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Low retention of active duty female Marine Corps officers

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Low retention of active duty female Marine Corps officers

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Low Retention of Active Duty Female Marine Corps Officers
by
Amanda Mathew Johnston

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2022

© Copyright by Amanda Mathew Johnston 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Amanda Mathew Johnston certifies the approval of this Dissertation

David Simmonds
Courtney Malloy
Jennifer Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this mixed-method study was to examine the factors associated with a female
Marine officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation
expires. This study’s conceptual framework utilized social cognitive theory with a key focus on
the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence one’s human agency factors
and self-efficacy. A multi-method research design was constructed through use of surveys and
one-to-one interviews. The target population included female Marine Corps officers, who served
at least 4 years and did not retire, served at some point between June 1, 2015 and December 31,
2020, and was voluntary and honorably discharged from active duty. In total, 85 surveys and 12
interviews were completed. The results and findings revealed that three themes, ordered by
precedence, reflected the highest influence for female officers to depart active duty military:
organizational culture with sub-themes of poor leadership, sexism/sexual harassment, and
Marine 24/7 mentality; family with sub-themes of planning to have a child, time with a child,
and dual-military marriage; and work schedule with sub-themes of long work hours and family
impact. Three evidence-based recommendations to address the findings include reduce gender
bias through gender diversity training and education programs, establish a comprehensive child
care program that supports active duty parents, and reduce excessive overwork through
establishment of work schedule expectations.

v
Dedication
To my boys. Always remember that you can accomplish anything and everything that you set
your mind to. Pursue your passions with all your heart, commit yourself to a greater cause, put in
the hard work, and always have fun!

vi
Acknowledgements
I am eternally grateful for so many individuals that have helped me get to this moment.
Thank you to my amazing family and friends, for your support and encouragement to achieve
this milestone. From the bottom of my heart, I appreciate you all so much.
Thank you to those who worked tirelessly for the incredible benefit known as the G.I.
Bill. Simply put, I would not have pursued this degree if it were not for the confidence,
motivation, and backing the G.I. Bill provided. This program has deeply changed the trajectory
of my career and I am profoundly grateful.
Thank you to my amazing colleagues and support crew in Cohort 16. I have learned
immensely from you and I am a better person because of your willingness to share, challenge,
and teach me. I would have never imagined that this program would have produced life-long
friends, yet I am forever thankful that it did.
Thank you to the female Marine officers who volunteered for this study. Without whom,
this research would not have been possible. Your time and contributions were deeply valued and
it is my hope that my appreciation is evident in each carefully crafted page of this dissertation.
Thank you to my amazing dissertation team. Thank you to Dr. David Simmonds, for your
belief in me from the very beginning and your sincere support and guidance over several years.
Thank you to Dr. Courtney Malloy, for your feedback and unique perspective in refining and
improving this study. Finally, thank you to my exceptional dissertation chair, Dr. Jennifer
Phillips. Your level of detail, feedback, and commitment is incomparable. Above all, you always
met me where I was in the dissertation process and diligently guided me to the finish line. I am
deeply grateful for your leadership, selflessness, and mentorship.

vii
Thank you to my boys, who are truly my purpose and reason in pursuing this degree. Kai,
even at such a young age, you have supported and genuinely encouraged me. Your enthusiasm,
belly laughs, and tenacity always encouraged me to work harder and simultaneously enjoy the
journey. Camden, the only life you have known up to this point is with me pursuing this degree.
Yet in your short life, you have inspired me become a better mother, scholar, and giver. I thank
you both so much for your unceasing love. You make it all worth it.
Finally, to the one who truly made this degree possible, my husband David. Without you,
this degree could not and would not have happened. You encouraged me to begin, endure, and
finish this process. Nothing about it was easy, and it was an immense sacrifice for you, yet you
never wavered in your support. I am grateful for you. I love you. And I am so glad that we will
never have to tag-team a bed-time/2.5-hour summer class to two young boys again.
I feel eternally grateful and immensely blessed to be here. I deeply look forward to
transferring this education to action. Fight on! Semper Fidelis!

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ................................................................................................................................. v
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ............................................................................................. 1
Organization Context and Mission ................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................. 4
Importance of the Study .................................................................................................. 5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ................................................... 5
Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Dissertation ...................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................. 8
Retention Demographics of Women ................................................................................ 8
Impact of Low Retention to the Organization .................................................................. 9
Factors Influencing Retention of Women in the Labor Force ......................................... 12
Retention Demographics of Women in the U.S. Military ............................................... 15
Factors Influencing Retention of Women in the U.S. Military ....................................... 16
Theoretical Framework: Social Cognitive Theory .......................................................... 31
Connecting Social Cognitive Theory and Retention in the Workplace ........................... 32
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 34
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................................... 37

ix
Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 37
Overview and Methodology .......................................................................................... 37
The Researcher .............................................................................................................. 40
Data Sources ................................................................................................................. 41
Ethics ............................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter Four: Findings ............................................................................................................. 52
Response Rate and Demographics of Participants .......................................................... 53
Research Question One ................................................................................................. 56
Research Question Two ................................................................................................. 91
Research Question Three ............................................................................................. 103
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings and Recommendations .................................................. 110
Discussion of Findings and Results ............................................................................. 111
Recommendations for Practice .................................................................................... 118
Limitations and Delimitations...................................................................................... 129
Recommendations for Future Research........................................................................ 131
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 132
References .............................................................................................................................. 134
Appendix A: USC Information Sheet for Exempt Research..................................................... 158
Appendix B: Survey Protocol .................................................................................................. 160
Appendix C: Interview Protocol .............................................................................................. 167
Appendix D: Request for Survey Participation ........................................................................ 172

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 39
Table 2: Participant Demographics: Survey 54
Table 3: Participant Demographics: Interview 55
Table 4: Data Analysis Codes and Themes 1-5 57
Table 5: Organizational Culture: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation 59
Table 6: Organizational Culture: Open-ended Responses 60
Table 7: Family: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation 66
Table 8: Family: Open-ended Responses 67
Table 9: Work Schedule: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation 74
Table 10: Work Schedule: Open-ended Responses 75
Table 11: Deployments: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation 79
Table 12: Deployments: Open-ended Responses 80
Table 13: Frequent Moves: Open-ended Responses 84
Table 14: Data Analysis Codes and Emergent Theme 87
Table 15: Infertility: Open-ended Responses 88
Table 16: Data Analysis: Codes and Themes 6-8 92
Table 17: Improve Organizational Culture: Open-ended Responses 94
Table 18: Increase Family Resources: Open-ended Responses 99
Table 19: Improve Orders Process: Open-ended Responses 101
Table 20: Data Analysis: Code and Theme 9 104
Table 21: Maternity Policies Survey Results 105
Table B1: Survey Protocol Crosswalk to Research Questions 161
Table C1: Interview Protocol Crosswalk to Research Questions 168

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study 34

Figure 2: Lewin’s (1947) Three-phase Change Model 129

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This dissertation addresses the problem of low active duty female officer retention in the
U.S. Marine Corps. The Department of Defense data indicates that the active duty female
representation in the U.S. military service reached 16% for enlisted female service members and
19% for female officers, the highest level in the history of the U.S. armed services (U.S.
Department of Defense, 2018). Female representation in the U.S. military reached an all-time
high in 2018, but the Government Accountability Office report (2020) highlighted that little
progress has been made regarding female service member retention in the military service.
Specifically, female service members are 28% more likely than men to separate from the military
between 10 and 20 years of service (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). Further,
over 45% of female service members depart active duty service after their first and second tour
compared to their male counterparts (U.S. Department of Defense, 2018). The problem is
important to address as low female service member retention has negative effects on turnover
costs and information loss (Kamarck, 2019). Furthermore, this problem has far-reaching effects
on service member well-being, operational readiness, and mission degradation (McDonald &
Parks, 2011). To address this problem, this study focused on female officers who served on
active duty in the U.S. Marine Corps and voluntarily departed the service prior to retirement.
Background of the Problem
The quantity and extent of involvement of women in the U.S. military has evolved
significantly since the inception of female service members into the armed forces. Prior to World
War II, women provided direct and indirect support to military operations during times of war
(Murdoch et al., 2006). The Women’s Armed Services Integration Act was enacted in 1948,
which gave women permanent status in the military services and allowed them to serve during

2
peacetime operations (Women Armed Services Integration Act, 1948). However, the Women’s
Armed Services Integration Act limited the number of women who could serve to 2% of the total
force, limited the number of women who could serve as officers, and allowed the military to
involuntarily discharge women who became pregnant (Women Armed Services Integration Act,
1948). Additionally, the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act (1948) prevented women
from commanding men or serving in any unit directly engaging in combat operations. The
enactment of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act paved the way for the increase of
female service members in the years to follow.
Numerous policy changes from 1970s to 2013 impacted the involvement of female
servicemember’s in the U.S. military and increased their representation within the ranks. In
1970, women were authorized to fulfill command roles, and in 1976, women were no longer
involuntarily discharged due to pregnancy (U.S. Congress, 2001). In 1994, the Defense Secretary
authorized female service members to be assigned to all positions for which they qualified,
except those units whose primary mission was to engage in direct combat operations (Direct
Ground Combat Definition and Assignment Rule, 1994). From 1973 to 2010, the total population
of women in the U.S. military increased from 2% to 14% among enlisted personnel and 4% to
16% of officers (Patten & Parker, 2011). In 2013, the Secretary of Defense removed the 1994
military ban, which had prevented women to serve in direct ground combat roles, and directed
the development of implementation plans for the full integration of females across job specialties
(Panetta, 2013). As of 2018, women composed 16.5% of the total active duty service members in
the U.S. military (Defense Manpower Data Center, n.d.). However, the Marine Corps had the
lowest number of female service members compared to all military branches. As of 2018, the Air
Force had the highest percentage of active duty female service members at over 20%, the Navy

3
had 19%, the Army had 15%, and the Marine Corps had 8.6% (Military One Source, 2018). The
policy changes from the 1970s to 2013 resulted in higher populations of women throughout each
military service.
Despite the policy changes and increase in female accession to the military service,
numerous studies reveal retention issues from the female enlisted and officer perspective. Keller
et al. (2018) found that over 62% of female service members desire to depart from active duty
service due to family and cultural reasons. The Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the
Services (2017) found that women seek greater flexibility in their work-life balance, including
better child-care options, than what the military offered. Decisively, an external 15-year
assessment (2003-2018) on personnel retention by the U.S. Government Accountability Office
(2020) found that six main factors increased the separation rate for female service members prior
to retirement eligibility: family planning issues, difficult work schedules, deployments,
organizational culture factors, sexual assault, and dependent caregiving responsibilities. These
three studies provide a brief glance into the topics of concern affecting the retention of female
enlisted and officers in the U.S. military.
Organization Context and Mission
The Marine Corps is a branch of service within the U.S. military whose purpose is to
serve as the nation’s maritime land force service branch (U.S. Marine Corps, 1996). The mission
of the Marine Corps is to conduct expeditionary and amphibious operations through combined
arms efforts on air, land, and sea (Hoffman, 2002). As outlined in 10 U.S. Code 5063, the Marine
Corps’ responsibilities include the seizure or defense of advanced naval bases; the development
of tactics, techniques, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces; and other such duties
as directed by the President of the United States or Department of Defense (U.S. Marine Corps:

4
Composition; Functions, 2011). The principal bases of the Marine Corps include Camp
Pendleton in San Diego, California, Camp Lejeune in Jacksonville, Carolina, and Camp Butler in
Okinawa, Japan (Hoffman, 2002).
As of 2017, the Marine Corps consists of approximately 183,500 active duty members; of
those, approximately 162,000 are enlisted and almost 21,000 are officers (Office of Diversity
Management and Equal Opportunity, 2017). According to U.S. Marine Corps (2017) Marine
Corps Demographics assessment, the racial background includes 65% White, 17% Hispanic,
10% Black, 4% Asian, and 4% other or declined to respond. Of the total Marine Corps
population, 65% (119,703) is aged 25 or younger, 23% (43,088) of Marines are not old enough
to legally consume alcohol, and 12% (22,857) are teenagers Office of Diversity Management and
Equal Opportunity, 2017). On average, the total active duty force has served for 5.2 years, and
on average, officers have served 11.1 years (Government Accountability Office, 2020). The
organization consists of approximately 92% men and almost 8% women, which makes the
Marine Corps the military service with the lowest percentage of female active duty service
members (Government Accountability Office, 2020).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine the factors associated with a female Marine
officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires.
The questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. Why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
2. What factors do active duty female officers perceive as being important for
continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps?

5
3. What are active duty female officers’ perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies?
Importance of the Study
The problem of low retention of active duty female service members in the U.S. Marine
Corps is important to solve for a variety of reasons. The low retention rate of female service
members reflects an underrepresentation of women in higher leadership positions and leads to a
scarcity of female role models and available female mentors (DACOWITS, 2017; Keller et al.,
2018). The retention of female servicemembers is important to solve to obtain the strongest
possible military leadership and composition, to improve mission readiness, and to accurately
represent the nation’s population (Government Accountability Office, 2020; McDonald & Parks,
2011; U.S. Department of Defense, 2016a). The consequence of not solving this problem will
have significant ripple effects throughout the military service; as a result, the DoD will continue
to face readiness concerns with far reaching effects on service member’s welfare, readiness, and
preparedness (Dansby et al., 2012; Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services,
2017; Office of Diversity Management and Equal Opportunity, 2017).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Social cognitive theory serves as an effective theoretical framework for evaluating the
problem of practice. Social cognitive theory asserts that learning transpires in a social context,
where a reciprocal interaction occurs between the person, environment, and behavior (Bandura,
1999). The theory considers the unique social environment in which each individual exists and
the manner in which their environment influences an individual’s acquisition of behavior
(Bandura, 2001). Social cognitive theory has several direct applications to the problem of low
female service member retention. First, the model serves as a framework to gain an

6
understanding in female veteran perceptions about the social cognitive factors that contribute to
the problem. Subsequently, the model frames the retention problem in a manner that analyzes the
social cognitive factors and provides a gateway to potential solutions.
The study design was mixed-method and was conducted through surveys and interviews.
The participants included female officers of the U.S. Marine Corps who served on active duty for
at least 4 years and did not retire, served at some point between January 2015 and December
2020, and was voluntary and honorably discharged from active duty. The questions for the
surveys and interviews were formulated to serve as a tool to assess the interacting determinants
of the person, behavior, and environment. The design of this study aligned with the purpose of
this study as one’s experience and interpretation of events is seen as the principal data to be
collected.
Definitions
This section includes key concepts that emerged through exploration of this problem of
practice.
Active duty refers to military members who are currently serving on full-time status in
their military capacity (10 U.S.C 101., 2009).
Child development center refers to on-post child care centers that offer full-day or part-
day hourly care (U.S. Army, n.d.).
Dual-military refers to one military member being married to another military member
(Huffman & Payne, 2006)
Enlisted refers to all ranks below that of a commissioned officer in the U.S. military (10
U.S.C 101., 2009).

7
Family planning refers to the ability of individuals and couples to anticipate and attain
their desired number of children and the spacing and timing of their births (World Health
Organization, 2018).
Officer refers to a senior portion of the U.S. military who derive their authority through
appointment as a commissioned service member (10 U.S.C 101., 2009).
Recruitment refers to the activity of selecting individuals for military training and
employment (U.S. Army, n.d.).
Retention refers to the rate at which military personnel voluntarily choose to stay in the
military after their obligated term of service has ended (Congressional Research Service Report,
2020).
Sexual assault refers to rape, aggravated assault, abusive sexual assault, nonconsensual
sodomy (forced oral or anal sex), or attempts to commit these acts (Defense Intelligence Agency,
n.d.).
Veteran refers to a person who has served and is no longer serving in the military
(Merriam-Webster, 2021).
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is structured into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides the organizational context,
research questions, theoretical framework, and definitions. Chapter 2 details a review of current
literature surrounding the study and includes topics of female retention demographics, factors
influencing retention of women, and social cognitive theory. Chapter 4 highlights the data and
results of the study. Finally, Chapter 5 provides recommendations for solutions and an
implementation and evaluation plan based on the findings of the study.

8
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This research sought to examine the factors associated with a female Marine officer’s
decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires. This
multi-faceted problem called for careful analysis of the Marine Corps, the Department of
Defense, and the civilian work force. This review includes an analysis of seminal and current
literature related to the topic of retention of women in the workplace to include demographics,
the factors influencing retention, and retention initiatives. The foundation of the study was
guided by social cognitive theory and its connection to human agency and self-efficacy. As such,
the following literature review is organized into six major subsections: Retention Demographics
of Women in the Workplace; Retention Demographics of Women in the U.S. Military; Factors
Influencing Retention of Women in the U.S. Military; Social Cognitive Theory; Social Cognitive
Theory and Retention in the Workplace; and Conceptual Framework.
Retention Demographics of Women in the Workplace
The presence of women in the civilian workforce has dramatically increased over the last
two decades (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019)
reports that 57% of the 2018 labor force in the United States was comprised of women. In
comparison, the labor rate for men was 69% in 2018 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019).
Women are increasingly present in upper management positions and supervisor positions
(Perrenoud et al., 2020). However, women in traditionally male dominated fields, including the
military and law enforcement, remain a minority (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2018; U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). As of 2018, women make up 26% of all law enforcement
employees and slightly over 12% of all U.S. sworn police officers (Federal Bureau of

9
Investigation, 2018). Though women are increasingly present in the labor force, women are
substantially underrepresented in many labor fields.
The turnover rate for women in the labor force is significantly higher than men.
Proportionally, there is approximately a 25% lower retention rate of women compared to men in
the 25–35 age group in the labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2018). Law
enforcement has a national turnover rate of 11% (Wareham et al., 2015) and an inconclusive
turnover rate for women (Ripley, 2017). Silva (2016) studied promotion and retention rates of
women across the Department of Defense and compared data to their civilian equivalents. Her
study found the departure of women from the military during the 8-year to 12-year career mark
was similar to the departure rate seen in the civilian workforce around the 10-year period (Silva,
2016). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics (2018), a woman is two times more
likely to leave the civilian workforce than their male counterparts at the 10-year point. Silva
(2016) concluded the study by calling for further research as many contributing factors appeared
to surface and no single reason was present for the high departure rate among military women
beginning at the 8-year career mark.
Impact of Low Retention to the Organization
The cost of low retention and high turnover is a significant expense to the organization.
The departure of an employee represents a loss to the organization due to the amount of time and
training that was invested in the individual (Elvira & Cohen, 2001). The exact costs of employee
turnover vary by organization, but a study by O’Connell and Kung (2007) found that on average,
it costs the organization approximately 6 to 9 months of an employee’s salary to acquire and
retrain a subsequent employee. To illustrate O’Connell and Kung’s (2007) finding, the loss of
one employee who earned a salary of $60,000 a year costs the organization $30,000-45,000 in

10
recruiting and training expenses. This figure, multiplied across employees of diverse salaries,
illustrates the significant costs facing organizations experiencing high turnover. The recruiting
costs, training costs, and onboarding costs associated with turnover expenses represent a
substantial expense to the organization.
There are numerous indirect consequences organizations face as result of turnover and
low retention. Engagement and productivity are notably reduced as one contemplates leaving an
organization, which has been found to occur in the months and even years prior to an
individual’s departure (O’Connell & Kung, 2007). Productivity is affected as the employee takes
with them their learned skills and talents, as well as the subsequent workload redistribution
following an employee’s departure (Hom & Kinicki, 2001). Turnover results in a decrease in
employee morale as the culture of commitment is often questioned among remaining employees
(Chiat & Panatik, 2019). An organization’s cultural well-being is deeply impacted by high
turnover due to reduction in morale, an increased desire to seek alternative employment, and a
reduction of job embeddedness (Chiat & Panatik, 2019). The lost engagement, lost productivity,
and cultural impact presents significant issues for organizations experiencing high turnover.
Gender diversity in the workplace has yielded multi-dimensional benefits to the
organization. Gender diversity in the workforce has been shown to improve innovation,
productivity, and even profitability (O’Brien et al., 2015). According to Hartenian and
Gudmundson (2000), firms with a more gender diverse workforce were found to have a greater
positive percentage change in revenue, net income, and chief executive officer income in
selected years than firms with less gender diverse work forces. Women in the workforce have
been found to have a high impact on productivity levels, constructive communication, and
execution of team building (Khan et al., 2019). Specifically, the strong communication and

11
networking skills observed of women by O’Brien et al. (2015) were found to encourage
collaborative and group work efforts higher than those observed by men. Gender diversity in the
workplace enhances productivity and organizational effectiveness in a multiplicity of ways.
Gender-diverse senior management teams positively impacts strategic change and
improves firm performance (Del Carmen Triana et al., 2019; Quintana-Garcia et al., 2016).
Quintana-Garcia et al. (2016) explored the moderating role of managerial ability in the
relationship between gender diversity and firm performance. Quintana-Garcia et al. (2016) found
that increasing female representation in top management teams had a substantial and direct
influence on overall managerial capabilities. Moreover, Quintana-Garcia et al. (2016) observed
that increasing female representation in top management teams results in positive performance
effects both in times of stability and more so, in times of crisis. In a separate study, Del Carmen
Triana et al. (2019) found that senior management gender diversity fosters strategic change in
high tech firms, especially where alliance formation and cooperation are most high. The results
of both studies show that strategic alliance formation, top management team inclusion, and
female representation in top management teams, positively moderate the relationship between
senior management gender diversity and strategic change (Del Carmen Triana et al., 2019;
Quintana-Garcia et al., 2016).
The presence of female employees positively impacts collective retention throughout the
organization. Maurer and Qureshi (2021) examined 499 organizations over a 14-year time-span
and found that a substantive increase in the representation of women positively affected the
retention of women. Furthermore, the higher retention of women resulted in positive spillover
effects for men, leading to a decrease in collective turnover (Maurer & Qureshi, 2021). Maurer
and Qureshi (2021) found that higher representation of women is associated with higher job

12
embeddedness for all employees, which results in a subsequent decrease in collective employee
turnover. A separate study by Ali and Konrad (2022) found that organizations who had more
than 40% of women in nonmanagement employee positions, and 50% of women in managerial
positions experienced 20% lower turnover then organizations with a reduced presence of women.
The results of Maurer and Qureshi (2021) and Ali and Konrad (2022) illustrate the positive
retention impacts organizations face with a gender diverse workforce.
The loss of high performing women results in far more than simply a fiscal loss to the
organization (Elvira & Cohen, 2001). Female perspectives and leadership styles afford gender-
diverse top management teams a strategic advantage over equally talented, yet homogeneous
male teams (Quintana-Garcia et al., 2016). Numerous studies reveal that women are effective
problem solvers and navigators of group dynamics which positively impact organizational and
leadership effectiveness (O’Brien et al., 2015). Though gender-specific characteristics are not
evident in all women, nor are they absent or reduced in all men (O’Brien et al., 2015), research
reveals that gender diversity across an organization notably improves organizational
effectiveness, collaboration, and collective retention (Elvira & Cohen, 2001; Khan et al., 2019;
Quintana-Garcia et al., 2016).
Factors Influencing Retention of Women in the Labor Force
Current research suggests that there are many factors that influence retention of female
employees in the labor force (Bobit-Zeher, 2011; Edwards, 2020; Rudman & Glick, 2021). This
section provides a basis to understand the problems that female employees face in diverse
organizations. Specifically, this section will review the formal and informal organizational
practices, social, cultural, and economic variables, gender composition of the workforce, and
inequalities and disadvantages facing women.

13
A decade of advances in the field of social psychology of gender have found that formal
and informal organizational practices were the main challenges women face in the work force
(Rudman & Glick, 2021). These practices included gender discrimination through inadequate
accommodation for women’s work-life balance, identity, and physical needs. There are several
barriers a woman may face that can impede career progression and retention (Rudman & Glick,
2021). Structural barriers include policies and procedures, whereas perceptual barriers include
the attitudes and beliefs that influence women to believe they cannot or should not pursue
something (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011). Alongside gendered barriers, women encounter a range of
other intersecting work-related barriers, to include sexual orientation, occupational stereotyping
and discrimination based on race/ethnicity (Makarem & Wang, 2020). Each of these gender
barriers present limitations on access to opportunities, work options, and ability for continuation
in a career.
Women face unique events that increase their chances of departing an organization, to
include the physical aspects of having a baby as well as the responsibilities that become
associated thereafter (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Sandra et al. (2000) emphasized that
women often primarily carry the role of physically taking care of children, as well as fulfilling
the psychological and emotional needs. Moreover, the lack of affordable child care prevents
women from progressing and at times remaining in their career (Parker, 2005). Specifically, the
high cost, limited availability, and inconvenient program hours, of child care programs presents
challenges that drive women out of the workforce at an exceptionally high rate (Parker, 2005). A
poll taken by Harvard Business Review in 2017 revealed that 73% of men and 85% of women
believe prioritizing of family over work is the biggest barrier for women to remain or pursue a
career (Tinsley & Ely, 2018). A recent survey conducted by McKinsey (2021) found that 57% of

14
women point to the dual-burden of balancing work and domestic duties as the most significant
barrier to gender diversity in upper management and retention in organizations. Child rearing and
child care challenges serve as a retention barrier for women in the work force.
The gender composition of the workplace affects voluntary turnover for women (Elvira &
Cohen, 2001; McGinn & Milkman, 2013). In a 5-year study encompassing over 500 lawyers,
McGinn and Milkman (2013) found that the presence of other female associates was highlighted
by female attorneys as a reason for remaining at the firm. The female attorneys emphasized that
they were able to compare their probability of success based on the presence of other females
(McGinn & Milkman, 2013). In a separate study, Sacco and Schmitt (2005) conducted research
of management employees with over 250,000 samples. The researchers found that the higher
composition of female presence within the organization reduced the chance of female turnover
by 21% (Sacco & Schmitt, 2005). Further, same-sex supervisors for females reduced turnover
(Sacco & Schmitt, 2005). Foley et. al (2006) found that females with supervisors who were of
the same gender felt more comfortable in asking for support from their supervisor.
The presence of sexual harassment in the workplace affects retention of women in an
organization (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). A study conducted by Willness (2007) meta-
analyzed data from 41 studies representing a total sample size of nearly 70,000 respondents.
Willness (2007) found that sexual harassment in the workplace directly contributes to job
dissatisfaction. Willness (2007) found that women in work environments with fewer women are
at a higher risk of experiencing sexual harassment. The presence of sexual harassment in the
workplace is negatively correlated with workplace satisfaction and positively linked to turnover
intentions (Shaffer et al., 2000).

15
There are a large range of social, cultural, and economic variables that influence the
turnover of women in different occupations. Workplace culture, implicit bias, career preferences,
family responsibility, lack of role models, and limited training opportunities have been found to
play a role in low female retention (Obrien 2015). Women continue to leave the labor force in
disproportionate numbers mid-career with various and significant effects to organizational
effectiveness and well-being.
Retention Demographics of Women in the U.S. Military
In 2017, the U.S. Armed Forces comprised of 1.1 million females, which represented
almost 16% of the total military force (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The total
percentage of women serving on active duty in the U.S. military increased slightly from 15.1% in
2004 to 16.5% in 2018 (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). This figure represents a
small growth of 1.4%, yet the total number of women serving in 2004 was much higher given the
military operations at the time. Specifically, the number of female service members on active
duty in 2004 was over 236,000 but only 232,000 in 2018 (U.S. Government Accountability
Office, 2020). The Marine Corps has the lowest percentage of female service members compared
to each of its sister services (Defense Manpower Data Center, n.d.).
According to U.S. Department of Defense (2016a), less than 17% of the active duty
military is made up of women and much of the gap is attributed to attrition. Women make up
only 7.6% of Marine Corps officers and 8.6% of enlisted Marines (Marine Corps Community
Services, 2018). The Marine Corps falls behind the Army at 14.5% and the Navy (18.7%) and
Air Force at 19.3% (Defense Manpower Data Center, n.d.).
The minimal movement between retention figures from 2004 to 2018 demonstrates that a
retention problem endures. The Office of Diversity Management and Equal Opportunity

16
(ODMEO, 2017), assessed diversity and inclusion among officers that analyzed fiscal year 2012
through 2016 data to determine whether there was a difference between male and female
retention within each of the services (ODMEO, 2017). According to ODMEO (2017), prior to
retirement eligibility, the two year-of-service categories with the lowest retention rates are 4 to 6
years of service (when officers are coming off their service obligations) and 9 to 11 years of
service (when officers seem to be making decisions about a full military career). ODMEO (2017)
found that female officers across each military branch were less likely to be retained than male
officers, and men and women had similar continuation rates during their first 3 years, specifically
as their contractual obligation existed. However, the differences between male and female
continuation rates emerge beginning the fourth year of service, and increase with yearly service
between 8 to 12 years. By the tenth year of service, the percentage-point difference between
male and female officer cumulative continuation rates was 10 in the Army, 15 in the Navy, and
20 in the Air Force, and 21 in the Marine Corps (ODMEO, 2017). In other words, although both
male and female officers separated from the military as years of service increased, female
officers separated at significantly higher rates during the period under consideration. Thus, for all
branches of service, especially the Marine Corps, women were less likely than men to remain on
active duty following their contractual obligation.
Factors Influencing Retention of Women in the U.S. Military
The 2017 Defense Advisory Commission of Women in the Service (DACOWITS) report
stated that each of the military services experience challenges retaining women to a varying
degree. Researchers have identified an array of reasons that contribute toward the departure of
female service members from active duty, each of which are founded largely upon family-related
and cultural issues (DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS, 2019; Military Leadership Diversity

17
Commission, 2011). The research focuses on gender-related issues: family planning, work
schedule, deployments, organizational culture, sexual assault, dependent caregiving
responsibilities, and promotion.
Family Planning
Family planning is a leading reason female service members depart active duty military
(Curry et al., 2019; DACOWITS, 2017; Military Leadership Diversity Commission, 2011). The
Military Leadership Diversity Commission report (2011) found that family planning was among
the most significant factors for women leaving the military. Curry et al. (2019) highlighted that
family planning is viewed as an essential planning factor when deciding to leave military service,
regardless of marital status or parental status. In other words, family planning is a consideration
for female service members, regardless of if they are currently pursuing planning a family or not
(Curry et al., 2019).
The difficulty of timing pregnancy within a military career presents challenges for female
service members. Keller et al. (2018) found that 85% of female Air Force officers discussed
concerns related to pregnancy as an influence on their retention decision. The women
specifically described the challenge of timing pregnancy around the strict military schedule
(Keller et al., 2018). These Air Force officers described the need to attempt to reduce negative
impacts to their career through precisely timing a pregnancy within a narrow window (Keller et
al., 2018). Caswell (2016) found that female service members often attempt to time pregnancies
around career targets to minimize the negative effects of pregnancy to include noncompetitive
evaluations during maternity leave. Even with this effort, negative impacts to female service
member’s career still occur (Caswell, 2016; Keller et al., 2018). According to Caswell (2016),
negative implications include direct impacts (e.g. a supervisor displaying bias) and indirect

18
consequences to include missed opportunities (e.g. professional military education attendance).
The importance of family planning to an individual, coupled with the direct and indirect
consequences to the service member, result in emotions of stress, tension, and internal strife that
influences retention decisions (Keller et al., 2016).
Work Schedule
There are several studies of active duty female service members that highlight the
concern many female service members have with the military work schedule (Stoker &
Crawford, 2008; Williams, 2013). Female service members feel as if the military work scheduled
disproportionately affects them compared to male counterparts (Stoker & Crawford, 2008). A
study of senior female enlisted personnel in the U.S. Army found that the primary factor for them
to depart the military earlier than males was the belief that they constantly had to forego time
with their family to have a military career (Williams, 2013). Further, a study of former female
active duty naval surface warfare officers cited the uncertainty of their work schedule as one of
the strongest influences in their decision to separate from active duty (Stoker & Crawford, 2008).
Female service members describe the demands and uncertainty of their work schedule as
significantly negatively impacting them and serving as a strong influence on female service
members decision to depart active duty service.
For female service members who have children in the Child Development Center (CDC),
they are particularly affected by shift work or consistently working late hours. The CDC hours
typically range from 5:30am–6pm depending on the CDC location (Department of Defense
Instruction, 2014). However, training exercises, overnight duties, and shift-work are frequent
activities that fall outside of the standard CDC operational range (Kamarck, 2020). The Defense
Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) conducted research in 2017 and

19
found that women service members described the mismatch between CDC availability and their
work schedule as one of the top five deterrents in continuing military service. As a federal
advisory committee appointed by the Secretary of Defense, DACOWITS facilitated thousands of
focus groups across the DoD to provide recommendations on policy pertaining to servicewomen
(DACOWITS, 2017). Similarly, in 2019, DACOWITS determined that women expressed a
growing concern for the mismatch of CDC hours and this problem rose to be in the top three
deterrents for women to continue military service. In the DACOWITS (2019) study, a female
officer stated:
They need extended hours at the Child Development Center…If you are a night shift, you
need the option to come here at 1600. Instead, what do night shift service members do?
They find whoever they can to take care of their kid. … Can you imagine how stressful
that is? It is just beyond comprehension. (p. 18)
The DACOWITS’ (2019) research reveals that inadequate child care became a greater issue to
women service members between 2017 and 2019. Kamarck (2020) analyzed the results of over
2,000 surveys across military installations for the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense. The
researcher found that this problem is exacerbated in households of single-parents, dual-military,
and most particularly female service members. In 2017, Blue Star Families and The Institute of
Veterans and Military Families conducted an online survey questionnaire of 4,800 military
members to assess key considerations affecting service member families (Shiffer et al., 2017).
The researchers determined that 67% of military families stated that they were consistently
unable to find needed child care that met their work schedule. Blue Star Families and The
Institute of Veterans and Military Families (2017) further highlighted child care concerns by
gender: 67% of female service members and 33% of men said they were unable to find child care

20
that worked with their schedules. The research on the lack of available child care during working
hours reveals that this is a significant factor when considering retention of women in the military.
Deployments
Researchers found that the instability that is created due to deployments and additional
duties had a significant impact on female service members (Dichter & Gala, 2015). In a study
that included 295 active-duty and reserve female officers, 94% of the focus groups highlighted
that deployments had an important negative influence on their retention decision (Keller et al.,
2018). The focus groups highlighted the belief that a deployment would negatively affect their
spouse and children (Keller et al., 2018). In a study conducted by Karney et al. (2014), female
military veterans cited difficulties being separated from their children for long time periods as a
reason for ending military service. These difficulties were both emotional and practical,
including limited stable and safe placement options for children while mothers were deployed
(Karney et al., 2014). Female service members described the hardship associated to deployments,
and the impact they have on their children and spouse, as a significant influence in the decision
to leave the military.
Families can be presented with access to childcare issues as a family’s schedule alters
immensely once one parent is no longer physically present. Zellman et al. (2008) offered
numerous findings highlighting the vulnerability families face as result of inaccessible child care
during deployments. Military deployments place immense stress on the family when the lack of
accessible child care options and the family’s needs do not align. Zellman et al.’s (2008) research
found that deployments and inaccessible child care placed significant stress on 64% of military
families of the 3,200 surveyed. Further, deployment separation can be stressful on children in a
variety of ways. Children 6 years old and younger have been found to experience behavior

21
issues, to include evidence of aggression and depression, while children over the age of seven
have been found to have difficulty with their friends, and evidence of depression and anxiety is
present (Karney et al., 2014). Other problems that have been noted among children with parents
that are deployed to include sleep problems, anxiety, stress, declining grades, and overall
maladaptive behaviors (Karney et al., 2014).
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture reflects shared assumptions about the workplace that determine
how employees interpret and make meaning of workplace events (Schein, 2010). Culture has
both visible elements and invisible elements, each of which plays a significant role in the
composition and influence of an organization’s culture (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Visible
elements of an organization’s culture include workplace activities, policies, and procedures,
while invisible cultural elements include the beliefs and values that an organization instills
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Invisible and visible elements bidirectionally influence and create an
organization’s culture. According to Bolman and Deal (2017), an organization’s culture is in a
continual state of change, influenced by the personnel and knowledge, that exists at the time. An
organization’s culture is considered one of the greatest factors in attracting and retaining
employees (Ayman & Korabik, 2010), and it can serve to lead them toward achieving the
organization’s goals, or it can hold the organization down from meeting the desired ends
(Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Keller et al. (2018) found that the military culture appears to view motherhood as a
burden to the organization, which presents feelings of exclusion among active duty mothers. Of
the 300-female active duty service members interviewed in a 2016 survey by Military Family
Organization, over 65% said that they often do not feel the military supports their decision to be

22
a mother and serve on active duty (Military Family Organization, 2016). Further, over 60% of
the active duty Air Force mothers interviewed in a 2018 study said that they consistently feel that
their worth to the organization was less valued once they became a mother (Keller et al., 2018).
Moreover, the U.S. Defense Department Advisory Committee on Women in the Services found
that the lack of inclusivity for mothers creates strong feelings of no longer being part of the team
(DACOWITS, 2019). The lack of women in leadership positions is perceived to compound the
problem of leaders who are not supportive of dependent care requirements as well as contribute
to a toxic work environment (Williams, 2013).
The military’s organizational culture affects female service member’s decision to depart
from the military. In one study of active-duty, reserve, and Air National Guard officers in the Air
Force, the presence of female mentors and women in leadership positions was a factor in
influencing the decision to separate from active duty (Caswell, 2016). Further the study found
that women correlated the lack of women in leadership positions to the existence of their
experience with sexism (Caswell, 2016). Sexism affected many female service members’
decisions to continue serving (Caswell, 2016; Karney et al., 2014). A 2014 study conducted by
Karney et al. (2014) found most participants cited that a hierarchy of opposition existed toward
women in the military and that participants said they often faced sexism. In 2013, almost 26% of
female service members said they had experienced sex discrimination and sexual harassment
(Stander & Thomsen, 2016).
The organizational culture of the Marine Corps uniquely affects female Marines. A
2015 study found that the Marine Corps had the highest percentage of active duty females who
reported that they have experienced sexual harassment or gender discrimination (Stander &
Thomsen, 2016). Specifically, 31% of active duty female Marines experienced sexual

23
harassment or gender discrimination, compared to 30% of Navy, 28% of Army, and 15% of Air
Force (Stander & Thomsen, 2016). In 2017, an event that became known as Marines United
revealed a key cultural issue women faced in the Marine Corps. A secret Facebook paged called
Marines United, which had a membership of over 30,000 active duty Marines and veterans, was
found to have shared thousands of explicit photos of female Marines without their consent or
knowledge (Phillips, 2017). The photos generated millions of comments, with almost all of them
consisting of language that was demeaning, sexual, or derogatory in nature (Phillips, 2017). The
organizational culture of the Marine Corps results in female Marines facing unique hurdles of
sexual harassment and gender discrimination (Phillips, 2017; Stander & Thomsen, 2016).
Sexual Assault
Female service members depart active duty service as result of sexual assault
experiences. Female service members indicated in the DACOWITS (2017) study that first-hand
experience with sexual assault contributed toward the decision to depart active duty service. In
one study on female service member veterans, the veterans discussed both the occurrence of
sexual assault and the way the military handled the assault as a contributing factor in their
separation (Pierce, 2008). Specifically, the way the victim was treated, as well as the punishment
the perpetrator received, was a consideration in their decision to depart from the military (Pierce,
2008).
In 1991, the tailhook scandal was one of the first large scale sexual assault cases within
the U.S. military (Healy, 1993). The incident occurred in Las Vegas, Nevada where 4,000 Naval
and Marine Corps officers consumed over $33 thousand in alcohol and 97 sexual assault cases
were reported (Healy, 1993). Numerous policy and prevention measures have been established
across each military branch as result of the Tailhook scandal and other sexual assault reports

24
(Defense Intelligence Agency, n.d.). However, despite numerous initiatives to end or reduce
sexual assault, the problem remains a pervasive issue that disproportionally effects women
service members (Castro et al., 2015). To illustrate the magnitude of the problem, Street et al.
(2013) compared the 2009 sexual assault data to women in combat and found that female service
members deployed in Iraq were more likely to be sexually assaulted by another service member
than they were to be engaged in combat with an insurgent. In 2015, the Department of Defense
(DoD) observed 9% of females, compared to 1% of males, report being sexually assaulted while
serving in the U.S. military (Stander et al., 2018). Further, the number of sexual assaults reported
from 2016 to 2018 increased by 37% across the DoD despite extensive efforts to reduce sexual
violence within the military (Stander et al., 2018).
In 2016, the total sexual assaults reported revealed that 1 in 6 of all female service
members have experienced at least one sexual assault while serving in the military (Stander et
al., 2018). Following the reporting of sexual assault, half of the female service members who
filed a report stated that they faced some form of retaliation as result (Holland et al., 2014). The
methods of retaliation for filing a sexual assault report included lower performance evaluations,
false rumors, and increased scrutiny (Holland et al., 2014).
Sexual assaults affect female officer retention uniquely. In a study examining female
officer retention of active duty, reserve, and Air National Guard women in the Air Force,
multiple participants stated that they, or individuals they knew, departed the military specifically
because of sexual assault. The participants said that female officers often do not report sexual
assault and instead decide to simply separate from the service (U.S. Government Accountability
Office, 2020).

25
Dependent Caregiving Responsibilities
Long wait-lists for child care prevent the Child Development Center from being an
available resource to most service members. In a survey of over 2,000 military families across
military bases, Karney et al. (2014) found that on average, CDCs have an infant wait-list ranging
from 3 months to 2 years. According to Karney et al. (2014), the wait-list for areas with large
military populations, to include San Diego, California and Washington D.C., have an average
wait-list of one year. In 2016, the Department of Defense acknowledged that they failed to meet
their stated goal of fulfilling 80% of child care needs throughout the DoD (U.S. Department of
Defense, 2016b). According to DoD Instruction on Child Development Programs (2014), the
DoD was extremely close to achieving their desired goal as they met 78% of child care needs.
The percentage was calculated by comparing CDC wait-lists to the total military families with
daycare aged children. By contrast, Gaddes et al. (2020) found that the U.S. Department of
Defense (2014) significantly underrepresented the gravity of the child care issue. The researchers
found that many individuals simply do not apply to the wait-lists as the families recognize that
the wait time is excessive and unrealistic to meet their needs. In other words, Gaddes et al.
(2020) estimate that the numbers reflected by U.S. Department of Defense (2016b) on meeting of
child care needs are inaccurate and do not correctly depict the magnitude of the inaccessibility to
the CDC. Gaddes et al. (2020) highlighted that participants of over 800 surveys described the
long child care wait-lists as the main challenge for parents in need of care for their children. The
prolonged wait-lists prevent female service members from being able to rely upon CDC services
which causes stress, anxiety, and uncertainty (Gaddes et al., 2020; Griffin, 2020). Considering
that unmet child care needs is pervasive across the Department of Defense, it can be concluded

26
that female service members are routinely compelled to find alternative care, which is a
significant challenge to military families.
Child care issues disproportionately effects active duty female service members. The
evidence highlights that child care issues contribute toward missed work hours, particularly for
female service members (Gates et. al, 2006; Blue Star Families, 2018). Research by Gates et al.
(2006) found that 22% of military fathers reported that they were late to work due to child care
issues in the past one month. Contrastingly, military mothers reported that they were late to work
51% over the past month (Gates et al., 2006). Analyzing the study further, Gates et al. (2006)
revealed that 7% of military fathers said they missed work due to child care issues in the past
month while military mothers reported that figure to be 37%. The majority of male service
members state that if childcare cannot be found in the CDC, it is the responsibility of their
spouse to care for their child or find suitable care (Blue Star Families, 2018). Conversely, the
majority of female service members state that if childcare is unavailable in the CDC, they are
responsible for finding suitable care in the civilian sector (Blue Star Families, 2018). As research
reveals that women primarily carry the responsibility of finding childcare, female service
members are disproportionately affected by CDC inaccessibility (Blue Star Families, 2018;
Gates et. al, 2006).
Promotion
Female service members are underrepresented in leadership positions across the military.
The first woman promoted to the rank of four-star general occurred in 2008 and by 2015, 8% of
military four-star generals or admirals were women (Kamarck et al., 2017). Silva (2016)
highlighted that women are not well represented at the O-6 and above ranks. DACOWITS
(2019) reviewed Defense Manpower Data Center (n.d.) data and found the percentage of female

27
servicemembers declined by nearly 75% from the lowest to highest commissioned officer
positions. The Commission attempted to explore the existence of institutional or individual bias
in promotion selection boards, performance evaluations, and familiarity of the promotion process
(Defense Manpower Data Center, n.d.). However, as the promotion process is particularly
secretive across all branches of service to protect the anonymity of board members as well as the
discussion, the Commission was not purview to the required data to control for other variables
when analyzing the promotion rates (Kamarck et al., 2017). The precise reason for low
promotion rates of women is not well-defined (Kamarck et al., 2017; Silva, 2016), but it is clear
that below-average officer promotion rates for women are a widespread issue across each
military service.
Retention Initiatives
Similar to the private sector, the military recognizes the importance of diversity within its
workforce (U.S. Department of Defense, 2012). The U.S. military states the value of a diverse
workforce includes a wider range of skills, backgrounds, and perspective (U.S. Department of
Defense, 2012). Moreover, the cost of turnover is expensive on both the military and civilian
side. On the civilian side, when female employees leave their organizations at a quicker rate than
men, corporations spend millions to retrain and replace those women (Schultz & Schultz, 2020).
The Marine Corps is equally affected, especially for officers (U.S. Department of the Navy,
2016). The initial cost of training a Marine Corps officer for an average 7 months of basic school
and military occupational specialty school results in an annual $99.3 million dollar cost (U.S.
Department of the Navy, 2016). Research across industries reveals that the cost of turnover is a
significant burden for the organization (Straub, 2012).

28
Diversity management includes a culture of inclusion where diverse perspectives and
knowledge is welcomed (Benschop et al., 2015). The importance for the U.S. military to be
diverse rests on the critical need to have diverse thought and new approaches for a strong
fighting force (McDonald & Parks, 2011). In recognizing the need of diversity, Congress
mandated the establishment of the Military Leadership Diversity Commission (MLDC) in 2009
(MLDC, 2011). The MLDC is comprised of active duty and retired military, academic, and
corporate leaders who serve as an advisory board and deliberative body (MLDC, 2011). The
purpose of MLDC is to find methods to transform the military to a more inclusive organization
(MLDC, 2011). In 2011, MLDC released an official report that included a uniform definition of
diversity to be used throughout the Department of Defense as well as recommendations and
actions for diversity initiatives. Later in 2011, the Commander in Chief, President Barrack
Obama, issued an Executive Order calling for the promotion of diversity and inclusion through
all government agencies (Byrnes, 2013). In 2012, the Office for Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
released a 5-year Diversity and Inclusion Strategic Plan that drew on the MLDC report and
outlined specific diversity goals (U.S. Department of Defense, 2012).
The Diversity and Inclusion Strategic plan of 2012 outlines the implementation of
Executive Order 13583 which directs executive departments to develop and implement a
comprehensive, integrated, and strategic focus on diversity and inclusions as a key component of
their human resource strategy (U.S. Department of Defense, 2012). The Strategic Plan was
updated in 2017 and is pending an update as of 2021 with the intent of guiding efforts through
2024. However, neither the 2012 nor 2017 plan included recruitment or retention goals specific
for women (U.S. Department of Defense, 2017). Unlike recruiting initiatives, the military
branches have neither thorough goals nor specific performance measures to guide retention

29
initiatives (Government Accountability Office, 2020). As such, the military services currently do
not have plans that include goals, performance measures, and timeframes to guide and monitor
efforts to recruit and retain female servicemembers (Government Accountability Office, 2020).
The Office of Secretary Defense officially states that the lack of specific goals is intended to
encourage the retention and promotion of all active-duty servicemembers, while broadly
focusing on the overall diversity of the military workforce (U.S. Department of Defense, 2017).
Moreover, the initiative is intended to encourage the goal of recruitment and retention of
diversity, with emphasis on the intention of creating a military force that reflects the diversity of
the United States and recruits and retains its best and brightest service members (U.S.
Department of Defense, 2017).
Beginning in 2010, Marine Corps Recruiting Command pursued aggressive outreach to
potential female candidates through female-inclusive and female-specific marketing. The Marine
Corps’ outreach included sending direct mail to female high school juniors, actively recruiting at
female high school sporting events, and generating an awareness with high school counselors of
the opportunities for young women in the Marine Corps (Snow, 2018). In 2010, the
Commandant of the Marine Corps, General James Amos, issued a White Letter emphasizing the
imperative for the Marine Corps to approach the importance of diversity with initiative
(Commandant of the Marine Corps, 2010). The Commandant established four task force groups,
including one described as, “Women in the Corps: Attract, Develop, and Retain Women Officers
(Commandant of the Marine Corps, 2010).
The Marine Corps has pursued diverse initiatives to increase recruitment of female
Marines. In fiscal year 2016, the Marine Corps Commandant, General Robert Neller, announced
that accessions of female and minority officers reached 33%, an increase of approximately 10%

30
from the previous year (Seck, 2017). In 2017, the Marine Corps released its first commercial
with a female lead, called “Battle Up,” to provide a greater display of inclusivity of women
(Seck, 2017). Further, the Marine Corps updated headquarters websites to include language that
identified female Marines and increased female mail targeting to represent over 30% of all mail
sent out (Seck, 2017). In January 2018, General Neller announced the active pursuit of a new and
aggressive gender diversity goal (Neller, 2018). General Neller announced that the Marine
Corps’ was to increase the number of women in the Marine Corps from 8.6% to 10% by the end
of 2019 (Neller, 2018). In total, this goal was intended to result in an additional 1,434 female
enlisted Marines and 166 female officer Marines. According to U.S. Marine Corps (2017)
demographics update, the Marine Corps has fallen short of that goal. In 2019, the Marine Corps
consisted of 8.8% female, which represented a .2% increase from the previous year and 1.2%
short of achieving the Commandant’s stated goal (U.S. Marine Corps, 2017).
The Marine Corps has pursued different initiatives to increase retention of female service
members. In 2019, the Commandant stated that finding affordable child care for service
members is a primary concern to retain quality personnel (Commandant of the Marine Corps
Planning Guidance, 2019). General Berger described child care as a critical issue that
significantly impacts work performance for thousands of military personnel (Berger, 2019).
General Berger stated in the Marine Corps Planning Guidance (2019):
We should never ask our Marines to choose between being the best parent possible and
the best Marine possible. These outcomes should never be in competition to the extent
that success with one will come at the expense of the other.
From 2015 to 2020, the Marine Corps released multiple policies that were supported by
DACOWITS (2017) and MLDC (2011) research that could help increase the retention of women

31
in the military through increased maternity leave and increased exemption time for postpartum
fitness tests (2021).
The Marine Corps does not have specific retention initiatives (ODMEO, 2017). Marine
Corps officials have stated that DOD has not tasked the Marine Corps to prioritize gender
regarding retention or promotion (ODMEO, 2017). There are aggressive recruiting initiatives
and there are established goals by the Commandant of the Marine Corps for overall population of
women in the Marine Corps. However, as of 2020, the Marine Corps does not have any
initiatives that identify specific goals on reducing attrition and increasing retention of female
servicemembers (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). Rather, the Marine Corps has
broad goals of increasing the retention of quality Marines regardless of gender (U.S. Government
Accountability Office, 2020).
Theoretical Framework: Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory is a framework for understanding motivation and human
behavior. The architect of social cognitive theory is Albert Bandura, who first presented his
theory in the late 1970s (Bandura, 1977). Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT)
identifies a learning theory in which cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors mutually
influence each other and contribute toward knowledge acquisition and behavior (Bandura, 2001).
SCT asserts that there is a triadic reciprocal causation between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental factors that interact with one another and influence the decisions people make
(Bandura, 2011). Further, these factors interact bi-directionally and influence knowledge and
behavior (Bandura, 1999). SCT considers one’s past experiences and social environment to the
way an individual behaves. Specifically, past experiences influence reinforcements and
expectations, each of which influences a person’s knowledge acquisition and behavior (Bandura,

32
1989). The theory emphasizes internal and external reinforcement and the role this plays on the
attainment of learning and behavior.
As SCT focuses on the dynamic relationship and interactions of social, cognitive, and
environmental factors, Bandura’s theory asserts that people have control over their motivation
and behaviors in a similar manner they have control over the variables of which they are exposed
to regarding social, cognitive, and environmental factors (Bandura, 2008). As such, people are
agents to their change who can shape and influence their life conditions. People are influenced
by social norms and expectations, physical surroundings, and other’s behavior, but they are not
narrowly defined by any of them (Bandura, 1989). Rather, individuals have choices within the
scope. Simply put, SCT asserts that people are producers, as well as products, of their
experiences (Bandura, 1999).
SCT was a suitable conceptual framework for this study because it provided a model that
carefully considered the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence each
other and contribute toward knowledge acquisition and behavior. Due to its suitability for
framing discussions on cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors and the role of
attainment of learning and behavior, SCT was an ideal lens through which to frame this study’s
problem of practice. SCT provided a framework to explore the cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental factors contributing to the behavior to depart the environment of the Marine
Corps.
Connecting Social Cognitive Theory and Retention in the Workplace
Ground breaking research in the 1980s looked at the connection between interpersonal
relationships and their relationship to turnover, with an indirect connection to social cognitive
theory. Graen et al. (1982) found that the relationship between the employee and the leader was

33
most influential in a member’s decision to stay with an organization. Exploring how the leader-
member exchange relationship predicted turnover, Graen, et al. (1982) found that the relationship
that develops between a leader and an employee plays the most critical influence in an
employee’s decision to stay with an organization. Graen et al. (1982) found that the leaders-
member exchange accounted for almost three times more variance in turnover than leadership
style (Graen et al., 1982). Connecting Graen et al.’s (1982) seminal work to social cognitive
theory and retention, people are influenced by social norms and expectations, physical
surroundings, and other’s behavior. As people are agents to their change, the relationship with
one in a leadership position shapes and influences the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
conditions one operates in. As Bandura’s theory (2008) asserts, people have control over their
behaviors in a similar manner they have control over the variables of which they are exposed to.
As such, retention decisions are made in conjunction with the leader-member relationship and
the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental conditions that exist.
Social learning, or the learning that is done by observing and imitating others (Bandura,
1977), plays a role in employee engagement and retention. A 2017 Society for Human Resource
Management employee job satisfaction and engagement report found that engagement has the
ability to elevate and strengthen relationships through the reciprocal relationship between
employee and employer (Mone & London, 2018). According to LinkedIn’s 2018 Workplace
Learning Report, a leading role in helping improve employee engagement and retention is having
direct managers lead employee learning opportunities (Parding & Berg-Jansson, 2018). Of the
2,200 employees surveyed, over 50% stated that they believed they would improve their skills,
and reduce turnover intentions, if their direct manager guided their learning (Parding & Berg-

34
Jansson, 2018). As Bandura (2008) asserted, modeled behavior is more likely to be adopted if the
model is credible, similar, and the behavior has functional value.
Stemming from the human agency component, self-efficacy is a foundational principle of
SCT and retention. Self-efficacy is the belief that one holds about their capacity to execute
behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1982). As SCT
emphasizes the importance of the role of observation and social settings, self-efficacy is a result
of this central component (Bandura, 2009). Self-efficacy includes one’s perception of their
ability to influence a situation and are a strong determinant of the goals people set and the
opportunities they take on (Bandura, 2009). To put simply, people rule out possibilities, or
pursue incredible feats, based on the beliefs they hold about what they can and cannot
accomplish. In addition to its role in the setting of goals and selection of opportunities, self-
efficacy continues to influence the behaviors people display while actively pursuing their goals
(Bandura, 2009). Structural barriers in the military include policies and procedures, where
perceptual barriers include the attitudes and beliefs that influence women to believe they cannot
or should not pursue something (Kirby et al., 2000). As such, self- efficacy can play a significant
role in approaches to goals, tasks, and challenges and the decisions one makes regarding career
pursuit.
Conceptual Framework
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to connect the relationship among ideas and
variables through a graphic and narrative representation (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual
framework serves as the researcher’s foundation and reveals the interconnected concepts that
frame a researcher’s study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study’s conceptual framework
utilizes social cognitive theory with a key focus on the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental

35
factors that influence one’s human agency factors and self-efficacy. The study explored self-
efficacy through the lens of SCT and its connection to the low-retention rate of female Marine
Corps officers. Social cognitive theory postulates that a person is influenced by the social,
cognitive, and environmental factors evident within their past experiences. This study presumes
that female Marine officers are influenced by past experiences, but they maintain human agency
and the ability to influence change. The conceptual framework demonstrates the interrelationship
of these factors, the continuum of the interacting factors, and how this interaction ultimately
impacts retention. Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of the study.

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework of the Study

36
Summary
To summarize, prior research analyzed within this literature review suggest that the long-
term retention of active duty female service members exists for a variety of reasons. Female
retention in the military service is significantly affected by family planning, work schedule,
deployments, organization culture, sexual assault, and dependent caregiving responsibilities
Moreover, the review of women in the workforce, across civilian and military domains, shed
light on the cultural underpinnings and structural contexts in which gender differences exists.
Finally, this literature review concluded with analysis of social cognitive theory and its
connection to retention and turnover.

37
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to explore the factors associated with a female Marine
officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a detailed review of methodological design of this
study. The chapter begins with an overview of the research questions, methodology overview,
and background on the researcher. The chapter then transitions to an in-depth description of the
study design that includes explanations of the data sources used to explore the problem. The
chapter concludes with discussion on the ethical considerations and protections that will be used
in the study as well as the limitations and delimitations.
Research Questions
This study included three research questions.
1. Why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
2. What factors do active duty female officers perceive as being important for
continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps?
3. What are active duty female officers’ perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies?
Overview of Methodology
To address the research questions, a mixed-method study was utilized. The foundation of
a mixed-method study is rooted in combining qualitative and quantitative research components
to expand and strengthen a study (Östlund et al., 2011). Qualitative research focuses on
understanding how meaning is constructed and how people make sense of their lives and worlds
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), a qualitative study is
interested in the following:

38
1. How people interpret their experience
2. How they construct their worlds
3. What meaning they attribute to their experience.
On the other hand, quantitative research includes the process of collecting and analyzing
numerical data (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019). Quantitative research provides an avenue to find
patterns and averages, compare causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations
(Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019).
A mixed-method study was selected for this study for a few reasons. First, the key tenants
of quantitative and qualitative research best align with the exploration of each research question
and the overarching goal of the study. As the foundation of a qualitative study is derived from
the perspective that individuals construct reality in interaction with their social world (Merriam
and Tisdell, 2016), and the foundation of a quantitative study is derived from data driven patterns
and comparative relationships (Bloomfield and Fisher, 2019), this approach facilitates
descriptive data and themes to surface. Furthermore, a mixed-method study was selected to
conceptually and analytically analyze the problem of practice and strengthen the narrative and
interpretation of data.
Two data sources were used to construct a multi-method design. Surveys and interviews
were selected to maximize the validity and credibility of the data compiled. Specifically, the data
gathered through multiple sources, in comparison with available literature, facilitated the use of
triangulation of the data. The combination of methods was intended to increase trustworthiness
and reliability of the data through mitigation of potential researcher effects and bias. Moreover,
the use of triangulation was intended to improve internal validity by gathering data that best
represents participants’ experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 1 denotes the three

39
research questions along with each data source. The table denotes which research questions were
to be addressed by surveys and interviews respectively.

Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Survey Interview
Why do active duty female Marine Officers
depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
X X
What factors do active duty female officers
perceive as being important for continuing
service with the U.S. Marine Corps?
X X
What are active duty female officers’
perspectives regarding the value of U.S.
Marine Corps retention policies?
X X

40
The Researcher
The identification of a researcher’s positionality and bias is essential for a successful
study. It is important to note that I am a woman who served in the Marine Corps as an active
duty officer for over 10 years. I had two children while on active duty, and I departed active duty
service shortly following promotion to the rank of major. I am personally and professionally
familiar with the problem of practice, which presented potential advantages and disadvantages as
the researcher. The advantages included my familiarity with the environmental, behavioral, and
cognitive factors that exist within the problem of practice. A disadvantage included the potential
for bias in interpretation of data. I mitigated the disadvantages through triangulation of data and
careful review of available literature, interviews, and survey.
I had no supervisory relationship with participants, but it was a potential that I previously
had a professional relationship with a participant. As I have formerly served as a female active
duty Marine officer, it was a potential that the participant and I had a professional relationship
within the organization. A potential advantage in interviewing someone with a preexisting
relationship is that rapport has already been established which can facilitate deep, insightful
responses (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). However, a potential negative aspect is that interviewees
may feel that I have an agenda due to my proximity to the problem. According to Robinson and
Leonard (2019), social desirability is a respondent answering questions in a manner that is
thought to be socially desirable and thereby resulting in survey error. To prevent preexisting
relationships from affecting the trustworthiness of the data, I highlighted the purpose of the study
during the informed consent review and ensured the objectives were clear. Moreover, I
transcribed the interview exactly, and took detailed field notes during data collection, to ensure

41
information was not misunderstood. Finally, I conducted member checking and provided the
transcription back to the participant to ensure accuracy.
Data Sources
A multi-method research design was constructed through use of surveys and one-to-one
interviews. The data was collected in two phases; the first phase consisted of surveys, and the
second phase consisted of one-to-one interviews. In the first phase, surveys were used to guide
the study through in-depth exploration of the research questions. Specifically, the surveys were
used to identify trends, conduct comparisons to literature, and provide a basis of understanding
the problem of practice. The findings were then used during the second phase to inform the
interview protocol regarding questions, sequence, and content. The interviews facilitated pursuit
of a deeper discussion and richer understanding of the problem. The following sections include a
detailed review of each data source to include the rationale for data selection, data collection
procedures, and data analysis.
Survey
The survey instrument was selected for several reasons: (a) surveys are least intrusive, (b)
survey data can be analyzed swiftly, and (c) surveys provide high levels of confidentiality and
limit the influence of social desirability. The presence of social desirability in research leads to
survey error (Robinson and Leonard, 2019). Thus, the survey instrument was selected to prevent
social desirability, enhance confidentiality, and meet the time limitations of the study.
Participants
I obtained participants through use of convenience sampling. Convenience sampling is a
nonprobability sampling method where a sample is taken from a group of people that are easy to
reach (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Convenience sampling was selected for this study to reach a

42
geographically distributed target audience through use of social media platforms. Specifically,
convenience sampling through the established communication platform of Facebook and
LinkedIn allowed the instruments to reach a broad range of potential participants.
The target population for this study was female officers of the U.S. Marine Corps who
served on active duty for at least 4 years and did not retire, served at some point between January
2015 and December 2020, and was voluntary and honorably discharged from active duty. This
population was selected as they present first-hand knowledge of the factors and impact of the
problem. Specifically, a female Marine Corps officer who served at least 4 years and did not
retire, fulfilled their contractual obligation and has direct information on the reasons that
contributed to their departure prior to retirement. According to Robinson and Leonard (2019),
the population selection is the cornerstone of social and behavioral research. Further, the
audience and service dates chosen are with consideration to the specific Marine Corps policies in
affect at the time and the need to ensure the data collected is relative and appropriate.
Instrumentation
The survey instrument consisted of 9 close-ended questions and 6 open-ended questions.
The close-ended questions utilized the four-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree). A Likert-type scale was selected because it facilitated measurement of a
person’s attitudes towards a topic (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). The open-ended questions were
intended to contextualize the participants’ responses. I strategically ordered the 15 questions to
ensure a logical flow and allow for space for deep thought to transpire. Appendix C presents the
survey instrument.
The survey was adapted from a Department of Defense retention survey used by Military
OneSource (2017). The Department of Defense survey served as a pillar for insight on retention

43
for the Department of Defense in 2016 (Department of Defense, 2017). The value of this survey
to the retention decisions the Department of Defense made in 2018 is significant (Department of
Defense, 2018) and served as a strong tool to approach this problem.
Following approval by the dissertation committee but while waiting for Institutional
Review Board (IRB) approval, the instrument was pilot tested and administered to five doctoral
candidates who do not meet the criteria of the study prior to administration of the survey to the
study population. The doctoral candidates were asked to provide feedback regarding detection of
bias, negative wording, and ambiguity. I modified questions based on doctoral students’
feedback to ensure the survey is void of bias and best meets to answer the research questions.
Data Collection Procedures
Approval from the IRB was sought and obtained prior to pursuit of data collection. Once
IRB approval occurred, solicitation for survey participation occurred via social media,
specifically through LinkedIn and Facebook (Appendix D). In a social media post, basic
information on the study was listed to include the target population and purpose of the study,
followed by a link to access the survey. An electronic survey method was selected for this study
given the geographic distribution of the target audience. The participant began participation
through clicking on the survey link listed at the bottom of the social media posting. Once they
clicked the link, they were directed to Qualtrics® to conduct the survey. I designed the survey to
take approximately 10 minutes to complete. The survey was open to participants for a period of
37 days. I utilized consecutive sampling and continued to recruit and advertise the survey until at
least 50 valid surveys were completed. Given the limited time of the study, this sample size was
meant to be realistic while also providing in-depth data.

44
Data Analysis
The survey data was analyzed using the descriptive function in Qualtrics ®. I conducted a
statistical analysis on the close-ended items from the survey to determine the mean, variance, and
standard deviation of responses to address each research question. The open-ended questions
were coded through manual entry in excel. The results of this data analysis is depicted in tables
and a narrative found in Chapter 4. The survey data collected during the first phase, followed by
comparison with existing literature and interview data, enabled triangulation of the data. The
triangulation of data in mixed-method research facilitates the development of a comprehensive
understanding of phenomena.
Validity and Reliability
Validity refers to the purposes of the research and appropriateness of the processes
involved (Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell (2013) goes on to define face validity as the manner in
which the questions in a survey appear to measure the intended constructs. In this study, face
validity was utilized given the limited timeframe of the study as well as the ability to pilot test
the survey. Reliability refers to the consistency and repeatability of an instrument (Creswell,
2018). The survey was pilot tested with five doctoral candidates at the University of Southern
California. A pilot test provides insight to determine and identify changes in the survey process
and ensure the intended constructs are accurately measured (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). The
doctoral students were asked specifically to review the survey for biases, negative wording, and
ambiguity. I modified questions based on doctoral students’ feedback to improve validity and
reliability through the removal of negative wording, confusing wording, and terminology
changes.

45
Interviews
Interviews as a method were selected for several reasons: (a) interviews are designed to
collect a rich source of information about behaviors, attitudes, and knowledge; (b) interviews
allow the researcher to hear what respondents think in their own words; and (c) interviews allow
the researcher to ask follow-up questions or probes. Probing allows the researcher to ask
supplemental questions to explanations that are vague, are not fully understood, or to obtain
more information about a specific topic (Birks et al., 2008). In other words, probing allows the
researcher to pursue a richer understanding and deeper discussion of the topic. As a primary
strength of qualitative research is to explore a topic in-depth (Carlson & Glenton, 2011),
interviews served as an appropriate method to utilize in this study.
Participants
I obtained interviewees through use of nonprobability, purposeful sampling.
Nonprobability purposeful sampling is a sampling technique where the researcher selects
samples based on the judgement of the researcher (Vehovar et al., 2016). Nonprobability
purposeful sampling is appropriate when the researcher has prior knowledge about the purpose
of the study and can properly choose and approach eligible participants (Vehovar et al., 2016).
This sampling method was selected as the interview criteria is the same as the survey criteria.
Specifically, the target population for this study was female officers of the U.S. Marine Corps
who served on active duty for at least 4 years and did not retire, served at some point between
January 2015 and December 2020, and was voluntary and honorably discharged from active
duty. This population was selected as they present first-hand knowledge of the factors that
contributed to their departure from active duty service prior to retirement. Further, the audience

46
and service dates chosen are with consideration to the specific Marine Corps policies in affect at
the time and the need to ensure the data collected is relative and appropriate.
The recruitment for interviews took place at the end of the survey where potential
participants were asked to email the researcher should they wish to participate in interviews. I
utilized consecutive, random sampling until data saturation was met. Data saturation was
expected to be at least 10 interviews and no more than 15 interviews. If I did not receive enough
participants, I would have extended recruitment through reaching out to my own known contacts
until at least 10 valid interviews were conducted. Once the number of potential participants
exceeded data saturation, I utilized consecutive sampling until 12 valid interviews were
conducted. Given the limited time of the study, this sample size was intended to be realistic
while also providing in-depth data. Further, this selection method was intended to give
population representativeness to allow for generalizability (Maxwell, 2013).
Instrumentation
The interview protocol utilized was a standardized, semi-structured approach.
Semi-structured interviews consist of a strategy where the researcher asks a series of
predetermined open-ended questions yet maintains the flexibility to allow new ideas or
discussion to be brought up (Dearnley, 2005). Preestablished questions assist in ensuring that all
interviewees are asked about each topic in a similar manner (Patton, 2002). This approach was
selected to allow an ease in conversation, to allow the ability to move from topics in a logical
sequence, and to allow the flexibility to allow the interviewee to space for deep thought to
transpire. According to Creswell (2018), open-ended interviews promote dialogue and encourage
the interviewee to share their perspective while also facilitating comparisons during analysis.
Guided by Patton (2002), I designed the questions to be neutral, clear, and distinctly align with a

47
research question. I created a clear opening, numerous transitions, and a conclusion to facilitate a
professional yet focused dialogue. Furthermore, I prepared potential probing questions to be used
for clarification or to obtain more information about a specific topic. All interview questions and
potential probing questions are original, they were not adapted or adopted from a known
interview. The interview protocol is found in Appendix C.
Data Collection Procedures
Approval from the IRB was sought and obtained prior to pursuit of data collection. Once
IRB approval occurred, solicitation for interview participation was listed at the end of the survey.
Specifically, once participants submitted their survey, a text box came up thanking them for their
survey submission as well as requesting consideration for the participant to volunteer for a one-
on-one interview (Appendix B). The participants were informed that I sought 10-15 participants
to interview and the interviews were intended to pursue a richer understanding and deeper
discussion on the topic of the low retention of female officers in the Marine Corps. A link was
listed at the bottom of the text box which directed them to a separate page to provide their
contact information. Once I received the potential participant’s contact information, I reached out
to coordinate with the participant to schedule the interview. Once the participant and I scheduled
an interview, I sent a confirmation email that included the information sheet for exempt research
required by the USC Institutional Review Board (Appendix A).
Prior to beginning the interview, I briefly reviewed the nature of the study and the data
collection procedures. I then provided a detailed review of the information sheet and highlighted
specific components of the informed consent. I then reminded the participant of their right to
conclude the interview at any time as well as their right not to answer any questions they elect. I
concluded the review of the informed consent by asking the participant if they had any questions

48
or concerns related to the interview. I then took the time to thoroughly address any questions or
concerns presented by the participant. Once the participant verbally acknowledged that they
agree to the informed consent and no further questions or concerns exist, I proceeded with the
interview.
All interviews were one-on-one with a video and audio connection. The interviews
ranged from 45 minutes to 1 hour and 10 minutes. The platform that was used is Zoom and the
interviewees were audio-recorded (once given permission). During all interviews, I took field
notes throughout the interview. Field notes served to meticulously follow the interview, denote
nonverbal’s, and act as a backup to audio recording (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
Within 7 days of each interview, I transcribed the audio-recording verbatim with
assistance of Zoom transcription tools and Otter.ai. I then emailed the transcript to the
interviewee and requested the participant review the transcript for correctness. The participants
were asked to either affirm the transcription, or provide feedback for correction, within 5 days. If
time elapsed beyond 5 days, I intended to reach out to the interviewee with a second request. If
the interviewee did not respond within 5 more days, I would have noted this as a limitation in the
data results. Field notes were added to the bottom of the transcription to aid in the quality of
information collected. Each interview was collected and analyzed in an ongoing manner to allow
data saturation to determine an adequate number of participants.
The data was analyzed using an inductive process and open coding. Inductive process
involves the search for patterns and themes from observation and the subsequent development of
explanations for those patterns. (Sibeoni et al., 2020). Following transcription and confirmation
of accuracy from participants, I conducted a detailed review of the transcription and looked for

49
patterns in the data and connections. Open coding was then be utilized to break down contextual
data into discrete parts followed by axial coding to draw connections between codes (Sibeoni et
al., 2020). Finally, selective coding was used to select one category that connects all the codes
from the analysis and captures the substance of the research.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
I enhanced credibility and trustworthiness in several ways throughout the study. First, I
began to establish credibility and trustworthiness through obtained approval from the
Institutional Review Board prior to the conduct of interviews. Second, I took deliberate action to
reduce researcher affects. Creswell (2018) encourages the continuous reflection upon possible
bias to reduce the researcher’s influence in data collection. I continued to review my
positionality and bias to eliminate it from all probing questions and nonverbal’s throughout the
interview. The recording of the interview allows for precise transcription which ensures a
researcher does not miss any data throughout the interview due to speed or bias (Patton, 2002). I
then transcribed all interviews exactly and compared transcription to field notes to reveal
discrepant evidence. Moreover, I utilized member checking to ensure the original intent of the
participant was understood and bias during transcription process was not present. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) describe member checking as providing transcription back to the participant to
assist the researcher in minimizing misinterpretation. Finally, as described by Merriam and
Tisdell (2016), triangulation uses multiple methods to reinforce data. This study used interviews
and surveys, in comparison to the available literature, to derive meaning and confirm accuracy of
data. It is not possible to fully eliminate researcher reactivity; however, it is possible to
understand the effects of researcher reactivity and work within it (Maxwell, 2013).

50
Ethics
It was my responsibility to ensure that all ethical practices are upheld during the conduct
of the research. Ethical considerations must guide the entirety of the study, to include the
research’s framework, methodology, and data collection (Glesne, 2011). Prior to conducting the
research, I submitted and received approval from the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board. The purpose of the Institutional Review Board is to ensure the
researchers use appropriate measures to reduce potential risks to participants (Creswell, 2018).
Research on human participants can potentially produce negative results in the lives of
the participants (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). As such, I created a meticulous protocol to reduce
risk to participants. The introduction to the research instruments included a detailed review of the
informed consent which articulated to all participants of the study’s purpose and use of the data.
Further, the informed consent illustrated that participation was voluntary and that they could
conclude the survey at any time.
It is my responsibility to safeguard participant privacy. Creswell (2018) highlights that
participants should not be asked to denote any personally identifying information to safeguard
confidentiality and sensitive information. For surveys, confidentiality was upheld as no
personally identifiable data, beyond gender, was asked. For interviews, confidentiality was
ensured by conducting one-to-one interviews in a private electronic room. Participants were
asked if the interview can be audio-recorded. The identities of participants are kept confidential
through the replacement of participants’ real names with pseudonyms in all interview transcripts.
Further, all potential identifying information was redacted from transcription as well as field
notes.

51
To maintain the confidentiality of each participant, all audio-recordings of the interviews
are stored only on a password-protected flash drive. Creswell (2018) illustrates the importance of
informing all participants on how the data will be used and the duration it will be stored. The
flash drive is in a locked filing cabinet which only I have access to. Once the required retention
period of 3 years elapses, all items associated to the study will be destroyed to include the flash
drive, information sheets, and field notes.

52
Chapter Four: Findings
Chapter 4 presents the findings of this study. The purpose of this study was to examine
the factors associated with a female Marine officer’s decision to voluntarily leave active duty
service in the Marine Corps prior to retirement. The findings are arranged by research question,
subsequently followed by each respective theme and sub-theme. The following three research
questions were developed to guide the study:
1. Why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
2. What factors do active duty female officers perceive as being important for
continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps?
3. What are active duty female officers’ perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies?
This study collected qualitative and quantitative data through use of surveys and
interviews to examine the problem of practice. First, surveys were distributed through the social
media platforms, LinkedIn, and Facebook, and completed through the web-based survey
platform, Qualtrics. At the end of the survey, participants who volunteered to conduct an
interview provided their contact information through a separate Qualtrics survey. In receipt of
volunteers, semi-structured interviews were conducted via Zoom video conferencing platform.
For surveys, data analysis began at the end of the data collection process. The survey
asked the participants to rank the influence of each factor in their decision to depart active duty.
The factor was assessed on a 1–10 scale, with 10 being the strongest influence and 1 being the
lowest influence. During data analysis, I stratified the scales into three categories: low influence
(1–3 rating), moderate influence (4–7 rating), and high influence (8–10 rating). If more than 40%
of the survey participants ranked the factor as a high influence, the factor was categorized as a

53
theme. For interviews, data analysis began during the data collection process. I coded interviews
based on repetition of terms or phrases and key themes. Once all interviews were coded, all
transcripts were reviewed for a second time to code for common trends and ideas that emerged.
If 40% or more of the interview participants referred to an idea or concept in either interview
results or survey findings, the idea was codified as a theme in the data. Similarly, if 40% or more
of the interview participants referred to an idea within a theme, a sub-theme was created. The
themes are ordered by precedence and aligned with each respective research question. An
inclusive summary of the findings of the study is provided at the end of this chapter and will
serve as a guide for the discussions and recommendations in Chapter 5.
Response Rate and Demographics of Participants
Between February 7, 2022 and March 15, 2022, the survey was distributed online via
LinkedIn and Facebook. The eligibility criteria presented prior to beginning the survey ensured
that all respondents were female Marine Corps officers, who served at least 4 years but did not
retire, who served between June 1, 2015 and December 31, 2020, and was voluntarily and
honorably discharged from active duty. In total, 85 surveys were completed. The rank
distribution consisted of 11% first lieutenants, 65% captains, 23% majors, and 1% lieutenant
colonels. Survey participants reported that their career outlook entering the service included that
31% intended to stay on active duty until retirement, 9% did not intend to stay on active duty
until retirement, and 60% were not sure if they would stay on active duty until retirement. It is
not well-defined if this population best reflects the larger population as rank distribution at time
of departure under voluntary conditions, as well as career intentions, is not reflected in current
reports (DACOWITS, 2017; Government Accountability Office, 2020). The demographic groups
for the survey are shown in Table 2.

54
Table 2
Participant Demographics: Survey
Total participants
(N)
Rank
(n) (% of N)
Career intentions at entry into service
(n) (% of N)
85 First lieutenant
9 (11)

Captain
55 (65)

Major 20 (23)

Lieutenant colonel
1 (1)
Depart active duty after first
term 8 (9)

Intended to stay on active duty until
retirement 26 (31)

Not sure if they would stay on active duty or
leave after term 51 (60)

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

Between February 10, 2022 and March 22, 2022, 12 interviews were conducted via
Zoom. Interviews were obtained through consecutive sampling based on the first 12 volunteers.
The rank distribution consisted of 83% captains and 17% majors. The years on active duty
ranged from four to 12, with the mean being 7.17 years. It is not well-defined if this population
best reflects the larger population as rank distribution at time of departure under voluntary
conditions prior to retirement is not reflected in current reports (DACOWITS, 2017; Government
Accountability Office, 2020).The career outlook entering the service included that 50% intended
to stay on active duty until retirement, 8% did not intend to stay on active duty until retirement,
and 42% were not sure if they would stay on active duty until retirement. Additional
demographic information collected include marital status while on active duty, number of
children, age, and military occupation specialty. The demographic groups are shown in Table 3.

55
Table 3

Participant Demographics: Interview
Participant
pseudonym
Marital
status
while on
active
duty
Number
of
children
while
on
active
duty
Age

Rank Years
active
duty
Military
occupation
specialty
Career
outlook
entering
service:
intended
to retire
1 Sandy Divorced 1 29 Captain 8 Supply Yes

2 Katie Married 1 32 Major 10 Logistics

Unsure
3 Susan Married 0 28

Captain 7 Adjutant

Yes
4 Devon Single 0 26 Captain 5 Logistics

Yes
5 Lisa Married 2 33

Captain 6 Pilot

Unsure
6 Sara Divorced 1 30 Captain 8 Pilot

Unsure
7 Deanne Married 0 29

Captain 6 Engineer

Yes
8 Jessie Married 2 35 Captain 8 Supply

No
9 Ariyan Married 0 28

Captain 4 Supply

Yes
10 Jennifer Married 2 39 Captain 5 Adjutant

Yes
11 Stacey Single 0 33

Major 12 Communications

Unsure
12 Lori Married 0 31 Captain 7 Logistics Unsure

Note. The N of the interviews was 12.

56
Research Question 1: Why do Active Duty Female Officers Depart Service From the
U.S. Marine Corps?
Research question one examines the reasons why active duty female officers depart
service from the U.S. Marine Corps. The themes identified to answer the first research question
include organizational culture, family, work schedule, deployments, and frequent moves. These
themes are discussed in detail in the sub-sections. Table 4 depicts the survey results and
interview findings for the five themes.

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Table 4
Data Analysis Codes and Themes 1-5

Note. The N of the survey was 85. The N of the interviews was 12.

Theme n of participants
identified item as reason
for leaving (Survey)
(n) (% of N)
n of participants
identified item as reason
for leaving (Interview)
(% of N)
Theme 1: Organizational culture
Poor leadership 24 (28) 9 (75)
Sexism/sexual harassment 14 (16) 8 (66)
Marine 24/7 mentality 8 (9) 7 (58)
Theme 2: Family
Planning to have a child 27 (32) 10 (83)
Time with children 24 (28) 8 (66)
Dual-military marriage 10 (12) 5 (42)
Theme 3: Work schedule
Long work hours 22 (26) 10 (83)
Work schedule and family impact 9 (11) 8 (66)
Theme 4: Deployments
Deployments and family 12 (14) 8 (66)
Theme 5: Frequent moves
Impact on stability 10 (12) 7 (58)
Limited influence in duty location 8 (9) 7 (58)

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To address this research question, comparative data was collected through surveys.
Specifically, six factors were assessed on a 1-10 influence scale with 10 being the strongest
influence and 1 being the lowest influence. The six factors included organizational culture,
family, work schedule, deployments, promotions, and sexual assault. The six factors, ordered by
precedence based on survey data, included: organizational culture with a mean of 6.76, family
with a mean of 6.12, work schedule with a mean of 5.54, deployments with a mean of 4.52,
promotions with a mean of 3.30, and sexual assault with a mean of 2.95. Given that promotions
and sexual assault aligned with a low influence according to the coding threshold, these factors
were not categorized as a theme. The factors, organizational culture, family, work schedule, and
deployments met the theme threshold and are described in detail in the proceeding sections.
Theme 1: Organizational Culture
The most common reason provided by participants for leaving the Marine Corps was
organizational culture. The factor, organizational culture, is defined as the strongly held and
widely shared beliefs within an organization (Hallett, 2003). This theme and sub-factors are
discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following sub-sections.
Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that organizational culture was the highest influence for
female officers to depart active duty military. The survey asked the participant to rank the
influence of each factor on a 1-10 influence scale with 10 being the strongest influence and 1
being the lowest influence. Of the 85 participants, 47% ranked family planning as a high
influence, 34% ranked it as a moderate influence, and 19% ranked it as a low influence. The
mean for organizational culture is 6.76 which is the highest of each factor assessed. Table 5
depicts the survey results for organizational culture.

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Table 5
Organizational Culture: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation
Precedence
of factor
Factor High
influence
(n) (% of N)
Moderate
influence
(n) (% of N)
Low
influence
(n) (% of N)
M SD
1 Organizational
culture
40 (47) 29 (34) 16 (19) 6.76 2.92

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

The survey included an open-ended response for all participants who rated organizational
change as a high influence. Of note, the sub-themes I have identified were not prompted nor
referenced in the survey. Rather, the sub-themes were developed based on participants who
provided context to their rating via open-ended response. Table 6 depicts select open-ended
responses and sub-themes that surfaced.

60
Table 6
Organizational Culture: Open-Ended Responses

Note. The N of the survey was 85.
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Poor
leadership

24 (28) I had multiple Commanding Officers that were clearly
focused on putting on a dog and pony show to chase the
next rank. I had a very hard time as an officer, being
associated with some of my peers and superiors who
blatantly scapegoated or exploited their Marines
professionally for personal gain.

Uninspiring leadership with no investment in their people.
Sexism/sexual
harassment
14 (16) I experienced sexism and gender
discrimination/harassment on a near daily basis for the
first 4 years of my career.

The organizational culture I experienced in the Marine
Corps was sexist, unsupportive of Marines who were
looking for opportunities, unfairly influenced and did
not equally reward accomplishments.

The culture of the Marine Corps is at best tolerant of
women’s presence and at worst outright hostile.

“Marine
24/7”
mentality

8 (9)

The Marine Corps is still constructed to be most
supportive of Marine officer 24/7 who puts Corps and
their Marines above their personal and family wellness.
The Marine Corps basically assumes an active duty
person has someone else to manage the private,
personal, family business and affairs, which isn't the
reality for dual working married couples in 2022.

The Marine Corps has a culture of, “stay late at work and
sacrifice etc.” How are you supposed to do that with
two active duty parents? I was in a job where I had to
travel 2 weeks each month for the first 3 years of my
daughter’s life. It was extremely taxing on me as a
mother and on my relationship, which ultimately led to
me separating from the Corps and getting divorced

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Interview Findings
The results of the interview indicate that organizational culture was the highest influence
for female officers to depart active duty military. Specifically, 11 of 12 participants described
organizational culture as one of the most important influences contributing to the decision to
depart active duty. The participants described the influence of organizational culture from
varying degrees and numerous sub-themes surfaced: poor leadership, sexism and sexual
harassment, and Marine 24/7 mentality.
Poor Leadership. The sub-factor, poor leadership, was described by nine of the 12
interview participants as a factor influencing in their decision to depart active duty service. Lori
and Ariyan expressed feelings of frustration regarding the lack of accountability of bad
leadership. Ariyan described:
It is astonishing to see what some people get away with zero accountability while others
are burned for much less. … The good leaders get pushed out while the bad leaders
continue because they are good at playing the game.
Similarly, Lori recounted that, “The main reason why I left is because I didn't want to forever
roll the dice and just hope that my boss would treat me fairly.”
Six of the 12 participants described the influence a bad commanding officer had on their
desire to continue serving. Sara described, “Some commands are incredibly toxic. My last
commanding officer refused to acknowledge me because I was a woman.” Similarly, Sandy
recounted, “I also found the organizational culture varied based on unit CO. If you have a good
CO, life is good and most of my bosses were awesome. But then I had a toxic CO … and I
couldn't escape the unit. I had a mental breakdown.” Of the 12 interview participants, five
participants shared that they decided to depart the Marine Corps due to toxic leadership and the

62
impact it had on them personally and professionally. Sandy highlighted that poor leaders often
created toxic work conditions which negatively affected her mental wellness and desire to
continue serving. According to Sandy, “The entire environment was horrible and it made me hate
myself. It took years to recover my self-esteem.” Toxic leadership greatly affected the mental
well-being for many participants and ultimately influenced their retention decision.
Sexism and Sexual Harassment. Sexism is defined as the views about the appropriate
role women should play in society (Charles et al., 2009). Of the 12 interview participants, eight
participants utilized the term sexism as one of the leading influences in their decision to depart
active duty service. Additionally, the same eight participants that described sexism as a leading
influence, also specifically described sexual harassment as a leading influence in their decision to
depart active duty. Sexual harassment is defined as behavior characterized by the making of
unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or physical advances in a workplace or other
professional or social situation (Huebner, 2008). The participants provided many personal stories
of the sexism and sexual harassment they encountered and the way these actions contributed to
their decision to depart active duty.
Susan and Devon described the Marine Corps culture as making them feel like they
would never be respected because of their gender. Susan highlighted:
Marines celebrate and encourage harassment of and discrimination against women and
minorities. There are programs of equal opportunity or sexual assault prevention … but
honestly, it’s just a giant joke for everyone. Those programs are check mark(s) to get
done and something to cover someone’s behind. I never saw any accountability for sexual
harassment.

63
According to Devon, sexual harassment was extremely prevalent in the Marine Corps. Devon
said, “In fact, I don’t know if it’s even possible to separate out sexual harassment and the Marine
Corps. They are one in the same.” Sara echoed a similar sentiment and further elaborated,
“sexism and sexual harassment was simply part of what is the Marine Corps.” Each of the
participants described sexism and sexual harassment in the Marine Corps as affecting their
ability to lead, to be observed as equals, and to feel valued by the organization.
Markedly, six of the 12 participants described sexism and sexual harassment as
influencing their retention decision, described the experience as generating strong negative
emotions that resulted in feelings of anxiety and depression. Sara said that she made the decision
to depart active duty because,
I experience(d) sexual harassment, sexual assault, gender bias daily (and it) was grossly
unhealthy for me. It impacted how I interacted with people and began to harm my
relationship with my family. I am still in counseling because of the trauma associated
with my experience in the Marine Corps.
Moreover, four participants said that they received professional counselling as result of the
sexism or sexual harassment they experienced in the Marine Corps. Devon shared that she did
not realize the extent of her depression until she had a mental breakdown and finally sought help.
Devon shared, “As female Marines, we are expected to just take the constant put-downs toward
women and deal with never being good enough. But you know what? That type of behavior takes
a toll on us and it’s why so many get out.”
“Marine 24/7” Mentality. The sub-factor, “Marine 24/7” includes the concept of
working as a Marine 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Of the 12 interview participants, seven
participants described the “Marine 24/7” mentality as one of the leading influences in their

64
decision to depart active duty service. Stacey expounded on the way in which the term, “Marine
24/7” used to be a point of pride, as if to say that one always wears the Marine title like a badge
of honor. However, Stacey further elaborated, “But give it a few years though, and you quickly
learn that it’s just a way of brainwashing you to be willing to give all of you, 100% of the time.”
Stacey recounted, “I got out of the Marine Corps because I couldn’t do the constant
Marine 24/7 expectation anymore. I wanted a life…so I left.” Similarly, according to Jesse,
The constant "the world is on fire" mentality that created an expectation that we must put
work ahead of family obligations, taking care of self was exhausting and caused me to
want to lean out rather than lean in.
The culture surrounding the “Marine 24/7” mentality was a significant consideration for many
participants. Jesse revealed, “It’s not even that you are expected to work a lot…It’s that the
Marine Corps thinks it gets to trump everything in your life, all the time. The mentality hurts
your relationships and your kids.” Devon echoed a similar sentiment, “the mindset creates so
much pressure and stress to always answer every call, respond to every text and email. All the
time. It is beyond exhausting.” Many participants described that the “Marine 24/7” mentality,
and the sentiments it represented, as a contributing factor to their decision to depart active duty.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that organizational culture was the
highest influence for female officers to depart active duty military. The survey revealed that
organizational culture received a mean score of 6.76, indicating that survey participants ranked it
as the highest influence of all factors assessed. For interviews, 11 of the 12 participants indicated
that organizational culture was the one of the highest influences for female Marines officers to
depart active duty military. In review of the survey and interview data, three sub-themes

65
surfaced: poor leadership, sexism/sexual harassment, and “Marine 24/7” mentality. Poor
leadership was described by nine interview participants and 24 open-ended survey responses,
sexism/sexual harassment was described be eight interview participants and 14 open-ended
survey responses, and “Marine 24/7” mentality was described by seven interview participants
and eight open-ended survey responses.
Theme 2: Family
The second most common reason provided by participants for leaving the Marine Corps
was family considerations. The factor, family, is defined as a group united by the ties of
marriage, blood, or adoption to include spouses, parents, children, and siblings (Cleland et al.,
2006). The theme and sub-factors are discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following sub-
sections.
Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that family considerations were the second highest
influence for female officers to depart active duty military. Of the 85 participants, 45% ranked
family planning as a high influence, 33% ranked it as a moderate influence, and 22% ranked it as
a low influence. The mean for family considerations is 6.12, which is the second highest of each
factor assessed. Table 7 depicts the survey results for family considerations. The survey included
open-ended responses for all participants who rated family considerations as a high influence.
Table 8 depicts select open-ended responses and sub-themes that surfaced.

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Table 7
Family: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation
Precedence
of factor
Factor High
influence
(n) (% of N)
Moderate
influence
(n) (% of N)
Low
influence
(n) (% of N)
M SD
2 Family 38 (45) 28 (33) 19 (22) 6.16 3.11

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Table 8
Family Considerations: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Planning to
have
children
27 (32) My husband and I were trying for a child when I was up for
orders to a unit which would require me to deploy for one
year. The idea of having a child then going through
postpartum while deployed sounded awful.

I watched what happened to other women who chose to
have children. The commentary was ugly from male
peers. I was told by senior officers not to have children
because it was selfish, as it would take me away from the
mission. I wanted the option to have kids without being
degraded for doing so.

Time with
children
24 (28) I wanted to be (or have the opportunity at being) a present
parent. I know women who are doing it (active duty as a
mother) and some of their stories just makes my heart
ache. I’m not built to make my job take priority over my
kids.

Successful women officers who had kids couldn’t be good
parents or were widely considered to be neglectful
parents. Good women parents couldn’t be successful
officers or were discriminated against and despised for
choosing family life over meeting career expectations.

Dual-
military

10 (12) I was a pilot and told that I could not get pregnant while in
the fleet. I was married to another active duty Marine.
Both being active duty did not allow for flexibility in our
schedules to have children. I was also told if I wanted to
make it a career I needed to hit a very specific timeline
that being pregnant and having convalescent leave would
affect and I would not promote.

My dual-military officer relationship made it almost
impossible to start a family without one parent being a
single parent.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Interview Findings
The results of the interview indicate that family considerations were the second highest
influence for female officers to depart active duty military. Specifically, 10 of 12 participants
described family considerations as one of the most important influences contributing to the
decision to depart active duty. The participants described the influence of family considerations
from varying degrees and numerous sub-themes surfaced: planning to have children, time with
children, and dual-military marriage considerations.
Planning to have a Child. The sub-factor, planning to have a child, encompasses the
planning of pregnancy or adoption, which includes thinking about what it means to have a child
and making decisions about having a child (Rose, 2003). Of the 12 participants, 10 participants
referred to planning to have a child as one of the top influences in their decision to depart active
duty. Notably, participants revealed that whether they were actively trying to have children, or
considering children in the future, the considerations associated to family planning played a
significant role in their decision to depart active duty.
Of the 12 participants, five participants specifically described the challenges associated to
planning for a child and aligning one’s career milestones. Jessie highlighted:
Planning for a kid in the Marine Corps is just so hard. You’re trying to work it around
career schools, because you can’t be pregnant there. … But then you’re also trying to
work it around big trainings or deployments, because you obviously can’t be pregnant
there … There’s just no good time and it ends up being so stressful.
Similarly, Susan recounted the stress she faced as she navigated the pressures of career
milestones with her personal desire of wanting to have a child. Susan revealed that she chose to

69
not have a child in the early years of her Marine Corps career because she didn’t feel like she
could hit the career milestones and also have a baby. Susan shared:
[I] decided to wait on getting pregnant for my career. But then once we started [trying to
get pregnant], we realized we had infertility issues. Now its 8 years after we wanted to
have a baby and we are still trying. Every single day [I] regret my decision to put the
Marine Corps first.
Susan emphasized the extensive emotional toll she experienced in delaying having a child due to
the Marine Corps. Susan stated that she feels as if she gambled her chance at being a mother to
have a Marine Corps career and as result, she has very strong emotions of sadness and
resentment.
Lori and Deanne were both in a dual-military marriage (unrelated to one another) and
each had recently decided they wanted to start trying to have children at the time they decided to
depart active duty. Lori recounted that she decided to leave active duty for a variety of reasons.
Lori and her husband were concerned about the challenges they would face in navigating a dual-
military relationship with a child, to include concerns about their ability to provide a stable life
for their child as well as being far away from family to receive assistance. Lori said,
Between my husband and I, I loved being a Marine way more than he did. But we
decided that I would get out because of the many [concerns] about training and getting
help. Also, because a baby needs their mama, and the Marine Corps isn’t very caring of
that after maternity leave is up.
Deanne echoed a similar sentiment as Lori and expounded, “Being a mom and a Marine isn’t for
me. The Marine Corps asks too much of you to do both.”

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Time With Children. The sub-factor, time with children, includes the actual, and
perceived, time spent with a child. Of the 12 participants, eight participants referred to time with
children as an important influence contributing to the decision to depart active duty. Notably,
participants emphasized that whether they currently had a child, or were considering having a
child in the future, the considerations associated to being able to spend time with a child played a
significant role in their decision to depart active duty.
Katie, a mother to one child while serving in the Marine Corps, described a powerful
sentiment that was echoed by eight of the 12 participants: “the Marine Corps is just not
conducive for a woman with children.” Katie revealed several aspects that she believed made the
Marine Corps unfavorable for motherhood:
I was always considered an all-star Marine, up until I had a child that is. Suddenly,
because I wanted to be a present parent for my kid, my leadership and peers saw me as
less. I never understood how they could justify treating me that way … I was meant to be
less valuable simply because I now had another calling being fulfilled … It’s like a bad
competition. If the Marine Corps isn’t number one in your life, then you’re number zero.
Sara provided additional context to the inability to align motherhood with Marine Corps
expectations. Sara found the Marine Corps to be, “Too hard to raise a family with overnight
work hours and working 60 hour weeks.” Sara described the work schedule and having children,
as being too tasking on any single person.
Without prompting, six of the 12 participants specifically used the term “impossible”
when describing motherhood in the Marine Corps. Sara highlighted multiple times throughout
the interview the, “impossibility of being a good mother and a good Marine.” Jennifer said that
she intended to “be a lifer” before she had children. In other words, Jennifer had intentions of

71
remaining in the Marine Corps until retirement. However, Jennifer’s position shifted
dramatically once she had her first child. Jennifer expounded on her feeling of “impossibility” as
follows:
[My reason in] getting out of the Marine Corps is 100% due to family reasons. Before I
had kids, I absolutely felt like I wanted to continue being a Marine. I didn’t see any
reason why not to, because I loved being a Marine and was excited to do it with kids. But
oh man, was that naïve … And you just can’t understand it until you are living it. Once I
had my son, it was impossible to give him any type of stable life and serve on active duty.
I couldn’t keep being gone all the time and moving him constantly.
Lisa and Sandy emphasized that their decision to depart active duty was entirely related to being
a mother and wanting to be present in their child’s lives. Lisa said that she, “did not feel like I
could be the kind of mother I wanted to be to my children while serving on active duty.”
Similarly, Sandy said that she, “she wanted to be present for my child’s life most of the time.
The needs of the Marine Corps are extremely demanding and I didn’t want my baby to come
second.” Lisa and Sandy referred the desire to be a present parent as a contributing factor in
departing active duty.
Dual-Military Marriage. Dual-military marriage is defined as one military member
being married to another military member (Huffman & Payne, 2006). In the Marine Corps, 41%
of female Marine officers are married; of those, 59% are women in a dual-military marriage
(Defense Manpower Data Center, 2018). Of the 12 interview participants, five participants
described being in a dual-military status as one of the most important influences contributing to
the decision to depart active duty. The interview participants described many challenges

72
associated with dual-military marriages, which included the difficulty with co-location and
work/life balance.
Two participants, Sandy and Sara, were in a dual-military status but were later divorced
from their spouses while serving on active duty. Both Sandy and Sara believed the stressors
associated to being dual-military directly contributed to their divorce. According to Sandy, the
significant challenges in the family/work balance uniquely affected dual active duty
relationships. Sandy said,
There was no degree of normalcy for us. It was just constant chaos on the home front as
we dealt with both careers and constant last-minute duties and trainings. I know 100%
(that) my marriage disintegrated because of being dual-military.
Sara echoed a similar sentiment as she recounted the work schedule, colocation, and time with
their daughter. Sara said:
We had to do logistics constantly to just stay afloat. That wasn’t a marriage, it felt like
another job honestly. And it just became too much and I’m still devastated by it. Not just
for me but especially my daughter.
Sara further elaborated on the willingness of the military to overburden dual-military couples.
She elaborated on how well-known it is for relationship challenges to occur for dual-military
marriages and how little is done to aid them.
Jennifer and Lori expounded on the challenges associated to co-location in a dual-
military relationship. Co-location is when two service members who are married to each other
are assigned to units no further than 90 driving miles apart (DoD, 2016). A dual-military couple
is not co-located if the units to which they are assigned are greater than 90 miles apart (DoD,
2016). Jennifer was in a dual-military status with a Navy sailor, which presented numerous

73
challenges with colocation. Jennifer recounted the unwillingness for her husband’s monitor to
care about Jennifer’s career and simply insisted that Jennifer’s monitor figure out how to co-
locate her with her husband based on her husband’s career. Separately, Lori elaborated on her
challenges with colocation as it pertained to the unique Military Occupational Specialty her
husband had and the limitations on co-location due to what the Marine Corps would offer in
terms of duty stations. Jennifer and Lori departed the Marine Corps primarily due to the
challenges associated with dual-military marriages.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that family considerations were the
second highest influence for female officers to depart active duty military. The survey revealed
that family considerations received a mean score of 6.16, indicating that survey participants
ranked it as the second highest influence of all factors assessed. For interviews, 10 of the 12
participants indicated that family considerations were one of the most important influences
contributing to the decision to depart active duty. In review of the survey and interview data,
three sub-themes surfaced: planning to have children, time with children, and dual-military.
Planning to have children was described by 10 interview participants and 27 open-ended survey
responses, time with children was described by eight interview participants and 24 open-ended
survey responses, and dual-military was described by six of the interview participants and 10
open-ended survey responses.
Theme 3: Work Schedule
The third most common reason provided by participants for leaving the Marine Corps
was work schedule. The factor, work schedule, specifically includes the time an employee is

74
expected to be working (Saleh & Farrell, 2005). This theme and sub-factors are discussed in
detail, with evidence, in the following sub-sections.
Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that work schedule was the third highest influence for
female officers to depart active duty military of all factors assessed. Of the 85 participants, 31%
ranked work schedule as a high influence, 44% ranked it as a moderate influence, and 25%
ranked it as a low influence. The mean for work schedule is 4.52, which is the third highest of
each factor assessed. Table 9 depicts the survey results for work schedule. The survey included
open-ended responses for all participants who rated work schedule as a high influence. Table 10
depicts select open-ended responses and sub-themes that surfaced

Table 9
Work Schedule: Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation
Precedence
of factor
Factor High
influence
(n) (% of N)
Moderate
influence
(n) (% of
N)
Low
influence
(n) (% of N)
M SD
3 Work schedule 26 (31)

37 (44) 22 (25) 5.54

2.49

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

75
Table 10
Work Schedule: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Long work
hours
22 (26) The job was 24/7 and became increasingly demanding.

Long 12-hour workdays didn’t allow for a healthy work-life
balance in garrison. I expect that type of schedule in
combat, but we have an opportunity at home to slow the
tempo and be more effective. Cell phones are allowed for
24-hour access and a demand for immediate information.
I found that this lifestyle was unsustainable as it was
impacting my mental, physical, and emotional health.

I was working 12-hour days roughly 3–5 times a week. I
was frustrated by the feeling that to keep up with my
work I needed to work that schedule.

Worked 12-hour days plus an hour commute. There was
hardly time to decompress.

Work
schedule
and
family
impact

9 (11)

I was never able to have a normal routine. If you’re good at
what you do, the organization rewards you with even
more work, often other people’s work. Not knowing what
each day would look like until I was living it made it
impossible to have a personal life. I’ve never felt lonelier
than when I was on active duty.

Schedule was unpredictable which is not sustainable with a
child.

There are unrealistic expectations that longer hours worked
equals more commitment to the corps. This affects family
life and quality of life. We should be able to predict when
we can be home and not feel judged for it.

I was in a dual active duty relationship and felt like I never
saw my family. Balancing our training exercises,
deployments, and childcare while living far from our
families was pretty much impossible and had a negative
impact on our relationship and kids.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Interview Findings
The results of the interview indicate that work schedule was the third highest influence
for female officers to depart active duty military. Specifically, nine of the 12 participants
revealed work schedule as a leading factor for departing active duty. The participants described
the influence work schedule had from varying degrees and two sub-themes surfaced: long work
hours and work schedule impact on children and other relationships.
Long Work Hours. The sub-factor, long work hours, includes the amount of work hours
expected to fulfill the job as a Marine. Of the 12 participants, 10 participants described long
work hours as a significant contributor to departing active duty service. Jennifer described,
“You’re a Marine 24/7 and that’s how the schedule is set-up.” Jennifer provided context to the
long work hours she was expected to maintain by sharing that she worked in excess of 60-hour
weeks while also having to stand duty every other week, which was an overnight duty.
Jessie and Lori recounted the extensive hours they worked and the inability to accomplish
all the tasks expected of them. Jessie worked about 10-to-12-hour days at her last duty station
and still could not meet all the expectations. Jessie described, “They put so much on you and just
expect you to get it all done, all the time. And you have this feeling of constant failure because of
it.” Lori described the amount in which she was constantly overtasked and overworked. Lori
shared that she often operated in a state of fight or flight. Lori described,
My whole career was like a whack-a-mole game of tasks. Constantly rushing to hit the
next task. Constantly on edge on what last minute things they would throw on me for no
real viable reason. … It was never enough.
Lori recounted the emotional toll that constantly being over tasked had on her. Lori said,

77
“I was constantly stressed and overwhelmed. And it bled into every facet of my life.” Of the
participants, 41% emphasized the emotional toll the long work hours had on their mental health.
Work Schedule and Family Impact. The sub-factor, work schedule and family impact,
includes the impact the Marine Corps work schedule has on family members. Of the 12 interview
participants, eight participants described work schedule as negatively impacting their family
relationships. Lisa described, “the hours expected to work makes it impossible to be a present
parent. There are just simply not enough hours in the day, even if you did want to be the best
mom possible.” Katie highlighted the stressors associated to attempting to utilize military
daycare. Katie said,
The military’s child care isn’t even open at all the different times you are expected to
work. So, constantly you’re just left to figure it out with your kids. After a while, it
becomes so taxing on you and your kids, that you’ve had enough.
According to Stacey, the Marine Corps is a workaholic culture that really hurts active duty
mothers. Stacey shared that she constantly needed to find alternative care for her child due to
unpredictable work schedules that did not align with military child care hours of operation.
Stacey said, “I would see my daughter maybe two waking hours out of the day. I was missing her
whole life while being a Marine.”
Of the 12 interview participants, five participants described work schedule as having a
negative impact on romantic relationships. Sandy and Sara, who both divorced while on active
duty, described the way the work schedule negatively impacted their relationship. Sandy said, “I
was expected to be on call 24/7 and my ex-husband hated always having to be second, and I
hated that for him too but I didn’t really have any other choice.” Similarly, Sara shared that the

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long work hours made her feel constantly exhausted and she became detached from her husband.
Sara said,
I couldn’t even tap in to my own feelings let alone be there for my husband. I had to put
up a wall to simply get by and deal with everything. Fight or flight is where you have to
be in the Marine Corps and it really hurts marriages.
Participants elaborated on the negative impact work schedule had on family and the manner this
influenced retention decisions.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that work schedule was the third highest
influence for female officers to depart active duty. The survey revealed that work schedule
received a mean score of 5.54, indicating that survey participants ranked it as the third highest
influence of all factors assessed. For interviews, nine of the 12 participants indicated that work
schedule was the one of the highest influences for female Marines officers to depart active duty
military. In review of the survey and interview data, two sub-themes surfaced: long work hours
and work schedule and family impact. Long work hours were described by 10 interview
participants and 22 open-ended survey responses and work schedule and family impact was
described by eight interview participants and nine open-ended survey responses.
Theme 4: Deployments
The fourth most common reason provided by participants for leaving the Marine Corps
was deployments. The factor, deployments, specifically includes the movement to a place or
position of military action (Sheppard et al., 2010). The participants recounted the influence of
deployments from varying degrees and one sub-theme surfaced: deployments and family impact.
The theme and sub-factors are discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following sub-sections.

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Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that deployments was the fourth highest influence for
female officers to depart active duty military. Of the 85 participants, 18% ranked deployments as
a high influence, 41% ranked it as a moderate influence, and 41% ranked it as a low influence.
The mean for deployments is 4.52, which reveals that deployments is the fourth highest of each
factor assessed. Table 11 depicts the survey results for deployments. The survey included open-
ended responses for all participants who rated deployments as a high influence. Table 12 depicts
select open-ended responses and sub-themes that surfaced

Table 11
Deployments: Factor Influence, Mean, and Standard Deviation
Precedence
of factor
Factor High
influence
(n) (% of N)
Moderate
influence
(n) (% of N)
Low
influence
(n) (% of N)
M SD
4 Deployments 15 (18)

35 (41) 35 (41) 4.52

2.84

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Table 12
Deployments: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Deployments
and family
impact
12 (14) I could not imagine leaving my 6-month-old to go on a
deployment, which would have been required by
Marine Corps policy at the time.

When ready to start a family, the inability to predict or
control when and for how long I would be gone as my
significant other is still active duty was intimating. I
saw active duty couples struggle when commands were
not flexible assigning duty to Marines while their
spouse was deployed and simply stated they should
have a better family care plan when their family was not
in the state they were stationed in.

I did not want to deploy again after having my daughter.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

Interview Findings
The results of the interview indicate that deployments was the fourth highest influence
for female officers to depart active duty military. Specifically, eight of 12 participants described
deployments as a reason contributing toward the decision to depart active duty. In review of the
data, one sub-theme surfaced: deployments and family impact.
Of the 12 participants, six participants described the observed, or perceived, impact that a
deployment would have on their romantic relationship. Deanne and Lori, both married without
children while on active duty, described feelings of fear and uncertainty regarding the thought of
leaving their spouse for a deployment. Deanne said:

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Active duty is already tough on marriages. The moving all the time and ridiculous
schedule already makes it hard. And then when you have a sudden last minute 7-month
deployment, it can be so hard on a marriage. I get that it is part of what you sign up for,
but at some point, you have to remember you also made a promise to your spouse too.
Lori shared that deployments can be grueling on relationships, especially ones that are dual-
military. Lori further elaborated that dual-military marriages face the greatest impact of last-
minute deployments. Lori shared:
My husband had a basically unexpected deployment a few months before my planned
one [deployment]. We ended up being apart 12 months and it almost broke our marriage
because it almost broke us as individuals. I had no one there to send me off when I left
and he had no one there to hug him when he returned. … It was a lot.
The participants expressed concerns on the impact deployments could have on their relationship
with their partner as well as the mental toll it would take on them personally navigating the
changes to their relationship.
Of the 12 participants, six participants described the negative impact a deployment would
have on a child as a contributing reason for departing active duty. Notably, only one participant
had deployed after having a child. For all of the other participants, the perceived negative impact
a deployment would have on their child played a powerful role in their retention decision. Lisa
described:
I never deployed once I had my child, but I was always very aware that I could and that
was a huge factor in leaving … I just couldn't do that to my son.
Sara, Katie, and Sandy each had one child while in the military and similarly recounted the
desire not to deploy after having a child. Sentiments highlighted by the participants included the

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fear of the negative impact a deployment would have on a child, the sadness that would come in
missing milestones in the child’s life, and the concern their absence would have on the mother
and child’s relationship. Sara said quite simply, “I had reached a point where I was no longer
willing to deploy and leave my children.”
Many participants expressed concern regarding the inability to find suitable care for their
child should they deploy. Jennifer described, “In a dual-military marriage, we struggled with
childcare to cover deployments, training exercises, the range, etc. We always lived far from any
family support and the situation was untenable.” Katie echoed a similar sentiment and
highlighted that the logistics of deploying with children was extremely stressful on a family.
Only one participant had deployed following having a child. Lisa had one child, aged 3,
at the time she completed a 7-month deployment to Afghanistan. In tears, Lisa described:
It was truly the most awful experience of my life. My son missed me so badly and it was
the deepest heartache I’ve ever felt in my life. … And when I got home, every day I took
him to daycare he thought I was leaving again. He is 7 years old now and still has
separation issues.
Lisa elaborated on the negative impact the deployment had on her and her son. Lisa felt that she
was fulfilling her duty as a Marine to deploy, but because of that, she couldn’t fulfill her
responsibility as a mother at the same time. Lisa departed the Marine Corps primarily due to the
concern of deploying again. Many participants highlighted the potential to deploy, and its impact
on family relationships, as a factor influencing the decision to depart active duty.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that deployments were the fourth highest
influence for female officers to depart active duty military. For the survey, deployments received

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a mean score of 4.52, indicating that survey participants ranked it as the fourth highest influence
of all factors assessed. For interviews, six of the 12 participants indicated that deployments were
the one of the highest influences for female Marines officers to depart active duty military. In
review of the survey and interview data, one sub-theme surfaced: deployment and family impact.
Deployment and family impact was described by eight interview participants and 12 open-ended
survey responses.
Theme 5: Frequent Moves
The fifth, and final, most common reason provided by participants for leaving the Marine
Corps was frequent moves. The factor, frequent moves, includes the transfer of duty stations due
to military orders. Specifically, six of the 12 interview participants and 10 open-ended survey
responses indicated that frequent moves was one of the leading factors to depart active duty
military. The participants revealed the influence of frequent moves from varying degrees and two
sub-themes surfaced: limited involvement in duty location and geographic stability. The theme
and sub-factors are discussed in detail, with evidence, in the following sub-sections.
Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that frequent moves was the fifth highest influence for
female officers to depart active duty military. Of note, frequent moves was not a factor directly
assessed in the survey and rather was a theme that surfaced in review of the open-ended data.
Table 13 depicts select open-ended responses and sub-themes that surfaced.

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Table 13
Frequent Moves: Open-Ended Responses
Theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Impact on
stability

Limited
influence
in duty
location

10 (12)

8 (9)
Frequent moves make starting and keeping a relationship
almost impossible if the person isn’t in the military.

I left when I was in-zone for lieutenant colonel. If
selected that would mean I would promote out of my
billet and move. Then possibly get selected for
command and move. Then possibly get selected for
school and move. That’s three possible moves in 4
years, all with very demanding jobs that keep you
away from your family. It’s not healthy to raise a
family like that. Many women in those positions are
not even taking the full maternity leave that is offered
because their jobs are so demanding.

Duty location was another consideration I took into
account when deciding to leave. I am part of the
lesbian, gay and queer community and my last duty
station was Camp Pendleton. California felt like a safe
area to authentically live my life. The thought of
getting orders to Japan or North Carolina was a
concern for my personal well-being and the rights I
was granted in those states.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

Interview Findings

The results of the interviews indicate that frequent moves were the fifth highest influence
for female officers to depart active duty military. Specifically, seven of 12 participants described
frequent moves as a leading reason for departing active duty. In review of the interview data, two
sub-themes surfaced: frequent moves and its impact on stability and the limited influence in
selecting duty location.

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Impact on Stability. The sub-theme, impact on stability, includes the impact military
orders has on the ability to establish stability via living in one place for an amount of time. Of the
12 participants, seven participants described the frequent moves, specifically moving at least
once every 3 years and sometimes as often as every year, as part of their reason to depart active
duty. Devon said simply, “Not wanting to move around was the most important.” While Deanne
said that, “Family stability, happiness, and health and how it was all impacted by moving” was a
reason to depart the Marine Corps. Deanne attended a captain’s education course, which resulted
in her living in three states within a 2-year period. Deanne divulged that she had no choice but to
do this in order to meet competitive career milestones.
Katie and Lisa describe the frequent moves as being extremely unconducive for families
with children. Lisa revealed that frequent moves impacted the wellness of her oldest child’s
ability to create and maintain friendships, to receive consistent education and development, and
for his overall sense of security. Lisa described, “My son really struggled with leaving friends
and basically changing his whole life around every few years. It really affected him.” Seven
participants described the considerations associated to frequent moves as a reason for departing
active duty.
Limited Influence in Selecting Duty Location. The sub-theme, limited influence in
duty location, includes the limited influence Marines have in selecting a duty station. Of the 12
interview participants, seven participants described the limited influence they had in choosing a
duty station as contributing to their decision to depart active duty. Lisa and Jesse decided to
depart active duty to obtain control over their location to raise their children. Lisa said, “It was
most important for me to have control over where we lived as a family. I didn’t want to be at the
Marine Corps’ discretion on where my child could go to school.” Jesse emphasized the

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extremely minimal influence Marines had in selecting duty locations and the way this harm
spouse’s career and children education opportunities, amidst other reasons. Jesse highlighted
that, “The wish-list and orders process is absurd. You want me to move my whole family every
year to 3 years and just provide a random wish-list based on what is available at the time and
what the Marine Corps says is important.” Participants described the limited influence they had
in duty selection as negatively impacting their ability to plan for their future and that of their
families.
Summary
The survey and interviews revealed that frequent moves were the fifth highest influence
for female officers to depart active duty military. For surveys, frequent moves was not a factor
directly assessed and rather it was a theme that surfaced in review of the data. For interviews, six
of the 12 participants indicated that frequent moves was the one of the leadings factors for
female Marines officers to depart active duty military. In review of the survey and interview
data, two sub-themes surfaced: impact on stability and lack of influence in duty location. Impact
on stability was described by seven interview participants and 10 open-ended survey responses
and lack of influence was described by seven interview responses and eight open-ended survey
responses.
Emergent Sub-theme: Infertility
Infertility includes the challenges associated with the conception of a child. Of the 12
interview participants, four participants (33%) described the role that infertility had in their
decision to depart the military. While this percentage did not meet the threshold identified to
serve as a theme, the higher percentage given the relatively small number of interviews, coupled

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with survey results, indicate the emergence of a sub-theme. Table 14 depicts the survey and
interview results for the emergent theme.

Table 14
Data Analysis Codes and Emergent Theme
Theme n of participants identified
item as reason to leave
(Survey)
(n) (% of N)
n of participants
identified item as reason
to stay (Interview)
(n) (% of N)
Emergent Sub-theme
Infertility 8 (10) 4 (33)

Note. The N of the survey was 85. The N of the interviews was 12

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Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that infertility was a reason contributing toward women
getting out of active duty. Of note, infertility was not a factor assessed directly in the survey and
rather emerged in review of the data. Table 15 depicts select open-ended responses associated to
the theme.

Table 15
Infertility: Open-Ended Responses
Theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Infertility 8 (10) I put off having a family due to the rigors and deployment
cycles of my profession as a Marine. Once I started to
try to have a family I was faced with infertility issues. I
knew that pursuing treatment would be time consuming
and that I would feel guilt and would probably be
shamed for being away from work so much to seek
treatment.

When we finally decided to start a family, much later than
we originally intended as I was a pilot, we then
encountered challenges (miscarriage, trouble
conceiving) that were only made harder by the fact that
at any given time it seemed like one of us was
traveling/in the field for work. And this was with both
of us in non-deploying billets. The challenges that year
really solidified my decision to get out and finally put
family planning first.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Interview Findings
Susan said that infertility, and the actions needed to navigate getting pregnant with
medical assistance, directly led to her decision to depart from active duty. Susan divulged how
she had unpredictable menstrual cycles and thought that military medicine was neither helpful
nor invested in finding the root of her infertility. Susan believed that military medicine was
particularly unhelpful in working through infertility treatment and simply referred her to
specialists that she had to pay thousands of dollars to utilize as the military insurance did not
cover the treatments. Susan described:
They (the military) did not care about helping me conceive. It didn’t help their bottom-
line. No one really wanted to help me find out why I was [facing] infertility. They just
wanted to push me to the side. Honestly, they cared more about rehabbing my friggin’
knee then they ever did about my reproductive organs. They didn’t care in the least that I
wanted to be a mother and it killed me every day that I couldn’t be.
Susan recounted the heartache and the loneliness she experienced facing infertility as an active
duty Marine. Susan experienced strong negative emotions as she coped with infertility and the
very limited amount of options she felt like she had. Susan spent over $10,000 for out of pocket
expenses associated to trying to conceive. Throughout the process, Susan entered a state of
depression and realized she needed to exit the Marine Corps to navigate this experience.
Ariyan revealed facing challenges associated with infertility and a work schedule that
limited time together with her husband. Ariyan said:
My husband and I were both active duty and we experienced back-to-back deployments
and training exercises. This made it incredibly challenging to know if we were facing

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fertility issues or if we faced challenges because we had such little time together. … It was
the most stressful time of my life dealing with this.
Ariyan further elaborated on the reproductive challenges women in the Marine Corps faced
because of the different demands placed on them. Ariyan shared that the high stress and high
physical fitness demands on female officers made it challenging to understand if she was facing
fertility issues. As result, it took over two years for Ariyan to begin to receive fertility assistance.
Similar to Ariyan, Lori was delayed in realizing she faced infertility issues. Ariyan
highlighted similar reasons that contributed to the delay to include the high stress, limited time
with spouse, and physical fitness demands. Once Lori learned that she would require treatment to
assist in conception, Lori made the decision to depart active duty service immediately. Lori made
the decision because she truly wanted to be a parent and felt that the stress of the Marine Corps
would not allow it. Lori recognized that attending numerous treatment requirements would mean
that she must inform her leadership and command that she was attending appointments. Though
she felt she was semi-protected by medical privacy rights, the reality was that she would have to
tell everyone or they would ask questions. Lori described:
Sure, HIPAA says I don’t have to tell everyone about my medical situation. But if a
Marine officer is suddenly at an appointment every other day and also says she can’t be
in high stress environments. … your leadership is going to push you to tell them what’s
going on … And infertility makes you so vulnerable, you don’t want to have to share that.
Lori quickly exited the Marine Corps in order to receive the treatment she needed and maintain
the privacy she greatly desired.

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Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that infertility was an emerging theme.
Infertility was described by four of the 12 interview participants and 11 participants of open-
ended survey responses as contributing to their decision to depart active duty. Although
infertility did not meet the threshold identified to serve as a theme, the higher percentage given
the relatively small number of interviews and open-ended survey responses, indicate the
emergence of a sub-theme.
Research Question 2: What Factors do Active Duty Female Officers Perceive as Being
Important for Continuing Service With the U.S. Marine Corps?
Research question two examines the factors active duty female officers perceive as being
important for continuing service the U.S. Marine Corps. The themes identified to answer the
second research question included three themes: improved organizational culture, increase
family and child care resources, and reduce frequency of moves. Of note, the themes emerged
exclusively through interview findings and did not meet the theme identification threshold based
on open ended survey results. The survey did not present any questions to the participant
regarding this theme (this is listed as a limitation of the study in chapter 5). The themes are
depicted in Table 16 and are discussed in detail in the following sub-sections.

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Table 16
Data Analysis Codes and Themes 6 - 8
Theme n of participants identified
item as reason to stay
(Survey)
(n) (% of N)
n of participants identified
item as reason to stay
(Interview)
(n) (% of N)
Theme 6: Improve organizational culture
Improve leadership 14 (16) 9 (75)
Reduce presence of sexism 14 (16) 9 (75)
Remove Marine 24/7 mentality 13 (15) 8 (67)
Theme 7: Increase family and child care resources
Increase child caregiving resources 12 (14) 9 (75)
Improve dual-military resources 11 (13) 6 (50)
Theme 8: Improve orders assignment process
Increase geographic stability 9 (11) 7 (58)
Increase Marine influence 8 (9) 7 (58)

Note. The N of the survey was 85. The N of the interviews was 12.

Theme 6: Improve Organizational Culture
The most important factor active duty female officers perceive as being important for
continuing active duty service is improvement to organizational culture. According to the
participants, improved organizational culture includes advancements in leadership, inclusivity,

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and work/life balance. The theme and sub-factors are discussed in detail, with evidence, in the
following sections.
Survey Results
The results of the survey indicate that improved organizational culture was a leading
factor female officers perceive as being important for continued service. Of note, improved
organizational culture was not a factor assessed directly in the survey and rather was a theme that
emerged in review of the data. Table 17 depicts select open-ended responses and sub-themes that
surfaced.

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Table 17
Improve Organizational Culture: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Improve
leadership

14 (16) I wish I had more selfless and empathetic leaders.

Leadership that follows Marine Corps leadership
principles. We say we do a lot which we don’t usually
follow, specifically when it comes to taking care of our
workforce and supporting them.

Accountability for toxic senior leaders.

Reduce
presence of
sexism/sexual
assault
14 (16) A factor that’s really important to me is being seen as
equal. Stop referring to females as “Female Marines”
and males as simply Marines. That language itself
speaks volumes.

I didn’t like constantly being compared to my male peers.
When a male Marine does something with their family
they are a hero for being such a good dad. When a
female does things for their family they are blamed for
not being there as much as males. I always felt like I
wasn’t doing enough. In my civilian career I am praised
for my ability to juggle my work and care for my
family. It’s a breath of fresh air.

Remove
“Marine 24/7”
mentality

13 (15)

Respect weekends and make work/life balance a priority.

Some semblance of work hours should exist, with rare
exceptions being outside of that. For example, 7am–
4:30pm is work and you shouldn’t be expected to
answer calls all the time outside of that unless it’s a true
emergency. We need to be able to have a life without
constant stress.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Interview Findings
The results of the interview indicate that improved organizational culture was the top
leading factor for female officers to continue active duty military. Specifically, 10 of 12
participants described improved organizational culture as a leading factor female officers
perceive as being important for continued service. Improvement to organizational culture
included three sub-themes: improve leadership, reduce presence of sexism, and remove “Marine
24/7” mentality.
Improve Leadership. The results of the interview indicate that improved leadership was
observed as an important factor for nine of the 12 participants to continue active duty service.
Ariyan recounted the significant role leaders have in fostering the culture of the Marine Corps
and the personal and professional lives of their Marines. Ariyan said, “A bad leader in the
Marine Corps has way more influence than a normal executive. They can make your whole life
horrible, which is why it’s so important to create good leaders.” Ariyan continued to say that it
was the bad leaders she faced that largely affected her decision to depart the Marine Corps.
Similarly, Lori highlighted on the importance of, “truly investing in leaders and being willing to
hold all leaders accountable.” Lori and Ariyan highlighted that consistently having good leaders
likely would have changed their retention decision.
Seven of the 12 participants described the immense need to hold leaders accountable for
their actions. Commanding officers that were observed to be sexist, unjust, or unprofessional
played a powerful role in retention decisions. Lori emphasized the need for commanding officers
to create, “inclusive, safe, and team-oriented environment would have positively impacted my
experience and outlook on serving longer.” Sandy expounded on the imperative for the Marine
Corps to value surveys that assess culture and toxic leadership. Sandy said, “I can’t tell you the

96
amount of surveys I filled out where I was pleading for someone to step in. It always fell on deaf
ears which made the stab wound even deeper.” Sandy continued on to say, “If someone had once
listened and really taken action to fix the problem. … That would have made all the difference for
me.”
Reduce Presence of Sexism/Sexual Harassment. The results of the interview indicate
that the reduction of sexism/sexual harassment was as an important factor for female officers to
continue active duty military. Specifically, nine of the 12 participants described the reduction of
sexism/sexual harassment as a leading factor perceived as being important for continued service.
Sara and Devon described a sexist culture that should be reduced if the Marine Corps seeks to
retain women. Sara described:
The hyper masculine culture of the Marine Corps is damaging to both men and women.
Women in the ranks is not the problem, the general attitude toward women that accepts
sexual harassment and male superiority as typical male behavior is weakening the Corps.
I think that fixing [this] to be a culture of equality would have been my biggest factor in
staying in.
Devon elaborated that despite all she did to be the best Marine possible, the men were unified in
the effort to exclude women. Susan recounted feeling that she was continuously not seen as a
true equal to men. Susan said,
This was the number one reason I knew I needed to get out. The misogyny of the boys
club took its toll. I made every attempt to fit in but it was clear I’d always been seen as
different and as a problem. Fix this and you have a shot a fixing retention.
Jessie felt that she was always chasing to be seen as “good enough” and soon realized
that she could never be good enough for men in the Marine Corps as sexism existed in the fabric

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of the Marine Corps culture. Devon echoed a similar sentiment and described, “It was no longer
worth it to my mental health to allow the sexual harassment in the Marine Corps to keep
breaking my spirit. I got out so I could get myself back and my worthiness.” Participants
described the reduction of sexism/sexual harassment as an important factor in continuing service
in the Marine Corps.
Remove “Marine 24/7” Mentality. The results of the interview data indicate that
removing the “Marine 24/7” mentality was observed as an important factor for female officers to
continue active duty military. Specifically, eight of the 12 participants described removing the
“Marine 24/7” mentality as a leading factor perceived as being important for continued service.
Sandy described the “Marine 24/7” mentality as being “toxic” while Stacey described it as,
“outdated and harmful.” Both Stacey and Sandy highlight that removing this mentality would
have positively influenced their retention decision. Jesse indicated that removing the “Marine
24/7” mentality would save Marines from facing burn out and leaving active duty. Jesse said,
Many of the people I enjoyed working with or looked up to the most were leaving, just
completely burned out. You were never appreciated or rewarded for going above and
beyond, getting a degree, or investing extra time in Marines that needed it. It was just
expected to be a Marine 24/7. It’s a very unsupportive culture that tries to scare you into
staying in rather than treating you well so you want to stay in.
Participants described the removal of the “Marine 24/7” mentality, and the sentiments it
represented, as an important factor in continuing service.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that improving organizational culture
was the most important factor female officers perceived to continue service on active duty. In

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review of the survey and interview data, three sub-themes surfaced: improve leadership, reduce
presence of sexism, establish boundaries surrounding Marine 24/7 mentality. For interviews,
improve leadership was described by nine of the 12 participants, reduce presence of
sexism/sexual harassment was described by nine participants, and remove “Marine 24/7”
mentality was described by eight participants.
Theme 7: Increase Family and Child Resources
The survey results indicate that increasing family resources was the second leading factor
female officers perceive as being important for continued service. In review of the survey and
interview data, two sub-themes surfaced to include: increasing child caregiving resources and
provide resources specifically designed for dual-military couples. The survey asked the
participant via open-ended responses to identify factors female officers perceive as being
important for continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps. Table 18 depicts select open-ended
responses and sub-themes associated to increasing family resources.

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Table 18
Increase Family Resources: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from survey
Increase child
caregiving
resources
12 (14) The military as a whole and the Marine Corps make
this more difficult for working parents than it should
be. In the corporate world, I now have a host of
benefits associated with family caregiving. The
government can support these resources and I think
it would make a huge positive impact in retention.

More childcare availability, more work flexibility, to
include telework, for mothers with children
especially when children are sick. Ensuring that
supervisors of postpartum mothers are adequately
trained in federal laws pertaining to unlawful
discrimination and how to support postpartum
mothers. More flexibility regarding workplace
requirements of postpartum mothers.

Improve dual-
military
resources

11(13) The ability to opt-in or out of deployable versus non
-deployable units for extended periods of time. For
example, I would do a non-deploying tour so my
husband could take a deploying tour.

Co-locate my spouse and me. I was willing to take any
orders that would have achieved that.

Keep my family stationed together.

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

Interview Findings: Increase Child Caregiving Resources
The findings from the interviews indicate that increasing child caregiving resources was
observed as an important factor for participants to continue active duty service. Specifically, nine
of the 12 interview participants described improved organizational culture as a leading factor
perceived as being important for continued service. Sara stated simply, “Family caregiving

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support is a must.” Stacey provided additional context to the sentiment and said, “More available
child support options for mothers who don’t have family support nearby would really have made
an impact in my decision to get out.” Katie described, “A supportive atmosphere for parents who
are juggling working full time, often as a single parent or dual active duty, and trying to
raise/care for children is a must for any employer.” Specific solutions for this problem was
described by multiple participants. Of note, four of the 12 interview participants emphasized that
child care wait-lists should not exceed two months and three of interview participants described
the need to have alternative care available for time periods when serving on 24-hour duty. Many
participants indicated that increasing child caregiving resources would have positively influenced
their retention decision.
Summary
The survey and interview results indicate that increasing family resources was an
important factor for female officers to continue active duty service. In review of the survey and
interview data, two sub-themes surfaced: increasing child caregiving resources and improving
dual-military resources. For interviews, nine of the 12 participants indicated that increasing child
caregiving resources would positively influence retention and six of the 12 participants indicated
that improving dual-military resources would positively influence retention decisions. The
survey asked the participant via open-ended responses to identify factors female officers perceive
as being important for continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps. For surveys, increasing
child caregiving resources was described by 12 participants of open-ended survey responses and
improving dual-military resources was described by 11 participants of open-ended survey
responses.

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Theme 8: Improve Orders Process
The third most important factors active duty female officers perceive as being important
for continuing active duty service is improvement to the order process. In review of the survey
data and interview findings, two sub-themes surfaced: increase Marine influence on orders
assignment and increase geographic stability. The theme and sub-factors are discussed in detail,
with evidence, in the following sub-sections.
Survey Results
The survey asked the participant via open-ended response to identify factors female
officers perceive as being important for continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps. Table 19
depicts select open-ended responses and sub-themes associated to orders process improvement.

Table 19
Improve Orders Process: Open-Ended Responses
Sub-theme Frequency
(n) (% of N)
Select open-ended responses from
survey

Increase Marine influence in
orders assignment
9 (11) Allowing us to have a voice with
regards to our assignments

A better orders and talent system.

Increase geographic stability 8 (9) If I could have stayed in one general
location, I would have stayed.

I want my kids to know friends for
more than 2 to 3 years. Is that too
much to ask?

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Interview Findings: Increase Marine Influence on Orders Assignment
The results of the interview indicate that improvement to the orders process was observed
as an important factor for continued active duty service. Specifically, seven of the 12 participants
described improving orders process through increasing Marine influence on orders assignment,
as an important retention factor. Sandy elaborated on the desire to have a greater involvement
and influence in the duty she was assigned. Sandy said, “Your monitor treats you like you are
nothing more than a number. Like you are inconveniencing them simply because you are asking
to be involved in something that will affect you so deeply.” Sandy continued on to say, “If I was
treated better in this [orders] process and had greater influence, I would have considered staying
in.” Katie echoed a similar sentiment and said, “If the Marine Corps actually treated me like I
was valuable and recognized that I should be part of choosing my next billet. … it could be a
game changer.”
Interview Findings: Increase Geographic Stability
The results of the interview indicate that improving geographic stability was observed as
an important factor for female officers to continue active duty service. Specifically, seven of the
12 interview participants described improved geographic stability as a leading factor perceived
as being important for continued service. Sara recounted the role that moving frequently had on
her decision to depart active duty, as well as the role greater stability would have had in her
retention decision. Sara said:
I couldn’t keep moving my family every other year due to needs of the Marine Corps.
With schools and such, you move way more than every 3 years. That became so unfair to
my husband and wanting to have a career too.

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Sara continued to describe, “If I could stay in one location for longer, I definitely would have
stayed.” Similarly, Katie said, “If I was allowed to establish roots for my family and stay a
Marine, I would have definitely considered staying in.” Participants described increasing
geographic stability, specifically limiting the number of moves required of a Marine, as playing
an important factor in continuing active duty service.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that improve orders process was an
important factor female officers perceived to continue service on active duty. Specifically, seven
of the 12 interview participants indicated that improve orders was an important factor in
continuing active duty service in the Marine Corps. In review of the survey and interview data,
two sub-themes surfaced: increase Marine influence on orders assignment and geographic
stability. For interviews, increase Marine influence on orders assignment was described by seven
participants and provide geographic stability was described by seven of participants. For surveys,
increase geographic stability was described by nine participants of open-ended survey responses
and increase Marine influence on orders assignment was described by eight participants.
Research Question 3: What are Active Duty Female Officers’ Perspectives Regarding the
Value of U.S. Marine Corps Retention Policies?
Research question three examines the perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies. The theme identified to answer the last research question was: (9)
inadequate retention policies with two sub-themes: insufficient postpartum policies and
unrealistic height and weight standards. Of note, this theme emerged exclusively through
interview findings. The themes are discussed in detail in the sub-sections. Table 20 depicts the
survey and interview results for the theme.

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Table 20
Data Analysis Codes and Theme 9
Theme n of participants identified
item as reason for leaving
(Survey)
(% of N)
n of participants identified
item as reason for leaving
(Interview)
(% of N)
Theme 9: Inadequate Marine Corps policies
Insufficient postpartum policies 16 (19) 8 (67)
Unrealistic height and weight
standards
9 (11) 5 (41)

Note. The N of the survey was 85. The N of the interviews was 12

Theme 9: Inadequate Marine Corps Policies
Inadequate Marine Corps policies included those policies described by female Marine
Corps officers that are perceived to be insufficient. The survey results and interview findings
provide a holistic perspective of the factors associated to policies perceived as inadequate and
affecting retention decisions. This theme and sub-factors are discussed in detail, with evidence,
in the following sections.
Insufficient Postpartum Policies: Survey Results
The survey results found that postpartum policies were a leading factor female officers
perceive as being important for continued service. The survey asked the participant via close-
ended responses on a Likert scale to rank the manner in which maternity policies adequately
supported the Marine’s needs. The results found that 10% of participants strongly agreed/agreed,
45% neither agreed or disagreed, and 45% strongly disagreed/disagreed. To put another way,

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45% of participants strongly disagreed or disagreed that maternity policies adequately supported
their needs. The survey results are depicted in Table 21.

Table 21
Maternity Policies Survey Results
Statement Strongly
agree/agree
(n) (% of N)
Neither agree nor
disagree
(n) (% of N)
Strongly
disagree/disagree
(n) (% of N)
Maternity policies
adequately
supported my
needs.
9 (10)

38 (45)

38 (45)

Note. The N of the survey was 85.

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Insufficient Postpartum Policies: Interview Findings
The interviews indicate that insufficient postpartum policies were a leading factor in
departing active duty. Specifically, eight of the 12 participants described the insufficient
postpartum policies as contributing to their decision to depart active duty in some manner. The
remaining four participants described the postpartum policies as having no effect on their
decision to depart active duty. Sandy emphasized the need for, “More flexibility regarding
workplace requirements of postpartum mothers. For example, delay requiring qualifying on the
rifle range and allow greater consideration when getting back to physically training.” Sandy and
Jennifer elaborated on the expectations placed on mothers immediately after returning from
maternity leave as exhausting and burdensome. Jennifer said,
Sure, we do get a decent maternity leave period. But then what? Immediately we (are)
required to work long hours, stand duty, do extended training, and even deploy. … That
doesn’t support motherhood and bonding [and it] made me feel so awful.
Moreover, Sandy labeled the lack of pumping accommodations as “abysmal.” Sandy said,
“Pumping accommodations are nonexistent. I had nowhere to pump in privacy and I had
nowhere to store the milk. It’s just so obviously not a priority for the Marine Corps to support
motherhood.”
Of the 12 participants, four participants described the better postpartum policies of
civilian employers compared to the Marine Corps as a reason for departing active duty. Jessie
expounded on the supportive organization she is currently working with, which made it an easy
decision to depart active duty. Jessie further elaborated:
I get to start leave one month before my due date and I won't go back to a full-time
schedule until my new baby is 6 months old. I can use sick days to care for dependents,

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and my manager is more flexible when I have appointments with a "just get the work
done when/how you can" mentality. The reality is … the Marine Corps just won't retain
top talent who value life balance because the level of compensation and organizational
care of individuals is so much higher with the right civilian employer.
Participants described the support they receive from their organization currently as affirming that
a correct decision was made to depart active duty.
Unrealistic Height and Weight Standards: Interview Findings
The interviews indicate that unrealistic height and weight standards were a leading factor
in departing active duty. Specifically, five of the 12 interview participants described the
unrealistic height and weight standards as contributing to their decision to depart active duty in
some manner. Jessie described, “I was on the border of height and weight standards and was
consistently lectured and treated like a ‘fat’ Marine even though I had physical fitness
test/combat fitness test scores consistently above 295.” Jennifer recounted the way height and
weight requirements affected her decision:
The extremely outdated height and weight requirements were a significant factor in my
deciding to exit the Marine Corps. Despite being physically fit, and looking good in
uniform, I had to resort to extreme measures to make weight … I could not make tape due
to having a small neck and big hips/butt so making the scale have that correct number
was crucial.
Lisa divulged the way her body changed after having children and the lack of consideration the
policy has toward this. Lisa said, “I gained about 15 pounds after having two children, which
honestly is pretty normal and healthy for women. I was still very strong and fast, but to the
Marine Corps I was fat and out of standards.” Participants described frustration with the

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inaccuracy of the height and weight evaluation system to truly measure body composition.
Moreover, participants highlighted the way the body-fat evaluation did not consider the variation
of female body types under the current standard.
Summary
In summary, the survey and interviews revealed that two policies were observed to affect
retention decisions for female officers: insufficient postpartum policies and inadequate height
and weight standards. For surveys, 45% of participants strongly disagreed or disagreed that
maternity policies adequately supported their needs. For interviews, eight of the 12 participants
indicated that insufficient postpartum policies contributed to their decision to depart active duty.
Additionally, five of the 12 interview participants indicated that unrealistic height and weight
standards contributed to their decision to depart active duty. For open-ended survey questions, 16
participants indicated that insufficient postpartum policies contributed to their decision to depart
active duty and nine participants indicated that unrealistic height and weight standards
contributed to their decision to depart active duty.
Summary
Three research questions were used to guide this study. The first research question was:

why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps? The themes that
emerged during data analysis to answer this question include the following: organizational
culture with sub-themes of poor leaderships, sexism/sexual harassment, and Marine 24/7
mentality; family with sub-themes of planning to have children, time with children, and dual
active duty considerations; work schedule with sub-themes of long work hours and family and
child impact; deployments with sub-themes of deployments and families; and frequent moves
with sub-themes of impact on stability and lack of influence. The themes are ordered by

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precedence with organizational culture being the highest factor to depart active duty, closely
followed by followed by family, and then work schedule, deployments, and frequent moves.
Additionally, an emerging theme found in the data was related to infertility.
The second research question was: what factors do active duty female officers perceive as
being important for continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps? The themes that emerged
during data analysis to answer this question include the following: improve organizational
culture with sub-themes of improve organizational culture, including reduce presence of sexism,
remove Marine 24/7 mentality, and improve leadership; increase family and child care resources
with sub-themes of increase family and resources and improve dual military resources; and
improve the order process with sub-themes of increase geographic stability and increase Marine
influence.
The final research question was: what are active duty female officers’ perspectives
regarding the value of U.S. Marine Corps retention policies? The theme that emerged during data
analysis to answer the question was inadequate retention policies with the sub-themes of
insufficient postpartum policies and unrealistic height and weight standards. Chapter 5 includes a
discussion and implications of these findings from the nine themes that emerged in data analysis.

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Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings and Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to examine the factors associated with a female Marine
officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires.
The research was conducted through the lens of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1977). This
study was particularly interested in understanding the organizational, cultural, and policy factors
that influenced the retention decision of female Marine Corps officers. The study explored the
problem of practice from two diverse lenses: understanding the factors that led to each
participant’s departure from active duty service and exploring the perceived factors that could
have positively influenced retention decisions in the Marine Corps.
The low retention of female Marine Corps officers is important to address as the DoD
faces readiness concerns with far-reaching effects on service member’s welfare, readiness, and
preparedness (Dansby et al., 2012; Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services,
2017; Office of Diversity Management and Equal Opportunity, 2016). If the problem persists,
the military composition and mission readiness will be negatively impacted (Government
Accountability Office, 2020; McDonald & Parks, 2011; U.S. Department of Defense, 2016a). To
address this problem, this study focused on female officers who served on active duty in the U.S.
Marine Corps and voluntarily departed the service prior to retirement. Through this study, the
Marine Corps will potentially benefit from being presented with actionable items to improve
organizational strategy and practices related to improving the retention of female Marine Corps
officers.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the discussion and recommendations based on
the findings presented in Chapter Four. This chapter begins with a discussion of the findings,
including a review of the alignment of this study’s findings with existing literature. Next, three

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evidence-based recommendations are provided based on the findings and current literature.
Subsequently, a description of the limitations and delimitations of the study is provided,
followed by recommendations for future research, and a conclusion section.
Discussion of Findings and Results
This section will draw upon the findings of the study and provide discussion and
comparison to the existing literature. Three findings were selected as themes of focus for the
purpose of this discussion as they provide the most inclusive answers to the research questions.
Each finding will review the alignment with existing literature.
Sexism and Sexual Harassment are Deep-Rooted Systemic and Institutional Issues in the
Marine Corps
Through analysis of interview and survey data, themes of sexism and sexual harassment
emerged as an influence in retention decisions. Of the participants, eight of the 12 interview
participants, and 14 open-ended survey responses, utilized the term sexism as one of the leading
influences in their decision to depart active duty service. Additionally, the same eight
participants that described sexism as a leading influence also specifically described sexual
harassment as a leading influence in their decision to depart active duty. Moreover, four
interview participants described the experience of sexism/sexual harassment as generating
feelings of anxiety and depression, and three of these participants said that they received
professional counseling due to the sexism or sexual harassment they received in the Marine
Corps. Finally, the findings from the interview indicate that the reduction of sexism/sexual
harassment was an important factor for female officers to continue active duty military.
Specifically, nine of the 12 participants described the reduction of sexism/sexual harassment as a
leading factor perceived as being important for continued service.

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In comparison to existing military studies, this study aligned in its findings specific to the
presence of sexism/sexual harassment. In a survey that assessed approximately 26,000 active-
duty service members across each military branch, almost 26% of female service members said
they had experienced sex discrimination or sexual harassment (Stander & Thomsen, 2016). A
2015 study found that the Marine Corps had the highest percentage of active duty women who
reported that they have experienced sexual harassment or gender discrimination (Stander &
Thomsen, 2016). Specifically, 31% of active duty female Marines reported experiencing sexual
harassment or gender discrimination, compared to 30% of Navy, 28% of Army, and 15% of Air
Force (Stander & Thomsen, 2016). The current literature describes the experience of sexual
harassment for active duty women; however, the literature falls short in exploring the direct
impact sexism/sexual harassment has in retention decisions (DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS,
2019). Along with this study, there is strong evidence for the need for further quantitative
research into the relationship between sexism, sexual harassment, and the retention decisions of
female active duty personnel.
To provide a parallel in understanding the problem, studies in the civilian area
demonstrate a connection between the experience women have with sexual harassment/sexism in
the workplace and its effect on retention decisions. In a police agency study that included 564
female police officers, Cordner & Cordner (2011) found that sexual harassment in the workplace
directly contributed to job dissatisfaction and led to turnover intentions. Moreover, the presence
of job dissatisfaction has been found to be negatively associated with job performance and
turnover intentions (Jim & Park, 2016; Rahim & Crosby 2016). To put it simply, the presence of
sexual harassment in the workplace is negatively correlated with workplace satisfaction and
positively linked to turnover intentions in studies in the civilian sector (Merkin, 2014; Salman et

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al., 2016). While no organization is directly comparable to the Marine Corps, existing literature
on sexism and sexual harassment offers insights to the Marine Corps to produce actionable
changes.
Prior to this study, the influence of sexual harassment/sexism on retention decisions was
not known for female Marine Corps officers. Previous studies identified the experience of sex
discrimination or sexual harassment, but they did not independently isolate the factor to
understand its direct influence in turnover decisions for female Marine Corps officers. Moreover,
this study uniquely assessed the reverse relationship of the perceived value the reduction of
sexism/sexual harassment could have to continue active duty service in the Marine Corps. This
finding provides unique insight in the value that addressing this problem could have on retention
decisions. In applying Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1989), the environmental,
cognitive, and behavior factors were intrinsically encompassed in this finding. The
environmental factors, to include social norms of sexist behavior and the presence of sexual
harassment, intersects with cognitive factors, to include expectations on how one should be
treated, then influences behavioral factors. Influenced by one’s past experiences and social
environment (Bandura, 1999), the findings of this study highlight the influence sexism/sexual
harassment has on human agency and more specifically, the decision to depart active duty
service.
The findings of this study are aligned to the literature reviewed in Chapter 2 and offer
additional insight into this problem. Existing research on the military, specifically the Marine
Corps, reveals that sexism/sexual harassment is a problem affecting active duty women
(DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS, 2019; Stander & Thomsen, 2016). However, the literature
falls short in understanding the influence that sexual harassment/sexism has on the retention

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decisions for military members. The findings of this study draw an important link to the manner
that one’s experience with sexual harassment/sexism has on the behavioral, cognitive, and
environmental factors that contribute to the decision to depart active duty. As found in existing
literature in the civilian area, sexual harassment in the workplace is negatively connected with
workplace satisfaction and positively linked to turnover intentions (Merkin, 2014; Salman et al.,
2016). The findings of this study are aligned with existing literature and reveal that the
experience of sexism/sexual harassment has an influence in retention decisions.
Child Care Resources are an Important Retention Consideration
Through analysis of interview and survey data, the connection to child care resources and
retention decisions emerged. The survey and interviews revealed that family considerations were
the second highest influence for female officers in deciding to depart active duty military. The
survey revealed that family considerations received a mean score of 6.16, indicating that survey
participants ranked it as the second highest influence of each factor assessed. Of the 12 interview
participants, 10 participants referred to planning to have a child as one of the top influences in
their decision to depart active duty, and six participants specifically used the term “impossible”
when describing motherhood in the Marine Corps. Notably, nine of the 12 interview participants
indicated that increasing child caregiving resources would positively influence retentions. The
survey results and interview findings found that increasing family resources was an important
factor for female officers to continue active duty service.
In comparison to existing military studies, this study revealed alignment to past findings
related to child care resources and its connection to retention. On average, Child Development
Centers (CDC) have an infant wait-list ranging from 3 months to 2 years (Griffin, 2020). The
prolonged wait-lists prevent female service members from being able to rely upon Child

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Development Center services, which causes stress, anxiety, and uncertainty (Gaddes et al., 2020;
Griffin, 2020). Moreover, in a 2018 study by Blue Star Families, the researchers found that 51%
of military mothers were late to work due to child care issues in the past month, and 37% of
military mothers said they missed work due to child care issues in the past month. Training
exercises, overnight duties, and shift-work are frequent activities that fall outside of the standard
CDC operational range (Kamarck, 2020). Female service members described the mismatch
between CDC hours of operation and their work schedule as one of the top five deterrents in
continuing military service (DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS, 2019).
To provide a parallel in understanding the problem, studies in the civilian area
demonstrate alignment in child care resources as an important retention consideration. Women
face unique events that increase their chances of departing an organization, to include the child
care responsibilities that become associated after having a baby (Herbst, 2018). The lack of
accessible child care prevents women from progressing and at times remaining in their career
(Chung & Van der Horst, 2018; Wood et al., 2020). Specifically, the high cost, limited
availability, and inconvenient program hours of child care programs present challenges that drive
women out of the workforce at an exceptionally high rate (Chung & Van der Horst, 2018). More
pointedly, 57% of women point to the dual burden of balancing work and domestic duties as the
most significant barrier to retention (McKinsey, 2021). Similar to the findings of this study,
existing literature reveals that child care challenges serve as a retention barrier for women in the
work force.
Prior to this study, the role child care resources had on retention decisions was not known
for female Marine Corps officers. Previous studies identified the desire for improved child care
resources, and highlighted gaps in accessibility and reliability, but they did not independently

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isolate the factor to understand its direct influence in turnover decisions for female Marine Corps
officers. Moreover, this study uniquely assessed the reverse relationship of the perceived value
the increasing child caregiving resources could have for continuation of active duty service in the
Marine Corps. This finding provides unique insight in the value that addressing this problem
could have on retention decisions. Social Cognitive Theory asserts the triadic causation between
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that interact with one another and influence the
decisions people make (Bandura, 2011). People are influenced by the norms and expectations of
their past experiences (Bandura, 1999), which is evident as female Marine officers described the
concerns unavailable child care resources had on their ability, and perceived ability, to fulfill job
expectations. As people are producers, as well as products, of their experiences (Bandura, 1999),
the findings of this study highlight the influence child care resources has on knowledge
acquisition and behavior.
The findings of this study are aligned to the literature reviewed in Chapter 2 and offer
additional insight. Existing research on the military reveals that child care issues negatively
impact military mothers (Blue Star Families, 2018; DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS, 2019;
Gaddes et al., 2020). As found in existing literature in the civilian area, the limitations of child
care programs present challenges that negatively impact the retention of women in the workforce
(Chung & Van der Horst, 2018; Herbst, 2018;). The findings of this study are aligned with
existing literature and emphasize that child care resources are an important retention
consideration.
Excessive Overwork Negatively Impacts Organizational Commitment
Through analysis of interview and survey data, excessive overwork was observed to
negatively impact organizational commitment. The survey and interviews revealed that work

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schedule was the third highest influence for female officers to depart active duty military. The
survey revealed that work schedule received a mean score of 5.54, indicating that survey
participants ranked it as the third highest influence of each factor assessed. Moreover, nine of the
12 interview participants asserted that work schedule was the one of the highest influences for
female Marines officers to depart active duty military. Long work hours were described by nine
of the 12 interview participants, and 8 open-ended survey responses, and the impact work
schedule had on one’s family was described by eight of 12 interview participants. Moreover, five
of the 12 interview participants emphasized the emotional toll long work hours had on their
mental health and five interview participants described the impact the negative impact that work
schedule had on romantic relationships. The results of the interview findings indicate that
removing the “Marine 24/7” mentality was observed as an important factor for female officers to
continue active duty military. Specifically, eight of the 12 interview participants described
removing the “Marine 24/7” mentality as a leading factor perceived as being important for
continued service.
Prior to this study, the influence that excessive overwork had on organizational
commitment was not known for female Marine Corps officers. Previous studies identified work
schedule concerns, but they did not independently isolate the factor to understand its direct
influence in organizational commitment and turnover decisions for female Marine Corps
officers. Moreover, this study uniquely assessed the reverse relationship of the perceived value
the reduction of the “Marine 24/7” mentality could have to continue active duty service. In
applying Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1989), the environmental, cognitive, and
behavior factors are observed to mutually influence each other and contributed toward
knowledge behavior. As people are influenced by social norms and expectations (Bandura,

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1989), one’s experience in a culture of excessive overwork influences human agency with
specific considerations to intentionality, foresight, self-regulation and self-awareness leading to
the decision to depart active duty. This finding provides unique insight in the value that
addressing child care resources could have on organizational commitment and retention
decisions.
In comparison to existing military studies, this study revealed a similar alignment in
findings specific to the negative impact excessive overwork has on organizational commitment.
There are several studies of active duty female service members that highlight the concern with
the military work schedule and excessive overwork (DACOWITS, 2017; DACOWITS, 2019;
U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). In a study of 32 focus groups of senior female
enlisted personnel in the U.S. Army, (Williams, 2013) found that the primary factor for them to
depart the military earlier than their male counterparts was the belief that they constantly had to
forego time with their family to have a military career. Further, a study of 66 former female
active duty Naval Surface Warfare officers cited the uncertainty of their work schedule as one of
the strongest influences in their decision to separate from active duty (Stoker & Crawford, 2008).
The existing literature presents similar alignment in the negative impacting excessive overwork
has on organizational commitment.
Recommendations for Practice
This section presents recommendations based on findings discovered through this study.
Strong research suggests that strategies grounded in theory have the greatest probability to result
in sustained systemic change (Kuchynka et al., 2018). This section begins with presenting three
recommendations that address the key findings of this study. Each recommendation includes
supporting evidence for each recommendation.

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Recommendation 1: Reduce Gender Bias Through Gender Diversity Training and
Education Programs
The first recommendation for practice is for the Marine Corps to create a robust diversity
training and education program throughout the organization. The Marine Corps does not
currently have training efforts to educate on gender diversity (Ogden, 2021). This section
includes strategies that the Marine Corps can implement to advance their diversity training and
education. This recommendation is built on evidence-based practices that are intended to
generate continuous learning and changed behavior.
There were several elements of the research findings that indicated that gender bias was
pervasive throughout the Marine Corps. Specifically, eight of the 12 interview participants, and
14 open-ended survey responses, described sexism and sexual harassment as a leading influence
in the decision to depart active duty. The findings driving this recommendation are: (a) the
negative organizational culture, to include prevalence of sexism and sexual harassment, was a
leading reason female officers departed active duty; (b) sexism and sexual harassment are deep-
rooted systemic and institutional issues; and (c) organizational culture exists based on the norms
and beliefs that are cultivated among leaders and employees.
Research strongly suggests that diversity trainings are powerful tools to decrease bias and
increase inclusion for women under certain conditions (Kalev et al., 2006; Kuchynka et al.,
2018). Effective diversity training teaches participants about biases and provides skill-building
resources to advance participants thinking and approach to diversity (West & Eaton, 2019).
Researchers and practitioners caution that diversity training unaided, or without careful program
design, can have negative consequences (Dobbin & Kaly 2017). Specifically, diversity training
can unintentionally result in increased bias as well as defensiveness among participants (Dover et

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al., 2020). To guard against these phenomena, organizations should create a sense of autonomy
and accountability in eliminating gender bias (Dover et al., 2020). Organizations that have
engaged in bias-mitigation efforts with an emphasis on increasing internal motivation, have been
found to decrease the effects of gender bias and positively influence equality in the workplace
(Wynn & Correll, 2018).
In addition to training, education is an important tool to reduce gender-biased thinking
and decision-making. Continued education on diversity, to include gender bias, is important for
multiple reasons. Education can assist to uncover and identify personal attitudes and opinions
toward different genders (Wynn & Correll, 2018). The repeated act of self-awareness with
consideration to gender bias can engender social change process that includes the ideological
development and advancement (Craft, 2017). While no organization is directly comparable to the
Marine Corps, existing literature on diversity training offers valuable insights to the Marine
Corps to produce actionable changes to decrease gender bias.
The Marine Corps has an opportunity to reduce gender-biased thinking and decision-
making through training and education. The Marine Corps should craft diversity training and
education that empowers each Marine to have ownership in the change process (Craft, 2017).
Specifically, this could include supervisors being empowered to lead these initiatives by
conducting prepared and comprehensive gender bias training in the workplace. A job aid should
be provided to all supervisors as prereading to have in front of them to assist in the training
organization, discussion, and content delivery. This approach can be integrated into existing
professional military education that occurs on a semi-annual basis in the Marine Corps. The
training should be clearly defined and include a needs assessment and pretraining assessment to
determine the areas of strengths and weaknesses of trainees who are slated to attend (Kalinoski et

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al., 2013). As supervisors will be directly responsible for the training and promotion of gender
diversity, evidence-based practices suggest this will result in an increased commitment to the
initiative (Dobbin & Kaly 2017). For the Marine Corps, supervisors should be at the rank of
staff-noncommissioned and above to ensure the training and curriculum is delivered precisely as
crafted. Training effects can then be mediated by conducting training that cultivates internal
motivation to respond without prejudice (Lindsey, 2015). As learning is enhanced through social
interaction (Scott & Palinscar, 2006), this could include discussion, role-play, and teaching back
to one another. Finally, the frequency of quarterly training is appropriate to focus on
socialization, component building, and structural transformations to shape attitudes and
behaviors toward gender inclusion (Robinson et al., 2020).
Diversity training alone may not be effective in creating long-term change in gender-
biased attitudes and behaviors, and organizations must consider the value of continuing
education (Robinson et al., 2020). The Marine Corps should develop diversity education material
to produce the continual act of self-awareness with consideration to gender bias (Craft, 2017;
Williamson & Foley, 2018). Continued education provides an opportunity for self-awareness and
ideological growth in alignment with gender equity (Wynn & Correll, 2018). The Marine Corps
should disseminate literature and education material through diverse platforms in an effort to
shape ideological changes and the reduction of gender bias (Williamson & Foley, 2018).
Specifically, the Marine Corps should disseminate literature through marine.net., MarAdmins,
and ALMAR messages. Gender bias education provides an opportunity for self-actualization that
can transform thinking and approach to diversity (West & Eaton, 2019).
To advance gender equity, the Marine Corps needs to create a culture that is inclusive to
women. Past research suggests strong interventions to reduce the incidents of sexual harassment

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and sexism to retain female employees (Salman et al., 2016). Multiple research studies have
found the effectiveness of diversity training is enhanced by increasing motivation through
carefully designed programs that focus on similarities among individuals and inspire participants
to change (Dover et al., 2020; Lindsey, 2015). In addition to training, the Marine Corps has an
opportunity to reduce gender-biased thinking and decision-making through education. Gender
bias education provides an opportunity to supplement and reinforce how Marines approach
diversity initiatives. The purpose of this recommendation is to lead Marines to identify tactics for
dismantling sexist behavior and inspire Marines to create an equitable workplace.
Recommendation 2: Establish a Comprehensive Child Care Program That Supports Active
Duty Parents
The second recommendation for practice calls for the Marine Corps to establish a child
care program that supports active duty parents. Although great progress has been made in
military child care programs, there continue to be significant challenges related to availability
and accessibility in the child care system (DACOWITS, 2019). The Marine Corps does not
currently have a comprehensive child care program that provides accessible and reliable child
care due to the CDCs’ extensive wait lists and a mismatch of hours of operation compared to
service commitments (DACOWITS, 2019; Schumacher, 2021). This section includes strategies
that the Marine Corps can implement to advance a comprehensive child care program to address
the issues impacting CDC accessibility and reliability. These recommendations are built on
evidence-based practices that are intended to generate an improved parental support structure and
advance support for active duty parents.
There were several elements of the research findings of this study that indicated that a
comprehensive child care program was necessary to support active duty parents. The findings

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driving this recommendation are (a) family considerations was the second leading reason female
officers departed active duty; (b) female Marine officers described deep-rooted systemic and
institutional issues regarding serving on active duty and being a mother; and (c) limited access to
daycare and other resources generated strong emotions of stress, anxiety, and depression.
Specifically, the survey responses identified family considerations as the second highest
influence of all factors assessed and 10 of the 12 interview participants described family
considerations as one of the most important influences contributing to the decision to depart
active duty. Moreover, nine of the 12 interview participants and 12 open-ended survey responses
indicated that increasing child caregiving resources would positively influence retentions.
Research indicates that family-friendly policies, including child care provisions, had a
positive influence on women’s workforce retention (Mar Alonso-Almeida, 2014). Family-
responsive policies, including child care assistance, were found to result in significantly greater
organizational commitment and lower intention to quit their jobs among employees (Nayak &
Pandey, 2021). Moreover, companies that meet the child care demand of their employees retain
talented women and improve productivity (Ratnasingam et al., 2012). The satisfaction and
participation in work–life balance programs can have significant implications for retention of
female employees (Hamidullah & Riccucci, 2017). Moreover, family-friendly policies are
critical mechanisms for increasing gender equity in employment.
The Marine Corps has an opportunity to support all active duty parents and their children
through development of a comprehensive child care program. While this study focused on
female officers, the existing literature points to the child care problem affecting servicemembers
of all ranks and genders (Blue Star Families, 2018; Schumacher, 2021). To address this problem
comprehensively, the Commandant of the Marine Corps should allocate increased funding to

124
address the lack of adequate child care accessibility and increase the capacity of on- and off-
installation child care resources. This could include the construction and expansion of child care
facilities and initiatives to ensure sufficient child development center staffing and family child
care home providers (DACOWITS, 2019). Policy and fiscal implications would likely require
additional funding and approval through the National Defense Authorization Act, which requires
commitment from top Marine Corps leadership. Policy should be constructed to clearly delineate
appropriate wait-list expectations, accessibility, and alternative care options (DACOWITS,
2017). Moreover, the policy should hold leaders accountable to ensure the policy is sustainable
and enduring (Schumacher, 2021). An appropriate accountability system includes clear
expectations, transparent reporting of outcomes, and the establishment of consequences aligned
with performance (Hentscke & Wohlstetter, 2004). Approached in this manner, the
accountability system has an opportunity to hold organizational leaders responsible for shaping
objectives and influencing the necessary change (Hentschke & Wohlstetter, 2004).
To advance a comprehensive child care program, Marine Corps officials must rethink the
workforce development systems to respond to demands of parents and their child. As grounded
in this study and aligned with existing literature, the Marine Corps should craft comprehensive
family-responsive policies that improve the reliability and accessibility to child care resources
for all service members. Specifically, an allocation of increased funding and clear policy
expectations should provide a marked improvement in accessibility and transparency of CDC
resources. The purpose of this strategy is to provide critical to address parenthood
responsibilities.

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Recommendation 3: Reduce Excessive Overwork Through Establishment of Work
Schedule Expectations
The final recommendation for practice calls for the reduction of excessive overwork
through establishment of work schedule expectations. The Marine Corps has neither a formal nor
informal policy guiding the work schedule (Marine Corps Manual, 2017). Specifically, the sole
reference to work schedule in formal doctrine includes that, except by reason of necessity, or in
the interest of the welfare of the command, the performance of work by a Marine shall not be
required on Sundays (Marine Corps Manual, 2017). The long work hours and lack of clarity of a
work schedule results in feelings of exhaustion, detachment, and stress, particularly for women
(DACOWITS, 2019; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). This section includes
strategies that the Marine Corps can implement to establish work schedule expectations. This
recommendation is built on evidence-based practices that are intended to reduce excessive
overwork through policy and cultural changes.
There were several elements of this study’s research findings that indicated the
importance of a reduction in excessive overwork and need for established work schedule
expectations. The findings driving this recommendation are: (a) work schedule was the third
leading reason female officers departed active duty; (b) the pervasive “Marine 24/7 mentality”
presents deep-rooted systemic and institutional issues; and (c) female officers indicated that the
Marine Corps work schedule generated feelings of stress, exhaustion, and anxiety. Specifically,
nine of the 12 interview participants described the negative impact work schedule had on their
personal and/or family well-being.
Research strongly suggests that the reduction of excessive overwork is an important
consideration for the retention of female employees. Excessive overwork is defined as a

126
continual pattern of high work investment, long working hours, and an all-consuming attitude
towards work (Griffiths, 2011). Excessive overwork interferes with family demands, and the
work-to-family conflict results in employee emotional exhaustion and an increased likelihood of
departing the organization (Wayne et al., 2017). The importance of an organization’s work-to-
family support through work schedule expectations is a high consideration for the retention of
women (Glavin & Schieman, 2011). Increasing employee’s schedule control, and ensuring
transparency in work schedule expectations, positively affects the work-family relationship and
retention for women (Kelly & Tranby, 2011).
The Marine Corps has an opportunity to reduce excessive overwork by establishing clear
work schedule expectations. Specifically, the Commandant of the Marine Corps should issue a
“white letter” addressing garrison work schedule expectations and cultural implications.
Guidance from the top commander in the Marine Corps provides an opportunity to shift the
mindset and cultural implications associated to excessive overwork. The “white letter” is an
organizational practice for issuing messages and guidance direct from the Commandant of the
Marine Corps which are reserved for topics of critical and timely importance (Watson, 2006).
Top leaders can communicate strategic vision that relates value messages to improve
organizational performance and influence organizational change (Mayfield et al., 2014).
According to this study’s participants, the culture surrounding the work schedule is an
extremely important component to address given the desire for clear work schedule expectations
coupled with the cultural context in which excessive overwork exists. Moreover, research
suggests that schedule consistency and reliability results in significant improvement in perceived
support for family and personal life as well as retention of female employees (Kelly et al., 2014).
To reduce excessive overwork, accountability mechanisms must be established through

127
performance reporting and consequences (Firestone & Riehl, 2005). The presence of
accountability systems is associated with high performance standards and a greater attention to
results (Lencioni, 2002). In the Marine Corps, it is recommended to establish an accountability
framework that includes clear expectations related to work schedule, rationalization of work
schedule methods, and the use of data to benchmark progress and report outcomes. These
accountability systems can positively influence the objectives the Marine Corps intends to
achieve in the reduction of excessive overwork.
Through guidance and accountability directed from the top commander of the Marine
Corps, cultural and policy changes can shift to provide greater work schedule transparency and
reduce excessive overwork. As grounded in this study and aligned with existing literature,
Marines desire to understand their work schedule expectations and desire a work-family balance
(DACOWITS, 2019; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020). Clear work schedule
expectations have the potential to reduce stress and anxiety and decrease negative retention
decisions (Kelly et al., 2014; Wayne et al., 2017). The purpose of this strategy is to provide
transparency and accountability to work schedule expectations and reduction of excessive
overwork.
Integrated Recommendations
Integrating the three recommendations presents challenges due to the Marine Corps’
deep-rooted culture and the size of the organization. However, effective leadership can facilitate
change in an organization’s culture through improvement and process commitment (Hao &
Yazdanifard, 2015). Through use of social cognitive theory’s conceptual framework combined
with Lewin’s (1947) three-stage model of change, an integrated change model for change can be
pursued. These three recommendations, applied in harmony, have the greatest potential to

128
influence the necessary cultural and policy changes. Moreover, the three integrated
recommendations have the greatest potential to improve retention of female officers in the
Marine Corps.
Lewin’s (1947) three-phase change model is regarded as a fundamental approach to
managing change and mitigating the potential negative effects of change (Cummings et al.,
2016). The approach to change includes three key phases: unfreeze, change, and refreeze.
Lewin’s model includes unfreezing the present level through creating a perception that change is
needed, moving to the new level through implementing different behavior, and freezing on the
new level to solidify the new behavior as a norm (Burnes, 2020). Lewin’s three-phase change
model should be applied to each recommendation to achieve the desired collective end-state. The
first phase, unfreeze, should include conveying the imperative for change to all stakeholders
(Lewin, 1947). The second phase, change, should include developing new procedures that
facilitate the respective change regarding the reduction of gender bias, establishment of a
comprehensive child care program, and reduction of excessive overwork. The last phase,
refreeze, should stabilize the change by instituting policies to safeguard adherence to new
procedures (Lewin, 1947).
The role of Marine Corps leadership is vital throughout each phase of the change process.
Top Marine Corps leadership, including the Commandant of the Marine Corps, must convey and
initiate the change during the unfreeze phase; implement, track, and evaluate progress in the
change phase; and solidify the change process through refined policy and guidance in the
refreeze phase. It is critical that progress is measured and communicated to achieve the overall
goal (Burnes, 2020). The Marine Corps should establish an accountability framework that
includes clear expectations related to retention, methods, and the use of data to benchmark

129
progress and report outcomes. These accountability systems can positively influence the
objectives the Marine Corps intends to achieve in the reduction of attrition. These proposed
solutions should help the Marine Corps improve female Marine officer retention by positively
impacting quality of life for service-members, cultural improvement for the organization, and
long-term viability for mission accomplishment. Figure 2 depicts Lewin’s (1947) three-phase
change model as applied to this problem of practice.

Figure 2
Lewin’s (1947) Three-Phase Change Model

Limitations and Delimitations
There were several limitations in this study. Limitations include potential weaknesses that
are out of the researcher’s control (Merriam & Tisdell, 2018). A general limitation of the study
included that I assumed that participants were truthful in each response provided. As untrue
responses can lead to error, I encouraged participants to be honest as well as highlighted their
confidentiality during the study description and informed consent. A second limitation specific to
Unfreeze
-Top leadership
conveys the need and
urgency of change.
-Leadership invests
time and resources in
understanding and
quelling doubts and
concerns associated
with the change
Change
-Initiate new
procedures
-Implement, track,
and evaluate progress
-Communicate
progress frequently
-Establish an
accountability
framework
-Empower Marines
in the change process
Refreeze
-Establish refined
policy and guidance
to sustain and
stabilize the change
-Provide support and
training
-Celebrate success

130
surveys was the inability to conduct follow-on questions or probes. As unique sub-themes
surfaced throughout data collection, the inability to present additional questions limited the
survey results. A third limitation was that participants used the terms sexual harassment and
sexism interchangeably. This created a limitation as it was unclear if they intended to use such
language when describing their perspectives as the terms represent different experiences. Finally,
the potential for my personal bias to weaken the confirmability existed. To address this
limitation, I took multiple approaches to suspend personal biases from influencing data,
including triangulation of data, transcription of interviews, and taking detailed field notes.
Delimitations include the limitations consciously determined by the researcher (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2018). A delimitation of this study included that access to the study was gained
through social media, initially advertised through my personal social media pages. This approach
delimited the participants to specific networks of potential participants. Moreover, another
delimitation included that the scope of the study focused on female Marine officers no longer
serving on active duty; the study did not include perspectives from active duty female Marine
officers currently serving. Active duty female Marine officers likely have different, and valuable,
perspectives on the problem of practice compared to those no longer serving on active duty. A
future study involving active duty female Marine officers, coupled with veteran female Marine
officers, has the greatest likelihood of understanding the problem. As this study only evaluated
the Marine Corps, it is not appropriate to conclude that the findings of this study are applicable to
other military branches or to other agencies. Furthermore, in studying female officers, it is not
appropriate to assume the same experiences are true for enlisted women or people from other
marginalized groups.

131
Additionally, this study was delimited to a small sample size and to data collection from
two sources (surveys and interviews). Aggregately, the small sample size may limit the
transferability of the study’s results. The limited sample size was acceptable given the use of
multiple data collection methods and use of triangulation of data through surveys, current
literature, and interviews. Finally, the conceptual framework of Social Cognitive Theory may
limit the extent of the conclusions drawn due to the narrow lens in which the problem is
analyzed. The de-limitation presented in analyzing a problem through a singular conceptual
framework was acceptable to address this problem given the purpose of the study, intent to
analyze it from a social cognitive viewpoint, and time constraint. To address this de-limitation,
future research is recommended through analysis of different theoretical frameworks to advance
the scope of the study’s core interest.
Recommendations for Future Research
The lack of research and shared understanding of the problems associated to the low
retention of female Marine Corps officers perpetuates gender inequities. First, while gendered
studies are abundant, there is exceptionally little research that is specific to the Marine Corps. As
the Marine Corps is a distinct branch of military service, research on this agency is important to
understanding the root of the problem. In conducting a literature review prior to beginning this
study, existing research that addressed female veteran’s retention decisions was extremely
limited. Instead, studies focused on active duty women, often grouping together enlisted and
officers, and different branches of service. As these groups likely have diverse experiences and
perspectives regarding retention decisions, it would be valuable to expand research to recent
veterans. The Marine Corps would benefit from deeper study of its female Marine officers’
retention by examining correlations with military occupation specialties, demographics, career

132
intentions, and factors associated to departure. The Marine Corps can capture this, along with
more actionable turnover data, by having a cross-industry exit survey taken at the time a member
departs active duty. Moreover, the organization can seek to better understand the differences
between the population of those being retained, and those departing, through conducting research
on both populations simultaneously.
Future research should explore other data collection methods, from diverse theoretical
frameworks, that would mitigate against the limitations and delimitations identified in this study.
A combination of field study, document analysis, and expanded surveys and interviews could
yield important perspectives on the complex problem associated to retention of female Marine
Corps officers. Additionally, there is strong evidence in the need for further quantitative research
into the relationship between sexism, sexual harassment, and the retention decisions of female
active duty personnel. Moreover, research on the emergent theme of infertility, as well as the
influence of frequent moves, is necessary to comprehensively understand the potential factors
associated with the root of the problem. Current research on the influence of infertility and
frequent moves reveals a gap in understanding the problem and additional examination is vital.
Conclusion
As the low retention of female officers deeply affects the Marine Corps, this study sought
to understand the factors influencing retention decisions. The purpose of this study was to
examine the factors associated with a female Marine officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the
Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires. The quantitative and qualitative data
collected from this study allowed me to examine the factors related to why female Marine Corps
officers depart active duty service as well as the factors perceived to positively influence
retention decisions.

133
The survey results and interview findings revealed that low retention of female Marine
Corps officers is a deep-rooted systemic problem that is intimately connected to cultural and
familial factors. Analysis found that organizational culture, family considerations, and excessive
overwork is a primary source of its high turnover. The results illuminated thematic gaps
including: impact of poor leadership; presence of sexual harassment and sexism; Marine 24/7
mentality; planning to have a child; time with a child; dual-military marriage; and excessive
overwork. The implications of these findings point to the risk of ongoing high turnover of female
Marine Corps officers, where Marine Corps leaders remain at odds with their own influence due
to lack of understanding of the root of the problem. By implementing the recommended
solutions, the Marine Corps may begin to effectively address its low retention of female Marine
Corps officers in ways that reduce turnover and elevate numerous outcomes for service member
well-being, organization improvement, and operational readiness.

134
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158
Appendix A: USC Information Sheet for Exempt Research
STUDY TITLE: Low Retention of Female Marine Corps Officers

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Amanda Mathew Johnston

FACULTY ADVISOR: Jennifer Phillips, DLS

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the factors associated with a female Marine officer’s
decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires. I hope to
learn about why active duty female officers depart the U.S. Marine Corps, what factors are
perceived as being important for continuing active duty service, and the perspectives regarding
the value of U.S. Marine Corps retention policies. You are invited as a possible participant
because you meet the criteria for participation. Specifically, the criteria for participation is
female; officers; U.S. Marine Corps; served on active duty for at least 4 years and did not retire;
served at some point between January 2015 and December 2020; and is no longer serving on
active duty. This population was selected as they best represent the population within the
problem of practice, literature, and conceptual framework. Further, the audience and service
dates are selected due to the specific Marine Corps policies in affect at the time and the need to
ensure the data collected is relative and appropriate.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

For surveys, participants will be asked to participate in an electronic survey administered by
Qualtrics®. The survey instrument will consist of both close-ended questions and open-ended
questions. If you decide to take part in the survey, you will be asked to begin participation
through clicking on the survey link listed at the bottom of the social media posting. Once you
click the link, you will be directed to Qualtrics® to conduct the survey. The researcher designed
the survey to take approximately 10 minutes to complete. The survey will be open to participants
for a period of 20 days.

For interviews, participants will be asked to participate in a one-on-one virtual interview with a
video and audio connection. The platform that will be used is Zoom and the interviewees will be
audio-recorded if the participants allows. The participant can decline to be recorded and will be
able to continue with their participation. The interview is estimated to take 45 minutes to 1 hour;
in total, the total length of participation will not exceed 1 hour and 15 minutes.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation.

159
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data observed. The IRB reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are
published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used.

For surveys, confidentiality will be upheld as no personally identifiable data, beyond gender, will
be asked. The researcher will make no effort to contact the participant. Moreover, the Qualtrics®
survey platform does not provide the researcher with any identifying information of the
participant.

For interviews, confidentiality will be ensured by conducting one-to-one interviews in a private
electronic room. Participants will be asked if the interview can be audio-recorded. The identities
of participants will be kept confidential through the replacement of participants’ real names with
pseudonyms in all interview transcripts. Further, all potential identifying information will be
redacted from transcription as well as field notes. Moreover, the researcher will conduct member
checking and provide the transcription back to the participant to ensure accuracy. All audio-
recordings of the interviews will be stored only on a password-protected flash drive. The flash
drive will be placed in a locked filing cabinet which only the researcher will have access to.
Once the required retention period of 3 years elapses, all items associated to the study will be
destroyed to include the flash drive, information sheets, and field notes.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Amanda M. Johnston at (949) 899-
4886 or amathew6@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

160
Appendix B: Survey Protocol

Three research questions guided this study:
1. Why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
2. What factors do active duty female service members perceive as being important for
continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps?
3. What are active duty female officers’ perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies?
Target Population: U.S. Marine Corps; women; officers; served on active duty for at least 4 years
and did not retire; served at some point between January 2015–December 2020; no longer
currently serving on active duty

161
Table B1
Survey Protocol Crosswalk to Research Questions
Question Type
Level of
measurement Response options
Research
question
1. Did you serve on
active duty in the
U.S. Marine Corps
for a period of at least
4 years?

Criteria

Nominal A. Yes
B. No

Criteria (an
answer of
B will
exclude
participants
from
study)
2. Did you retire from
the Marine Corps?
Criteria

Nominal A. Yes
B. No

Criteria (an
answer of
A will
exclude
participants
from
study)
3. Did you serve on
active duty at least
one day between
January 2015–
December 2020?

Criteria

Nominal A. Yes
B. No

Criteria (an
answer of
B will
exclude
participants
from
study)
4. Are you currently
serving on active duty
in the Marine Corps?

Criteria

Nominal A. Yes
B. No

Criteria (an
answer of
A will
exclude
participants
from
study)
5. Please select the
paygrade that best
aligns with the rank
in which you
departed from active
duty service.

Criteria

Ordinal A. E1–E9
B. O1
C. O2
D. O3
E. O4
F. O5–O7

Criteria (an
answer of
A will
exclude
participants
from
study)
6. Which gender did
you elect on official
Marine Corps
Criteria

Nominal A. Male
B. Female
C. Prefer not to
answer
Criteria (an
answer of
A and C
will

162
documentation when
entering the service?
exclude
participants
from
study)
The survey content begins here (this text will not be listed on the survey).
1. Which of the
following best aligns
with your
circumstances in
departing active duty
service in the Marine
Corps?

Criteria

Nominal A. I involuntarily
departed from
active duty
service
B. I voluntarily
departed from
active duty
service
C. I retired from
the Marine
Corps

2. What were your
career intentions
when you first
entered active duty?
Closed Nominal A. I intended to
stay on active
duty until I was
eligible for
retirement
B. I intended to
complete my
term/obligation
and then leave
active duty
C. I was not sure
if I would stay
on active duty
or leave after
my
term/obligation.

1
How much did the
following influences
impact your decision
to leave active duty
service?

3. Family planning
4. Work schedule
5. Deployments
6. Organizational
Culture
7. Sexual assault
8. Dependent
Closed Ordinal 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

2

163
caregiving
responsibilities
9. Promotion rates
(Apply skip-logic for
questions 3–9 with an
answer of 6 or
greater): In what ways
did this
influence your
decision to depart
active duty?

Open 2
10. Aside from those
listed in questions
3–8, are there any
other influences that
impacted your
decision to depart
active duty service?
Please describe those
here.

Open 2
11. Of the factors and
influences regarding
your reason to depart
active duty, what did
you feel was most
important?

Open 2
12. To what extent do
you agree with the
following statement:

The Marine Corps
maternity policies in
effect at the time of
my active duty
service adequately
supported my needs.

For the purpose of this
question, maternity
policies refer to
maternity leave,
Physical Fitness
Testing following
Closed Interval A. Strongly agree
B. Agree
C. Neither agree
nor disagree
D. Disagree
E. Strongly
disagree
3

164
pregnancy, and
weight requirements
following pregnancy.

13. To what extent do
you agree with the
following statement:

The Marine Corps
sexual assault
prevention programs
in effect at the time of
my active duty
service adequately
supported my needs.

For the purpose of this
question, sexual
assault prevention
programs refers to the
SAPR (Sexual
Assault Prevention
and Response)
program.
Closed Interval A. Strongly agree
B. Agree
C. Neither agree
nor disagree
D. Disagree
E. Strongly
disagree
3

14. To what extent do
you agree with the
following statement:

While serving in the
Marine Corps, I had
at least one female
Marine mentor.

Closed

Interval

A. Strongly agree
B. Agree
C. Neither agree
nor disagree
D. Disagree
E. Strongly
disagree
1
15. To what extent do
you agree with the
following statement:

The presence of a
female Marine
mentor positively
relates to my
retention in the
Marine Corps.

Closed Interval A. Strongly agree
B. Agree
C. Neither agree
nor disagree
D. Disagree
E. Strongly
disagree
2

165
In general, to what
extent do you agree
with the following
statement:

At my last duty station,
my direct leadership:
16. often said
something positive
and encouraging to
me.
17. made me feel part of
the team.
18. valued my
contribution.
19. did not negatively
influence my reason
for departing active
duty.

Closed Interval A. Strongly
agree
B. Agree
C. Neither agree
nor disagree
D. Disagree
E. Strongly
disagree
1
20. Is there anything
else you would like to
share regarding the
role of leadership at
your last duty station
and your decision to
depart the Marine
Corps?

Open 1
21. At the beginning of
your time in the
Marine Corps, what
emotions did you
identify with most?

Closed Nominal A. Excited
B. Happy
C. Stressed
D. Unhappy
E. None of the
above
F. Other (fill in
the blank)

2
22. At the end of your
time on active duty in
the Marine Corps,
what emotions did
you identify with
most?

Closed Nominal A. Excited
B. Happy
C. Stressed
D. Unhappy
E. None of the
above
F. Other (fill in
the blank)
2

166

23.What, if anything,
could have changed
or been present for
you to continue active
duty service in the
Marine Corps?

Open 2
24. Is there anything
else you would like to
add to help the
researcher better
understand the factors
influencing your
decision to depart the
Marine Corps?
Open 1
After the survey is submitted, the following will appear:

Thank you very much for your time, your survey submission has been recorded.

Separate from this survey, the researcher is seeking approximately 10-15 volunteers to
participate in a one-on-one interview. The purpose of the interview is to allow the
researcher to pursue a richer understanding and deeper discussion on the topic of the
low retention of female officers in the Marine Corps. The interview should take
approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour. The interview will be conducted virtually via
Zoom and will be scheduled at your convenience. If you would like to participate in the
interview, please click the below link. The link will take you to a separate page which
will request your contact information. Thank you.

167
Appendix C: Interview Protocol

Three research questions guided this study:
1. Why do active duty female officers depart service from the U.S. Marine Corps?
2. What factors do active duty female service members perceive as being important for
continuing service with the U.S. Marine Corps?
3. What are active duty female officers’ perspectives regarding the value of U.S. Marine
Corps retention policies?
Respondent Type: Female; officers; U.S. Marine Corps; served on active duty for at least 4 years
and did not retire; served at some point between January 2015 and December 2020; and is no
longer serving on active duty.
Thank you very much for taking the time to interview with me today. This interview will
help inform my study, which focuses on the low retention of female officers in the U.S. Marine
Corps. Prior to beginning the interview, I would like to review the informed consent together
with you and address any questions you may have. I will pull the informed consent up on my
shared screen now for us to review together (share screen, read over the entirety of document,
and proceed once participant has no further questions). If you do not mind, I would like to record
our conversation for the purpose of ensuring I take note of exactly what you say. Recording
would allow me to focus exclusively on your input, and I won’t need to write down word-for-
word notes during the interview. However, if you would prefer that I do not record, I am happy
to take notes and I will double check with you that I captured your responses correctly. With
that, do you give me permission to record this interview? (Await response) Great, thank you. Do
you have any questions for me before we begin? (Await questions) Okay, now let’s get started.

168
Table C1
Interview Protocol Crosswalk to Research Questions
Interview questions RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
Q type
(Patton)
1. Can you tell me about the
reason or reasons that led you to
join the Marine Corps?
None directly
(but is the
basis for
Question 14,
RQ1).
This is intended to be
an ice breaker
question and
establish rapport.
Experience
and
behavior
2. Can you tell me about the
reason or reasons that led you to
depart from active duty in the
Marine Corps?

RQ2 Reasons for departure
in interviewees own
words
Experience
and
behavior
3. In what ways, if at all, did
family planning play a role in
your decision to depart from
active duty service?

RQ2 Family planning and
retention
Opinion
and
values
4. In what ways, if at all, did work
schedule play a role in your
decision to depart from active
duty service?

RQ2 Work schedule and
retention
Opinion
and
values
5. In what ways, if at all, did
deployments play a role in your
decision to depart from active
duty service?

RQ2 Deployments and
retention
Opinion
and
values
6. In what ways, if at all, did the
organizational culture play a
role in your decision to depart
from active duty service?

For the purpose of this study,
organization culture is defined
as the characteristics and
knowledge of a group of people,
which includes attitude,
behavior, and beliefs.

RQ2 Organizational culture
and retention
Opinion
and
values
7. In what ways, if at all, did
sexual assault play a role in your
RQ2 Sexual assault and
retention
Opinion
and
values

169
decision to depart from active
duty service?

8. In what ways, if at all, did
promotion rates play a role in
your decision to depart from
active duty service?

RQ2 Promotion rate and
retention
Opinion
and
values
9. How, if at all, did female
mentors play a role in your
decision to depart active duty?

RQ1 Female mentors and
retention
Opinion
and
values
10. How, if at all, did your direct
leadership play a role in your
decision to depart active duty?

RQ1 Direct leadership and
retention
Opinion
and
values
11. How, if at all, did you observe
gender biased treatment?

RQ1 Gender biases Opinion
and
values
12. Are there any other factors that
I have not asked about that
played a role in your decision to
depart from active duty?

RQ2 Open-ended Opinion
and
values
13. What are the three most
important factors that
contributed to your decision to
depart active duty service?
RQ2 Understand the most
critical factors
Opinion
and
values
Transition: I would now like to transition to discuss your perspectives regarding the value
of specific U.S. Marine Corps retention policies and role it played in your decision to
depart active duty service.
14. In what ways, if at all, did
maternity policies play a role in
your decision to depart from
active duty service?

For the purpose of this question,
maternity policies refers to
maternity leave, Physical Fitness
Testing following pregnancy,
and weight requirements
following testing.

RQ3 Maternity policies and
retention
Opinion
and
values
15. In what ways, if at all, did
sexual assault prevention
programs play a role in your
RQ3 Sexual assault
programs and
retention
Opinion
and
values

170
decision to depart from active
duty service?
For the purpose of this question,
sexual assault prevention
programs refers to the SAPR
(Sexual Assault Prevention and
Response) program.

16. Are there any other policies
you
believe are relevant to discuss in
relation to policies playing a
role in
in your decision to depart active
duty?

RQ3 Policies and retention Opinion
and
values
17. What if anything could have
changed or been present for you
to continue active duty service?
RQ1 Obtain thoughts on
solutions to the
problem from
interviewee
perspective

Opinion
and
values
18. At the beginning of this
interview, you described your
reasons for joining the Marine
Corps. At the time of your
decision to depart active duty,
how did those factors influence
your decision?

RQ1 Reflection on the
reason for joining
the service with
consideration for
departure reasons
Opinion
and
values
19. Can you describe your
emotions at the beginning,
compared to the end, of your
time in the Marine Corps?
RQ1 Emotions Opinion
and
values
(Before concluding, review notes and see if additional probing questions or clarification is
needed)
20. In closing, is there anything
else you would like to discuss to
help me better understand the
factors influencing your decision
to depart from active duty
service?
RQ1

Allow interviewee to take
lead/discuss anything the
researcher did not address

171
That will wrap up the interview. Thank you so much for your time today. If you have any
questions at all that you would like to follow up with me on, please feel free to reach out to me
via email or phone. Once I have transcribed this interview, I will email you a copy and request
you to review it for accuracy? Do you have any questions for me before we go? Thank you again
for your time and I hope you have a great day!

172
Appendix D: Request for Survey Participation

Hello! I am making this post to request participation in a brief survey. I am currently a
doctoral student at the University of Southern California and I am conducting a research study as
part of my doctoral degree requirement. The purpose of this study is to explore the factors
associated with a female Marine officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after
their contractual obligation expires.
The target audience I am seeking to take the survey is: female officer; U.S. Marine
Corps; served on active duty at least 4 years and did not retire; active duty at some point between
January 2015–December 2020; and is no longer serving on active duty.
The survey is brief and should take less than 10 minutes. Please click the link below to go
the survey. Survey Link: https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_29NiIO7l2S5hXcW
An informed consent agreement will appear on the first screen page of the survey. Your
participation in this survey is completely voluntary and all responses will be kept confidential.
No personally identifiable information will be associated with your responses and all results will
be presented as an aggregate summary of data. The USC Institutional Review Board has
approved this survey.
Your participation will contribute to the current literature on the low retention of female
officers in the U.S. Marine Corps. If you would like to request a copy of the results of this
research study, please write the researcher at amathew6@usc.edu. This post is approved to be
shared on your social media page to extend the reach of potential participants.
Thank you very much for your time and assistance!
Sincerely,
Amanda M. Johnston

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this mixed-method study was to examine the factors associated with a female Marine officer’s decision to voluntarily leave the Marine Corps after their contractual obligation expires. This study’s conceptual framework utilized social cognitive theory with a key focus on the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence one’s human agency factors and self-efficacy. A multi-method research design was constructed through use of surveys and one-to-one interviews. The target population included female Marine Corps officers, who served at least 4 years and did not retire, served at some point between June 1, 2015 and December 31, 2020, and was voluntary and honorably discharged from active duty. In total, 85 surveys and 12 interviews were completed. The results and findings revealed that three themes, ordered by precedence, reflected the highest influence for female officers to depart active duty military: organizational culture with sub-themes of poor leadership, sexism/sexual harassment, and Marine 24/7 mentality; family with sub-themes of planning to have a child, time with a child, and dual-military marriage; and work schedule with sub-themes of long work hours and family impact. Three evidence-based recommendations to address the findings include reduce gender bias through gender diversity training and education programs, establish a comprehensive child care program that supports active duty parents, and reduce excessive overwork through establishment of work schedule expectations.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Johnston, Amanda Mathew (author)

Core Title Low retention of active duty female Marine Corps officers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 08/02/2022

Defense Date 07/14/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag active duty,Female,Marine Corps,Military,OAI-PMH Harvest,officer,retention

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney (committee member), Simmonds, David (committee member)

Creator Email amathew6@usc.edu,asmathew619@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111375974

Unique identifier UC111375974

Legacy Identifier etd-JohnstonAm-11068

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Johnston, Amanda Mathew

Type texts

Source 20220802-usctheses-batch-966 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu