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The lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities transitioning to higher education
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Content
The Lived Experiences of Hispanic Students with Disabilities
Transitioning to Higher Education
by
Erika Garcia
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2022
© Copyright by Erika Garcia 2022
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Erika Garcia certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Don Trahan
Wanda Quezada
Marsha Riggio, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022
iv
Abstract
The lived experiences of Hispanic college students with disabilities as they transition to higher
education settings are rarely mentioned in the discussion of how to best support them in their
adjustment to college life and academic success. This study will highlight the lived experiences
of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transition to higher education to help other students
transition more smoothly through the process. As more Hispanic students pursue higher
education, specifically those with a disability, it is imperative to inform best practices. This will
allow individuals supporting students with disabilities in high school and college settings to
continue to provide intentional support that develops self-efficacy and the skills necessary to
adjust to college life. This phenomenological study will examine the perceptions of eight
Hispanic students with a disability and their experiences transitioning from high school to higher
education and how this impacted their academic success while in college. Hopefully, this study
will add valuable information to the limited literature on Hispanic students with disabilities in
higher education. The data used for this study will be based on interviews conducted with eight
Hispanic students with disabilities who attend a higher education institution in the U.S.
v
Dedication
To my children and husband, I could not have achieved this without your love, support, and
encouragement. When I decided to return to school, I did so with the same excitement and
enthusiasm that the three of you have shown, as you patiently waited for me to take that first day
of school picture, year after year, smiling with anticipation of what the new school year would
bring. I dedicate this dissertation to the three of you, Steven, Gianna, and Lauren, my dedicated
and brilliant children who I have tried to raise as conscientious leaders, prepared to do the right
thing, even when no one is looking. Remember that obstacles will surface. It is up to you to
navigate uncertain times with aplomb. I hope that I have paved the way for you to reach for your
dreams and accomplish all that you desire out of life.
To my husband, David, thank you for understanding that this was important to me and for always
believing in me. Most importantly, thank you for always knowing when I need to smile and burst
out laughing. You always know when I need that the most. You’re my rock, my constant
admirer, and my source of support.
To my mom, siblings, nieces, and family, who cheered me on with excitement when I announced
I was going back to school. It is because of my upbringing, challenging times, and also fun
childhood experiences with my sisters, brother, and nieces that I grew up with the confidence to
pursue my dreams. My mother, an immigrant from La Paz, Bolivia, taught me the value of hard
work and that to reach your dreams, you must hold steadfast to the notion of “para arriba y
adelante.”
To all Hispanic students that may question if they can succeed, know that you can and that it is
crucial to surround yourself with people that will support and guide you. I have worked in the
vi
field of education for over 20 years, and I am witness to the successes accomplished by
numerous students, you can find yours too.
vii
Acknowledgments
I want to acknowledge my dissertation chair, Dr. Marsha Riggio, and dissertation
committee members, Dr. Wanda Quezada and Dr. Don Trahan. Their guidance was invaluable
and helped me navigate this process.
I want to thank the various organizations that awarded me generous scholarships, which
motivated me to forge forward in my studies with rigor and vitality. Special thanks to the Alice
Crandale Seymour Scholarship Fund, California P.E.O. Scholarship, Ethel O. Gardner
Scholarship, Grayson Endowed Memorial Scholarship, Hispanic Scholar Fund Scholarships,
Richard B. Horne Scholarship, and the USC Latino Alumni Association Scholarship.
I would also like to thank Joan Gamson, Stephanie Jones, and Araceli May for their
support along this journey, which took some time to disembark, but their words of
encouragement and check-ins kept my momentum going. They served as incredible mentors and
role models and taught me how to lead with conviction and integrity.
Lastly, as I embarked on this incredible journey of inquiry, I was blessed to meet author
and learning disabilities consultant Elizabeth C. Hamblet. Her willingness to share her treasure
trove of knowledge on this topic, which helped inform my study, was a breath of fresh air. Many
thanks to her dedication and passion for advancing study in the field of disability and the
transition process to higher education.
viii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 3
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 4
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 5
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................... 6
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ................................................................................... 8
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 10
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 13
Search Description .................................................................................................................... 13
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 13
Review of Research .................................................................................................................. 17
Hispanic Students in High School ............................................................................................ 18
Hispanic Students in Higher Education .................................................................................... 21
Overview of Disabilities and Education ................................................................................... 27
Visible and Less-visible Disability Types ................................................................................ 31
Hispanic High School Students with Disabilities ..................................................................... 34
Hispanic Students with Disabilities in Higher Education ......................................................... 36
Transition Support Systems and their Impact on Self-Efficacy................................................ 38
ix
Transition Support Process and Culturally Competent Practice ............................................... 42
Familismo and its Impact on Hispanic Students ....................................................................... 45
Summary of Literature Review ................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 50
Research Design........................................................................................................................ 50
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 50
Research Setting........................................................................................................................ 51
Participants ................................................................................................................................ 52
Target and Accessible Population ......................................................................................... 52
Sample................................................................................................................................... 52
Sampling Method .................................................................................................................. 52
Recruitment Procedures ........................................................................................................ 53
Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 53
Demographic Survey ............................................................................................................ 53
Interview Protocol ................................................................................................................. 54
Procedures ............................................................................................................................. 55
Confidentiality Parameters.................................................................................................... 56
Data Management ................................................................................................................. 57
Dissemination of Findings .................................................................................................... 58
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 59
Descriptive Analysis ............................................................................................................. 59
Thematic Content Analysis ................................................................................................... 60
Reliability .............................................................................................................................. 63
Validity ................................................................................................................................. 64
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 65
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 67
Experience of Hispanic Identity............................................................................................ 73
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen ....................................................................... 75
Stigma Related to Disability ................................................................................................. 77
Analysis of Research Question 2 .............................................................................................. 79
x
Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors ..................................................................... 80
Transition Process and IEP Participation .............................................................................. 83
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed ..................................................................................... 84
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources ........................... 87
Analysis of Research Question 3 .............................................................................................. 90
Self-Efficacy and Academic Success.................................................................................... 91
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success.......................................................................... 94
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 95
Chapter Five: Conclusions, Discussion, and Suggestions ............................................................ 97
Summary of Findings .................................................................................................................... 97
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 98
Research Question 1 ................................................................................................................. 98
Family Support and Expectations ......................................................................................... 98
Experience of Hispanic Identity.......................................................................................... 101
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen ..................................................................... 102
Stigma Related to Disability ............................................................................................... 103
Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................... 104
Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors ................................................................... 104
Transition Process and IEP Participation ............................................................................ 105
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed ................................................................................... 106
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources ......................... 107
Research Question 3 ............................................................................................................... 108
Self-Efficacy and Academic Success.................................................................................. 108
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success........................................................................ 109
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 110
Family Support and Expectations ....................................................................................... 110
Experience of Hispanic Identity.......................................................................................... 111
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen ..................................................................... 112
Stigma Related to Disability ............................................................................................... 112
Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors ................................................................... 113
Transition Process and IEP Participation ............................................................................ 113
xi
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed ................................................................................... 114
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources ......................... 115
Self-Efficacy and Academic Success.................................................................................. 115
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success........................................................................ 116
Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................ 117
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................... 119
Recommendation 1: Authentic and Caring Relationships ...................................................... 120
Recommendation 2: Develop and Strengthen Self-Efficacy and Self-Advocacy .................. 121
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 123
References ................................................................................................................................... 124
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 143
Appendix A: Demographic Survey ......................................................................................... 144
Appendix B: Email Letter ....................................................................................................... 146
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ............................................................................................. 147
Appendix D: Recruitment Letter ............................................................................................ 150
Appendix E: Letter of Consent for Participants ...................................................................... 152
xii
List of Tables
Table 1 Participant Profiles………………………………………………………67
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
A presentation of the context of my study will follow. An introduction of the background
of the problem, followed by the problem's statement, and the study's purpose and meaning will
be presented. This chapter will culminate with the definition of terms, assumptions, limitations,
delimitations, conclusion, and organization of the study.
Background of the Problem
According to the U.S. Department of Education, Hispanic (see Definition of Terms
section) high school students are the fastest-growing population pursuing higher education
(Hussar et al., 2020; McFarland et al., 2017; Medina & Posadas, 2012; National Center for
Education Statistics, 2020). Fry et al. (2012) assert that Hispanic students' college enrollment
rates remain steady, and they are the largest minoritized group attending four-year colleges. This
increase may be due to the earning potential a college degree may provide, which some Hispanic
students may see as an opportunity to rise out of poverty. Fry and Taylor (2013) report that many
Hispanic families value a college degree to get ahead in life and be successful. The possibility of
earning more money because of a college degree is a driving force for Hispanic students due to
the disproportionate number of Hispanic students that come from low-income (see Definition of
Terms section) households (Altschul, 2012; Pew Hispanic Center, 2011). There is a higher
concentration of Hispanic students from low-income households in the U.S. that attend high-
poverty schools than any other student group (Gandara, 2017; Gordon, 2017; Moreno & Gaytan,
2013; Ortiz et al., 2012; Paschall et al., 2018; Pew Hispanic Center, 2011), which poses
additional barriers to academic success for this population.
There continues to be an increase in the majority of Hispanic students enrolling in K-12
public schools, with a significant overrepresentation of Hispanic students attending high-poverty
2
public schools (Hussar et al., 2020; Vega et al., 2015). Many K-12 public schools in the U.S. are
underfunded and lack resources and quality instruction (Clark et al., 2013; Epstein, 2011; Vega
et al., 2015). Further, many Hispanic students from low-income households live below the
poverty line (Hussar et al., 2020). Consequently, more and more Hispanic high school graduates
see higher education as a pathway to future success. A college graduate may have more
opportunities to earn a higher income when compared to a student with only a high school
diploma (Fleming et al., 2017; Fry & Taylor, 2013; Newman et al., 2011). Despite the increase in
Hispanic students attending college, many struggle to graduate as they face multiple barriers
such as financial stressors, academic preparation, family support, and lack of resources,
ultimately dropping out (Clark et al., 2013; Fry & Taylor, 2013; Krogstad & Fry, 2014;
Rodriguez et al., 2015; Vega et al., 2015).
Hispanic students with disabilities from low-income households (see Definition of Terms
section) face even more significant challenges. Effective systems need to be in place to assist
Hispanic students with disabilities to succeed academically in the public school system.
Although support exists for students with disabilities under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA, 2004; see Definition of Terms section), which mandates a free appropriate
public education to ensure that accommodations, support, and related services are made available
to support access to the general academic curriculum, low-income students with disabilities are
disproportionately at a disadvantage based on their socioeconomic and disability status (Madaus
et al., 2014). Hispanic students with a disability that attend a K-12 public school and are from a
low-socioeconomic background may perceive the school support systems as overwhelming
and/or time-consuming which may discourage them from fully participating in the transition
process, making the shift to higher education a difficult one.
3
Statement of the Problem
The barriers to college retention and completion are more complex for Hispanic college
students with a disability. A college student with a disability may find it difficult to advocate for
their needs, may be reluctant to seek disability support services in college, and may experience
low self-efficacy (Ankeny & Lehmann, 2011). The ability to advocate for one's needs, and to
seek and secure services and resources is especially important for college students with a
disability who may find themselves overwhelmed, stressed, and unable to successfully navigate
the college system, in order to support academic success. A strong sense of self-efficacy is
critical for students to be able to self-advocate and feel capable of achieving their goals
(Lombardi et al., 2012). These skills should begin developing well before high school graduation
and continue to evolve as students mature into young adulthood. Unfortunately, some Hispanic
students are ill-prepared to navigate through some of the obstacles in higher education, and their
families may be unaware or unwilling to help.
Research has shown that Hispanic students are most likely to be identified as a student
with a specific learning disability in the K-12 public school system across the U.S. (Elder et al.,
2021; National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2020; Zhang, et al., 2014). Although there
continues to be a debate as to whether there is an overrepresentation of Hispanic students in
special education (see Definition of Terms section), the students that are found eligible for
special education services continue to face significant challenges. Many Hispanic students live
in low-income or working-class neighborhoods and attend underperforming schools, where there
is a lack of quality instruction, crowded classrooms, and lack of resources (Clark et al., 2013;
Epstein, 2011; Vega, et al., 2015). Living in poverty puts many Hispanic students at a
disadvantage, more so for those with a disability (Hughes, 2013; Hussar et al., 2020).
4
Despite the challenges that students with a disability face, more are pursuing higher
education (Newman et al., 2011; Wagner et al., 2014). Although more students with a disability
are deciding to pursue higher education, college retention and completion rates are lower for
students with a disability compared to students without a disability (Fleming et al., 2017).
Moreover, students with a disability dropout of college at higher rates when compared to
students without a disability (Newman et al., 2011). With an increase in overall Hispanic student
enrollment in higher education, it is critical to acknowledge the unique circumstances that
Hispanic college students with disabilities experience as they transition to college life.
Purpose of the Study
As more Hispanic students with disabilities pursue higher education it is critical to
understand their lived experiences in order to help other students transition more smoothly. This
can help inform the transition support system process to better assist students in their academic
success in higher education. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study is to
examine and understand the lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities as they
transition to higher education, what they found helpful, what challenges they faced, their beliefs,
and personal characteristics. Another goal of this study is to understand the perception of the
support systems in the transition process for this group of participants. Additionally, this study
will aim to understand and examine the impact on the academic success that this group of
Hispanic students experienced. It is hoped that these shared experiences will help inform best
practices and provide education and support to improve the overall transition to higher education
for students with disabilities.
Research Questions
This study investigated three research questions:
5
1. What are the lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities as they
transition from high school to higher education?
2. What is the transition support system process?
3. What is the impact on academic success?
All interview questions were aligned to these research questions.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the problem of Hispanic students with disabilities who transition to
higher education is that some may find it challenging to adjust to the academic demands, which
could result in them dropping out of college. There is a lack of research on their lived
experiences as college students and whether the transition support systems in high school and
college helped ease their adjustment to college life. As a special education counselor I work to
improve the self-confidence and emotional well-being of the students on my caseload and
empower parents to advocate for the needs of their children. I hear parents’ testimonies of their
hopes and dreams for their children to be successful and attend college. Most of the students I
work with are middle school Hispanic students from high-poverty schools with specific learning
disabilities or emotional disturbance eligibilities (see Definition of Terms section). I know that
the students I work with will have a transition planning meeting if they are still receiving special
education services in high school, and some of them will decide on pursuing higher education. It
is imperative to have Hispanic college students with disabilities share their voices and
perspectives on their experiences as they navigate the demands of college, such that the field of
disability studies and special education can add to the body of research on what needs to change
and improve to support the academic growth and success specifically of this understudied
minoritized population.
6
Definition of Terms
Disability: According to the Americans with Disabilities Act as Amended (ADAAA
2008), an individual with a disability is someone who experiences or lives with a physical or
mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, or who is regarded
as, or has a history of being considered as, an individual with a disability. For this study, a
disability may be a physical, intellectual, sensory, and emotional one.
Disability support services: Public and private colleges must provide equal access to
higher education for students with disabilities, per Titles II and III of the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA, February 2020). All higher education institutions, through a designated
office (or a designated individual), must provide aids and services for effective communication,
assistive listening devices, modify policies and procedures such as testing accommodations, and
access to service animals. The office may use “disability” or “accessible” in its name. All
accommodations and program modifications should be individualized to meet the needs of a
student with a disability.
Emotional Disturbance: A condition in which specific characteristics are exhibited over a
long period and to a significant degree that adversely affects a student’s educational performance
(U.S. Department of Education, 2021).
Familism: A cultural value that emphasizes close and supportive family relationships
where family is expected to be prioritized over self (Campos et al., 2014).
Familismo: Within the Hispanic culture, familismo describes the family structure and the
importance of family relationships, respect, and trust, such that it represents the beliefs, values,
and attitudes within the family system (Jackson, 2006).
7
Hispanic: A Hispanic is an individual of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central
American, or other Spanish origin or culture, regardless of race.
Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA): A federal law that mandates a free
appropriate public education to eligible children with disabilities throughout the U.S. and ensures
that special education and related services are provided (U.S. Department of Education, 2021).
Low-income: Families and students are defined as low-income if the family income is
less than twice the federal poverty threshold for a family of four with two children was $25,926
in 2019.
Minoritized: To be pushed to the margins by means often out of one's control (Paniagua,
2015). This word is intentionally used instead of “minority” as people are not disenfranchised
from marginalized experiences due to lack of representation, but instead, the sociocultural
hierarchies and policies that are in place negatively impact them.
Special Education: Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parents, to meet the
individual needs of a child with a disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2021).
Specific Learning Disability: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in using language, spoken, or written, that may manifest itself in difficulty in
listening, thinking, reading, speaking, writing, spelling, or doing mathematical calculations,
including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,
dyslexia, and developmental aphasia (U.S. Department of Education, 2021).
Transition planning: The individualized education program (IEP), developed under the
IDEA, for students with a disability, must address transition services when the student turns 16
or younger if determined appropriate by the IEP Team. The IEP must include higher education
goals based upon transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, if
8
applicable, independent living skills; and the necessary transition services needed to assist the
student with a disability in reaching those goals (U.S. Department of Education, 2020).
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations
An assumption in this study was that Hispanic students with a disability find it
challenging to self-disclose their disability status to higher education institutions for lack of
knowledge of available services and benefits or a preconceived idea of the stigma that may
follow if they are identified as a student with a disability as they enter young adulthood. Hispanic
students with a disability may find it challenging to self-advocate for their socioemotional and
academic needs once they arrive on a college campus and as a result, may struggle to attain
academic success. Another assumption made was that participants answered the demographic
survey questions truthfully.
This research was subject to several limitations. One limitation was the limited research
available to review Hispanic students with disabilities and their transition and academic success
in a higher education setting. More research is necessary to address their unique experiences that
may be shaped by their culture, language, and socioeconomic status. While research does exist
on college students with disabilities and their transition to college, the studies mainly included
White participants. Additional research is needed focusing on college students with disabilities
from diverse ethnic backgrounds, which would add a robust representation of various lived
experiences helping inform relevant and culturally sensitive practice in the field of disabilities.
Another limitation that could be addressed in future research was the limited higher
education settings included in this study. It would be beneficial to have various higher education
settings, such as community colleges, four-year public and private colleges, universities, and
trade schools to discuss specific challenges encountered in each setting. This would help to
9
identify potential gaps in service delivery and program development at different higher education
institutions.
Due to the small sample size of this study, a limitation was that it was not possible to
have various disabilities represented. The time commitment of face-to-face interviews made it
difficult to interview a larger sample size that could have included different disabilities. It would
be essential to study how individuals with diverse disabilities experience the transition process to
college and identify if there are individuals with specific disabilities that struggle more than
others.
The sample size of eight is insufficient to allow for a statistically significant measurement
and to identify meaningful relationships from the data. Although this was not the goal of this
study, it is noteworthy that the findings are not considered representative of Hispanic college
students with disabilities as the results are not generalizable to a larger population. The purpose
of this study was to inform current research on the perspectives and experiences of the eight
study participants and to encourage future researchers to continue studying this understudied
population.
As with most qualitative studies that rely on interviews as a data collection method, it is
challenging to ascertain participants’ comfort level, ability, and willingness to genuinely share
their experiences. The findings rely on participants’ self-report, which will be analyzed for
recurrent themes across all participants’ responses. Depending on participant self-reports poses a
limitation in terms of the accuracy of answers, which cannot be determined.
A delimitation of this research study was to focus on Hispanic students and exclude the
study of other minoritized student experiences. This intentional decision was made to narrow this
study's focus to make it more manageable and relevant to an understudied population. A second
10
delimitation was to narrow the focus even further to hone in on students with disabilities. The
decision to focus on students with disabilities was made because there has been a recent increase
in more students with disabilities attending higher education institutions. This study aimed to
inform policies and procedures around equity, access, diversity, and inclusion that directly
affects the intersectionality of ethnicity and ability.
Although these findings offer important implications for staff that work with Hispanic
students with disabilities in high school and higher education, the participants were mostly from
Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSI) with a large Hispanic student population. Being part of a
large Hispanic student body gives Hispanic college students an increased sense of belonging as
they may feel they belong in these spaces with their peers. Even still, some participants felt a bit
disconnected, which prompted most to join student organizations, participate in school activities,
and make an effort to have a presence on their college campus.
Conclusion
Although data shows that Hispanic students continue to make gains in high school
graduation rates and college enrollment, they continue to experience disproportionality when
compared to their White peers that continuously graduate from both high school and college at
higher speeds (de brey et al., 2021; Fry & Lopez, 2012; Gandara & Mordechay, 2017; National
Center for Education Statistics, 2020; Ortiz et al., 2012). When we focus on Hispanic students
with disabilities graduating from high school and completing college, the trajectory is more
challenging and arduous due to numerous barriers to academic success. As Hispanic students
with disabilities enroll in higher education at increased rates, transition and disability support
staff, both in the high school and higher education settings, must be able to practice a culturally
responsive approach to engage with, empower and guide Hispanic students with a disability to
11
self-advocate for their needs thereby increasing their self-efficacy. Research has been conducted
on students’ perspectives of the transition planning process and the benefits of participating in
the transition planning meetings, but little research exists focusing on the unique lived
experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities and the intersection of culture, socioeconomic
status, and disability (Wagner et al., 2012; Wagner et al., 2014). For the reasons as mentioned
earlier, it was necessary to conduct a qualitative study to highlight the perceptions of Hispanic
college students with disabilities to understand the impact that the transition process between
high school and higher education had on their academic success in higher education. In
particular, to understand the transition support system process, familial support, the intellectual
demands of higher education, and the impact on self-efficacy and academic success.
Organization of the Study
The first chapter introduces the area of research, describes the background and statement
of the problem, details the purpose of the study, and explores the significance of the study. It
outlines the three research questions guiding this study, defines the key terms, discusses the
assumptions, and explains the study’s limitations and delimitations. The second chapter is a
literature review that informs the study. The first section introduces the different challenges
Hispanic students with disabilities may face while in high school and higher education settings
and the impact this may have on self-efficacy. This section is followed by the search terms used
in the literature review. Then begins the assessment of the literature, first with an introduction of
the conceptual framework that provided the focus and organization of this study. Then, several
constructs follow: Hispanic students in high school and higher education, then follows an
overview of disabilities, Hispanic students with disabilities in high school and higher education,
the transition support systems and their impact on academic success, and how the transition
12
process can impact educational success and the importance of culturally competent practices.
The following two sections address the role of familismo, and the role self-efficacy plays in the
adjustment to the academic demands of higher education as experienced by students with a
disability. The third chapter describes the methodology used in data collection and analysis. A
description of the research design, setting, and participants is also included. The fourth chapter
presents the findings of the study which will provide a scientific interpretation of the data
collection process. The fifth chapter consists of a summative analysis of the results, implications
for practice and recommendations for future research.
13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study was to examine and understand
the lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transition to higher education,
their perception of the support systems in the transition process and the impact on academic
success. This chapter begins with the search terms for the literature review process, followed by
a full review of the current literature supporting this research study’s need.
Search Description
As the review of the literature began, the search terms used were Hispanic students in
high school, Hispanic students in higher education, disability overview, disability status and
education, Hispanic students with disabilities in high school and higher education, disabilities,
transition support services, transition process, transition support systems, college disability
support services, familism/familismo, and college-going, self-efficacy and college success,
cultural-historical activity theory.
Conceptual Framework
Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) was used as the conceptual framework for this
study. This multi-dimensional approach which encompasses the intersectionality of
psychological motives, culture, history, and power will be used to highlight how the reciprocal
interactions between Hispanic students with a disability and the people that work with them are
framed. The framing is accomplished by and set within multiple contexts that are grounded in the
way people act based on past experiences, considering that actions change over time as cultural,
historical, and societal factors influence them. Foot (2014) asserts that values, expectations, and
resources shape what people do and their actions. Furthermore, because people’s actions change
14
over time, we must view this from an enculturated lens grounded in their historical experience
(Foot, 2014). CHAT allows for a transactive perspective to be used when analyzing how people
are shaped by and also shape their social contexts (Foot, 2014; Roth & Lee, 2007). CHAT allows
a researcher to describe the nuanced interactions among people, tools, rules, and norms within
multilayered systems (Daniels, 2004; Foot, 2014; Roth & Lee, 2007). The focus of this study is
to highlight the personal experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transitioned
from high school to higher education, to understand what the transition process was like. CHAT
will help analyze how interpersonal relations are shaped both within the educational institutions
and staff and between the transition support staff, disability support staff, and the students. This
framework will help advance the ways of thinking about how transitional support services are
delivered, how they impact students’ experiences, and how practice can be improved to make the
transition process more effective. With CHAT as a framework for the transition process, service
providers will better understand the needs of their students as they transition from high school to
higher education settings and the implications that culture and history will have on students’
actions and self-perceptions.
Several CHAT principles, as described by Sannino and Engestrom (2018) and Foot
(2014), will be employed in this study. The focal point will be the activity system, which in this
study is the transition to higher education for Hispanic students with a disability facilitated by
various transition support systems. An activity system is influenced and encouraged by three
core components: subject, tools, and object (Foot, 2014). The subject is the leading actor in the
activity system actively involved in learning and going through the process. The subjects in this
study are Hispanic students with a disability. The tools are the methods, resources, and
instruments that the subject uses to reach an eventual outcome, which is the object of the activity
15
system. The object of this study is how Hispanic students with a disability perceived the
transition process to higher education. There are interactional relationships among the subject,
community of members, rules, norms, division of labor, tools, object, and outcome within the
activity system, which are influenced by social, cultural, and historical contexts (Hancock &
Miller, 2018). The transition process involves many support systems in a student’s life, such as
special education teachers, service providers, counselors, parents, disability support staff, and
college professors. All these support systems have unique perspectives on how to best work with
students. It is critical to see the activity system’s historical context and how societal attitudes
toward disabilities, students with disabilities accessing higher education, and Hispanic students
with disabilities have shaped the activity system. The staff and families that work and interact
with students to make the transition to higher education a successful one, as well as the students
themselves, may both interchangeably use available tools such as the transition plan, motivation,
self-advocacy skills, empowerment, guidance, counseling, high expectations, and emotional
support. Agencies, such as the transition planning meetings, and are federally mandated by IDEA
to be used with students with a disability. These mandated requirements influence and set the
groundwork for the norms of practice that must be implemented by the community of service
providers during the transition process. There are also societal expectations that stem from the
broader historical, cultural, and political context that has shaped the interaction of transition
service providers and their students.
The community of service providers are not only influenced by the rules and mandated
requirements imposed on them by IDEA; they must also contend with the division of labor. This
is another component of activity theory, in which service providers, as members of the students’
community, must decide what actions they will be responsible for and which tools/resources they
16
will use. Foot (2014) asserts that the “division of labor” construct is influenced by power
structures embedded in sociohistorical contexts and the expected interactional patterns of human
behavior among the community of members, as well as the interaction of the community of
members and the broader context they are part of. As such, many influencing factors determine
how and why a community of members decides to delegate and assume their roles and which
tools they will use. Further, a community of members in work settings is restricted by defined
work roles, which complicates the interaction or support they offer to a subject in an activity
system (Foot, 2014).
Using the CHAT framework to analyze the transition process from high school to higher
education as the activity system will allow for an analysis of the multi-layered interactions that
occur within the activity system, both as a snapshot and over time. It is important to note that
because an activity system and its components are in constant flux, the subject is
interchangeable, depending on the time the activity system is being analyzed. The student, the
parent, or the service provider can interchange their “roles” throughout the activity and become
the subject or be the community member, wherein the subject, at any given point in time, will
use the necessary tools/resources to attain the desired outcome of a successful transition process.
It is important to consider historical experience when analyzing activity systems to
understand the cultural and historical contexts that have influenced the activity system.
Positioning this study in a CHAT framework requires understanding the history of disabilities,
the lived experience of Hispanic students with a disability in high school and higher education
settings, and the transition process for students with disabilities. A benefit of using CHAT is that
it supports the development of new ideas on how current practice can be improved (Foot, 2014).
The interactional patterns that students and service providers engage in can be enhanced when
17
they become aware of their roles and actions within the activity system and of the many contexts
that influence that outcome.
Transition support staff work in school systems that have created institutional
expectations, “rules,” and demands that influence how staff work with students and,
interchangeably how students influence that interaction. All actions are impacted by cultural,
historical, and institutional contexts that, as educators, we must acknowledge (Daniels, 2004).
Learning occurs over time and depends on what the subjects contribute to the interaction for the
desired outcome to be achieved. It is hoped that by using a CHAT perspective as the model for
this study, service providers will increase awareness of influential factors and, continue working
towards developing advocacy skills and abilities, and improve students’ self-perceptions.
Sannino et al 2009 regard activity theory as essential to research that is involved in making
meaning of activities that are framed in historical, cultural, and societal challenges that both
influence and are influenced by activity systems with the aim of having the subjects gain control
over their outcomes.
Review of Research
The review of research is organized by an introduction of Hispanic students in high
school and higher education, and an overview of disabilities and education, Hispanic students
with disabilities in high school and higher education, transition support systems and their impact
on self-efficacy, the transition process and the importance of culturally competent practice, the
role of familismo and its effects on academic success as experienced by students with a
disability.
18
Hispanic Students in High School
The Hispanic population in the U.S. increased from 16% to 18% of the total U.S.
population between 2010 and 2019, with Hispanics making up the second largest ethnic group
behind white non-Hispanics (Noe-Bustamante et al., 2020). With the Hispanic population
steadily increasing in size, it is imperative to identify and address the obstacles Hispanics face as
they matriculate into public education systems to promote equity and access to opportunities and
academic achievement. The public-school systems in the U.S. have become more culturally and
linguistically diverse in the past decades (Gothberg et al., 2019).
As Hispanic students enter high school it becomes a challenge for some to navigate
through the barriers they encounter in school in pursuing a high school diploma. For those
students that manage to navigate through the high school graduation requirements and can
graduate, some of them find it daunting to prepare for college applications. Yet, there is an
increase in Hispanic students attending college. With more attention to equity and access, the
U.S. public school system is making some progress in increasing graduation rates in the Hispanic
population. As reported in the National Center for Education Statistics article “Public High
School Graduation rates” (May 2020), the number of Hispanic students graduating from high
school in the 2017-18 school year increased to 81%, compared to 71.4% in 2013. This increase
could be due to multiple factors. The student and parent outreach and engagement efforts to
encourage and motivate Hispanic students to graduate high school are proving effective.
Although the number of Hispanic students graduating from high school is increasing,
Hispanic high school graduates are still lagging behind White students (Fry & Lopez, 2012;
National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). With Hispanic students accounting for 1 in 4
students in U.S. public schools, and even though they have made gains in high school graduation
19
rates, Gandara and Mordechay (2017) report that there continues to be a significant lag behind
White and Asian students. Ortiz et al. (2012) maintain that Hispanic high school students drop
out of high school at disproportionate rates when compared to White and Black students and
assert that social and cultural capital help Hispanic students’ educational outcomes. Hispanic
students were found to lack social and cultural capital as their school environments sometimes
serve as barriers to these (Ortiz et al., 2012). Additionally, Martinez and Cervera (2012) found
that Hispanic high school students are not accessing resources, such as high school college
counselors, or lack access to family members or friends for information about college resources
and guidance. In their research, Martinez and Cervera (2012) confirm that Hispanic students are
the least likely ethnic group to access college sources and apply to fewer colleges when
compared to other student groups.
Family income-level presents a barrier to many Hispanic students. There is a
disproportionate number of Hispanic families from low-income households in the U. S. (Gordon,
2017; Moreno & Gaytan, 2013; Paschall, et al., 2018). As reported, Hispanic students that attend
public schools are the fastest-growing ethnic group in the U. S.; they are also more likely to live
in poverty when compared to non-Hispanic students (Fry & Gonzalez, 2008). Parents from low-
income households often work longer hours to make ends meet, leaving less time to be involved
in their children’s schoolwork and academic planning (Gandara & Mordechay, 2017). Moreover,
children from low-income households often attend crowded public schools that lack quality
instruction, have limited resources, lack guidance from counselors, and have to contend with a
lack of neighborhood safety (Vega et al., 2015). Further, Jimerson et al. (2016) conducted a
study where they found that socioeconomic status was significantly associated with high school
20
completion for a group of Hispanic high school seniors that were English language learners and
at high academic risk.
Public schooling in the U. S. has faced criticism, for lacking the academic rigor to
prepare students for lifelong learning and success. Public schools in wealthier neighborhoods
fare better in academic preparation, enrichment activities, and community safety when compared
to schools in poorer areas (Baker & Corcoran, 2012; Epstein, 2011). A disparity exists between
the family income levels of Hispanic students and their White counterparts. Many Hispanic high
school students live in low-income neighborhoods and attend lower-funded public-school
districts that lack access to quality resources, and instruction compared to peers that attend
schools with higher funding (Epstein, 2011). Baker and Corcoran (2012) agree that inequities
continue to exist in public school funding, where low-income students most in need continue to
have access to the fewest educational resources. In recent years, there has been a dedicated focus
on making education and learning opportunities more equitable and accessible; it is therefore
essential to ameliorate obstacles to college success and increase self-efficacy in high school
students, which will help them be resistant to adversity and resilient when confronted with
challenges. Rivera et al. (2019) studied how to change the mindset of Hispanic high school
students from low socio-economic backgrounds that live in at-risk neighborhoods to see college
as an achievable goal. They found that Hispanic high school students experience an increase in
motivation and feel empowered to pursue higher education when their teachers, schools, parents,
and community provide support, guidance, and encouragement and are informed of the pathway
to college. Hispanic high school students’ perception of their abilities can change when they
have strong relationships with supportive and caring adults with high expectations.
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Hispanic Students in Higher Education
The rate of Hispanic students pursuing higher education is on the rise, similar to that of
Hispanic students graduating from high school (Fry & Taylor, 2013). Exploring the options
available to high school graduates is essential, as is their experience adjusting to the academic
demands in a higher education setting. Students who pursue higher education have several
options, such as attending a 2-year community college, a 4-year college or university, or a
trade/vocational school. With more Hispanic students enrolling in college, it is critical to
understand the reasons for the increase and the cause why many do not persist and complete a
college degree or vocational training. Multiple factors could be influencing Hispanic students to
pursue higher education. Fry and Taylor (2013) report a correlation between an increase in
college-going for Hispanic youth and the decreased job opportunities they faced during the great
recession of 2008. Minoritized groups, especially Hispanic youth, were most affected in securing
employment during this period, prompting many to access higher education. Although there is an
increase in Hispanic high school graduation rates and college-going rates, Hispanic youth
continue to lag behind other groups (Flink, 2018; Fry & Lopez, 2012). Ma et al. (2016) agrees
that college enrollment rates for Hispanic students continue to rise, but the gap in enrollment
percentages among demographic groups continues to persist. A similar disparity exists between
Hispanic youth in high school graduation rates and college graduation compared to other groups.
De brey et al. (2021) explain that between 2009 and 2019, there was an increase from 12% to
21% of Hispanic college graduates with a bachelor’s degree or higher compared to a rise from
37% to 45% for White students. Furthermore, the college degree attainment gap remained the
same in 2019 compared to 2009, holding steady at 24 percentage points (de Brey et al., 2021).
With the college degree attainment gap remaining constant for a decade among Hispanic and
22
White students, practitioners must begin to analyze and improve upon practice to narrow and
finally closing the gap.
The barriers that Hispanic college students contend with as they decide to enroll in
college and later obtain a college degree are multifaceted. Among the various factors that impede
accessing higher education, Hispanic college students often report financial responsibility to their
families, lack of family support, lack of college readiness skills, taking care of younger siblings,
parent expectations, and lack of social support, as some of the reasons why they do not enroll or
do not persist. In their study, Gandara and Orfield (2011) surveyed Hispanic students at a large
southern California state university; 40% reported that they could not depend on their parents to
help pay for college. Moreover, many Hispanic college students find themselves having to secure
employment to help finance their college expenses, which often proves detrimental to their
college completion (Gandara & Orfield, 2011). Work responsibilities, not having enough money,
and financial problems are often experienced by Hispanic college students, which make college
completion difficult (Kouyoumdjian et al., 2017).
Clark et al. (2013) conducted interviews with college counselors and administrators to
explore what they thought were some barriers Hispanic male students faced when pursuing
higher education. An important theme they identified was the role the family plays in the lives of
Hispanic male students. Clark et al. (2013) reports that many families expect their sons to
contribute financially. Some counselors and administrators suggested that schools and higher
education institutions develop additional outreach and recruitment programs specifically focused
on Hispanic male students. In their interviews, Clark et al. (2013) found a consensus that many
teachers, counselors, and administrators lack an awareness of the problems that Hispanic male
students grapple with regarding their educational pursuits.
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It is important to note that in the 1980s there was an increase in Hispanic students
enrolling in higher education (Santiago, 2012). Subsequently, in 1992 due to the increased focus
on Hispanic students in higher education, the Higher Education Act of 1965 was amended, which
resulted in higher education institutions that enrolled at least 25% of Hispanics being identified
as HSIs (Galdeano et al., 2012). Since then, various policies have been enacted to support and
acknowledge the unique circumstances of Hispanic students that enter higher education spaces
(Flink, 2018). Hispanic students attending HSIs often feel more supported and have better
chances of completing college studies. The campus culture at HSIs often embraces Hispanic
culture; professors and staff may be more culturally competent in their practice and try to
acknowledge different cultures by hosting cultural events and offering programs to increase
access to majors where Hispanic students are underrepresented.
Nunez et al. (2011) studied the factors that support Hispanic student enrollment at
community colleges that are HSIs and found that two-thirds were first-generation college
students, disproportionately from low-income families, and came from urban areas. These factors
are unique to minoritized groups of students, which often affect their success in enrolling at
college, or, if registered, serve as deterrents to college completion.To support Hispanic students
through college completion, community college staff working at HSIs must make available
academic and social support systems (Nunez et al., 2011). To increase the college completion of
minoritized groups of students, then attention must be placed on creating a welcoming
environment. Bok (2020) believes that offering opportunities to bring students of diverse
backgrounds together in positive interactions are vital to promote an understanding and
appreciation of various beliefs, attitudes, and values. Moreover, with the steady increase in
population growth, over the years, more than half of all Americans will belong to a minority
24
group by 2045 (Bok, 2020). Therefore, colleges are responsible for ensuring a safe and
welcoming environment for minoritized students, specifically Hispanic students, who continue to
experience a significant gap in educational outcomes.
In a qualitative study conducted by Sanchez (2019), the perceptions of what 40
undergraduate Hispanic college students have experienced at HSIs and the campus climate were
analyzed, and findings suggest that many experienced racial microaggressions that included
White racist stereotypes and assumptions about Hispanics as well as the norm of physical and
social segregation. These racial microaggressions occurred directly or indirectly during in-class
discussions, where some instructors responded appropriately and straight to the negative
comments. Still, most would encourage continued class discussion, which added to the feelings
of invisibility and alienation as reported by some of the participants in Sanchez’s (2019) study.
These additional obstacles and stressors that Hispanic college students have to contend with in
their pursuit of a college degree may have a harmful effect on self-efficacy. Additionally,
Hispanic students report experiencing discrimination on college campuses that significantly
burdens their college experience and academic success (Mishra, 2020; Stevens et al., 2018).
Stevens et al. (2018) found that once minoritized students, specifically Asian or Hispanic, had
experienced discrimination, the negative impact on academic performance was more significant
than White students. As a result, Hispanic students may experience increased stress and question
their ability to succeed in college. More minoritized students reported lower exam grades and
dropping a course when they had experienced discrimination on a college campus. It behooves
academic support staff to recognize the impact and burden discrimination places on Hispanic
students (Stevens et al., 2018).
25
Storlie et al. (2014) conducted a content analysis of the experiences of Hispanic college
students by looking at qualitative data in the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science from 1979-
2011. Several themes emerged across the 1,060 research articles they analyzed past barriers, self-
efficacy, additional support, succeeding, and negative college experience. Of the research they
analyzed, Storlie et al. (2014) asserts that Hispanic college students who had little parental
encouragement to pursue a college education, lacked role models, had low self-efficacy, and lack
of college-going education encountered more barriers they could not easily overcome. Hispanic
college students may fare better if they have sources of social support such as a mentor, an
increase in parental college-going knowledge, parental consent, strong peer relations, increased
self-efficacy, resiliency, and involvement in student organizations and clubs to promote a sense
of connectedness and belonging (Storlie et al., 2014).
Social support from family and friends is essential in helping students navigate obstacles
in higher education, and so too is the support they receive on a college campus from student
groups, faculty, staff, and other campus resources (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Baker & Robnett,
2012; Kouyoumdjian et al., 2017; Medina & Posadas, 2012; Mishra, 2020). Kouyoumdjian et al.
(2017) noted that institutional support by way of dedicated faculty that provides a positive
educational experience promotes college completion for Hispanic students. Additionally, Baker
and Robnett (2012) explain that participating in a student club, having social support on college
campuses and having positive college experiences positively support the retention of Hispanic
college students. Baker and Robnett (2012) found that the Hispanic college students in their
study were more likely to work off-campus more than 20 hours a week, and to be obligated to
spend more than 17 hours a week on family obligations when compared to other minoritized
student groups. These factors hinder college retention and completion rates for Hispanic students
26
as they impact their sense of connectedness and infringe on their study time and involvement in
student organizations.
The opportunity to develop relationships with instructors, for them to be accessible,
validate and support students’ struggles, is critical when Hispanic students navigate college
coursework (Means & Pyne, 2017; Pyne & Means, 2013). Access to Hispanic faculty and
mentors is especially important for Hispanic students’ positive college experience and a diverse
campus climate (Medina & Posadas, 2012). Friends and faculty can serve as role models to
motivate college students to remain determined in achieving academic success, especially for
Hispanic students to be seen and acknowledged as belonging in educational spaces (Pyne &
Means, 2013). The interactions that college students have with faculty and engaging in
intellectual conversations with peers help to develop a college-going identity. Hispanic students
bring multifaceted identities to a college campus, and staff and faculty in higher education must
understand how these complex identities may impact experiences, persistence, and self-efficacy
(Pyne & Means, 2013). Means and Pyne (2017) found that a student’s perceived social support
on college campuses supports the development of their college identity and feeling like they
belong there, matter, are valued, and accepted. Among the college support systems that support a
student’s college identity are a social identity-based student organization, academic support
services, supportive faculty, and need-based scholarship programs (Means & Pyne 2017). Mishra
(2020) and Serrano (2020) discovered that faculty of color was a great source of support and
increased students’ perception that academic spaces were for them. Student organizations of
color provided validation and affirmation to Hispanic male college students and increased their
sense of belonging at HSIs (Serrano, 2020).
27
Overview of Disabilities and Education
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2021), in 2019-2020, 14% of
all public-school students attending kindergarten through 12th grade received special education
services under the IDEA (2004). Students with disabilities between the ages of 3 to 21 are served
under the IDEA, enacted in 1975, which provides all students with disabilities the right to
receive a free and appropriate public-school education and access to special education services.
Under the IDEA mandate, K-12 schools must undergo the process by which school personnel is
actively searching for students that might have a disability. Students are found eligible for
special education eligibility and offered services if their disability hurts academic performance
and there is an identified need for special education and related services. Students covered under
the IDEA are offered an IEP, a detailed plan that includes the benefits and specific goals to
support students in meeting their needs. Under the IDEA mandate, high school students with a
disability are offered an Individual Transition Plan (ITP), which is part of the IEP, and must be
developed before a student turns 16. The high school transition support team includes the
student, student’s parents or guardians, related service providers, special education teachers, and
support staff. A post-high school plan is developed based on the student's input of their goals,
interests, strengths, and needs. Some students with disabilities credit their high schools as the
place that should develop their advocacy skills (Francis et al., 2018; Yssel & Beilke, 2016).
Students with disabilities are sometimes held to lower expectations in K-12 education, resulting
in less going to college when compared to students without disabilities (Aron & Loprest, 2012).
In 2019-2020, the most common disability among students receiving special education
services in K-12 public schools was specific learning disability at 33%. In addition, 19% of
students receiving special education services had a speech or language impairment, 15% had
28
another health impairment eligibility, and autism, developmental delays, intellectual disabilities,
and emotional disturbance each accounted for 5% to 11% of students. Multiple disabilities,
hearing, orthopedic and visual impairments, traumatic brain injuries, and deaf-blindness each
accounted for 2% or less of student that is served under the IDEA (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2021). Although there is an increase in students with disabilities graduating
high school, they continue to do so at a much lower rate than students without disabilities
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2020).
IDEA provides safeguards for students in K-12 settings. Student's services and programs
in the IEP do not transfer to postsecondary educational settings. As students with disabilities
transition to higher education settings, they are expected to self-disclose their disability and
request accommodations to meet their accessibility needs, which are not always granted by
higher education settings, depending on the reasonableness of the request (Lovett et al., 2015).
The most recent data from the National Center for Education Statistics (2018) noted that in the
2015-2016 school year, 19% of college students reported having a disability in the U.S. The
percentage of students with disabilities graduating from college continues to lag compared to
students without a disability (Aron & Loprest, 2012; National Center for Education Statistics,
2021). In 2014 among people aged 25 and older, 16.4% of people with a disability had
completed at least a bachelor’s degree, which is significantly lower than the 34.6% of people
with no disability who had completed at least a bachelor’s degree (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2015).
In 1990 the ADA was passed, and it has helped to ensure that students with disabilities
are offered accommodations to increase accessibility at postsecondary institutions (ADA, 2020).
To be safeguarded by ADA, a person must have a physical or mental impairment that causes
29
significant limitations on at least one major life activity, the impairments the ADA covers are not
specified (ADA, 2020). Although students with disabilities have ADA as a recourse to be able to
request accommodations and accessibility at postsecondary institutions, many still encounter
obstacles and challenges that impact their college experience. One such block is that ADA has
strict guidelines in determining who qualifies for protection. Students must advocate for the
accommodations that would increase their access to the physical campus and the coursework.
Sometimes advocating can be taxing for some students with disabilities, either because they are
not sure what they need in terms of accommodations or because they fear being discriminated
against or looked at differently by staff, faculty, and peers.
Flink and Leonard (2019) assert that the kinds of experiences that students with
disabilities encounter in higher education settings significantly affect their academic success and
retention. Students with disabilities face many of the same challenges as students without
disabilities as they adjust to college demands. They have an additional responsibility to advocate
for and manage their accommodations (Yssel et al., 2016). Students with disabilities who
experience a positive and supportive interaction with their professors are often more involved
with coursework and their classes (Flink & Leonard, 2019; Kim & Kutscher, 2020). If they do
not experience a sense of connection with their campus, they are less likely to socialize with
other students or connect to campus clubs or activities (Bialka et al., 2017; Flink & Leonard,
2019). They must feel supported by their families and key professionals to increase their self-
efficacy and self-worth (de Cesarei, 2015; Lombardi et al., 2012). More specifically, families and
adults working with students with disabilities should support them in understanding their
disability, increase their self-awareness, advocate for their needs, and reinforce their self-
efficacy. This should begin in their early school years and carry throughout high school, which
30
they will then be able to apply during the college years (de Cesarei, 2015). Compounding the
challenges many students with disabilities face in higher education settings, they each have a
different awareness level regarding the disability support office and services available to them
(Flink &Leonard, 2019). Moreover, many are burdened by the stigmatization they perceive of
having a disability, so they are often skeptical about disclosing their disability for fear of being
discriminated against (Flink & Leonard, 2019; Yssel et al., 2016). Flink and Leonard (2019)
describe that there is a lack of an in-depth qualitative exploration of the lived experiences of
students with disabilities on college campuses, and this study aims to highlight such experiences.
Much research has found that students with disabilities encounter many challenges in
higher education. One such study explored the sense of belonging and campus climate among
students with disabilities in higher education, using an expanded list of disabilities to include
deaf or hard of hearing, blind or visual impairment, speech or language condition, learning
disability, physical disability, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
psychiatric or psychological condition, neurological condition, and medical condition or
disability (Soria, 2021). Soria (2021) discovered that students with any condition or disability
were much more likely to feel unwelcome, had a significantly lower sense of belonging on their
college campuses, experienced significant direct discrimination, or perceive that others like them
have been discriminated against when compared to peers without disabilities.
Kim and Kutscher (2020) examined the factors that influence the development and
success of students with disabilities at 4-year colleges and universities. They found that when
students have positive school experiences and interactions and feel encouraged by faculty and
peers, then they are more likely to develop a higher level of self-efficacy and self-concept.
31
When disclosing disability, some students feel uncomfortable doing so due to a lack of privacy
settings for presenting documentation when asking for accommodations (Smith et al., 2021). In
their study, Smith et al. (2021) did find that students surveyed felt acknowledged and supported
when disclosing their disability with staff at the disability support office, but less so to faculty in
class due to lack of a private space to share disability.
Visible and Less-visible Disability Types
Common less-visible disabilities include cognitive dysfunction, chronic fatigue, and
sensory-processing disorders. They also have autoimmune diseases, depression, diabetes, vision
impairments, and trauma, among other conditions. Physical and mobility impairments are
considered visible disabilities. Students with different disability types present with additional
needs that pose various barriers to academic success, such as a physical disability that is more
visible or learning disabilities that are less visible (Kim & Kutscher, 2020). Students with less-
visible disabilities, such as learning disability, which is the most prevalent type of disability in
higher education settings, often prefer not to disclose their disability for fear of being
stigmatized, or questioned about the need for accommodations, or do not want to be defined or
identified by their disability (Cole & Cawthon, 2015; Kim & Kutscher, 2020). In contrast, Smith
et al. (2021) found that students with less-visible disabilities such as dyslexia, which is
considered a learning disability, may experience less stigma and incredulity than those reporting
a mental health condition like depression or test anxiety, which may face resistance from faculty
or peers in understanding their disability. Akin and Huang (2019) found a clear distinction in
how students with visible disabilities are perceived differently than students with less-visible
disability types. Students with visual disabilities are perceived as more sociable and
academically capable (Akin & Huang, 2019). The way that others perceive students with
32
disabilities and the way the students with disabilities themselves interpret these experiences may
impact a sense of belonging, willingness to engage with college life, and self-esteem (Akin &
Huang, 2019).
Newman and Madaus (2015) conducted a secondary data analysis of the National
Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2). They found that students with visible disabilities
were more likely than students with less-visible disabilities to advocate for and receive
accommodations in addition to disability-specific services. The U.S. Department of Education
funded the 10-year NLTS-2 study that began in 2000; the data produced is the most significant
national sample, to date, regarding the transition outcomes and experiences of post-high school
of 11,000 students with disabilities. Not surprisingly, students from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds were less likely to receive accommodations and other disability-specific services
than students whose family income was more significant (Newman & Madaus, 2015). Based on
their findings, Newman and Madaus (2015) assert that more support, preparation, and education
need to be offered to students with less-visible disabilities and those from lower-income families,
to increase their capacity to self-disclose their disabilities in college, adding that this advocacy
skill must be taught and practiced while they are in high school.
Disability is a complex concept to clearly understand due to its varied and sometimes
vague definition, compounded by the reluctance of some students to disclose their disability and
the various barriers that exist, which affect an accurate representation of disabilities (Goodwin,
2020). A varied range of conditions exists within the visible and less-visible disability
categories; caution should be taken to disentangle the nuanced difference within each category.
Hence, drawing from the lived experiences of students with particular disabilities and
33
understanding the cultural and historical contexts in which disabilities are defined is important
work to increase awareness and improve practice in disability studies.
34
Hispanic High School Students with Disabilities
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2019), the percentage of
Hispanic students between 3-21 years of age who served under IDEA in 2015-2016 that received
services for a specific learning disability was 42%, with Pacific Islanders 43%, American
Indian/Alaskan Native 40%, and Black 37%, then for those of other races or ethnicities. Further,
Aron and Loprest (2012) and the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2020) report that
Hispanic students are overidentified for special education in general; they are overrepresented
explicitly in the learning disabilities category, adding that this disproportionality can lead to poor
academic outcomes. Hughes (2013) asserts that culturally and linguistically diverse students with
specific high incidence disabilities are likely to live in poverty, often attend low-income,
underperforming schools, and most likely do not attend post-secondary education resulting in
less success. A disproportionate number of Hispanic students with disabilities live in low-income
neighborhoods. Madaus et al. (2014) examined several studies and found that students with
disabilities that live in low-income households attend schools with a lack of quality instruction,
lack of high-quality resources, underfunded, decreased student achievement, poor future
outcomes, and educators may have fewer expectations of students with disabilities from low-
income families. Moreover, students from lower-income households decide to attend college at a
lower rate when compared to students from more affluent families (Madaus et al., 2014).
Keel et al. (2018) explored the perspectives of what Hispanic students with learning
disabilities, their parents, and special education teachers expected from a student post high
school and found that all students and their parents had a plan that they would pursue some
higher education or training program, whereas special education teachers were unsure if the
student would be successful in a higher education setting. Keel et al. (2018) cite several studies
35
that support their claim that Hispanic students with disabilities are completely excluded in many
empirical studies examining the perspective and support needs of culturally linguistically diverse
students and their families as they transition from high school. Furthermore, educational staff
and faculty must understand that Hispanic students and their families have unique values and
desires and experience different challenges than those experienced in typical mainstream culture
(Keel et al., 2018).
Transition planning includes engaging with students and their parents to facilitate the
transition from high school to adult life, which for some students means higher education. High
school students with an IEP are required by IDEA to have an ITP when they turn 16. It is
important to note that not all students with disabilities have an IEP or an ITP. Students and
families actively involved in their transition planning meetings and process are most likely to
reach the goals agreed on at the transition meetings (Hetherington et al., 2010). Unfortunately,
Hispanic families often find it challenging to be involved in the transition planning process for
numerous reasons, such as maintaining long work hours, running single-parent households, staff
or teachers’ assumptions that Hispanic families do not value education, staff, and teachers not
understanding the nuances of a Hispanic family household and their needs and beliefs, families
lack of knowledge and information on the meaning of the transition planning process for their
children (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010). Additional barriers that may limit Hispanic family’s
school involvement may be their low socioeconomic status, whereby they may work in jobs that
offer little flexibility to attend IEP meetings or school events, lack of transportation to get to the
school, and lack of access to emails to effectively communicate with school personnel, families
adopt a differential stance towards school staff and teachers, leaving teachers believing they
36
know best, and school personnel who ascribe to critical attitudes of why Hispanic families are
not involved may then extend fewer invitations (Rodriguez et al., 2014).
Some of the barriers Hispanic families and students with disabilities encounter as they
transition from high school to adulthood are language issues, concerns with parent citizenship
status, engaging culturally insensitive practices, barriers to parent participation, and limited
community and school resources (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010). Hetherington et al. (2010)
asserts that having an adult at the school that can develop a personal connection with culturally
and linguistically diverse families and students and is involved in ensuring that an individualized
transition plan is developed leads to better outcomes.
Hispanic Students with Disabilities in Higher Education
In the 2015-2016 school year, 19% of enrolled college students reported having a
disability in their college, and of those, 18% were Hispanic college students (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2018). Despite this recent data, we know little about the college
experiences and persistence of students of color with disabilities as they are not appropriately
represented in the current literature (Kutcher & Tuckwiller, 2019). According to Newman et al.
(2011), ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status play an important role in whether a student
with disabilities will pursue higher education and attain academic success. Multiple studies
examine the experiences and perceptions of students with disabilities in higher education
settings, unfortunately, the representation of Hispanic students with disabilities in such studies is
far less than for White students (Abes & Wallace, 2018; Anderson et al., 2018; Bolourian at al.,
2018; Cole & Cawthon, 2015; Fleming et al., 2017; McGregor et al., 2016; Squires et al., 2018;
Thompson-Ebanks & Jarman, 2018).
37
In 2016, Kimball et al. reviewed over 600 works of varying empirical levels, all of which
focused on students with disabilities, and asserted that the literature on students with disabilities
was sparse and uneven, further adding that disability is often viewed as separate from other more
frequently researched college student identities. The relationship between a student’s disability
and college access is involved as several factors can impact this transition (Kimball et al., 2016).
More recently, Kimball and Thoma (2019) analyzed literature that focused on postsecondary
experiences of students with disabilities published from January 2011 through December 2018
and concluded that there had been a rapid increase in research on the college experiences of
students with disabilities in recent years but adds that there continues to be a significant need for
more. Further, Kutscher and Tuckwiller (2019) conclude, from their mixed systematic review of
studies that focused on factors that are related to persistence in postsecondary for students with
disabilities, that their findings are the beginning of what needs to be researched. Moreover, there
are often gaps and inconsistencies in the literature, which are compounded by the
intersectionality of disability and being a member of another marginalized group, as this group of
students may have different experiences in higher education compared to White students with
disabilities and those of middle-class families (Kutcher & Tuckwiller, 2019).
Goodwin (2020) reports that more Hispanic and African American students with a less-
visible disability do not see themselves as having a disability. As a result, they choose not to
disclose their disability at postsecondary institutions compared to White students. We also know,
as reported by Francis et al. (2018), that first-generation college students with disabilities that
register with the disability support office experience less family and peer support, more
significant financial stressors, and demonstrate lower academic performance. They utilize
accommodations more often, when compared to continuing generation peers. Further, Abes and
38
Wallace (2018) studied how the intersection between an ableist college culture impacts the
perception and experience of college students with physical disabilities. They interviewed 13
participants with various physical disabilities, 7 of which were students of color and 6 White
students, and found that students with multiple oppressed identities, which included class,
sexuality, race, and disability, reported feeling erased on a college campus, that is, even if their
disabilities were visible, they said being seen but not seen. College students with disabilities do
not want to be regarded as inspirational and beating the odds; they want to be considered as a
person with autonomy (Abes & Wallace, 2018). Although there is a significant lack of literature
on the transition and college experience of Hispanic students with a disability as the Hispanic
population continues to increase, so will Hispanic students with disabilities in higher education
(Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010).
Transition Support Systems and their Impact on Self-Efficacy
The transition support systems in this study include the students, family, high school
counselors, transition support professionals, high school teachers, and college disability service
staff, all partners in the transition process. To make the transition process successful, each person
must be informed of the various postsecondary options available, the types of services available,
and expected student responsibilities (Hamblet, 2017). The most successful transition planning
meetings are when all members are involved, engaged, and knowledgeable, and when the student
and family feel acknowledged and heard during the planning meeting. The transition planning
team members must understand and plan for the challenges and obstacles that students may
encounter and ensure that transition plans are created to support students’ academic journey in
higher education (Hamblet, 2017). Students with disabilities transitioning to higher education
must be aware of and advocate for the support they will need and how to access them to increase
39
their college readiness (Mazzotti & Rowe, 2015). Dong and Lucas (2016) conducted a study over
4 years with nearly 9,000 college students with various disability types. They found that few
students accessed accommodations from the disability support offices, despite the benefits of
accommodations helping to improve academic performance. Professionals working with students
with disabilities in high school should inform students and their families of the risks and benefits
of requesting accommodations once in college and develop self-advocacy skills. Further,
professionals working in disability offices at higher education institutions should inform students
with disabilities and their families of the potential academic difficulty they might encounter as
they adjust to college life and tell them of campus support and resources (Dong & Lucas, 2016).
Drawing from the lived experiences of how to transition systems support Hispanic
students with disabilities and their ability to develop a sense of self-efficacy and purpose of
belonging as they transition to higher education will help to inform leaders that work in disability
services and transition planning settings to continue to provide support and to improve current
practice. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as a person’s belief in their capacity to overcome
challenges, obstacles, specific situations, or tasks which helps to develop the groundwork for
motivation and achievement. Tinto (2017) contends that several factors shape student motivation
to persist and succeed in higher education, emphasizing that institutional response shapes and
influences the outcome. Self-efficacy is considered a significant factor, foundational and
necessary for students to persist and believe they can succeed in college (Tinto, 2017). A
student’s self-efficacy can be weakened or bolstered by the experiences and interactions they
encounter on college campuses, namely with staff and faculty. Tinto (2017) explains that
institutions of higher learning must support the development of student self-efficacy by
continually assessing first-year student performance and offering social and academic support in
40
the form of supplemental instruction, frequent feedback, formative assessments, college
advising, counseling, and mentorship, to increase student retention.
Given this, when Hispanic high school students with a disability decide to access higher
education, the transition process from secondary education to higher education may add a layer
of uncertainty and self-doubt which can impact their self-efficacy. As a result, a lack of self-
efficacy may lead to college dropout, DeWitz et al. (2009) support this in their research which
found that higher self-efficacy leads to greater retention rates in college.
Another significant factor essential to students' persistence and success is a sense of
belonging, which can also be influenced by institutional practices (Tinto, 2017). As transition
support systems continue to offer more opportunities for students to find a sense of community
with faculty, staff, and peers, they may feel anchored to peers, staff, and faculty and connected to
the institution itself when they face a challenges. Higher education institutions should promote
students’ sense of belonging to increase student retention, especially for students with
disabilities. Tinto (2017) recommends that students feel represented on campus by having a
diverse staff, faculty, and student body, and the opportunity to belong to social student groups
and organizations that offer a smaller community of students that they can share a common bond.
In Scott’s (2019) focus group study on the perspectives of college students with
disabilities, the findings help inform the gaps and barriers to access and participate in support
services, as reported by 66% of White students with disabilities and 9% Hispanic students with
disabilities. Some of the campus barriers reported by the focus group participants were lack of
awareness of available services at the disability resource office; many said difficulty
understanding the process to access services; accommodations received were inadequate (Scott,
2019). An exciting finding and one that high school transition support team members can help
41
address is that many participants reported feeling unprepared on how to disclose their disability
and not being supported for self-advocacy. Too often, college students with disabilities
encountered professors who were unaware of campus procedures for students with disabilities, or
many challenged their requests for accommodations. Another common theme reported in the
research brief by Scott (2019) was campus climate and experiencing stigma related to their
disability. These findings can help current college disability administrators and staff to increase
their awareness of these issues and to address them on their campuses.
The extent of parent involvement of Hispanic students with disabilities depends on
multiple factors. Many Hispanic families highly value social interdependence, which may affect
how they perceive their child’s disability and the types of support they offer, which may affect
the students’ self-efficacy and college success. In a study by Weedon and Riddell (2009), parent
involvement in the transition process was beneficial in supporting students with disabilities to
overcome barriers in accessing services from the disability support services office at college.
Hetherington et al. (2010) found that school culture and lack of accountability impeded parents
from being more actively involved in their children’s transition planning from secondary to
higher education, with students and parents reporting that they felt underprepared for the
transition. According to Bakken (2019), students with disabilities and their families are an
integral part of the transition planning and transition process and assert that limited progress has
been made in this area since the findings of the NLTS-2 study were reported over ten years ago.
Professionals involved in the transition planning and transition process should be trained on
culturally competent practices when working with culturally diverse students and families to
increase understanding, participation, and engagement (Bakken, 2019).
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Students with disabilities continue to encounter numerous obstacles and challenges about
academics, behavior, or social situations. As they transition to higher education, they face an
additional task of having to learn how to navigate the transition process. Notably, students with
learning disabilities experience more uncertainty about their futures and have poorer
postsecondary outcomes when compared to students without disabilities (Weiss & Faggella-
Luby, 2019). Students with learning disabilities must be able to identify the kinds of
accommodations they need, self-advocate for those needs, and identify and use resources for
academic success (Weiss & Faggella-Luby, 2019). When compared to students without
disabilities, students with learning disabilities are less likely to ask teachers or other school staff
for help. They are more likely to live in low-income households and less likely to attend
transition planning meetings (Lipscomb et al., 2018).
Transition Support Process and Culturally Competent Practice
The professionals working with Hispanic students with disabilities in transition and
disability support services must practice cultural competence to be aware, respectful, and
responsive to the cultural beliefs of disability, values, and practices of Hispanic students. Paying
particular attention to the interdependence among Hispanic families and being mindful of the
multiple components of culture such as ethnicity, language, socioeconomic status, education, and
disability will support professionals to be sensitive to the unique needs of this study's target
population. In their research, Gothberg et al. (2019) found that school districts were doing almost
nothing different with culturally linguistically diverse families as compared to families from a
mainstream culture during the transition planning process in high school. Culturally responsive
communication and person-family-centered practice was lacking in the interaction with
culturally linguistically diverse families, as was staff training on cultural competence (Gothberg
43
et al., 2019). Banks’(2014) findings maintain that culturally competent practices are often
overlooked in higher education transition planning which serves as a detriment to supporting
students with disabilities in their educational goals.
To improve academic performance and high school graduation, the school staff, teachers,
and administrators that work with high school students must employ culturally competent
practices, which will help eliminate bias and acknowledge diversity on the school campus
(Marrero, 2016; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010). Martinez (2013) confirms that high school
personnel involved in the transition process to college must be knowledgeable of the cultural
expectations familismo has on Hispanic high school students, which may complicate the
transition to college. High schools and institutions of higher education must make a concerted
effort to identify and affect change to address the diverse needs of Hispanic families who may
face cultural barriers to educational pursuits. Hispanic students have unique needs that must be
met to improve the high school completion rate (Gordon, 2017; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010).
High school staff responsible for guiding the college-going process must be aware of
Hispanic students’ obstacles (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010). Among them is the lack of
understanding of the numerous benefits of a college degree; many often prefer to secure a job for
immediate income instead of seeing the long-term benefits of the earning potential that can come
with a college degree (Rodriguez et al. 2015). Another obstacle many Hispanic high school
students encounter is filling out the free application for federal student aid and college
applications. In addition, Hispanic high school students often worry too much about the cost of
college on family resources coupled with the lack of guidance at the school level, which deters
many students from pursuing higher education. Rodriguez et al. (2015) recommends that
information be more accessible and quality guidance must be offered to Hispanic students by
44
high school counselors. Understanding Hispanic students' cultural backgrounds is important,
which will aid in providing culturally responsive practices (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010). When
working with Hispanic students, it is essential to use a strengths-based cultural approach instead
of focusing on deficits Hispanic students may exhibit (Moreno & Gaytan, 2013). Moreno and
Gaytan (2013) report that Hispanic students have historically been over-identified as students
with disabilities. They get referred more often for special education assessments by their teachers
because many lack a cultural understanding of the student's upbringing and home expectations.
Hispanic students, like other minoritized groups, face the added challenge of adapting to the
majority culture, with factors such as language, beliefs, and values complicating this process. In
addition, students from immigrant households often are English learners in school, and the
slower acquisition of English skills may hinder their educational outcomes. Students' and their
parents' immigration status causes much worry and stress, which may affect academic
achievement and limit access to educational opportunities for fear of immigration status being
discovered. Poverty is another obstacle that Hispanic students face and leads to poor educational
outcomes (Moreno & Gaytan, 2013).
Culturally linguistically diverse families of students with disabilities may experience a
lack of communication during the transition planning process; limited information is shared with
them, encounter negative professional attitudes, and lack of acceptance and mistrust, which
affects the quality of transition planning and familial involvement (Wilt & Morningstar, 2018).
Wilt and Morningstar (2018) maintain that when relationships with parents and students are
fostered and acknowledged as valuable members of the transition planning process, encouraged
and expected to make decisions and give input, this makes for a culturally responsive transition
meeting. To increase Hispanic family participation during the high school transition process,
45
school personnel must apply culturally competent practices such as providing all
communications in parents’ dominant language, asking parents for their input in their child’s
long-term transition goals, understanding that for Hispanic families moving away from home to
attend college is not always encouraged and would prefer their child attend a local college or
work and live at home (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010; Rodriguez et al., 2014).
Familismo and its Impact on Hispanic Students
The Hispanic cultural value of familismo (also called “familialism” or “familism”) often
has a significant impact on Hispanic students (Marín & Marín, 1991; Stein et al., 2017).
Familismo is a cultural value that strongly ties Hispanic children to their immediate and extended
families, emphasizing loyalty, family responsibility, unity, and reciprocity (Marin & Marin,
1991). Familismo values may add a layer of stress and burden on many Hispanic high school and
college students feeling obligated to prioritize the needs of their family over their own, or it may
serve as an asset if their family is a source of support towards their college endeavors. The sense
of obligation and respect to take the family goals into account in decision-making specific to
careers and college can motivate some Hispanic youth to succeed (Stein et al., 2017). The
influence that familismo can have on Hispanic students can be positive, but it can also deter
educational aspirations (Kouyoumdjian et al., 2017; Medina & Posadas, 2012; Mishra, 2020;
Pyne & Means, 2013).
Hispanic students may find themselves obligated and responsible to contribute financially
to their family’s income, which can affect academic pursuits (Marrero, 2016). Some Hispanic
youth are expected to contribute financially to the household income, many preceding college
because of this expectation or working while attending college, which may affect college
completion (Rodriguez et al., 2015). Some Hispanic families have a solid cultural attitude that
46
work is more important than a college degree. Some Hispanic youth continue to believe they
have a financial obligation to their families, that they must work to save for college or help the
family. Familismo, because of its interdependent nature, can be detrimental for Hispanics when
deciding to further their education after high school. Martinez (2013) explained how familismo
affects and often determines Hispanic high school students’ college aspirations. Martinez (2013)
asserts that familismo can be considered an asset instead of a deficit, especially for families who
have college expectations for their children, it may take some time for the traditional practice of
familismo to shift. Familismo can make a significant difference in student outcomes, as noted in
Gordon’s (2017) study of Hispanic students from disadvantaged communities whose parents
were more involved and supportive of their school work and school activities and who
demonstrated a positive parent-adolescent relationship interacting together to bring an increase in
academic achievement. As more Hispanic parents expect their children to attend college, and
provide emotional support and encouragement, then familismo can be a supportive cultural asset
because of its stronghold on family expectations.
Ramirez et al. (2014) found that Hispanic high school students from low-income families
that receive familial support demonstrate increased academic achievement. Growing Hispanic
families’ academic expectations is essential to support Hispanic students’ aspirations for future
success. In their study, Giraldo-Garcia et al. (2019) found that parents’ academic expectations,
among other predictors, made a significant impact on high school completion. Moreover,
family’s academic expectations strongly influence the student's beliefs about their ability to
succeed (Calero, 2014; Rodriguez et al., 2021). Emotional support and strategies for how they
can support their children academically should be provided to parents at school sites and
continue through high school, as this is a critical period when students begin to question their
47
place in society. Hispanic parents who are aware of the college requirements and academic
expectations and receive emotional support from high school staff are better able to offer support
and encouragement to their children (Ramirez et al., 2014).
Mishra (2020) found that Hispanic college students with limited financial means achieve
academic success when their families support them. Familial support takes many forms, which
serve to motivate college students to persevere and succeed. It is seen when parents with no
higher education experience are dedicated to becoming better informed. It is also seen when
parents exhibit a positive and supportive attitude toward their children pursuing higher
education, provide guidance, encouragement, and advice, make sacrifices so their children can
achieve success, and are involved in their children’s learning at a young age (Mishra, 2020). The
family plays a significant role in Hispanic culture (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Rodriguez et al.,
2021). A study conducted by Arellano and Padilla (1996) found that familismo was seen when
parents, with a little educational experience and few resources, provided strong verbal
encouragement, and support, held high expectations that their children would attend college, and
were involved in their children's education in their way. Rodriguez et al. (2021) found that
Hispanic family influence can serve as a source of support for Hispanic female students in their
pursuit of science, technology, engineering, or math (STEM) degree and further supports the
development of their STEM identity. The women in this study could share their doubts,
struggles, and successes with their families because of their close bond and they leaned on them
for support throughout their STEM journey. It is essential to note the complicated nature that
familismo can pose to Hispanic college females, as some may experience the social support from
their families but also the pressure to attain academic success while simultaneously balancing
family as a priority and the traditional Hispanic female role (Rodriguez et al., 2021).
48
Lopez et al. (2019) has extended familismo to encompass the networks, social support,
and relationships that may be available in higher education settings. As a form of social capital,
familismo can be experienced by students through mentorship by faculty and social connections
with peers on college campuses promoting self-efficacy, a sense of belonging, and academic
success (Arellano & Padilla, 1996). Lopez et al. (2019) asserts that more researchers have found
familismo to positively impact education more than serve as a detriment. Supportive
relationships in academic settings can align with characteristics of familismo and affirm a sense
of community, belonging, value, support, and reciprocity (Lopez et al., 2019).
Summary of Literature Review
A review of the literature has exemplified the complexity of the multiple and unique
obstacles faced by Hispanic students in public school systems, higher education settings, and
specifically those with disabilities, which may impact access to opportunities and academic
achievement. The research highlights the complex nature of belonging to multiple identities,
such as the intersection of a Hispanic identity, disability status, and socio-economic background,
and the challenges that arise from these memberships.
Literature was presented that supports ameliorating obstacles to college success and
increasing self-efficacy and self-advocacy in Hispanic students with disabilities, which will help
them reach academic success in their educational journey. As reported in the literature, the
college degree attainment gap has remained steady for a decade, among Hispanic and White
students; it is therefore critical to improving upon practice as a means of narrowing and
ultimately closing this gap. Hispanic students attending HSIs often feel more supported and have
better chances of completing their college studies, accentuating the need for culturally competent
practices whereby students of color feel acknowledged, seen, valued, and understood.
49
Several studies have presented that report we know little of the college experiences and
persistence of students of color with disabilities, as they are not appropriately represented in the
current literature. We know that ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status play an important role
in whether a student with disabilities will pursue higher education and attain academic success.
As supported by the literature, we know it is imperative that transition planning team members
be involved, engaged, knowledgeable, and culturally competent when working with Hispanic
students with disabilities and their families. As mentioned in the literature, a student’s self-
efficacy and sense of belonging can be weakened or bolstered by the experiences and
interactions they encounter on high school and college campuses, namely with staff and faculty.
In addition, as reported in the literature, we know that familismo can significantly impact
students’ academic outcomes. This study aims to highlight the lived experiences of eight
Hispanic students with disabilities in their academic pursuits, in the development of self-efficacy
and self-advocacy, and what they perceived as helpful or missing in their journey.
50
Chapter Three: Methodology
The focus of this study was to understand the shared lived experience among Hispanic
students with disabilities as they transitioned into higher education to best support them in the
transition process and in their academic success. A qualitative approach was selected to explore
the lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities to further understand this population.
This chapter presents the research design, participants, data collection, and analysis used in this
study.
Research Design
As more staff, faculty, and peers continue to foster a college-going culture, more
Hispanic students with disabilities have decided to access higher education. This study focused
on the lived experiences and perceptions that Hispanic college students with disabilities
encountered when transitioning to the demands of a college setting. As such, a qualitative
phenomenological approach was used for this study as it allows personal experiences to be
captured, giving voice to individual experiences, which may prompt changes in current practice.
A phenomenological approach emphasizes and depicts the day-to-day experiences of individuals
and their interpretation of such experiences to arrive at their core meaning and essence (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, phenomenological interviews are a valuable tool for qualitative
research studies as they allow one to capture rich data that is not readily observable, such as
feelings, thoughts, and perceptions about a particular experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Research Questions
The academic success that Hispanic students with disabilities experienced as they
transitioned to college may be influenced by the transition support systems they interacted with,
such as their families, their peers, the staff and teachers in high school or college, and their
51
perceptions of themselves and how others see them. The following questions guided this study to
better understand the perspectives of Hispanic students with disabilities as they described their
own transition experiences to higher education.
The research questions for this study:
1. What is the lived experience of Hispanic students with disabilities as they
transition from high school to higher education?
2. What is the transition support system process?
3. What is the impact on academic success?
Research Setting
The interviews for this study took place via Zoom (Zoom Video Communications, 2020),
from a location chosen by each participant. Due to the current pandemic restrictions, in-person
interviews were not possible. The location the participants chose to be in while participating in
the interview can be considered their preferred setting as it may be a comfortable and familiar
environment that encouraged each of them to be relaxed and engaged. This setting also
supported meaning-making during the interview, as the participants had more control of their
environment, allowing them to focus and be fully present with the researcher. Each participant
was asked to schedule a time when they could be in a quiet room, as a calm setting is best for
qualitative interviews. They were encouraged to find a location where they felt comfortable and
could focus on the interview questions being asked so that an uninterrupted conversation could
occur. Likewise, this researcher found a quiet and private room to conduct the online interviews
and wore headphones to ensure participants’ responses were kept confidential.
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Participants
Target and Accessible Population
The target population was Hispanic students with a disability who attend an institution of
higher education in the U.S. or were connected with organizations through social media that
focused on Hispanic college students, college students with disabilities, and people with
disabilities. The accessible population of this study was Hispanic students with a disability who
attends an institution of higher education in the U.S. or were connected with organizations
through social media that focused on Hispanic college students, college students with disabilities,
and people with disabilities.
Sample
The sample for this study was eight Hispanic college students with a disability who
attend an institution of higher education in the U.S. or are connected with organizations through
social media that may focus on Hispanic college students, college students with disabilities, and
people with disabilities.
The sample also met the following criteria through a self-report (see Demographic
Survey in Appendix A):
1. Be over the age of 18
2. Be of Hispanic background
3. Attend or attended a higher education institution in the U.S.
4. Have a disability
Sampling Method
A nonprobability sampling method was utilized in this qualitative research study as it is a
preferred method for studies where the goal is not to generalize the results to a broad population.
53
Instead, the intent was to emphasize an in-depth understanding of the lived occurrences of
Hispanic college students with a disability and the implications of these experiences (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In particular, purposeful sampling was used to select the sample for this study, as
the focus was on specific individuals that met a selection criteria to discover their experiences,
understand them, and gain insight (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Convenience sampling was used
when selecting the online discussion groups on social media to recruit participants. The
researcher is familiar with a social media discussion group with a large Hispanic student
demographic and another with a large college student with a disability audience, facilitating the
recruitment of participants.
Recruitment Procedures
Recruitment for Hispanic college students with a disability who attend or attended a
higher education institution entailed reaching out to various organizations. First, the researcher
contacted the disability support service office staff at a university and a community college both
in Southern California to enlist participants through an email inquiry (See Appendix B;
Procedures section) with a recruitment letter (See Appendix D) attached to that email. In
addition, the researcher also recruited potential participants through online discussion groups on
social media such as Facebook and Instagram by sending the same email inquiry to the
discussion group administrators. If they agreed to assist in recruitment, they posted the
recruitment letter on their discussion group page.
Data Collection
Demographic Survey
The potential participants were asked to complete a demographic survey (see Appendix
A) so the researcher could have more insight into the intersections of the participants. These
54
specific demographic questions were asked for recruitment purposes. Each question targeted the
specific criteria necessary to participate in this study. The disability/impairment question allowed
for multiple responses to be selected rather than one choice. This was intentionally done to
include and capture all disabilities or impairments with which they identified. The question on
age was asked to ensure that study participants were of adult age, thereby ensuring that consent
to participate had only to be asked of them. Specific age ranges were not invited as well as
names or locations of college/universities they attended, as this information does not pertain to
the aim of this study, and this also helps to protect their personal data.
Interview Protocol
Semi-structured interviews are a valuable tool for research studies as they allow one to
capture a special qualitative data that is not readily observable, such as feelings, thoughts, and
perceptions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Conducting interviews with participants face-to-face
allowed for rich interaction, in which participants felt more comfortable sharing personal
experiences. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) affirmed that open-ended question formats followed by
the use of probes result in a great deal of substantive information shared for later analysis. For
the respondent to feel comfortable with the interview encounter, the researcher must be skilled in
building rapport by being respectful, non-judgmental, and sensitive to the nuances brought forth
by the respondent (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through this lens, this researcher conducted the
semi-structured interviews and interacted with the participants to establish a trusting relationship.
The interview questions (see Appendix C) were based on the three research questions of this
study.
55
Procedures
Once the research was approved by the Internal Review Board of the University of
Southern California, the researcher was then going to seek Internal Review Board approval from
a community college and a university in Southern California but chose not to because all
participants were secured through two social media posts. The email letter (see Appendix B) was
sent to the administrators of a higher education organization for Hispanic students and the
administrator of a social media group for college students with disabilities which is described in
the Recruitment Section. The recruitment letter (see Appendix D) contained information about
the study. A link to the Demographic Survey was provided, including the eligibility questions
(see Appendix A) and a request for participants' contact information if they would like to be
interviewed. Once the eight individuals were selected as research participants, they were
contacted to schedule an open-ended semi-structured 45-minute interview, which was conducted
through Zoom. At that time, the purpose of the study, confidentiality, and informed consent (see
Appendix E) were explained once again. All participants were informed that they were a
voluntary participant and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. They
were provided with the informed consent form before the day of the interview, which
acknowledged the confidentiality of shared information and granted permission to record and
transcribe the conversation.
On the day of the scheduled interview, the researcher once again briefly explained the
purpose of the study, the informed consent policy, and highlighted that their participation was
voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time during or after the interview.
Additionally, each participant was informed that they had the right to decline to answer any
question that made them uncomfortable. Notes of each interview interaction were kept, which
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served as a memo of the interaction. These notes added important information to the raw data,
such as any thoughts and ideas that emerged during the interview and served as a record for later
use and analysis. Once the interview was completed, each participant was emailed a $25 Amazon
gift card as a token of appreciation.
Confidentiality Parameters
The methods used to identify and contact potential participants were through emails sent
to staff at the disability support services departments in the college settings and social media
posts on discussion group pages on Facebook and Instagram. The scene in which the participants
interacted with the researcher was via phone communication, email, and a Zoom meeting for the
interview. To join the Zoom meeting, a randomly generated meeting identification number was
used along with a unique passcode which was individualized for each of the eight participants.
Once study participants completed the interview, they were asked for an email where they would
like to receive the gift card as a token of appreciation. This email was stored separately from
their interview responses. Participants were emailed the gift card after the interview. The
methods used to obtain information about participants were their email responses to the
demographic survey and their virtual participation in the discussion.
The potential privacy risks of information participants share were minimal to none. Their
answers to demographic and interview questions were kept anonymous and confidential. They
had the right to withdraw from the study at any time and to decline to answer any questions
during the interview. Each participant was assured that their responses to the interview questions
would be kept confidential and anonymous and that pseudonyms and coding would be used to
protect their anonymity during the transcription and presentation of their responses. To ensure
confidentiality, this researcher conducted the virtual interviews in a private room that was kept
57
off-limits to anyone else during each interview. To ensure privacy, headphones were used so that
only the researcher could hear each participant’s responses. Likewise, each participant was asked
to secure a private space where they could participate in the virtual interview. On the day of the
virtual interview, each participant was asked if they were in a private and secure location and if
they felt comfortable that their responses would not be overheard by others for them to answer
freely and honestly. The options for participants to disclose their identity were none. Only the
researcher had access to their email addresses which were kept separate from their responses to
the demographic survey and their interview. All demographic survey and interview responses
were accessible to the researcher only.
The steps taken to ensure access to the minimum amount of information necessary to
complete the study were that all participants receive the Recruitment letter (see Appendix D) and
the Informed Consent letter (see Appendix E), which detailed the purpose of the study and a
description of the confidentiality measures. No information was obtained about individuals other
than the desired sampling information. No personal or identifiable information was brought to
facilitate the research and as part of data collection.
Data Management
The following best practices were used to protect the research data. The researcher
remained current with cybersecurity practices by practicing safe computing practices and
installing the Anti-virus Software, Symantec Endpoint Protection. The researcher also installed a
firewall and enabled automatic weekly updates for Windows. Data was classified to identify
access control to the researcher only to ensure data privacy and confidentiality. The researcher
provided data encryption by using Windows BitLocker full-disk encryption. Windows BitLocker
was used to encrypt external drives such as USB thumb drives. Microsoft 365 OneDrive was
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used as backup storage to ensure backup requirements and to prevent data loss. Regarding
system authentication and security, the researcher ensured that access to all confidential and
sensitive data was managed appropriately by using strong passwords, restricted user permissions
to the files being used, and locking the workstation when the researcher was away.
Encryption
Data encryptions were used to protect confidential and sensitive research data. The
encryption stayed with the data as it traveled through networks, web servers, application servers,
and database servers. Any confidential and sensitive email communications were encrypted by
using the BitLocker encryption system as this method encrypts the computer operating system. If
a potential risk is detected, the entire operating system drive is locked, which can only be
unlocked by a recovery key.
Dissemination of Findings
The findings of this study will be shared with high school transition team offices,
disability support offices, and the administrators of the social media discussion groups that
participated in the recruitment of study participants. The purpose of disseminating the findings to
these stakeholders is because they serve a crucial role in supporting Hispanic students with
disabilities in their transition from high school to college. It is hoped that the findings will help
illuminate the perceived experiences of some Hispanic students to provide best practices. Lastly,
dissemination of the results of the findings were shared with those interested in deepening their
understanding of how some Hispanic students with disabilities understand and perceive their
own transition experiences to and in higher education. Sharing the experiences of Hispanic
59
students with disabilities as they transition to college is essential so that service delivery and
program development can be relevant and intentional to meet the needs of the target population.
Data Analysis
The Demographic Survey (see Appendix A) data was collected and exported to Excel
(Microsoft Corporation, 2018) for analysis. The audio recordings from the semi-structured
interviews were transcribed using the NVivo transcription service. Each transcription was
reviewed and uploaded to NVivo to conduct a Thematic Content Analysis (see Thematic
Analysis section). The researcher was careful to identify patterns and themes from the interview
responses. The data analysis process was deliberate and thorough to ensure consistency and
accuracy of the captured information.
Descriptive Analysis
This study used descriptive statistics to analyze all sets of data to answer the following
research questions:
1. What is the lived experience of Hispanic students with disabilities as they
transition from high school to higher education?
2. What is the transition support system process?
3. What is the impact on academic success?
Descriptive statistics analyze data to identify the current status of identified variables or
characteristics of participants (Salkind, 2017). Descriptive statistics can be used to characterize
data based on the properties of each demographic data point. In particular, frequency measures
were used to show how often response was given. Frequency measures were shown in
percentage from the total count of participants responding to a particular survey item. To find the
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frequency measure, the researcher looked for emerging patterns and frequently used words and
phrases that participants used in their responses.
Demographic Data
Demographic information was collected from each of the eight study participants. All
eight participants answered 100% of the demographic survey questions before being
interviewed. The demographic survey responses ensured that participants met all the criteria to
participate in the study. All eight participants self-reported that they were over 18, identified as
being Hispanic, are attending a higher education institution in the U.S., and have a disability or
multiple disabilities. During the interview, all participants reported being connected to the
disability support offices at their college campus, and all eight participants reported using their
prescribed accommodations regularly.
Thematic Content Analysis
Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) was used in this study. TCA is a descriptive
presentation of qualitative data taken from the researcher’s semi-structured interview transcripts
with the research sample (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The researcher used NVivo (QSR, 2020)
transcription tools to support the transcription and analysis process. In the analysis, the
researcher closely examined the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas, and patterns of
meaning that came up repeatedly. While there are various approaches to conducting TCA, the
researcher conducted the thematic analysis using the six-step process developed by Braun and
Clarke (2006). The six-step process included familiarization, coding, generating themes,
reviewing themes, defining and naming pieces, and writing up. The research findings from the
TCA were organized per each of the three research questions. The researcher selected quotes that
were most representative of the results related to the questions.
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62
Familiarization
The researcher read and re-read the data to become familiar and immersed with the
content before analyzing the individual items. The researcher became familiarized with each
interview response by conducting multiple reviews of the content and getting to know the data.
During this process, some ideas began to emerge, and the researcher took notes of potential
codes that assisted in the next step.
Coding
In this phase, the researcher assigned codes that briefly described the data. As the
researcher noticed an interesting phrase or sentence in the interview transcript that might be
relevant to answering the research questions, it was highlighted and assigned a code. This way of
organizing the data made it easier to assign it to recurrent themes in a later phase. Once all the
data was coded, it was collated into respective categories used for generating themes.
Generating Themes
The researcher began sorting the codes into potential themes that were broader
interpretations of the data and of the codes identified. In this iterative process, the researcher
referred to the codes and began to arrange and rearrange them into different themes, each time
gaining a better understanding of the code’s relationship to the potential patterns that started to
emerge. This was when the coded categories’ meaning-making commenced, and the themes
began to take shape.
Reviewing Themes
The researcher reviewed and refined the potential themes identified by reading the
extracts from the interview transcripts that were related to each code to ensure that they
63
supported the assigned article. The aim here was to establish coherent and unique pieces that
captured all the content relevant to the research questions.
Defining and Naming Themes
The researcher began to describe and name the themes by developing a detailed analysis
of each. Each theme’s definition is descriptive, coherent, and clear and demonstrates how it
relates to other themes and the main research question. The themes were appropriately named
and remained consistent with the study’s purpose and the overall framework (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Writing Up
The meaning-making process took on an iterative nature. It occurred throughout all the
phases of analysis, culminating with a narrative analysis that was contextualized in the existing
literature that was reviewed. During the write-up phase, the researcher continually reflected on
the purpose of the study was guided by the research questions, and maintained objectivity, all the
while focused on the intended stakeholders the study aimed to inform and, how the analysis
answered the research questions.
Reliability
If research findings can be replicated in other studies, that is, if the study were to be
repeated, it would produce the same results, then the study is considered reliable (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Establishing this kind of reliability is essential for research studies that wish to
replicate their findings across other studies; this was not the purpose of this study. The
qualitative inquiry that seeks to understand an individual's experiences may not allow for
reliability in its traditional sense since individual perceptions are unique and can change over
time (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Instead, the researcher used several rigorous and meticulous
64
strategies to ensure the reliability and trustworthiness of this study to explain how Hispanic
students with disabilities perceive their realities. Rigor was implemented throughout the study to
include the conceptualization of the study, well-crafted research questions, transparent and
detailed methods sections, a well-documented study design, and an objective analysis of the data,
which supported the dependability of the study.
Dependability
The researcher demonstrated that this study is dependable by ensuring that the findings
are consistent with the presented data. Dependable and consistent results that make sense based
on the data that was collected are a substantial-quality measure of any qualitative study (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The researcher methodically documented the procedures used throughout the
inquiry and kept a journal of self-reflection, questions, decisions, issues, or ideas as they ensued
during data collection to construct what Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describe as an audit trail.
This audit trail supports the dependability of this study and will help future researchers to repeat
this study.
Confirmability
Much like an audit trail ensures dependability, it will also help to confirm that the
findings are clearly congruent to the conclusions and that they can be followed. More
importantly, confirmation of the results can be substantiated more fully as that of the
participant’s responses and the line of inquiry that was used; if the researcher keeps a detailed
report to denote potential biases, assumptions, how categories were made, and how data was
collected, which adds a layer of transparency that can be quickly followed.
Validity
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To ensure rigor in a qualitative study, it must be valid, and the data collected must be
congruent with what the study was intended to capture (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, to
enhance validity, the researcher validated the findings as they emerged by checking back with
some of the participants to avoid misinterpreting their responses and to understand their
perspectives.
Credibility
Credibility is one of the most essential criteria to establish the trustworthiness of the
research as it helps to support the study’s validity. The researcher ensured that the results were
credible by using established research methods such as purposeful sampling, and iterative
questioning during thematic content analysis and obtained feedback from some participants to
make sure what was understood as their truth was accurately captured.
Transferability
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) agreed that transferability refers to the extent that the
research results described in the study may be transferable to another setting, context, or
population. To establish the transferability of this study, the researcher presented a detailed and
highly descriptive account of the study participants, a clear description of the findings, and key
quotes from the participant interviews, thereby facilitating the application elsewhere (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
Conclusion
The target population of this study was Hispanic college students with a disability; thus
remaining mindful, present, and sensitive to the historical and current lived experiences of being
a Hispanic student, in addition to one that has a disability, was crucial to improve access and
success rates for this population. Tillman (2002) confirmed that researchers must practice
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caution and not study minoritized people from a deficit perspective. As such, the current
literature served as a guide to help ground this study in a CHAT framework when analyzing what
Hispanic college students with a disability think and feel about their lived experiences. Tillman
(2002) maintained that culturally sensitive research approaches in qualitative studies must be
practiced. This chapter outlined the methodology used to capture the data needed to answer the
research questions. The researcher elected to use the semi-structured interview method to collect
relevant, significant, and potentially sensitive data. This method allowed one to build rapport,
provide clarification when necessary, and probe further to understand better how Hispanic
students with disabilities perceive their lived realities.
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Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative study was designed to examine and understand the lived experiences of
Hispanic students with disabilities as they transitioned from high school to higher education. One
goal of this study was to give space for participants to share their personal experiences in their
transition to higher education, what they perceived as helpful, the challenges they faced, their
beliefs, and unique characteristics. Another goal was to understand how the participants
perceived the support systems in the transition process. Additionally, this study aimed to
understand and examine the impact on the academic success that this group of Hispanic students
experienced. The data collected helped inform the following research questions: What is the
lived experience of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transition from high school to
higher education? What is the transition support system process? What is the impact on academic
success?
Data analysis requires interpreting and synthesizing the responses, using factual data and
abstract concepts to make meaning of the data and answer the research questions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Once the interviews were conducted, they were transcribed and categorized by
theme, with particular attention to how the responses related to and informed the study’s focus.
The data analysis section of this study began. Various themes emerged from the transcribed
interviews, and many were recurrent themes among all the participants. The themes presented in
this section helped to answer the research questions and they included: self-advocacy, sense of
belonging, feeling seen and acknowledged, access to caring adults and mentors, family support,
self-efficacy, and utilizing resources and accommodations.
Open coding was utilized during this beginning analysis as it allowed for various pieces
of data to be identified for their potential to be helpful, which encouraged the researcher to be
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open to all possibilities (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The assignment of codes to segments of data
is how I began to construct the categories in the first transcript which were used in the
subsequent transcripts to see if they were also present, allowing me to see if a pattern was
emerging. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) maintained that data analysis was a process, and it was
the researcher’s role to ensure that the findings were credible and trustworthy. As such, it was
my responsibility to be reflective and aware of my positionality, perspectives, and assumptions
to bring objectivity to this study. Data were analyzed using a coding strategy to identify common
themes that arose across the responses. Quotes from the coded interview responses were included
to highlight the findings. These quotes were explicitly interpreted, as this was part of the data
analysis process, and the findings were presented as a qualitative narrative, emphasizing how
they answered the research question.
This study represented a variety of disabilities: attention deficit disorder, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, cerebral palsy, dyslexia, learning disability, mental health impairment,
rheumatoid arthritis, and visual processing impairment. Seven participants were diagnosed with a
disability as a child, and one reported being officially diagnosed in adulthood. All participants
had a clear understanding of their disabilities. Depending on the nature of the disability, some
participants experienced mobility challenges while others reported cognitive difficulties. They all
said that at some point, their disability posed a challenge to their academic success. Two
participants reported fluctuations in their physical or cognitive functioning, which directly
impacted their academic performance.
All eight participants were over the age of 18 and identified as Hispanic. Six students
were female, and two were male. All students in this study were registered with the Disability
Services office on their college campus and accessed accommodations based on the disability
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they disclosed to that office. Their majors ranged from anthropology, business administration,
chemical engineering, computer science, education, journalism, and social work. Five were
undergraduates in their third or last year of school, and three were graduate students. Seven of
the students attend a university considered an HSI in the Southwestern region of the U.S., and
one attends a non-HSI in a Southeastern part of the U.S. Table 1 lists the participants'
pseudonyms, year in college, major, and disability.
Table 1
Participant Profiles
Participant Name Year in College Major Disability
Daniel 4th-year
undergraduate
Social Work Learning Disability,
Dyslexia, Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder
Gabriela 3rd-year
undergraduate
Chemical
Engineering
Learning Disability,
Visual Processing
Impairment
Jasmin 3rd-year
undergraduate
Journalism Physical Disability:
Cerebral Palsy
Lisa Last year’s graduate
student
Business
Administration
Mobility Related
Disability:
Rheumatoid Arthritis
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Manuel Last year’s graduate
student
Social Work Learning Disability
Nayari 4th-year
undergraduate
Computer Science Physical Disability:
Cerebral Palsy
Samantha Last year’s graduate
student
Anthropology Learning Disability,
Dyslexia, Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder, Mental
Health
Sandra 4th-year
undergraduate
Education Physical Disability:
Cerebral Palsy
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Analysis of Research Question 1
This section presents the findings that answer the following research question: What is
the lived experience of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transition from high school to
higher education?
Family Support and Expectations
Most participants referenced family support and parent expectations as crucial in their
decision to transition to higher education. Though Daniel and Manuel, who are older college
students, reported a different kind of family support, one that was not as immediate or as evident
as the family support experienced by the other six participants. Daniel’s parents worked long
hours, and felt he did not have a support system growing up. The family expected him to finish
high school and work to help the family out. Although his mom was somewhat supportive of his
idea to go to college, he felt the need to work. As Daniel reflected, he would have chosen a
different career path, attended college at an earlier age, and majored in his passion if he “would
have had the right support…even just the words.” He reports that growing up, his father was a
traditional Mexican man who expected Daniel to contribute financially to the family, as he was
the eldest of seven children. Daniel mentions that “It was my obligation. My dad wouldn’t have
it any other way. And then my mom wanted me to go to college, [but] my dad, if I wanted to stay
here, I had to work.” Manuel’s mom was a single parent who worked long hours to make ends
meet, his grandparents cared for him months on end when his mom was working in the fields.
Manuel’s mom provided encouraging words but was skeptical at his mention of wanting to
attend college after high school, but once he got to college, he felt the support as she saved
enough money to buy him his first car.
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The other six participants reported having a strong family support system, where the
expectation was to attend college right after high school. Their parents attended all IEP or school
meetings and were strong advocates for appropriate services and accommodations throughout
their K-12 school years. Gabriela’s parents emailed teachers if accommodations were not
provided, and her mom taught her how to advocate for her needs during IEP meetings. Lisa’s
parents were well known by the school community, and she reported that her experience in K-12
was smooth, for the most part. She too attributes her strong advocacy skills to how she witnessed
her parents advocating for her.
Nayari’s parents have always been her “biggest advocates, and they have taught [her] to
begin to advocate for [herself],” which she states she is still learning how to do. Nayari attributes
her advocacy growth to her parents who “know the process to be able to follow to make sure that
I’m getting the accommodations I need for my accessibility services and also through my IEP,
which has been a staple of my schooling since second grade.” Samantha’s experience was much
the same, as she knew her parents fully supported her, and vividly remembers getting specialized
support when she was diagnosed with dyslexia, which was pivotal to her further success in
school. Jasmin, who uses an Augmentative and Alternative Communication device, explained
that she too had a strong family support system and appreciated that her parents allowed her to
make her own decisions and had high expectations of her. Aside from her parents providing a
solid support system, Sandra attributes a lot of her confidence and self-efficacy coming from an
extended family member who truly believed in her potential, who was there for her and
“comforting, always seeking out the best” for her, and “making space” for her. He made her feel
the “most valuable.”
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Experience of Hispanic Identity
Daniel was not able to pursue his true passion in college because of his father’s
traditional Mexican beliefs, and values that work is more important than going to college to
pursue a degree in a nontraditional male career. A challenge that Manuel identified in terms of
being Hispanic is that “teachers are the ultimate authority in the Hispanic culture, [parents] have
a high respect level for them, and so a lot of times they feed into them, that they are always
correct, you know” when referencing the kinds of opportunities that were offered to him while he
was in K-12 education and how his mom did not question their recommendations. Additionally,
he experienced guilt for moving away from home once he married and graduated as an
undergraduate, as his mom expected him to contribute financially, as she ascribed to the
traditional Hispanic expectation that children support their parents as soon as they can. Sandra
also felt guilt and doubt when moving away to college, stating that “letting go is a real issue” in
Hispanic families.
Nayari experienced stress and frustration when her Hispanic identity intersected with her
disability as she felt like some family members did not respect her boundaries, space, and her
ability to make decisions on her own, adding that boundaries and family obligations get blurred
in her family. She further shared that she has not spoken to anyone about this experience:
I don't think I have had the opportunity to speak on this to someone who understands this
or sees the need for research in this area. Because being Hispanic in particular puts a
huge strain on identifying and validating my own identity with my disability. Even with
growing up and even to this day, to the point where I'm like, I have to sometimes create
boundaries and run away to my apartment. Sometimes the belief that I can do it on my
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own, I do not need anyone's help, can resonate loudly in Hispanic communities, where
some were brought up to tough it out.
Samantha hopes that Hispanic students with disabilities:
Will not be afraid to ask for help and to not be too proud to ask or to receive it. I think,
you know, within the Hispanic community, we often have this thing that we're so willing
and available to help each other, but we're also too prideful, too, to ask each other for
help.
The notion that asking for help or receiving help somehow defines Hispanic students as not
having the ability or capacity to make it on their own also resonated with Sandra. She described:
Hispanics struggle a lot more because it's so much like your household and your culture
that you grew up with. It's like almost if you ask for things, you're like, what, you can’t
do this by yourself? But we're always the minority you know…. I used to think so
negatively, and I think that like that comes from like a Hispanic culture too, because it's
like, why do you need that, you know, to ask for help is like, are you crazy?
She urges other Hispanic students with disabilities to seek outside resources and described
mental health counseling as a valuable resource to feel a sense of “comfort, somebody that
knows the same struggles that you go through.”
Lisa explained that she stood out regarding being Hispanic and growing up in a small
town with a predominantly White population but added that her disability did not hinder her in
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any way. Further adding that now being at a predominantly Hispanic college, she feels connected
and part of her school community, and suggests that other Hispanic students with disabilities:
Should not be afraid of who you are because to be a Hispanic person with a disability in
such a large community, no matter where you are, you're so special and you should
vocalize both aspects, you know, like in terms of your culture and what you can bring to
the table because I think some people will overlook us or kind of doubt us. I think I feel
very capable, and I think others would feel the same.
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen
A common theme among all participants was that feeling acknowledged, validated, and
seen provided them support and comfort, which helped to increase their determination on their
educational journey. Gabriela recounts that students with disabilities have specific needs that
must be acknowledged and validated by professors as they are instrumental in providing the
accommodations for students with disabilities to be successful. This is essential work, Gabriela
says, because “students don't want to open up about that stuff to someone that they don't know or
they're not comfortable with. Someone who actually puts in effort and actually cares about their
students.” She suggests that professors should spend more time explaining what the Disability
Services Center can offer, instead of briefly covering it on the syllabus. This may be the first
time a student in need of services heard of this support. One of Gabriela’s professors was
familiar with the kinds of accommodations that she needed due to her learning disability and
visual processing impairment, and she remembers feeling truly validated and seen.
Hispanic students with disabilities face many challenges once they attend college;
foremost among them is being heard, respected, and acknowledged that their limitations are their
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truths. Nayari was empowered to restructure how she thinks of her disability by staff from the
disability services office at her college. She felt supported by the staff there and recounts:
Just the fact that someone validates my experiences, it’s so powerful! They don't even
have to do anything but just the fact that they're validating my experiences when I've
been basically gaslit my whole life is just the most powerful thing, because it enables me
to be like I'm doing the right thing. I am powering through this, I know what to do…I
have people in my corner and that’s what helps me to keep going.
Sometimes Hispanic students with disabilities feel dismissed by professionals in their lives that
are supposed to support them. Dismissal of their struggles and challenges sometimes makes
some students feel like they do not have a disability that requires specific accommodations.
Nayari questioned her need for accommodations when adults around her dismissed her physical
disability, which made her think:
For me to be taking up space and to be validated in my own head kind of like I'm not
being crazy, this is a reasonable request, this is federally required by law. I can know that
on an intellectual level, but on an emotional and processing level of myself, that's still
something I'm trying to figure out and unlearn and accept myself.
Nayari felt vindicated when she connected with the disability support service office because she
felt they “believed” her struggle and genuinely attempted to figure out what kinds of
accommodations she would benefit from. She felt this helped her through complex, and
challenging times. When students with disabilities encounter professors familiar with disabilities
and ensure that accommodations are provided, this helps students’ sense of self-efficacy as they
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begin to see their capabilities and strengths. Lisa describes her rheumatoid arthritis as an
“invisible disability” that some people do not see or understand. She recalls a professor being
familiar with her disability and extending extra support and understanding, which validated her
struggle and empowered her to remain focused and determined to succeed.
Some students with disabilities may struggle to accept the extra support and
accommodations provided to them, especially if they are one of few students with a disability at
a high school campus. When Sandra transitioned to college and faced some challenges there with
mobility, she realized that in high school, the staff were:
looking out for you and everything that comes at you is going to be doable, like you’re
going to be capable and I always felt like they were doing the most for me, and I was so
undeserving because I'm only one person in this school or in my grade that is like
handicapped. Like, you don't need to change the whole bathroom for me. Like, they
worked on that for a week and they like, did all that.
She felt that the accommodations and support she received in high school were foundational in
her academic and social success. She “skyrocketed” and “felt comfortable” to be her true self and
recounts this experience as “very life-changing,” and she urges that students with disabilities find
people “where you feel most valued or where you feel seen.”
Stigma Related to Disability
Some of the participants reported feeling the need to want to “fit in” and be “part of” a
peer group. They felt stigmatized and stereotyped, preventing them from seeking support
services at the beginning of their first semester in college. Gabriela wanted to “fit in more” and
was apprehensive about disclosing her learning disability immediately. After some initial
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academic challenges, she signed up with the disability support office because she realized
college was more difficult than high school. Some participants felt capable enough to try it on
their own, did not know what kinds of accommodations or resources they needed and thought
that seeking assistance somehow made them less than others. Part of the issue sometimes of
having a physical disability, as Lisa described:
I wasn't in the mindset to explain what was going on or to even ask for help because I
think that's part of the issue of a disability, is that invisible or visible, you don't really
want to ask for help. It's hard, it's like I feel capable of doing things, and I feel like I'm
able to accomplish whatever I set out to do.
For Lisa, asking for help felt counterproductive in her growing independence. Having to rely on
someone’s help and support sometimes made Lisa question her abilities, and she began to
question, “What’s wrong? Why can’t I do it?” and described this experience as “Unsettling and
uncomfortable.” She perceived herself as “able-bodied” when she compared herself to other
students with visible disabilities that she saw when she first walked into the disability support
office and quickly questioned why she was there. Furthermore, she has not disclosed her
rheumatoid arthritis disability at work, as she does not want to be perceived as different and does
not want her co-workers to think that she is “unable to do something” or be discounted for future
projects or opportunities, especially for someone starting out in her career.
In addition to the stigma and stereotype some people hold of those with disabilities,
participants also reported feeling stigmatized for being Hispanic. Manuel experienced
stigmatization and racism explicitly as he recounted being treated as less than by some teachers
and peers not only for having a learning disability but also for being Hispanic. He remembers
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hearing things like, “You can’t do it,” and peers calling him racial slurs, and felt that “was like
the cruelest thing” to experience growing up. Other participants did not want to be perceived as
using their disability status to gain unfair benefits, or they had negative beliefs about their
disability and were embarrassed to disclose it because of the social stigma associated with having
disabilities. Nayari mentioned that although she has strong advocacy skills, stigma about
disabilities, specifically her physical disability, lingers in her mind as she feels others perceive
her as incapable of accomplishing certain things. In her social circles and with her parents, who
are her most prominent advocates, she sometimes feels stigmatized, “even though they don't
explicitly state it,” she feels treated differently, or specific expectations that friends or family
have of her at times make her doubt her abilities.
Not feeling “at par with everybody else” because of her disability led Sandra to believe it
is harder for people with disabilities to get a job and to meet people. Sandra and other
participants question their capabilities at times; for Sandra, it is a constant worry:
Because you are disabled, because you already have the odds against you, and like all
these labels, you constantly think, Am I ever actually going to get to where I want to be?
It's a lot of pressure being a first gen, I'm the first in my whole family to go to college. I
feel like what if I can't do it, what if I can't do it physically? What if no one can help me?
How is it going to be at work like, you know what I mean? I think that's more stressful
right now, and that's one thing I'm battling.
Analysis of Research Question 2
This section will present the findings that answered the following question: What is the
transition support process?
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Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors
The transition support process from high school to higher education is multilayered and
begins well before senior year. It starts with the transition team members, parents or guardians,,
caring teachers, and mentors’ part of students' educational journey. All participants recall a
caring adult whom they considered a mentor and who helped them develop a college-going
mindset. Although there were mixed findings regarding how helpful and informative the
transition team members were, which often included a special education teacher, an
administrator, and service providers, they all mentioned a caring teacher or adult who served as a
mentor. For some, the transition team members were not helpful or well informed, which caused
the participants to feel more confused due to the lack of organization and communication. For
others, the transition team members went above and beyond to ensure a smooth transition and
had high expectations of them.
A few of the participants reported that they did not receive much information from
transition team members about the kinds of services available in college settings for students
with disabilities. Gabriela recalls, “My high school didn't really make me that familiar, like what
the disability services program [offered]. I had to go find out on my own”. She and a few other
participants were told that they should make an appointment with the disability service office at
their college so they could find out what kinds of services were offered, and that was the extent
of the information they received from the transition team members at their high schools, and this
was because their parents attended the transition meeting and asked. Gabriela mentioned that the
transition team members spent little time discussing this information, “It's super brief, if it wasn't
for my parents asking, I feel like they probably wouldn't have told me.”
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Jasmin, on the contrary, felt supported and well informed by her transition team
members. She thinks that it was because she received many accommodations for much of her K-
12 schooling due to her mobility and communication limitations. She recalls a major decision to
remove her assistant while in high school to get her ready for post-high school life. It was a
struggle to manage on her own at first, but with determination, she gained more confidence in
addition to the positive support of her transition team members and caring teachers.
For Nayari, her transition team members were a mix of high school and college staff,
teachers, and her ever-supportive parents. She has dually enrolled in high school and college-
level courses, and many times staff from the college disability accessibility services office
attended her IEP meetings. She recalls not being sure of what she needed to be successful in
college in terms of accommodations, as she was still trying to figure it all out. For Sandra, many
adults made up her transition team, and they were instrumental in helping her figure out what she
would need to be successful not only at high school but also at the college level. They were
proactive in providing proper accommodations and accessibility on the high school campus, and
she shares:
I think knowing that I was accommodated and then I was going to be okay, no matter
what came at me was like the most fulfilling part. I still think about that until this day, it's
like, if I wouldn’t have had that I probably would never have come to college.
Her high school counselor and resource teacher advocated for her to receive what she needed,
and because of that, she was able to continue to advocate for her needs when she attended higher
education. Sandra fondly remembers a high school teacher who listened to her and encouraged
her to keep going,
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When I couldn’t figure things out and I cried, I would always go sit in there, he would tell
me every day he would look at me and tell me, have a good day, he was always there to
accommodate me to give me anything that I needed. To this day we communicate years
later, he's very much a big mentor of my life and presence.
Unlike most participants who felt informed and prepared by their transition team
members, Manuel did not receive much support from them. Instead, he relied on the caring
teachers that mentored him and exposed him to extracurricular activities and field trips to college
campuses, where he felt “inspired by that and that's how I found out this is doable.” Manuel
remembers not receiving proper guidance from his high school counselor, who tried to convince
him to enlist in the army instead of going to college.
It was really sad because I really wanted to go to college and then I would talk to my
counselor and she said, “Go to the army, just go to the army, you don't have the skills,”
like that's their whole thing.
He had caring teachers that held high expectations of him, and that pushed him not to give up.
Once in high school, he started believing in college as a possibility. Although he “had this
learning curve,” his caring and dedicated teachers guided him on his educational journey. One
advocated for him to be mainstreamed into general education classes in his junior year of high
school because he had expressed that he wanted out of the special education classes. Now, in
college, he works as a student mentor and offers guidance to students in their college journey.
Daniel’s experience was much like Manuel’s, where the transition team members were
not helpful; he too was inspired by high school teachers that served as mentors. Now, in college,
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Daniel again found a caring adult mentor who has offered him guidance and support, which has
helped him stay focused and motivated to complete his college degree. Daniel also works as a
college student mentor to other students with disabilities and helps connect them to necessary
resources.
Samantha would have liked to be “more informed about it or that I could have been more
educated on” her disability, specifically dyslexia, by her transition team members such as her
resource teacher. The adults that served this role were some of her teachers and coaches that
were encouraging and supportive of her challenges with dyslexia while she was sent through K-
12 schooling. As a college student, Samantha met an empathetic college advisor that provided
positive guidance when she faced personal challenges that were magnified due to her disability.
She recalls him being so supportive of her personal life situation at the time that she knew she
would make it through.
Transition Process and IEP Participation
As previously mentioned, all participants participated in a transition planning meeting to
discuss post-high school plans. For some participants, it helped ease the transition process to
college, and for others, it was not helpful. Daniel remembers his mom attending a planning
meeting when he was in high school, but there was nothing remarkable that stood out for him.
His chief complaint was that the transition to college was complicated for him since he was a
late-entry college student. He was diagnosed with dyslexia many years after high school. He
found it frustrating that in his hometown, there are not enough doctors to diagnose dyslexia,
making the transition process to higher education overwhelming; and further adds:
Some students are falling through the cracks and they’re getting discouraged and quitting
because they don't know how to advocate for themselves. Professors are not there to help
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them. It kind of pisses me off that they see the grades fall and they don't ask why they're
struggling. I think that there should be a little bit more connection with students.
Research studies have found that students with disabilities need to feel acknowledged and
their needs validated for them to transition to academic college demands successfully. For
Gabriela, what helped ease her transition a bit was knowing that there was an office that would
help once she got to college, which she mentioned was briefly mentioned at her IEP meeting. As
Sandra transitioned to college, she felt overwhelmed at the immensity of the college campus; due
to her cerebral palsy, she is limited in her mobility, and while in high school, she was able to use
a walker independently; at college, she uses an electric wheelchair to get around campus. Sandra
adapted quickly to using a wheelchair, so the transition to college was not too hectic for her. She
recalls, “I think the biggest transition coming here to the university is like the emotional
detachment. It's the independence of now you're by yourself, you have your own wings.”
All participants mentioned that one of their parents, usually their mom, attended their IEP
transition planning meetings. Only six stated that their parents’ presence made them feel heard
and acknowledged by the adults at the meeting. Gabriela felt this way when her mother attended
her meetings because “people don’t always listen to high school students” if their parents are not
present.
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed
The transition support system process is eased when students have strong self-advocacy
skills and are informed of their rights. For Daniel he remembers his first semester at college was
the hardest because he did not have a diagnosis yet; he knows he always “had a disability [he]
just did not have any services”:
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There was a big waiting list to get diagnosed and so I had to be proactive, and there's one
thing about when you grow older, you're a little bit less ashamed of what people might
say, and so I had to talk to my teachers, I had to talk to the administrator and to student
services, and I said, “I understand that you require that we are diagnosed, but there's a
waiting list to get diagnosed, there's a waiting list to see the doctor, and so I need the
services, otherwise, I am going to flunk and flunking is not an option for me.
Gabriela had to use her self-advocacy skills when a professor wanted to change the class time in
the first week of her first semester at college. She has developed advocacy skills over time and
by modeling after her mom. She has grown assertive and does not shy away from advocating for
her rights and states that she’s “not really afraid” of what professors might think of her as she is
aware of her student rights and knows how to enforce them when needed.
Lisa mentioned that introducing herself to her professors on the first day of class, which
she learned from watching her parents advocate for her in high school, has made the transition
process much easier. She communicates her needs to her professors, shows them her list of
accommodations, and reminds them that they should have been notified of this from the Student
Accessibility Center. She has experienced some dismissive professors that discount her
rheumatoid arthritis as an actual disability, but she remains committed to ensuring that she is
granted her accommodations.
Nayari agrees that being informed of her right to accommodations has made the transition
smoother for her. Her parents taught her the value of being informed and for her to be aware of
the available resources to help her get through college. She vividly remembers advocating for
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herself during her IEP meetings, feeling part of the team, feeling comfortable, and being able to
speak up and say:
This is what I think I need, but I'm not sure or I have this problem, but I don't know what
the solution might be. And then from that point, we were able to come up with a
solution…and [staff would ask] “What do you think about this solution? Is this going to
be able to best assist you? And if not, we can reconvene”.
It takes time and experience for some students to learn their rights and how much they have to
disclose their disability. Nayari did not fully understand her student rights because, as she says,
she “was navigating open space,” and she used to disclose everything about her disability to
everyone. She felt pressured to do this as she had experienced this was the only way to get
assistance, even though she understands now that she is under no obligation to disclose so much,
as she is legally protected by ADA and accessibility laws. She acknowledges being in a
privileged position because she is familiar with her rights and knows how to exercise them,
further adding:
A lot of people, especially Hispanics, don't know what opportunities are available to
them. Don't know what pathways they need to access to get what they need, and the fact
that I'm going through this and I'm privileged enough to have this sort of information and
background and support means that I cannot imagine the experiences of those who do not
have it, and it infuriates me.
Sandra began practicing her advocacy skills while a junior in high school because she
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learned that if she did not speak up for herself, “nobody can hear you.” Caring adults helped her
develop these skills as she recounts:
That's my weakest point. It's like asking for help and saying that I need something, but I
did, I learned it and so my principal came up to me and he's like, Tell me what I can do to
help you? We want to make things easier for you. My high school was beautiful and
those people there, they saved my life, point blank that day, because they like whatever
you need, you got it.
Her advocacy grew in high school, and when Sandra transitioned to college, although feeling
scared and a bit intimidated, she knew she had to continue advocating for herself:
I've got to voice myself, and I’ve got to tell these people they don't know me like they
knew me in high school…It's like over here in college, you don't know nobody. You're
new and everybody here needs as much support as you do.
Much like Lisa, Sandra also introduces herself to her professors on the first day of classes and
lets them know if the classroom layout will work for her. She feels in complete control of
ensuring that her physical environment is conducive to her learning and will immediately let
them know if it is not.
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources
When students disclose their disability to the college disability support office and access
accommodations and resources, this might help ease their transition to college. All participants in
this study have registered with the disability support office at their college campus, and all access
accommodations and additional resources to pursue academic success and overall wellness. All
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eight participants report that having the accommodations has been a helpful resource that has
supported their academic success. Gabriela was hesitant to register with the disability support
office, but she did at her mother’s urging. Her mother explained that accessing accommodations
through the disability support office might help her succeed in school, which was a “good
enough” reason for Gabriela to walk in and register. Jasmin also understands the value of
registering with the disability support office and would instantly use them as a recourse if
professors were not being accommodating to her needs. Lisa was not familiar with the benefits of
registering with that office until she found herself with a flare-up familiar with rheumatoid
arthritis, and a nurse at the health center recommended that she register. She has been approved
for extra time on exams, can take the exams at the disability center, and can record all lectures if
needed.
Manuel had a “rude awakening” when he arrived at college for the first-time years back.
He had no idea that a disability support office existed. It was because of an attentive and caring
college math professor, a few years later, that he came to be informed of the office. Now, he is
back at college for the third time, this time for a graduate degree. He is connected with the math
and writing tutoring center, where he spends several hours weekly, and attends all office hours.
He has also hired a writing coach to review his graduate-level writing. He adds:
I think that having a mentor really makes a big difference in paving the way, you know,
it's worked for me. I really believe if you keep at it, don't be shy about asking for help,
there's tutoring, there's different resources, it's there for you, it'll make a significant
difference [in] your journey and your success
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Nayari has also found disability accessibility services helpful. However, she is trying to
respect her boundaries of how much she must disclose to professors to be granted her
accommodations. She accesses the math and writing tutoring services, and as she explains it, she
uses the “brute force method,” which is not too efficient for a computer science major. Still, it
has worked so far. She explains this method means that she hunkers down and dedicates focused
study time to complete assignments.
Samantha encountered some time delay with registering with the disability services
office, as they needed a diagnosis. She had to go to a doctor, which took about two months to
finalize the paperwork. She was also unfamiliar with the accommodations she needed for her
classes. She remembers her professors included the disability support center information on the
class syllabus, but she was unaware of what kinds of services they offered. She has found some
of the accommodations are useful, such as time and a half or double time for testing, which has
been the most essential and necessary accommodation for her as she takes “such a long time to
read through material.”
It took considerable time for Daniel to be diagnosed with a learning disability and
dyslexia, but he eventually secured tutoring services and is now an English tutor. Gabriela
attended the tutoring services at her college but found them inadequate for her STEM classes.
Her parents had the financial resources to pay for private online tutoring, and she earned A’s for
several science courses due in part to the additional tutoring services she secured. She adds, “so
that extra, you know, money and time really has made me successful as a student,” adding that
her parents' support and encouragement have helped her to remain in a STEM field.
Jasmin recalled that her language school therapist in high school helped her get her own
Augmentative and Alternative Communication device which has been crucial for her continued
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independence. She was granted extended due dates for all her college coursework and had
permission to enroll in just two classes each semester. She reported that the disability support
center has fully supported her at her college.
Sandra readily registered with the disability support center at her school during the first
semester because she wanted to be as independent as possible, and she realized:
Because here you have no help. It's you and your resources, your accommodations, but
nobody can help you. And so I did take a hit emotionally in that sense and like, it was
crazy to figure it out. You know, I cried the first few days. This is so hard.
Her accommodations have been pretty consistent, such as preferential seating, extra time for
assignments and tests, if needed.
Analysis of Research Question 3
This section will present the findings that answered the third question: What is the impact
on academic success?
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Self-Efficacy and Academic Success
When Daniel committed to return to college after having dropped out years ago, he knew
this time he was in it for the long haul. He maintains:
I was determined, I knew that I was going to take double the time as other students for
the same kind of study, so I knew from the very beginning that I was all in for that. That
you know, this is my life for the next four or five years, and I want to make it work, and
so this has been my life, school has been my life.
With the help of the tutoring center and extra time on exams, he has been able to achieve all A's
during his four years in college. He attributes developing his self-efficacy from good and bad life
experiences, and from the caring teachers and professors he has met that have increased his
confidence and belief that he can succeed. He mentioned doing his research on how to succeed in
college and read that staying the course even when things seem overwhelming and knowing how
to access and use resources are crucial. Lisa credits her parents and the expectations they had of
her growing up as well as her own belief that students with disabilities are very capable of
pursuing a college degree, but “they’re going to need just a little bit of assistance to do that, they
can do that the same way anybody else can.” She is proudly finishing up a Masters in Business
Administration this year and has been academically successful thus far.
Students with disabilities may find themselves academically underprepared when they
arrive on a college campus, but how they handle these gaps in their academic preparation sets
students with high self-efficacy apart from others. Manuel knew he wanted to go to college after
high school, and he did, only to get on academic probation, but he did not give up. Instead, he
refined his study skills by getting assistance from the tutoring center, he started taking a more
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manageable class load, and saw his grades soar to a 3.9 GPA. He is now back in college pursuing
a graduate degree, his second attempt to finish this degree, and he feels he will get it done this
time. As he reflects on what has helped him increase his self-efficacy, he mentions, “I always
step back a little bit; I always have to be asking people around me for reassurance.” He credits
his “gumption” and knowing how to request accommodations, using his resources, and his
family and caring mentors as key to increasing his self-efficacy increasing his academic
performance. Manuel has been:
Fortunate to have amazing people along my journey. Yeah I was stubborn. I always had
people doubting me. So I just said you can doubt me all you want, I'm not going to stop
for what I want to accomplish.
Sometimes it is a combination of the previous information and the pride that comes from a
student’s cultural upbringing that serves as a catalyst for developing a high sense of self-efficacy.
For Samantha, she describes her strong belief in her capacity to succeed:
I think it was just like that mental obstacle and my own pride. I'm like my own coraje
were like I wanted to do everything by myself, but also it was like I felt all the White
students knew exactly how to navigate all these spaces and they always looked like they
knew what they were doing and they weren't struggling and they had it together.
Samantha’s academic journey has been on an upward incline, as she completed her bachelor’s
degree with a low GPA but is now maintaining a 4.0 GPA as a second-year graduate student.
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A sense of accomplishment that accompanies earning a college degree is what helps
some students develop strong self-efficacy. Sandra describes herself as an “intelligent person”
and “bit of a perfectionist” who has always maintained a 4.0 GPA since her high school years.
For her, academic success meant earning a college degree:
I think for me personally, I always knew I wanted to have some sort of document to say
that I was capable of doing something on my own terms, if I have this degree, nobody
can take this job away from me because I'm certified to do it.
Sometimes students with disabilities want to prove other people wrong on their preconceived
biases of what a student with a disability can accomplish. Sandra is reminded:
There's a reason I began, I realized that if I give up on myself, then and I won't get
anywhere and it'll just be how they wanted it to be. Having this disability, I always think
that like if I sell myself short and tell myself No then they're all going to look at me like
you’re disabled and we told you, you can’t do this and you went ahead and did it anyway
and didn't succeed. So it's kind of like that drive of I have to finish it out, I can't just leave
it in the middle.
Developing a high sense of self-efficacy takes time for many students with disabilities, and many
will experience self-doubt as they continue the path of discovery. Sandra remembers when she
was younger, she would feel she was “not good enough” and would compare herself to her
siblings, who have no disabilities, and questioned if she was ever going to be as “good as them”
and wondered if she would always need the extra help when she got older, and recounts:
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The mindset that I see myself in now that I've learned all these skills and I have all this
power, I can be me, I don't have to change myself, the world can accommodate to me, I
don't have to accommodate to them.
Similarly, Jasmin has come to the realization that any disability poses challenges, but this does
not mean that it becomes impossible to set goals and achieve them. She has developed her
self-efficacy and belief in her abilities from the support of her parents, a personal aide when she
was younger, and countless caring adults and teachers who believe in her potential to succeed.
She attests that:
We, people with different abilities, do things differently to accomplish the same or
different results of success. One could have the courage, talent and ability to be
successful in sports, but another could have the courage, talent and ability to be
successful in academic and professional life. Know that people with different abilities
have the same energy, enthusiasm and ability as ordinary people to be successful in the
personal, academic and professional aspects of life.
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success
All eight participants reported feeling a sense of belonging, which they agreed helped
them in their academic pursuits, some had to work harder to feel they belonged, but eventually,
they connected with someone or something at college. As Daniel reflected on what he wished he
would have told himself when he first attended college years ago, and experienced self-doubt is:
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“You do belong here, you do have a voice and you should use it. Whatever the need is, they're
not going to laugh at you, and if they do, it's not you, it's them, it's their own shortcomings.”
Students that feel connected and experience a sense of belonging at college experience increased
overall success. All eight participants agreed that having a peer group, belonging to a school
club, being a member of a school organization, or accessing tutoring services and resources made
their transition to college more accessible and increased their feeling of belonging. A sense of
belonging is even more critical for Hispanic students with disabilities to experience as they may
question if they belong in higher education spaces due to their disability status and ethnicity.
Since her first year in college, Gabriela has been a member of an engineering club at school that
has given her a sense of community with like-minded STEM students. Lisa found community
when she joined the marching band in her first year at college, which she called a “tight-knit
group” that “gave [her] a sense of home” as she found herself among band people that accepted
her for who she was. Study groups are another avenue that some participants joined which
helped them connect with others and feel like they belonged. Belonging to student clubs and
organizations, attending office hours, speaking with professors, being part of study groups, and
going to the tutoring center at college helped study participants feel they were part of and
belonged at college.
Conclusion
The eight participants in this study described their personal experiences in high school as
they began to plan for their transition to college; they described how the transition team members
facilitated this process, the family support they received, and teacher and parent expectations. A
shared description of how their ethnicity and disability intersected and the stigma and
stereotypes they experienced was shared. They detailed what helped them develop their efficacy
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and advocacy skills, they shared how they adjusted to college demands, the accommodations,
and resources they used to increase their sense of belonging, and the impact this had on their
academic success.
All study participants readily explained how they perceived their transition to college and
shared their personal experiences with insightful responses to each question posed. They were all
knowledgeable of their disabilities and well acquainted with the types of accommodations and
resources they needed to excel in school, which became more evident as they matured in their
role as a college student. Their self-efficacy and advocacy skills were well developed, as
evidenced by their ability to ensure implementation of accommodations, use of resources, and
their self-reported academic standing and continued commitment to complete their schooling.
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Chapter Five: Conclusions, Discussion, and Suggestions
This study examined the lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities as they
transitioned from high school to higher education. The purpose of this study was to add to the
body of literature on how students with disabilities perceived their transition to college,
specifically Hispanic students, with their layered identities and the challenges they may
encounter in their educational journey.
Summary of Findings
Although the eight study participants experienced unique experiences, they generated
similar themes, perceptions, and beliefs. Family support, high expectations, having a caring adult
or mentor that believed in them, and feeling acknowledged, validated, and seen were reported as
necessary by all participants and were a strong predictor of academic success and their
development of self-advocacy. The stigma associated with having a disability and also of being
Hispanic was an important concept that emerged. They all participated in a transition meeting in
high school, though there were mixed reports of team members being well informed, whereas
others caused them more confusion because of the lack of communication. All study participants
registered with the disability support services office at college, and findings revealed that this
office had provided support and guidance that has helped them feel acknowledged and validated,
and the use of accommodations and resources has helped strengthen their self-efficacy. Self-
advocacy, being informed, and self-efficacy developed over time and continue to develop for
some. All disclosed their disability to the disability support office at their college campus, and all
reported that having a sense of belonging was an essential part of their academic success.
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Conclusions
Based on the research findings, several conclusions could be drawn to answer the three
research questions of this study.
Research Question 1
This section will present the conclusions of the findings for the first research question:
What is the lived experience of Hispanic students with disabilities as they transition from high
school to higher education?
Family Support and Expectations
As found by Mishra (2020), Rivera et al. (2019), and Storlie et al. (2014), family support
is critical for students to feel supported, and motivated and believe that a college is an option
after high school. All eight participants, 100%, believed that family support is a vital resource
when discussing transition plans after high school. One of the participants in this study stated
that although he knows that family support is essential, he received little to none from his family
in his decision to attend college. Another student reported that his mom, a single parent, did the
best she could. 75% said that they relied on their parents for guidance and that their parents held
high expectations of them since they were children. Contrary to the findings in Gandara and
Orfield (2011), 25% of the students in this study reported they could not depend on their parents
to pay for college, compared to the 40% reported in their research. This could be a result of two
participants coming from low-income families and the other six coming from middle-income
families.
Four participants were first-generation college students, with two reporting that even
though their parents did not attend college, they still provided tremendous support, and
encouragement, participated in all-school meetings and were strong advocates for their
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accessibility needs and accommodations; they both have a physical disability. They both
developed strong advocacy skills from watching their parents advocate for them during IEP
meetings and medical appointments. Their parents strived to be informed of their children’s
student rights. Their transition process was made more accessible because of their family support
and the high expectations their parents held of them. The other two first-generation students did
not receive much family support to pursue higher education; their parents were not well informed
of their children’s special education rights, the parents worked long hours and were not as
involved as they could have been, and they both have a learning disability and are older male
students. They experienced more challenges after high school in pursuing higher education and
advocating for their needs. They each relied on other caring adults and mentors outside their
family who held high expectations of them, encouraged and motivating them to pursue higher
education. Their experience was aligned with the findings of Rivera et al. (2019), as they found
that when Hispanic students lack family support and their parents do not have high expectations
of them, they can still be successful if they develop strong relationships with supportive and
caring adults that do. Further, the experience of the two male students in this study is supported
by the findings of Clark et al. (2013), where they found that Hispanic families expect their sons
to graduate high school and get a job so they can contribute to the family.
Four participants were continuing generation college students, and 100% reported their
parents were well-informed advocates, attended all-school meetings, and ensured that they
received their accommodations and services throughout K-12; two have a physical disability, and
the other two have a learning disability. All four reported being confident that their parents knew
how to navigate the IEP process, what to advocate for and were active members during the IEP
meetings. Due to this experience, they all developed strong advocacy skills, and their transition
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process was made more accessible because of the strong family support, college expectations,
and parental advocacy they observed and learned from as they moved on to higher education.
The findings in this section are supported by several studies that were reviewed regarding
the importance of parent involvement and help specifically for Hispanic students as they get
ready to transition from high school to pursue other options, principally in the studies by de
Cesarei (2015), Lombardi et al. (2012), Rivera et al. (2019), Storlie et al. (2014), and Weedon
and Riddell (2009), and as college students Mishra (2020). The results of Calero (2014), Giraldo-
Garcia et al. (2019), and Rodriguez et al. (2014) support the findings in this study, namely, that
parents’ academic expectations make a significant impact on high school completion and
increase students' belief in their ability to succeed.
Although Gandra and Orfield (2011) and Kouyoumdjian et al. (2017) found that Hispanic
college students often have little financial family support and are expected to work while in
school to help the family make ends meet, which makes college completion difficult, all the
participants in the current study are well on their way to complete their college education, and
while some work, they can balance work and school successfully. Contrary to Keel et al. (2018),
that found that all the Hispanic students with learning disabilities and their parents that
participated in their study had expectations of pursuing some higher education, it was slightly
different in this current study. While 100% of the students with a learning disability knew they
wanted to go to college after high school, only 50% of their parents had the exact expectations.
In addition, Rodriguez et al. (2014) and Povenmire-Kirk et al. (2010) found that there are many
reasons that many Hispanic families find it challenging to be involved in the transition planning
process; the findings in this current study do not support their claim. The results suggest that the
majority, or 75%, of the students’ families, were actively involved in the transition planning
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process, and only 25% of the students’ families were unable to be involved, both of which were
first-generation male students who had transition planning meetings over 20 years ago.
Experience of Hispanic Identity
All eight participants were aware of and identified with their Hispanic identity. Still, only
five felt that it had been a challenge to grow up in a Hispanic family due to the interdependence
that exists in the Hispanic culture and reported that their parents had difficulty letting go as they
moved on to college and adult life. Arellano and Padilla (1996) and Rodriguez et al. (2021) claim
that the family plays a significant role in Hispanic culture and identity, and the findings in this
current study supported this. All eight students reported close ties to their families, and their
Hispanic cultural values and beliefs, and 50% said that personal boundaries often became blurred
in their traditional Hispanic households. Additionally, Stein et al. (2017) claims that Hispanic
students take family goals into account in terms of what decisions they make regarding the
careers they choose, due to their sense of obligation and respect, which was the case for at least
50% of the participants in this study. Some students from Hispanic families experience unique
challenges due to the cultural value of familismo and interdependence, which may limit some
opportunities, as was the case for 25% of the participants and was supported by Martinez’ (2013)
findings. At other times, familismo can serve as an asset, as was the case for 75% of the students
in this study, and this made their transition to college a bit smoother. They felt supported in their
decision-making and plans for their futures , which increased their academic achievement, which
Gordon (2017) also claimed in this study.
The findings of Clark et al. (2013) and Marrero (2016), which claimed that Hispanic male
students are often expected to contribute financially, were supported by the experiences reported
by Daniel and Manuel. They are both male Hispanic students and reported feeling obligated to
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financially support their family household once they graduated from high school. They recounted
that this was the family expectation, especially coming from a low-income home. The other six
participants, who are female, were not expected to work right after college, but 50% of them felt
they had to attend college near home, as they believed their parents would not have been as
supportive otherwise. Only one student reported not being supported in pursuing nursing as a
career, as his father considered it a female job, this supports Marin and Marin’s (1991) claim that
the family can have a stronghold on what Hispanic male students decide to pursue after high
school.
Much like Rodriquez et al. (2021) reported that Hispanic families have a strong influence
on Hispanic female students in their pursuit of a STEM degree, both Gabriela and Nayari relied
heavily on the support they received from their family when they decided to pursue a chemical
engineering and computer science degree, respectively. They both developed a STEM identity
coupled with a Hispanic identity, which means they can share their doubts and successes with
their families because of the close bond they developed and the sense of interconnectedness in
their culture and remain committed to their STEM careers.
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen
They were being acknowledged, validated, and seen resonated with all eight participants
as necessary in their transition to college, their self-efficacy, and their academic success. This
was supported in the Pyne and Means (2013) study, where they found that it is essential for
college students to have role models that acknowledge, validate, and motivate them to remain
determined in their academic success and to feel like they belong at college. Smith et al. (2021)
findings also support the results in this current study as they found that college students with
disabilities felt acknowledged and validated by the disability support office staff when they
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disclosed their disabilities to them. This helped them believe in themselves. In this study, two
female students with a physical disability and one female student with a learning disability felt a
sense of relief when staff or faculty at their college believed their struggles and limitations as
truths and experiences.
Stigma Related to Disability
Three female participants, two with a physical disability and one with a learning
disability, reported feeling like their parents sometimes focused on their disability and doubted
their ability to be independent, would overstep parent-adult child boundaries, and tried to make
decisions for them, causing the participants to have to learn to set-up boundaries and remind their
parents that they can do it on their own. Of all female participants, 75% felt the need to “fit in” in
high school and college and felt that others perceived them not as capable as someone without a
disability. One of them has not disclosed her disability at her workplace for fear of being
stigmatized. Half of the female participants reported that seeking assistance based on their
disability made them feel less than. Two students with a learning disability, one female and one
male, reported feeling stigmatized by their college professors and staff. The male student
experienced explicit racism because of his Hispanic ethnicity by other students.
There were mixed findings in this study regarding specifical students with learning
disabilities not wanting to disclose their disability at college for fear of being stigmatized or not
wanting to be defined by their disability as was claimed by Kim and Kutscher (2020) and Cole
and Cawthon (2015). Only Gabriela of the four students with a learning disability reported being
reluctant at first to disclose to the disability support office and tried to convince herself that she
would not need accommodations; with her mother’s encouragement, she realized that to get
through chemical engineering courses she would need accommodations. The other three students
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with a learning disability readily disclosed and sought accommodations, as soon as they had
secured a diagnosis. A notable difference between all four students with a learning disability is
that only Gabriela was pursuing a STEM major, and the other three were pursuing social services
or education degree. Only Gabriela’s experience was aligned with the research findings in Kim
and Kutscher (2020) and Cole and Cawthon (2015). Additionally, Gabriela’s and Lisa’s
experiences were supported by the claims made by Flink and Leonard (2019) and Yssel et al.
(2016), as they both felt burdened by the stigma they believed they would experience once they
disclosed their disability.
Research Question 2
This section will present the conclusions of the findings for the second research question:
What is the transition support system process?
Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors
There were mixed findings regarding how the participants in this study perceived
transition team members. Only 50% of them felt the members in the transition team meetings
were informed and helpful; the findings for the other 50% are aligned with the conclusions of
Scott (2019), that many students report feeling unprepared on how to disclose their disability
once they arrive at college. Although only 50% of the participants recalled their transition team
members being helpful during the transition process, 100% of participants remembered having a
caring adult that served as a mentor, whether a teacher, coach, extended family member, or
friend, not necessarily anyone from their transition team, that helped them believe in their
capacity to succeed in college. As reported by all participants, and in alignment with Mazzotti
and Rowe’s (2015) findings, they all agreed that increasing education and awareness of what
supports are available in college and how to access these supports would have increased their
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college readiness and that the transition team members should have offered this information. The
participants’ experience with their transition teams was further supported by the findings in
Bakken’s (2019) and Wilt and Morningstar’s (2018) studies, where they stated that for students
to feel like an integral part of their transition meetings and be active participants, the transition
team members must use culturally competent practices to educate, acknowledge, value and
engage students in the team meetings, again 50% of the participants reported their transition
team members were helpful, respectful and informed, which made them feel part of and
included.
Transition Process and IEP Participation
Even if the transition team members and planning meetings were not as helpful to some
participants, all eight attended some transition meeting to discuss post-high school plans.
Parents’ presence and advocacy at the transition meetings were reported by 75% of participants
as why they felt acknowledged by the other adults at the transition meetings. The additional 25%
of participants recalled feeling ignored and dismissed during these meetings. Although their
parents were in attendance, they did not understand what their role was in these meetings and
certainly did not advocate for them, as was reported by both male students with a learning
disability. It was the school culture, as written by Hetherington et al. (2010), that prevented the
parents of at least four of the participants in this study from being more actively involved in the
IEP meetings that they attended and asking the right questions, which would have helped pave a
smoother transition to college for these four participants.
In contrast to the findings in Lipscomb et al. (2018), the students with learning
disabilities in this study reported that they always asked teachers for help, and they attended all
their transition planning meetings in high school. Additionally, as reported by Manuel, and
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supported by Rodriguez et al. (2014) findings, his family adopted a deferential attitude towards
school staff and teachers, believing that they knew best. His mother was not a strong advocate
for information during the IEP meetings.
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed
Self-advocacy was practiced by all participants and was instrumental in getting their
needs met and in their academic success. They reported being able to ask teachers for help in
high school, advocating to be placed in general education classes, and asking for
accommodations to the physical environment if needed. As participants became more aware of
their voices and rights, 100% reported being strong advocates for their rights and remaining
informed. Five developed their advocacy skills directly from observing and learning from their
parents, who were their role models, during K-12 school meetings. They were aware of their
privileged position of having parents that were informed, and that advocated on their behalf
during their K-12 school years. The other three developed their advocacy skills from adult high
school mentors that continually motivated and encouraged them to voice their concerns, which is
supported by Francis et al. (2018) and Yssel et al. (2016), as they found that students with
disabilities agreed that their high schools should be the place where they develop their advocacy
skills. Self-advocacy skills continued to be developed and strengthened for all as college
students, where having a voice and using it became necessary on their road to success.
Two of the students with a learning disability, considered a less-visible disability, were
from a low-income household. They reported that during their high school years, they, were
taught and practiced advocacy skills, similar to what Newman and Madaus (2015) found in their
study. Lastly, contrary to what Soctt (2019) found in his study of college students with
disabilities in which many reported not feeling supported for self-advocacy, all eight students in
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this current study were able to develop their advocacy skills well before arriving at a college
campus.
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources
All eight participants disclosed their disability to the disability support office, and they all
accessed accommodations and resources. Seven participants registered with the disability
support office within their first year. In contrast, Daniel, a returning student, did so in his second
attempt to attend college as an older student, as he was not fully aware of his challenges with
dyslexia the first time he attended college. There were reports by some students of a lack of
knowledge of the disability support office and not fully understanding the process to secure
accommodations. Unlike Dong and Lucas’ (2016) findings where few college students with
disabilities were found to access accommodations from the disability support offices, 100% of
participants in this study secured accommodations, with the assistance of the disability support
staff. They all found them helpful to improve their academic performance and have utilized
them, as needed, in their classes. Additionally, 100% of participants reported finding the
accommodations helpful as they transitioned to college coursework, and self-advocacy was
practiced by all participants and was instrumental in getting their needs met.
The findings in this current study are supported by Newman and Madaus’ (2015) which
they found that students with disabilities who are supported, prepared, and educated are better
able to self-disclose their disabilities in college. Contrary to what Scott (2019) found in his study,
most of the participants in this study felt prepared to disclose their disability to professors and
did so successful; this may be because each of them had developed strong advocacy skills while
in high school.
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Research Question 3
This section will present the conclusions of the findings for the third research question:
What is the impact on academic success?
Self-Efficacy and Academic Success
Developing self-efficacy was a journey for all, but for some, it came more readily, and
100% of the participants felt confident in their ability to succeed in college; this is aligned with
Tinto’s (2017) findings that self-efficacy is considered to be significant in students’ ability to
persist and believe in their capabilities. Similarly, Dewitz et al. (2009), found that higher self-
efficacy leads to increased college retention rates, which was found in 100% of the participants
in this study. The participants with cerebral palsy or rheumatoid arthritis struggled with the
physical limitations of their disability, whereas the students with learning disabilities struggled
with cognitive challenges. The difference in the type of disability was not shown to impact how
students developed a sense of high self-efficacy. What influenced the participants’ self-efficacy
the most was having supportive parents, caring adults, teachers, and mentors that provided
encouragement, and motivation and had high expectations of the students in this study. In
agreement with Tinto’s (2017) findings, all the students' self-efficacy was increased by the
positive experiences they reported with teachers and staff. All eight participants conveyed a
strong belief in their capacity to succeed, and by self-report, five are well on their way to
graduating with a bachelor's degree by this year or next. Three will be obtaining a master’s
degree by the end of the year.
Hispanic students with disabilities often encounter unique challenges and obstacles in
pursuing a college degree. In this study, participants either had a cognitive or physical disability.
Suppose their disability was a cognitive impairment, such as a learning disability. In that case,
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they may have difficulty with visual or auditory processing, comprehension, problem solving,
and high-level executive functioning skills, whereas if their disability is a physical impairment,
their challenges may be around mobility or physical functioning. Nonetheless, college students
with disabilities have to learn to navigate academic demands, heavier workloads, new physical
environments, and their emerging independence with the additional responsibility of registering
with the disability support office to request accommodations and then inform their professors of
their needs. Hence, a high sense of self-efficacy is imperative for students with disabilities to
have determination, motivation, and perseverance to overcome challenges that may help them
attain academic success.
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success
Feeling like they belonged at college was reported by 100% of the participants as
something that developed over time. Still, it was facilitated by connecting to student groups and
organizations, attending school events, and positively interacting with professors and staff. These
findings resonated with Tinto’s (2017) study that found that a sense of belonging is essential to
students with disabilities and their persistence and academic success, which institutional
practices can control, and this was found to be true in this study. A sense of belonging helped
100% of the participants stay motivated and committed to their academic success. The higher
education institution that seven of the participants attend has done a great job in promoting
students’ sense of belonging, where they feel represented by a diverse staff, faculty, and student
body and are allowed to belong to student groups and organizations that serve as a community
for students; this was found to be essential in promoting a sense of belonging in Tinto’s (2017)
study as well.
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Hispanic students with disabilities have two identities that may impact their sense of
belonging as they transition into the demands of college life, their Hispanic identity, and their
disability status. The limitations that their disability may create along with their Hispanic identity
and how others may perceive them, the stereotypes that might be ascribed as these identities
merge may provoke feelings of not belonging and impede academic success, which was reported
by two participants with a learning disability. These two students that struggled the most with
developing a sense of belonging developed supportive relationships with faculty and staff, which
aligned with characteristics of familismo and afforded them a sense of community and feel
valued and supported, which was supported by the findings in Lopez et al. (2019) study.
Discussion
The results of this study offer important implications for transition team members,
disability support staff and professionals working with Hispanic students with disabilities to
deliver best practice and to acknowledge, validate, develop self-efficacy and advocacy skills, and
a sense of belonging with the students they work with.
Family Support and Expectations
Family support and parents’ high expectations were reported to be valuable in increasing
self-efficacy and advocacy skills. Professionals working with parents of students with disabilities
can inform them of the significance of these attributes and help them develop these skills.
Additionally, paying for college was not a worry for most of the participants, as they could rely
on their parents for help, which could be due to those families coming from middle-class
backgrounds. More should be done to increase financial support and aid to students from low-
income families so that they are not pressured to work while attending college. It is also essential
for school staff to encourage, inform, educate, and empower parents to actively participate in IEP
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meetings, especially for the parents of first-generation students, who may be less informed of
their children’s educational rights.
Notably, the parents of the male students with a learning disability were not well
informed of their children’s special education needs, consequently, were not active participants
in the IEP meetings, and offered less support than the parents of the other six participants. We
know that a learning disability is the most common disability reported in Hispanic students in
special education thus it is imperative to increase parental involvement and empower parents of
students with learning disabilities to know their parental rights and advocate for their children for
the necessary services and programs to best meet their children’s needs.
Increasing active parental involvement in IEP meetings is critical as a means to improve
students’ academic outcomes, and self-advocacy skills and to inform and empower parents to
consider themselves part of the team working towards bettering their children’s educational
experiences. Having high expectations of Hispanic students with disabilities helps to improve
their intellectual outlook and their belief for success. All transition team members, including
parents and students, should hold high expectations of the student.
Mentors and caring professionals were a staple in the lives of all participants hence
raising awareness of the impact that mentors and caring professionals can have on students’ lives
is important work and should be promoted at all educational institutions. Having at least one
caring adult that believed in their capabilities encouraged and motivated them to believe in
themselves and helped to strengthen their self-efficacy and advocacy skills.
Experience of Hispanic Identity
As much as the family plays a significant role in Hispanic culture and identity,
professionals working with Hispanic students with disabilities must be aware of the
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interdependence and use culturally responsive practice in their work. That is, acknowledge,
validate and respect the Hispanic family dynamics of familismo, understand that it is sometimes
difficult for Hispanic parents to be actively involved in their children’s education; for various
reasons, it is difficult for them to let go when their children transition to college, yet they all want
them to be successful. Additionally, professionals should be aware that familismo can and
usually does, serve as an asset, as more and more parents are supporting their children in their
college attendance aspirations, as was exemplified by all six female participants.
Feeling Acknowledged, Validated, and Seen
It is imperative that transition team members, disability support staff, teachers, service
providers, professors, and all professionals that work with Hispanic students with disabilities
acknowledge, validate, and see students as a whole, with their strengths, limitations, and honor
and believe their perceptions of how they have experienced life as personal and unique to them,
as these feelings resonated with all participants in this study. Disability support staff in college
settings have a unique opportunity to work directly with students that come into their offices
asking for help. They may be the first person that a Hispanic student with a disability encounters
as a college student. This experience should be positive, one that holds space for the student to
feel acknowledged, validated, and seen. Likewise, the transition team members may be the last
people that Hispanic students with disabilities interact with in regard to their special education
needs as they transition from high school; this experience too should be intentional and promote
self-efficacy and advocacy.
Stigma Related to Disability
Regarding the stigma that some participants felt regarding their disability, more should be
done to bring awareness to the diverse student population in K-12 and college settings.
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Additionally, professionals working with Hispanic students with disabilities should inform and
empower them to understand that their disability does not define them, and work to redefine
what it means to have a disability, which does not mean having any abilities. Likewise, parents
must be informed and reminded not to see their children as not capable of academic success or
personal independence because of their disability, as some participants reported feeling this
burden.
Transition Team, Caring Adults, and Mentors
Transition team members must provide intentional work to increase knowledge and
prepare Hispanic students with disabilities to advocate for themselves. They must inform them of
the process of disclosing their disabilities at college, the basics of where to go, who to speak
with, the benefits of disclosing, and of the types of accommodations and resources available to
them to help improve their transition to college. Transition team members must not only inform
and educate, but also ensure that students with disabilities understand the benefits of securing
accommodations, which will help increase their academic performance and college completion.
With only half of the participants reporting that they felt the transition team members were
helpful and informed, more work needs to be done to train transition team members to be
accountable for their work, to increase education and awareness of what supports are available at
college, how to access these resources, and to provide culturally competent practice that engages
Hispanic students with disabilities and their families in the transition process.
Transition Process and IEP Participation
Hispanic students with disabilities and their parents must be encouraged and empowered
to participate actively in transition and IEP meetings, to advocate, ask questions, provide input,
and be treated and seen as valuable members. All participants reported attending a transition
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meeting in high school with their parents in attendance, where postsecondary plans were
discussed, which means that attendance at these meetings was not an issue, but information
seeking as to the benefit and process of disclosing their disability at college was. Even when
parents are strong advocates for their children at transition meetings, they may forget to ask or
not fully understand the process of securing accommodations for their children with disabilities
at college, as evidenced in the findings of some participants. The school culture must
acknowledge, validate, and support parents and Hispanic students with disabilities to be active
participants in the transition process. The school must provide opportunities for parents and
students to develop their capacity to gain knowledge, develop advocacy skills and increase their
self-efficacy for them to transition successfully to college.
Self-Advocacy and Being Informed
Self-advocacy skills and being informed were a cornerstone for all participants in this
study. This skill must be taught and practiced throughout the K-12 school years so that when it
comes time to transition to college, Hispanic students with a disability have the confidence to use
their voices to advocate for their needs and concerns. Professionals working with this population
must continue to develop and encourage students to advocate for themselves, ask teachers for a
break, additional instruction, extra time, and accommodations to the physical environment to
improve accessibility. They all agreed that information seeking and remaining informed of their
disability rights was essential to their academic success so far. Thus information must continue
to be provided to increase knowledge of their rights.
Whereas five participants in this study reported having learned advocacy from their
parents, teachers and staff were also said to have helped all eight find their voice and strengthen
their advocacy skills. Advocacy development must start well before high school, where Hispanic
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students with disabilities are expected and encouraged to voice their concerns early in school and
at home, which will increase their confidence and belief in their capacity for success.
Disclosure of Disability and Accessing Accommodations and Resources
All participants understood the benefit of disclosing their disability to the disability
support office. However, some took longer to do so due to a lack of knowledge of where and
how to go about it. The transition team members must ensure that students understand how and
where to go once they arrive on a college campus to register with the disability support office.
The transition meeting is a time to prepare students to understand the process fully. Once
registered with the disability office, all participants secured accommodations and resources that
they required to increase their accessibility and academic performance. Additionally, most
participants reported that they could disclose the accommodations they needed to their professors
with confidence, and rarely encountered any resistance.
Some participants mentioned that they wished professors would spend more time
explaining what the disability support office offers when they review the class syllabus with
students. They reported that professors mentioned the name of the office and read the description
listed on the syllabus without going into detail about the available resources. Professors should
increase awareness of the resources available at the disability support office and impart this
knowledge to their students to encourage more students to seek out these services.
Self-Efficacy and Academic Success
All participants reported they developed their belief in their capacity to succeed over
time, some from their parents and others from caring teachers, adults, and mentors. A strong
sense of self-efficacy was not dependent on disability type, as participants with varying
disabilities self-reported a strong belief in their ability to succeed academically. All students
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reported that their self-efficacy was strengthened and maintained by positive experiences with
teachers and staff. The unique challenge that is having a disability poses for some Hispanic
students was not found to undermine their self-efficacy, irrespective of having a physical or
cognitive disability. This could be attributed to supportive parents, caring teachers, adults, and
staff that encouraged them to identify and develop their strengths and learn to overcome their
challenges. Parents of Hispanic students with disabilities and the professionals that work with
them must continue to provide encouragement and support for them to develop a high sense of
self-efficacy. If they encounter academic challenges, they can remain determined and motivated
to succeed.
Sense of Belonging and Academic Success
Developing a sense of belonging in college was helpful for the participants in this study
to achieve academic success. Higher education institutions must continue to create opportunities
for Hispanic students with disabilities to feel a sense of community and have expectations that
they will join school clubs, organizations, and student study groups. There should be a diverse
staff, faculty, and student body, not only in terms of ethnicity but in disability status as well
which will increase a sense of representation and belonging for this group of students.
Further, the stereotypes of what it means to be Hispanic or what it means to have a
disability must continue to be dismantled by implementing sound and equitable institutional
practice such that Hispanic students with disabilities are encouraged and accepted into all circles
on college campuses. Higher education institutions can promote cultural and disability awareness
on campus, increasing the sense of belonging for minoritized students as they will feel
acknowledged and valued in academic spaces.
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Suggestions for Future Research
This study aimed to add to the limited research on the lived experience of Hispanic
students with disabilities as they transition from high school to college. For purposes of data
collection on such a specific population and selection criteria, the Hispanic origin groups were
not detailed by particular representation such as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Salvadoran, Cuban,
Dominican, Guatemalan, Colombian, Spaniard, Honduran, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, Nicaraguan,
Venezuelan, and Argentinean, which are said to be the 14 groups that make up 95% of the total
U.S. Hispanic population (Lopez et al., 2013). Further research is necessary to address the
nuances of the specific Hispanic origin groups regarding how students with disabilities from
detailed Hispanic backgrounds experience the transition to college.
There is limited research in general addressing Hispanic students with disabilities.
Therefore additional research is necessary to investigate numerous areas. One such area would
be the transition experiences of the first-generation compared to continuing generation Hispanic
students with disabilities, distinguished by disability type. This study found essential findings in
terms of first-generation students with a physical disability receiving more family support than
students with a learning disability who received little to none. This is an important area that
requires further inquiry to investigate if first-generation Hispanic students with a less visible
disability receive less family support than those with a visible disability and why this may be
true. Additionally, the only first-generation students with a learning disability in this study were
males from low-income households and were late entry students. Their responses relied on them
recalling their perception of the transition teams and transition meetings from years ago and how
this helped them decide to attend college as older adult men. It would be essential to research
how first-generation male Hispanic students with a learning disability perceive their transition
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experience closer to having graduated high school, especially since male Hispanic students are
still frequently diagnosed with a learning disability.
Continuing generation students, with either a physical or learning disability reported a
robust family support system, relying on their parents for advocacy and guidance. Further
investigation is essential to address parental education and income level of continuing generation
Hispanic students with disabilities to decipher if there is a correlation between parent education
and income and the amount of family support, knowledge of disability rights, and the advocacy
they provide. Another finding noted in this study that requires further research is the decision to
pursue a STEM degree for both female second-generation participants and their determination to
persist, regardless of a physical or cognitive disability. It is essential to investigate if there are
any distinguishing factors between family support, transition team planning, and experiences
compared to first-generation female students with either disability expressing an interest in a
STEM degree.
It is recommended that future research focus on the lived experiences of Hispanic college
students with disabilities as they adjust to their first year and throughout their journey in higher
education in an attempt to understand their needs, concerns, and successes. In addition, a
comparison group of Hispanic college students with and without a disability could be studied,
and their lived experiences highlighted to begin to tease out any differences in their higher
education experience. Moreover, it would be essential to study visible and invisible disabilities
among Hispanic college students and how their experiences may be different or the same, as well
as compare their experiences attending an HSI or non-HSI. Lastly, future studies should focus on
students with disabilities who choose not to disclose their disability in higher education settings,
either because they do not know they have a disability, they do not know how to disclose, or they
119
do not know how to get diagnosed, they want to avoid being stigmatized, or they want to get
through college without any accommodations or resources. It would be essential to study this
group of students to find out their academic outcomes and what staff, teachers, and professionals
working in education can do to empower students to recognize their strengths and challenges and
needs to increase educational opportunities and success.
This study discussed the transition process and college adjustment of eight Hispanic
college students with disabilities to contribute to the limited body of research on such a
population. Although there is growing interest in researching the challenges and outcomes of a
culturally and linguistically diverse student body, few studies focus on the experience of
Hispanic students with disabilities and their needs and outcomes as they transition from high
school to college (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2010).
Recommendations for Practice
The following practice recommendations are essential to provide a supportive and
positive experience for Hispanic students with disabilities in the K-12 school years, as they
transition from high school to higher education, and once they arrive on college campuses. These
recommendations may help increase self-efficacy, advocacy skills, sense of belonging and
academic success for this understudied population. Teachers, service providers, administrators
that are part of the transition planning meetings, college professors, and college disability
support staff and faculty, play a significant role in the lives and experiences of Hispanic students
with disabilities.
Culturally competent practices must be delivered to create a trusting relationship with
Hispanic students with disabilities and their families, which may increase involvement in their
child’s education, and increase IEP attendance by both parent and student, where both will be
120
confident to ask questions, to give input, to advocate for their needs. When students with
disabilities have parents that are informed of their children’s educational rights and advocate for
services and programs, then students learn that being informed is essential, and that advocating is
sometimes necessary to get their needs met. These learned skills will serve helpful in their
transition to college life, where they will be tasked to disclose their disability to the college
independently, they will be expected to independently advocate for their needs and
accommodations and be informed of their right to access their learning.
Recommendation 1: Authentic and Caring Relationships
Professionals working with Hispanic students with disabilities in K-12 or higher
education settings must be skilled in developing a genuine, trusting, and caring relationship with
them. This relationship should be grounded in students feeling validated, acknowledged, and
seen. This can be accomplished if culturally competent practices are utilized, such that Hispanic
students with disabilities feel respected and understood. Their language, culture, and family
dynamics must be respected, and due to their disability status, their abilities, strengths, and
potential must be identified and cultivated.
Suppose the mission is to foster authentic and caring relationships. Professional
development and continuing education classes should be offered on delivering culturally
competent practice specific to minoritized students with disabilities of different ethnic identities
to increase knowledge and empower teachers, staff, and faculty to feel confident and prepared to
engage with this student population. Professionals must be sensitive to the nuances of a Hispanic
student’s upbringing, family expectations, and parent involvement in their education and
continually work toward building a connection with students and their families while in K-12
settings. Likewise, professionals working in college settings must remain aware of the positive
121
impact they can make in a student’s life by being empathetic, acknowledging the students’
challenges as truth, and providing the requested accommodations.
Disability support offices should offer mentoring programs and offer mentors training on
how to authentically connect with Hispanic students with disabilities as they navigate college
life; respecting the concept of familismo would be essential to build a trusting and caring
relationship. These mentoring programs should reach out to local high schools , connect with
students with disabilities who are eager to attend college, and join the potential student with a
key contact person from the disability support office to ensure the student knows where and how
to access accommodations and resources.
In addition, more training needs to be delivered to professors and faculty to be stronger
spokespersons and to instruct potential students struggling with an undiagnosed or known
disability on the resources available at the disability support office. As reported in this study
professors briefly mention the disability support office as they review the class syllabus on the
first day of class. Higher education institutions should offer mandatory training for professors
and faculty to increase awareness of disability statistics in higher education, the potential stigma
that students fear if they disclose their diagnosis, the challenges of undiagnosed college students,
the benefits of making an appointment with the disability support office, and the importance of
securing accommodations. Additionally, college campuses should offer disability awareness
campaigns throughout the school year to advertise their resources and increase access and
visibility.
Recommendation 2: Develop and Strengthen Self-Efficacy and Self-Advocacy
Self-efficacy and self-advocacy are essential for Hispanic students with disabilities to
cultivate and should begin well before they complete high school. K-12 teachers and service
122
providers that work with students with disabilities should provide intentional instructional
strategies where students can make their own choices, receive feedback, identify strengths, and
build on them, and experience positive interactions, which will help them develop a high sense
of self-efficacy.
Professional development focusing on evidence-based practice for increasing self-
efficacy should be offered at the beginning of each high school semester so that teachers and
service providers are educated, reminded, and invigorated to implement intentional interventions
and teaching strategies. Likewise, workshops that emphasize the importance of self-efficacy and
how to support its development should be offered to parents of students with disabilities to help
students both at home and school.
Suppose the mission is to improve and maintain self-efficacy and advocacy skills in
Hispanic students with disabilities transitioning to college. Disability support office
administrators must offer pre-college admission programs in the summer to incoming first-year
students that aim to develop self-efficacy and advocacy skills by identifying student strengths,
building on these strengths, teaching positive self-talk and affirmations, offering peer models to
have students identify with others and motivate them to use their voice to get their needs met. At
the college level, students with disabilities should be informed of available resources and
tutoring services, and encouraged to register with the disability support office. The disability
support office staff, professors, and faculty should be intentional in their guidance and outreach
to students with disabilities. They should provide encouragement, motivation, and high
expectations of their students.
Self-advocacy should also start early and be taught at home and in school settings.
Students with disabilities should be encouraged by their teachers, service providers, parents,
123
family members, and mentors to voice their concerns, offer their opinions, and ask for help.
Students with disabilities and their families should be informed of the importance of self-
advocacy and be well informed of their educational rights. Similarly, disability support office
staff, professors, and faculty should be receptive and responsive when students advocate for their
needs, share their concerns and opinions, and request accommodations. Hispanic students with
disabilities should be informed of their educational rights during college orientation and
encouraged to stay informed, know who to communicate their concerns with, and do so
promptly.
Conclusion
This study was necessary because there continues to be an increase in Hispanic students
with disabilities attending higher education. Yet, they drop out at higher rates when compared to
White students. The findings suggest that when Hispanic students with disabilities enter college
with strong advocacy skills and a heightened sense of self-efficacy, their transition to higher
education is facilitated, supporting their academic success. K-12 settings must continue to
outreach to parents and encourage them to become informed on the importance of building self-
efficacy and advocacy skills for their children.
It is hoped that this study will help inform anyone that works with Hispanic students with
disabilities on the importance of nurturing advocacy, efficacy, high expectations, encouraging
and motivating students to believe in themselves and to identify and build on their strengths to be
able to navigate college demands, support academic growth and success successfully. Moreover,
this study will add to the body of research on students with disabilities in higher education. It
will hopefully motivate more researchers to focus on students of color in their inquiries.
124
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Appendices
144
Appendix A: Demographic Survey
Answering these questions is completely voluntary and will be used as eligibility criteria to
participate in the study. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and will not be
shared or reviewed by anyone other than the researcher of this study. By answering these
demographic survey questions you are consenting for the researcher to review your responses.
1. Are you 18 years of age or older?
o Yes
o No
2. Are you of Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or of Spanish origin?
o Yes
o No
3. Are you currently enrolled and attending a college or university in the United States?
o Yes
o No
4. If you’re not currently attending, have you attended a college or university in the United
States?
o Yes
o No
o Not applicable
145
5 . Which of the following disability(ies) and/or impairment(s) do you have, if any? (one or
more categories can be selected)
o ADD or ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
o Autism
o Hard of Hearing
o Learning Disability
o Mental Health Disability
o Mobility Disability
o Physical Impairment
o Speech and/or Language Impairment
o Visual Impairment
o Prefer not to say
o Other (please specify) ____________________________
146
Appendix B: Email Letter
Dear XX,
My name is Erika Garcia and I'm a doctoral student at USC Rossier School of Education. I am
currently working on my dissertation with Dr. Marsha Riggio and it is titled: The lived
experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities transitioning to higher education.
I have been granted IRB approval to do my research from my institution. I would like to
interview Hispanic college students with a disability that are accessing and/or connected to
disability support services. I’m wondering if you would be able to help me gain access to this
population? I have attached the recruitment letter, that you can perhaps email to all students
registered with your office, via email. Please reach out with any questions. Thank you for your
time and I look forward to continued communication.
Sincerely,
Erika Garcia, LCSW
USC Doctoral Student
ecedillo@usc.edu
147
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
[I’d like to begin this portion of the interview with questions regarding the types of support you
received while you were a high school student.]
1. (RQ1) What kind of support did you receive from your parents/guardians regarding
school when you were in high school, if anything? (encouragement, financial support,
emotional support)
● How was it helpful?
● What would you change?
2. (RQ2) What transition support services did you participate in when you were in high
school, if any?
● How were they helpful?
● What would you change?
3. (RQ1) Could you share an experience that really stands out, that included someone from
your transition support team in high school? (i.e. That could be a high school counselor,
teacher, transition support staff)
4. (RQ2) What do you feel you learned from having a transition support team to work with
when you were in high school, if anything? (i.e. how to self-advocate, how to disclose
disability, how to prepare for college demands)
148
● What did you learn about the kinds of support services available in college for
students with disabilities, if at all?
● What did the staff that helped in your transition to college do to make you feel
welcomed and included in the process, if anything?
[(Check-in and ask if the participant needs a 5 minute break.) In this next section of the
interview, I’d like to ask you questions regarding your experience at college.]
5. (RQ3) Many students find college challenging especially in the first year. What would
you say has been the biggest challenge so far, if anything?
● How is/was college different from high school? (workload, study time, class size).
6. (RQ1) What has been the most helpful for you regarding getting your class work done in
college, if anything?
7. (RQ2; RQ3) Which support services have you used at college to help you adjust to the
academic demands of college, if any? (tutoring, specific accommodations – counseling,
disability support office, etc.)
8. (RQ1; RQ2) Could you share an experience in college that really stands out for you when
you felt supported by the disability support staff/professor/instructor, if any?
149
9. (RQ1; RQ 3) Imagine that you’re having a difficult time with a college class and the
professor has not offered any guidance to you, which has made you feel like you might
fail the class. What would you do?
● How prepared do you feel to be able to handle a challenging situation like this?
10. (RQ1; RQ3) Can you share an experience, if any, of when you may have doubted your
ability to be successful?
● What helped you overcome this challenge, if anything?
11. (RQ1; RQ3) What recommendations do you have to improve the experience of Hispanic
students with a disability as they adjust to college?
12. Is there anything else you would want to tell me? Do you have any questions for me?
Thank you for your participation. If you have any questions or concerns about this study, please
feel free to contact Erika Garcia, Ed.D candidate at ecedillo@usc.edu
150
Appendix D: Recruitment Letter
Hello, my name is Erika Garcia and I'm a doctoral student at USC Rossier School of Education.
I’m in search of research participants to take part in a study to share their experience as they
transitioned from high school to college/university. I would like to discuss what your experience
was like as you transitioned into higher education. This research is important as it aims to
understand what your lived experience was, in order to best support Hispanic students with
disabilities as they transition to a higher education setting.
This study is voluntary, and it will consist of a virtual interview of approximately 45 minutes in
length. The eligibility criteria are: be at least 18 years of age, be of Hispanic origin, be enrolled
or have attended a college or university in the United States, and have a disability or impairment.
If you are interested in being a potential participant please click on the link below to be directed
to the demographic survey.
If you have any questions about this study please email me at ecedillo@usc.edu.
Sincerely,
Erika Garcia, LCSW
USC Doctoral Student
151
152
Appendix E: Letter of Consent for Participants
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: The Lived Experiences of Hispanic Students with Disabilities Transitioning to
Higher Education
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Erika Garcia
FACULTY ADVISOR: Marsha Riggio, Ph.D.
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to understand and highlight the lived experiences of Hispanic
students with disabilities as they transitioned into higher education. I would like to know what
supports were helpful, what could have been improved and how you adjusted to the demands of
a college setting. This will help others learn how to better support Hispanic students with
disabilities in the future, as they transition to higher education. You are invited as a possible
participant because you stated that you are of Hispanic origin, attend (or attended) a higher
education setting in the United States, are of adult age and self-reported that you have a disability
or impairment.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
153
If you decide to take part in this study, you will be invited to participate in a virtual interview on
Zoom with this researcher. The questions asked will be about your experience in the transition
process to college or university. The interview will be scheduled on a day and time that is
convenient for you. You will need to connect to the internet to join Zoom and be available for
approximately 30 minutes. The researcher will email you the Zoom link the day before the
interview. Once your appointment time arrives, please sign-in to the Zoom link. The interview
will be completed in one meeting and, with your permission, it will be recorded on Zoom.
154
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $25 Amazon gift card for your time. You do not have to answer all of the
questions in order to receive the card. The card will be emailed to you when you complete the
interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
Your responses will be kept confidential and will be stored in NVivo for the duration of 3 years
at which time they will be destroyed. All identifiers will be removed and pseudonyms will be
used in place of names.
We may publish the information from this study in journals or present it at meeting. If we do, we
will not use your name.
Your responses will be audio/video records. You have the right to review the audio/video
recordings or transcripts. Only the researcher will have access to your responses. Your name and
responses will be coded and a pseudonym will be used when referring to your responses.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact researcher Erika Garcia at
ecedillo@usc.edu or faculty advisor Marsha Riggio at mriggio@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.
155
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Garcia, Erika
(author)
Core Title
The lived experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities transitioning to higher education
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership
Degree Conferral Date
2022-08
Publication Date
08/05/2022
Defense Date
06/06/2022
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
college disability support services,college-going,cultural-historical activity theory.,Disabilities,disability overview,disability status and education,familism/familismo,Hispanic students in high school,Hispanic students in higher education,Hispanic students with disabilities in high school and higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-efficacy and college success,transition process,transition support services,transition support systems
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Advisor
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committee chair
), Quezada, Wanda (
committee member
), Trahan, Don (
committee member
)
Creator Email
ecedillo@usc.edu,erika.garcia.lcsw@gmail.com
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Tags
college disability support services
college-going
cultural-historical activity theory.
disability overview
disability status and education
familism/familismo
Hispanic students in high school
Hispanic students in higher education
Hispanic students with disabilities in high school and higher education
self-efficacy and college success
transition process
transition support services
transition support systems