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) framework emphasized that organizations need to be goal-
driven and focus on studying stakeholder performance within the organization. This problem-
solving process is based on understanding the stakeholder goals regarding the organizational
goal. It also identifies assumed performance influences in knowledge, motivation, and
organization based on general theory, context-specific literature, and a current understanding of
the organization.
In this study, the Clark and Estes (2008) framework will be adapted to analyze what the
stakeholders, the teachers, will need for knowledge and motivation within the organization to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of the Asian American
students. An effective performance improvement plan can be established by analyzing the
school's performance gaps by looking at the stakeholders' knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008). This is critical to identify appropriate solutions
and strategies that can be used at the school.
The conceptual framework (Figure 1) shows the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affect the stakeholders. The left side of Figure 1 represents how
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences can help fight against the school's
dominant ideologies including the model minority myth, racism, White supremacy, and
colonialism. The larger circle includes the influences of the organization, and the two circles
within the larger circle are the K and M influences. The arrows indicate how these influences
affect each other.

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
29

30

Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This literature review will examine the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that affect the teachers’ ability to implement culturally relevant pedagogy that
consistently reflects the history and cultural contexts of Asian American students within the
social studies curriculum from the fourth to eighth grade.
Knowledge and Skills
According to Krathwohl (2002), there are four knowledge types: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes the essential elements that students
must know within a discipline. Conceptual knowledge is the interrelationships among the basic
elements. Procedural knowledge is defined as how to do something, including the methods of
inquiry. Lastly, metacognitive knowledge is the knowledge of cognition and awareness and
knowledge of one's comprehension.
Declarative Factual Knowledge Influences
According to Krathwohl (2002), declarative factual knowledge refers to the knowledge of
basic facts and information related to the topic. Teachers at YIS are the stakeholders that I will
be focusing on. Teachers will need to know YIS’ goal to implement culturally relevant pedagogy
that consistently reflects the experiences and cultural contexts of the Asian American students
within the social studies curriculum from the fourth to eighth grade. They will need to be able to
measure their progress to the organization's goal.
Ladson-Billings (1995) argues that culturally relevant pedagogy is good teaching that
allows for academic success for children that have not been well served in public schools.
Ladson-Billings (1995) defines culturally relevant pedagogy as following these three criteria:

31
Students experience academic success, develop and maintain cultural competence, and develop a
critical consciousness in which they challenge the status quo. Through culturally responsive
pedagogy, Gay (2000) states how it can help reverse the underachievement of students of color
in the United States. Gay (2018) said that teachers need specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes
to prepare teachers for culturally responsive pedagogy through their pre-service training. This
includes developing a cultural diversity knowledge base and designing a culturally relevant
curriculum. Also, teachers need to create caring classroom climates conducive to learning for
ethnically diverse students.
Procedural Knowledge Influences
Procedural knowledge is the knowledge of the skills and procedures involved with the
task (Krathwohl, 2002). It includes the different techniques and methods needed to complete the
task. At YIS, the teachers will need to know how to implement a culturally relevant curriculum
in their classroom to achieve their goals successfully.
All Teachers Need to Know How to Implement a Culturally Relevant Curriculum
for Their Classroom. According to Lumadi (2020), an equitable curriculum will provide equal
opportunities for all learners. More learners will be given opportunities for academic success
through a culturally relevant curriculum. Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) emphasize that you
value diverse funds of knowledge through multicultural teaching; therefore, not everyone will
learn the same thing. Instead of the standardized curriculum, teachers will take into account
students' funds of knowledge and organize the curriculum in a way in which students can utilize
that knowledge.
Teachers Need to Know How to Identify the Next Steps to Implement a Culturally
Relevant Curriculum That Reflects the Lives and History of Asian Americans. Ladson-

32
Billings (1995) stated that culturally relevant teachers were not dependent on state curriculum
frameworks or textbooks to determine what and how to teach. They were able to critically
analyze the content of the curriculum and integrate ways to bring about critical consciousness by
challenging the current status quo (Ladson-Billings, 1995). According to An (2016), Asian
Americans have been underrepresented in U.S. history textbooks, providing a significant gap in
addressing Asian Americans and their various perspectives. Therefore, teachers must be able to
represent the diverse perspectives and history of Asian Americans in the United States with
multiple resources and counternarratives.
Metacognitive Knowledge
According to Krathwohl (2002), metacognitive knowledge is the ability to reflect on and
adjust necessary skills and knowledge. This includes the ability to self-assess and monitor one’s
progress. At YIS, teachers will need to know how to reflect on their ways of knowing to utilize
culturally relevant pedagogy in their classrooms effectively. Teachers that are engaged in these
metacognitive processes will be successful in achieving their goals.
All Teachers Must Know How to Reflect on Their Ways of Knowing to Utilize
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. According to Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017),
epistemological beliefs are assumptions about the nature of knowledge. To effectively engage in
culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers must examine their ways of knowing. According to
Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017), teachers must explore their epistemological beliefs and
reflect on their assumptions when participating in multicultural pedagogy. The teachers will need
to reflect on their assumptions and beliefs by studying concepts of positionality, ideology, and
epistemology (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017).

33
Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their Practice in Order to Make
Changes and Next Steps to Implement Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. Sleeter and Flores
Carmona (2017) stated that often new teachers find it challenging to think through the
curriculum about big ideas rather than lists of content to cover. Teachers need to have the
confidence to teach using the standards and, at the same time, plan a meaningful curriculum that
reflects the lives of their students. Often, new teachers may find it difficult to use resources other
than the textbooks given to them (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017).

34
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder's Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed knowledge influences Research literature
author, year; author,
year
Declarative factual
Teachers can define culturally relevant pedagogy.

Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Gay, 2002; Gay,
2018
Procedural
Teachers know how to implement culturally relevant curriculum
for their classrooms.

Sleeter & Flores
Carmona, 2017,
Lumadi, 2020
Teachers need to know how to identify the next steps they need
to implement a culturally relevant curriculum that reflects the
lives and history of Asian Americans.
An, 2016; Ladson-
Billings, 1995
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know how to reflect on their ways of knowing
in order to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy.

Teachers need to know how to reflect on their practice in order
to make changes and next steps to implement culturally
relevant pedagogy.

Sleeter & Flores
Carmona, 2017

Sleeter & Flores
Carmona, 2017

Motivation
For learning to occur, motivation plays a key role (Schunk, 2020). Through motivation,
goals are made and achieved. Even though motivation cannot be observed directly, it can be
inferred through various behavior indexes (Schunk, 2020). Clark and Estes (2008) stated that
motivation is critical in determining organizational performance gaps. Motivation will influence

35
the stakeholder's ability to work towards a goal, persist until it is achieved, and the amount of
mental effort invested in getting it done (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Value
According to Schunk (2020), value is the perceived importance of the task. Therefore, the
overall value of a job will depend on four areas: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value,
and cost belief (Schunk, 2020). Attainment value refers to the importance of doing well on a
task. The intrinsic value refers to the inherent enjoyment one has from a task. Utility value is the
importance relative to a future goal. The cost belief is the perceived negative aspect of engaging
in the task. Therefore, at YIS, the teachers must value culturally relevant pedagogy, students'
funds of knowledge, and the U.S. history of Asian Americans in the social studies curriculum to
achieve their goal.
All Teachers Need to Value Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. Gay (2002) stated that
there is a place for cultural diversity in all the subjects taught in school. Culturally relevant
pedagogy does not only occur in English language arts and social studies but in all content areas.
Therefore, teachers must value culturally relevant pedagogy in their content areas and value
creating a classroom culture that is safe and academically rigorous for ethnically diverse
students. Ladson-Billings (1995) stated that in her research of successful culturally relevant
teachers, these teachers saw themselves as part of the communities they were teaching in and
saw teaching as a way to give back. They encouraged a community of learners that worked
collaboratively and learned from each other. The teachers made sure to keep the relationships
with their students equitable through culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
All Teachers Need to Value the Students' Funds of Knowledge. A problem in U.S.
society is learning to respect and listen to nondominant points of view, especially within our

36
schools and curriculum (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). This leads to an inequitable
curriculum that does not value the students' diverse backgrounds in the classroom. When
teachers value their students’ fund of knowledge, this will help empower them and show their
value.
All Teachers Need to Value the U.S. History of Asian Americans in the SS
Curriculum. Hinnershitz (2020) stated how throughout U.S. history, there are many different
examples of race-based discrimination against Asians in schools. Lin (2010) noted how various
immigration laws continued to disempower Asian Americans in society socially. This socio-
historical-political context that Asian American immigrants were put under as others and
immigrants has framed the education and socialization of their children. According to An (2016),
research shows a near-invisibility of Asian Americans and their experiences in U.S. history
standards. Therefore, teachers must value the historical context that Asian American faced in
U.S. history.
According to An (2016), there has been a half-century of underrepresentation of Asian
Americans in U.S. history in textbooks and curricula. Even though efforts have been made
toward social justice in education with more visibility of marginalized groups, much work still
needs to be done to make Asian Americans more visible in the curriculum (An, 2016). Therefore,
the teachers at YIS will need to value making Asian Americans in U.S. history more visible and
apparent through culturally relevant pedagogy.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1977) stated that self-efficacy is a person’s belief about their capabilities to
learn or perform actions at designated levels. Self-efficacy is an essential aspect of a person’s
motivation. Students with higher abilities usually feel more confident in their learning (Schunk,

37
2020). To determine the motivation of teachers, measuring their self-efficacy will help see
correlations with positive outcomes.
All Teachers Need to Have Confidence That They Can Utilize Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy. According to Ladson-Billings (1995), successful teachers implementing culturally
relevant pedagogy showed passion and enthusiasm for their teaching. These teachers believed
that all students could and must succeed in the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 1995). They also
showed confidence in their ability to critically analyze the curriculum and standards through a
culturally relevant lens. Gay (2002) stated that culturally responsive teachers could adapt
curriculum designs to make them more multicultural. Culturally responsive teachers can address
the controversy directly, include multiple perspectives, and contextualize issues within race,
class, ethnicity, and gender (Gay, 2002).
All Teachers Need to Have Confidence That They Can Address the Various
Cultural Perspectives and History of Asian Americans. Asian Americans have been
underrepresented in U.S. History as Asian Americans, and their perspectives have rarely been
mentioned in the curriculum (An, 2016). Ladson-Billings (1995) emphasizes that culturally
relevant teachers know how to use the students' culture as a classroom learning vehicle. Gay
(2002) mentioned that culturally responsive teaching goes beyond just awareness and respect of
various ethnic groups but requires knowing detailed factual information about the cultural
particularities of specific ethnic groups. In addition, culturally responsive teaching needs the
curriculum content to include information about the histories, culture, contributions, experiences,
perspectives, and issues of the various ethnic groups (Gay, 2019). Therefore, teachers need to
have the confidence to address the diverse cultural perspectives of Asian Americans.

38
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed motivation influences Research literature
author, year; author, year.
Value
Teachers need to value culturally relevant
pedagogy.

Teachers need to value the students’ funds of
knowledge.

Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017; Gay,
2002; Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings,
1995.
Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017;
Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay, 2002;
Gay, 2019.
Teachers need to value the teaching of U.S. history
of Asian Americans in the SS curriculum.
An, 2016; Lin, 2010; Hinnershitz, 2020.
Self-Efficacy
Teachers need to have confidence that they can
utilize culturally relevant pedagogy.

Teachers need to have confidence that they can
address the various cultural perspectives and
history of Asian Americans.

Bandura, 1977; Gay, 2002; Gay, 2018;
Ladson-Billings, 1995; Schunk, 2020.

An, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay,
2002; Gay, 2018.

Organization
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that organizational factors are the third item that needs to
be analyzed to determine the performance gaps. By examining the organization’s resources,
policies, and culture, one can work on bridging those performance gaps within an organization to
achieve the goal successfully. The teachers at YIS will need organizational support in terms of
resources, policies, procedures, and cultural setting to achieve their goals.
Resources

39
According to Clarke and Estes (2008), access to resources such as tools, facilities,
processes, and procedures can support the organization in effectively achieving its goals.
Stakeholders' problems with processes and resources can cause organizational barriers (Clarke &
Estes, 2008). To prevent organizational barriers, At YIS, the teachers will need various
resources, including support for their professional development and resources that are specific to
the history of Asian Americans.
All Teachers Need Resources to Support Professional Development on Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy. Many teachers feel frustrated at the lack of support from schools in
creating a space for a culturally relevant and engaging curriculum that meets the diverse group of
students in their classrooms (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). In addition, many teachers feel
they have little or no professional development in curriculum planning as many are left to create
their curriculum or follow a very scripted package (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017). It will be
critical that YIS provides professional development specific to culturally relevant pedagogy to
their teachers to achieve their goals.
All Teachers Need Resources to Reflect the Contexts and History of Asian American
Students. According to An (2016), Asian American history and perspectives have rarely been
included in the curriculum. However, when they are formed, Asian Americans are only
presented with the lens of being a perpetual foreigner or model minority with little contribution
or impact in fighting against injustice (An, 2016). YIS will need to provide teachers with
resources, including books and counter stories, that will allow them to teach the history of Asian
Americans in the U.S effectively.
Cultural Setting

40
Culture can be used to describe organizations, but it is difficult to do so because culture is
not always visible, transparent, and easily accessible by individuals (Rueda, 2011). According to
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), cultural setting refers to cultural models' visual and concrete
manifestations. The various cultural settings of an organization are where the organization's
policies and procedures are enacted (Rueda, 2011).
All Teachers Need to Be Part of a Culture That Aligns With Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy, Which Is Seen in the School's Strategic Plan. School leadership plays a crucial role
in establishing a particular culture. According to Khalifa, Gooden, and Davis (2016), principals
must promote cultural responsiveness in the school to be effective and long-lasting. Leaders are
also responsible for implementing and reforming policies and practices that will make schools
more culturally responsive (Khalifa, 2018). Therefore, if the school's strategic plans integrate
culturally relevant pedagogy, it would clearly show that it is a vital part of the culture and vision
of the school.
Cultural Models
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) stated that cultural models are the shared mental
schema of how the world works. The cultural models include the values, beliefs, and attitudes
which usually are not visible (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These cultural models develop
gradually and are often unnoticed by those that hold them (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
All Teachers Need to Feel Supported by the Organization to Implement Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy. Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) stated the importance of principals
supporting the culturally relevant work that teachers are doing in their classrooms. One of the
constraints that teachers face can be pressure to follow curriculum standards and textbooks that
do not allow teachers to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017).

41
The pressures of traditional testing and conforming to state standards are other constraints
teachers may face.

Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholders' Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal

Assumed organization influences Research literature
author, year; author, year.
Resources
Teachers need resources to support professional
development on culturally relevant pedagogy.

Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017.
Teachers need resources to reflect the contexts and
history of Asian American students.
Lin 2010; An,2016; Hinnershitz, 2020.
Cultural settings
Teachers need to be part of a culture that aligns with
culturally relevant pedagogy, which is seen in the
school's strategic plan.

Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001;
Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017;
Khalifa, Gooden, & Davis, 2016;
Khalifa, 2018.
Cultural models
Teachers need to feel supported by the organization
to implement culturally relevant pedagogy.

Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001;
Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017.

42
Conclusion
The problem of Asian Americans being invisible in the social studies curriculum is due to
various factors that cause this gap in the curriculum. Culturally relevant pedagogy can be an
effective way to address this issue in schools. This chapter built a foundation for the data
collection in Chapter Three by examining the literature on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that teachers face.

43

Chapter Three: Methodology
This project aimed to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
organizational problem described above: the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the
cultural contexts of Asian American students. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis are all YIS
teachers. The analysis focused on the causes of this problem due to gaps in the areas of staff
members’ knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. The analysis began by
generating a list of possible or assumed influences that would be examined systematically to
focus on actual or validated causes.
1. What is the knowledge and motivation needed in relation for teachers to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural context of Asian Americans in
the curriculum?
2. What organizational factors are facilitating and/or inhibiting the enactment of CRP
for Asian American students?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) developed the gap analysis framework to diagnose
performance gaps in organizations. A solution can be implemented to achieve their goals by
analyzing the three significant causes of performance gaps by examining people’s knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers. The process is shown in Figure 2.

44
Figure 2
A Model of the Gap Analysis Framework

Note. From “Turning Research Into Results: A Guide to Selecting the Right Performance
Solutions,” by R.E. Clark & F. Estes (2008). Information Age Publishing Inc. Copyright 2008.

Assessment of Performance Influences
Chapter Two shared the different knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that affect the teachers’ ability to implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the history
and cultural contexts of Asian American students within the social studies curriculum. The
literature review showed that it is vital that teachers know how to implement culturally relevant
pedagogy and also feel supported by the organization’s culture through the support given by
leadership. This study assessed the KMO influences through semi-structured interviews and
document analysis.
Knowledge Assessment

45
Krathwohl (2002) stated that there are four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. This study assesses three of these knowledge domains through
interviews and document analysis. The first knowledge influence is factual knowledge. The
declarative factual knowledge was evaluated through an interview question with teachers asking
what cultural competence meant for them.
The second knowledge influence was procedural knowledge. The procedural knowledge
was assessed through interview questions about implementing cultural competence into the
classroom and school environment. Social studies unit plans evaluated this influence. The third
knowledge influence of metacognitive knowledge was assessed through interview questions with
teachers about how often they reflect on their ways of knowing and their practice in
implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.

46
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed knowledge
influences
Interview item Document
analysis
Declarative factual
Teachers can define
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

What does cultural competence mean to you as
a teacher?

Procedural
Teachers know how to
implement culturally
relevant curriculum for
their classrooms.

YIS defines cultural competence as
functioning effectively with people of
different cultures and socioeconomic
backgrounds by building awareness of one's
cultural worldview and developing cross-
cultural skills and a positive attitude towards
cultural differences.
Would you describe what you think would
make for the ideal school environment that
supports cultural competence?

How does cultural competence play a role in
your classroom, if at all?
Describe a specific lesson that focused on
cultural competence, if at all.

Social
studies
unit plans
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know
how to reflect on their
ways of knowing in
order to utilize
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

How often do you reflect on your own
background, experiences, privilege, or
power when implementing culturally
relevant pedagogy?

Teachers need to know
how to reflect on their
practice in order to
make changes and next
steps to implement
culturally relevant
pedagogy.
How often do you reflect on your own practice
in order to make changes and next steps to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy?

47
Motivation Assessment
Motivation is critical to making and achieving goals. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized
the importance of motivation in influencing the stakeholder’s ability to perform and accomplish
a goal. The motivational influences revealed in the literature were regarding value and self-
efficacy. Value is the perceived importance of the task and depends on attainment value, intrinsic
value, utility value, and cost belief (Schunk, 2001).
The first assumed motivation influence of value assessed through interview questions
with teachers and analyzing social studies unit plan documents. These questions asked how the
teachers reflect the history of Asian American students and how the curriculum represents the
diversity of Asian Americans. A second question asked teachers for their perspective on
reflecting the cultural contexts of Asian American students. The third question asked teachers to
share a time they reflected on the cultural context of Asian American students. In addition, social
studies unit plans were analyzed to see if Asian American perspectives and history were
represented in the curriculum.
The second assumed motivation influence of self-efficacy was assessed through interview
questions mainly. Teachers were asked how confident they are with utilizing culturally relevant
pedagogy in their classroom. Teachers were asked how confident they were in addressing the
various cultural perspectives and history of Asian Americans.

48
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed motivation
influences
Interview item Document analysis
Value
Teachers need to value
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

In what ways does the SS
curriculum reflect the
history of Asian American
students, if at all?
How does the curriculum
represent the diversity of
Asian Americans, if at all?
How does the curriculum
represent leaders from the
Asian American
community, if at all?
What stories or narratives are
shared about Asian
Americans in history, if at
all?

Teachers need to value the
students’ funds of
knowledge.
Some people might say that it
is too difficult to reflect the
cultural contexts of your
Asian American students in
your school through the SS
curriculum. What are your
thoughts about this
perspective?

Teachers need to value the
U.S. history of Asian
Americans in the SS
curriculum.
Think about a recent time
when you reflected on the
cultural contexts of your
Asian American students in
a unit of study, if at all.
Tell me about it
Social studies unit plans

Self-efficacy
Teachers need to have
confidence that they can
utilize culturally relevant
pedagogy.
Teachers need to have
confidence that they can
address the various cultural
perspectives and history of
Asian Americans.

How confident are you with
utilizing culturally relevant
pedagogy in your
classroom?
How confident are you to
address the various cultural
perspectives and history of
Asian Americans?

49
Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
According to Clark and Estes (2008), the third factor that affects performance is
organization. The cultural setting and models play an essential role in the organization's policies
and procedures. The research literature revealed various organizational influences through
resources, cultural settings, and cultural models. These influences were assessed through
interview questions and document analysis.
The first assumed organizational influences are resources. The teachers were asked
interview questions about the types of professional development they have received in
implementing cultural competence into the social studies curriculum. Teachers were asked what
support they would need to reflect the cultural contexts of the Asian American students. The
school-wide professional development calendar and social studies units were analyzed.
The second assumed organizational influences are cultural settings. The teachers were
asked if they could describe the critical elements of a school culture that would align with
implementing a culturally relevant pedagogy. They were asked how supported they felt by YIS
to implement culturally relevant pedagogy. The YIS website was analyzed to see if they show
support for culturally relevant pedagogy through their strategic plan.
The third assumed organizational influences are cultural models. The teachers were asked
how supported they felt by YIS to implement culturally relevant pedagogy. This question helped
reveal if teachers felt supported by the organization to implement culturally relevant pedagogy

50
Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed organization
influences
Interview item Document
analysis
Resources
Teachers need resources
to support professional
development on
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

What types of professional development
have you received on implementing
cultural competence into the SS
curriculum at YIS, if any?

PLC meeting
agendas
Teachers need resources
to reflect the contexts
and history of Asian
American students.
In an ideal school, what support would a
teacher need to reflect the cultural
contexts of the Asian American students?
What types of P.D. would be important to
have?
What support would leadership need to
provide?
PLC meeting
agendas
Cultural setting
Teachers need to be part
of a culture that aligns
with culturally relevant
pedagogy, which is
seen in the school's
strategic plan.

YIS defines cultural competence as
functioning effectively with people of
different cultures and socioeconomic
backgrounds by building awareness of
one's own cultural worldview and
developing cross-cultural skills and a
positive attitude towards cultural
differences.
Can you describe the critical elements of a
school culture that would align with the
implementation of a culturally relevant
pedagogy?

YIS website
Cultural model
Teachers need to feel
supported by the
organization to
implement culturally
relevant pedagogy.

How supported do you feel by YIS to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy?

51

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this study were social studies elementary and middle
school teachers at Yishun International School (YIS). At the time of data collection, two teachers
from each grade level were chosen, from grades four to eight. Through purposeful sampling,
these teachers were selected if they had at least two years of experience teaching social studies in
the classroom. The researcher wanted participants from elementary and middle school, which
allowed for more perspectives and viewpoints across divisions within the school.
Sampling
The criteria used in the sampling for this study were two teachers from each grade level,
fourth to eighth grade, who had taught at YIS for at least two years. The teachers chosen were
from fourth to eighth-grade social studies teams. Two teachers from each grade level were
selected. Teachers who expressed interest in participating were asked to consent to participate in
an interview.
Recruitment
For this study, the sampling strategy sought out social studies teachers from fourth to
eighth grade. This strategy allowed teachers from the elementary and middle schools to
participate and provided more data across divisions. An email was sent to all the social studies
teachers in grades four to eight who were invited to participate. Teachers who participated
completed an online document for their interview time and date. Many fifth-grade teachers had
responded, and only two were chosen due to the protocol of having only two teachers per grade
level. The fourth and middle school teachers were asked to participate in the study a second time,
and more participants volunteered.

52
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used for this study was a semi-structured interview for each teacher
and an examination of relevant school documents.
Interview Protocol Design
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each teacher. Semi-structured interviews
were chosen because it allows the researcher more flexibility to respond to the responses and
adapt the questions as needed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interview questions aligned with the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors supported in Chapter Two. Teachers were
given open-ended questions followed by probing questions. The interview protocol is available
in Appendix A.
Document Analysis Design
Another piece of data collected was through various YIS documents. These documents
were analyzed by the KMO influences mentioned in Chapter Two. The collected documents
included the PLC meeting agendas and social studies curriculum unit plans. The document
analysis protocol consisted of analyzing records for the following three things: reflecting the
history and cultural context of Asian American communities, including contributions of Asian
Americans in U.S. history, and providing information on cultural diversity and equity. The PLC
agendas were analyzed by looking at whether they reflected culturally relevant pedagogy.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants were solicited by email, which I sent.

53
Interviews
Recruitment procedures for interviews of the teachers are outlined above. Only willing
participants who signed the consent form were included in the interview pool. Interviews lasted
approximately 60 minutes and were recorded for transcription purposes. Any identifying
information was removed from the interviews. The interviews were conducted via Zoom due to
COVID-19 restrictions and precautions.
Document Analysis
Principals and teachers were asked to voluntarily supply access to various documents that
were used to confirm the information that was shared during the interviews with teachers. The
following documents were requested for analysis to validate the data collected on culturally
relevant pedagogy: PLC meeting agendas and social studies curriculum unit plans.
Data Analysis
For interviews, transcriptions were used to analyze the qualitative data collected. The
interviews were recorded using Otter AI and a voice recorder app on a smartphone. The
interviews were transcribed and then coded for data analysis. The interviews were coded
according to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational categories.
For documents, they were coded according to factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge domains. All the data types, interviews, and documents analyzed were
used to determine possible solutions for knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Trustworthiness of Data
To maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, triangulation of the data was
used throughout the data collection and analysis. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) stated that through
methodological rigor, the researcher could ensure the trustworthiness of your study. Through

54
multiple methods of data collection or multiple sources of data, the researcher triangulates the
data, which increases the credibility of your research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study
collected data from semi-structured interviews across various grade levels and documents from
YIS.
Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study was responsible for developing the study, making contact
with the administration and getting approval from the administration to conduct the study,
conducting and completing data collection, analyzing the data, and ensuring the confidentiality
of the participants and the credibility of the study as a member of the staff at YIS, the
investigator was aware of the history, various practices, and policies that were utilized in the
organization.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of this study were the researcher’s role within the organization, limited
time, small sample size, and self-reporting. The researcher is a faculty member at YIS and may
work with some of the interview participants on the same PLC or have a history of working on
the same team, which can increase the potential for bias from the interviewees. Another
limitation was that the limited time to conduct the research and collect all the data was a small
sample size regarding how many participants were interviewed. Also, there was the possibility
that the data collected from official school documents may not accurately reflect what is
happening in reality in the social studies classrooms. The interview responses could be biased as
teachers were self-reporting, and their answers may not accurately reflect what is happening in
the classroom. The small sample size of participants interviewed could make the finding not

55
generalizable to other organizations. Since the sample groups are all volunteers, this may also
provide a biased finding.
A delimitation of this study was the specific demographics of YIS. YIS is a large
international school located in Asia with a very high income and high achieving demographic.
The demographics of the schools have a high percentage of Asian students, and the
recommendations given are specific for such a demographic. Following the recommendations
with a different demographic of students may not be appropriate.

56
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This study aimed to determine the root causes of the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy
that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian American students. This chapter shared the results and
analysis of the data collected from interviews and documents. Through applying the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, the various causes of this problem were categorized under
knowledge, motivation, and organization challenges. The results were organized by the
categories of assumed causes, such as knowledge. The focus was on the stakeholder group of
teachers at YIS. Through this qualitative study, data was collected through teacher interviews and
analysis of documents used by the teachers. The semi-structured interviews with the teachers
were meant to validate the assumed causes. The documents collected were used to understand the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational challenge teachers faced in implementing culturally
relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American students in their school. The interviews were
conducted first and then analyzed. In addition to the interviews, three follow-up questions were
asked through email to the participants. Only five out of the ten participants responded via email
to these questions. Then, the documents shared by the teachers were analyzed to provide another
set of data and triangulation. The documents helped offer more evidence and help understand the
KMO factors.
Participating Stakeholders
The study focused on the stakeholder group of social studies teachers at YIS in
elementary and middle school. A total of ten teachers from grades four to eight were interviewed.
One of the interview requirements was that the teachers must have taught for at least two years at
YIS. The teachers received an email (Appendix B) asking for participation in a voluntary 45-
60minute interview. As shown in Table 8, each participant was given a participant number, and

57
the grade level was shown, while other demographic information was not available to keep
confidentiality.
There were a few challenges with the interviews, which were all conducted via Zoom.
Due to a technical error, one participant’s responses to a few questions were not recorded.
Therefore, only nine participant responses were included in the analysis for those questions.
Another challenge was that two questions were accidentally not included in the interview;
therefore, these two questions were asked through a follow-up email to all the participants. Only
five participants responded, and those responses were used in the analysis.

Table 8
Participating Stakeholders
Participant Grade level taught
1 Grade 5
2 Grade 6
3 Grade 8
4 Grade 4
5 Grade 4
6 Grade 5
7 Grade 6
8 Grade 7
9 Grade 8
10 Grade 7

58
Determination of Assets and Needs
The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were determined to be an asset
if 80% or higher of the participants shared responses that were an asset. If there was document
analysis for the influence, the documents needed to support the interview responses were an
asset. If less than 80 percent of the interview responses were an asset, then the influence was
determined to be an area of need.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The first research question asked, “What is the knowledge and motivation needed in
relation to teachers to implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural context of
Asian Americans in the curriculum?” The results and analysis were shown by the KMO
influences mentioned in Chapters 2 and 3. To determine whether an influence was a need or an
asset, at least 80% of participants stated that the particular influence was an asset through their
responses. However, if less than 80% of participants noted that the influence was an asset, it was
a need. Through document analysis, more data was provided on the KMO influences and helped
confirm the presence of an influence. The presence of influences was determined through
triangulation with multiple data points through the interviews and documents.
Factual Knowledge on Influence 1. Teachers Can Define Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Interview findings
This question had only nine participant responses recorded. During the interviews, three
out of nine participants could clearly state what cultural competence means. One example of a
teacher clearly stating the definition was stated by Participant 3, “I’m taking into consideration
the backgrounds of all of my students and then adapting my curriculum and my assessments
based on that information.” Cultural competence is a vital part of culturally relevant pedagogy

59
and is more than just celebrating different holidays and acknowledging the diversity in the class.
Many participants shared more general answers about being open, sensitive, and accepting of
various perspectives. Participant 4 stated,
And so, then when I'm teaching the kids, I try to also get them to have like that open
mind and questioning. You know that everyone has a different experience and that we can
respect and accept each other for who we are.
Participant 6 stated, “We can move towards celebrating our different perspectives,
different cultures.” Another aspect of cultural competence that was stated clearly by Participant
10 was,
It's a never-ending thing of recognizing my own biases that I’m not aware of and the
implicit bias that I carry with me and so being receptive and open to feedback from
students, but also colleagues about those blind spots that we all have and then not being
defensive or fragile when those things arrived and recognizing it and honoring the
individual or people that have the courage to speak up and let me know.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers can define culturally relevant pedagogy was
determined to be a need when analyzing the interview responses. Thirty-three percent of the
teachers clearly defined what culturally relevant pedagogy means. Many participants were able
to share more general aspects that are parts of culturally relevant pedagogy but did not show a
clear understanding that it is more than celebrating diversity, holidays, and different cultures.
Procedural Knowledge on Influence 1: Teachers Know How to Implement Culturally
Relevant Curriculum for Their Classroom Interview Findings

60
This question had only nine participants respond. Four of the nine participants described
how cultural competence played a role in their classroom and gave specific lessons that focused
on it. A few teachers mentioned needing more support or are still learning to implement
culturally relevant curriculum effectively in the classroom. Participant 3 mentioned,
I feel like I know, some teachers are really good at like that split-screen idea where it’s
like, here's the skill we're going to learn, and here's how we're going to use it. And I'm
still learning how to do that better. I realize I need to be explicit to like; I’m still working
on it.
Two teachers mentioned how they integrated cultural competence by bringing their family’s
history through a project in their unit. Participant 1 shared,
I think it comes in a fair amount with the migration unit. That was a really interesting
lesson as a kid shared, why they're what the push and pull that brought various family
members to various places. And so, for most of them, that was jobs currently, but for
most of their grandparents, it was things like education and a higher standard of living
and more opportunities for their children. So, we were able to pull some of those effects
in that way.
Participant 9 stated, “At the beginning of the year, in the regular social studies class, one of the
things we do and it’s a pretty typical thing where you do kids do like a family history research
project.”
Two participants’ strong responses showed how cultural competence played a crucial role
in their classroom, beyond learning about different cultures and sharing your family history.
Participant 10 stated,

61
You can’t separate my classroom from cultural competence in the sense that it’s about
how we view students and how we think about flattening the hierarchies of power in
there. That’s something that can never be like that dynamic will never be completely
neutralized. But finding those ways of giving students’ voice in meaningful voice,
whether it’s feedback to me or in the ways that they get to actually take action within
trying to shape their community.
Participant 8 responded, “So I think it's the foundation of everything that we talked about.
There are limits, however, to cultural competence and looking at other peoples’ perspectives.”
Document Analysis
The fourth and fifth-grade social studies (SS) unit plans which were digital resources,
were analyzed to see whether cultural competence was integrated into the units. Only one of the
four SS units from grades four gave explicitly stated cultural competence as the Desired Student
Learning Outcome for that unit. It was included in the grade five advocacy unit. Even though one
teacher mentioned in the interview how in the migration unit cultural competence is focused on,
it was not explicitly included in the migration unit planner that is available digitally for teachers.
The middle school social studies units have evidence that culturally relevant pedagogy is
utilized through cultural competency in the various units and the learning tasks and projects. The
desired student learning outcomes (DSLO) include cultural competency as one of them at YIS.
However, cultural competency is not explicitly stated as a competency focused on in the sixth-
grade identity unit, seventh-grade power and truth unit, and eighth-grade multicultural America
units documents in the shared curriculum folders. In the sixth-grade identity unit, the DSLOs
focus more on collaboration and communication, as students assess their presentation based on

62
these two competencies. In addition, creativity and critical thinking are also included in the unit
overview as the DSLRs that this unit covers.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers know how to implement culturally relevant
curriculum for their classroom was determined as a need. Only 44% of interview participants
showed evidence of specific lessons with cultural competence and how it plays a clear role in
their classroom. All teachers need to be able to implement culturally relevant pedagogy within
their classroom and be able to provide clear evidence of it. The evidence presented in the social
studies units shows that cultural competency is not explicitly stated in many of the units, even
though aspects of it are taught.
Metacognitive Knowledge on Influence 1. Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their
Ways of Knowing in Order to Utilize Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Findings
This question was a follow-up question that was asked through email. Only five
participants responded. Four out of five participants stated that they reflect on their ways of
knowing in order to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy in various ways. The participants
discussed how they reflect on their background, experiences, privilege, or power. They shared
how these ways of knowing affect the work they do in their classroom. Participant 2 responded
how they model this reflection to their students, “This is a continual process – it’s beneficial that
we start our year with an Identity unit where we unpack a lot of these ideas, and I have to model
how to do it with my own experiences.” Participant 8 noted,
“I reflect on my own background, experience, privilege, and power with every lesson,
and I realize that my lessons will still contain elements of my own background,
experiences, privilege, and power as I am human. I try to be honest and open with

63
students about what I may miss so that they can provide their experiences and
background. Because I look like I come from economic privilege despite living in dire
conditions for portions of my life, assumptions are made about me as well.”
Participant 9 reflected,
Of the four items listed above, I would say that power has been the aspect that I have had
to reflect on the most as a White male teacher. But I don't have a number or frequency for
how often I do reflect on power. Understanding what race and gender combined can do
and not do in the context of power is increasingly relevant. Both determined so much of
my background, experiences, and privileges that I have and the background, experiences,
and privileges that I don’t have. Yet power remains the factor that I must attend to the
most because my job is not to assert my power; it is to empower others. Power deals with
physical, emotional, and intellectual space. I try to keep in mind that when I'm asserting
my power, someone else is losing theirs.
Participant 5 stated, “I often am in thought and reflection about the experience of living
and working overseas and the benefits it has provided. The rich diversity, growth in exposure to a
wide range of diversity, and always working on ways to bring out the culture and heritage of our
student body.” This response was considered an area of need as culturally relevant pedagogy is
more than bringing out the cultures and heritage of the student body. Teachers must reflect on
how their privilege and power can impact the community around them and their role as a
teacher.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need to know how to reflect on their ways of
knowing in order to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy is determined to be an asset. Eighty

64
percent of the teachers can reflect on their ways of knowing through various means. Teachers
reflected in a continual process on their background, experiences, privilege, and power often and
consistently.
Influence 2. Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their Practice in Order to Make
Changes and Next Steps to Implement Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Findings
There are various responses to how often and effectively teachers reflect on their practice
of implementing CRP in their classrooms. Participant 2 mentioned,
As a PLC lead, I make sure we discuss our units using the rubric for culturally responsive
curriculum design. In particular, we discuss it at the start of units as we plan. One
challenge for me is to reduce competition—I love games and teaching through game-
based learning. So, I am trying to modify what I do so that the games are more
collaborative and there is less competition.”
The teacher showed how they used this specific rubric and stated a particular example of what
they reflected on. This response showed an asset in this influence. Two other teachers said they
reflect daily and sometimes even more than that as they reflect after each lesson. These two
participants showed that this influence was an asset to them. Participant 9 asserted,
“I reflect daily about my practice . . . I am even able to reflect on the lesson in between
classes as I teach the same lesson five times over a 2-day block. Not every class is the
same, so adjustments need to be made for the group that walks into the room. I don’t
always get it right, but I try. I also don’t think there is one correct way to teach as it is an
art and science.”
In addition, Participant 9 stated,

65
This process is daily, sometimes even hourly. With the support of my PLC and my grade
level team, I process and discuss a wide variety of issues, from how transgender students
are feeling regarding bathroom usage to how a particular aspect of an essay rubric will
impact students’ thinking. While I don't journal, I think and talk a lot about the issues of
my day.
Two responses showed that this was an area of need for some participants. Participant 7
noted how culturally relevant pedagogy was not a big focus as a school and could do more in this
area,
Usually, planning a unit, I do think about how we could add more culturally relevant
material to share. I feel like I've made baby steps in this direction. This has been
challenging as it's not a focus as a PLC or a school.
In addition, Participant 5 mentioned how they try to bring out the culture in their classroom and
is focused on, “The new goal is to try and think deeper about how it can be celebrated in all
subject areas and not small pockets of the academic calendar.” CRP is more than just bringing
about the culture of the classroom community and celebrating cultures in the different content
areas.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need to know how to reflect on their practice in
order to make changes and next steps to implement culturally relevant pedagogy is determined to
be an area of need. Only 60% of participants could share how they effectively reflect on their
practice to make the next steps to implement CRP in their class.

66
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
The results and findings for motivation causes are in response to the first research
question, “What is the knowledge and motivation needed in relation to teachers to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural context of Asian Americans in the
curriculum?” In order to determine whether an influence was a need or an asset, at least 80% of
participants stated that the particular influence was an asset through their responses. However, if
less than 80% of participants noted that the influence was an asset, it was a need.
Value Influence 1. Teachers Need to Value Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview
Findings
Nine out of 10 participants showed that they did not value culturally relevant pedagogy
by reflecting on the history of Asian American students within the SS curriculum. Many
interview participants mentioned how the curriculum does not reflect the history of Asian
Americans.
Participant 2 stated, “As a curriculum for sure, we aren't representing the diversity of
Asian Americans. We don’t really; we don't talk a ton about Asian Americans. Because I would
also say most of our students aren't Asian Americans.” Participant 4 mentioned that this is an
area of need,” Nothing specific is written in our curriculum … it’s not in the explicit social
studies curriculum.” Participant 5 asserted,
There are elements of Asian American history, but it can be quite brief, as we try to center
it generally on migration. So, I think it also kind of depends on the cultural makeup of the
students where they’re from because as they share more about their background and
where they’re from, that kind of lends itself to what they end up sharing with other
students and with our classroom community.

67
Participant 8 responded, “I know like, I try. I don't know that there is enough of a push
from our Office of Learning to mandate that it is.” Participant 10 shared a specific project that
some students chose,
I know that some students were looking into Japanese internment camps. But I also don’t
know if that was just out of curiosity, and that because they had heard about that, I won't
look into it or if it was related to something that they saw themselves in or may be related
to.
Participant 3 mentioned specific examples of how Asian American history was
represented in different parts of their curriculum. For example, Participant 3 stated, “We
specifically use certain model projects from Asian American topics to model the project, the
setup of the project so that everyone hears it, but it's the issue is the independent inquiry, and that
we have less there's more student voice and choice is but when there's more student voice and
choice, we lose that content that we know that we teach every single kid. Participant 3 provided
further follow-up examples of Asian American leaders represented,
And then in Unit Three, on the document that I sent you, Ronald Takaki story. Fred
Korematsu and Japanese internment and Supreme Court case, that story and then-Senator
Tammy Duckworth and her story so for specific narratives in unit four, and then we did
one year we brought in Coco Kondo, who spoke to the kids she was a survivor of
Hiroshima.
Participant 4 shared some specific examples,
In World War Two, we talk about internment camps. And then thinking about, like, just
building the railroads. So, there's like big historical events. And sort of so like, I guess in
a lot of ways, it’s like survival stories and like, helping to create to build America in that

68
way. There’s definitely no figurehead kind of names that stand out to me like no Martin
Luther King's.
Participant 5 also mentioned some of the challenges,
We have an advocacy unit, and I know it’s recent events in history or recent events in the
US, for example, with the Asian Americans, and some of the violence that has been
happening and the discrimination that could definitely be a talking point for students to
kind of to reference and just the importance of standing up for what’s right in our
community and embracing and respecting all cultures. But it’s hard to find, I guess,
specifically, a curriculum that ties in exactly this to the diversity of the Asian Americans.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need to value culturally relevant pedagogy was
found to be an area of need. There was little evidence of including Asian American history,
diversity, or leaders in the curriculum and classrooms. A few examples of Asian American
history are discussed and taught. Many times, Asian American students bring in their personal
stories and share that within the classroom. Other times, students are studying more deeply about
the history of Asian Americans through inquiry projects and often not as a required whole class
lesson.
Influence 2. Teachers Need to Value the Students’ Funds of Knowledge Interview Findings
Nine out of 10 participants stated that it would not be too difficult to reflect on the
cultural context of Asian American students for various reasons. Participant 1 said, “I think it
would be easier to talk about that if we were in America. Most of my Asian students do not have
an American passport this year.” Therefore, this was an area of need for this participant. Many
participants mentioned that it would not be too difficult to do this work. Participant 2 stated,

69
I think maybe we are at a benefit in that way in our sixth-grade curriculum because it’s so
open and kind of loose for our, our interdisciplinary units because they’re able to shape them to
what they want. So, I think because they have so much choice.
Participant 3 asserted,
I don't think it's too difficult. I mean, I think we had a checklist that covered Vietnamese
Americans, Burmese Americans, and Cambodian Americans. Yes, that could be
exhaustive, but I think to include, just like we include Native Americans and African
Americans in our history of the United States, I don’t think it’s asking too much to
include and we need to push to include them even more.”
Participant 7 added, “No, I think we could do it. We just have to be mindful of it. I feel like
we’ve done a lot with an American perspective.” Participant 8 mentioned, “I think too difficult is
the keyword there. It's going to be difficult, but that means you have to do it. We have to be able
to pull in those who have that expertise and that passion to be able to help us out.” Participant 9
added,
No, it’s not. But I think you do need to be thoughtful. You know, I just remember, you
don’t want to teach Japanese American history, you know, an internment every year. And
you don’t want to also teach it from a deficit.
Participant 10 shared,
If we think of the curriculum as something that is preset before students come to our
classes, then it’s virtually impossible to reflect the cultural contexts of our students. But if
we're actually using a genuine inquiry approach, and those students have a chance to look
into their own experiences, and also whether that be related to the present, but also going

70
back and understanding the historical roots of it, then absolutely those perspectives and
contexts can be represented in every curriculum every year.
Summary
This assumed influence that teachers need to value the students’ funds of knowledge is an
asset. Nine out of ten participants stated that it would not be too difficult to reflect on the cultural
context of Asian American students for various reasons. Most teachers valued reflecting on the
cultural contexts of their Asian American students and felt that it was possible to do. To do this
work, teachers must value their students’ funds of knowledge and what they bring through their
experiences, narratives, and histories.
Influence 3. Teachers Need to Value the U.S. History of Asian Americans in the SS
Curriculum Interview Findings
Four out of ten participants stated a time they reflected on the cultural contexts of their
Asian American students in a unit of study. Participant 1 and Participant 5 both mentioned the
migration unit of study that allowed students to reflect on their personal and family migration
stories. Participant 5 stated,
So, when looking at the unit of study, we try to think of the diversity of the students, so
with, with Asian Americans, it’s particular we’d have we just kind of Migration Stories
for families. So, a lot of the students that share, we were able to get kind of a sense of, of
their migration journey, and the struggles that their families went through, but also the
benefits. So that was kind of a time where I was able to reflect more and think about the
stories of our families and how powerful those narratives are and apply it to our
curriculum. Just the interactions of the students. It was really kind of a special experience
for everybody.

71
This was a clear example of an asset in Participant 5’s response. Participant 3 also gave specific
examples of how they reflected on their students,
Our first unit, multicultural America, we really wanted to change the project that they do
so that they were able to all the students were able to share that rich cultural heritage with
the other students. At the end and saying, like, wow, I didn’t know anything about Korean
heritage or Korean to me. I didn't know that, like, Korean Americans did this in Los
Angeles, or I didn’t know Chinese Americans were responsible for this and this, and they
were complimenting each other and telling each other different aspects that they liked
about their project.
Six out of ten participants stated that this was an area of need. Participant 9 shared how
it’s not often part of the curriculum by saying,
It's not often not taught in textbooks. It’s not going to be part of the regular curriculum,
but it’s there and so I think, is a teacher being willing to go with the kids and say, well,
let’s take a look at this and see where that takes them.
Through the use of inquiry, some students were able to research and learn more deeply about a
specific topic related to Asian Americans, but that was not a required curriculum or a topic that
all the student’s studied, therefore making it an area of need. Participant 6 also stated, “Through
the inquiry process, (students) research family history. There's nothing geared specifically to
Asian Americans.” This response shows again how the curriculum does not explicitly reflect the
history of Asian Americans.
Document Analysis
Document analysis of the social studies unit plans for the different grade levels supported
the participants’ interview responses. The migration units included evidence of students

72
reflecting and sharing their migration stories and stories from their family members as shared in
the interview responses. One example of Asian American history is mentioned in the grade 8
diversity and migration unit through Angel Island. The other social studies unit plans did not
show explicit models of Asian American history being mentioned.
Summary
This assumed influence that teachers need to value the US history of Asian Americans in
the SS curriculum was a need. The document analysis of the various social studies unit plans
added further evidence that this was an area of need. The curriculum did not include the U.S.
history of Asian Americans except in one of the eighth-grade units. The only other parts that
allowed some sort of reflection of the U.S. history of Asian Americans was when students shared
their family migration stories, aspects of their multicultural identity, and cultural heritage in
projects, often through inquiry.
Self-Efficacy Influence 1. Teachers Need to Have Confidence That They Can Utilize
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Findings
Five teachers responded to this follow-up question through email and shared various
confidence levels in utilizing culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom. Three out of 5
teachers shared confidence in using CRP. Participant 2 shared multiple factors that make them
feel confident in utilizing CRP,
I follow a lot of educators that focus on this practice on Twitter, read books about it, and
run my lessons by our DEI specialists. I keep the 8 Lenses of Culturally Relevant
Teaching posted where I plan my lessons and will refer to it frequently, looking for ways
to improve.”

73
Participant 8 noted, “I feel pretty comfortable with utilizing culturally relevant pedagogy in my
classroom, but I am not sure that others would agree with my self-assessment.” In addition,
Participant 8 shared what would be helpful to support CRP, “Continued professional
development around a shared understanding and directive of culturally relevant pedagogy at YIS
would be invaluable. Sharing in professional development with colleagues rather than having
second or third-hand information shared would be invaluable.” Participant 9 shared, “I’m
confident to know that any culturally relevant pedagogy I use today in my classroom will need to
be revised and rethought in the future. There is no pedagogy that remains relevant indefinitely.
To think otherwise is foolish.”
Two out of five participants had responses that were an asset. Participant 7 stated what
was needed to gain more confidence, “However, we have a lot of growth as a school to move this
work forward and make it a priority. There needs to be a team effort to build confidence with
this.” Participant 5 mentioned what would be needed for CRP to continue, “It would be best
implemented if there was a guide to allow for the appropriate answering of student questions or a
clear set of definitions and descriptions to ensure consistency across a team of teachers.” This
response does not align with CRP practices as it is more than having clear-cut, appropriate
answers to various questions.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need to have confidence that they can utilize
culturally relevant pedagogy was determined to be a need. Analysis of interview data revealed
that teachers need more confidence to use CRP effectively in the classroom. Even though three
teachers showed confidence in this area, it was only 60%.

74
Influence 2. Teachers Need to Have Confidence That They Can Address the Various
Cultural Perspectives and History of Asian Americans Interview Findings
10 out of 10 participant responses showed an area of need in having the confidence to
address the various cultural perspectives and history of Asian Americans. Participant 3 was
confident and stated, “I think with the support of my PLC, I wouldn’t say I’m like a ten on a
scale of ten. Maybe I'd be at like an eight or something.” Therefore, their response was a need
because they needed PLC support to do this work. Participant 2 stated,
I'm not, but I'm enthusiastic. So, I would say I guess I know that I know. But when there's
something new, I’m really excited to learn. And I think I model that with the students,
and maybe that's how I fill in the gap.
Participant 4 showed some confidence with their response, “I feel like I feel confident that I
could hold discussions. But I have a lot to learn. I mean, obviously, I'm not Asian, and so I try to
keep that in mind.” Participant 7 mentioned, “I would say I'm confident in learning more.”
Participant 9 added,
I feel pretty confident, but I'm also pretty confident that as soon as I say that, I'll screw it
up here in the next hour and say something that I'll be like, Nope, I need to take a look at
that. So, I don’t know it’s a hard one. I don’t know how to answer.
Participant 5 said,
I really do embrace multiple cultural perspectives, but I feel like I need to do a little bit
more reading and research to know what’s relevant to share what’s important to share and
to have a richer understanding of Asian Americans to then properly do justice with.
Summary

75
This assumed influence that teachers need to have confidence that they can address the
various cultural perspectives and history of Asian Americans was an area of need. Most teachers
shared different reasons why they did not feel fully confident to handle this with their students.
Even teachers that felt somewhat confident expressed that they still had a lot to learn and needed
PD or collaboration opportunities with their PLC. Furthermore, some teachers shared how not
being an Asian American teacher also plays a role in not having that confidence.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Research Question 2 asked the following: What organizational factors are facilitating
and/or inhibiting the enactment of CRP for Asian American students?
Resources Influence 1. Teachers Need Resources to Support Professional Development on
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Findings
Whether teachers received professional development on implementing cultural
competence into the SS curriculum was an area of need expressed by all the participants. Some
participants did mention the DEI professional development sessions and days offered, even if the
sessions did not directly address integrating culturally relevant pedagogy into the social studies
curriculum. Participant 1 stated the impact of the DEI days, “Both hearing people specific stories
of their backgrounds and things that affected them. All those things affect me as I bring things
into the classroom.” Participant 3 stated about the lack of PD, “I would say we've been told it’s a
top priority. But everything has been in our own PLC. We've never had an outside consultant.
We've had an outside consultant come in to talk to us about the C3 framework and about writing
standards, and even with our coaches. This semester, this year, our coaches have been focusing
on coaching us on how to properly write out the standards and how to put the standards into
rubrics, but we haven’t had any assistance.” Participant 4 stated how having a teammate share

76
and lead their team in PD was very effective. Also, Participant 4 added, “It’s so much more
relevant when it’s somebody that you like teaching alongside with you saying these are some
things we need to do.”
Document Analysis
Document analysis of PLC meeting agendas supports the interview analysis results that
this influence is an area of need. PLC agendas showed different areas that these meetings
focused on, from planning units, unpacking standards, calibrating student work, and
administrative updates. The PLC meeting agendas did not offer specific examples of professional
development on implementing cultural competence into the SS curriculum. The diversity, equity,
and inclusion PD days and sessions were mentioned, supporting what participants shared during
the interviews. In the fourth and fifth-grade PLC agendas, there was no clear evidence of
professional development in implementing cultural competence into the social studies
curriculum. Social studies is taught for only two quarters out of the four quarters, and when
social studies was mentioned, it had to do with the social studies curriculum review process or
planning of a unit.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need resources to support professional development
on culturally relevant pedagogy was determined as a need. All the interview participants shared
responses that showed this was lacking and needed to become more of a priority in their
organization. However, the diversity, equity, and inclusion PD offered school-wide and during
the school-wide PD days shows a positive step in this work. However, more specific PD on
implementing cultural competence into the curriculum was needed. The analysis of the
documents also supports this, as it was difficult to find evidence of professional development

77
that focused explicitly on implementing cultural competence into the social studies curriculum in
the PLC meeting agendas across the grade levels.
Influence 2. Teachers Need Resources to Reflect the Contexts and History of Asian
American Students Interview Findings
Nine out of 10 participant responses stated what support and PD they would need to
reflect the Asian American cultural contexts of their students, making it an influence that is an
asset. There were a variety of supports that participants mentioned needs, including resources,
time, Asian American leadership, and various professional development to support the work.
Participant 7 noted, “I think it’s probably just time to even consider this question. So, I think the
PD would be just posing that question.” Participant 5 stated, “So just better understanding the
diversity, equity, and inclusion, what those things mean, addressing our own biases, and having a
better sense of understanding and embracement of the variety of cultures.” Then, Participant 5
further added details about the type of PD, “PD would be understanding the DEI structure
structures and programs to teach the staff how to better embrace the cultures around them, and be
respectful as to start as start individually and at a community level.” Participant 9 responded,
“Well, can I just be honest and say maybe we need some Asian leadership, Asian women I
honestly what the hell’s going on? Why is it that we have certain races represented and not
others?” Participant 2 also mentioned, “Well, it would be cool to have an Asian American leader.
Yeah, I think part of it could start with hiring.”
There were various suggestions and ideas on the type of PD needed to support teachers in
this work. Participant 10 asserted,
PD around what it means to have a concept-based inquiry classroom and how you can
have meaningful structure for students. Putting in that meaningful structure that allows students

78
to consider new perspectives but also a structure that has the space for them to bring themselves
into their learning.
Participant 9 added,
I think we’re kind of beginning that path, right, with the DEI workshops. I know Heather
did a number of workshops last year. And I think having those and having those experiences,
shared readings, I think, would be also useful.” Participant 4 suggested, “So PD that is
supporting my growth as a teacher would definitely include like what are what are appropriate
questions to ask, and like how to how to have constructive dialogue with students.” Participant 3
remarked,
They would provide the time for PD, the funds for PD providing us with what are other
schools doing instead of maybe leading us down the road of here are all the great things that you
should be doing? Show us what's working at another school site. And let us talk to those teachers
or let us have access to us to model units.
Participant 3 also stated two different organizations that could help provide specific PD
on Asian American content knowledge through the Fred Korematsu foundation and the Peace
Foundation.
Document Analysis
The PLC agendas did not show evidence of a variety of PD and resources that supports
teachers to reflect the cultural contexts of their Asian American students. In the middle school SS
PLC agendas, there were various PD led by the PLC leader and instructional coaches around
unpacking standards, calibrating student work, and planning units. The grade 6 PLC agendas did
focus on the rubric for culturally responsive curriculum design when planning units. This shows
evidence that units are starting to be looked at through a culturally responsive teaching lens. This

79
rubric is available on the school’s culturally responsive curriculum website, including rubrics,
definitions, and various resources.
Summary
The assumed influence that teachers need resources to reflect the contexts and history of
Asian American students is determined to be an asset by the interviews and document analysis.
Cultural Setting Influence 1. Teachers Need to be Part of a Culture That Aligns With
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, Which Is Seen in the School’s Strategic Plan Interview
Findings
In this question, only nine participants responded. Two of the nine participants identified
and stated critical elements of a school culture that would align with implementing a culturally
relevant pedagogy. Participant 1 said this was an area of need for them,
Probably not quite. Honestly, I've been struggling with doing more than effective read-
alouds. Well, it would be cool to have an Asian American leader. I think part of it could
start with hiring. And looking at holidays and honoring children's traditions.
One teacher shared, “We have the flexibility to be able to adjust to the needs of the
population at any time, and depending on who the students are, and what are some of the issues
in the world.” This teacher was able to identify the importance of adjusting to the needs of the
population within the school, which is a critical element. Another teacher, Participant 3,
mentioned the need for more PD on culturally relevant pedagogy, which was lacking currently at
YIS. Participant 3 reflected on their current experiences at YIS,
We've never had any in the ten years that I've been in social studies; we’ve never had any
professional development that has given us any resources to teach Black History, Asian

80
American history, Native American history, or Hispanic American history better. Nothing.
We've had PD on standards and curriculum writing. And that’s it.
Many participants could name one aspect of culturally relevant pedagogy and show some
understanding of the type of culture needed. Participant 8 mentioned, “Having courageous
conversations and about diverse perspectives is really important.” Participant 7 added, “I think
cultural competence is realizing the diverse experiences that we have that could be based on race,
it could be based on gender, it could be based on age, it could be based on a variety of different
perspectives and experiences.” Participant 10 identified critical elements by recognizing the
bigger picture. Participant 10 shared,
As a teacher, I think the school as a whole has to be willing to take that on. And whereas I
was kind of applying that socio-cultural lens to thinking about my own classroom, I think
the whole school needs to be willing to do that and get the culturally relevant pedagogy
and recognize that as larger institutions are ways of doing things from big, broad things
down to minutiae are just a term that I’ve heard a lot recently here is agnostic. And I hate
that term because nothing is, in my opinion, nothing’s agnostic from that socio-cultural
view. Everything is embedded in some way with these different forces and shaped by
these things when they’re created.
Document Analysis
YIS’s website shows evidence in its strategic plan that they align with a culture that
supports culturally relevant pedagogy. Their website states that one of the critical parts of their
learning goals is cultural competence, in which students can collaborate with diverse people by
creating awareness of their cultural worldview and developing cross-cultural skills and a positive
attitude towards different cultures. In addition, the school website also shares specific steps that

81
the school will take in the next six years to achieve its strategic plan. One aspect is to allow
students to have more cross-cultural perspectives by enabling students to learn from the local and
neighboring regions in Southeast Asia. The various action steps the school plans on taking show
that there are concrete steps the school hopes to make in the next six years to achieve more
cultural competence. Many changes and measures are in place to improve this area school-wide.
The proposed actions that will be taken, if followed through, can help create a more
Summary
Based on the analysis of the interview responses, the assumed influence that teachers
need to be part of a culture that aligns with culturally relevant pedagogy, seen in the school’s
strategic plan, is determined to be a need. Seven out of nine participants had responses in their
interviews that decided this influence to be a need. The document analysis on the website
showed that specific action steps are in place to support students in becoming more culturally
competent. The action steps mentioned, such as revising the curriculum and co-curricular
experiences to show cross-cultural perspectives, will help align the culture to support CRP.
Cultural Models Influence 1. Teachers Need to Feel Supported by the Organization to
Implement Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Interview Findings
Four out of 10 participants felt supported in implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
Many participants remarked on how supported they felt by the administration in various ways.
Participant 4 stated,
I feel like the tone administration is extremely positive on it. I mean, if you read the
news, there’s pushback in you know, depending what state and you know, teachers get in
trouble in the United States for teaching critical race theory and all the stuff, and I think it
would be completely the opposite at our school. I feel extremely supported.

82
Participant 5 also shared, “Very supported. This administration has done a fantastic job of
respecting and embracing the cultural diversity of the school. And as they;ve done that, I think
it's allowed people to feel more comfortable exploring more ideas as they teach.” Participant 9
responded, “I think the administration, at least I could say in the middle school, is 100% behind
it.”
There were only 40% of participants mentioned feeling supported, but there were certain
things that could be done better, therefore making it an area of need. For example, Participant 7
stated,
I feel supported, but I feel like they could do a little more, but it would be more of like a
parent education. I know, though, sometimes other teachers have mentioned some parents
push back on some of the things that we're doing, and I wonder if the school could do a
little bit more to be a little bit more vocal.
Participant 8 added,
I feel very, very supported by YIS. I do feel like there’s a little bit of a culture of the
moral police, and you're full of saying the wrong thing and that there are people who see
themselves as a moral authority, and they get to make those decisions about what you’re
doing as, as culturally competent or not.
Participant 2 responded,
I’m fairly supported. I think we want to be doing it. And we are excited about the idea of
it. But I still get the feeling like any angry parent could shut it all down. But I don't get
the sense that, like, the admin is 100% behind it.
Summary

83
This assumed influence that teachers need to feel supported by the organization to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy was an area of need. Only 40% of teachers felt fully
supported by the administration in implementing culturally relevant pedagogy. There were
various reasons why teachers felt this way, including parent pushback and pressure would sway
the leadership and not fully support the work of implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
Even though many teachers did mention feeling supported, there should not be doubts that the
support will go away due to various factors.
Summary of Validated Influences
Tables 9, 10, and 11 show this study’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences and their determination as an asset or a need.

Table 9
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed knowledge influence Asset or
need
Factual

Teachers can define culturally relevant pedagogy Need

Procedural

Teachers know how to implement culturally relevant curriculum for their
classrooms.
Need

Metacognitive

Teachers need to know how to reflect on their ways of knowing in order to
utilize culturally relevant pedagogy.
Asset
Teachers need to know how to reflect on their practice in order to make changes
and next steps to implement culturally relevant pedagogy.
Need

84
Table 10
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed motivation influence Asset or
need
Value

Teachers need to value culturally relevant pedagogy. Need
Teachers need to value the students’ funds of knowledge. Asset
Teachers need to value the U.S. history of Asian Americans in the SS curriculum. Need

Self-Efficacy

Teachers need to have confidence that they can utilize culturally relevant
pedagogy.
Need
Teachers need to have confidence that they can address the various cultural
perspectives and history of Asian Americans.
Need

Table 11
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed organization influence Asset or
need
Resources

Teachers need resources to support professional development on culturally
relevant pedagogy.
Teachers need resources to reflect the contexts and history of Asian American
students.
Need

Asset

Cultural Settings

Teachers need to be part of a culture that aligns with culturally relevant pedagogy,
which is seen in the school’s strategic plan.
Need

Cultural Models

Teachers need to feel supported by the organization to implement culturally
relevant pedagogy.
Need

85
Chapter Five will present recommendations for solutions for these knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences based on empirical evidence found in the interviews and
document analysis as shown in Chapter Four. Chapter Five will answer the question: What are
the recommendations for YIS to support teachers in implementing culturally relevant pedagogy
that reflects the cultural context of Asian Americans in the curriculum.

86
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation
This project aimed to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
organizational problem of the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural
contexts of Asian American students. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis were grade
four to eight social studies YIS teachers. The analysis focused on the causes of this problem due
to gaps in the areas of staff members’ knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
resources. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed influences that were
examined systematically to focus on actual or validated causes.
As such, the first question that guided this study was, what is the knowledge &
motivation needed in relation to teachers to implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects
the cultural context of Asian Americans in the curriculum? The second question was, what
organizational factors are facilitating and/or inhibiting the enactment of CRP for Asian American
students?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Through qualitative data analysis, the recommendations are shared to address the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences determined as needs/gaps. These KMO
influences have been defined as either assets or needs in Chapter Four. They will be used to
determine the appropriate recommendations for the organization to meet its goal.
Knowledge Recommendations
Table 12 lists the causes, priorities, principles, and recommendations. Following the
table, a detailed discussion for each high-priority cause and recommendation and the literature
supporting the recommendation are provided. The study validated three knowledge influences as

87
needs through the data collected. There were one factual, one procedural, and one metacognitive
influence. The study showed that there was one asset which was a metacognitive influence.
Through interviews and document analysis, influences were determined as needs or assets. Table
12 shows a priority level for each influence in obtaining the goal and research-based principles
that support this recommendation. Following the table, a detailed discussion is shared for each
influence, the associated principle, the solution, and the context-specific recommendation based
on the literature.

Table 12
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed knowledge
influence
Asset
or
need
Priority
yes or
no
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Factual

Teachers can define
culturally relevant
pedagogy

Need Yes How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).

Provide targeted
learning
opportunities for
teachers on culturally
relevant pedagogy.

Procedural

Teachers know how to
implement culturally
relevant curriculum
for their classrooms.
Need Yes To develop mastery,
individuals
must acquire
component skills,
practice integrating
them, and
know when to apply
what they
have learned (Schraw
&
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide targeted
learning
opportunities for
teachers on how to
implement CRP into
the curriculum and
PLC work.

88
Assumed knowledge
influence
Asset
or
need
Priority
yes or
no
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Metacognitive
Teachers need to know
how to reflect on
their ways of
knowing in order to
utilize culturally
relevant pedagogy.

Asset

Yes

The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitate
learning
(Baker, 2006).

Provide opportunities
for teachers to
engage in guided
self-reflection and
self-monitoring of
their teaching
practices.

Teachers need to know
how to reflect on
their practice in
order to make
changes and next
steps to implement
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

Need

Yes

The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitate
learning
(Baker, 2006).

Provide targeted
training and time for
teachers to self-
reflect on their
practice.

Factual Knowledge Solutions. Teachers need to be able to define culturally relevant
pedagogy to implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural context of Asian
Americans in the curriculum. This influence was determined to be a high priority because this
foundational knowledge is essential to implementing culturally relevant pedagogy effectively.
Schraw and McCrudden (2006) stated that individuals organized knowledge influences based on
how they learn and apply what they know. This would suggest that providing learners research-
based strategies for implementing culturally relevant pedagogy would support their learning. The
recommendation is that teachers be provided targeted learning opportunities on culturally
relevant pedagogy, so a clear understanding and foundation can be established across the school.
Teachers need to know what culturally relevant pedagogy is and is not. Ladson-Billings’
(1995) definition of culturally relevant pedagogy included three essential criteria: students

89
experiencing academic success, developing and maintaining cultural competence, and
developing a critical consciousness that challenges the status quo. Teachers will need to know all
three of these criteria to implement culturally relevant pedagogy effectively. Therefore, teachers
will need to receive targeted professional development in which teachers that clearly define
culturally relevant pedagogy will be essential. They will need consistency and agreement as a
school on this definition, ensuring the vertical alignment from the elementary to high school.
Procedural Knowledge Solutions. Teachers need to know how to implement culturally
relevant curriculum for their classrooms. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) found that to develop
mastery, individuals must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to
apply what they have learned. This suggests that providing teachers with targeted learning
opportunities to implement CRP into their curriculum will allow teachers to effectively reflect
the students' funds of knowledge and provide more equitable learning opportunities in the
classroom.
Mayer (2011) stated evidence-based principles for studying by practicing. Mayer (2011)
mentioned that people learn better when they receive explanative feedback on their performance
and are provided with guidance such as modeling, coaching, and scaffolding. Teachers will need
to be provided with learning opportunities that give feedback and advice on implementing CRP
into the curriculum will be critical. Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) stated the importance of
valuing diverse funds of knowledge from the students and considering the knowledge they bring
in as you plan the curriculum. Therefore, the curriculum should provide opportunities for the
students to utilize their funds of knowledge.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions. Teachers need to know how to reflect on their
practice in order to make changes and next steps to implement culturally relevant pedagogy.

90
Baker (2006) stated that the use of metacognitive strategies facilitates learning. Therefore, the
recommendation is that all teachers be provided opportunities to engage in guided self-reflection
and self-monitoring of their teaching practices. This will help teachers be able to implement CRP
more effectively.
Krathwohl (2002) concluded learners need to be made aware of the metacognitive
activity and use that knowledge to adapt how they think and act. Mayer (2011) acknowledged
that metacognition plays a crucial role in learning by helping guide learners’ cognitive
processing of the material they are trying to learn. Sleeter & Flores Carmona (2017) found that
teachers must examine their epistemological beliefs and reflect on their assumptions when
participating in multicultural pedagogy. Sleeter & Flores Carmona (2017) also stated that
teachers need to be engaged in reflection on their assumptions and beliefs.
Motivation Recommendations
The study showed four motivation influences are needs based on the qualitative data
collected from interviews and document analysis. There are two values and two self-efficacy
influences that are needs. There is one value influence that is an asset. Table 13 lists the
motivation causes, priorities, principles, and recommendations. Following the table, a detailed
discussion for each high-priority cause and recommendations from the literature supporting the
recommendation is provided.

91
Table 13
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed motivation
influence
Priority
high
low
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Value

Teachers need to value
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

High
(need)
Include rationales about
the
importance and utility
value of
the task (Pintrich, 2003).
Point out how culturally
relevant pedagogy will
be beneficial for all
students.
Teachers need to value the
students’ funds of
knowledge.
Low
(asset)
Materials and activities
should
be relevant and valuable
to the learners,
connected to their
interests, and based on
real-world tasks
(Pintrich, 2003).
Point out how valuing the
students’ funds of
knowledge will be
important and beneficial
for all students.
Teachers need to value the
U.S. history of Asian
Americans in the SS
curriculum.
High
(need)
Model values,
enthusiasm and
interest in the task
(Eccles,
2006).
Point out the importance of
valuing the U.S. history
of Asian Americans
through the SS
curriculum.
Self-efficacy

Teachers need to have
confidence that they can
utilize culturally
relevant pedagogy.
High
(need)
High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares,
2006)

Make it clear that teachers
are capable of learning
and implementing
culturally relevant
pedagogy.
Teachers need to have
confidence that they can
address the various
cultural perspectives
and history of Asian
Americans.
High
(need)
High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares,
2006)
Provide specific training on
addressing the various
perspectives and allow
for continued coaching
and support.

Value Solutions. Teachers need to value culturally relevant pedagogy. This influence
was chosen as a high priority over the other two values influences. This influence is an area of

92
need, and if teachers value culturally relevant pedagogy, the other two influences will follow.
Teachers need to value the students’ funds of knowledge as low priority as this influence was an
asset. Pintrich (2003) found that you need to include rationales about the importance and utility
value of the task. Therefore, training methods must highlight how culturally relevant pedagogy
will benefit all students.
Mayer (2011) explained that students work harder to learn when the material they know
has value or interest. Rueda (2011) stated that a motivational principle is that the greater an
individual values an activity, the more likely they choose, persist, and engage in it. Schunk
(2020) mentioned that the learner’s interest would affect motivation and learning in many ways.
When learners are interested in the activities, they are more motivated to engage in them and
contribute to understanding. Teachers will need to value and be interested in implementing
culturally relevant pedagogy and teaching the U.S. history of Asian Americans in the SS
curriculum.
Self-Efficacy Solutions. Teachers need to have confidence that they can utilize culturally
relevant pedagogy. Pajares (2006) stated that high self-efficacy could positively influence
motivation. Therefore, professional development leaders must mention in training how teachers
are capable of this new learning. The recommendation is to make it clear that teachers are
capable of understanding and implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
Mayer (2011) emphasized that students with high self-efficacy beliefs will show more
effort to learn. Schunk (2020) added that repeated success builds learners’ perceptions of
competence and that they are more likely to choose complex tasks because they feel capable of
achieving them. Rueda (2011) stated that learners with higher efficacy and higher expectancies
for positive outcomes would be more motivated in the activity they are engaged in. Therefore, it

93
will be critical to provide specific training on how to address the various perspectives and allow
for continued coaching and support that will enable teachers to feel more confident in their
ability and skills in implementing CRP and addressing the different perspectives of Asian
Americans.
Organization Recommendations
The study showed that three areas were needs based on the qualitative data collected from
interviews and document analysis. There were three organizational influences on the problem of
practice: one cultural setting, one cultural model, and one resource influence. Table 14 lists the
organization’s causes, priorities, principles, and recommendations. Following the table, a
detailed discussion for each high-priority cause and recommendation and the literature
supporting the recommendation are provided.

94
Table 14
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed organization
influence
Priority
high
low
Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Cultural models
Teachers need to feel
supported by the
organization to
implement culturally
relevant pedagogy.

High
(need)

Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the
resources needed to do their
job and that if there are
resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with
organizational priorities
(Clark and Estes, 2008).

Communicate with all
stakeholders that
culturally relevant
pedagogy is a priority
in the school and will
be supported.
Cultural Settings
Teachers need to be
part of a culture that
aligns with culturally
relevant pedagogy,
which is seen in the
school’s strategic
plan.

High
(need)

Accountability is increased
when individual roles and
expectations are aligned
with organizational goals
and mission (Elmore, 2002).

Establish that culturally
relevant pedagogy is a
key part of the
school’s strategic
plan.

Resources
Teachers need
resources to support
professional
development on
culturally relevant
pedagogy.

High
(need)

Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the
resources needed to do their
job and that if there are
resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with
organizational priorities
(Clark and Estes, 2008).

Establish culturally
relevant pedagogy as a
priority among school
initiatives.
Teachers need
resources to reflect
the contexts and
history of Asian
American students.
High
(asset)
Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has the
resources needed to do their
job and that if there are
resource shortages, then
resources are aligned with
organizational priorities
(Clark and Estes, 2008).
Provide consultants and
resources that help
teachers reflect on the
contexts and history of
Asian American
students.

95
Cultural Model Solutions
Teachers need to feel supported by the organization to implement culturally relevant
pedagogy. Clarke and Estes (2008) stated that practical change efforts ensure that everyone has
the resources needed to do their job and that resources are aligned with organizational priorities
if there are resource shortages. Therefore, it is recommended to communicate with all
stakeholders that culturally relevant pedagogy is a priority in the school and will be supported.
Sleeter and Flores Carmona (2017) emphasized that leaders, including principals, need to
support the culturally relevant work that teachers are doing. The leaders will need to support
teachers as there can be many constraints that teachers face, like following curriculum standards
and textbooks that may not allow for implementing culturally relevant pedagogy (Sleeter &
Flores Carmona, 2017). Khalifa (2018) stated that researchers have found that school leadership
is one of the essential factors in creating positive change and reform. Therefore, school leaders
must ensure that the school implements culturally relevant pedagogy (Khalifa, 2018). Khalifa
(2018) stated that teachers must have support from leaders who provide the appropriate modeling
for educators to do this work.
Cultural Settings Solutions
Teachers need to be part of a culture that aligns with culturally relevant pedagogy, which
is seen in the school’s strategic plan. Elmore (2002) stated that accountability increases when
individual roles and expectations are aligned with organizational goals and mission. Establishing
that culturally relevant pedagogy is a crucial part of the school’s strategic plan is recommended.
Fullan (2001) stated that leaders need to be part of work that is reculturing, in which they
are transforming the culture. Leadership must produce the capacity to seek, critically assess, and
selectively incorporate new ideas and practices (Fullan, 2001). Rueda (2011) highlighted the

96
importance of understanding the characteristics of the cultural settings that make up that entity to
influence the organization’s behavior. The organization’s structures, practices, and policies affect
whether the goals are met due to the cultural settings (Rueda, 2011). Khalifa (2018) mentioned
the importance of school leaders promoting and supporting cultural responsiveness for it to be
present and sustainable in schools.
Resources Solutions
Teachers need resources to support professional development on culturally relevant
pedagogy. Effective change efforts ensure that everyone has the resources necessary to do their
job and that if there are resource shortages, then resources are aligned with organizational
priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, the recommendation is to establish culturally
relevant pedagogy as a priority among school initiatives.
Khalifa (2018) stated that schools must provide culturally responsive training and
professional development to maintain cultural responsiveness and high expectations of all
students. Schools must bring process and content experts to have a sustainable reform plan
(Khalifa, 2018). Research has shown that many teachers often feel frustrated from lack of
support in implementing culturally relevant curriculum and did not receive enough professional
development in curriculum planning (Sleeter & Flores Carmona, 2017).
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Recommendations
The recommendations given for the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences to be achieved will support the stakeholders in achieving their goals. The knowledge
influences were divided into factual, procedural, and metacognitive influences. Through targeted
learning opportunities for teachers on how to implement CRP into the curriculum and PLC work,
along with training on reflecting on their ways of knowing and their practice, teachers will gain

97
the skills and knowledge to achieve their goals. Values and self-efficacy categorize the
motivation influences. Teachers will be provided specific training on addressing the various
perspectives and allow for continued coaching and support. Throughout the training, there will
be multiple opportunities to share the value of culturally relevant pedagogy, the students’ funds
of knowledge, and the U.S. history of Asian Americans. The organization influences are divided
by resources, cultural settings, and cultural models. The recommendation is to communicate with
all stakeholders that culturally relevant pedagogy is a priority in the school and will be
supported. This will be key in setting the cultural model that teachers are supported in this work.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The mission of Yishun International School (YIS) is to give students an excellent
American educational experience with a worldview. YIS’s institutional commitment states a
common guaranteed viable curriculum through the inquiry-driven, culturally responsive, and
relevant curriculum. The units are culturally responsive, provide opportunities for inquiry, and
result in application and transfer of learning. To meet the institutional commitment of a
culturally responsive curriculum, the implementation of a SS curriculum that is culturally
relevant pedagogy and reflects the cultural contexts of the Asian American students will meet the
broader institutional goal.
Organizational Purpose, Needs, and Expectations
The stakeholder group’s goal is that by June 2023, it will implement culturally relevant
pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of the Asian American students within the social
studies curriculum from the fourth to eighth grade. The achievement of YIS’s goal will be
measured by the implemented SS curriculum in 2023. This goal relates to the achievement of
YIS’s mission and goal of providing a culturally responsive curriculum that provides students

98
with an excellent American educational experience with a worldview. Through reflecting the
cultural contexts of Asian American students, it provides a perspective that is often ignored and
invisible in the U.S. curriculum. The expectation for the desired outcomes of this implementation
and evaluation plan is that the SS teachers are trained effectively in implementing culturally
relevant pedagogy that reflects Asian American students.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The new world Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was used to design
an integrated implementation and evaluation plan. This New World Kirkpatrick model starts
with Level 4, the results, to plan a successful training program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). This allows the focus to be on the most important, the results; then, you need to think
about Level 4, which is the behaviors to produce good results. Afterward, you determine what
training or support is necessary for the workers to perform well on the job, which is Level 2,
learning. Finally, you can consider the type of training needed to obtain the required skills, Level
1, which is the reaction. This model is different from the historical Kirkpatrick model because it
is designed in reverse by starting with Level 4 with the results in mind. The new world
Kirkpatrick model allows organizations to create an effective training evaluation plan that will
ensure their resources are dedicated to the programs that will make the most impact.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
The new world Kirkpatrick (2016) level 4 measures the degree to which targeted
outcomes occur due to the learning event. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that results
are a combination of the organizational purpose and mission. The leading indicators bridge the
gap between individual initiatives and efforts and the organizational results (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The short-term observations and measurements that would indicate that the

99
stakeholder is achieving the desired outcomes or results include the implementation of culturally
relevant pedagogy by elementary and middle school teachers. Also, when fourth to eighth-grade
teachers have adapted the SS curriculum to reflect the cultural context and history of Asian
American students. In addition, when all grade four to eight teachers utilize PLCs to plan and
implement culturally relevant pedagogy collaboratively, it will indicate that the stakeholder is
achieving the desired results. These are the critical internal outcome observations. These
observations will be measured by various metrics, such as the number of SS units integrating
culturally relevant pedagogy and Asian American history and resources. Table 15 shows the
Level 4 leading indicators for the external and internal outcomes. It also shows the metrics and
methods used to measure them.

100

Table 15
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes

YIS teachers create curriculum that
reflects Asian American history
and culture that other schools
utilize.
Number of schools that use
the curriculum resources
created.

Review of SS units and
lesson plans
Internal Outcomes

Implementation of culturally
relevant pedagogy by elementary
and middle school teachers.
Number of SS units that
integrate culturally
relevant pedagogy.
Review of SS units and
lesson plans
Classroom observations
using a protocol that
outlines the
implementation steps.
All grade 4-8 teachers have
adapted the SS curriculum to
reflect the cultural context and
history of Asian American
students.
Number of SS units that
integrate Asian
American history and
resources.
Review of SS units and
lesson plans
Classroom observations
using a protocol that
outlines the
implementation steps.
All grade 4-8 teachers understand
the principles and criteria for
culturally relevant pedagogy and
use this knowledge to adapt the
curriculum.
Frequency of use of
terminology associated
with culturally relevant
pedagogy during PLC
meetings.
PLC Meeting Minutes
Attend PLC meetings
Class Observations using
a protocol that outlines
the implementation
steps.

All grade 4-8 teachers utilize PLCs
to plan and implement culturally
relevant pedagogy
collaboratively.

Frequency of PLC
meetings that focus on
culturally relevant
pedagogy.
Frequency of opportunities
for collaboration and
planning culturally
relevant pedagogy.

PLC Meeting Minutes
Attend PLC meetings

101

Level 3: Critical Behavior
Level 3 of the new world Kirkpatrick model measures the degree to which participants
apply what they learned during training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The three aspects of
level 3 behavior include critical behaviors, required drivers, and on-the-job learning. The key
behavior that the teachers will have to demonstrate to achieve the outcomes will be identifying
the following steps to implement a culturally relevant curriculum that reflects the lives and
history of Asian Americans, value the teaching of U.S. history of Asian Americans, and have
resources and professional development to reflect the lives and history of Asian American
students. Table 16 shows the critical behaviors and the metrics of how they will be measured,
along with the specific methods and timing for evaluating them.

102

Table 16
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
In PLCs, teachers identify the
next steps they need to
implement a culturally
relevant curriculum that
reflects the lives and history
of Asian Americans.
Number of teachers who
are implementing
culturally relevant
curriculum.
Number of minutes spent
in PLC meetings.
Number of times SS units
reflect the lives and
history of Asian
Americans.

SS unit plans
Class observations
PLC meeting
minutes shared
with coaches
and/or admin
Weekly

Teachers value the teaching of
U.S. history of Asian
Americans in the SS
curriculum.

Number of times the U.S.
history of Asian
Americans are included
in the SS units.
Number of minutes spent
in PLC meetings
teaching US history of
Asian Americans.

PLC meeting
minutes
SS unit plans
Class observations

Quarterly

Teachers have resources and
professional development to
reflect the lives and history
of Asian American
students.

Number of times in the
U.S. history of Asian
Americans been
included in the SS units.
Number of minutes spent
in PLC meetings on

SS unit plans
PLC meeting
minutes
Professional
Development
Calendar

Quarterly
training and resources on
culturally relevant
pedagogy and reflecting
the lives of Asian
Americans.
Number of resources
teachers have in their
classroom that reflect
the lives and history of
Asian American
students.

103

Required Drivers
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that required drivers are processes and systems
that reinforce, monitor, encourage and reward the performance of critical behaviors. Table 17
shows the required drivers to support the critical behaviors mentioned above. These required
drivers are necessary to achieve the desired on-the-job application of what is learned in training
to accomplish the stakeholder's goals.

Table 17
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
behaviors
supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Job Aids: Sharing different curriculum resources on reflecting
Asian Americans in US history.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Coaching to support implementing culturally relevant pedagogy. Ongoing 1, 2, 3

Encouraging

Administrators and PLC members listen to challenges and problem
solve together
Monthly 1, 3
Feedback from coaches and PLC leaders on what is going well and
the next steps

Monthly 1, 3

Rewarding

Personalized, handwritten letter from administrator or coaches
recognizing the effort and work.
Regularly 1, 2, 3
Celebrating PLC's work at the end of the school year by sharing
out positive examples and experiences of implementing
culturally relevant pedagogy.
Once a
year
1, 2, 3

Monitoring

Observations by coaches and principals Monthly 1, 2, 3
Touch bases/meetings with teachers, coaches, and administrators. Monthly 1, 2, 3
Review meeting minutes Quarterly 1, 2, 3

104

Organizational Support
The critical behaviors listed in Table 16 and the required drivers listed in Table 17 are
dependent on organizational support. The cultural models, cultural settings, and resources at YIS
need to support the organizational performance goal that YIS will implement culturally relevant
pedagogy that consistently reflects the experiences and cultural contexts of Asian American
students within the social studies curriculum from the fourth to eighth grade. The data analysis in
Chapter Four found that teachers are motivated and open to learning more about culturally
relevant pedagogy and how to implement it into the social studies curriculum. Teachers were
honest about not having the confidence to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy and address the
various cultural perspectives and history of Asian Americans.
The analysis of interview responses showed that teachers did not feel like they were a
part of a culture that aligns with culturally relevant pedagogy nor supported by the organization
to implement culturally relevant pedagogy. Therefore, it will be critical for the leadership at YIS
to support the critical behaviors through the required drivers. Administrators and coaches will
play an active role in the needed drivers, such as observing teachers and providing feedback and
encouragement to teachers as they go through the training program.
Level 2: Learning
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) defined learning as the degree to which participants
acquire the intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes when participating in the learning event.
Learning Goals

105
The knowledge, motivation, and organization solutions at the end of Chapter Four were
used to help create the following learning goals. Upon completion of the recommended
solutions, the fourth to eighth-grade social studies teachers will be able to:
1. Define culturally relevant pedagogy (F)
2. Implement a culturally relevant curriculum in your classroom (P)
3. Reflect on your ways of knowing in order to utilize culturally relevant pedagogy (M)
4. Reflect on your practice to make changes and the next steps to implement culturally
relevant pedagogy. (M)
5. Value the U.S. history of Asian Americans in the SS curriculum (Value)
6. Be confident that you can address the various cultural perspectives and history of
Asian Americans (Self-efficacy)
Program
The training program will respond to the stakeholder’s goal that by Fall 2023, social
studies teachers will feel confident in implementing culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the
lived experiences and history of Asian Americans. The teachers will be supported by
instructional coaches, administrators, and educational consultants to achieve this goal. Experts
will facilitate the training program in culturally relevant pedagogy and Asian American studies
in and outside YIS.
The evaluation and implementation plan will focus on building a foundation for culturally
relevant pedagogy and utilizing experts in this area from YIS and additional experts outside the
school. The training will also focus on having teachers reflect on their ways of knowing and their
practice to implement culturally relevant pedagogy. It will be critical that coaches and
administrators attend this training. The training will involve experts not only in the process but

106
the content of Asian American history in the U.S. All SS teachers will need to attend the training
either before school starts or at the beginning of the school year. This initial training session will
set the foundation through critical reflection, content knowledge of U.S. history that focuses on
Asian Americans, and collaboration within PLCs to plan units of study that utilize culturally
relevant pedagogy.
The follow-up training will occur throughout the year with monthly check-ins,
observations, and reflections. The training will also be embedded into the PLC work that grade-
level teams are part of throughout the year. Instead of being an add-on to PLCs, the structure of
PLC meetings would embed critical reflection and collaboration to share and implement
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American students. The instructional
coaches at each grade level PLC will play a vital role in the training. They will also be trained
separately on effectively supporting and providing feedback to teachers on implementing
culturally relevant pedagogy. The coaches will model and support teachers in self-reflection to
make changes and next steps in implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
Teachers will be monitored through monthly feedback from coaches and PLC leaders on
what is going well and the next steps. Administrators will also encourage by listening to
challenges and problem solving together. They will also reward the teachers through handwritten
notes and a celebration of the achievements and positive work towards achieving the stakeholder
goal.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Table 18 lists the evaluation of the components of learning for the program. Through the
following methods or activities listed, they will be used to evaluate the learning goals of the
training program. The methods or activities are organized by declarative knowledge, procedural

107
skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment. Each method or activity is given a time frame in
which it should continue to evaluate if the training program was effective. It is critical to
evaluate the teachers’ declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge to achieve the learning
goals. In addition, their attitude, confidence, and commitment will also be assessed to ensure that
their motivation is not decreasing.

Table 18
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Explaining key criteria of culturally relevant pedagogy in
pairs and PLCs.
During and after

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Implement a culturally relevant curriculum through the SS
units.
After training

Self-reflect on their ways of knowing in order to utilize
culturally relevant pedagogy.
After training and ongoing

Self-reflect on their practice to make changes and next steps
to implement culturally relevant pedagogy.
After training and ongoing

Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Pre and post-survey of fourth-eighth grade SS teachers. Before and after training

Discussions at the grade level about the value and rationale
for the learning.
Before and after training

Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Post survey of teachers with Likert scaled items related to
confidence.
After training

Discussion within PLCs and with the coach. After training

Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Observations by coaches and/or admin. After training and ongoing to
monitor progress

Self-reflections on goals and progress. After training and ongoing to
monitor progress

108
Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that Level 1, reaction, is the degree to which
participants react favorably to the learning event. Table 19 shows the components to measure
reactions to the program regarding engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction.
Table 19
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Observations of how present and attentive teachers are during
the training.
During
Feedback from instructors on participant engagement. During

Relevance

Check-in by the instructor during the training During training
Anonymous survey on the relevance of the training to classroom
instruction.
After training sessions
Discussions with teachers on the new learning During and ongoing PLC
meetings

Customer Satisfaction

Feedback from teachers through a survey on what is working
and what could be improved
During
Feedback from instructor During

109
Evaluation Tools
Through blended evaluation methodology (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), information
about the effectiveness of the training program will be collected using various tools and methods.
The evaluation tool (Appendix E) will be used immediately after the training to assess Level 1
and Level 2. The anonymous survey will allow the participants to provide immediate feedback to
the coaches and administrators.
Appendix F is the evaluation tool that will be delayed for a period after training and given
six months after to assess how effective the training was and whether the stakeholders are still
utilizing culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American students. This survey
consists of one to two items per category for Levels 1,2,3 and 4 using the appropriate rating
scale. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that there should be a delay after the training
program for participants to reflect on the program and time for the drivers and critical behaviors
to have an effect.
Data Analysis and Reporting
It will be critical that data is collected during and after the training program
implementation to see if the learning goals are being met. The findings from the immediate
instrument of the anonymous survey (Appendix E) given right after the training will be shared
with the teachers, coaches, and administrators within a week. Through the use of pie charts, the
Likert-type responses will be shared. The open-ended questions will be analyzed and categorized
by theme and shared in slides. The data from the delayed evaluation tool will also be shared with
the stakeholders within a week after being collected as well in the same manner.
During the end of the year PLC celebration, each grade level PLC will share their
reflections, including the challenges and successes of their application of the training and their

110
work towards the organizational goal. The teachers will also be encouraged to share their
resources and units of study so that other grade-level PLCs can access and see the work that has
been done. A website with all the resources and units of study that implemented culturally
relevant pedagogy and Asian American history will be created and shared to access all the
documents easily. This website can also be shared as a resource for other schools interested in
implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The new world Kirkpatrick model provided a framework for creating an effective training
evaluation plan for any program that will ensure that the valuable and limited resources are
utilized effectively (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model emphasized three reasons to
evaluate training programs: to improve the program, to maximize the transfer of learning to
behavior, and to demonstrate the value of training to the organization. Through this model, an
implementation and evaluation plan was developed that addressed the gaps identified through the
data analysis in Chapter Four.
Through this framework, the advantage is starting with Level 4, the results. It allows you
first to consider the leading indicators you plan to influence and devise a plan on how this will
contribute to the organization. Then, through Level 3, the critical behaviors and required drivers
to achieve the goals are identified. After, in Level 2, creating the learning goals and evaluating
the learning happens. Finally, in Level 1, a plan to measure the reaction to the training is
developed.
There are various opportunities for data collection through the use of evaluation tools
immediately and delayed after the program training through the anonymous surveys that are

111
located in Appendix F, and Appendix G. These tools will help provide data to measure the
effectiveness of the training and provide next steps in continuing this work at YIS and elsewhere.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study has various limitations, including the researcher’s role within the organization,
limited time, and small sample size. In addition, YIS was the only school that was part of the
research, which may reduce the study’s validity. Also, only ten teachers were interviewed, a
small sample size of the total stakeholder population. Therefore, if more teachers were
interviewed, the results could have produced deeper insights into the factors affecting the
implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy at YIS. The study’s author is also a teacher at the
school, which could have resulted in bias in the interpretation of the data. There was also a
limited time to conduct the research and analyze the results, which could also affect the data.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study analyzed the KMO influences affecting the teachers’ ability to implement
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the history and cultural contexts of Asian American
students within the social studies curriculum. This study focused on the stakeholder group of
fourth to eighth-grade social studies teachers. Future research could broaden the focus to include
high school social studies teachers. Another future study could focus on analyzing a group of
schools in the U.S. and international schools on how they implement culturally relevant
pedagogy that reflects the Asian American students.
Conclusions
This study focused on the fourth- to eighth-grade teachers as stakeholders that
significantly contribute to the organizational goal of achieving culturally relevant pedagogy that
reflects the U.S. history of Asian Americans in social studies classrooms. The large population of

112
Asian American students in YIS and the importance of culturally relevant pedagogy reflecting
the students’ lives and history are critical, especially at an international school that follows an
American curriculum and standards.
In the conclusion of this study, there is a clear training plan to help address the gaps that
cause the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian
American students. Through the focus on the social studies teachers from grades, four to eight as
the stakeholders, the implementation and evaluation of the training program will address the gaps
in knowledge, motivation, and organization. Asian Americans within the international schools
should no longer be invisible or ignored in the social studies curriculum. Through these
recommendations and training programs, international schools can make an impact through
culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects Asian American students

113
References
An, S. (2016). Asian Americans in American history: An asiancrit perspective on Asian
American inclusion in state U.S. history curriculum standards. Theory & Research in
Social Education, 44(2), 244–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2016.1170646
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological
Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191
Brookfield, S. (2009). Critical Reflection as an Adult Learning Process. In Handbook of
Reflection and Reflective Inquiry (pp. 215–236). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-
85744-2_11
Brown, B. A., Boda, P., Lemmi, C., & Monroe, X. (2019). Moving Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy From Theory to Practice: Exploring Teachers’ Application of Culturally
Relevant Education in Science and Mathematics. Urban Education (Beverly Hills, Calif.),
54(6), 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085918794802
Clark, R. E. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right performance
solutions. Information Age Publishing Inc.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York: NYU
Press.
Elmore, R. F. (2002). Bridging the gap between standards and achievement: The Imperative for
Professional Development in Education. Albert Shanker Institute.
Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and School Improvement Research. Educational Psychologist,
36(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3601_5

114
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and Practice. Choice Reviews
Online, 38(03). https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.38-1683
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education,
53(2), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003
Goodwin, A. L. (2010). Curriculum as Colonizer: (Asian) American education in the current
U.S. context. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 112(12),
3102–3138. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811011201201
Goodwin, A. (2004). Exploring the perspectives of teacher educators of color: What do they
bring to teacher education? Issues in Teacher Education, v13 n2 7-24 Fall 2004
Hinnershitz, S. (2020). Across the divides: Beyond School, Nation, and the 1965 immigration act
in the history of Asian American Education. History of Education Quarterly, 60(4), 623–
631. https://doi.org/10.1017/heq.2020.40
Iftikar, J. S., & Museus, S. D. (2018). On the utility of Asian critical (AsianCrit) theory in the
field of Education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 31(10),
935–949. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2018.1522008
Journell, W. (2009). Setting out the (un) welcome mat: A portrayal of immigration in state
standards for American history. The Social Studies, 100(4), 160–168.
https://doi.org/10.3200/tsss.100.4.160-168
Khalifa, M. A. (2018). Culturally responsive school leadership. Harvard Education Press.
Khalifa, M. A., Gooden, M. A., & Davis, J. E. (2016). Culturally responsive school leadership.
Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 1272–1311.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316630383

115
Kiang, L., Witkow, M. R., & Thompson, T. L. (2015). Model minority stereotyping, perceived
discrimination, and adjustment among adolescents from Asian American backgrounds.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(7), 1366–1379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-
015-0336-7
Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation.
ATD Press.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory Into Practice,
41(4), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2
Ladson-Billings, G. (2013). Critical race theory—what it is not! Handbook of Critical Race
Theory in Education, 34–37. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203155721.ch3
Ladson‐Billings, G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! the case for culturally relevant
pedagogy. Theory Into Practice, 34(3), 159–165.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405849509543675
Lumadi, M. W. (2020). Fostering an equitable curriculum for all: A social cohesion lens.
Education as Change, 24. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/5657
López, G., Ruiz, N. G., & Patten, E. (2017, September 8). Key facts about Asian Americans, a
diverse and growing population. Pew Research Center. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/08/key-facts-about-asian-americans/
Mathews, J. (2018). Curriculum exposed. Routledge.
Mayer, R. E. (2011). Applying the science of learning. Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.

116
Museus, S. D., & Kiang, P. N. (2009). Deconstructing the model minority myth and how it
contributes to the invisible minority reality in higher education research. New Directions
for Institutional Research, 2009(142), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.292
Naseem Rodríguez, N. (2018). “caught between two worlds”: Asian American Elementary
Teachers’ enactment of Asian American history. Educational Studies, 55(2), 214–240.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131946.2018.1467320
Pajares, F. (2006). Articles. Self-Efficacy Theory. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/self-efficacy-theory/
Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in
learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667
Poon, O. Y., Squire, D., Kodama, C., Byrd, A., Chan, J., Manzano, L., Furr, S., & Bishundat, D.
(2016). A critical review of the model minority myth in selected literature on Asian
Americans and Pacific Islanders in higher education. Review of Educational Research,
86(2), 469–502. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315612205
Ruday, S. (2019). Culturally relevant teaching in the English Language Arts Classroom: A guide
for teachers. Routledge.
Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance: Finding the right solutions
to the right problems. Teachers College Press.
Schunk, D. H. (2020). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.
Sleeter, C. E. (2012). Confronting the marginalization of culturally responsive pedagogy. Urban
Education, 47(3), 562–584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085911431472

117
Sleeter, C. E., & Carmona, F. J. (2017). Un-standardizing curriculum: Multicultural teaching in
the standards-based classroom (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.
Takeda, O. (2016). A model minority? the misrepresentation and underrepresentation of Asian
Pacific Americans in introductory American government textbooks. Journal of Political
Science Education, 12(4), 387–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2016.1142449
Tanase, M. (2020). Is good teaching culturally responsive? Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(3),
187–202. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpr.2020063333
Teranishi, R. T. (2002). Asian Pacific Americans and critical race theory: An examination of
school racial climate. Equity & Excellence in Education, 35(2), 144–154.
https://doi.org/10.1080/713845281
Xu, J., & Lee, J. C. (2013). The marginalized “model” minority: An empirical examination of the
racial triangulation of Asian Americans. Social Forces, 91(4), 1363–1397.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sot049

118
Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Thank you for allowing me to interview you today. I appreciate you taking the time from
your day to help me with my research as a doctoral student at USC. The interview should take
about 1 hour. Does that still work for you?
I will share with you a brief overview of this study and answer any questions you might
have. I am a student at USC and conducting a study on the different factors that influence
elementary and middle school social studies teachers in achieving culturally relevant pedagogy
that reflects the Asian American cultural contexts of our students. I am particularly interested in
learning more about how teacher perspectives on cultural competence and CRP and how the
school can support teachers in this work.
As a researcher, I want to assure you that none of these questions are evaluative. I will
not be making any judgments on your performance as a teacher. My goal is to understand your
perspective as a social studies teacher.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet (Appendix C) I provided to you previously, this
interview is confidential. What that means is that your name will not be shared with anyone
outside of the research team. I will not share them with other teachers, the principal, or the
administration. The data for this study will be compiled into a report and while I do plan on
using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I
will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of
the data I gather from you. I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are
interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after 3 years.

119
Questions
1. Setting the Stage
I’d like to start off by asking some background questions about you.
First, tell me about your background in education.
• How long have you worked in the field?
• What roles or positions have you held?
• How did you decide to become a social studies teacher? (Only ask middle school
teachers.)
Tell me about your role at YIS.
• How many years have you worked at YIS?
• What roles or positions have you held?
Now I’d like to ask you about the SS curriculum.
• Tell me about how you plan for units of study in SS.
• Describe a specific example of a recent unit you planned out. What steps did you
take?
• (O) What SS resources do you have access to at YIS?
• How diverse are the SS resources that you use, if at all?
• Could you give me examples of any resources that reflect the Asian American
cultural contexts of your students, if any?
2. Heart of the Interview
Thank you for sharing your background. Now I’d like to ask you about your thoughts on cultural
competence at YIS.
• (K) What does cultural competence mean to you as a teacher?

120
• (O) YIS defines cultural competence as functioning effectively with people of
different cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds by building awareness of one’s
own cultural worldview, and developing cross-cultural skills and a positive attitude
towards cultural differences.
• Can you describe the critical elements of a school culture that would align with the
implementation of a culturally relevant pedagogy?
• (K) How does cultural competence play a role in your classroom, if at all?
• Describe a specific lesson that focused on cultural competence, if at all.
• (O) What types of professional development have you received on implementing
cultural competence into the SS curriculum at YIS, if any?
• (O) How supported do you feel by YIS to implement culturally relevant pedagogy?
Next, I’ll ask you about the cultural context of the Asian American students at YIS and the role
curriculum plays.
• (M) Think about a recent time when you reflected the cultural contexts of your Asian
American students in a unit of study, if at all. Tell me about it.
• (K) In what ways does the SS curriculum reflect the history Asian American students,
if at all?
• How does the curriculum represent the diversity of Asian Americans, if at all?
• How does the curriculum represent leaders from the Asian American community, if at
all?
• What types of stories or narratives are shared about Asian Americans in history, if at
all?

121
• (M) How confident are you to address the various cultural perspectives and history of
Asian Americans?
• (M) Some people might say that it is too difficult to reflect the cultural contexts of
your Asian American students in your school through the SS curriculum. What are
your thoughts about this perspective?
• (O) In an ideal school, what support would a teacher need to reflect the cultural
contexts of the Asian American students?
• What types of PD would be important to have?
• What support would leadership need to provide?
3. Closing Question:
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation about implementing cultural
competence and/or CRP practices today that I might not have covered, if any?
4. Closing
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you
for participating in my study. As a thank you, please accept this small token of my appreciation.
5. Post-interview summary and reflection

122
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter
Dear Valued Member of the Yishun International School community,

Hello! My name is Jee Young Kim, and I am currently pursuing my Doctoral degree at the
Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California (USC). I am conducting a
study entitled Reflecting Asian American Students in our Social Studies Curriculum through
culturally relevant pedagogy. The purpose of this study is to conduct a gap analysis to examine
the root causes of the organizational problem described above, the lack of culturally relevant
pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian American students.

You are receiving this letter because you have been selected to participate in an interview. The
interview will de-identify participants so as to maintain confidentiality. Your insight and
participation in this study would be extremely valuable and greatly appreciated, as it is your hard
work and involvement in YIS that contribute to its success.
For those of you who choose to participate in the interviews, they will be conducted by me. You
will be interviewed in person during a time that is convenient for you. The interview is meant to
gain a deeper understanding of your experiences at YIS. It should take approximately 60 minutes
to complete.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please reply back to this email. Once again,
your time and insight are greatly appreciated!
Sincerely,
Jee Young Kim

123
Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089

[Reflecting Asian American Students in our SS Curriculum through Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy]
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the organizational problem
described above, the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian
American students Yishun International School (a pseudonym). It also seeks to determine what
knowledge, motivation, and organizational recommendations can be made for similar schools to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects Asian American students.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in an interview to share your
perspectives on the various knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact
reflecting the history and cultural context of Asian American students. All interviews will be de-
identified to maintain anonymity and confidentiality among all participants.

124
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address or other identifiable information will not be collected.

Required language:
The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed at conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
The Principal Investigator is [Jee Young Kim, jeeyoung@usc.edu, +65-9238-2738]
The Faculty Advisors are [Darline Robles, drobles@usc.edu] and [Lawrence Piccus,
lpiccus@usc.edu].

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

125
Appendix D: Email Requesting Permission to Obtain YIS Documents

Dear Administrators & Teachers,

Hello! My name is Jee Young Kim, and I am currently pursuing my Doctoral degree at Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California (USC). I am conducting a study
entitled Reflecting Asian American Students in our Social Studies Curriculum through culturally
relevant pedagogy. The purpose of this study is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root
causes of the organizational problem described above, the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy
that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian American students.

I would like to request access to the social studies curriculum plans and PLC agendas to use for
document analysis in my research. Please let me know if this is possible.

Sincerely,
Jee Young Kim

126
Appendix E: Evaluation Tool To Be Used Immediately Following Training
Please select the number that best correlates with how you feel about the statement for each of
the following questions. A choice of 1 indicates that you strongly disagree, and a choice of 5
indicates you strongly agree.
Strongly Strongly
disagree agree

The training was engaging for me. (L1) 1 2 3 4 5

I felt comfortable to participate in the 1 2 3 4 5
discussions. (L1)

During the training we discussed how 1 2 3 4 5
to apply what I learned in the classroom. (L1)

I feel confident about applying what I 1 2 3 4 5
learned during training to my teaching
practice. (L1)

I am committed to applying what I learned 1 2 3 4 5
to the classroom. (L1)

127
I found the feedback during the discussions 1 2 3 4 5
valuable for informing my practice. (L1)

I am satisfied with the training on 1 2 3 4 5
implementing culturally relevant pedagogy.
(L1)

Please provide feedback for the following questions, and remember your responses will remain
anonymous:
1. What part of the training did you find not useful for your goal to implement culturally
relevant pedagogy that reflects Asian American cultural contexts and history? How
would you change the training? (L1)
2. What is one concept or strategy you learned that you will apply immediately in your
classroom? (L2)
3. What additional support will you need to implement what you learned? (L2)
4. What barriers do you anticipate that could limit your success at applying what you
learned? (L2)

128
Appendix F: Evaluation Tool Delayed for a Period After Training
The purpose of the following questions is to evaluate the quality of performance results since
completing the training to learn culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian American
cultural contexts and history.
1. I feel more confident about implementing culturally relevant pedagogy. (L1)
• Strongly Disagree
• Disagree
• Neither Agree or Disagree
• Agree
• Strongly Agree
2. I feel more positive about the impact culturally relevant pedagogy has on student learning
and outcomes. (L1)
• Strongly Disagree
• Disagree
• Neither Agree or Disagree
• Agree
• Strongly Agree
3. Since the training's completion, describe a unit or lesson you implemented that reflects the
Asian American students and the impact it had. (L2, L3, L4)
4. Describe the value of implementing culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the Asian
American students in your classroom. (L1, L2)
5. I implement culturally relevant pedagogy in all of my social studies units. (L3, L4)
• Strongly Disagree

129
• Disagree
• Neither Agree or Disagree
• Agree
• Strongly Agree
6. I am more confident in my ability to implement an SS curriculum that reflects the cultural
context and history of Asian American students. (L1)
• Strongly Disagree
• Disagree
• Neither Agree or Disagree
• Agree
• Strongly Agree
7. I have utilized the information, resources, and skills I learned in the training sessions to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects Asian American students. (L2, L3, L4)
• Strongly Disagree
• Disagree
• Neither Agree or Disagree
• Agree
• Strongly Agree
8. What additional support will you need to implement what you learned from the training?
(L2)
9. What barriers do you anticipate that could limit your success at applying what you
learned? (L2)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the organizational problem of the lack of culturally relevant pedagogy that reflects the cultural contexts of Asian American students at Yishun International School (YIS). The stakeholders that were focused on in this analysis were YIS social studies teachers from fourth to eighth grade. The analysis focused on the causes of this problem due to gaps in the areas of teachers' knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources. Semi-structured interviews and document analysis were conducted using a qualitative research approach to gather the data. Findings indicated that teachers needed more professional development and support on addressing the various perspectives and allow for continued coaching and support. The recommendations given were through targeted learning opportunities for teachers on how to implement culturally relevant pedagogy into the curriculum and PLC work, along with training on reflecting on their ways of knowing and their practice, teachers will gain the skills and knowledge to achieve their goals. Throughout the training, there will need to be multiple opportunities to share the value of culturally relevant pedagogy, the students’ funds of knowledge, and the United States history of Asian American.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Exploring culturally relevant pedagogy in a Chinese immersion program: a gap analysis

PDF

Critical hope for culturally responsive education: an improvement study

PDF

Critical hope for culturally responsive education: an improvement study

PDF

Culturally relevant pedagogy in an elementary school for indigent native peoples

PDF

Overcoming the cultural teaching gap: an evaluative study of urban teachers’ implementation of culturally relevant instruction

PDF

The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes

PDF

Applying culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom: a course for secondary, public, urban school educators

PDF

Developing a critical consciousness toward culturally responsive teaching through critical reflection: A professional development curriculum for elementary teachers

PDF

Incorporation of culturally relevant pedagogy to improve my practice and address the opportunity gap

PDF

Examining urban high school English language arts teachers’ written feedback to student writing and their perceptions and applications of culturally relevant pedagogy

PDF

The importance of teacher motivation in professional development: implementing culturally relevant pedagogy

PDF

Cultivating culturally competent educators

PDF

The importance of the implementation process to achieve equity in the classroom through culturally relevant pedagogy

PDF

Lack of culturally relevant teaching in international bilingual schools: a gap analysis

PDF

The opportunity gap: culturally relevant pedagogy in high school English classes

PDF

Critical hope for culturally responsive education: an improvement study

PDF

Uncovering dominant ideology: an action research project aimed to uncover dominant ideology to enact culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom

PDF

How do teacher beliefs shape the approaches used to support low-income, Black, White, and Latino students in Advanced Placement English?

PDF

Discipline with dignity for African American students: effective culturally responsive practices used by teachers in kindergarten through second grade in Los Angeles County urban elementary schools

PDF

Cultural proficiency to provide equity for African American and other students of color: an evaluation study

Asset Metadata

Creator Kim, Jee Young (author)

Core Title Reflecting Asian American students in our social studies curriculum through culturally relevant pedagogy: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 08/06/2022

Defense Date 05/19/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Asian American,Asiancrit,culturally relevant,culturally relevant pedagogy,culturally responsive,curriculum,model minority,OAI-PMH Harvest,social studies,US history

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Robles, Darline (committee chair), Picus, Larry (committee member), Wan, Lisa (committee member)

Creator Email jeeyoung@usc.edu,jyk730@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111376210

Unique identifier UC111376210

Legacy Identifier etd-KimJeeYoun-11116

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Kim, Jee Young

Type texts

Source 20220806-usctheses-batch-971 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu