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Incorporating social and emotional learning in higher education: a promising practices based development of authentic leadership

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Incorporating social and emotional learning in higher education: a promising practices based development of authentic leadership

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Incorporating Social and Emotional Learning in Higher Education:
A Promising Practices Based Development of Authentic Leadership
by
Susan Chesley Fant

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2022

© Copyright by Susan Chesley Fant 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Susan Chesley Fant certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Helena Seli
Glenn Fox
Patricia Tobey, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv

Abstract
This study applied authentic leadership theory to understand the use of social and emotional
learning (SEL) programs in higher education. This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL
promising practice programs in higher education that could help college students develop
authentic leadership skills while addressing anxiety and qualifying as part of a new Association
to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) accredited college-wide curriculum.
Primary data included 15 expert-identified promising practice programs across all major U.S.
Census Bureau regions. Experts represented 11 U.S. based and nationally recognizable higher
education, SEL, leadership, and university student mental health professional organizations.
Findings from the study indicated that promising practice subject matter matched with SEL
components as defined by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL) and identified the desired outcomes of promising practices in comparison to authentic
leadership influence factors. A further understanding of promising practice program leaders’
lived experiences created a knowledge base to proactively consider for future research and
implementation. The analysis demonstrated how SEL could develop the influence factors for
authentic leadership and applied an example college’s core competency requirements for an
upcoming college-wide leadership program. The results of this study bridged a gap of knowledge
on implementing SEL in higher education and contributed to the line of work by connecting SEL
with authentic leadership and by matching promising practice curriculum with core competency
requirements of an example program.
Keywords: social and emotional learning, authentic leadership, college student leadership
development, higher education, business colleges

v
Dedication
To my students, especially to those students who proclaimed themselves as part of “Team Fant,”
you inspired me to do this work and you showed me the importance of understanding myself and
how I could best help other people. You make me proud every day and I appreciate the love,
mentorship, and friendship we still give to each other.

To those who I personally lost while in the process of becoming a doctor, but who were (and still
are) an important part of my life: Mr. Frank Fant, Mrs. Juanita Fant, Mr. Andy Gaia, Mrs.
Shirley Shaddix, and my very best friends Lucy, Driftwood, and Lily, this dissertation is
dedicated to you in loving memory.

vi
Acknowledgements
This journey, the biggest team effort of my life, is the result of the love and support of my
family and friends. Dr. George Fant, Mrs. Jane Fant, Mr. Corey Fant, and my soon-to-be
husband Mr. Jared Cassity, your love, support, sacrifices, care, concern, and encouragement kept
me going far past the finish line. I am forever grateful to you all for your love and for being part
of a wonderful family. My sisters, Dr. M.K. Foster, Mrs. Tawnya Kelley, Mrs. Katie McDaniel,
Ms. Jenny Stedham, and Mrs. Kerrianne Webster, you are a wonderful support system and I
appreciate you all. A special thank you to Dr. M.K. Foster who went on the doctoral journey
alongside me and showed me the way forward. My friends, Dr. Arthur Allaway, Mrs. Laura
Cabaniss, Dr. Nicki Charles, Dr. E. Byron Chew, Dr. Brian Gray, Dr. Dave Heggem,
Dr. Hyemin Han, Mr. Alan D. Landry, Dr. Emily Landry, Dr. Nancy Sirianni, and Mr. John
Smart thank you for encouraging me to believe in myself and to form a purpose for my life. I
want to especially thank Dr. Henry Balfour Jr., who taught me by example that all doctors are to
humbly help as many people as possible. To the students and faculty of USC OCL, I appreciate
the support and respect we have for each other and recognize the immense impact that the
friendships of Dr. Paul N. De La Cerda, Dr. Astin Godwin, Dr. Sheryl Guse, Dr. Robert
Ramirez, and Dr. Jessica Walter will always have on me. To Dr. Patricia Tobey, thank you for
not only mentoring me as my chair, but also helping me recognize how to live past my own fear
of failure in a way that is both joyful and true. Thank you to Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Glenn Fox
for serving on my committee and helping me fully form this work. To the experts and
interviewees who gave me their time, effort, and ideas as I investigated and considered these
topics: thank you. I appreciate the trust you placed in me to tell your story and I hope your story
will inspire others as much as it has inspired me.

vii
Author Note
It is important to give credit to external agencies that provide the public with valuable
information for accountability. Some of the documents utilized in this dissertation are public
facing documents accessed freely online from the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of
Business (AACSB) and the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL)’s public facing websites. While this study uses the AACSB and CASEL’s guidelines
as examples, neither AACSB nor CASEL sponsored this research. There are no conflicts of
interest to disclose.

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 4
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 6
Related Literature ................................................................................................................ 8
Description of Stakeholder Groups ................................................................................... 11
Purpose of the Study and Questions .................................................................................. 13
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 14
Importance of the Study .................................................................................................... 17
Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 20
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................. 23
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 25
Theory: Authentic Leadership ........................................................................................... 25
Conceptual Framework: Social and Emotional Learning ................................................. 37

ix
College Student Anxiety .................................................................................................... 45
Developing Leadership Curriculum .................................................................................. 61
Opportunities for SEL Development in Higher Education ............................................... 67
Influences on SEL Development in Higher Education ..................................................... 70
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 73
Chapter Three: Methodology of the Study .................................................................................... 76
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................... 76
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 77
Sample and Population ...................................................................................................... 79
Instrumentation .................................................................................................................. 81
Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 84
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 89
Research Study Validity .................................................................................................... 94
Ethics Rationale ................................................................................................................. 96
Positionality ....................................................................................................................... 98
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 100
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................ 103
Participants ...................................................................................................................... 103
Findings for Research Question 1 ................................................................................... 113

x
RQ1 Document Analysis for Promising Practices .......................................................... 113
RQ1 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices ............................................................ 121
Summary for Research Question 1 .................................................................................. 138
Findings for Research Question 2 ................................................................................... 140
RQ2 Document Analysis for Promising Practices .......................................................... 140
RQ2 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices ............................................................ 148
Summary for Research Question 2 .................................................................................. 166
Findings for Research Question 3 ................................................................................... 168
RQ3 Document Analysis for Promising Practices .......................................................... 169
RQ3 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices ............................................................ 171
Summary for Research Question 3 .................................................................................. 213
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations ....................................................................... 217
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................... 219
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 262
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 264
References ................................................................................................................................... 268
Appendix B…………………………………………………………………………………......305
Appendix E…………………………………………………………………………………......317

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Performance Goals for Stakeholders 6
Table 2: Overlap Between Authentic Leadership Theory and SEL
Conceptual Framework Definitions 18
Table 3: Influences on SUBC Deans and Directors 70
Table 4: Opportunities for SEL Development in Higher Education 72
Table 5: Promising Practice Institution Pseudonyms 104
Table 6: Promising Practices Interviewee Pseudonym 109
Table 7: Document Analysis of Promising Practice Program Type 116
Table 8: Types of Assignments in the Promising Practices and Revised
Bloom’s Taxonomy Levels 141
Table 9: Document Analysis of Promising Practice Interviewee Writing 169
Table 10: SEL Component and Related Promising Practices 221
Table 11: Authentic Leadership Influence Factors and Promising Practice
Desired Outcomes 231
Table 12: Overlap Between SEL Components and Authentic Leadership
Influence Factors 249
Table 13: Authentic Leadership Influence Factors and Related SEL Components 250
Table 14: Desired Core Competencies for Leadership SUBC and Related Promising
Practices 254
Appendix A: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix 304
Appendix C: A Priori Codes for Data Analysis 311
Appendix D: Document Analysis Categorization 316
Appendix F: Promising Practice Programs Document Analysis Categorization Table 321

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Center for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning Five Core Competencies 38
Figure 2: Atlas T.I. Word Cloud of Identified Practices in the Documents 115
Figure 3: Atlas T.I. Word Cloud of Identified Practices in the Interviews 123
Figure 4: Steps in Design for Equity in Higher Education (DEHE) Model 261

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Before the beginning of the 2020 decade, the popular press identified the college student
mental health crisis as a major concern of college presidents and administration (Iarovici, 2014;
Xiao, 2017). The events of early 2020s further prioritized student mental health now and into the
future of higher education (Lipson et al., 2019; Pedrelli et al., 2015; Sprung & Rogers, 2020).
The idea that a college student can experience unique stressors is not novel. However, the
amount of self-reported anxiety has increased dramatically. The most recent Association for
University and College Counseling Center Directors (AUCCCD, 2020) survey of college
counseling center directors for the reporting period between July 2019 to June 2020, discovered
that anxiety is the most pressing concern of all college counseling center appointments at 59.2%,
followed by depression, stress, and family concerns.
While studies have been completed on student anxiety causes (Kraft et al., 2019; Pedrelli
et al., 2015), lack of mental health services (Xiao et al., 2017), and interventions (Lipson et al.,
2019), few studies have been completed on what faculty and staff outside of college counseling
centers could do to reach students struggling with general stress and anxiety, who may or may
not self-report or consider using counseling services. Xiao et al. (2017) highlighted the
importance of addressing the college mental health crisis and found that mental health diagnoses
of anxiety in college students led to depression and increases in suicide and self-harm on
campus. Multiple current events, found in the literature on college student anxiety, are
influencing the increase of self-reported anxiety and include higher education’s culture of
competitiveness, COVID-19, natural disaster events, the increasing cost of college,
perfectionism, political polarization, social media, and the shrinking job market. While this list is
not meant to be exhaustive, it does paint a picture of the current situation in the United States for

2

college students from the late 2010s into the early 2020s and multiple leaders of higher education
organizations are contemplating how to implement an updated curriculum for the 2020s that
requires students, faculty, and staff to proactively address these challenges.
The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) awards business
colleges worldwide with accreditation to signify that the college has achieved a standard of
education and research abilities that will help students and society with the goal “to create the
next generation of great leaders” (AACSB, 2020, p. 7). AACSB’s mission through the
accreditation process is to “foster engagement, accelerate innovation, and amplify impact in
business education” (AACSB, 2020, p. 7). To obtain accreditation, business colleges must
complete the Continuous Improvement Review (CIR) audit every five years, which includes
documentation and a peer team visit. This peer team evaluates the college’s faculty and
administration in overall efforts for engagement, innovation, and impact as well as improving
educational standards (AACSB, 2020). According to the AACSB (2020), accreditation is
voluntary, but requires the peer review of the college’s mission, faculty qualifications, general
curriculum, and how the college presents programs to students. This review process has a
mission-driven focus, which requires strategic planning to meet a specific mission and
measurable outcomes to ensure that activities align with that mission (AACSB, 2020).
The AACSB process allows business colleges to define inputs such as human, physical,
virtual, and financial as well as processes and outcomes within the context of supporting its own
mission to drive a greater focus on accountability for student success (AACSB, 2020). AACSB
(2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business Accreditation suggested it is not
only the amount of peer-reviewed research that makes a business college successful, but the
impacts of that research and other intellectual contributions in the real world to solve problems.

3

The AACSB (2020) gives equal weight to teaching, education, and scholarship for the
importance of bettering society and solving the world’s problems. By focusing on a business
college’s ability to be agile, the AACSB (2020) requires all college administrators to support a
future oriented mindset in terms of curriculum management as well as assurance of learning. The
AACSB then requires accredited member institutions to complete the CIR every five-years and
to supply documented reports that discuss the college’s efforts to support the mission statement
and a strategic plan to maintain AACSB accreditation (AACSB, 2020).
The AACSB recently advised member institutions that an upgraded undergraduate
curriculum in line with the AACSB 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business
Accreditation would be a future requirement for CIR accreditation checks (AACSB, 2020). In
addition, this upgraded curriculum was to focus on preparing students for shifting societal
changes and emerging technologies while addressing a greater sense of social responsibility and
sustainability (AACSB, 2020). This AACSB requirement impacts all member institutions
throughout the United States and worldwide. To better understand the impact of the AACSB
requirements as a driver of change, this study considered one U.S. based example institution and
its leadership.
The Southeastern University Business College (SUBC) Deans and Directors will
complete the AACSB’s CIR audit for an upcoming accreditation check and must upgrade the
college-wide curriculum to meet the new requirements. SUBC is part of Southeastern University
(SU), a U.S. public four-year institution. Between 1999-2019, SU more than doubled total
student enrollment; growing at an exponential rate of an increase in 10,000 students every 10
years with a mission to continuously grow university enrollment at this rate into the future.
SUBC grew in line with SU enrollment and increased two and a half times, adding thousands of

4

business students during the same 20-year time-period. SUBC offers over 20 majors and minors
to students across campus and is the one of the largest colleges within SU. With high-profile
gifts and an increasing budget for building new facilities, SUBC is growth-driven and
competitive within its division for enrollment, alumni engagement, and academic partnerships.
Within the last three years, SUBC faculty and staff reported increasing levels of student
anxiety to SUBC Deans and Directors with concern that students are not prepared to meet
challenges as effectively as past students (SUBC Deans and Directors, 2020). The SUBC Board
of Trustees confirmed this rising anxiety to SUBC Deans and Directors and voiced similar
concerns about SUBC students, who were interning in their companies through the SUBC Career
Center (SUBC Deans and Directors, 2020). This combination of concern by SUBC faculty, staff,
and trustees about increasing student anxiety and inability to utilize professional soft skills
alongside the AACSB requirements for an updated curriculum framed an opportunity to create a
curriculum that positively impacted increasing student anxiety while developing student skills
within the classroom environment and for future employment.
This concern led SUBC Deans and Directors to create new required courses for students
titled Leadership SUBC (SUBC Deans and Directors, 2020). The SUBC Deans and Directors
would like to use Leadership SUBC to meet the requirements of the upcoming AACSB CIR.
Meanwhile, they would like this program to alleviate the concerns of SUBC faculty, staff, and
trustees to help students counter increasing anxiety and inability to use professional soft skills
(SUBC Deans and Directors, 2020). This concern also mirrors the concern across the United
States about the growing college student mental health crisis. A study by the American College
Health Association (ACHA) (2019) found 84.7% of students felt “mentally exhausted,” 87.4%
felt “overwhelmed by commitments,” 70.8% felt “very sad,” and 65.7% felt “overwhelming

5

anxiety.” After the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, a study by ACHA (2020) found that
from March through May of 2020, 51.8% of students faced challenges with academics and
87.8% of those students experienced “moderate to high distress.” ACHA (2020) also found that
86% of students reported concerns about their own personal safety and security during the
pandemic and for the future. When comparing ACHA (2019) to ACHA (2009) results, students
reporting overwhelming anxiety grew by 16.6% in 20 years and this study’s problem of practice
explored this growth of self-reported anxiety in higher education student populations in the
United States over the last decade. This research explored the problem of practice through the
lens of the Leadership SUBC program and the SUBC Deans and Directors’ concern over what
curriculum to include in the Leadership SUBC program to meet the requirements of the
upcoming AACSB CIR. SUBC serves as an example of a U.S. based AACSB member
institution’s leadership trying to determine what changes meet the new requirements, while
balancing multiple concerns and stakeholders. SUBC Deans and Directors were aware of the
rising student self-reported anxiety; however, SUBC Deans and Directors deemed necessary
more immediate action due to the AACSB requirement for a curriculum that focuses students on
rapid change and promotes leadership development and by the consequences of not meeting that
requirement.
Organizational Context and Mission
SUBC's (2020) website states that the organization’s mission and vision follow the lead
of SU’s overall mission and vision with a deep focus on students. The SUBC (2020) mission is
to be a community that centers on students with the goal of developing respected leaders in
business. The SUBC vision is to gain international recognition as a business school that shapes
the future of business based on academic curriculum and scholarly research contributions.

6

Organizational Performance Goal
The following performance goals for stakeholders are based on the SUBC (2020) mission
statements and SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) meeting notes about this study’s problem of
practice. SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) plan to require Leadership SUBC as a college-wide
curriculum. The performance goals for stakeholders are scheduled to take place from present day
to 2026.

Table 1
Organizational Performance Goals for Stakeholders
Organizational mission
The SUBC mission is to be a community of inclusion and personalization for students in
research, service, and learning and to develop respected leaders who solve global challenges.
Organizational performance goal
By 2025, SUBC will require the Leadership SUBC program collegewide, and will use updated
curriculum to address increasing student anxiety positively and appropriately while
developing student skills for future employment and to meet the challenges of rapid change
to satisfy the needs of students and the requirements for AACSB accreditation.
Stakeholder 1:
SUBC deans and directors
Stakeholder 2:
SUBC students
Stakeholder 3:
SUBC board of trustees
By January 2025, Deans and
Directors will establish the
Leadership SUBC program
using promising practices to
develop courses and other
opportunities for students to
address SUBC faculty, staff,
and trustees concerns while
meeting updated AACSB
requirements.
From August 2025 through
May 2026, students will
participate in the
Leadership SUBC program
and will build skill sets to
align with decreasing
anxiety while meeting
updated AACSB
requirements.
By August 2026, SUBC Board
of Trustee members and
SUBC AACSB Committee
Members will be able to
evaluate students who
have completed curriculum
and opportunities offered
through the Leadership
SUBC program that meets
the updated AACSB
requirements.

7

SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) offered the following information on the
organizational performance. SUBC faculty, staff, and trustees have seen SUBC students as
increasingly anxious and less prepared for conflict, more afraid of failure, and inappropriately
frustrated when facing challenges and this has impacted the college’s culture. The SUBC’s
Board of Trustees also suggested that the students who have interned in their businesses did not
have the resilience skills necessary for current and future employment. SUBC’s Board of
Trustees found SUBC students to be proficient in technical skills, and most students were
competitive with academic skills from their major classes. However, SUBC’s Board of Trustees
considered SUBC student skills related to resilience during times of challenge and keeping a
professional composure in the face of adversity as lacking. SUBC Deans and Directors (2020)
are responsible for responding to SUBC Board of Trustees’ concerns as well as the AACSB
changing requirement in the 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business Accreditation.
SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) named several core competencies that they believed students
should be able to utilize as the outcome to a new college-wide curriculum: career planning,
professional communication, critical thinking, appropriate use of technology, diversity, equity
and inclusion, resilience, global and cultural understanding, self-awareness, leadership, and
teamwork.
While SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) felt confident that they could build higher
education programs in structure, they were not confident on what type of curriculum could best
increase student proficiency in skills specific to resilience, while addressing emotional needs in
an appropriate manner for college students, increase student skills in self-awareness and
leadership, and still meet the AACSB requirements. Leadership SUBC will be required for
incoming students to help them achieve competencies that count as a portion of the updated

8

SUBC curriculum under the next AACSB CIR audit. The competencies listed by SUBC Deans
and Directors (2020) require students to know themselves and develop a mindset appropriate for
performing under stress while also managing their emotions in times of change.
Given that the missions of both SU (2020) and SUBC (2020) are student oriented with
SUBC focusing on providing a personalized learning environment for students, using Leadership
SUBC to focus on preparing students with multiple skills to be more resilient to change while
addressing emotional needs and rising anxiety is an appropriate performance need. The further
involvement and subsequent measurement by the AACSB of performance through the upcoming
CIR allows for buy-in to the curriculum development process by more stakeholders and
encourages future innovation in this area, because without these improvements the AACSB can
require further demonstrations of credibility and withhold accreditation. This study aimed to
make recommendations for how SUBC Deans and Directors can use a promising practices
approach for curriculum development that could help students overcome potential challenge and
obstacles of rapid change and increasing anxiety while meeting the updated AACSB
requirements.
Related Literature
This study addressed the generalizable problem of increasing self-reported anxiety in
U.S. college student populations and potential ways that a higher education institution can help
students grow in their own skills and abilities to face anxiety. Survey results from the Center for
Collegiate Mental Health (2016) and the Association for University and College Counseling
Center Directors (2017) highlighted that 61% of U.S. college students self-reported anxiety as
their main concern over the previous decade. Self-reported anxiety occurs when students report
the specific symptoms related to anxiety (ACHA, 2009). Anxiety can further develop into a

9

disorder based on the duration of symptoms which includes social anxiety, panic disorder, or
post-traumatic stress disorder (Pedrelli et al., 2015). Yeager and Dweck (2012) suggested that
these types of challenges are continuous and require resilience. If higher education institutions do
not find and enact potential interventions, students will continue this pattern, which will continue
to damage their ability to succeed in the classroom and in future professions (Kinzie & Kuh,
2017). A variety of elements can cause anxiety; however, Northouse (2019) suggested that large-
scale events such as 9/11, corporate scandals, propaganda on social media, and the threat of
foreign influence on elections has created an overall environment of fear and apprehension with
little to no trust of leaders.
Understanding how to build resilience to anxiety caused by this insecurity may be timely
given the current state of the professional world in terms of automation, social media pressure,
and large-scale societal events that drive rapid change, which have been found to increase
college student anxiety and includes the COVID-19 pandemic, natural disasters, and political
polarization on attitudes towards race and gun control (Davis et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2018;
Lattie et al., 2019; Lund et al., 2019; The Pew Research Center, 2019). While these events are
large and world sweeping, people can feel apprehension and pressure then experience anxiety
based on the impact to their individual environments (Law, 2016; Jones et al., 2018; Pedrelli et
al., 2015; Wheeling et al., 2015). Paired with anxiety already resulting from a student’s life
(Sprung & Rodgers, 2020) and a well-known generational period where traditional college
students grow and change (Arnett, 2000; Pedrelli et al., 2015), the skill of resilience to rapid
change, disruption, or setbacks becomes paramount to a student successfully managing their
emotions and positively encountering these changes (Beck‐Dudley, 2018; Martin & Marsh,
2006; Posselt & Lipson, 2016).

10

Resilience can be a positive factor when a person faces challenges and this relates to an
individual’s ability to positively persevere during challenges, which can affect learners as they
begin to use the skills in their daily lives (Yeager & Dweck, 2012). A student’s success in
gaining resilience skills may partially be their own direct responsibility, but also a shared
responsibility of faculty and staff; as Kinzie and Kuh (2017) explained, a student’s success in
this area relates to a beneficial experience via efforts of both the student and institutional leaders.
In 2019, COVID 19 further increased the stakes for higher education institutions looking to
create more positive experiences for students while addressing increased anxiety (Active Minds,
2020; Brammer & Clark, 2020; Brown & Kafka, 2020; Turk et al., 2020).
This work further built upon the work of several academic researchers as Posselt and
Lipson (2016) concluded there is a viable need to develop resilience and coping strategies in
college students that require collaboration across campus and a creation of networks of colleges
and universities interested in understanding the unique needs of student populations and
developing systems to support general and marginalized student populations, who are especially
vulnerable to the negative impact of the college culture of competition. Conley et. al (2015)
challenged college leaders to push past elective course and orientation offerings in mental health
and further require a core curriculum that builds skills sets and addresses mental health issues
throughout an entire institution. Taylor and Haras (2020) with the American Council on
Education forecasted that all higher education institutions will develop critical employability
skills in students such as creativity, complex problem solving, and emotional intelligence (World
Economic Forum, 2018) and contended that it must occur throughout the institution to make a
meaningful impact.

11

Description of Stakeholder Groups
In this study there were multiple stakeholder groups. The three primary stakeholders were
the SUBC Deans and Directors, SUBC Students, and the SUBC Board of Trustees. The
secondary stakeholder was the AACSB. The SUBC stakeholder groups have various
performance goals they must meet and the AACSB was the catalyst and key influencer for this
change. In this study, an interviewee group of promising practice leaders who are faculty and
staff at U.S. colleges and universities informed the stakeholder groups. The study refers to this
group as promising practice interviewees.
SUBC Deans and Directors
The SUBC Deans and Directors were of particular interest in this study, because the
people in this group first identified their need to increase student proficiency in the skills specific
to resilience to change, while appropriately addressing emotional needs of college students. This
group has the power to implement a college-wide curriculum to meet this need. They requested
examples of promising practices that develop a variety of professional skills and core
competencies including the following: career planning, professional communication, critical
thinking, appropriate use of technology, diversity, equity and inclusion, resilience, global and
cultural understanding, self-awareness, leadership, and teamwork for undergraduate students
while responding to the problem of increased anxiety in the student population. The SUBC
Deans and Directors group included one dean, multiple associate deans, and multiple directors of
programs and special initiatives. They manage a larger group of SUBC faculty and staff who
work within the various SUBC departments, programs, research centers, and administrative
areas.

12

SUBC Students
Maintaining a student focus is key to supplying strong student interventions to help solve
the problem of practice and is a key factor highlighted by both the SU (2020) and SUBC (2020)
missions and visions. The literature review found that institutional resources and interventions
are important and statistically significant for student success in learning (Huang et al., 2017) and
increased psychological capital (Crust et. al., 2014; Luthans et al., 2012). In the 2020 academic
year, students enrolled at SUBC both in-person and online included approximately 8,500
undergraduate and approximately 600 graduate students from all 50 states with slightly less than
40 percent of all students as in-state students, almost 60 percent of all students as out-of-state
students, and less than five percent as international students.
SUBC Board of Trustees
SUBC’s Board of Trustees meets twice per year and supports SUBC through
involvement and connections to other business leaders for fundraising; supports faculty in
teaching, research, and service; shares knowledge with students through internships, job-
placement, and scholarships; and supports the SUBC Dean through advising. The SUBC Board
of Trustees is large in nature with over 150 members with job titles including president, chair of
the board, owner and founder, senior vice president, and chief executive officer. SUBC’s Board
of Trustees members represent large, well-known national companies and organizations such as
Wells Fargo, The Boeing Company, International Paper, SAP Inc., 3M, Delta Airlines, Morgan
Stanley, PricewaterhouseCoopers, and the Federal Reserve Board. SUBC’s Board of Trustees
members also represent regional and local companies and a variety of banks and law firms.

13

SUBC AACSB Accreditation
Regarding SUBC’s AACSB CIR requirements, the institutional peer-review board for the
AACSB was a secondary stakeholder in the research. SUBC has been AACSB accredited since
the late 1920s. SUBC faculty and staff view AACSB accreditation as the benchmark of quality,
which ensures that the college supplies a high-quality, mission centered curriculum for students
assessed through a peer review process and offers professional development for faculty and staff
while providing accountability for stakeholders. SUBC Deans and Directors’ focus on AACSB
accreditation includes creating and implementing a framework for continuous improvements to
build on past success and strive for future success. Updates in the AACSB requirements and
various positions on subject matters such as curriculum development and impact areas of
importance such as ethics, diversity, soft skill attainment, and rapid change has made an impact
on all SUBC stakeholders in all areas of development.
Purpose of the Study and Questions
This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in higher
education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while addressing
anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. This study
further connected the theory of authentic leadership to SEL to provide a better understanding of
how SEL can positively influence authentic leadership development within the context of a
college-based curriculum. Experts from U.S. based higher education and mental health
professional organizations identified promising practice programs across the country. Promising
practice interviewees are U.S. college and university-based practitioners and researchers
involved in authentic leadership or SEL topics. Promising practice interviewees were the primary
research group for this study and were relied upon to demonstrate, based on their own lived

14

experiences, what higher education leadership should consider when developing programs. The
use of document analysis and interviews provided an evidence base of how to create SEL
programs for higher education students. To narrow the useful aspects of promising practice
programs, the literature named specific pedagogies that connected with authentic leadership and
this research reviewed these promising practice programs based on their use of pedagogies that
are adoptable by the SUBC Deans and Directors. Research questions that guided this study
included the following:
1. What subject matter from promising practice programs matches with SEL component
definitions?
2. How do the promising practice programs’ desired outcomes compare with the
influence factors associated with authentic leadership?
3. What are the self-reported lived experiences of the promising practice leaders
regarding the implementation of programs now and in the future?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Social and emotional learning (SEL) as defined by the Collaborative for Academic,
Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) (2020) was the conceptual framework used to find
promising practice programs that focused on the areas of self-awareness, self-management,
responsible decision making, relationship skills, and social awareness. The CASEL (2020)
conceptual framework for SEL and the subsequent definitions provided for SEL skills is the most
peer-reviewed and evaluated conceptual framework for SEL-focused programming that currently
exists (CASEL, 2020). The competencies of SEL can provide a framework for practitioners and
researchers interested in developing authentic leadership skills in higher education students
(CASEL, 2020) as several key components of authentic leadership and SEL definitions align

15

together and can further positively impact student mental health (Committee for Children, 2020;
Brackett & Rivers, 2014; CASEL, 2008; Durlak et al., 2011) while providing skill set
development for employability in the 21st century (Committee for Children, 2016; Osher et al.,
2016).
Schonert-Reichl (2019) suggested that SEL programs raised competencies in students;
instructors can teach these assessable skills to students, especially when instructors considered
the overall context and premediated the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of SEL
in the deployment of curriculum. Greenberg (2010) insisted that educational institutions must
develop intellectual skills alongside SEL skills of problem-solving, critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and self-regulation, to lead to better employment options and
outcomes for students. The National Research Council (2012) defined these skills as 21st
Century Skills and asserted that business and political leaders will need these skills in current
and future employees. Confirmed by Immordino-Yang et al. (2019), learning social and
emotional skills alongside cognitive processing positively impacts a student’s brain network
development. By creating an effective learning environment, with a student’s thinking and
metacognition practice in the context of their age and lived experience, instructors strengthen
student skills, and this is significant in biopsychosocial brain development throughout a student’s
lifetime (Darling-Hammond et al., 2008; Immordino-Yang et al., 2018; Immordino-Yang et al.,
2019).
While it has been applied widely in K–12 education, SEL has not been utilized in a
universal manner in higher education, but has more commonly been deployed in individual
courses by higher education faculty interested in developing the subject matter in their courses
and not necessarily organized as a college or university wide intervention (Conley, 2015; Cotler

16

et al., 2019; Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Stuhr et al., 2017). Reinert (2019) encouraged the
creation of a universal model for SEL in higher education due to increasing state and federal
standards in K–12 education, but also because SEL frameworks can positively impact job
performance and mental health in adults. Immordino-Yang et al. (2019) confirmed that SEL is
proper for late adolescent brain development and asserted that educational settings for late
adolescents and early adults provide opportunities to create relationships and explore deeper
meaning through investigating the real world and developing a system to guide their individual
learning into mature adulthood.
This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in higher
education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while addressing
anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. While
CASEL (2019) has created evidence-based qualifications for program assessments in K–12
education, there are currently no peer-reviewed and evidence-based assessments for higher
education SEL programs. Promising practices, by nature, do not require statistically significant
results (Whitmore et al., 2018; Wodarski & Hopson, 2020). Instead in the hierarchy of evidence,
promising practices are just below best practices and use evidence to claim that the practice is
effective at achieving a specific goal or outcome even if that evidence comes from internal
analysis and review and is not as rigorous as scientific best practices (Scandura, 2015; Whitmore
et al., 2018). Use of document analysis of publicly available documents such as websites, syllabi,
and marketing pieces alongside interviews with key leaders in promising practice programs
looked towards the lived experiences of practitioners and researchers developing work in this
area to understand how higher education institution leaders can further develop SEL in their own
institutional contexts (Agee, 2008; Gross, 2018). The research strove to show how these

17

promising practice programs fit into an overall system for students that can be part of a plan for
reaching the goal of authentic leadership development for higher education students and meet the
goals set by SUBC Deans and Directors while meeting the requirements for AACSB
accreditation.
Through validation of program outcomes with interviews, active listening that uses an in-
depth understanding of promising practice leaders’ experiences took place in a natural
environment (Creswell & Crewell, 2018). By interviewing promising practice leaders, this study
recorded their collective voices, and this strategy aligned with how these promising practice
leaders behaved in a natural setting (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The study then cross-analyzed
the data to name common themes and takeaways that are important to highlight for other higher
education institutions looking to deploy SEL based curriculum. The study used reflexivity, by
developing research journals and memos during the document analysis and interview process, for
further credibility and validity of the results (Maxwell, 2012).
Importance of the Study
Dhillon and Vaca (2018) considered a theory of change as a roadmap that organizational
leaders can use to understand how change occurs and which strategies and resource levers create
impactful and true change within the organization. Using the theory of change at the organization
level can help leaders best understand how to meet the requirements of overall organization
mission statements (Dhillon & Vaca, 2018). Tuck and Yang (2014) suggested that research itself
leads to change, which fulfills the theory of change’s charge to use research in practical matters.
SUBC Deans and Directors (2020) reported that they felt the need to address to the concerns of
the SUBC Board of Trustees’ call for a change in a curriculum as levied by the AACSB to create
universal programming through Leadership SUBC that shows adaptability to change and results

18

in students focusing on a higher purpose (AACSB, 2020). One possible route to accomplish this
charge is authentic leadership development through SEL. Authentic leadership focuses on a true
self-awareness and ethical leadership abilities (Northouse, 2019) while SEL conceptualizes the
specific skills that can be developed in people through programmatic interventions through SEL
core competencies of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and
responsible decision making to help people manage emotions while setting and achieving goals
(CASEL, 2020). Authentic leadership and SEL overlap; see the following table to further
visualize this overlap (CASEL, 2020; Northouse, 2019; Walumbwa et al., 2008).

Table 2
Overlap Between Authentic Leadership Theory and SEL Conceptual Framework Definitions
Authentic
leadership
self-awareness
Authentic leadership
internalized moral
perspective
Authentic leadership
balanced processing
Authentic leadership
relational transparency
SEL self-
awareness
SEL self-awareness,
SEL self-
management, SEL
responsible
decision making,
SEL social
awareness
SEL self-management,
SEL responsible
decision making,
SEL social
awareness
SEL self-awareness, SEL
relationship skills, SEL
social awareness

SUBC Deans and Directors can use SEL as a potential roadmap for working on the
Leadership SUBC curriculum to better understand how to develop authentic leadership skills in
college students (CASEL, 2020). In the case of rising student anxiety due to rapid change, as
well as the various other stressors on college students, authentic leadership through SEL
interventions align together by utilizing the newest leadership theory alongside realistic
intervention opportunities that have been utilized and evaluated in other educational settings to

19

alleviate anxiety and appropriately address emotions (Brackett & Rivers, 2014; Committee for
Children, 2020; CASEL, 2020; CASEL, 2008; Durlak et al., 2011). Furthermore, using SEL
focused interventions with college students can provide an opportunity to develop college
students’ authentic leadership capabilities while responding with equitable considerations and
avoiding the trap of telling college students to get tougher without any specific skills to help
them do just that (Conley, 2015; Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Reinert, 2019).
According to the AACSB (2021), the purpose of the accreditation process is to create
accountability for business school leaders to improve business practices through strategic
management, thought leadership, and societal impact. During the CIR process, college leadership
can expect to form a committee that will communicate with the AACSB and an assigned peer
review team. College leadership will give support materials to the peer review team and the peer
review team will visit the school to meet in person with multiple committees, faculty, staff,
student representatives, and alumni. During the peer team review visit, multiple interviews will
take places to better understand how the college has met the AACSB’s requirements. If the
AACSB peer review team does not see reasonable measures taken to fit AACSB criteria, the
team will recommend that an additional CIR process, called CIR2, take place within the next
year or a cancellation of accreditation will occur. While the CIR2 process allows college
leadership more time to put action plans into place and create documentation. The cancellation of
accreditation is the most severe consequence due to a serious non-alignment with AACSB
standards.
This is valuable information for other AACSB member institutions in the United States
as SUBC serves as an example of one institution needing to develop a change to curriculum and
that institution’s leadership being unaware of and overwhelmed by the various routes and options

20

that they could take for the curriculum that may or may not fit for all their goals. By wanting to
meet multiple goals of satisficing SUBC faculty, staff, and trustees and staying a viable and
competitive institution for future student enrollment, SUBC is a further example of the highly
dynamic and complicated institutional political culture at play in current-day higher education
with the threat of not meeting the standards if change does not occur by the upcoming AACSB
CIR audit. While not every AACSB member institution will match exactly with SUBC’s profile
and circumstances, U.S. based member institution leaders may be able to use this study to guide
their own efforts within their institutional contexts for future AACSB CIR audits.
Definitions
1. Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB): an organization
developed in 1916 that delivers assurance of learning, business education intelligence,
and professional development to 1,700 member organizations and 840 accredited
business schools worldwide. AACSB’s mission is to foster engagement, accelerate
innovation, and amplify impact in business education (AACSB, 2020).
2. Assurance of Learning: the process and assessment plan that proves students understand
the competencies of the degree; assurance of learning also searches for competency gaps,
changes to curriculum, and other experiences that can help close the gap (AACSB, 2020).
3. Authentic Leadership: a pattern of behavior and actions that promote positive
psychological capacities and ethical climates and relates strongly to self-awareness,
internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency
(Walumbwa et al., 2008).

21

4. Anxiety: a temporary worry or fear that can evolve into an anxiety disorder, which
involves anxiety not dissipating over time or interfering with daily activities of living
(NIH, 2020).
5. Balanced processing: self-regulation of behavior; ability to analyze information and
explore multiple opinions before decision making (Northouse, 2019).
6. Critical life events: events in personal history including family and role model influences,
challenges, and experiences that require positive or negative changes in a person’s
circumstances and personal growth in response (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).
7. Curriculum Management: the process and organization of degrees as well as the
structure, content, assessment, and pedagogy of classroom instruction (AACSB, 2020).
8. Gen Z: the human population born between 1995-2010 (Francis & Hoefel, 2018).
9. Internalized moral perspective: self-regulation where individuals use their own moral
standards and values to guide behavior vs allowing outside pressures, i.e., groupthink, to
control them (Northouse, 2019).
10. Moral and ethical reasoning: the capacity to make decisions about right or wrong ethical
issues; elevated levels of moral and ethical reasoning capabilities are associated with
leaders making decisions to serve the greater good of a group, organization, or
community while promoting justice and selflessness (Northouse, 2019)
11. Mindset: a perception that people hold about themselves, an event, or other people that
they will use when responding to an experience (Nottingham & Larsson, 2018).
12. Positive psychological capacities: influences on authentic leadership drawn from the field
of positive psychology and positive organizational behavior. The attributes of confidence,
hope, optimism, and resilience influence authentic leadership development and are state-

22

like because coaching or training can develop or change these characteristics (Northouse,
2019).
13. Relational transparency: self-regulation where an individual is open and honest about
their true self to others, this includes being vulnerable to others while being truthful about
both positive and negative aspects of behaviors (CASEL, 2020).
14. Rapid change: global, social, and marketplace shifts that happen quickly due to advances
in technology, data, and other areas that transform the nature of work and daily life for
people (Bray, 2017).
15. Relationship skills: setting up and maintaining healthy relationships with diverse
individuals by employing communication skills, active listening, cooperation,
constructive feedback and conflict behaviors, and help-seeking while avoiding influence
from negative social pressures (CASEL, 2020).
16. Resilience: an individual’s ability to positively persevere during challenges (Yeager &
Dweck, 2012) and adjust to adverse situations (Northouse, 2019).
17. Responsible decision-making: using ethics, safety concerns, social norms, and evaluation
of consequences to make constructive and respectful choices in behavior and interactions
to add positively to the well-being of self and others (CASEL, 2020).
18. Self-awareness: recognizing the influence emotions and thoughts have on behavior by
assessing strengths and limitations while keeping a grounded sense of confidence and
optimism (CASEL, 2020).
19. Self-management: self-regulation of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in various
contexts by managing stress, controlling impulses, self-motivating, and goal setting and
achievement (CASEL, 2020).

23

20. Self-narrative: a person’s construction of their own life story based on personal
experiences including thoughts, emotions, needs, wants, preferences, or beliefs that a
person holds about themselves (Harter, 2005).
21. Social awareness: understanding social and ethical behavioral norms by recognizing
support systems and using empathy of people from diverse backgrounds and cultures to
better understand various perspectives (CASEL, 2020).
22. Social and emotional learning (SEL): the process by which people can learn how to
manage their emotions, set goals, develop relationships, and make positive decisions
(CASEL, 2020).
23. Soft skills: skills that involve little to no interactions with machines; generalized skills
that involve people management including psychological, communication, and leadership
competencies (Whitmore & Fry, 1974).
24. Stress: a physical and emotional reaction to change that people experience as a normal
feeling; however, long-term, and uncontrollable stress can contribute to or worsen
physical health problems, depression, anxiety, and other mental illnesses (CDCP, 2020;
NIH, 2020).
Organization of the Study
Five chapters make up this study. Chapter One provided an overview of the study and
defined the problem of practice along with the background and purpose of the study. The chapter
also introduced the concepts of higher education student anxiety, AACSB accreditation,
authentic leadership and SEL definitions, and study stakeholders. Chapter Two reviews a
synthesis of key influences on SUBC Deans and Directors through the relevant literature
including authentic leadership, SEL, college student anxiety, AACSB accreditation standards’

24

impact on business schools, and the opportunities available to use SEL in higher education. A
discussion of comprehensive topics alongside the SEL framework and authentic leadership
theory provide the reader with a deeper understanding of past research and how it relates to this
study. Chapter Three provides the methodology of the study for evidence-based promising
practices research while reviewing the sample and population, instrumentation, and data
collection and analysis. Chapter Four reports the results and includes a summary of reflections
on the findings for promising practices solutions. Chapter Five concludes this study with a
discussion of the findings and implications for practice and future research.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review explores the theory of authentic leadership and connect it with the
conceptual framework of SEL. This literature review considers the potential influences on SUBC
Deans and Directors and what this stakeholder group will need to consider about the increased
reporting of undergraduate college student anxiety over the last 10 years in U.S. higher education
institutions. By delving into the current challenges of college student anxiety and focusing on
overarching prevalent stress, further root causes of extended stress for U.S. higher education
students emphasize macro changes in society and the shifting future of the role of a college
degree, regarding a shrinking job market and the overall shift in work requirements predicted to
take place in the 2030s. This literature review then focuses on the AACSB directive to business
colleges to increase innovative curriculum and create an environment suited to nurturing
effective leadership in students, which creates the buy-in and sense of urgency necessary for
SUBC Deans and Directors to develop change within the college curriculum. Building on the
discussion of nurturing effective leadership, the literature review considered the opportunities to
integrate SEL into a higher education curriculum, which can decrease student anxiety while
promoting resilience to rapid change and disruption and furthering a success mindset to meet the
new AACSB requirements, and this is the emphasis of the promising practices research as
developed in the next chapter.
Theory: Authentic Leadership
George (2003) popularized the theory of authentic leadership when he wrote about his
experience as Medtronic’s Chief Executive Officer (CEO). As the theory became prevalent in
popular business culture, scholars began to embrace the theory, considering authentic leadership
as a natural progression of transformational leadership (Northouse, 2019). Gardner et al. (2011)

26

explained that Luthans and Avolio (2003) called for a theory-driven model of authentic
leadership that led to interdisciplinary summits where scholars and practitioners affirmed
authentic leadership as the newest leadership theory developed for the 21st century. Avolio and
Gardner (2004) defined authentic leadership as the combination of transformational and ethical
leadership styles. Avolio and Gardner (2005) further found that various corporate ethical
scandals, such as those at Enron Corporation and WorldCom, provoked a societal desire for
leadership characterized by transparency, trust, integrity, and high moral standards. Avolio and
Gardner (2005) distinguished authentic leaders as people who understand themselves, but who
help followers achieve similar authenticity. While these authentic leaders may sound too good to
be true, George (2003) suggested that authentic leaders have shortcomings, but what makes them
authentic is that they admit to and work to overcome these shortcomings. George (2003)
reflected that when the authentic leader faces challenges, they refuse to compromise on their
principles, and they continue to push themselves towards personal growth.
Relevance of Authentic Leadership to the Study
The theory of authentic leadership is relevant to this study due to evolving AACSB
(2020) standards requiring business colleges to positively transform society and solve complex
problems. The AACSB expects business colleges to nurture leadership development in students
while also highlighting the dynamic interplay of strategic management, learner success, and
thought leadership for societal impact and resonance with a deep understanding of ethics. These
expectations are in line with the requirements for accountability and morality that authentic
leadership theory demands (Avolio & Gardner, 2004; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; George, 2003).
SUBC Deans and Directors must respond to changing needs in society by ensuring that students

27

learn the necessary skills to stay relevant and be a “force for good” (AACSB, 2020, p. 7) to
follow changing AACSB standards.
Traditional College Student Suitability for Authentic Leadership Development
Gen Z, the current generation of traditional college students born between 1995-2010,
(Francis & Hoefel, 2018) are more prone to buy into the idea of developing their own authentic
leadership than previous generations given that authenticity driven by social media narrative
construction is a major cultural keystone for this generation (Business Insights Global, 2020;
Maloni et al., 2019; Shane-Simpson et al., 2018). Gen Z has demanded authenticity from media
and marketing sources even more so than Gen Y, also known as millennials (Business Insights
Global, 2020; Maloni et al., 2019). Francis & Hoefel (2018) confirmed that Gen Z values a
consistent search for the truth and views authenticity as a freedom of expression and acceptance
of a diversity of people. Gen Z sees little to no differentiation between the offline and online
worlds when building their own personal brand through social media and connecting with others
(Francis & Hoefel, 2018).
Because they have been consistently exposed to social media and displaying their lives
on platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok, understanding their personal
self-narrative and how that self-narrative is depicted in photographs, videos, and text is an
important influence on Gen Z’s development (Harter, 2005; Ross, 2019; Business Insights
Global, 2020; Shane-Simpson et al., 2018; Sherman et al., 2018). Merriman (2015) found that
Gen Z wants to engage with realism and “real people” (p. 1). Gen Z’s use of social media to
follow ordinary people who have become influencers on YouTube and other social media
platforms, as well as their preference for advertising with nontraditional models and their
protests over images of perfection further supports this focus on realism (Merriman, 2015). Gen

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Z followers often require what they consider to be authenticity on social media platforms from
the influencers they follow; if influencers do not come off as meeting this standard of
authenticity, it is popular for Gen Z to quickly stereotype them as phony or “doing it for the
‘gram” (Hana, 2018, p. 1). This phrase refers to posting inauthentic pictures and videos of non-
reality circumstances to gain likes on the Instagram platform (Martinez-Pecino & Garcia-
Gavilán, 2019; Hana, 2019; Jackson & Luchner, 2018; Newman, 2020; Ross, 2019). The Gen Z
definition of authenticity is ever-evolving, and some may consider it hypocritical and
misunderstood, given the prevalence of filters and other appearance-altering technology that is
consistently popular with this generation who are struggling to understand, exhibit, and support
real authenticity versus perceived authenticity (Hana, 2018; Harter, 2005; Newman, 2020).
Confirmed by Martinez-Pecino and Garcia-Gavilán (2019), the number and consistency
of likes received on the Instagram platform has a moderating effect on self-esteem for young
adults. As Ross (2019) discovered, many female young adults have crafted strategies to gain
likes from followers, who they may or may not know outside of the digital space; and in attempt
to be more authentic will create additional Instagram accounts to allow themselves the freedom
to break rules and highlight their real life versus their well-crafted social media life. Maloni et al.
(2019) found in a survey of Gen Z students from seven U.S. business colleges that Gen Z
students most value seeing the results of their work and making an impact with that work, which
leads to positive impact being an important role in their self-narrative and the importance of
intrinsic, supervisory, social, altruistic, and stability values that business college faculty may
underestimate. The further development of personal self-narrative by highlighting results of work
fueled with the competitiveness of college can further evolve with the reward of support by peers

29

online through likes, comments, and other forms of online engagement (Dumas et al., 2017;
Jackson & Luchner, 2018; Maloni et al., 2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016; Ross, 2019).
While authentic leadership may be a high calling for traditional college students, who are
still developing their own understanding of themselves, authentic leadership requires a leader to
have a positive view of the rapidly changing future. It also requires leaders to use
transformational and ethical behaviors to be resilient to change and create self-empowerment
while still being true to a self-narrative and drive to express themselves (Arnett, 2000; Avolio &
Gardner, 2004; Ross, 2019). Gardner et al. (2005) asserted that through the development of
authentic leaders and followers, positive ethical climates can grow within an institution. Heavily
influenced by positive psychology, authentic leadership theory champions a future focused
mindset that is hopeful for success (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Students who own their
experiences can begin to define their values, thoughts, and emotions and act on those principles
that compel them to be authentic in both the online and offline worlds (Avolio & Gardner, 2004;
Harter, 2002; Ross 2019). As confirmed by King (2019), SUBC Deans and Directors must take
heed of Gen Z’s attention to the concept of authenticity and deliver not only an environment that
champions experiences, but also uses creative and innovative curriculums that allow Gen Z
students to practice these skills sets, which will lead to further authenticity development.
Major Elements of Authentic Leadership
Gardner et al. (2005) emphasized that authentic leadership is not conditional; a person is
not completely an authentic or inauthentic leader; instead, a person is more authentic or less
authentic or inauthentic over time in various contexts. George (2003) defined the five dimensions
of authentic leadership as “understanding purpose, practicing solid values, leading with heart,
establishing connected relationships, and demonstrating self-discipline” (p. 18). Avolio et al.

30

(2004) defined authentic leadership as leaders who have confidence, optimism, hope, self-
efficacy, and resilience. Avolio and Gardner (2005) built on this definition and found that leaders
achieve authenticity by working towards self-awareness and self-acceptance. This effort requires
transparency, openness, and trust, as well as consistent movement towards worthwhile goals and
developing relationships with followers built on authentic leadership principles (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005).
Self-awareness and self-regulation are clear imperatives in authentic leadership as a
leader’s understanding about their own strengths and weaknesses evolves and how these
attributes affect the leader as well as how co-leaders’ and followers’ strengths and weaknesses
interplay with this and places a high importance on the personal growth and development of
leaders and followers (Avolio et al., 2004). Authentic leaders are committed to their own
development as well as their followers, so that both authentic leaders and followers can find
success and develop a true sense of self alongside an acceptance of self (Avolio & Gardner,
2005). Nyberg and Sveningsson (2014) proposed that authentic leaders gather data about
themselves and then use that data to self-regulate their own performance. Avolio and Gardner
(2005) considered that self-awareness links to self-reflection and that by reflecting, people gain
clarity to their core values and beliefs which enable their goals.
Avolio et al. (2004) posited that when authentic leaders are clear about their own values,
they can critically decipher if those attributes are present in others. This self-awareness can
develop into a self-assured followership (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009), which can then lead to a
group dynamic where the need to belong is an important aspect of identity for authentic leaders.
Diddams and Chang (2012) asserted that any weakness that comes from a need to belong for
authentic leaders simply increases self-awareness and the identity of those authentic leaders.

31

Furthermore, Northouse (2019) concluded that the essential components for authentic leadership
are self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational
transparency with positive psychological capacities, critical life events, and moral and ethical
reasoning as influential factors that develop these components. To further ensure authentic
leadership develops, SUBC Deans and Directors must consider curriculum opportunities that
feature the influential factors that further form the components of authentic leadership.
Positive Psychological Capacities
Positive psychology plays a significant role in authentic leadership development; as
Harter (2002) suggested, authenticity requires a leader to know themselves and understand who
they are as a person, which can lead to higher self-esteem, cheerfulness, and hope. Psychological
capital is related to high performance outcomes with positive psychological capital contributing
to more effective goal reaching and overall human flourishing (Luthans & Youssef, 2006;
Luthans et al., 2007). Luthans et al. (2006) defined positive psychological capital as a human
state distinguished by prominent levels of self-efficacy, hope, resiliency, and optimism.
Furthermore, Luthans et al. (2007) discovered that fully developed psychological capital factors
have a positive impact on job satisfaction and performance, which can develop into positive
return on investment and positive impact on stakeholders for any industry.
Moral and Ethical Reasoning
Morality and ethics distinguish authentic leadership from transformational leadership
(Northouse, 2019). Diddams and Chang (2012) attribute society’s desire for accountability,
integrity, courage, and transparency in leadership with authentic leadership’s relevance in the
current environment and the moral compass that authentic leadership must hold as crucial to
business practices. Authentic leaders respond to increased anxiety in society derived from

32

smaller iterative changes and outlier changes, such as the black swan events of September 11th
and the 2007 Great Recession (Diddams & Chang, 2012; Taleb, 2007). Avolio and Gardner
(2005) and May et al. (2003) depicted ethical behavior in authentic leaders as a contribution to a
positive organizational climate, because authentic leaders communicate a positive moral
perspective and perform highly moral deeds emphasized by their values. Within the business
world, Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) linked authentic leadership to positive performance sales
growth because of the self-assured and ethical focus on leader and follower development can
lead to more productivity and sales gains. Furthering this idea, Lo (2016) noted that the adult use
of dual process decision making required of ethics and morality can affect an adult’s
understanding of their life history and reprogram the cultural impacts of an institution to be in
tune within a job focused environment.
Understanding Critical Life Events
Harter (2005) asserted that authenticity requires a person to own their individual
experiences of all kinds including thoughts, emotions, needs, wants, preferences, or beliefs. For
someone to really know themselves, they must form a self-narrative construction of their life
story. This life self-narrative is important to develop as Avolio and Gardner (2005) define critical
life events, or trigger events, as events in personal history including family and role model
influences, challenges, and experiences that require positive or negative changes in a person’s
circumstances and personal growth in response, which all have large impacts on self-narrative.
While critical life events may be subtle or dramatic in influence, authentic leaders need these
events to develop innovative solutions to problems (Gardner et al., 2005).

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Controversies and Conflicts
The controversy and conflicts of authentic leadership revolve around the very issues that
define it, as critiques for how moral a person can be and what level of expectations society can
levy for true authenticity denotes authentic leadership’s ambiguity and cautions against
oversimplifying authentic leaders into good or bad characters (Tomkins & Nicholds, 2017;
Gardner et al., 2011). Ladkin and Spiller (2013) recognized that the mainstream image of
authentic leaders resisting moral corruption is a popularized concept that can muddle the view of
authenticity as a practice of self-control and direct it as a self-interested narrative plot for various
social and political contexts. Furthermore, Nicholson and Carroll (2013) supported the concern
that through too much self-reflection and the social distancing that it can require, authentic
leaders continuously risk self-indulgence and absorption by falling into a trap known as Plato’s
cave. Plato’s cave is an allegory depicting that people who do not move past their own
perceptions of their knowledge will not gain full understanding of the world, because they
believe only what they see or what others tell them to believe as an echo-chamber without fully
considering philosophical reasoning for multiple opinions and facts (Plato, ca. 375 B.C.E./2017).
The emergence of multiple definitions of authentic leadership continues to create ambiguity
about how to define it and in turn, leaders risk over-philosophizing on their self-narrative
(Gardner et al., 2011; Smolovic´ Jones & Grint, 2013.) SUBC Deans and Directors must be
aware of the controversies and conflicts around authentic leadership to make informed decisions
about how to implement authentic leadership development in a correct way for students and to
have the ability to foresee and reply to any stakeholder concerns.

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The Gordon Gekko Effect
The “Gordon Gekko Effect” (p. 18) introduced by Lo (2016) suggested that 30 years after
the films’ debut, some viewers of Wall Street still idolize Gordon Gekko for the character’s
bravado, and this had a major impact on corporate culture and an impact on individuals in the
finance field to steer away from more ethical forms of leadership. Greed is good, a popularized
catch phrase from the 1987 Oliver Stone film Wall Street, originated from this line emphasized
in the script: “The point is, ladies and gentlemen, that greed is, for lack of a better word, is good.
Greed is right. Greed works. Greed clarifies, cuts through, and captures the essence of the
evolutionary spirit. Greed, in all of its forms, greed for life, for money, for love, knowledge, has
marked the upward surge of mankind” (Rollert, 2017, p. 18). Michael Douglas portrayed
fictional stockbroker Gordon Gekko, who was based on Ivan Boesky, a famous stock trader who
at the 1986 University of California Berkeley commencement said: “Greed is all right, by the
way, I want you to know that. I think greed is healthy. You can be greedy and still feel good
about yourself” (Greene, 1986, p. 1). Months after his famed speech, the Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC) charged Boesky in what was the largest insider trading scandal at
that time (Greene, 1986; Rollert, 2017).
Lo (2016) further emphasized that corporate cultures can impart negative values to
employees that makes ethical violations more probable, which created a negative shared culture
among people in an organization. Authentic leadership theory has not necessarily been able to
persuade leaders to act ethically (Johnsen & Johnsen, 2018). Furthermore, Algera and Lips-
Wiersma (2012) asserted that not all authentic leaders have the same ethical standards and
authentic leadership can fail to reach these overarching pro-social ethical goals. While many
leaders have not defined themselves as authentic leaders specifically, recent financial scandals

35

including the collapse of Lehman Brothers bank (O’Hara, 2016), the Bernie Madoff Ponzi
scheme (Henriques, 2018), and FinCEN 2020, where 90 banks earmarked $2 trillion as
suspicious filings for money laundering (Brush, 2020; Office of the Inspector General of the U.S.
Treasury Department, 2017), have occurred on positional leaders' watch. The financial industry
is not the only industry at risk of ethical missteps, as a culture of ethical violations has also
occurred recently throughout multiple industries with Apple, Boeing, Facebook, Google,
Samsung, Theranos, Volkswagen, and WeWork under multiple investigations (Bilton, 2013;
Frier, 2020; Holmes, 2019; Levy, 2020).
The Difference Between Truth and Honesty
Truth and honesty stand out as key points in authentic leadership; however, full honesty
can damage relationships made by authentic leaders. (Harter, 2005). Harter (2005) distinguished
truth and honesty based on Lerner’s (1993) study on truth telling. In this depiction, honesty is
uncensored and without thought for feeling or consequence of statements, while truth fully
considers the boundaries of what is acceptable in relationships and is a considered version of
honesty. Diddams and Chang (2012) questioned the effects of honesty and vulnerability in
authentic leadership; while authentic leadership includes recognizing weaknesses and strengths,
they argued that theorists rarely consider weaknesses and the unintended consequences of a
strengths-based form of authentic leadership. Harter (2005) further suggested that adolescents
will split themselves into two narratives, one scripted and one authentic due to concerns over
weaknesses and unmet expectations. Ross (2019) confirmed this in a study that found young
adult females will adopt various narratives on social media platforms. Harter (2005) recognized
that young adults are in active conflict with themselves based on whether they are being true to
self or engaging in false-self behavior, which Harter (2005) further argued highlights authenticity

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as a value that young adults strive for but that their developmental behavior can make it difficult
to reach.
The Privilege to Express Oneself
A Mintel (2020) industry report found that 62% of surveyed Gen Z college students,
between the ages of 18-25, believed they needed to hide their true feelings and vulnerabilities
were too risky to express when setting up new connections and searching for job opportunities.
Nyberg and Sveningsson (2014) critiqued authentic leadership by questioning the claim that a
person can consistently express themselves and always behave with good intent. George and
Sims (2007) suggested that authentic leaders are more concerned about serving others than
themselves and that vulnerability was part of an accepted process for authenticity. Nyberg and
Sveningsson (2014) asserted that self-awareness comes from a place of privilege for people who
can understand themselves and focus on an elite self-concept, and this marginalizes people who
cannot meet this full reality by recognizing that many leaders who fail to remain authentic
experience anxiety due to marginalization and cannot risk the vulnerability that authentic
leadership requires. Maslow’s (1954) Hierarchy of Needs served as a foundation for this view, as
the theory suggested that people cannot reach self-actualization until fulfilling all physiological,
safety, belonging, and esteem needs. While academia has steadily critiqued the Hierarchy of
Needs (Hofstede, 1984), the suggestion of fulfillment of specific needs before reaching self-
actualization is important to consider when discussing developing authentic leadership under an
equity lens, especially in young adults (Arnett, 2000; Harter 2002; Harter 2005; Maslow, 1954).
Divergence in Generational Values
Anderson et al. (2017) recognized a barrier to authentic leadership among generations
and suggested that current Baby Boomer authentic leaders who use their value systems in

37

building authentic followership with younger generations could be sorely disappointed that
younger people do not hold the same values. Avolio (2005) asserted that authentic leadership is
trainable; however, authentic leaders often consider their role as a mission and make choices and
assumptions based on their own self-discovered values (Anderson et al., 2017). While Anderson
et al.'s (2017) study does not consider the differences in Gen Z and Millennials, the same
assertion could hold true, given that the two groups are similar in value structures about work
(Maloni et al., 2019). Authentic leaders need to experiment with evolving their values based on
societal change and this experimentation with self-presentation and understanding can be risky to
developing one’s self-concept (Harter 2012; Tomkins & Nicholds, 2017). However, Hartner
(2005) also suggested that further narrative construction allows leaders to create blueprints for
adoption to new circumstances and authentic leaders can emerge with their life story as their true
story and understanding of themselves. By using the conceptual framework of SEL, SUBC
Deans and Directors can create a roadmap to developing authentic leadership in students, since
SEL ties directly to increasing a student’s understanding of themselves as well as how they learn
and apply authentic leadership’s influential factors.
Conceptual Framework: Social and Emotional Learning
Weissberg et al. (2015) described the development of SEL over the previous 20 years in
the K–12 classroom and the creation of the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning (CASEL) as a professional organization. CASEL establishes evidence-based practices
and policies to initiate SEL development and measurement for performance standards (CASEL,
2020). CASEL (2020) categorizes SEL into five core competencies including self-awareness,
self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making. Figure

38

1 demonstrates these five core competencies used by multiple stakeholders for K–12 student
SEL development.
Figure 1
Center for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning Five Core Competencies

Note. Adapted from What is the CASEL Framework? By CASEL, 2020
https://casel.org/fundamentals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework

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Core Competencies
The competencies of SEL can provide a conceptual framework or roadmap for academic
practitioners interested in developing these skills in students (CASEL, 2020) and can further
impact student mental health (Committee for Children, 2020; Brackett & Rivers, 2014; CASEL,
2008; Durlak et al., 2011) as well as provide skill set development for employability in the 21st
century (Committee for Children, 2016; Osher et al., 2016). CASEL (2020) defines self-
awareness as “the ability to accurately recognize one’s emotions and thoughts and their influence
on behavior;” (p. 1) self-management as “the ability to regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and
behaviors effectively in different situations;” (p. 1) social awareness as “the ability to take the
perspective of and empathize with others from diverse backgrounds and cultures, to understand
social and ethical norms for behavior, and to recognize family, school, and community resources
and supports;” (p. 1) relationship skills as “the ability to establish and maintain healthy and
rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups;” (p. 1) and responsible decision-
making as “the ability to make constructive and respectful choices about personal behavior and
social interactions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, social norms, the
realistic evaluation of consequences of various actions, and the well-being of self and others” (p.
1).
The K–12 Adoption of SEL
Durlak et al. (2011) conducted a meta-analysis of 213 school based universal SEL
programs for kindergarten through high school students and found that SEL programming
significantly improves students’ skills, attitudes, and behaviors while increasing prosocial
aptitude, reducing conduct problems, and increasing academic performance. Taylor et al. (2017)
further confirmed in their own meta-analysis of 82 school based universal SEL programs that

40

SEL increases prosocial behavior in a socioeconomically diverse set of students and helps
students prepare for college and work life. Durlak et al. (2011) asserted that an environment
plays a key role in a student’s SEL development in that peer and adult norms, caring teacher-
student relationships, teacher approaches, and safe and orderly classrooms with SEL
programming impact the overall environment to contribute to immediate and long-term
development and deployment of skill sets in the core competency areas. Weissberg et al. (2015)
found that SEL programming that uses the core competencies framework with explicit
instruction and learning pedagogy helps students engage in the learning process and develop
analytical, communication, and collaboration skills.
SEL Climate and Culture Impacts
At the institutional level, SEL practices come from policies and procedures set in place to
develop school climate and build a sense of community for students, but also for teachers and
administrators engaged in SEL practices and development of classroom curricula (Weissberg et
al., 2015; Durlak et al., 2011; Patti et al., 2015). Senge (1996) considered a school to be a
learning organization with a common vision and asserted that school leaders use system thinking
to understand the organizational culture and climate as well as how this can be further utilized to
positively impact student learning and retention of various skills such as those in SEL. Patti et al.
(2015) explained that educational leaders’ beliefs are essential to shaping culture and that if
leaders support SEL skill building in the classroom, it will become a priority driver of curriculum
and instruction.
Patti et al. (2015) supported the idea that educational leaders, who have a comprehensive
understanding of their educational institution, can scan the needs of stakeholders, and identify
gaps in school structure. Filling these gaps will allow the school culture to encourage SEL

41

development and modeling core competencies throughout the school environment (CASEL,
2020; Patti et al., 2015). Further understanding of how curriculum and instruction alongside
schoolwide practices and policies affect a student’s use and commitment to SEL is relevant to
this study and important to consider when discerning promising practices and defining a better
understanding of an educational institution’s role in this process (CASEL, 2020).
Recent SEL Controversy in State Legislation
SEL has been controversial in recent government and political climates as Mahfouz
(2022) found that a 2021 report from the American Enterprise Institute presented concerns about
SEL approaches in the K–12 classroom and ignored evidence of the positive influence SEL has
on students’ well-being, academic achievement, and sense of belonging. In a joint research
effort, The Education Trust and CASEL (2022) found that most state governments are not
supportive of integrating SEL in K–12 classrooms and signal this through a lack of SEL policies
in state education goals, equity-based guidance, funding, and ensuring data on these measures is
publicly available. Most recently, SEL has come under fire in Oklahoma through Senator Shane
Jett’s introduction of Oklahoma Senate Bill 1442, which would prohibit K–12 public school
districts, public charter schools, or virtual public charter schools from using federal and state
funding to “promote, purchase, or utilize the concepts of SEL for education training or
instruction of students in the classroom” (S.B.1442, 2022, p. 3) and further requires that “no
teacher, administrator, counselor, employee, or volunteer” (S.B.1442, 2022, p. 3) use any SEL
content with students with the ability of any parent of legal guardian of a student to report to the
district attorney with project and assignment instructions in question (S.B.1442, 2022). If found
in violation of the policy, the school district, public charter school, or public virtual charter
school will be penalized “in an amount equal to five percent of the State Aid allocation for the

42

district, charter school, or virtual charter school for the preceding fiscal year” (S.B.1442, 2022, p.
4).
SEL in Skill Development, Public Health, and Emotional Wellbeing
Crain et al. (2017) asserted that SEL-focused programs raise soft skill competencies in
students and in teachers; students can learn these skills and they are assessable, especially when
instructors premediate overall context and the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of
SEL in the deployment of curriculum. Greenberg (2010) insisted that educational institutions
must develop intellectual skills, but also develop SEL skills such as problem-solving, critical
thinking, communication, collaboration, and self-regulation to lead to better employment options
and outcomes for students. The National Research Council (2012) defined these specific skills as
21st Century Skills and maintained that business and political leaders will need these skills in
current and future employees. Confirmed by Immordino-Yang et al. (2019), social and emotional
skill development alongside cognitive processing further affects a student’s brain network
development. An effective learning environment, with a student’s thinking and metacognition
practice in the context of their age and lived experience, can student strengthen a student’s skills,
and this can be significant in biopsychosocial brain development throughout a student’s lifetime
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2008; Immordino-Yang et al., 2018; Immordino-Yang, et al., 2019).
Greenberg et al. (2017) argued that universal SEL initiatives in schools are an
opportunity to affect overall public health. Universal initiatives are those that target all students
(O’Connell et al., 2009) and school-based universal SEL initiatives focus on improving school
structure, supporting pedagogy, and offering a SEL skills-based curriculum to all students in a
systematic approach that is developed and deployed by multiple stakeholders such as a
administrators, teachers, counselors, family, and community members (Greenberg, 2010).

43

CASEL (2008) suggested that mental health initiatives in schools must meet student needs prior
to significant mental health issue development and distribute resources and support for students
with mental health needs to prevent the escalation of problematic behavior and emotions. System
wide, universal interventions support a generalized student population and not targeted as
selective interventions for students in risk categories such as extreme poverty, trauma,
depression, or substance abuse (Greenberg et al., 2017). Universal interventions are preventative
and lead to a protective shield akin to the requirement of wearing seat belts in motor vehicles that
can positively affect a larger population (Rose, 1992). While this might supply educational
leaders with a false sense of security that they have protected all students from mental health
deterioration, it can also reduce exposure to mainstream risks and develop healthy norms, skills,
and attitudes in the general student population (Greenberg et al., 2017).
Brackett et al. (2009) supported a systemic, universal school based SEL intervention
through the creation of the RULER approach that focused on SEL skills driven in emotion by
“recognizing emotions in self and others, understanding the causes and consequences of
emotions, labeling emotional experiences with an accurate and diverse vocabulary, and
expressing and regulating emotions in ways that promote both intra- and inter-personal growth”
(p. 330). A focus on emotional intelligence, as first developed by Savoy and Mayer (1990) and
popularized by Goleman (1995), can be associated with authentic leadership as Miao et al.
(2018) confirmed in a meta-analysis that emotional intelligence is a significant variable
associated positively to authentic leadership. Brackett and Rivers (2014) explained that
developing emotional intelligence is important for both young students and adults, including
teachers and administrators leading educational institutions. Boyatzis et al. (2002) and Van
Droffelaar & Jacobs (2007) confirmed that adult learners’ emotional intelligence and authentic

44

leadership are trainable; teachers can develop these skills in learners in core educational and co-
curricular environments and this can make a positive impact on wellbeing.
Levinson et al. (2020) suggested that reopening primary public schools safely, while
managing the COVID-19 pandemic, was a priority for children’s SEL abilities. While confined
to elementary schools in their reporting, Levison et al. (2020) encouraged educational policy
leaders to determine and finance proper elementary school reopening plans when community
transmission was at an acceptable level while tending to the emotional needs of both students
and faculty and considering various risk levels of multiple individuals including those most at
risk for severe consequences of disease burdens. The emphasis on K–12 SEL increased
dramatically during the pandemic as disruption to in-person classes and concern over mental
health of teenagers in Gen Z continues; overall concern for wellness is a major trend driver for
companies and educational organizations alike (Mintel, 2020). When surveyed about their
emotional health, one in 10 Gen Z teenagers admitted that they felt less emotionally supported
than they wished (Mintel, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for further SEL
tools for students and SEL-focused organizations offered webinars, training, and further support
for students and teachers in K–12 schools throughout the pandemic (CASEL, 2020b; Walker,
2020). Mintel’s (2020) industry report on marketing to Gen Z during COVID-19 suggested that
if higher education institutions considered emphasizing mental health services as a continuation
from a K–12 experience, parents and students might justify high tuition prices and fees in the
future. Due to the opportunity to justify tuition increases, SUBC Deans and Directors must
consider the causes of college student anxiety and mental health service demands and how this
can be a driver for a curriculum that emphasizes SEL in higher education.

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College Student Anxiety
The idea that a college student can experience unique stressors is not novel. However, the
amount of stress leading to a significantly increased level of self-reported anxiety is a
phenomenon identified in the popular press as a college mental health crisis (Iarovici, 2014;
Xiao, 2017) and is worth the attention of college administrators and other stakeholders alike
(Lipson et al., 2019; Pedrelli et al., 2015; Sprung & Rogers, 2020). This attention to the college
mental health crisis is important for SUBC Deans and Directors to recognize as they are fielding
concern from stakeholders, such as faculty and staff as well as trustees and employers over this
increase as reflected in national media, but also in their own students. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (2020) defined anxiety as a normal reaction to stress and suggested that
long term, uncontrollable stress leads to an anxiety disorder. Further, the CDC has considered
this as a prevalent concern in college populations. The National Institute of Mental Health (2020)
furthered this definition by noting that anxiety disorders can interfere with daily activities, such
as schoolwork, and include a variety of signs and symptoms which further categorize anxiety
disorders into generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and phobia-
related disorders.
Pedrelli et al. (2015) explained that college students experience mental health symptoms
during young adulthood, a transitional age that includes college-level education, and that the
collegiate environment can exacerbate mental health symptoms due to the prevalence of
deadlines, tests, opportunities to abuse substances, as well as a lack of parental influence to
reinforce positive behaviors such as adherence to studying and to regular sleeping hours (Adams
et al., 2020; Adams et al., 2017). Sprung and Rodgers (2020) suggested that while college
students spend their time learning about a specific subject matter and working towards a degree,

46

students are also working through the process of self-actualization to understand and create their
own identities; this process includes having to navigate multiple challenges of independent living
while balancing obligations to school, work, and family life. Arnett (2000) noted that
transitioning to adulthood can bring about further stressors for college-aged students in their
understanding of how their future may develop, including how they will live, what they will do,
and who they will marry. While non-traditional undergraduate students can be older in age and
already have dependents, they are not immune to stressful considerations about how college may
change their lives and livelihood (Pedrelli et al., 2015).
Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent of documented mental health problems among
college students (Pedrelli et al., 2015) and can be further complicated by alcohol and other
substance abuse disorders (Blanco et al., 2008). Within the last 10-year period, there has been an
increase in reported mental health anxiety related symptoms as well as symptoms related to
depression and eating disorders in student populations. Because of this increase in reporting,
there has also been a greater demand for college-provided counseling services (Lipson et al.,
2019). However, Hunt and Eisenberg (2010) noted that there is a significant variation of services
and resources available across college campuses for mental health, and this includes how college
students use the resources. To better understand the root causes of college student anxiety, SUBC
Deans and Directors will benefit from the current perspective on college student anxiety and
viewing the increase of mental health service demand on college campuses.
Current Perspective
Lipson et al., (2019) found that mental health disorder diagnoses have risen from 22% to
36% of college students and posited that this is due to increasing mental health problems
amongst the population and the stigmatization decrease around mental health reporting. Xiao et

47

al. (2017) found that mental health diagnoses of anxiety in college students led to depression and
increases in suicide and self-harm on campus. Age, within the context of transitioning to
adulthood, also links to developing anxiety (Arnett, 2000). Hunt and Eisenberg (2009) confirmed
that anxiety disorders are just as prevalent in similar-aged student and non-student populations as
diagnoses are increasing in number and severity over time in both populations. However, student
populations often have the benefit of student health insurance and potential interventions through
campus service providers (Lipson et al., 2019; Pedrelli et al., 2015).
The most recent Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors
(AUCCCD) (2020) survey of college counseling center directors for the reporting period
between July 2019 to June 2020, discovered that anxiety is the most pressing concern of all
college counseling center appointments at 59.2% followed by depression, stress, and family
concerns. This has increased slightly from an earlier AUCCD (2018) report that showed 58.9%
of student appointments were for anxiety. Wait time has improved, as the AUCCD (2020) survey
found that average wait time was five business days for a student’s first appointment. An earlier
AUCCD (2018) report emphasized that while 66.3% of centers did not have a waitlist, centers
that do have a waitlist average a wait of 17.7 business days for appointments. Pedrelli et al.
(2015) supported that early identification of students with mental health problems is critical to
supply services, the 2018 AUCCCD report found that only an average 11.8% of students use
campus counseling centers, while the 2020 AUCCCD report found that this increased to 13% of
campus served. Hunt and Eisenberg (2009) suggested that common barriers to students using
counseling services is a lack of understanding about the symptoms of anxiety and skepticism of
treatment effectiveness.

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While studies have been completed on student anxiety causes (Kraft et al., 2019; Pedrelli
et al., 2015), lack of mental health services (Xiao et al., 2017) and interventions (Lipson et al.,
2019), few studies have been completed on what faculty and staff outside of college counseling
centers could do to reach students struggling with general stress and anxiety, who may or may
not self-report or consider using counseling services. Micari and Pazos (2012) showed that
faculty can have a positive effect on anxious students on topics of grade point average and self-
efficacy in highly challenging courses. However, Micari and Pazos (2012) limited their
suggestions for exactly how faculty can implement teaching practices that use more specific
skills in social and emotional practices to help students manage their anxiety about the course
itself or about their transitioning adult roles. Conley (2015) further suggested that mindfulness
interventions led by faculty in the classroom can be helpful to students, however studies were on
a course-by course-basis with no longitudinal data available for further assessment. SUBC Deans
and Directors are trying to calibrate the process around faculty working with students and by
understanding the further influences on college student anxiety they will be able to decide what
processes would work within their college’s context.
Further Influences on College Student Anxiety
The following areas, found in the literature on college student anxiety, are influencing the
increase of self-reported anxiety on college campuses. While each influence could elicit a study
of its own, understanding how the various influences can combine and multiply the feelings of
extended stress in the college student population is important to explore. While the following is
not meant to be extensive, it does paint a picture of the current situation in the United States for
college students from the 2010s and those who are entering college into the 2020s that will be

49

helpful to SUBC Deans and Directors when understanding the context of college student anxiety
and mental health demands.
Competitiveness
There are multiple influences on college student anxiety outside of the transition to
adulthood and various interpersonal factors such as personality traits (Arnett 2000). In the first
large-scale study of higher education’s cultural obsession of competitiveness and its relationship
to student anxiety, Posselt and Lipson (2016) discovered a positive relationship between elevated
levels of perceived competition and anxiety. Posselt and Lipton (2016) also found this
relationship to be especially strong in historically underrepresented and marginalized college
student populations and further established that perceptions of competition increase the odds of
college students screening positive for anxiety by seventy percent. Evans et al. (2018) noted that
higher education’s overall culture creates a mental illness stigma for students and faculty alike in
terms of competitiveness, lack of work-life balance, and extreme persistence towards academic
goals.
COVID-19
The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020 took higher education
administrators by surprise due to the quickness needed to act by March 2020 when deciding the
continuation of study plans and administrative issues of managing large student populations
(Brammer & Clark, 2020). Mintel (2020) predicted that student enrollment would drop in the
2020-2021 academic year and would cost higher education institutions an overall total of $23
billion in lost revenue. A later Mintel (2021) report found that first-time undergraduate student
enrollment for dropped 13.1% in Fall 2020 from Fall 2019. Brammer and Clark (2020) suggested
that business colleges worldwide would also see the result of COVID-19 in closures, mergers,

50

and restructuring of universities and challenged administrators to supply a broader range of
curriculum and experiences that could be flexible enough to adapt to the unique environment of
higher education. Students and recent graduates received financial support in the United States
through the suspension of student loans and collections with an interest rate set at 0% (U.S.
Department of Education, 2020). However, Owens et al. (2020) found that COVID-19 had
already financially and physically impacted college students by increasing food insecurity for
students and compounding this with housing and job insecurity due to the pandemic’s impact on
housing options, job furloughs, and part-time work cancelation alongside the closure of campus
dining halls and cafeterias. ACHA (2020) reported that the pandemic significantly affected
college student financial stress with two-thirds of students reporting increased financial stress
and one-third reporting a change in living situations. Owens et al. (2020) further noted that some
college students were ineligible for stimulus checks under the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and
Economic Security (CARES) Act, because their parents claimed them as dependents on tax
returns.
Turk et al. (2020) with the American Council on Education reported that out of 192
college presidents surveyed, 41% included mental health of college students as one of their top
five pandemic priorities in the coming 2020-2021 academic year. Industry and academic
publications (Active Minds, 2020; Brown & Kafka, 2020) highlighted the impact of COVID-19
on college students’ mental health. The groundwork for studies began with Active Minds (2020)
report from an early sampling of college students, which explained that students experienced
self-reported mental health disturbances due to the pandemic, with 91% of that sample reporting
stress or anxiety as a key disturbance. Taylor et al. (2020) developed and validated a COVID-
stress scale in response to observations that during pandemics, people exhibited more stress or

51

anxiety responses to the fear of becoming infected. Brown et al. (2020) confirmed that such
research will be necessary in addressing mental health symptoms by finding that a sample of
adults' mental health deteriorated significantly with an increase in the sample’s negative stress
and lack of mindfulness as the COVID-19 pandemic worsened in first stages. When universities
returned to a mix of in-person and online instruction for the Fall 2020 semester, reports from
industry press suggested that opening universities for in-person instruction may have been
responsible for thousands of new COVID-19 infections per day (Mangan, 2020a) and students
had a variety of reactions, including residential assistants and student staff holding strikes on
campus with some students quitting on-campus jobs and leaving campus to study remotely early
into the Fall 2020 semester (Mangan, 2020b). With continued variants of the COVID-19 virus,
college student mental health continued to be a concern and a recent survey found that nine out
of 10 college students in the believe there is a mental health crisis on their campus (Carrasco,
2022). Furthermore Xie (2022) found that while some universities are giving students mental
health days, many students believe that colleges are not doing enough in terms of suicide
prevention and providing services for students experiencing mental health emergencies. Kella
(2021) profiled the increase of college student suicide rates and highlighted further statistics
from the CDC that suicide is now the second most probable cause of death for college students.
Gluckman (2022) confirmed a concern over increasing college student suicide and found that
three female athlete suicides on campuses across the country gained high-profile media coverage
in the Spring 2022 semester. Hartocollis (2022) considered that students experiencing the
Omicron variant of the COVID-19 virus were at risk with further concerns for students at
universities who would experience loneliness, isolation, and a loss of motivation along with fear
of infection as universities continued to struggle with the impact of virus variants.

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Aslanian and Roth (2021) asserted that colleges across the country are struggling to meet
student demand for mental health services. The AUCCCD (2020) survey of college counseling
center directors discovered that COVID-19’s had an impact on service delivery, 58.3% of
directors reported decreased demand for counseling services, with 79% of total individual
appointments for 2019-2020 delivered before March 16, 2020. However, virtual telehealth
appointments increased dramatically from an average 17.1 video sessions before March 15,
2020, to an average 1,164.8 video sessions from March 16, 2020, to June 30, 2020; this
represented a 6,811% increase in the use of telehealth by college counseling centers (AUCCD,
2020). Mintel (2021) reported that half of Gen-Z students surveyed preferred to go to school in-
person with the other half enjoying more flexibility, after experiencing displacement from
COVID-19 during high school. Less than half of Gen-Z teens surveyed found the cost of a
college degree worthwhile; however, 66% reported planning to attend college (Mintel, 2021).
The same report found that Gen Z adults, those between 18-24, were 15% less likely than the
total adult population to say that a cost of a college degree was worthwhile (Mintel, 2021) and
that they look to complete alternative credentials for future jobs.
Natural Disaster Events
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina was one of the largest U.S. natural disasters on record, which
killed over 1,800 people, and cost over 125 billion dollars in damages (Graumann et al., 2005).
Davis et al. (2010) studied Hurricane Katrina as one of the first extreme natural disasters in its
impact on U.S. college student mental health and found statistically significant results in
depression, anxiety, stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a sample of displaced
students who attended Louisiana State University at the time of the natural disaster. Davis et al
(2010) explained that college students can feel more at risk especially when a natural disaster

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occurs, and they are living on a college campus away from home. Further displacement from
disasters affected college student social networks and sense of belonging to universities (Pickens
et al., 1995). Financial hardship due to natural disasters also affected college students as
confirmed by Wynne et al. (2018), and financial hardship specifically for business college
students who lived in suburban college town areas during hurricanes and snowstorms was
significant.
While less peer-reviewed research exists for college student response to the 2020
California wildfires, Ritchie et al. (2020) found that in the 2018 Fort McMurray wildfires,
Canadian college students indicated significant rates of depression and anxiety disorders as well
as PTSD 18 months post-disaster. Carriger (2020) suggested, in a peer-reviewed faculty
pedagogy essay at the University of California Los Angeles, that the trauma caused by the 2020
California wildfires in addition to other on-campus emergencies will impact college campuses,
because the lived experiences that faculty, students, and staff carry with them can never be fully
represented by the media and understood by anyone other than the individuals. Industry press has
suggested that the current U.S. wildfires will affect multiple student population subsets
(Aspegren, 2020; Kim, 2020). Memos from the National Association of College Admissions
Counseling (2020) and from colleges across the states of California (Larive, 2020; UC Davis
2020) and Oregon (Feser, 2020) posted guidelines for students battling wildfires, which
suggested that would be a significant impact on college student populations in the future.
Increasing Cost of College
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2018), prices for undergraduate tuition,
fees, room, and board rose 34% over a 10-year period between 2005 and 2015. Loan debt per
borrower increased from an average of $22,000 in 2005 to $27,000 in 2015 with 57% of students

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from public institutions holding loans after graduation (The College Board, 2020). However, not
all students who take out loans graduate (Hendricks & Leukhina, 2018; Millea et al., 2018). In
this context, the U.S. Department of Education (2018) defines college graduation as a student
completing a bachelor’s degree by six years of full-time study. Over the last decade, the
graduation rate for public universities has only increased 5%, from 50.6% to 55.6% (U.S.
Department of Education, 2018). By using a dataset from the National Postsecondary Education
Cooperative, which covers all 473 four-year degree-granting public U.S. institutions, Raisanen
and Birkeland (2016) proved the average share of the budget of four-year universities coming
from state appropriations fell from 21.1% to 16.8% and university tuition increased to cover this
loss. Students who do not graduate with degrees, but still have expensive loans, may not have the
financial resources to pay back this debt (Kim et al., 2017). Students used loans to cover
increasing tuition and while they can be a promising investment, subsets of college students
struggled with debt and default on these loans including Pell Grant recipients and first-generation
college students (Kim et al., 2017). The increased loan amounts and loan defaults, alongside the
economic recession, have held college students back from further transitions to adulthood after
graduation such as buying homes and parenthood (Cheng & Gonzales, 2018; Houle & Berger,
2015; Kim et al., 2017).
Perfectionism
Frost et al. (1993) divided perfectionism into two varieties with adaptive or maladaptive
use of high personal standards. Enns and Cox (2002) suggested that maladaptive perfectionism
furthers the concept of high personal standards by individuals creating exacting standards that
are completely unreachable by design and unrealistic, with resulting dissatisfaction and early
acceptance of unavoidable failure. Rice et al. (2003) confirmed that maladaptive perfectionism

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was distinctive to adaptive perfectionism due to the experience of severe amounts of distress if
an individual did not meet high personal standards. College students can be prone to self-
oriented maladaptive perfectionism (Rice et al., 2003), and this occurs more readily in multiple
subsets of college students including female students and athletes (Barnett & Sharp, 2016; Curan
& Hill, 2018.) Rice et al. (2003) found that college students with anxiety specific to attachment
in peer relationships, especially due to early negative experiences with parental figures in the
form of excessive criticism, were especially vulnerable to maladaptive perfectionism and this
might contribute to further self-esteem and depression issues. Iarovici (2014) suggested that
through the recruitment and admissions process, U.S. universities tended to use excessive
hyperbole related to perfectionism and when students fell short of these ideals, they quickly
blamed themselves to various degrees given their own cultural backgrounds and experiences
with perfection and failure. Iarovici (2014) further considered that if a student’s family or
community reinforced maladaptive forms of perfectionism then the destabilizing effects of panic
attacks and other reactions due to test or grade anxiety also occurred in a consistent cycle.
Political Polarization
Zimmerman (2016) asserted that U.S. college campus students and faculty are under
pressure to always support political correctness. Concern with the media’s response to
microaggressions, failed diversity initiatives, and political polarization on campuses has
increased tensions for students to the point that one study found that six out of 10 college
students self-censor out of fear that they would misspeak, and others would react negatively to
their ideas (Burnett, 2020; Mangan, 2020c). DeJonckheere and Chang (2018) found that
sociopolitical stress was significant in creating physical and emotional distress for students aged
14-24 after the 2016 U.S. presidential elections and left students feeling stress, anxiety, and fear

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for months after the election concluded. Kornbluh et al. (2022) confirmed that U.S. college
students experience elevated levels of sociopolitical stress from exposure to political events like
elections, but that this also includes highly publicized social movements. With 75% of more than
700 students from 10 universities nationwide confirming that these events caused a greater level
of sociopolitical stress for them, historically marginalized students and students planning to vote
reported the highest levels of sociopolitical stress (Kohnbluh et al., 2022).
The Pew Research Center (2019) found that the current politically charged environment
in the United States has deeply driven stark polarization with the largest gaps in belief revolving
around attitudes towards race and gun control. This stark divide specifically on these two topics
is relevant to university life, as students find themselves facing micro-aggressions over race and
experiencing political violence and unrest. Arellano and Vue (2019) asserted that a pervasive
culture of institutional neglect towards minority students has shaped a norm of inaction towards
racism on college campuses. Choi et al. (2017) found that Asian American college students
experienced micro-aggressions on campus that accounted for depression symptoms. Smith et al.
(2011) noted that Black college students experience micro-aggressions both in the classroom and
throughout campus spaces. Yosso et al. (2009) reported that Latina and Latino undergraduate
students encountered isolation and invisibility stereotyping across campuses. Harris (2017) found
that multiracial college students experienced multiple types of micro-aggressions based on their
self-identification of race and their inclusion or exclusion in different racial groups on campus.
Furthermore, ACHA (2020) found that during 2019-2020 within in-person or online
environments, 40% of surveyed students reported witnessing race-based discrimination or hostile
behavior and exchanges due to race and ethnicity.

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According to The Pew Research Center (2020) gun control was the second most
polarized political topic in the United States and college students have had firsthand experience
on and off college campus environments with gun violence (Campbell & Valera, 2020).
Thompson et al. (2009) found that most college campus police had a plan in place for longer than
a year to deal with an active shooter on campus and all campuses had a policy in place to
prohibit guns on campus. Patten et al. (2012) discerned that most respondents in their study
about guns on U.S. campuses opposed concealed carry and a significant set of students and
faculty confirmed that concealed weapons made them feel less safe. Vicary and Fraley (2010)
found that the 2007 campus shooting at Virginia Tech University and 2008 campus shooting at
Northern Illinois University affected students and showed that 71% of students reported
depression and 64% showed symptoms of PTSD after these events. College campuses are not the
only location that college students experience gun violence, as Campbell and Valera (2020)
found that recent publicized police violence spread quickly through social media feeds and
college students displayed PTSD symptoms after viewing real violence in social media videos
with minority students reacting strongly towards police killings of Black people with much
anxiety and fear for their own potential future police encounters.
Social Media
Lattie et al. (2019) suggested that technology, specifically social media, plays a role in
exclusion and information overload for students who suffer from a “fear of missing out” (p.
1841) or FOMO (Przybylski et al., 2013). FOMO has been the focus of multiple studies on social
media and negative impacts on college student health (Adams et al., 2020; Adams et al., 2017;
Alt, 2015) and affects the self-narrative representation of college students online (Harter, 2005).
However, the popular media may overstate the emphasis on technology’s negative impacts, as

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Orben et al. (2019) suggested a college student’s technology use may affect well-being
negatively, but only slightly in that it explains 0.4% of variation in well-being and many studies
cannot prove further causation. Lin et al. (2016) confirmed the unreliability of studies on social
media use and anxiety by explaining that most studies use small samples and only focus on the
social media platform Facebook, instead of the variety of platforms that college students are
known to use more often, including Instagram and Snapchat.
Social media is a double-edged sword for college students; as seen in the gun violence
examples above, social media perpetuated viewing real violence in videos of killings according
to Campbell and Valera’s (2020) study. Conversely, social media played a positive role in Vicary
and Fraley’s (2010) study by connecting students who experienced the Virginia Tech and
Northern Illinois University shootings. The variance in these examples could be due to the
changes in social media platform usage over time and the demographic differences in study
participants; however, it does highlight the contrast between college student social media use and
engagement during times of stress (Campbell & Valera, 2020; Vicary & Fraley, 2010). Shakya
and Christakis (2017) confirmed these changes over time to social media when they found that
over the last 10 years, Facebook’s evolved user design emphasized push notifications and a
scrolling news feed that kept users on the platform for longer, which was negatively associated
with overall well-being.
Auxier and McClain (2020) reported that eight out of 10 Americans claim that social
media platforms are “very effective” to “somewhat effective” for raising awareness for political
and social issues. Americans ages 18-29 split on social media’s power between party lines, with
70% of young Democrats saying social media keeps powerful people accountable for their
actions versus 49% of young Republicans; similar differences in opinion also occurred on social

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media giving underrepresented groups a voice and highlighting critical issues that would not get
attention. However, a social media trend that is alike for both Democrat and Republican students
is that of doom scrolling (Sharma et al., 2022). Popular media first highlighted the nature of
doom scrolling during the COVID-19 pandemic and labeled it as a dangerous mental health habit
of social media users during multiple social movements, national crises, and international
sociopolitical crises (Watercutter, 2020). Sharma et al. (2022) asserted that crises, disasters, and
tragedies can cause social media users to view social media sites habitually and endlessly with
men and younger adults taking part the most in this behavior, with no difference existing in
political party affiliation and doom scrolling habits. Sharma et al. (2022) showed that social
media users start doom scrolling by seeking out negative news, with a loss of self-control, as
social media platform algorithms recommend endless articles, videos, and posts surrounding
crisis flash points within a virtual echo-chamber.
Powers et al. (2019) found that college students viewed social media as an echo chamber,
which magnified disagreement and championed incivility, with great concern about how they
expressed themselves and their political opinions online while acknowledging a large, mostly
unknown audience of potential followers. TikTok, the newest social media platform owned by
Chinese company ByteDance and geared towards Gen Z, made an important and trending impact
on U.S. college students (Allyn, 2020; Fisher, 2019). TikTok college student usage will be an
important topic to explore given charges of data fraud and intelligence gathering on the app
(Allyn, 2020; Huang, 2019) as well as concern over doom scrolling during crises (Sharma et al.,
2022; Watercutter, 2020). Further research social media platform echo chamber algorithms
(Powers et al. 2012), data use fraud, and intelligence gathering (Huang, 2019) may uncover the

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psychological impacts of social media user design (Shakya & Christakis, 2017) and how this
influences college students’ behavior and feelings.
Shrinking Job Market
While studies have reviewed the sources of college student stress, most consider stress in
terms of school-related stress (Jones et al., 2018; Staats et al., 2007). Further investigations on
the macro-elements of change in society including political, economic, social, technological,
legal, and environmental trends (Law, 2016) is worth pursuing as these trends can influence the
development of increasing self-reported anxiety (Jones et al., 2018). For current college students,
realization of the limited number of jobs available to them post-graduation can lead to increased
anxiety (Beiter et al., 2015; Uno et al., 2010). Abel et al. (2014) analyzed jobs for recent college
graduates and found that unemployment along with underemployment was a common theme for
recent college graduates. They also found the quality of jobs unsatisfactory, with increased
options for low-wage jobs or part-time jobs causing permanent harm to lifetime earnings
potential. Burning Glass Technologies and the Strada Institute for the Future of Work (2018)
suggested that 43% of recent college graduates were underemployed and once a recent college
graduate was underemployed, they were five times more likely to stay underemployed, and this
disproportionately affected females in any field, including STEM fields. Tanzi and Dmitrieva
(2020) found that college graduates are more likely to be out of work even in an excellent job
market. Federal Reserve Bank of New York (2020) confirmed that in June 2020 recent college
graduates, or graduates between the ages of 22 and 27, faced an unemployment rate of 13.3%.
The lack of jobs for undergraduate students is likely to continue; according to Lund et al. (2019),
almost 40% of jobs in the United States are in occupations that are likely to shrink further by
2030 due to automation-related displacement.

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Overall, students experienced a fear of their own failure and increased anxiety about the
future when the competitiveness of college culture (Posselt & Lipson, 2016) combined with the
pressures of political, economic, societal, and technological changes and the distinct financial
pressures of increasing tuition amidst a shrinking job market (Beiter et al., 2015; Uno et al.,
2010). Between COVID-19, natural disasters, increasing tuition costs, perfectionism, political
polarization, social media, and the shrinking job market, the stakes feel especially high for
success. Due to this context, college student anxiety alongside unstable reactions to various
stressors can lead SUBC Deans and Directors to realize that traditional college students face an
uphill battle. The next section identifies the key source of buy-in for SUBC Deans and Directors
to work towards a potential solution for anxiety in the college student population as a
requirement for future college accreditation.
Developing Leadership Curriculum
Understanding the underlying potential influences of increasing college student anxiety
helps SUBC Deans and Directors better choose curriculum and structures that can help students
over time; however, understanding the deeper influences on why changing curriculum matters to
SUBC Deans and Directors is equally if not more important to determine a course of action for
recommendations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Miles et al. (2015) found that deans of AACSB
member colleges perceive accreditation by the AACSB as a basic requirement for credibility and
to be competitive for student and faculty recruitment and student post-graduation job placement.
Kelley et al. (2010) found that the AACSB’s continuous assessment of colleges prompted deans
to give a great deal of time and resources to the assessment process. Wheeling et al. (2015)
further confirmed that deans were aware of the need to follow AACSB accreditation standards
and consider assessment programming as paramount to a college’s success and reputation. When

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new accreditation requirements occur, or if AACSB peer review committees make suggestions
for changes, deans perceive the changes as important to implement at once, and this allows for a
better understanding of the importance that SUBC Deans and Directors place on the newly
formed AACSB standards for the 2020s (Miles et al., 2015).
Changing Business Education
Beck‐Dudley (2018) suggested that rapid societal change calls for new courses and
curriculum development in business schools. These changes should include a curriculum that
teaches students risk-taking skills, such as learning to fail fast and learning resilience to
disruption (Beck-Dudley, 2018). Multiple researchers and publication outlets have predicted
disruption specific to the future workforce due to the expansion of recent technologies such as
artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and 3D printing (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). A
significant disruption in most job fields means fewer individuals will have access to jobs in
healthcare, manufacturing, cleaning, personal services, sales, marketing, human resources, and
education (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). The knowledge that fewer jobs are available will
increase the already-high levels of competition in the marketplace for qualified hires and lead to
increased competition within college classrooms (Beck-Dudley, 2018; McKinsey Global
Institute, 2017; Posselt & Lipson, 2016).
Garner et al. (2019) found that college business students are not as prepared as employers
think they should be upon graduation, and employers must pay to train new hires in
communication and problem-solving competencies, especially in positional leadership-focused
roles. With the context of rapid change in mind, AACSB (2020) noted in the 2020 Guiding
Principles and Standards for Business Accreditation that business schools must focus on shifting
societal changes and address demographic, global, economic, and societal forces alongside

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emerging technologies while addressing a greater sense of social responsibility and
sustainability. AACSB (2020) further noted that this signifies that business needs will change
over time and that business students must be prepared for this change.
In response to this need, the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for
Business Accreditation requires business college administrators to respond to rapidly changing
forces and better prepare students to develop soft skills while still furthering academic skills in
business. As first defined by Whitmore and Fry (1974) in the U.S. Army’s research on job types,
soft skills are skills which involve little to no interactions with machines; generalizable soft skills
involve people management including psychological, communication, and leadership
competencies. These skills are still important in today’s world, as the World Economic Forum
(2018) found that the future of employment will increase the demand for skills in graduates such
as creativity, flexibility, problem-solving, emotional intelligence, and leadership.
By creating The Five Opportunities to Thrive, AACSB (2019) called for business college
administrators and faculty to develop a new vision for business school education where business
schools’ intellectual contributions are drivers of change in society, the business community, and
in higher education. The AACSB’s (2019) opportunities for improvement included an emphasis
on business school communities being catalysts for innovation, co-creators of knowledge, hubs
of lifelong learning, leaders in leadership development, and enablers of global opportunities.
Within this framework, AACSB (2019) suggested that business college faculty and
administration work with multiple stakeholders in various industries to co-create research and
curriculum, decide novel approaches for education, fundraising, and staffing models, and
connect with new disciplines to develop interdisciplinary research and curriculum. With a focus
on leadership development, AACSB (2019) challenged business college administrators and

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faculty to create new leadership development models to support ethical business. While AACSB
(2020) focuses on broad goals for curriculum management, there are few directives for
individual college courses; instead, AACSB (2020) considers broad goals for assurance of
learning and needed elements of an overall degree program. Due to this challenge, AACSB
(2019) determined the directive that business college administrators, such as SUBC Deans and
Directors must “create environments that nurture effective leaders” (p. 10) while developing a
student’s understanding of leadership that is evidence-based in various contexts. SUBC Deans
and Directors must frame leadership as a practice within a traditional classroom and as a wider,
outside of the classroom, experience (AACSB, 2016).
Barriers to Change
Public support for higher education continues to decline, adding financial pressure to
colleges and universities to prove a return on investment for academic offerings and programs as
well as faculty type and tenure (AACSB, 2020). The PEW Charitable Trusts (2019) further
confirmed that state government funding for higher education has declined across the United
States while more stakeholders raise doubts about the value of a college degree. McKinsey
Global Institute (2017) reported that up to 375 million people worldwide may need to switch
their jobs by the year 2030 due to automation, thus lifelong learning of transferable skills that
can meet the requirements of various jobs in multiple industries is of growing importance (De
Novellis, 2019). Literacy in technology and analytics, as well as what Aoun (2018) called the
“human-centered literacies” (p. 58) of creativity, entrepreneurial thinking, critical reasoning, and
ethical thinking, are what set human workers apart from machine workers. Aoun (2018)
considered this as the charge that colleges and university leadership such as SUBC Deans and
Directors must take on to ensure that graduates stay employable.

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Faculty and Administrator Pressures When Adopting New Standards
Adopting AACSB (2020) standards is not an easy task for college communities.
Fitzpatrick and McConnell (2014) found in their research that business college faculty members
felt overwhelmed and resentful about the ever-changing requirements as well as evolving
expectations, vocabulary, and overall processes for accreditation. DeMoranville (2010) noted
that business college faculty members resist the accreditation process for three reasons: current
responsibilities overloaded in teaching, service, and research; skepticism for the added work’s
value; and concerns about potential limitations on designing and delivering courses. Fitzpatrick
and McConnell (2014) further suggested that setting up a definition of student learning goals that
reflects the mission of the school can be challenging due to needed consistency across an entire
institution with multiple stakeholders.
Wheeling et al. (2015) discovered that as AACSB assessment requirements evolved,
more business school curriculums included integrity, ethics, global, multicultural, and diversity
issues. Public doubt about the value of higher education, lack of government funding, and the
increasing competitive environments of colleges were all factors that increased the use of direct
assessment methods (Wheeling et al., 2015). A continued focus on education preparing students
for an environment of uncertainty (Wheeling et al., 2015) alongside summative and formative
evaluation continue to put the impetus for assessment evaluation on business college faculty
members and staff in charge of the accreditation process (Kelley et al., 2010). Kelley et al.
(2010) found that 81.6% of AACSB-accredited business colleges’ research involved faculty in
the assessment process by requirement; 93% of colleges included faculty input when defining
overall learning goals for degree programs.

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Lawrence et al. (2011) asserted that, due to the competitive environment among business
colleges, specific goals for assessment of learning prove an advancement of overall student
learning and help business colleges rank competitively. Lawrence et al. (2011) further found that
when faculty use assessment of learning data to change pedagogy on a semester-to-semester
basis, student performance improves. While faculty admit that there are benefits of using
assessment of learning, Martell (2007) argued that business colleges still fall short of what they
must do in the AACSB process and business college administrators are worried about the
AACSB requirements, faculty involvement and knowledge, and the continual improvement
reporting to meet the accreditation process. Garner et al. (2019) found that business college
faculty are further concerned that college courses should not be a replacement for job training;
instead, courses should be a catalyst for self-discovery and better understanding of life as well as
critical thinking skills not specific to one industry. On exploring the gap between graduate
knowledge and employer expectations, Garner et al. (2019) noted that problem-solving,
persuasive communication, leadership, and project management were rated as the most-needed
skills that graduates are lacking in full; however, skills such as policy regulation, financial
literacy, mathematics, and information systems should not be neglected to a student’s own
detriment.
Avolio and Benzaquen (2020) suggested that the AACSB’s focus on experimentation and
innovation places a priority on change, which allows business colleges to succeed, but they also
risk failure through the experimentation process. Through continuous improvement, business
college faculty and administration must consistently innovate educational programs that are
significant in a changing and complex global society (AACSB 2020). Avolio and Benzaquen
(2020) further found that a business college dean’s commitment to AACSB accreditation success

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must include budgeting for accreditation requirements, such as faculty and staff participation and
quality management systems to record faculty qualifications, facilities, assurance of learning, and
maintenance of records. The SUBC Deans and Directors are prepared with time and resources to
complete the task of developing a curriculum that follows the AACSB accreditation standards,
but now wants to better understand what opportunities are available for developing an authentic
leadership curriculum for college students that correctly addresses multiple influences.
Opportunities for SEL Development in Higher Education
While contributing widely to K–12 education, higher education has not utilized SEL in a
universal manner across an entire curriculum, but SEL has more commonly been deployed in
individual courses by higher education teaching faculty interested in developing their individual
courses (Conley, 2015; Cotler et al., 2019; Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Stuhr et al., 2017).
Reinert (2019) encouraged the creation of a universal model for SEL in higher education due to
increasing state and federal standards in K–12 education, but also because SEL frameworks can
positively affect job performance and mental health in adults. Immordino-Yang et al. (2019)
confirmed that SEL is proper for late adolescent brain development and asserted that educational
settings for late adolescents and early adults supply opportunities to create relationships and
explore deeper meaning through investigating the real world and developing a system to guide
their individual learning into mature adulthood.
Academic Buoyancy
Gallagher and Stocker (2018) found that faculty can build SEL into higher education
statistics courses to connect skills with academic outcomes such as academic buoyancy and
anxiety reduction. Martin and Marsh (2008) characterized academic buoyancy as a student’s
ability to be resilient to challenges that are part of everyday academic life and are related to

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anxiety levels in a student population. The concept of academic buoyancy varies from the
popularized, but controversial, notion of grit (Duckworth, 2016; Hodge et al., 2018; Lucas et al.,
2015) and instead focuses on more generalizable instances that all students might experience
more equally, such as the prevalence of stress due to tests and homework deadlines (Martin and
Marsh, 2008). Strongly related to Dweck’s (2006) concept of “growth mindset,” (p. 7) SEL
promoted academic buoyancy and the development of self-efficacy while decreasing anxiety in
higher education statistics students (Gallagher & Stocker, 2018).
Experiential Learning
Stuhr et al. (2017) found that SEL interventions include building relationship skills and
social awareness in students when driven by friendship and mindfulness practices. Using
adventure-based experiences, specifically experiential learning through wilderness education
examples, Stuhr et al. (2017) found that distinct types of programming outside the typical
classroom setting promoted the benefits of college students strengthening SEL skills. Laufer et
al. (2018) emphasized the importance of experiential learning in higher education to develop soft
skills and critical management competencies as required by accreditation boards; Conley et al.
(2013), Pritchard and Wilson (2003), and Seal et al. (2010) further supported experiential
learning.
Coordinated Efforts in the Classroom
Conley (2015) conducted a meta-analysis of 113 SEL programs in higher education
settings and found that mindfulness furthered student skills in self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationships and decreased anxiety and stress, especially required guided
mindfulness technique practice over a semester or longer in a class setting. Seli and Dembo
(2019) further confirmed that mindfulness is a valuable tool for college student self-regulation

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while experiencing stress and anxiety. Conley (2015) characterized other cognitive behavioral,
relaxation, and social skills interventions as promising opportunities to develop SEL skills in
higher education students, especially required guided practice inside and outside of the
classroom. Conley et al. (2015) confirmed the significance of required supervised practice over
multiple sessions Elliott et al. (2015) further supported these findings.
Integrated SEL Offerings Throughout a College System
Lipson et al. (2019), along with the American Council on Education, recommended that
college leadership integrate mental health promotion and prevention of mental health disorders
throughout an entire college system while using proactive messaging, communication, and norm
setting so that college students can be healthier, happier, and more productive members of
campus and society. Conley et al. (2015) challenged college leaders to push past elective course
offerings and orientations in mental health and further develop courses in SEL and mental health
related issues as required core curriculum throughout an institution. Taylor and Haras (2020),
with the American Council on Education, forecasted that all higher education institutions must
create real work opportunities for students that relate strongly to SEL such as creativity, complex
problem solving, and emotional intelligence (Committee for Children & CASEL, 2016). They
also found this must occur institution-wide to make a meaningful impact.
Given the competitiveness of college, alongside the rising anxiety of college students,
Posselt and Lipson (2016) concluded that there is a need to develop resilience and coping
strategies in college students. This requires collaboration across campus as well as a creation of
networks of colleges and universities interested in understanding the unique needs of student
populations and developing systems to support general and marginalized student populations
who are vulnerable to the negative impact of the college culture of competition (Posselt &

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Lipson, 2016). Conley (2015) posited that the next step in higher education SEL is to develop
universal SEL interventions throughout institutions to have a coordinated effort which supports
SEL curriculum and programming in a systematic way with school administrators, staff, and
faculty involvement.
Influences on SEL Development in Higher Education
Considering the aspects of the current use of SEL in higher education classrooms and the
contributions that it has shown to academic buoyancy and experiential learning, SUBC Deans
and Directors must consider that coordinated efforts to apply SEL in the classroom alongside
integrated SEL offerings throughout a college system can be aspects to evaluate in promising
practice programs to determine success and realistic implementation within their own college
context. The following table highlights the influences on SUBC Deans and Directors.

Table 3
Influences on SUBC Deans and Directors to Utilize SEL for Authentic Leadership Development
Influences Selected citations
AACSB: When new accreditation requirements
occur, or if AACSB peer review committees
make suggestions for changes, deans perceive the
changes as important to implement, and this
allows for a better understanding of the
importance that SUBC Deans and Directors place
on the newly formed AACSB standards for the
2020s (Miles et al., 2015).

AACSB, 2016; AACSB, 2020; Avolio
& Benzaquen, 2020; Kelley et al.,
2010; Miles et al., 2015; Wheeling et
al., 2015
Elements of authentic leadership: To further ensure
authentic leadership development, SUBC Deans
and Directors must consider curriculum
opportunities that feature the major elements of
authentic leadership development which include
positive psychology, individual experiences,
Algera & Lips-Wiersma, 2012; Avolio
and Gardner, 2005; Avolio et al.,
2004; Diddams & Chang, 2012;
Gardner et al., 2005; Gardner et al.,
2011; Harter, 2005; Luthans et al.,
2006; Luthans & Youssef, 2006;
May et al., 2003; Northouse, 2020

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ethics and morality, and self-awareness and self-
regulation.

Gen Z’s attitude towards authenticity: Directors
must take heed of Gen Z’s attention to the
concept of authenticity and create not only an
environment that champions experiences, but
also one that develops creative and innovative
curriculums to allow Gen Z students to practice
skills sets.

Arnett, 2020; Francis & Hoefel, 2018;
Hana, 2018; Harter, 2002; Harter,
2005; King, 2019; Maloni et al.,
2019; Newman, 2020; Shane-
Simpson et al., 2018

Justifying tuition increases: Due to the opportunity
to justify tuition increases, SUBC Deans and
Directors must consider the causes of college
student anxiety and mental health service
demands and how this can be a driver for a
curriculum that emphasizes SEL in higher
education.

AUCCCD, 2018; Brackett & Rivers,
2014; Durlak et al., 2011; Greenberg
et al., 2017; Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010;
Iarovici, 2014; Lipson et al., 2019;
Mintel, 2020; Pedrelli et al., 2015;
Weissberg et al., 2015; Xiao, 2017
Root causes of college student anxiety: To better
understand the root causes of college student
anxiety, SUBC Deans and Directors will benefit
from the current perspective on college student
anxiety and viewing the increase of mental health
service demands on college campuses.
Beiter et al., 2015; Brammer & Clark,
2020; Campbell & Valera, 2020;
Davis et al., 2010; Evans et al., 2018;
Harris, 2017; Hendricks & Leukhina,
2018; Iarovici, 2014; Kim et al.,
2017; Lattie et al., 2019; Owens et
al., 2020; PEW, 2020; Posselt &
Lipson, 2016; Powers et al., 2019;
Rice et al., 2003; Turk et al., 2020;
Uno et al., 2010; Vue, 2019;
Zimmerman, 2016

SEL conceptual framework: By using the
conceptual framework of social and emotional
learning (SEL), SUBC Deans and Directors can
create a roadmap to developing authentic
leadership in students, since SEL directly ties to
increasing a student’s understanding of
themselves as well as how they learn and apply
authentic leadership’s influence factors.

Brackett & Rivers, 2014; CASEL,
2008; CASEL, 2020; Committee for
Children, 2020; Crain et al., 2017;
Durlak et al., 2011; Greenberg, 2010;
Taylor et al., 2017; Weissberg et al.,
2015

The following chapter will continue to consider the influences that SUBC Deans and
Directors experience when taking on this new challenge, it will also work to uncover the

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promising practice programs that already use SEL for authentic leadership development to
further understand if these programs use what has been suggested in the literature as the practices
most adept for higher education and considering in this section as possible opportunities for
integration into higher education or if the promising practices use other methods of practice for
curriculum development and deployment. This table reemphasizes opportunity areas in the
current state of SEL in higher education.

Table 4
Opportunities for SEL Development in Higher Education
Background Selected citations
Academic buoyancy: Reducing anxiety through
increasing student resilience to challenges through
techniques associated with a more generalizable
form of grit that all students might experience more
equally and strongly related to growth mindset.

Duckworth, 2016; Dweck, 2006;
Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Martin
& Marsh, 2008
Coordinated efforts in the classroom: Using faculty to
create synchronized practices in the classroom.
Faculty used mindfulness and other techniques
inside and outside of a classroom environment over
multiple sessions.

Conley, 2015; Elliott et al., 2015;
Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Seli
& Dembo, 2019
Experiential learning: Outside of the classroom
experiences related to creating friendship and
mindfulness practices as well as the development
of soft skills through more firsthand experience.

Conley et al., 2013; Laufer et al.,
2018; Pritchard and Wilson, 2003;
Seal et al. 2010; Stuhr et al., 2017
Integrated SEL offerings throughout a college
system: Promoting mental health by using
proactive messaging, communication, and norm
setting. Developing courses outside of orientation
that students must complete over the course of their
college career in areas such as creativity, complex
problem solving, and emotional intelligence to
promote resilience across campus using networks
within colleges and universities.

Committee for Children & CASEL,
2016; Conley et al., 2015; Lipson et
al., 2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016;
Taylor & Haras, 2020

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Further emphasis on uncovering the lived experiences and opinions of promising practice
interviewees while highlighting possible emerging practices in this new field was one goal of this
study. Understanding the lived experience of promising practices leaders through their stories
and opinions confirmed the influences of current opportunities for SEL in higher education and
uncovered what opportunities might be missing. This research considered a specific focus on
distinct types of practices to confirm the use of activities such as mindfulness as well as uncover
other activities that can be of help in curriculum adoption. The research also highlighted the type
of deployment for the curriculum including online versus offline, and synchronous versus
asynchronous, with special consideration given to how promising practice programs managed the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Summary
As the increase in U.S. college student self-reported anxiety continues to pose
problematic complications and general concerns for higher education leadership (ACHA, 2009;
ACHA, 2019; ACHA 2020; CCMH, 2016), there are opportunities to develop universal higher
education-based interventions that not only cultivate student SEL skills (Greenberg et al., 2017),
but also encourage the development of the influence factors for authentic leadership including
positive psychological capacities, critical life events, and moral and ethical reasoning (Luthans et
al., 2006; Northouse, 2019). Gen Z, the current traditional population of college students,
(Maloni et al., 2019) may especially benefit and buy into the theory of authentic leadership
development given their high appreciation and careful consideration of authentic lifestyle
narratives (Harter, 2005; Shane-Simpson et al., 2018; Ross, 2019) as well as their demand for
life-fulfilling work post-graduation (Maloni et al., 2019).

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While the increase of anxiety is generalizable across an entire university population
(ACHA, 2018; CCMH, 2016; Conley et al., 2013), SUBC Deans and Directors specifically find
themselves in a position to drive authentic leadership development by using universal SEL
interventions (Brackett et al., 2009; Greenberg et al., 2017). This can lead to an increase in
positive psychological and high-performance skill sets (Durlak et al., 2011; Luthans & Youssef,
2006; Luthans et al., 2007) when scaling these practices to the appropriate developmental level.
Given that the AACSB (2020) is requiring institutions to nurture leadership development for the
21
st
century, authentic leadership and critical SEL skill development and measurement
(Committee for Children, 2016; Lloyd-Walker & Walker, 2011; Osher et al., 2016; National
Research Council, 2012) will create new opportunities to meet the changes to curriculum
required by the AACSB’s (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business
Accreditation. By using SEL as a conceptual framework, and considering SEL’s positive
reception at the K–12 level (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017), albeit some limited
government and political climates (Mahfouz, 2022; S.B.1442, 2022), and in individual college
courses (Conley, 2015; Cotler et al., 2019; Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Stuhr et al., 2017),
college leadership can heed the call of researchers to champion an institution-wide promotion of
SEL in order to drive this systemic change in curriculum and have a further positive impact on
the health and well-being of their students and future alumni (Conley et al., 2015; Lipson et al.,
2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016; Taylor & Haras, 2020).
Universal school based SEL interventions in business colleges may develop the influence
factors for authentic leadership in college students, so students understand and manage
themselves while forming responsible relationships with others (CASEL, 2020) by better
establishing their emotions (Brackett et al., 2009; Brackett & Rivers, 2014). With SEL the

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personal self-narrative required of authentic leaders may further evolve into a student’s true story
of their lived experience and future opportunities (Avolio et al., 2004; Harter, 2005). By SUBC
Deans and Directors taking on this change, the AACSB (2020) accreditation requirement for
nurturing leadership development in the CIR will be satisfied alongside fulfilling the mission that
the college completes valuable work driven by societal needs through potentially alleviating
increased student anxiety and creating a protective ripple effect to larger populations (Greenberg
et al., 2017; Rose, 1992). This research will continue via a promising-practices study of current
higher education SEL focused programs that can be used as an evidence base for a further,
college-wide authentic leadership curriculum that incorporates SEL to increase a student’s
resilience to rapid change and disruption (Avolio et al., 2004; Beck-Dudley, 2018; Martin &
Marsh, 2006; McKinsey Global Institute, 2017).

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Chapter Three: Methodology of the Study
Chapter Three reviews the data collection plan and theoretical framework for collecting
and analyzing data for this research study. Specifically, this study focused on a group of higher
education programs that explicitly and implicitly use elements of SEL subject matter and related
teaching methods within a college context to help students develop their own sense of well-being
as a response to general anxiety and/or as a part of a student’s leadership development to further
authentic leadership qualities and skill sets. By documenting promising practices that scale SEL
to a higher education college-wide system, this research created a roadmap on how to potentially
develop authentic leadership skills within college students to help safeguard them from general
anxiety and stress while also preparing them for rapid change and disruption now and into the
future.
Purpose of the Study
This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in higher
education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while addressing
anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. The
strongest driver for change for SUBC Deans and Directors is the AACSB requirements for a new
curriculum development program in 2020 coupled with the faculty, staff, and Board of Trustees’
concerns about general anxiety and lack of preparedness for rapid change as exhibited by
students. SUBC Deans and Directors are currently developing the entry level course, but do not
know how to develop an authentic leadership-focused curriculum while utilizing SEL as a
response for increasing anxiety while meeting AACSB requirements for the CIR in further
advanced courses.

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The research sought out promising practice programs and the leadership in those
programs while compiling data to answer the research questions via document analysis and
interviews. Promising practices pulled from a variety of programs in the United States that
followed the inclusion criteria and synthesized these practices to create a better understanding of
current practices for promoting authentic leadership via SEL for other colleges interested in
pursuing SEL-based curriculums. Experts identified promising practice programs and the
researcher confirmed if the programs used any form of measurement or assessment to evaluate
program results. The overarching question this research strove to answer is as follows: How do
promising practice programs using SEL subject matter develop authentic leadership capabilities
for students in the current higher education context and what are the potential for these types of
programs for other higher education institutions?
Research Questions
While the research questions for this study sought to understand the promising practices
programs, they also connected SEL to authentic leadership theory by striving to understand the
promising program’s emphasis the influence factors that develop authentic leadership” positive
psychological capacities, critical life events, and moral and ethical reasoning (Northouse, 2019).
Luthans and Avolio (2003) first identified these three elements as the major requirements to
develop authentic leaders and further qualify as part of SEL in the CASEL (2020) definitions of
SEL core competencies. The research questions focused on determining the key elements of
implicit or explicit use of SEL subject matter and related teaching practices in promising practice
programs while identifying the program leaders’ lived experiences, thoughts, and concerns about
this domain. The following research questions guided this study:

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1. What subject matter from promising practice programs matches with SEL component
definitions?
2. How do the promising practice programs’ desired outcomes compare with the
influence factors associated with authentic leadership?
3. What are the self-reported lived experiences of the promising practice leaders
regarding the implementation of programs now and in the future?
The problem of practice of increasing general anxiety on college campuses exists and it
ties directly to other problems within the context of this research to understand the root causes of
college student anxiety. The literature review in Chapter Two sought to demonstrate this
understanding before developing research questions about the promising practice programs
themselves. Problems for higher education students regarding increasing anxiety include a
variety of root causes stemming from their environment, including disruption to current and
professional practices by political, economic, societal, and technological changes out-width a
student’s control (Beiter et al., 2015; Lund et al., 2019; McKinsey Global Institute, 2017;
Pedrelli et al., 2015; Uno et al., 2010; Wheeling et al., 2015).
Rapid change to societal norms and standards for behavior and action as seen in large
scale movements impact a student’s personal challenges and moral sensemaking (Jones et al.,
2018; Law, 2016; Sprung & Rodgers, 2020). Lack of information and quickly changing life
circumstances due to large and sweeping events such as COVID-19 drive anxiety alongside other
large political and environmental changes such as political polarization (The Pew Research
Center, 2019) and massive environmental disaster instances including the 2020 California
Wildfires (Aspegren, 2020; Kim, 2020). Rapid change and technological advancements in
computing power with social media require students to develop and update their online self-

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narrative construction where choices and expression of those choices can remain permanent data
points well into a student’s future (Harter 2005; Ross, 2019; Shane-Simpson et al., 2018;
Sherman et al., 2018). The continual decline in public support and funding for higher education
brings into question the value of a college degree (PEW Charitable Trusts, 2019; Wheeling et al.,
2015). Increased use of loans and student loan debt can quickly balloon as students continue in
college courses or seek to explore various educational paths (Hendricks & Leukhina, 2018; Kim
et al., 2017; Millea et al., 2018; The College Board, 2020). Polarized political stances have led to
a lack of public leadership and an increased awareness of foreign influence on elections
(Northouse, 2019; The Pew Research Center, 2019). Finally, the fluctuating economic and labor
market demands for new graduates, as seen once in the 2007 recession and currently predicted
because of the COVID-19 pandemic, are all large, sweeping changes that can increase student
anxiety as well as a student’s personal and familial situations and status (Beiter et al., 2015;
Jones et al., 2018; Law, 2016; Lund et al., 2019; Uno et al., 2010). Arguably, no one program
can meet the needs of every student and especially speak to every challenge as presented in the
literature review. Instead, these research questions strove to better understand smaller pieces of
the problems by considering individual promising practice programs as one of many solutions.
Sample and Population
Authentic leadership theory and the conceptual framework of SEL core competencies
informed the research questions for the research design as the theory and framework defined the
consideration and parameters of promising practice programs. The context of this study defined
higher education SEL promising practices programs as any higher education program that
explicitly or implicitly focuses on an area of CASEL’s (2020) SEL core competencies including

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the following: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and
responsible decision making.
The following selection criteria determined the inclusion of a promising practice program
in the study. The CASEL (2018) requirements for K–12 SEL programming influenced these
criteria. Currently, there is a lack of official assessment criteria for SEL-focused higher
education programs by professional associations or other related organizational or accreditation
bodies.
1. Does the program promote an area of SEL core competency as defined by CASEL
(2020)?
2. Is the program sponsored by a higher education institution and is it available to all
college students during their experience either as a required stand-alone program or a
voluntary element of their education?
3. Is the program led by a faculty or staff member of the higher education institution or a
related educational organization hired directly by the higher education institution?
4. Is the program regularly available in-person or online throughout the academic year?
5. Does the program leadership use measurement or assessment of any kind to
demonstrate results?
6. Does the program receive financial support of the higher education institution by
receiving funding directly from the institution or grants and donations through
institutional networks?
Further selection criteria considered promising practice leaders, who would qualify as
potential interviewees. The selection process included identifying and contacting director level or
higher leaders who are associated with 11 U.S. based and nationally recognizable higher

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education, SEL, leadership, and university student mental health based professional
organizations. Purposeful sampling chose practitioners and researchers based on their position as
an expert through recommendations from director level or higher leaders from these
organizations (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). Experts gave suggestions for others to include in the study
through a snowball sampling approach (Maxwell 2013). This research group was associated with
higher education and leadership development by being faculty, staff, or administrative leadership
in an accredited four-year higher education institution or part of a higher education specific
association or academic author published in peer-reviewed research journals in the domains of
higher education, SEL, and/or authentic leadership. Exclusion criteria included a non-association
with an accredited higher education institution, research body, or professional organization.
Instrumentation
This study examined the role of SEL in promising practice programs in higher education
to identify how colleges have operationalized potential solutions to the problem of practice of the
growth of self-reported anxiety in higher education student populations in the United States over
the last decade. Document analysis alongside interviews of promising program leadership found
themes and takeaways that other higher education institution leadership could use in the future.
Incorporation of an understanding that SEL can encourage further authentic leadership
capabilities in students and foreseeing the value of learning these skills, this study provided an
opportunity for comparison and contrast among promising practice programs that drive towards
the similar goal of supporting student well-being in a way that is both acceptable by college and
university leadership and beneficial to students. This study of promising practice programs and
the leaders of those programs focused on the perception of promising practices and the lived
experiences of the program leaders to provide further information for other college leaders

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interested in creating their own higher education programs based in SEL subject matter to further
authentic leadership development.
Instrumentation Connected to Theory and Conceptual Framework
Authentic leadership theory and the SEL conceptual framework shaped the choice of
methods for this study by connecting research directly to a specific field and type of program
(Merriman, 2006). This study focused on programs that implicitly or explicitly develop a
student’s SEL skills to help them perform at a higher level when they experience change or
disruption from change. This is due to the increased expectations of the stakeholders in a college
student’s readiness both in topical knowledge, but also in the SEL associated soft skills or human
skills that translate into any workplace and are often tested during times of rapid change and
stress associated with change (Aoun, 2018; Conley et al., 2013; Whitmore & Fry, 1974; World
Economic Forum, 2018). Through the lens of authentic leadership theory, SEL’s core
competencies of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and
responsible decision making (CASEL, 2020) overlap with the requirements of authentic
leadership, which include self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing,
and relational transparency (Walumba et al., 2007). They do so by increasing influence factors
on authentic leadership development as defined by Luthans and Avolio (2003) as positive
psychological capacities, moral and ethical reasoning, and understanding of critical life events
(Northouse, 2019).
Authentic leadership as a theory is an approach to leadership development that
emphasizes building a person’s legitimate power through a use of honesty and ethics (Northouse,
2019). This theory is the most recent theoretical development on leadership as a growth from
transformational leadership and it is new and untested (Northouse, 2019). However, given

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current traditional college students’ generational profile, Gen Z’s emphasis on honesty and
craving for more certainty in ethically lacking leadership role models (Francis & Hoefel, 2018;
Maloni et al., 2019), authentic leadership theory is an opportunity for SEL-focused pedagogies to
develop core competencies that focus on the influence factors for authentic leadership
development. Appendix A reviews the Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix that delineates
the theoretical framework and connects the research questions to the conceptual framework and
theory.
Validity of Instrumentation
While SEL subject matter and related teaching practices in higher education is new and
untested, promising practices methodology allowed the research to detail these practices through
thick description, compare by document analysis, and further validate through promising practice
leader interviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By using SEL core competencies as a conceptual
framework, selection criteria narrowed the scope of potential promising practices and further
defined this phenomenon that use multiple terms due to its infancy in the field. Requiring
validity in both the document analysis and interview instruments allowed for a high standard of
rigor and trustworthiness in the instruments themselves and a further validation of the research
results (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Strategic sequencing of methods took place in the research design by considering
document analysis first and participant interviews second (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). By using the
strategic sequencing of document analysis before interviews, the researcher reviewed each
promising practice program and had a general understanding of how the program positions and
describes itself through its marketing before the interview process. Further vetting of instruments
occurred by collaborating with mentors and research professionals to provide both technical and

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critical feedback on research questions, document analysis protocol, and interview protocol,
which provided further validity in fit for the study’s goals and research questions (Ravitch &
Carl, 2020). To ensure further validity of instruments before data collection, rehearsing and
piloting of instruments took place. The data collection for analysis did not include this test data,
but instead provided experience and feedback before the collection process and ensure further
confidence in the researcher’s experience and ability to complete proper collection procedures
(Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Data Collection
Experts in the field suggested promising practice programs. The researcher also reviewed
previous publications in meta-analyses, journal articles, and other areas of official publication for
identification of promising practice programs. Further identification of promising practice
programs through self-nomination, suggested nominations via social networks and professional
associations, and snowball sampling took place through official networks dedicated to SEL and
higher education as suggested in the selection criteria section. To further ensure a wide variety of
representation took place in the selection process, participant selection memos were written
during the process and multiple conversations with peers and mentors took place to further
ensure that promising programs and individuals chosen for further interviews would challenge
any researcher assumptions, biases, and perspectives considered before and during this process
(Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
After a promising practice program cleared the selection criteria, further recruitment for
interviews took place by email to promising practice program leaders. The recruitment continued
via email with a follow-up reminder and further offer to answer questions specific as to why the
research was taking place. Interview recruitment also took place via social media sources and

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professional organizations as well as through snowball sampling via SEL focused leaders and
organizations as identified in the selection criteria. Maxwell (2013) noted that purposeful
sampling allows researchers to deliberately select interviewees, who are critical for testing
theories and can help establish productive relationships between the researcher and specific
groups that will enable researchers to answer their questions. Purposeful sampling played a
significant role in this research, as all potential interviewees may not have the required
information and would not be able to provide a unique story about the program (Maxwell, 2013).
Maxwell (2013) argued that this type of purposeful sampling, or convenience sampling, is due to
the needs of a study to identify knowledge and practices that will truly answer the research
questions and allow for feasibility of access to data collection.
Document Analysis Data Collection Protocol
Bowen (2009) explained that document analysis is a “systematic procedure” (p. 27) for
reviewing documents from offline or online resources to gain understanding and utilize
interpretations for analysis into a deeper meaning. This research used document analysis with
secondary sources of data about promising programs. A review of secondary documents,
including publicly available websites, mission statements, curriculum, syllabi, and social media
posts on platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and YouTube, highlighted
how promising programs are communicating what they do to stakeholders (Gross, 2018;
Salmons, 2016). Official documents provided by the promising practice organizations were the
main documents analyzed, this excluded comments, posts, or other types of documents publicly
available from individuals who were not program participants (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). By
focusing on official documents, an exclusionary limit on the types of documents allowed in the
research provided a further stable underpinning when questioning the ethics of analyzing

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individuals and their personal thoughts, albeit online in a public forum (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Official documents developed a further understanding of the context of the promising
practices (Ravtich & Carl, 2020). All online research of secondary, official documents used an
extant typology to include text, images, and further media that were both current or archived
with no direct contact with users or direct influence on the content by the researcher (Salmons,
2016). To provide further limits, the document analysis online included documents that were less
than five years old from the time of the study (Gross, 2018).
The document analysis alongside interviews allowed for triangulation of data and
multiple documents from promising practice organizations and multiple sources create a
preponderance of evidence (Bowen, 2009). The rationale for document analysis was these
documents unobtrusively provided data in the context of the promising practice (Bowen, 2009;
Creswell & Creswell, 2018.) Multiple charts maintained an audit trail of sources, keywords, and
decisions made when collecting documents (Gross, 2018). The selection criteria were the key
resource for decision making when including or excluding documents to reduce irrelevant data
points (Gross, 2018). Furthermore, authenticity of each document was determined during the
selection process by questioning the document before allowing it into the sample, which
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested is one of the most important, but also complicated, aspects
of using online documents during analysis. Determining if a document is original, the
document’s author, and the document’s purpose can ascertain that the document is useable for
the analysis sample (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). A data collection and management system via a
table kept the documents organized and maintained for proper analysis by using the table to
characterize the demographics of each document such as the title, author, intended audience,
date, placement or location, purpose, and main points expressed in the document (Gross, 2018).

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Interview Protocol
This interview protocol followed a semi-structured interview format. Patton (2002) noted
that this approach requires the asking of the same questions in the same order for each interview.
Ravitch and Carl (2020) further explained that due to the semi-structured nature, interviews use
the same questions, but probing questions and sub-questions may be unique to the interviewee
and chosen by the researcher during the interview process. This approach was more appropriate
for this study as it allowed for standardization and consistency across multiple interviews, which
allowed for more consistent content and thematic analysis, as well for a relationship between the
researcher and interviewee to form (Patton, 2002; Ravitch & Carl, 2020). The open-ended nature
of the interview questions allowed interviewees to give the researcher their own account and
unique perspective when answering questions, but also minimized variation in interviews,
because of the exactness of the questions and requirements to follow the same structure for each
interview (Patton, 2002).
An important feature of the interviews was that interviewees listened to both SEL and
authentic leadership definitions before the interview began. Krueger and Casey (2009) explained
that acronyms and distinct terminologies are not appropriate unless talking to experts. While the
interviewees are experts in higher education, the definition of SEL within the CASEL (2020)
framework clarified and gave context to the study. Background questions helped depict the
interviewees’ roles within their organizational context and then questions on interviewee
opinions highlighted lived experience in the programs (Agee, 2008; Krueger & Casey, 2009;
Patton, 2002).
Patton (2002) suggested that program evaluation interviews are useful to collect the
perspectives and unique stories of people involved in any program. Understanding experiences

88

and expectations for program development and operation can begin the process for evaluating
the usefulness of the program and future opportunities that the program can bring to a higher
education institution to the college of business. This study consisted of interviews that took place
over 60-minute time spans. The introduction to the interview questions included a review of the
time span allotted to be as transparent as possible about the process (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Weiss (1994) noted that recording is critical because content, tone, and voice will often
disappear in note taking. Interviewees were all treated the same and explaining the purpose of the
interview to make sure interviewees did not feel deceived built trust (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). With the interviewees’ permission, note taking and recording of the interviews took place
via the Zoom online platform. The recordings on Zoom were helpful because the program
recorded both interviewees’ voices and facial expressions. Email notifications and further
permission to record the interviews before using the record feature on Zoom ensured that
interviewees agreed fully to the recording. Notes and interview recordings were in the possession
of the researcher. The researcher used automatic transcription software and reviewed the
recordings alongside the transcripts to ensure accuracy. The researcher discarded and deleted
interview recordings on completion of the project (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
The researcher notified interviewees they did not have to answer any question that made
them uncomfortable and gave interviewees the option of not recording the interview at any time
(Weiss, 1994). Interpretation of the data took place after all interviews through reflection and by
looking for common themes and lessons learned. Limitations of the research when using
interviews include the difficulty of recruiting interviewees, which made an impact on the overall
study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Appendix B includes the full interview script.

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Interviews were non-evaluative, and person centered (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). Non-
evaluative interviews focus on understanding what interviewees think, feel, and experience and
does not place judgement on responses; further focusing on the person-centered aspect of
interviewing the importance must center on the person themselves instead of solely on the data
(Ravitch & Carl, 2020). With these two aspects in mind, the researcher used non-judgmental
queues, i.e., not affirming, or negating responses with head shaking or facial expressions. To
make sure the interview questions did not cause interviewees distress, the researcher offered
breaks and pauses during the interview process (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Data Analysis
Ravitch and Carl (2020) explained that qualitative data analysis allows for intentional
investigations of data through a process of data organization and management, immersive
engagement, and writing with proper representation. This study combined document analysis
with standardized open-ended interview transcript analysis. Patton (2002) suggested that the
standardized open-ended interviews combined with other strategies add to the completeness and
rigor of a study. Considering that qualitative data analysis is a process that is iterative, recursive,
and ongoing, the analysis occurred throughout the entirety of the research process, and this
placed special attention on the creation of the data instruments and how the analysis tools
influenced takeaways and key outcomes (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). The researcher used a codebook
with a priori codes based on the conceptual and theoretical frameworks during both document
analysis and interview transcript analysis to develop a contextual understanding of both types of
data and ensure that the researcher used the same definitions while coding throughout (Gross,
2018). Open coding of documents and interview transcripts took place for further identification

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of patterns and prevalent takeaways during the thematic analysis process (Ravitch & Carl,
2020).
A Priori Codebook
The research analysis depended on using clear definitions of concepts in SEL and
authentic leadership areas that can be murky given the newness of the field and the multiple
authors of both the conceptual framework and theoretical components (Gross, 2018; Northouse,
2019). Attention to a priori coding, or coding defined before seeing data points, allowed for the
researcher to use the same definition when completing content and thematic analysis (Ravitch &
Carl, 2020). A priori coding included authentic leadership and SEL elements and the elements of
current state of SEL development in higher education as identified in the literature review.
Appendix C includes code names, definitions, and code examples.
Document Analysis Strategy and Rationale
As Bowen (2009) suggested, document analysis verifies findings and corroborates
evidence when paired with additional research methods. This document analysis strove to
understand how higher education organizations describe promising practice programs and to
answer the following research question: What subject matter from promising practice programs
matches with SEL component definitions? Gross (2019) suggested that document analysis takes
a variety of approaches to answer research questions and follows the framework of coding and
categorizing, interpretation, and thematic analysis.
Bowen (2009) described content analysis as a process of organizing document data into
categories related to the research question to identify relevant information. This research used
predefined categories and codes in the content analysis and then use open coding as needed
during thematic analysis (Bowen, 2009; Gross, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The document

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analysis shared categories and a priori codes in the content analysis stages with interview
transcript analysis to integrate data from the different methods, improve triangularity, and
demonstrate objectivity in the subject matter (Bowen, 2009). When beginning the content
analysis, the document management table alongside a document analysis categorization table
established the meaning of the documents and how they contributed to the research study in
terms of authenticity, accuracy, and completeness (Bowen, 2009). Appendix D includes the
document analysis categorization table used during the coding and categorizing process.
Content analysis used an additional table to answer questions about promising practice
organizations. Interpretation of document content took place based on the a priori coding
definitions of key conceptual framework and theory aspects, since multiple authors may not use
the same vocabulary to discuss areas of SEL and authentic leadership (Gross, 2018). The
researcher asked the following questions when completing content analysis to better understand
the promising practice:
1. What type of program is the promising practice - required course, elective,
extracurricular program, or other?
2. In what office, department, or college is the program based?
3. Why were these programs developed?
4. Who developed these programs; are members of the program employees of their
university?
5. What type of content do programs use with stakeholders?
6. What is the delivery system of content: online, in-person, synchronous, or
asynchronous?
7. Which SEL core competencies (CASEL, 2020) are in the content?

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8. Which authentic leadership components (Walumbwa et al., 2008) are in the content?
9. How does the program communication specifically address positive psychological
capital, moral and ethical reasoning, and/or critical life experiences as defined by
Luthans and Avolio (2003)?
Thematic analysis occurred after content analysis to make meaning and produce
empirical knowledge through document evaluation and use open coding to identify areas for
review (Bowen, 2009; Gross, 2018). Thematic analysis looked for patterns and emerging themes
in the documents as a whole sample (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). By reviewing coded data and
finding connections and links across categories, the researcher identified themes and further
presented key findings (Gross, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020). After completion of interviews, an
additional return to the documents allowed for a fidelity analysis to compare information that the
content expressed versus promising practice interviewee transcripts to provide additional validity
in the study (Bowen, 2009). The fidelity analysis reviewed if documents mirrored the
practitioner’s answers or if a practitioner’s lived experience differed and this in turn magnified
additional, finer details of SEL and authentic leadership that have been unaddressed by
documents or interviews alone (Mowbray et al., 2003). The use of fidelity analysis also played a
significant role in internal validity of this study (Patton, 2002; Mowbray et al., 2003) while
providing further evidence to back up thematic analysis through analytical data triangulation
(Gross, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Interview Transcript Analysis Strategy and Rationale
Interview transcript analysis created an opportunity for interpretative research to
highlight how individuals make sense of their own world in a particular moment in time (Ravitch
& Carl, 2020). Transcript analysis took place using Atlas T.I. software to further manage and

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code the data given that qualitative studies produce a large amount of data for organization and
analysis (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested that qualitative data
collection and analysis is simultaneous. Through a non-linear, integrative approach, formative
assessment of data collection tools took place during the data collection process as well as
precoding transcripts to question data and process what data was available (Ravitch & Carl,
2020). Precoding memos functioned as a first step in the interview transcript analysis to
understand emerging learning, lingering questions, reactivity, and ideas and thoughts about open
codes. This precode displayed analytical habits and provided further transparency to the analysis
process (van den Hoonaard & van den Hoonaard, 2008).
As with the document analysis strategy, the interview transcript analysis included content
analysis and thematic analysis. Content analysis considered what interviewees said in the
transcripts along with the code based on a priori codebook definitions. Open coding took place
during content analysis to develop comments and observations on interviewees’ answers
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). During the analysis of open codes and a priori codes, axial coding
grouped codes into categories to capture patterns in the data that lead to further thematic analysis
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Coding memos annotated codes and considered which codes lined up
with research questions and asked emergent questions for continued analysis (Maxwell, 2013;
Ravitch & Carl, 2020). During the coding process, a listening guide approach took place to give
specific attention to interview data and this considered relational sense-making (Gilligan &
Eddy, 2017). The listening guide required that the researcher read interview transcripts four
times each, look for the individual interviewee’s plot, voice, and contrasting opinions, and then
analyze the reading of the transcript itself (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). By reading each interview
transcript four times and allowing these readings to build on each other, the researcher

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established further rigor, and details had less of a chance to escape to create additional evidence
(Gilligan, 2015).
Thematic analysis reviewed all codes and interview transcripts to compare data while
searching for relationships between codes and developed overall themes and takeaways from the
data (Gibbs, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020). The researcher used systematic comparison, or what
Gibbs (2018) described as asking a series of “what if’s” (p. 68), for each code and data type to
better understand the circumstances, lived experiences, events, and characteristics of
interviewees to associate themes together and considered how promising practice programs were
like or unlike each other. Code themes began to emerge when codes combined or overlapped; the
conceptual and theoretical framework determined themes and sub-themes (Ravitch & Carl,
2020). During the thematic analysis, memos explored how themes fit into a broad understanding
of the data and the conceptual and theoretical frameworks, as well as the relationship of the
themes to research questions, while further discussions took place with advisors to engage in
sense-making during the analytical process (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Research Study Validity
Toma (2011) explained that qualitative validity can take place throughout a research
study by using credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability to keep to a high
standard of rigor. Guba (1981) defined credibility as the ability to take complexity into account
when studying various patterns that are not easily explainable. Credibility took place throughout
the process of checking data, recording interviews, and note checking against the transcriptions
to ensure accuracy (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The document analysis and interview protocols
allowed for a thick description to ensure a truer understanding of the promising practice
programs and various aspects of the programs took place (Toma, 2011).

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Transferability occurred throughout the study by connecting the findings to a larger body
of research by utilizing authentic leadership theory and emphasizing the connections as to how
authentic leadership skills develop over time in the literature (Toma, 2011). Guba (1981)
considered qualitative research as a process that provides descriptive and relevant statements so
that audiences of research can determine if the research results are transferable to their own
context. Specific focus on providing thick description about each promising practice ensured
anonymity, but also allowed for the framing of data in other contexts by creating specific
analysis of the settings and the participants as well as the actions taken by the programs (Ravitch
& Carl, 2020). Providing as much information as possible with a sincere fidelity towards the
participants’ expressions of their own lived experiences supports the research audience’s ability
to transfer the information from the study into a variety of contexts without necessarily needing
to replicate the design and findings in totality in the future (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Dependability required multiple touch points with various data types and the research
design considered this by using triangulation of multiple sources during document analysis, and
further checks against interviews (Toma, 2011). With interviews, triangulation helped find a
more objective version of the truth. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested that triangulation must
use multiple methods, data sources, and theories to confirm findings. Collecting further
documents about each promising practices program took place post interview regarding learning
outcome goals and further work ensured true triangulation. Ravitch and Carl (2020) explained
that research design is the cornerstone of dependability. The research design for this study
followed the characteristics for qualitative research as outlined by Creswell and Creswell (2018)
and utilized the researcher as a key data gather while depending on multiple sources of data and

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both inductive and deductive reasoning to highlight participants’ meanings throughout the
analysis.
Confirmability required the checking of transcripts against recordings and notes to ensure
there were no obvious mistakes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Also as suggested by Miles et al.
(2014), confirmability requires data that is free from unacknowledged researcher bias. With bias
in mind, a proactive reflexivity process addressed and analyzed researcher positionality and bias
throughout the research process via multiple research memos and journaling to best outline any
potential influences on findings and interpretations of data (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Creswell and Creswell (2018) described the importance of considering the biases that
researchers bring to their studies as part of validity. Research memos used when reviewing data
for potential themes included an interpretation of the interview responses. Utilizing reflexivity
throughout the data collection process, during both document analysis and interviews, the
researcher documented memos and journals to which positionality, social identity, biases, and
assumptions were questioned during the data collection and analysis to review the lived
experiences of leaders as well as develop a transparent and responsible description of SEL
promising programs in higher education (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). To further ensure the rigor of
this research study during the analysis, the researcher paid special attention to the inclusion of
disconfirming evidence (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Ethics Rationale
Flick (2006) suggested that research questions originate within a personal biography and
social context. The process of this qualitative research invited questioning personal theories and
expanding or modifying that theory (Agee, 2009). The ethical aspects of developing research
questions, especially those that study the lives and lived experiences of others, are important to

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address in any study (Agee, 2009). Studies that reveal how people think or feel can have short-
and long-term impacts on others including their job roles and these questions affect participants’
lives and position the researcher in relation to the participants during the interview process
(Agee, 2009; Flick, 2006).
During the development of these research questions, ethical considerations carried
forward when formatting the questions and the design of the study and played a role in the
research during the data collection and study results periods (Adams, 2008). Agee (2009) noted
that questioning peoples’ lives and lived experiences is always an exercise in ethics. The goal of
the research inquiry process, through use of memos and journals during the study, was to
develop reflexive tools that positioned the research to provide thoughtful answers to complex
problems (Adams, 2008). Placing the relational aspects of qualitative data collection first was
key to this study to benefit from the opinion and lived experiences of interviewees (Ravitch &
Carl, 2020).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) asserted that ethical considerations for relationships with
interviewees must always take place in interview research design. Confidentiality, throughout the
research design process and in reporting findings, ensured individual promising practice
programs received pseudonyms, and avoided specific easily identifying practices, descriptions,
or details (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). While controlling for deductive disclosure can be difficult,
changing identifiers throughout the research process helped with confidentiality and presenting
an informed consent statement alongside confidentiality procedures and the possible risks
associated with the study helped interviewees feel more comfortable (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Composites helped to avoid disclosing specific information or opinions that could hurt individual
interviewees, especially if they voiced concerns when identifying any negative takeaways

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(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Further consideration was given to the use of online tools, such as
Atlas T.I. and email, as well as keyword searches, note taking software, transcription software,
and other tools that used a cloud-based service that can be breached, by using multiple passwords
and planning for deletion of materials after the study was completed and materials were allowed
to be deleted (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
University of Southern California (USC) IRB approval confirmed the study as social-
behavioral research that must include consent; participants received information on the research
design and risks (USC OPRS, 2019). The IRB required a consent form, and this consent form is
available in Appendix E. Participants received advisement that they may feel anxious due to
describing stressors, especially with their experiences in higher education during COVID-19.
Coding data with identification numbers and pseudonyms and by not using names of leaders,
programs, or institutions increased confidentiality. Data, both digital or physical copies, used a
locked system or passwords in the case of digital resources (USC OPRS, 2019). By completing
this research, higher education programs and their leaders will benefit, because less anxious
students may create a more desirable program culture. Future students may also benefit from the
development of future programs with skill sets from SEL utilized to help students demonstrate
resilience to rapid change and disruption during their time in college and into their longer-term
futures.
Positionality
Researcher positionality is that of an entrepreneur, who specializes in adult education in
business and leadership. Previous experience includes being a senior level college instructor and
an associate director in a graduate school program with over eight years of experience in the field
of higher education and working with academically advanced high school students in university

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environments. Positionality, as it relates to social location and economic mobility, considers
power and position. Similar past power and experience as other director-level interviewees may
have played a part in the data interpretation, but there was no power over interviewee positions
given the difference in organizations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher was aware that
they may consider issues with students and student anxiety differently from other higher
education staff or faculty due to previous primary experience within a teaching role in the
classroom setting while delivering materials to undergraduate and graduate level students,
ranging in totals of 500 to 1,500 students per academic year (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Creswell and Creswell (2018) note that pragmatism focuses on action-oriented research for
application and solutions to problems. The paradigm of inquiry for this research is the pragmatic
worldview as this study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in
higher education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while
addressing anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum.
The research axiology is to value compassion, so that this research can help bring about a change
that is understanding of students and not blaming students for not intuitively having the skills
necessary for this change outright (Saunders, 2019). Ontologically, the study will focus on reality
as a consequence of belief (Saunders, 2019). The epistemology values knowledge as action-
based and believes that actions require a foundation of theories for successful solutions
(Saunders, 2019).
Maxwell (2013) suggested that goals help avoid losing the focus of a study. The personal
goals motivating this study were to understand how to counter college student anxiety and
further develop authentic leadership skills in adults through techniques associated with SEL.
Currently, the researcher participates in guided techniques in mindfulness and emotional

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intelligence to better understand the techniques and experiences used by various promising
practice programs. The researcher also completed a fellowship in experiential learning pedagogy
and a year-long project on experiential learning’s impact on student fear of failure, a semester-
long university sponsored group mentorship program on well-being and performance with
Google, two certifications in emotional intelligence, 20 group classes in mindfulness, and
published articles on topics of performance science on a university sponsored online platform.
All the researcher’s assignments and projects at the doctoral level have focused on areas of
college student anxiety, SEL, and related topics such as the different controversies and
considerations surrounding the concept of grit. This focus on and consideration that SEL as a
potentially valuable tool to use with college students may bring bias into the study, because of
the personal benefits experienced from developing a practice in these skill sets for mental health
and well-being (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Understanding positionality on this topic is
important because beliefs and assumptions can come into question during the research process
and the researcher does consider, despite personal positive experience, that SEL and practices
associated with SEL may not be the only answer to the problem of practice (Maxwell, 2013).
Limitations and Delimitations
As Gibbs (2018) suggested, qualitative research can imply transformation in the selection
of a large pool of data and the creation of an analysis that can create a clearer, more
understandable, picture of a lived experience and phenomenon. However, certain limitations
exist when designing a qualitative research study and delimitations exist to help narrow the scope
of the study and respond to the limitations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Maxwell (2013) asserted
that qualitative validity does not imply an objective truth and researchers may not determine an
ultimate truth and fully credible accounts to create qualitative analysis; however, tests of the

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accounts of data against the literature allow for further understanding of phenomena during
research.
Limitations to qualitative validity included bias and reactivity (Maxwell, 2013). Research
bias occurs when the researcher strives to make conclusions that fit into existing preferences; to
create a delimitation to bias, variety of extensive memos were used to reckon with and consider
bias throughout the research process and to create a transparent opportunity to review any biased
positions during the analysis and reflection on data (Maxwell 2013; Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Reactivity occurs when the researcher influences the behavior of the interviewees (Maxwell,
2013). Understanding reflexivity, the concept that the researcher can influence interviewees, was
paramount to the research process and further reflections took place during the during the
analysis process (Maxwell, 2013).
Document analysis has limitations in access to information and incomplete materials
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Both Bowen (2007) and Gross (2018) confirmed documents have
insufficient detail and low retrievability, but also highlight that biased selectivity can occur in
document analysis as organizations may only produce selected documents that favor positive
organizational policies and principles. A fidelity analysis took place after interview analysis to
consider and compare any differences in the document analysis presentation with the interviewee
answers to questions to provide a better understanding of the lived experience and phenomenon
and to consider ways that documents might differ from interviewees’ opinions in the interview
context (Mowbray et al., 2003). In delimitations for document analysis, particular attention was
paid to creating a keyword search term strategy as well as a comprehensive review of promising
practice program websites, social media pages, and other online or offline materials so that
comparisons and contrasts can be made and some level of confidence in the authentic and

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accuracy of the documents can be considered and while that keyword strategy was limited to
areas of the study, it also allowed for specificity to be maintained and focused on higher
education institutions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Interview analysis has limitations that include the interviewee providing information in a
designated place versus a natural setting that may make them uncomfortable and not as willing to
provide full information (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Delimitations included interviews held on
the Zoom platform and not in-person interviews due to COVID-19, so considerable instructions
were given on how to use the platform as well as alternative technological options to provide for
the comfort level of the interviewee and emphasized the relational aspect of the interview
process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020). Further attention to pilot interviews
and collaborating with advisors functioned as an opportunity for formative assessment of
interview protocols and continued to improve the researcher’s ability to maintain a good rapport
with interviewees to obtain reliable data (Ravitch & Carl, 2020). Considering the use of authentic
engagement strategies alongside research boundaries by giving assurances that data will remain
anonymous with specific steps taken for confidentiality as well as informed consent allowed
interviewees to maintain a sense of confidence when expressing their own experiences while
providing a further understanding of SEL in higher education (Ravitch & Carl, 2020).

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in higher
education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while addressing
anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. This study
further connected the theory of authentic leadership to SEL to better understand how SEL can
positively influence authentic leadership development within the context of a college-based
curriculum. Research questions that guided this study include the following:
1. What subject matter from promising practice programs matches with SEL component
definitions?
2. How do the promising practice programs’ desired outcomes compare with the
influence factors associated with authentic leadership?
3. What are the self-reported lived experiences of the promising practice leaders
regarding the implementation of programs now and in the future?
This study used SEL as defined by CASEL as a conceptual framework to identify promising
practice programs that focus on self-awareness, self-management, responsible decision making,
relationship skills, and social awareness. This study also used the theory of authentic leadership
as a lens to focus on self-awareness and ethical leadership skills. As discussed in Chapter Two,
authentic leadership and SEL overlap in their focus on self-awareness, and the authentic
leadership and SEL competencies hold similar aims.
Participants
As discussed in Chapter Three, expert nomination identified potential promising practice
programs and the researcher contacted each expert nominated program with an invitation to
participate in the research. Out of the 30 contacted participants, 16 participants from 15

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universities scheduled interviews. One program had two participants schedule interviews
because the participants had distinct roles in the same program. One participant suggested a
colleague to contact, so a fuller account of the program could take place.
Promising Practice Programs Information
The 15 identified institutions with promising practice programs are located across the
entire United States. The promising practice programs are in all four major U.S. Census Bureau
regions with five from the South, five from the West, three from the Northeast, and two from the
Midwest. The institutions represented seven of nine U.S. Census Bureau divisions of the regions.
Unrepresented regions included the West, South Central, and the Mountain divisions. The
following table assigns pseudonyms to the promising practice programs.

Table 5
Promising Practice Institution Pseudonyms
Pseudonym Years
active

Participants in
the promising
practice
Carnegie
classification
2021 U.S.
News and
World
Report
rank
U.S.
census
region
Atlantic
University
(AU)
4-6 Master of
business
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 100
National
University
South,
South
Atlantic
Associates
West
College
(AWC)
4-6 Business college
students
Associates’
college high
transfer high
traditional
N/A West,
Pacific
Middle
Atlantic
University
(MAU)
4-6 University wide
undergraduate
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 100
National
University

Northeast
Middle
Atlantic

105

Midwest East
University
(MEU)
7-10 Business
undergraduate
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 50
National
University
Midwest,
East
North
Central
Midwest
Regional
University
(MRU)
7-10 University wide
undergraduate
students,
faculty, staff

Private
master’s
colleges and
universities
medium
programs
Top 100
Regional
University

Midwest,
West
North
Central
National
Atlantic
University
(NAU)
4-6 University wide
undergraduate
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 200
National
University
South,
South
Atlantic
National
South
University
(NSU)
7-10 University wide
undergraduate
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 50
National
University
South,
South
Atlantic
New England
University
(NEU)
7-10 Business
undergraduate
and graduate
students,
continuing
studies
Private
master’s
colleges and
universities
larger
programs
Top 50
Regional
University
Northeast
New
England
Northeast
University
(NU)
1-3 University wide
faculty
Private
doctoral
universities
very high
research
activity
Top 50
National
University
Northeast
New
England
Pacific
Research
University
(PRU)

1-3 University wide
students,
faculty, staff
Private
doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 50
National
University
West,
Pacific
Pacific
University
(PU)
7-10 Master of
business
students
Special focus
four-year
medical
schools and
centers
N/A

West,
Pacific

106

South
Atlantic
University
(SAU)
4-6 University wide
undergraduate
students,
faculty,
continuing
studies
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 150
National
University
South,
South
Atlantic
South
Central
University
(SCU)
1-3 University wide
counseling
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 200
University
South,
East
South
Central
West Pacific
University
(WPU)
4-6 University wide
center
undergraduate
students and
faculty
Public doctoral
universities
very high
research
activity
Top 100
National
University
West,
Pacific
West
University
(WU)
7-10 Engineering
undergraduate
students
Public doctoral
university
very high
research
activity
Top 100
University
West,
Pacific

Out of the 15 promising practice programs, the Carnegie Classifications lists nine
institutions as public doctoral universities with “very high research activity.” Two are private
doctoral universities with “very high research activity.” Promising practice programs also
include a large private master’s college and university program, a medium private master’s
college and university program, a special focus four-year medical school, and an associate’s
college with high transfer and high traditional students with one institution each. All institutions
are not-for-profit colleges or universities. Based on the 2021 National U.S. News and World
Report Best National Universities Rankings, four institutions are in the top 1-50 programs, four
are in the top 50-100 programs, and three are in the top 100-200 programs. In the 2021 U.S.
News and World Report Best Regional Universities Rankings, two institutions are in the top 100
programs in their respective regions. Two institutions are not in the 2021 U.S. News and World

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Report Best National or Regional Universities Rankings due to their status as special focus
institutions or associate colleges.
Promising Practice Programs Document Analysis Information
The documents used in the document analysis for promising practice programs came
from university websites and directly from interviewees in emails. Requests for documents from
interviewees did not take place; instead, interviewees emailed the documents unprompted as they
wanted to provide further examples of assignments and reflections on the course. All documents
other than those personally emailed by the interviewees were publicly available. Interviewees
sent journal articles in emails or gave specific tiles. No documents were available for two of the
five promising practice programs.
Document categorization took place in a table with a generalized name and title, location,
completeness and balance, target audience, and content description. The entire table is available
in Appendix F. Documents included university website descriptions of the promising practice
program courses or opportunities, the history of the centers or departments, course syllabi, course
catalogs, course descriptions, mission statements, event posters, guidebooks, blog posts, program
brochures, general news, PowerPoint presentations, program announcements, program
applications, course submission forms, student newspaper articles, and one university’s strategic
plan that includes the promising practice subject matter as a strategic goal. The documents also
included an article featured in The Chronicle of Higher Education specifically about the
promising practice program. The interviewees emailed journal articles and a book chapter. The
journal article titles are unlisted to protect the anonymity of the interviewees and include articles
from the following journals: Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal; Journal of
American College Health; Journal of Management Development; and Frontiers in Psychiatry.

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One participant also sent a preprint of an accepted journal article. The book chapter is a
reflective piece written by the participant and featured in a collection of essays on college
teaching pedagogy. The documents also included a book not written by a participant but
influenced the participant when developing the curriculum. The generalized titles protect the
author from identification as a participant. Other documents used in the analysis include a PDF
guide for a resilience exercise and transcripts from multiple video examples of one promising
practice program.
Other documents used in the analysis include a physical copy of a facilitators’ guide for a
textbook on emotional intelligence, assignments, and publicly available student writing. One
participant suggested the facilitator’s guide for a textbook for document analysis. The
facilitator’s guide includes a full version of the student textbook, teaching notes, course
activities, and syllabi suggestions. Two participants emailed samples of assignments they
currently give to students with complete sets of instructions and one set of readings for a course.
The document analysis accessed publicly available student writing for multiple promising
practice programs through university-sponsored websites as course blogs. One blog was a
“course website,” used a university-sponsored website address, and verified by the university as
part of the course. The course website did not require a username or password. Students were
anonymous through usernames that are not common first or last names and the blog included
reflections on course content and material.
Promising Practice Programs Interviewee Information
The 16 interviewees representing the 15 promising practice institutions self-identified
demographic information, job status and title, department, length of employment, and
educational background. They were also asked if they worked alone or in a team at the beginning

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of the interview. The following table assigns pseudonyms to the interviewees and connects them
with their promising practice programs’ institutions.

Table 6
Promising Practices Interviewee Pseudonym
Promising
practice
institution

Interviewee
pseudonym
Demographic
information
given by
interviewee
Educational
background
Length of
employment
and
department
Faculty
/ staff
FT /
PT
Atlantic
University
(AU)
Lennon Her/Hers

EdD in higher
education
5 years in
graduate
program
admissions
and career
services
Staff FT

Associates
West
College
(AWC)
Myron African
American
Doctor of
Ministry
interfaith
theology;
Masters of
business
24 years in
business
programs
Faculty
FT

Middle
Atlantic
University
(MAU)
Flynn White male,
middle-aged
PhD in
education
and
psychology

5 years in
college of
human
development
Faculty
FT

Midwest East
University
(MEU)
Alison White female PhD in
educational
studies
4 years in
college of
business
Faculty
FT

Midwest East
University
(MEU)
Jamie Caucasian or
white and
female
Education
Specialist
(EdS),
licensed
mental
health
counselor
8 years in
college of
business
Faculty
FT

Midwest
Regional
University
(MRU)
Jordan White female EdD in
education
and change
leadership
10 years in
president’s
office
Faculty
&
staff
FT

110

National
Atlantic
University
(NAU)
Shane Male, born
abroad,
parents are
American,
43
BS in German
and minor
in planetary
science; MS
in English
and
sociology
8 years in first
year
programs
Faculty
FT

National
South
University
(NSU)
Gwen Asian
American
female
PhD in higher
education
10 years in
college of
education
and human
development
and
residential
life
Faculty
FT

New England
University
(NEU)
Logan White
male
PhD in
manage-
ment
12 years in
college of
business,
student
affairs, and
school of
continuing
education
Faculty
FT

Northeast
University
(NU)
Erin Racialized
white
caucasian,
cisgender
female
EdD in
teaching
and
learning
13 years in the
college of
education
and
university
wide
programs
Faculty
FT

Pacific
Research
University
(PRU)

Saraswathi White
woman
50 years old
Ashkenazi
Jewish
origin

Master’s
degree in
yoga;
current PhD
student in
yoga
2 years in
religious /
spiritual life
Staff FT

Pacific
University
(PU)
Clotilde White female
cisgender
EdD in
organiza-
tional
change and
leadership;
Master’s in
psychology
7 years in
division of
management
graduate
programs
Faculty
FT

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When self-identifying demographic information, interview participants described their
demographic information, including gender and race. If participants asked for further
clarification, the researcher asked them how they would describe themselves to others in a way
that felt comfortable. Seven participants identified as female, four participants identified as male,
three participants identified as cisgender female, and one participant did not identify a gender.
Eleven participants identified as white, one participant identified as Asian, one participant
identified as African American, and three participants did not specify race or ethnicity.
All participants identified with a full-time job status. Several participants held multiple
titles and juggled job roles in various departments. Seven participants identified themselves as a
director (assistant, associate, or main director level) of a program or center. Seven participants
identified themselves as professors (assistant, associate, or fully tenured). Three participants
South
Atlantic
University
(SAU)
Clarissa White female PhD in higher
education
9 years in
university
life
Faculty
FT

South
Central
University
(SCU)
Maddy Cisgender
female
PhD in
counseling
7 years in
student
counseling
services

Staff FT

West Pacific
University
(WPU)
Elin White female,
she/her/hers
queer
MS in applied
behavior
science;
currently
enrolled as
a doctoral
student at
college of
education
6 years in
under-
graduate
academic
affairs
Staff FT

West
University
(WU)
Noel White male
mid-60s

PhD in bio-
molecular
engineering
and bio-
informatics
10 years in
college of
engineering
Faculty
FT
(PT 9
years

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identified themselves as a full-time lecturer or instructor. One participant identified as a dean
(assistant, associate, senior, or full). One participant identified as a leader in a residential life
community. Of the departments represented, six participants identified as part of a college of
business. Two participants identified as part of university life. Two participants identified as part
of a college of education. Two participants identified as a department chair. One participant each
represented a president’s office, undergraduate academic affairs, a department of continuing
education, a general education department, student counseling, a college of engineering, and an
office of religious and spiritual life.
All participants gave the length of employment within their college or university. The
mean years for employment within the college or university was 8.8125 years. The median was
eight years, and the mode was 10 years. All participants identified their highest degree level and
subject matter of the degree. Seven of the participants held Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees,
four participants held Doctor of Education (EdD) degrees, one participant held a Doctor of
Ministry (DMin) degree, one participant held an Education Specialist (EdS) degree, and three
participants held master’s degrees. Nine of these degrees were based in education subjects. The
other degree subjects represented included applied behavior, counseling, engineering, English,
interfaith theology, management, sociology, and yoga studies. One participant identified as a
licensed mental health counselor in addition to their highest degree. One participant identified as
a future first-year doctoral student at a college of education while continuing to hold their full-
time role. One participant identified as a future first-year doctoral student at a graduate
institution of theology while continuing to hold their full-time role. All participants identified
that they worked on a team, and many worked on multiple teams leading others or being part of
administrative committees.

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Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asks the following: “What subject matter from promising practice
programs matches with SEL component definitions?” identifies the types of practices that
programs utilize when that can also match the components within the SEL conceptual
framework. As discussed in Chapter Two, SEL raises skill competencies in students. These skills
are assessable, especially in the consideration of the overall context and faculty premeditate the
cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of SEL in the deployment of curriculum. SEL
skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and self-
regulation can lead to better employment options and outcomes for students are known as 21st
Century Skills. When university leadership creates a learning environment that engages a
student’s thinking and metacognition practice in the context of their age and lived experience
strengthen student’s skills, which is significant in biopsychosocial brain development throughout
a student’s lifetime. The research data includes themes that pair to the research question and
begin to highlight different pedagogical practices and concerns that promising practice
interviewees have about the content of their practices. The themes for Research Question 1
include the following: emphasis on multiple practices, differences in student and faculty or staff
centered materials, and blending subject matter in curriculums.
RQ1 Document Analysis for Promising Practices
The promising practice program document analysis included syllabi, readings,
assignments, newspaper articles, journal articles about the promising practices, reflections
written by the promising practice interviewees, anonymous student writing samples, websites,
posters, and other marketing materials. The review of documents included the name and title,
location, completeness and balance, target audience, and content and organized in a document

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analysis categorization table. The documents provided information that led to the following
themes: emphasis on multiple practices and differences in student and faculty or staff centered
materials.
Theme 1: Emphasis on Multiple Practices
Promising practices represented individual courses students could enroll in or specific
programs for students and faculty or staff that involved authentic leadership development and
utilized social and emotional learning topics while addressing topics of anxiety and stress. The
syllabi, readings, and assignments for promising practice courses and programs pull from various
resources and utilize a variety of vocabulary and terms to reach similar learning outcomes. The
following figure is a word cloud generated by Atlas T.I. of all promising practice documents.
The word cloud uses a stop/go list of terms found in documents. Specifically, the stop/go list
excluded the words social, emotional, learning, authentic, and experience, along with other
words that could quickly identify the promising practice leader or institution.

115

Figure 2
Atlas T.I. Word Cloud of Identified Practices in the Documents

The terms “life,” “science,” “resilience,” “development,” “leadership,” “self,” and
“practice” were all used between 635-355 times in the data set. The term “life” made up 8.5% of
the total data analyzed. These terms identified areas of the documents essential for exploration to
understand the types of practices used by the promising practice programs.
The promising practices programs had a variety of program types from classes for credit,
training, minor degrees, research, fellowships, residence hall programming, and events. Target
audiences ranged from undergraduate students, faculty and staff, and the public. Formats ranged
from in-person to online opportunities. Online opportunities ranged from asynchronous videos or
lessons on a learning management system to live video conferencing on platforms such as Zoom.

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The following table, organized by promising practice pseudonyms, uses the documents to
differentiate the promising practices.

Table 7
Document Analysis of Promising Practice Program Type
Pseudonym
promising
practice
institution
Program type(s) Target
audience(s)
Format
available
Subject matter
emphasized in
documents
Atlantic
University
(AU)

Orientation
presentations;
year-long
professional
development
events; peer
coaching and
mentoring

Masters of
business
students
In person
classes and
events. Uses
an app to
manage
event
attendance
Emotional
intelligence,
leadership,
impact,
influence, social
intelligence,
communication,
and team
efficacy
Associates
West
College
(AWC)

*No
documents
available.
Infor-
mation
received
from
interview.
A class for
students that
integrates SEL
related topics
into a larger
topic
(business)

Community
college
students

In person class
for credit
Emotional
intelligence
Middle
Atlantic
University
(MAU)

One class for
undergraduate
students
Undergraduate
students

In person class
for credit
Experiential
learning,
mindfulness,
meditation,
integration, self-
awareness, well-
being,
connection, and
wisdom

117

Midwest East
University
(MEU)

Undergraduate
classes
Undergraduate
students
In person and
online
classes
required and
for credit
towards a
degree in a
business
field
Personal
development,
team building,
professional
development,
self-awareness,
and emotional
intelligence
Midwest
Regional
University
(MRU)

One class for
students;
facilitator
training for
faculty and
staff

Undergraduate
students,
faculty, and
staff
Classes and
workshops
Emotional
intelligence

National
Atlantic
University
(NAU)
Classes for
undergraduate
students;
research in the
field;
residence hall
program

Undergraduate
students and
faculty
In person and
online
classes for
credit,
events, and
resources
Science-based
research,
behavioral and
emotional
health, well-
being,
happiness,
resilience,
anxiety, positive
psychology,
mindfulness, and
yoga
National
South
University
(NSU)
Classes for
undergraduate
students;
classes for the
public;
research in the
field;
fellowships;
meditation
events; faculty
groups;
residence hall
program

Undergraduate
students,
faculty, and
the public
In person and
online
classes.
Some classes
are academic
in nature and
are for
credit, other
classes are
practice
based. Also
includes
non-credit,
events,
physical
spaces for
reflection
Connection, yoga,
mindfulness,
meditation,
resilience,
Buddhism, and
well-being

118

New England
University
(NEU)
Classes for
undergraduate,
graduate, and
continuing
education;
fellowship
program; open
student events
Undergraduate,
graduate, and
continuing
education
students
In person
classes for
credit
towards a
degree or a
certificate;
events
Leadership,
morals, self-
awareness,
experiential
learning,
anxiety,
mindfulness, and
self-purpose
Northeast
University
(NU)

Fellowship for
faculty
Faculty In person
classes and
events
supported by
additional
resources on
an online
platform
Social and
emotional
learning,
emotional
intelligence,
empathy, and
community
building
Pacific
Research
University
(PRU)

Classes not for
credit for
students,
faculty, and
staff
Students,
faculty, and
staff
Online classes
both
asynchronou
s and live.
Unique
events.
Yoga, breath,
meditation, and
mental well-
being
Pacific
University
(PU)

A class for
students that
integrates SEL
related topics
into
management
Master of
business
students
Online class
for credit
Mindset,
reframing,
relationships,
and emotional
agility
South
Atlantic
University
(SAU)

Multiple classes
for
undergraduate
and continuing
studies
students;
events for all
students;
minor degree;
research in the
field
Undergraduate
students,
continuing
education
students, and
faculty
Classes both
in-person
and online.
Some classes
are non-
credit and
are
asynchro-
nous. Other
classes are
for credit
towards a
minor or
towards a
continuing
studies
certificate.
Resilience, well-
being, and
activism

119

South
Central
University
(SCU)

Asynchronous
online not for
credit course
for students.
Some in-
person student
presentations.
Undergraduate
and graduate
students
Not for Credit
course
available
online. Self-
help and
self-directed
course. Re-
source
guide.
Resilience,
labeling
challenges,
reframing,
reflection, help
seeking, outdoor
experience, and
mindfulness
West Pacific
University
(WPU)
Classes for
faculty and
staff; grants
for events;
trainings for
faculty;
research in the
field;
published
guides for
faculty

Undergraduate
students,
faculty, and
staff
In person and
online non-
credit classes
for students,
faculty, and
staff. Events,
guidebooks
and,
resources
Resilience,
compassion,
access,
authenticity,
social and
emotional
learning,
mindfulness,
connection,
environment,
equity, well-
being, and stress
West
University
(WU)

*No
documents
available.
Infor-
mation
received
from
interview.
A class for
students that
integrates SEL
related topics
into a larger
topic
(engineering)

Undergraduate
engineering
students
In person class
for credit
Emotional
intelligence

This table shows that most promising practices emphasized emotional intelligence.
Mindfulness and well-being, resilience, and self-awareness, were also focus points for promising
practices. Two promising practice programs specifically called out “social and emotional
learning,” though terms associated with SEL are in all promising practice program documents.
Some promising practice programs only focused on one area, such as emotional intelligence, but

120

most programs blended multiple practices and emphasized various terms in the documents
associated with the program.
Theme 2: Differences Between Student and Faculty or Staff Materials
While most promising practices in the study are student-focused, one promising practice
program focused solely on faculty and staff and others had faculty components in addition to
student-facing materials. Analyses included diverse types of documents as described above.
Specifically, similarities and differences were apparent when reviewing documents geared
towards students versus faculty or staff. Documents identified the challenges presented by
COVID-19, racism, politics, violence, sexual assault, and other stressors identified by college
students and faculty and staff. Documents geared towards students, such as assignments,
readings, and course syllabi, focused on the benefits of the practices and skills students would
learn from the course. These documents emphasized well-being and stress relief and the power to
identify complex emotions. Documents geared towards faculty placed more focus on developing
buy-in for using SEL and associated practices in the classroom.
Documents geared towards faculty or staff focused on the challenges faculty or staff may
face in the classroom and campus environment. The challenges developed by COVID-19 and a
rapid shift to virtual learning environments gained special attention in the documents.
Documents associated with MRU suggest that faculty and staff must focus on caring for
themselves, while navigating the challenges of pressure to cover a massive amount of various
content, motivating students, working with facilitators, and understanding their practices.
Documents from WPU suggest to faculty and staff that SEL is not a way to fix problems but is a
way to “fortify” students and a positive campus culture. The documents geared towards faculty

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and staff outlined the challenges as valid and emphasized that taking up the promising practice
materials could help faculty and staff face those challenges.
Documents for faculty and staff suggested that practices could and should exist across
multiple disciplines throughout campus. Faculty and staff guidebooks developed by the
promising practice centers and authored by the interviewees suggested a series of guiding
questions, practices, and examples and backed each section with a series of peer-reviewed
studies. These guidebooks gave similar advice; a guidebook from NEU advocated that faculty
and staff build a “common humanity” with students and show students that faculty and staff were
also vulnerable and made mistakes to emphasize the faculty or staff’s “authentic self” in the
classroom or campus environment. A guidebook from WPU suggests that creating a space with
student input helps build an opportunity to “normalize questions” and “multiple ways of
learning.” Documents from NEU also indicated that by “reducing the power dynamic” between
faculty or staff and students, more learning and promotion of well-being could take place
“throughout the curriculum” and be “integrated throughout classroom experiences.” WPU
documents further emphasized that equitable and accessible campuses adopt SEL practices to
provide further influence through the classroom to encourage DEI throughout an institution.
RQ1 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices
The interview transcripts from 16 promising practice interviewees representing 15
promising practice programs or courses were reviewed consistent with the interview transcript
analysis and rationale provided in Chapter Three. The first step in the interview transcript
analysis was creating precoding memos The content analysis considered the a priori codebook
and open coding during the content analysis process. The listening guide method required the

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reading of interview transcripts four times each to pick up the plot, voice, and contrasting
opinions.
Theme 1: Blending Multiple Subjects in Curricula
The blending of subjects was often a topic of interest for interviewees. It was a
widespread practice among the promising practice courses and programs and found in the
document analysis of syllabi, course readings, and course reading lists. Subjects that were
identified throughout interview coding include the following: reflection; self-awareness;
mindfulness; compassion; resilience; gratitude; diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI); the body;
emotions; feelings; life experiences; science; eastern philosophy; professional development;
career development; a journey or life path; practicing skills; well-being; social connectedness;
relationships; challenges; common learning experiences; developing agency; identity;
compassionate awareness skills; flourishing; connecting the human brain and body to the spirit;
science; sustainability; environmentalism; compassion; connection; writing; ally training;
leadership development; outdoor experiences; experiential learning; validation; stress
management; neuroscience; the brain; talking and communicating with people; reflections;
mindfulness; and stress reduction.
The following is a word cloud generated by Atlas T.I. of all promising practice
interviews. The word cloud uses a stop/go list of terms found in documents and interviews.
Specifically, the stop/go list excluded the words social, emotional, learning, authentic, and
experience, along with words that could identify the promising practice leader or institution.

123

Figure 3
Atlas T.I. Word Cloud of Identified Practices in the Interviews

The terms “life,” “leadership,” “self,” “awareness,” “practice,” “talking,” and “mental”
were all used between 100-and 49 times in the data set. The term “life” was found in 9.27% of
the data analyzed. These terms showed commonalities in the interviews that are essential to
further explore within the SEL conceptual framework to understand better these terms and their
relation to SEL and authentic leadership.
SEL Framework
This study uses the SEL framework as the conceptual framework to better understand
what curriculum can relate to and influence authentic leadership development. A priori codes
used the framework definitions during data analysis and determined what subject matter matched
with the various components of SEL when analyzing what promising practice programs do to
develop authentic leadership capabilities in students while addressing increasing anxiety. The

124

components of the SEL conceptual framework include the following: self-awareness, self-
management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making.
Self-Awareness
Examples of self-awareness used in a priori coding include the following: recognizing
strengths and weaknesses, labeling emotions, understanding the connection between thoughts or
emotions and values, using a growth mindset, recognizing biases, and demonstrating purpose. In
the courses and programs developed for students, self-awareness occurs throughout the
curriculum, often using mindfulness or meditation to label emotions. Multiple promising practice
programs list mindfulness or meditations as a core competency and emphasized the skill leading
to the outcome of understanding and naming what is happening inside the body. Gwen noted,
“They [students] learn to recognize when things are changing in their bodies, which I think is
maybe as important as the skills developed by the meditations themselves.” Two promising
practice programs used a specific lab space where students could engage in mindfulness
meditations. In contrast, other programs used mindfulness in live or asynchronous classes,
assigned repeated mindfulness practice as homework, or supplied lists of mindfulness resources
and applications for further exploration.
Outside of mindfulness or meditation exercises, courses used simple check-ins at the
beginning of class to help students determine how they were feeling and to give themselves a
sense of self-awareness in the moment. Jordan explained,
We actually check in with students every single class period before we start the content,
and once that check-in is started, there’s just a great conversation. I think students like the
opportunity to actually talk about how they’re feeling, because sometimes we don’t give
them the opportunity to do that in the classroom.

125

Gwen also uses a check-in process and considers the reflection process an effective way to focus
students on the topic at hand and “shed whatever things they were thinking about as they enter
the classroom.” These reflections typically have something to do with the topic of that day’s
class, and at the end of the classes, Gwen prompted students to reflect again on what they
learned, what questions they still had about the topic, and what they would commit to looking up
and studying more.
Promising practice interviewees described using assessments such as the StrengthsFinder,
Blue EQ, and other validated scales to help students understand themselves and their strengths
and weaknesses better. One promising practice program specifically used the assessments to help
students develop a personal brand to be competitive in internship and job interviews. This
program also encouraged students to understand themselves concerning choosing a major. Jamie
suggested that their job with students was to “widen their viewpoint and widen their options” and
noted that students come into the course narrowly focused on one career without in-depth
understanding as to why they have made that choice and that the course helps students complete
“research and development” on themselves. Two promising practice programs encouraged
students to explore their life path and journey, with a career being one aspect of that journey
through a better understanding of what they want to do with their lives. Understanding purpose is
a commonality among the programs, as Jordan suggests the course at their institution is “self-
science” and is an “engaging course where students are learning about themselves and
understanding their values their beliefs and being able to make choices that are going to create
long term success for them.”
Promising practice courses often used writing as a tool for students to continue to
understand themselves and further name strengths and weaknesses, emotions, and purpose.

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Assignments given in classes are often writing-based and include reflections on future career
opportunities, why a student likes or dislikes a type of work, or what challenged a student and
how they overcame that challenge. Jordan called the course textbook a “living workbook” and
suggested that it is a “journaling experience” for students to create their reflections about their
experiences. Interviewees emphasized that connecting multiple aspects of readings, exercises,
and class lectures are essential for students to synthesize information and relate it to their
experiences. For example, Shane required reflections to “make connections across all content
learned from the semester” while addressing “major lessons learned, changes made due to the
lessons and applied insights, and changes that still need to be made in the future.”
Self-Management
Examples of self-management used in a priori coding include the following: delaying
satisfaction, stress management, using motivation to achieve goals, developing agency to reach
goals, and planning and organizing. In multiple cases, self-management combined with other
core competencies in SEL as programs focused on students using mindfulness to regulate
emotions and have better outcomes coping with stress. Regulating emotions is a critical part of
self-management, and promising practice interviewees highlighted using the skills in
combination. Elin’s program focused on using “a combination of mindfulness practices, self-
compassion practices, and practices to regulate emotions and cope with stress.” Elin emphasized
that the combination of these practices helped students develop over time at the university.
The timing that students completed the program was essential to promising practice
interviewees; multiple interviewees suggested that the year in which that a student completed the
course or program was crucial to the student’s ability to manage themselves and plan their future

127

at the university. Jordan suggested that the timing was also related to students’ transition to
adulthood,
With brain health issues and anxiety, just with transitional issues coming to college can
be a very, it can be a cultural shift; it can be an extremely difficult situation for some
students….I think it’s so important for people to understand that because of college
students experiencing some of these issues that social and emotional learning can really
help them be successful and it’s providing them tools in their toolbelt to be really able to
be successful.
Understanding the campus resources available to help students with self-management was also a
critical focus for promising practice program interviewees. Multiple promising practice programs
were available to undergraduate students during the college experience as a standalone course
without prerequisites. However, one promising practice program required students to complete
three individual courses in three years, with each course building on the content from the one
before it. The interviewee representing this promising practice suggested that if they could build
it over again, the program could be taken in the first two years, versus three, because “students
need this early on…students need this almost on like day one…so it’s like all of this becomes
critical to get it to front-load in the first two years.” Multiple promising practice interviewees
suggested that the earlier a student could experience the course during their time at university,
the valued benefit of the experience would increase.
While the subject matter may be similar, the students’ ages and experiences can lead to
different outcomes. Promising practice interviewees note differences between undergraduate
students, master’s students, and continuing education students. Logan has experienced teaching
all three groups of students and suggested that non-traditional continuing education students

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“have experienced I think a lot more trauma and…there is a lot of working through trauma
together.” Multiple promising practice interviewees suggested that older students bonded and
connected more thoroughly and tried to take more responsibility for their experiences. Lennon
explained that two-year master’s programs have an opportunity to help graduate students with
internships and career advancement when scheduled with the goal of helping the students in this
area,
We found that there was not enough of a benefit tied to the outcomes early enough….for
instance, you wanted something to put on the resume early, and that’s why we have the
leadership certificate, but by tying it to the activities now, in the first year, that's
something they can put on their resume when they’re going into interviews for
internships or for full-time positions, and so yeah we have condensed it into the first year
for the full-time students, and we created this opportunity for them in the second year for
those students who want to go above and beyond to be leadership fellows.
In every promising practice program, the timing was correlated with students using resources
from the program and university-wide resources to help themselves navigate the university
atmosphere, learn stress management skills, and prepare themselves for the workplace.
Social Awareness
Examples of social awareness used in a priori coding include the following: compassion,
gratitude, understanding historical and social norms for multiple cultures, shifting behaviors
based on situational context, recognizing resources and support systems, seeing strengths in other
people, showing concern, and empathy, and identifying biased systems. Multiple promising
practice programs used eastern philosophy and Buddhist teachings when developing curricula.
The teachings of the Dalai Lama influenced multiple promising practice programs. For one

129

program, students understanding the relationship between happiness and suffering is essential for
developing concern and empathy. Flynn noted that he likes to ask students, “how can you be
happy enough to suffer” to help students developmentally explore the question and “engage in
curiosity about their own life and their agency about how they can, to some degree, bring that
about.” Students may be skeptical of this approach as Gwen explained,
They are turned off by the idea…they are skeptical of mystical or sort of Eastern
philosophies or spiritualism or any number of reasons why they might hesitate to do
something like this, because there is a certain amount of openness…and I wish they
understood, like how I came to understand, that it’s not like we’re asking you to do
terribly dangerous things. They are actually very similar, and you probably have already
done it. I mean, who does not take a deep breath when they try to calm down, right? It is
just; it is the same thing, it is just wrapping in a different sort of flavor, you know—a
different way of looking at it. And if people know that I think they would be open to
trying it.
Student and faculty openness to exploring new topics and ideas from different perspectives plays
a vital role in the promising practice programs and Research Question 1 themes further explores
this.
Skills to better develop a student’s “whole self” are used to create what Flynn called “a
pluralistic view…that can allow people to bring their whole self whether that has to do with
sexual orientation, or race, or religion, or country of origin.” Flynn further explained that the
course is “designed to build on this idea…that many of us have a lot or may have cultural
experience and training around already, so it’s not supposed to supplant that but to enrich that.”
On the topic of the diversity of perspectives, Flynn further noted,

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Wisdom comes from every direction, whether indigenous African perspectives or Asian
perspectives or something beyond the canonical Western perspectives. . .as a scientist or
as a humanist, we can be open to these other ways of knowing, so I think there is a bit of
demand to be broad-minded.
Using varied materials and styles, including scientific, aesthetic, and experiential learning,
allowed course instructors to lead students “up the same mountain” to the goal in diverse ways to
help students learn. Developing practices that speak to students of various backgrounds is a
challenge promising practice interviewees faced. Clarissa further emphasized that “cultural
considerations” that must occur for students who may experience stigmas around mental health-
seeking behaviors due to their backgrounds and suggested bringing in further DEI and
engagement with multiple audiences can help promising practice interviewees design specific
well-being learning experiences for marginalized students.
Promising practice interviewees named DEI and further understandings of justice as
topics and trainings for students that go through multiple iterations over time in various classes
and campus experiences. Erin explained that SEL further connects with DEI initiatives,
SEL is so connected to equity and developing racial literacy…we have a commitment
across the university to move towards being an anti-racist institution…there is a lot being
dismantled and revised. And of course, this is going to be a decades-long process; it’s
very slow….my hope is that department chairs, you know deans of schools, etc. and other
faculty will see that this is not just some nice like oh social emotional learning…it’s all
linked to equity and linked to developing racial literacy.
Alison suggested that DEI and social justice intertwine throughout their programs. It is a
seamless experience to message that the underlying culture of the college values DEI and social

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justice. Social justice was a topic that overlapped multiple promising practices. Lennon described
that the program changed the diversity talk from unconscious bias because “we're finding that
our students were already coming in with a pretty high level of an understanding of that” to one
on equity and social justice with the hope that instructors will reinforce these topics in the
classroom. Ultimately, practicing skills in social awareness was essential to promising practice
interviewees to ensure that students understood how to engage in differences and biases and
value sources of knowledge from multiple cultures.
Relationship Skills
Examples of relationship skills used in a priori coding include the following: effective
communication, listening, cooperation and team problem solving, healthy conflict skills, help-
seeking, and positive leadership in group settings. Relationship skills are a valued aspect of the
courses; as Shane suggested, “they’re [students] are given skills for dealing with situations they
may not have understood before…and they feel grateful that they just have better techniques and
a better understanding of things.” Elin found that stress coping skills could help students create
and support more successful relationships and further explained,
Learning stress coping skills help students feel more connected to others…and students
appreciate that we give them a variety of skills to choose from…and not one size fits all,
but like they are given this, you know over six weeks they are given all these different
practices. They can be like oh this really works for me to do this kind of grounding
practice, whereas it doesn’t really work for me to do the stuff that’s more like somatic.
The promising practice programs often focus on giving students options and choices on how to
engage and what material to engage with to make students “feel comfortable” as Logan

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described, “we think about a purpose, a shared purpose, together.” By creating a shared purpose,
the students decide how they need to relate to each other.
Promising practice interviewees created examples of positive professional relationships
during classroom work and trainings with students to further emphasize the importance of
relationships. Promising practice programs used various methods to help students gain
relationship skills, including improv workshops to improve communication abilities. Team
building exercises focused on students building trust with each other and confidence in a team.
Multiple promising practice interviewees discussed teams and completed teaming exercises with
business college-focused programs placing the most importance on team development skills.
Promising practice interviewees also used team charters to build team efficacy; and invited guest
speakers who focus every day on teams, such as the university’s basketball coach, to discuss
leadership and how to work to build the required trust for leading a team.
Understanding how to work on teams was an essential aspect of promising practices for
further job opportunities for students; as Alison explained, “They [students] are still learning
about their skills and their strengths as it relates to emotional intelligence to put into place team
setting and, hopefully, you know carry into their internship and first jobs.” At MEU, instructors
placed students into teams and student team leaders meet to discuss goals for class assignments.
Alison further explained the MEU program, “It's really about just building skills, so it's not about
being a perfect teammate, it’s not about leading a perfect meeting, it's about getting the chance to
practice it.”
Multiple promising practice programs focus on further cooperation and healthy problem-
solving skills required in relationships. Shane noted,

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We also talked about like forgiveness, and a lot of them again are grateful that they like
to have models of how to forgive and that they have like an approach, and they also like
are given a reason because it’s like forgiveness is actually good for your own health like
it doesn’t, it’s not about the other person, it’s like it’s for you, and so they feel
encouraged to sort of try things.
Developing a team of students in the classroom or virtual experience can also give students a
sense of support. Clarissa explained, “We hear from students how the experiences really help
them with reducing their stress, their anxiety, and having a different way to approach everyday
problems…they feel like they've got some tools in which they can respond in healthier ways.”
Responsible Decision-Making
Examples of responsible decision-making used in a priori coding include the following:
considering ethical and safety concerns, thinking about benefits and consequences, curiosity,
making logical and reasonable decisions, using foresight to evaluate consequences of actions,
and reflecting on personal behaviors and that behavior’s impact on others. All promising practice
programs focused on students practicing skills to help them live in the world and giving them
skills that help them build desirable outcomes by using them as tools. Logan suggested that they
look at the journey of teaching the class as “being stuck in your body and having consciousness
in an emergent reality and trying to you know just figure that out like right, life…my approach
has always been trying to make sense of what it means to be human.” Clarissa further
emphasized, “students learn, grow, and get stretched and challenged” while they also focus on
the “long game” that is teaching students how to “change and undo bad habits, learn new habits,
and change behaviors toward healthier ones.”

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Multiple promising practice interviewees felt it was essential that students do not
misinterpret responsible decision-making as speaking down to them. Shane further explained,
They feel like they are treated as grown-ups; it is not just like do not do drugs kind of be
like be healthy like high school kind of stuff, it is much more realistic about here is what
they are going to be doing anyway, like if you want to be better off and still do things like
that then think about this.
Flynn specifically assigned readings that focus students on the idea that “being good does not
mean you will be happy and being happy, depending on what you mean by that, may not require
you to be good.” Instructors explore the complexities of actions, happiness, and well-being at
MAU by asking students to develop an “inner compass” so that they remember in “ethical choice
moments” what they value and how to allow their “heart and mind to guide them.”
A deeper understanding of anxiety, well-being, and mindfulness occurs when promising
practices validate the stressors students experienced and allow students to consider how those
stressors affect their responsible decision-making skills. Logan noted that they want students to
“learn from their experience, take responsibility for it, and realize that it is unique.” Multiple
promising practice interviewees indicated that students must take responsibility for their learning
in their courses and programs. Alison suggested that students who engage in the material at a
deep level and try to apply the work to their lives genuinely will see better benefits than students
who go through the motions. Logan suggested that students connect the experiences they have in
the classroom with their day-to-day lives to understand better how they are impacted by stressors
every day, but also how they can use the skills they acquire to better face the challenges they
experience in their day to day lives as well, so they create a “space where they learn from their
peers.”

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Emergent Themes Identified in RQ1
The interview analysis identified emergent themes. Emergent themes included allowing
students to have a choice of practices, concern for the anxiety and stress experienced by college
students, an identification of a critical moment or experience that inspired promising practice
interviewees to engage in this work, a hunger by students for the classes and materials promising
practice programs provided, and an emphasis on coordinated efforts to improve access to
promising practices across the university system. These themes occurred in at least two or more
interviews for classification as emergent. Most of these emergent themes occurred in all
interviews.
Allowing for student choice of subjects plays an essential role in the promising programs;
Clarissa from SAU explained,
They have the opportunity to test drive a number of different kinds of evidence-based
tools and pick the ones that work best for them…we expose them to different kinds of
dimensions of well-being, including self-compassion, compassion for others, gratitude,
and dealing with loss and disappointment. And how to kind of feel that, embrace that, and
learn from that and strengthen you from those experiences.
The assorted options all promising practices give students to engage with the materials further
reflect the concept of student choice. Most promising practice programs have multiple ways to
engage for academic credit or not for credit. Most promising practice interviewees focused on
the classes and opportunities to use SEL content when building their program, so students could
feel a sense of calm even with the pressure to earn academic credit for their work.

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Promising practice interviewees showed concern for the anxiety and stress experienced
by today’s college students. Specifically, the promising practice program emphasizes
understanding and managing anxiety as a critical learning objective. Logan explained,
I have some people in front of me stuck in their bodies; they have more and more anxiety.
Right, and they are losing resilience. You are trying to help them be resilient…how do
you help them live in this world and have more joy and meaning, right? Well, and then
you realize it is about meaning and purpose, right, so then you kind of start to focus on
those kinds of things.
Anxiety was a concern for Gwen as well, “It just seemed really sad to me that this is a great
moment in people's lives, where so much could be opening in their lives, transforming,
blossoming, and it's not happening anymore, because of various, different reasons.” Gwen
identified that she was the most aware of anxiety through the experience of raising her teenage
daughter and was concerned for students who may be placing extreme levels of importance on
perfectionism and making all the right choices with no allowance for mistakes.
Critical moments in life or experiences were essential for promising practice
interviewees. Most promising practice interviewees thought back to their college experiences
when answering interview questions. They decided that because they had a positive experience
in college, they wanted current college students to feel the same. Promising practice interviewees
also suggested that learning the materials for themselves was a critical influence. Jordan
described her experience completing a course in emotional intelligence,
[The course] literally changed my life. I was able to hold better relationships with a lot of
people in my life, and I was able to examine my own values and my beliefs to really

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understand what I truly wanted and how to get to that place. . .because it changed my life,
I knew it was so important for students.
Whether experiencing college as a positive and life-changing opportunity or experiencing a
critical faculty member or program that influenced them to consider the use of various SEL
practices, all interviewees expressed a critical experience that influenced them to take on this
work. Promising practice interviewees also identified that they could be a critical influencer for
their students to continue providing importance to the subject matter in the future. Interviewees
identified a hunger by students for the materials. Shane explained, “It was nice to teach a class
that students actually really cared about and felt really benefited them because they were just
much more grateful to me and so I felt much more rewarded teaching it.” Clarissa further
emphasized that students who completed the promising practice materials expressed that they
wished the materials were something they completed at the beginning of their college experience
and then became advocates for the program.
Promising practice interviewees also emphasized the importance of coordinated efforts
across the university system. Promising practice interviewees highlighted coordinated efforts
with more time, help, funding, and understanding as one way to promote the promising practices
and they wished others understood this about their programs. Erin explained,
It really takes a coordinated effort so that it's the counseling and mental health services,
it's the dean of students, and you know the office of student life, it's the residential
housing, it's what happens in orientation, what happens during the first year, and having
that come together and having a kind of integrated, coherent programming across those
domains, is what is so important.

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As Clarissa suggested, coordinated efforts across the university created a “space of
commonality” where practices are second nature and part of the culture of the campus
community.
Summary for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 strives to understand what subject matter in promising practice
programs matches with SEL component definitions. The promising practice programs are varied
in ranking and represent all four U.S. census regions. Document analysis pulls from syllabi,
assignments, readings, anonymized student writing, journal articles, book chapters, textbooks,
and websites. Interviewees represent a variety of colleges, departments, and educational
backgrounds.
Document analysis found that promising practice programs used a variety of subjects and
related teaching practices. The documents emphasized science, life, resilience, development,
leadership, experience, and self. The promising practice programs utilized a variety of formats
from in-person to online opportunities and target audiences ranging from undergraduate students,
faculty or staff, and the public. Specific topics emphasized by the promising practices included
emotional intelligence as the most frequent practice emphasized throughout all institutions.
Promising practice programs also emphasized mindfulness and well-being, resilience, and self-
awareness. Two programs specifically listed “social and emotional learning,” though every
promising practice listed terms associated with the SEL conceptual framework. All promising
practices also listed terms associated with authenticity and related to becoming one’s authentic
self to SEL. Documents geared towards faculty and staff highlighted the challenges faculty and
staff have faced due to COVID-19, social change, and campus change. The commonality of the
documents revolved around DEI considerations. Documents from multiple institutions suggested

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that by learning how to use the practices to “fortify” and not fix problems, faculty and staff may
be able to promote equity and access through SEL practices in a variety of classroom settings
and subjects.
The interview analysis found that the promising practice interviewees blend subject
matter in curriculums. With an emphasis on experience, life, leadership, practice, self,
awareness, and mental throughout the interviews, the SEL conceptual framework highlighted
how the curriculum could relate to and influence authentic leadership development. The
promising practice interviews spoke on every aspect of the SEL conceptual framework and
emphasized self-awareness through mindfulness, reflections, and writing in multiple promising
practice programs. While some promising practices focused on professional development and
learning skills to highlight employability and others focused on the skills as an opportunity to
blend subject matters further to become broad-minded, all practices were skills-based and
focused on practicing skills to encourage adoption in a student’s everyday life. Promising
practice interviewees also emphasized that DEI and understandings of justice and equity played
an essential role in social awareness and deriving practices from multiple cultures, including
Buddhism and other related Eastern traditions that may be new to some students.
Emergent themes included allowing students to choose the practices they adopted and
how they engaged with the materials, enabling further student buy-in to the practices themselves.
Critical life moments and influence by other faculty members or training programs encouraged
promising practice interviewees to continue despite setbacks. A hunger for the materials shown
by students in the classroom and conversation with promising practice interviewees fueled the
fire interviewees have for their programs. Promising practice interviewees identified the

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coordination of efforts across campus for SEL practices as one of the most pressing opportunities
for change in campus communities.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asks the following: “How do the promising practice programs’
desired outcomes compare with the influence factors associated with authentic leadership?”
identifies the distinct types of desired outcomes from documents and interviewee transcripts and
how the practices compared with the influence factors that help develop authentic leadership. As
discussed in Chapter Two, scholars consider authentic leadership as a natural progression from
transformational leadership. Authentic leadership requires leaders to understand themselves and
help followers achieve similar authenticity. While authentic leaders have shortcomings, they will
admit to and work towards overcoming the shortcomings as part of their journey towards fuller
authenticity. The research data includes themes that pair with the research question and highlight
different desired outcomes for the promising practices and their definitions of success for the
programs. The themes for Research Question 2 include the following: types of assignments for
evaluating students and factors that influence authentic leadership development.
RQ2 Document Analysis for Promising Practices
The promising practice program document analysis included syllabi, readings,
assignments, newspaper articles, journal articles about the promising practices, reflections
written by the promising practice interviewees, anonymous student writing samples, websites,
posters, and other marketing materials. The review of documents included the name and title,
location, completeness and balance, target audience, and content and organized in a document
analysis categorization table. The documents provided information that led to generating the
theme types of assignments and Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy levels.

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Theme 1: Types of Assignments and Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Levels
Documents for promising practices included a variety of assignments. Promising
practices represented individual courses students could enroll in or specific programs for students
and faculty or staff. The documents for this analysis came from both the for-credit and non-credit
courses and programs. The documents were either publicly available online through the
promising practice websites or voluntarily provided by interviewees. Promising practice
documents also included action verbs associated with the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy levels and
specific descriptions of desired outcomes. The following table, organized by promising practice
pseudonyms, uses the documents to better differentiate the types of assignments and uses
documents that discuss goals and objectives to place practices into the Revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy levels and better understand which levels the promising practices emphasize, and the
related desired outcomes as expressed by the assignments.

Table 8
Types of Assignments in the Promising Practices and Revised Bloom’ s Taxonomy Levels

Pseudonym
promising
practice
institution
Document
types
Assignment
types
Revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy
levels used by
documents
Example desired
outcomes as
listed in
documents
Atlantic
University
(AU)

Program
description
Improv group
class; written
team charters;
personality
assessments;
attendance at
lectures and
guest
speakers
Apply (2),
Create (2)
Build personal
brand; make a
positive impact
on the world at
large; identify
when to use soft
skills; increased
social
intelligence;
effective
communication,

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ability to build
relationships
Middle
Atlantic
University
(MAU)

Instructions for
meditation,
list of course
evaluation
methods
Meditation
practice on
awareness of
posture,
breath,
attention
anchoring;
list of course
evaluation
methods
including
tests, quizzes,
essays,
journals,
attendance,
and
participation
Remember (2),
Understand
(4), Apply (3),
Analyze,
Evaluate (4)
Practice awareness;
develop self-
guided practices
for meditation;
determine a
personal
definition of
meaningful life;
examine
relationships;
define and
describe firsthand
experiences
relating to theory;
apply knowledge
to firsthand
experiences to
make changes
Midwest East
University
(MEU)

Instructions for
a script and
video about
a student’s
personal
brand;
instructions
on defining
career goals;
list of other
assignments;
course
description
Creating a
personal
brand story
with
reflections,
keywords,
and a video;
interviewing
professionals;
attending
events and
lectures;
mock job
interviews;
professional
etiquette
lunch
Remember (2),
Understand
(4), Apply (6),
Analyze,
Evaluate (2),
Create (4)
Analyze personal
skills, influences,
and experiences;
ability to reflect
and use
reflections to
make decisions;
goal setting; team
leadership and
conflict
management;
proper use of
professional
etiquette;
increased
awareness of
personal goals
and strategies to
meet goals
Midwest
Regional
University
(MRU)
Workbook;
printed index
cards;
emotional
intelligence
assessment
Multiple written
reflections
and multiple-
choice
assessments
Remember
(30+),
Understand
(19), Apply
(6), Analyze
(4), Evaluate
(3)
Make sustained and
positive change;
individual student
change and
growth; improved
emotional

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awareness and
self-management
National
Atlantic
University
(NAU)
Student blog
posts;
syllabus list
of
assignments;
worksheet;
reflection
instructions

Blog reflections
about course
topics;
assignments
include
weekly
readings,
social media
posts,
experiential
exercises,
participation,
written blog
posts and
comments,
event
attendance,
and a team
project
related to
course topics
on wellbeing
and happiness
in
communities;
worksheet on
a template
about
conversations
and positive
communicati
on;
instructions
for a written
reflection
about change
Remember (2),
Understand
(4), Evaluate,
Create (2)
Develop personal
practices for
increased self-
awareness;
regulate stress;
develop a sense
of meaning;
increased
problem-solving,
resiliency,
adaptability, and
creativity;
application of
personal
strengths; making
positive
connections;
recognizing and
using values
National
South
University
(NSU)
List of course
evaluation
methods;
worksheets;
lab
information;
app
Research,
reflection,
and arts-
based
expression;
worksheet on
natural and
cultural
Remember,
Understand,
Apply,
Evaluate,
Create (2)
Explore theories
and practices
related to self-
awareness;
understand well-
being; use
resilience;
discuss the

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download
instructions

settings;
worksheet on
self-care; lab
exercises
outside of
class; app
used to track
and schedule
practices,
habits, and
activities
relationship
between
neuroscience and
emotions; engage
in reflection with
others
New England
University
(NEU)
Workbook on
anxiety; list
of
assignments;
virtues
assignment

Exercises
related to
stress
reduction
including
physical
exercise,
relaxation
techniques,
mindfulness,
journal
prompts, and
routine
setting; List
of
assignments
including
experiential
learning
opportunities,
a personal
change
initiative,
purpose
driven
narrative
essay;
Specific
assignment
about virtues
with
requirements
for writing
reflections
and charting
Remember (2),
Understand,
Analyze (2),
Evaluate,
Create
Examine values,
attitudes, and
beliefs; develop
authenticity; use
experiential
learning to apply
leadership theory;
understand
morals and live
out purpose and
virtues; examine
anxiety and learn
how to manage it

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daily
practices
Northeast
University
(NU)

University
press
releases,
student
newspaper
articles
about the
program,
application
for program
Readings and
conversations
among
faculty cohort
members and
a written plan
for
integrating
materials into
courses
Understand (3),
Apply,
Evaluate,
Create (3)
Recognize emotion;
control classroom
tone; develop
classroom
climate; handle
conflict correctly;
increased
responsible
decision making
Pacific
Research
University
(PRU)

Videos on
course
topics;
guides to
promising
practice
styles
Videos
available
online
following
yoga and
meditation
practices;
style guide on
types of yoga
and
meditation
Understand,
Remember,
Apply (2),
Analyze
Understand benefits
of movement;
develop stress
relief techniques;
explore personal
beliefs and well-
being
Pacific
University
(PU)

Course
descriptions;
degree
learning
outcomes

Readings and
talks with
classmates
about course
topics;
learning
outcomes
include
assessing
personal
attributes and
emotions and
how they
affect others,
analyze
frameworks,
and seek
perspectives
of others;
writing and
presenting
materials
Apply (3),
Understand
(2),
Remember,
Create,
Evaluate,
Analyze
Apply management
skills; create
systems for
organizational
change; develop
positive change,
leadership skills,
relationship, and
networks;
reframe
challenges;
increased
reflection skills

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South
Atlantic
University
(SAU)
Instructions for
a writing
exercise
after a
variety of
readings;
course
descriptions
Creating an
individual
plan for
personal
resilience
Remember (2),
Apply (5),
Analyze,
Evaluate (5),
Create (5)
Evaluate values and
beliefs; define
goals and steps to
reach goals;
understand
behaviors and
mental health;
apply strengths to
challenges;
increased
awareness of
campus
resources;
increased well-
being
South
Central
University
(SCU)

Instructor
guide to
assign online
offering in
individual
courses
across the
university;
journal; app
instructions
Instructor
guided videos
about course
objectives,
university
resources,
understanding
stress, and
resilience
graded with a
quiz and
optional
written
reflection;
journal using
mindfulness
and an
outdoor
experience to
inspire
written
reflections;
instructions
cover how to
download
multiple apps
available to
students for
mindfulness
exercises,
self-help
Remember,
Understand (3)
Use mindfulness;
develop self-
awareness; define
and label stress;
utilize resilience
skills; use
reflection in
everyday life;
reframe failures;
increased
awareness of
available
resources

147

topics,
personal self-
care plans,
habit
checklists,
and a journal
West Pacific
University
(WPU)
Multiple-
choice
assessments;
information
about
practice
community

Assessments to
measure
executive
functioning,
resilience,
coping, stress,
flourishing,
social
connection,
self-
compassion,
and
mindfulness;
readings and
talks in a
community of
peers
Remember,
Apply (2),
Analyze,
Create
Increased ability to
manage emotion;
develop
mindfulness
skills; increased
self-awareness,
self-compassion,
executive
functioning, and
sense of
connection; use
of coping skills

Note. Documents were not available for Associates West College and West University. Using
Stanny (2016) and Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) lists of categorization verbs, the action verbs
in the document matched the levels in Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. Stanny (2016) identified a
sample of 176 unique words within 30 published lists. If specific verbs were not present in the
tables, applicable synonyms were used for categorization purposes. When verbs could be
categorized into multiple levels, further analysis of the complete sentence was used for context to
choose an appropriate level based on the intention of the goal. The numbers next to action verbs
indicate how many times the verbs in these categories were used in the documents.

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This table shows that most promising practice programs emphasized writing. Writing
took place as reflection pieces, informal journals, blog posts, and more formal essays. Writing
also included filling out workbooks, templates, and video scripts. In some promising practice
programs, students completed specific exercises in mindfulness including focused awareness on
breath and anchoring attention. Students also completed yoga videos and meditation practices.
Program documents placed a further emphasis on experiential learning opportunities including
team projects, team charters or contracts, interviewing, and practice events such as mock job
interviews and lunches to practice etiquette. Communication-based assignments including
participation in classes and presentations rounded out the types of assignments required of
students in the promising practice programs.
This table also shows that multiple levels of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy covered the
promising practices listed, with some practices covering all six levels. Documents used in the
analysis were publicly available or voluntarily provided by the interviewees. Across the
practices, action verbs associated with the first level, “remember”, come to 45 different
instances. The outlier MRU using action verbs associated with “remember” increases this
number due to a textbook’s learning outcomes. Without the textbook, the remember level has 15
action verbs associated with it. The “understand” level has 42 action verbs associated with it.
Without the MRU textbook, the “understand” level has 23 action verbs. Other levels included
“apply” with 33 action verbs, “evaluate” with 19 action verbs, “create” with 19 action verbs, and
“analyze” with 14 action verbs.
RQ2 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices
The interview transcripts from 16 promising practice interviewees representing 15 promising
practice programs or courses were reviewed consistent with the interview transcript analysis and

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rationale provided in Chapter Three. The first step in the interview transcript analysis was
creating precoding memos. The content analysis considered the a priori codebook and open
coding during the content analysis process. The listening guide method required the reading of
interview transcripts four times each to pick up the plot, voice, and contrasting opinions.
Theme 1: Factors that Influence Authentic Leadership Development
This study uses authentic leadership as the theory to better understand how colleges can
nurture leadership development in students while also highlighting the interplay of strategic
management, student success, and societal impact with a deeper understanding of ethics as
required by evolving AACSB accreditation standards. Specifically, understanding how
promising practices may develop the influence factors for authentic leadership, which in turn
develop the capabilities of leaders to use the authentic leadership skills, was of interest in the a
priori coding. The influence factors for developing authentic leadership include positive
psychological capacities, moral and ethical reasoning, and understanding critical life events.
Each influence factor also has subfactors that further define the influence factor. Interviewees
discussed the outcomes they see day-to-day in students who complete promising practice
programs or courses and the outcomes they desired students to gain. During the interview coding
process, multiple outcomes as described by the interviewees fell directly in line with the
definitions of the influence factors for authentic leadership development.
Positive Psychological Capacities
The subfactors that make up positive psychological capacities used in the a priori coding
included the following: utilizing extraversion traits to become more comfortable with coaching
or training, a focus on positive attributes, demonstrations of gratitude, future planning, and
optimism while looking for the positive during challenges. In the courses and programs

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developed for students, multiple desired outcomes as expressed by promising practice
interviewees fell into the positive psychological capacities category. These included the
following: knowledge of available resources for help-seeking, showing up to program events and
retention in the program, leadership development, labeling positive strengths, expressing
gratitude, developing skills for the future, navigating emotions and stressors, pulling up skills or
frameworks as needed like a toolbox, and using the materials in school or work environments
and home or personal relationships.
Utilizing Extraversion Traits to Become More Comfortable with Coaching or
Training. Promising practice interviewees discussed their programs and courses in terms of
coaching or training with learning outcomes associated with knowledge of available resources
for help-seeking, showing up to program events and retention in the program, and students’
further development of leadership capabilities through coaching processes with the promising
practice leader and their peers. The knowledge of available resources for help-seeking played an
essential role in programs and courses. Maddy decided that the “number one” outcome of the
program was that students knew about counseling services and that they had access to resources.
The specific purpose of Maddy’s program is to make sure students would be reminded
throughout their time at SCU that the services exist by remembering the course, but also by
seeing “logos and the brand throughout their time on campus and “online on university websites”
and other university-sponsored messaging. Shane further explained that students might realize
they have a problem through the course curriculum and find help. Shane related to a previous
class,
One of the metrics for me is the access to services that students may now have that they
did not have before…I remember a student who discovered she had a sleep disorder

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because she had to do a sleep log, and she talked to her doctor. I’ve had that happen a
couple of times where students realize they are having a problem, and because of this
class, they either know about the services available or they realize they have the problem
and go get the services.
Furthermore, in-person or online attendance to program events and retention in the programs
played an essential role in desired outcomes by promising practice interviewees. Students would
gain the full impact of the materials and know where and how to find further services and
support. Lennon created a multi-year opportunity where students who completed the program in
the first year of a two-year MBA program could apply to become a “fellow” in the second year
of their studies. Lennon tracked attendance through an app that showed an 85% retention rate
through the first semester that tapered off at the beginning of the second semester. Lennon hoped
that future retention would increase by developing more events in the spring and emphasizing the
fellowship program for students who complete the entire year.
Leadership development through coaching and training and working with the promising
practice interviewees, other course or program leaders, and peers was an essential outcome for
promising practice interviewees. Clotilde suggested that their program leans on the human side
of professions, and faculty members mentor students to develop their abilities to work on a team
while maintaining a sense of individualism and personal values. Jamie suggested that they are
looking for an “increase in confidence” and that students can demonstrate their leadership skills
and confidence in leading others in a team environment more readily throughout the courses.
Teamwork at MEU is both online and in-person, with a specific highlight on virtual teaming in
large organizations. Classes often enroll more than 600 students and then divide them for virtual

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team projects with virtual team leaders. Alison further elaborated that having students focused on
the projects encourages them to share a common goal and value the experience more readily.
A Focus on Positive Attributes. Promising practice interviewees in multiple programs
highlighted a focus on positive attributes by labeling positive strengths. Part of labeling positive
strengths plays into leadership and teamwork outcomes as part of students understanding
themselves to describe their strengths to other teammates and to express themselves and their
competitive advantage in the workplace to future employers. Jamie explained the focus of an
entire course, “The first [learning objective] is the ability to thoughtfully explore your
professional aspirations, and that is being able to articulate your values, interests, personality,
and skills, and looking at the fit between yourself and possible majors, careers, and work
environments.” Jamie further noted that all sections of the course gave instructors a lot of
freedom with the learning objectives but that all classes end with a final project requiring the
student to demonstrate their ability to label their strengths through a LinkedIn profile. The
LinkedIn profile project requires students to fill out a workbook with reflections on their skills
and stories that prove these skills, so students will be able to interview and discuss themselves
and their abilities in great depth. Clarissa at SAU used Clifton’s Strengths Assessment in
program coursework and further explained that this “gives them greater agency…that they can
have the language around strengths, that they know what is unique, and then you teach them to
spot talents in others.” A focus on positive individual strengths occurs in programs where
students reflect and write about their abilities and consider what they can bring both in teams
during their time as college students and in the future.
Demonstrations of Gratitude. Multiple promising practice programs highlighted
demonstrations of gratitude both as an exercise students used in assignments and for the courses

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and programs themselves. Gratitude in the NAU program functioned as a tool for students to “get
through” trauma and other stressors in their lives, and some students further extended that
gratitude for what they learned in the class. Shane explained that students take on assignments,
writing about gratitude and resilience and who they are grateful for in their lives, and “often feel
grateful that they just have better techniques and a better understanding of things.” This
emphasizes what students learn in the class that issues like forgiveness are not only a benefit to
their relationships but also to themselves and their mental health. Additional promising practice
interviewees focused on gratitude in their programs as well. Clarissa explained,
I see them starting to practice more gratitude intentionally…we are teaching them
cognitive reappraisal, that is a big thing that we teach them in our minor, and in [all of]
our coursework…they can change their mental tapes around something that they think
they cannot do or the self-doubt. So, we actually take them through the cognitive
reappraisal process and show them that.
Flynn further suggested that by developing an understanding of gratitude for themselves and
others, students begin to consider themselves as part of the community and appreciate
themselves and others as that part of that community.
Future Planning. Multiple promising practice interviewees placed value on students
developing skills for the future through their programs and courses. The entirety of one course at
MEU focused on future planning by students better understanding themselves and what that
means for their future careers. Using a personality type indicator, students considered their skills
alongside earlier experiences to determine a “fit between yourself and possible majors, careers,
and work environments,” which then is demonstrated in assignments that require students to
develop their “personal brand.” Students must “develop apprentice-level networking skills” that

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use their ability to tell stories about their personal brand and apply it to future opportunities like
internships and first jobs that will impact their futures.
Elin hoped that the curriculum acts as “a larger continuum from the cradle or
kindergarten…from preschool to career and having this social and emotional learning happen
throughout the entire trajectory.” Saraswathi suggested that students in the PRU program can use
materials as a “support tool for their future,” and Elin hoped that the WPU program could help
students “transition to that next phase of their career and their ability to step up to their careers as
people also with these skills that they can use to manage the stress of their career and be
effective.” Elin found that multiple companies in the university’s location are placing more value
on mindfulness and compassion and that the WPU program prepares students to work within
these companies. Clarissa also noted that the SAU programs teach students how to be involved in
corporate programs that focus on mindfulness and wellness and indicated that current SAU
alumni are building wellness programs in their workplaces based on what they learned as
students.
Gwen suggested that students benefit from considering future planning as they are most
concerned about their online actions and the consequences of those actions in the real world for
their futures. Gwen explained that this relates to the current social media cancel culture, where
“everyone currently on social media is throwing flames at others and basically canceling each
other out because you don’t like what somebody said or did” and that the NSU courses focus on
students learning to react to mistakes and misunderstandings with kindness and compassion. As
Gwen further explained,
I see a genuine terror on their parts of putting themselves out there because they are so
afraid that they are going to say or do the wrong thing and what the reaction will be. But

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in the process of doing that, we have created a culture in which they are not willing to
take any risks at all.
Due to the students’ “high expectations of themselves,” Gwen hoped that through the promising
practice programs, students would learn to treat themselves with compassion when they do not
meet their goals, or their futures do not look exactly as they had planned. Clarissa noted that the
SAU programs teach students how to “respond to all of life’s challenges and things that come at
them,” and by embracing “the good with the bad…they can land in a healthier place because of
what they have learned through their experiences here.” Noel found that previous students, now
seven years out of the WU course, have become CEOs of their companies and advancing in their
industries, and attributes part of their life path to the program and because the program helped
students in “defining the way they operate” and further noted that the skills in SEL are taught as
an opportunity for students to determine their futures.
Optimism During Challenges. When considering optimism, the promising practice
interviewees discussed optimism in multiple ways, including how students could positively
navigate emotions and stressors, use skills or frameworks like a toolbox, and use the materials in
school or work environments and home or personal relationships. In positively navigating
emotions and stressors, Elin suggested, “I think that students apply the skills and the mindsets
they learned through the program to cope with academic stress and to cope with life just different
things they are facing in life,” and students do this by learning through the curriculum how to
have the “effectiveness to regulate emotions.” Elin further considered that teaching instructors
best practices for instilling resilience skills in various subject matter coursework also helps
students develop these mindsets. Elin suggested that faculty showing students they value well-
being, and by teaching resilience, students develop skills in the classroom in both the subject

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they are studying and for future challenges in the subject matter itself. Failure is a hot topic for
students in class and promising practice interviewees alike. Maddy explained that one of the
program’s goals is that students can understand “perceived failure” because “we have a lot of
students who think they have failed, and they have not.” Maddy further explained that the
program uses a growth mindset to help students see failure as “opportunities for growth,” so
students have “things to help them through it and move forward.”
The desire for faculty, staff, and students to be able to use skills or frameworks as
needed, like pulling a “tool from a toolbox,” is a commonality among multiple promising
practice interviewees. Elin noted that the WPU program staff put together a guidebook from
faculty who won distinguished teaching awards across campus to describe “what they did
specifically to promote a growth mindset, gratitude, mindfulness, or action,” and this data set is
given to the whole faculty as a tool to develop their classes in the future. Logan suggested that
pushing students to consider all their experiences, good and bad, allows them “see something
they didn’t see before” and that this gives them “choice and possibility” to “develop new habits
and rewire their brains.” Lennon at AU added,
Our philosophy has been to expose you to as much as we can and just…build out your
toolbox, and then, when you're ready to use something, you'll remember that this is that
tool that you need to pull out…we approach it as we just want to prepare you, for
whatever may come.
This toolbox works for students in school and out of the classroom environment as Jordan noted,
I think it is again more tools in their toolbox to be able to use in any social situation that
they are dealing with in college, but then also when they go back home, there are also
things that they are dealing with as well, and so they are using those tools back home.

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Students using the skills gained from promising practices on an as-needed basis is a shared desire
of most promising practice interviewees.
Students using materials in school or work environments as well as home or personal
relationships was often a welcomed surprise outcome to promising practice interviewees. Myron
considered that the AWC promising practice coursework helped students to “feel more
human…they become more compassionate and empathetic towards others, their parents, and
their friends,” and Myron’s colleagues and college administration considered this of great benefit
to the students, but also of note to themselves as they are working to give all faculty access to
program materials. Gwen hoped that the compassion and lessons taught in the NSU continues for
students after their time in the program. Gwen further explained,
We expect them to carry that with them, even after they leave the college. We still want
them to think about what they learned here, how they can learn those lessons in a new
situation when they start even more complex relationships in the world of work, in
forming their own nuclear families, perhaps. You know there is any number of ways that
we hope that some of these things will carry over.
However, the only desired outcome of the promising practice courses is not just positive
psychological capacities as Flynn pointed out, “This is not positive psychology, not cutting off
psycho-pathology quote unquote from positive, whatever that means, psychology, but
recognizing it is all mixed up together.”
Moral and Ethical Reasoning
The subfactors that make up moral and ethical reasoning used in the a priori coding
included the following: using ethics in decision making, highlighting the importance of morals
over a lifetime, searching for an understanding of right or wrong, making decisions that are

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beyond personal gain, selflessness, uniting individuals in a common goal regardless of
differences, focusing on the greater good, promoting justice, and valuing a community. In the
courses and programs developed for students, multiple desired outcomes, as expressed by
promising practice interviews, fall into the moral and ethical reasoning category. These include
the following: fostering teamwork and community, team-building skills, looking at an experience
with different points of view, acceptance of differences, valuing community and diversity, and
taking responsibility.
Using Ethics in Decision Making, Highlighting the Importance of Morals Over a
Lifetime, and Searching for Understanding of Right or Wrong. Promising practice
interviewees expressed desired learning objectives that combined decision-making with morals
to drive ethical developments. Myron explained that AWC’s main learning objectives included
students understanding “ethical standards, safety concerns, social norms, and realistic evaluation
of consequences of various actions and the well-being of self and others.” Myron further
considered that students emphasize “responsible decision making is the ability to analyze
constructive and respective choices about personal, professional behavior, and social
interactions” in reflections about the course. Interviewees also considered further descriptions of
understanding ethical choice regarding diversity and community. Flynn explained,
We want them to be able to both respect and appreciate diversity in nature, in the human
family, in ways of knowing…and we want them to understand we are all in this
together…this is the heart of interdependence, the heart of compassion, and the heart of
ethics.
The focus on moral development is not just on students but also on faculty and staff who teach
the promising practices. Logan explained, “there's a moral responsibility when you're teaching a

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course like that…I believe that you need to be responsible for your impact on the students.”
According to Logan, understanding how to increase a student’s awareness that they have
responsibility for their choices requires faculty and staff to take responsibility for practicing the
skills they teach.
Making Decisions That are Beyond Personal Gain. Multiple promising practice
interviewees highlighted how students make choices. Jordan explained that the MRU promising
practice course is a “social emotional learning course” and that it focuses on the “choices”
students have and the “ability to take those choices and to create better outcomes…whether it be
success in college and success when they leave.” Jordan further emphasized that the choices are
not only about the student themselves, but the “relationships they hold” and how they impact
other people. Relationships are essential to students, but Flynn tried to teach students to balance
as relationships impact the student’s understanding of themselves and separate their identities
from those of other people while making decisions. Flynn further described,
[We want] to get people to accept their own friend request, not to rely on friend requests
from the external world. It is so nice, it is important to have friends, yeah gosh, but to
base one's whole sense of self, morality, and choice and that is the complete antithesis of
what I think we are trying to do here, because there's something already great here inside
each person.
Flynn expressed concern that the university setting may encourage students towards real
achievement, no matter the cost, which could not put the community and the cause of others at
the forefront of the students’ minds. However, a push to understand and be part of the whole
community, either in the promising practice class, university, or larger world, is essential to
multiple promising practice interviewees. Logan suggested that “getting people to realize their

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human potential” by realizing how they can be a part of the larger community best describes the
authentic leadership in promising practice courses that focus on having self-compassion and
taking responsibility for choices.
Uniting Individuals in a Common Goal Regardless of Differences. Valuing diversity
while taking responsibility, looking at an experience with different points of view, and accepting
differences alongside building a team are all desired learning outcomes of promising practice
interviewees. Promising practice interviewees created ways to discuss diversity and manage
difficult conversations. Erin gave one example where the program sponsored virtual talks that
focused on DEI and justice where specifically women of different races had an informal, virtual
conversation about written works on racial justice. Erin wants the NU program to focus on
helping the campus community in “developing that tolerance for distress or discomfort” and
“being able to acknowledge, understand, regulate, express, and name strong emotions.” Erin
further noted that while the work requires “vulnerability,” it is also a “really meaningful” way to
impact the community.
Understanding how to engage with DEI is an essential aspect of the promising practice
programs, Logan explained that it is crucial not to use the program to “band-aid” everything and
warns of consultants who may come into university communities to discuss the problem on a
surface level, but not “deal with it in a meaningful way.” Logan further suggested that programs
must consider the macro environment students face and that they may not have “the skills and
abilities” to see the violence or political unrest they experience on the news and social media.
Logan helped students by talking openly about the world and how that impacts the students as
individuals and as the larger class while maintaining control of the space during the
conversation. Looking at an experience with different points of view and accepting those

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differences is essential to promising practice interviewees when building their courses and
programs and the promising practice materials used for assignments.
Valuing a community. Several of the promising practice interviewees discuss fostering
community in various contexts. Elin highlighted community as both a physical space and as a
conceptual space. Students in the WPU promising practice program participate in the programs
within a physical community space. However, the program is available either in person or
virtually, and students “talk about skills and practices as they relate to their community and
culture context.” The community of practice is important to the WPU program, with faculty and
staff given the opportunities to develop communities and students. Communities of practice
allow faculty to discuss virtually across multiple campuses in the WPU system how to engage in
the promising practice work and allow faculty and staff to be “deeply collaborative.” The
community also played a role for Clarissa. Clarissa created a “university learning community”
around the topic of the promising practice. Clarissa further explained, “I sent out letters to about
26 students, faculty, staff, university leaders, and deans to be in this learning community and to
develop a blueprint for the university. . . we started meeting. It was very grassroots.” The SAU
university learning community created a goal statement, later incorporated into the SAU 10-year
strategic plan, which allowed the promising practice to become one of the top priorities for the
university. Clarissa highlighted that the grassroots nature of the community allowed for this
successful addition to the university’s overall strategic priorities with the organic approach to
developing the community, which allowed the importance of the promising practice to
“snowball” across campus.

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Understanding Critical Life Events
The subfactors that make up understanding critical life events used in a priori coding
included the following: reflecting on the impact of both positive and negative life events that
make an impact on how a person views their life story, writing or verbally reflecting on life
events, gaining insights, developing self-knowledge and clarity, and using life events to
encourage change. In the courses and programs designed for students, multiple desired
outcomes, as expressed by promising practice interviewees fell into the understanding critical
life events category. These included the following: developing a sense of purpose, reflecting to
make decisions, being able to give feedback, asking deep questions, and developing thoughtful
explanations.
Interviewees suggested that reflecting on the impact of both positive and negative life
events that impact how a person views their life story can be part of how students develop a
sense of purpose. Multiple promising practice interviewees describe a student understanding how
to listen to themselves and then acting on their inner voice. A sense of knowing oneself through
reflection is a critical theme in promising practice program assignments. Flynn hoped these types
of assignments and opportunities for students would allow students to know themselves and feel
confident in their decisions. Flynn further explained,
This this locus of knowing, an agency that is not dependent on anyone else, but that your
own heart and your own mind can guide you in that direction…if they just remember
that, if we can plant that seed, and maybe it sprouts in the moment they need it most, and
maybe it is only a few times the rest of their life, that would be so good. Planting seeds is
what we are doing.

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To Flynn, the impact of life events, both negative and positive, are essential for students to
express. Alison and Jamie both discussed how students might think they should be specific types
of business majors, typically in lucrative fields such as finance, due to heavy influence by their
parents and family members to accept the career path. Assignments at MEU required students to
truly consider their strengths and weaknesses and who may influence their decisions. According
to Alison and Jamie, further study of various industries, job roles, and positions in multiple types
of businesses, paired with networking interviews and reflection on their life experiences, then
allowed students who are particularly interested and provided enough reflection on the
assignments, to determine a path for themselves during their college experience and after
graduation.
Promising practice interviewees found that writing or verbally reflecting on life events,
gaining insights, and developing self-knowledge and clarity allow students to reflect on
decisions, give feedback, and ask deep questions. Several promising practice interviewees
echoed the desired outcome of students reflecting on a common goal together in the classroom
environment. Logan further elaborated,
People graduate right and say I teach them coaching. The goal is not only to teach them
coaching but to facilitate the learning and development of deep listening and curious
questions. They learn and practice…they are taking a practice-based course right they are
practicing and then reflecting like a lot of well-being practices in the end, so they are
engaging in reflexivity. Time and time again [hand in circling motions] so I see that I am
training them.
Logan, through developing the classroom into a space that allows students to engage with each
other through reflection, expressed his goal as a “hope” that students will “increase self-

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awareness, they know how to engage in self-reflexivity,” and “notice more than they’ve ever
noticed before” to learn from their experiences and commit to a leadership role within the class
and in the future. Promising practice interviewees focused on reflecting on life events to
encourage change and develop, as Flynn suggested, “being able to take the covers off something
that was already there.”
Emergent Themes Identified in RQ2
The interview analysis identified emergent themes. Emergent themes included focusing
on general education requirements and utilizing programs to help with university marketing and
promotion. These themes occurred in at least two or more interviews for classification as
emergent. Most of these emergent themes occurred in all interviews.
Promising practice interviewees suggested that their program’s critical measure was
having the class counted towards a general education requirement. Jordan noted that the general
education requirement was essential to the department, so it would encourage students to take the
course because they would gain the required credit needed to graduate. By not being only an
elective with no-graduation credit, more MRU students would have the opportunity to take the
course. Shane suggested that student advisors heavily encouraged students to enroll in the class
and he indicated that the promising practice course material would make a further positive
impact if combined with the required first-year writing courses. Shane taught sections of these
writing courses at the university and found that combining the assignments from the promising
practice course with the writing courses positively impacted his students. Shane further
explained,
I have already been building in mindfulness at the beginning of class, but I have taken
some of the assignments on gratitude and resilience and put them directly into the writing

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class. They have to do a reflection at the end of each unit about what did you learn about
resilience as a writer, where did you learn about your gratitude, and how that gets you
through.
MEU is one of the only programs that require students to take three courses with the promising
practice material for graduation, with no other options to meet the credit requirements. Jamie
suggested that to her knowledge, the college is the only one in the university to require classes
like this for graduation. While this requirement is not university-wide, other students from
different colleges at MEU have enrolled in the course.
Promising practice interviewees also discussed how their programs promoted the
university. From touted as “part of the college experience” or used in AACSB accreditation
processes, admissions, ranking, or solidifying a reputation, promising practice programs had
some marketability for the university community. Lennon noted, “It's definitely being listed on
our website and through the conversations that our recruiters have and the presentations where
we talked about the program.” Lennon also explained that the AACSB accreditation process
utilized the program, but the larger university did not emphasize the program. Lennon was the
only interviewee to mention the AACSB accreditation process by name.
Jamie emphasized that the program has “a lot of buzz” and is “mentioned every time we
move up in the rankings.” Clarissa did not know if the SAU program impacted rankings but did
know that the university videoed parts of the programs and had used that video during
recruitment to show students how the program sets apart the university as a competitive
advantage. Multiple promising practice interviewees noted videos as essential marketing tools,
and interviewees often recorded videos to help promote their programs across the university.

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Promising practice interviewees suggested that more marketing and promotion should
occur. Shane explained that he feels like “this class is kind of semi under the rug thing,” and he
did not understand why this was the case, other than there was not enough “formal support” in
the administrative structure, and he was “kind of on my own” for promotion purposes.
Saraswathi experienced this and emphasized that making sure the program’s website and social
media are up to date was essential to her and the program’s success. Flynn further encouraged
promotion so that students knew about the program and the options available at the university
and that the university could “burnish their reputation” to “stay true to the liberal arts
commitment of holistic education” and focused on the well-being of the university-wide
community if promotion occurred correctly.
Summary for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 strives to understand how promising practice programs’ desired
outcomes compare with the influence factors associated with authentic leadership. The research
question identified the distinct types of desired outcomes and how they compare with positive
psychological capacities, moral and ethical reasoning, and understanding critical life events. The
research data included themes that pair with the research question and highlight different desired
outcomes for the promising practices and the interviewees’ definitions of success for the
programs.
Document analysis found that most promising practice programs and courses emphasized
writing. Writing took place as reflection pieces, informal journals, blog posts, and more formal
essays. Documents placed a further emphasis on experiential learning opportunities, including
team projects, team charters or contracts, interviewing, and practice events such as mock job
interviews and lunches to practice etiquette. Communication-based assignments, including

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participation in classes and presentations, rounded out the types of assignments required of
students in the promising practice programs. Document analysis also found that action verbs
covered all levels of the Revised Blooms Taxonomy, with action verbs used in multiple
promising practice programs and courses in goals and learning outcomes. The remember level
was the most developed, followed by understand, apply, evaluate, create, and analyze in order of
emphasis in the documents.
The interview analysis found that promising practice programs and courses may develop
the influence factors for authentic leadership, which could develop leaders' capabilities to use
authentic leadership. In the courses and programs designed for students, multiple desired
outcomes as expressed by promising practice interviewees fell into the positive psychological
capacities category, which included the following: knowledge of available resources for help-
seeking, showing up to program events, and retention in the program, leadership development,
labeling positive strengths, expressing gratitude, developing skills for the future, navigating
emotions and stressors, pulling up skills or frameworks as needed like a toolbox, using the
materials in school or work environments and home or personal relationships. Multiple desired
outcomes as expressed by promising practice interviews fell into the moral and ethical reasoning
category, which included the following: fostering teamwork and community, team-building
skills, looking at an experience with different points of view, acceptance of differences, valuing
community and diversity, and taking responsibility. Multiple desired outcomes as expressed by
promising practice interviewees also fell into the understanding critical life events category,
which included the following: developing a sense of purpose, reflecting to make decisions, being
able to give feedback, asking deep questions, and creating thoughtful explanations.

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Emergent themes included focusing on general education requirements and utilizing
programs to help with university marketing and promotion. Promising practice interviewees
suggested that a critical success to their program was having the class counted towards a general
education requirement. Promising practice interviewees also discussed how their programs
promoted the university. From touted as “part of the college experience” or used in AACSB
accreditation processes, admissions, ranking, or solidifying a reputation, promising practice
programs had some marketability value for the university community.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asks the following: “What are the self-reported lived experiences of
the promising practice leaders regarding the implementation of programs now and in the future?”
strives to understand what new areas of research and implementation will be essential to the
future of higher education. As discussed in Chapter Two, rapid change brought about by large,
sweeping events such as COVID-19 impacts students’ personal sense of relating to challenges.
Alongside a time when traditional college students are changing and developing their self-
narratives and contemplating significant political and environmental changes, college students
also find that increasing student debt and a changing labor market may increase their anxiety.
Research data includes themes that pair with the research question and highlight different areas
of emerging practices or opportunities for further research and implementation. The themes for
Research Question 3 include the following: directions for future research, areas of interest about
the promising practice programs, the impact of COVID-19, evaluations that measure outcomes,
defining success for promising practice programs, making space for connections and
relationships, skepticism over curriculum and roadblocks to progress, further challenges of SEL
in higher education, and the future of SEL in higher education.

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RQ3 Document Analysis for Promising Practices
The promising practice program document analysis included peer-reviewed journal
articles, a chapter, and a preprint journal article. The review of documents included the name and
title, location, completeness and balance, target audience, and content and organized in a
document analysis categorization table. The documents provided information that led to
generating the theme directions for future research.
Peer-reviewed journal articles, a chapter, and a preprint journal article written by
promising practice interviewees highlighted the background of the promising practice programs
and understand directions for future research. Seven papers represented four promising practice
programs and courses. The promising practice program document analysis as visualized in the
table below included the peer-reviewed journal articles published in Anxiety, Stress, and Coping;
Frontiers in Psychiatry, Stress, and Health; The Journal of American College Health; and The
Journal of Management Education. All documents discussed the promising practice programs or
courses and gave specific details on assignments class demographics and reviewed the outcomes
of students’ experiences. The keywords and the titles of articles and the book are anonymized to
protect the identities of the interviewees.

Table 9
Document Analysis of Promising Practice Interviewee Writing
Promising
practice
institution
pseudonym
Date
range of
publication
Document type Suggested direction for
future research
Middle
Atlantic
University
(MAU)
2018-2021 Peer reviewed article in
Stress and Health
First-year student
practices and trainings
for effective coping.
Preventive efforts to

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strengthen students'
cognitive social
emotional skills for
well-being and
adjustment to college
life.
National
South
University
(NSU)
2018-2021 Peer reviewed article in
Journal of American
College Health
Holistic student
development and the
effects of promising
practice program over
a longer time span.
Strengthening skills to
positively impact
depression and the
impact of the skills of
social and health
behaviors.
National
South
University
(NSU)
2018-2021 Pre-print journal article Impact of instructor
pedagogy on desired
SEL associated
outcomes of promising
practice courses.
New England
University
(NEU)
2018-2021 Book chapter Creating developmental
activities to promote
student ability to make
positive decisions.
New England
University
(NEU)
2018-2021 Peer reviewed article in
Journal of
Management
Education
Research on the efficacy
of coaching by
instructors and
students. How to
develop instructors and
students’ coaching
abilities with a pretest
and posttest
measurement of
performance.
West Pacific
University
(WPU)
2018-2021 Peer reviewed article in
Anxiety, Stress, and
Coping
The long-term costs of
disengagement coping
and alternative
approaches to dealing
with uncontrollable
stressors.
West Pacific
University
(WPU)
2018-2021 Peer reviewed article in
Frontiers in
Psychiatry
Qualitative research on
student experience in
the promising practice
program with an

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understanding of
specific department,
class, or affinity group.
Staff self-efficacy as
program leaders.

This table emphasizes a variety of directions for future research. Discussing first-year
students and preventative efforts to help with depression and anxiety around the transition to
college alongside more holistic student development for positive social and health behavior skills
offer opportunities to researchers in the field. Documents also highlighted instructor pedagogical
style and the impact that it may have across groups of students and the self-efficacy of instructors
to work with students on the material, with a further emphasis on instructor ability to utilize
coaching skills when interacting with students. Furthermore, the long-term costs of
disengagement when managing stress and using development activities that promote students’
ability to make positive decisions were also areas of future research possibilities.
RQ3 Interview Analysis for Promising Practices
The interview transcripts from 16 promising practice interviewees representing 15
promising practice programs or courses were reviewed consistent with the interview transcript
analysis and rationale provided in Chapter Three. The first step in the interview transcript
analysis was creating precoding memos. The content analysis considered the a priori codebook
and open coding during the content analysis process. The listening guide method required the
reading of interview transcripts four times each to pick up the plot, voice, and contrasting
opinions.
Theme 1: Areas of Interest about the Promising Practice Programs
Promising practice interviews captured various issues that promising practice
interviewees consider paramount to their programs and courses and the SEL field. Interviewees

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answered a series of questions about their interests in the program materials, the impact of
COVID-19, challenges of using SEL on college campuses, and their opinions on the future of
SEL programming. Promising practice interviewees discussed what they enjoyed the most about
using the promising practice programs and course materials with students and across all
interviews instructor enjoyment or personal satisfaction was present. Flynn discussed gaining a
personal satisfaction from teaching and noted,
I think personally as an instructor what excites me the most is like you know you have a
campfire, and the coals get sort of glossed over with ash, and you just blow a little, and
then the flame jumps forward. I think this course is like that, it is really amazing to watch.
People struggle with it and reject it and react against it and then all of a sudden something
happens.
Interviewees also noted that the promising practice programs and materials have impacted their
lives. Logan admitted to being “hyper competitive, insecure, and anxious” when he was younger
and while he “was successful” he felt as though his life could have been better and his “joy could
have been greater” if he had the skills that he now teaches. Logan further suggested that
authenticity is about “getting people to realize their human potential” and one can do that by
“having a life of meaning and purpose.” Saraswathi saw students transform as they attend the
PRU classes, she explained,
You add up all those people and they go back out into their world and connect with
people, and those people connect with people, and those people will connect with more
people. I believe that is sending like a pebble into the pond and creating a ripple effect of
people being just a little kinder to each other, a little bit more patient…there's just more
room for magic to happen.

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A further focus on how watching students engage with the materials and overcome their own
personal resistance to using them, encouraged promising practice interviewees to reflect a major
interest of promising practice interviewees.
Promising practice interviewees discussed the value of SEL for STEM-major students.
Lennon noted that the promising practice program suits the students because the AU program
attracts “technically minded people” and often “intersects business and technology.” Lennon
further explained,
I do think when you're used to being more in engineering or in a math or science
program, you're not as focused on that holistic development, so I think we're getting to
people who may not have had this previous experience in that space right…It's a really
brand new topic for a lot of them, so I think it is exciting and just being at the age they
are, they're just so ready to absorb and they're ready to grow in a different way…and I
also think this generation is just so much more willing to share, which is really
encouraging.
Noel, who is also an engineer, emphasized that emotional intelligence is more essential in
engineering now than ever, he further explained,
I believe that my task on this planet is to build engineers…And the truth is, I cannot
imagine building engineering in this century and constructing engineers without having
the soft skills to be able to work in teams, so I think I think that is a major focal point for
my purpose in life.
Flynn also discussed the need for STEM students to complete the promising practice programs,
because these students will need the skills in the future to work through various challenges such
as climate change and various technologies. Flynn further added that we need “wise

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technologists with diverse backgrounds who have a compassionate perspective when developing
new technologies” that can positively or negatively impact the world.
Promising practice interviewees discussed other discipline-specific students and their
program’s purpose for them. Jordan explained that she is implementing the promising practice
course specifically with the university’s education department to train teacher education majors
specifically, so that these students will “have the tools and resources to be able to facilitate it
once they get to K–12.” Jordan emphasized, “social emotional learning is not going away and
then it is going to get stronger, and more schools are going to start adapting or adopting explicit
social emotional learning curriculums or programs” and because of this, students who will be
future teachers will need to not only know about it and experience it for themselves but be ready
to facilitate in their classrooms. Jamie considered, “the coolness factor of teaching a class like
this in a business school” is essential to her, but also to her students because she is able to have
them “really think about themselves.” Alison noted,
If we keep improving the program and make it more integrated, students will come out of
it really knowing what a good teammate looks like and hopefully they will have
improved their teammate skills. And can help others when that needs to happen. That is a
hard thing to do, you know, but we put them in team situations all throughout their
curriculum if we can really do that well my gosh, I mean that sets them apart in ways that
are almost indescribable.
Alison further emphasized that the practice and skills piece of the curriculum is “critical” to
students gaining the skills, rather than filling out a checklist they will have time to “go through
the scenarios” which then gives students “the space to mess up and get feedback to make it
better.”

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Promising practice interviewees also emphasized across campus impact, focusing on all
students and the university community being able to benefit from promising practice materials.
Shane emphasized, “If you give the students the tools and the space to think about how to
manage themselves and other human beings, it's like they're just way happier and more
productive.” Clarissa suggested that the SAU promising practice program is a “response to the
growing mental health challenges of college students” and while it is not meant to be a clinical
intervention, it is a “proactive educational response to those mental health challenges.” Flynn
emphasized a further sense of belonging and suggested, “During a pandemic, I should say even
online it creates a community of the awakened that's really powerful.” Flynn assessed a sense of
belonging in his research on the class outcomes and has seen an increase in these students feeling
like they are part of the campus community.
Promising practice interviewees at larger campuses have also been excited about the
opportunities their program can bring as far as a positive impact campus wide. Maddy explained,
“We've got a large campus, and so we want to impact the largest number of people that we can.
With a tool that is accessible, interesting, and engaging where they can learn about
resources…and just building their own resiliency toolbox.” Elin found the increased demands
from a large campus fits the WPU program as well. Elin explained that there has been an
increased demand for student counseling services and the administration at the campus has had
to strategically consider a “comprehensive approach to addressing seeking mental health and
well-being.” Part of the comprehensive approach was to create a continuum of care, Elin further
considered,
We could think about it as existing along the continuum of care, where we have
individual treatment and crisis services, but then on that other end of the continuum, we

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have more about prevention and promotion, and in that space we do a lot more
envisioning of how a program could scale…So we went from a comprehensive approach
to thinking about this kind of continuum of care that we can just take what we learned
from social emotional learning in K–12 and apply it here, but we're going to be applying
it differently than like the curriculums in K–12…like we're teaching students across the
board these skills and mindsets, because they're going to have a positive impact on their
overall health and well-being and on their academics and retention.
Elin hoped by increasing access to the WPU promising practice programs, the university could
promote a culture of well-being and a “slow, adaptive leadership style” for an overall culture
shift.
Theme 2: The Impact of COVID-19
All promising practice interviewees included their opinion of how, if at all, COVID-19
increased attention or awareness of SEL in higher education. Promising practice interviewees
suggested it increased overall awareness of trauma and the impacts trauma can have on
individuals. Logan emphasized a concern over the larger political world and the anxiety
alongside COVID-19 and further noted,
After seeing what is happening in Afghanistan, it has got be anxiety producing for these
kids, social media, now going back, and more masks, right? We see violence increasing
in the cities, people in flights attacking one another, and people do not have this, right? It
is beating them up and they are getting worn down and they do not have the skills and
abilities to deal with it, right?
Myron suggested that “because of fear a lot of people have disconnected to empathy” and due to
this has completed multiple workshops on empathy and connection. Myron further explained,

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Being intelligent with your feelings should eliminate a lot of polarization that is
happening. Because part of the tools that we teach is how to handle that frustration that
you may be feeling, that comes on you, because you allow someone to push your buttons,
right? And so, if we can start, we can disconnect from that part of the brain, the
amygdala, and get back to rational thinking; we can have great conversations. So that is
how I think this year is going to be different, as opposed to the last 18 months.
Flynn suggested that students learned about “suffering” in the sense of “physical, occupational,
and mental suffering brings the timeframe of one's life pretty close, so that death is not
something that's so far away,” and by “limiting the time horizon” it makes students realize what
is the most essential and worthwhile in their lives, which Flynn further suggests is why “people
are not going back to the job market in these little-paying jobs where they can’t make a living
wage.”
Understanding how students interact with each other was also of interest to promising
practice interviewees. Maddy suggested that social interaction was significantly impacted by
COVID-19 and that second-year students, who spent their first year largely online, need to have
their feelings about that experience acknowledged, because “they were not physically interacting
with the campus as other students and faculty in a way that they usually do and so they feel less
connected to the campus and less connected to peers and their faculty.” Maddy emphasized that
current students were not able to “to practice the skills of getting to know other people” and
these students feel anxious about connecting since when “you work online, and you're learning
online, and your social life is online, and everything is on a screen too, it just makes it harder.”
However, Saraswathi found that the PRU program could include more people because it was
online. She further explained that offering online classes in real time took away “all those

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friction points” because participants are “already home in front of their computer, and all I had to
do is stay at home in front of a computer and jump in, so there was just a lot more accessibility.”
Considering that the real-time online classes were movement based, Saraswathi suggested that
Zoom gave people courage because “a lot of people would feel uncomfortable to do some of
these practices in person” and being able to “hide behind a zoom screen” gave people more
opportunities to try new things because they were a small box on a screen. Gwen also considered
that the pandemic and technology changes has made people more “patient.” Gwen noted that
Zoom classes and learning a recent technology tool increased students’ patience by experiencing
other students and faculty and staff trying to do the best they could with disruptions and saw that
patience carried over to current in-person experiences.
When considering university culture, Flynn was critical of university systems. Flynn
considered that the pandemic may not change universities for good, but that institutions will go
back to “the same old ruts that we were in prior to COVID” quickly. However, Clarissa noted
that COVID-19 has put a “spotlight” on the need for resources “because of the negative impact it
has had on our students.” Clarissa was concerned about student self-reported loneliness and
suggested that while it was high to begin with, the pandemic has made it higher. Clarissa further
suggested that self-reported anxiety and depression increases are of concern and that “it has
pointed to institutional needs, greater needs, around both mental health interventions and well-
being learning resources for our students, faculty, and staff.” On a positive note, Clarissa has
seen time, attention, and dollars allocated to mental health on campus, because of the increased
student statistics and concern by administration. Elin also suggested university marketing placed
more attention on the WPU program and featured the program during the last university-wide
giving day to donors and alumni. Furthermore, at WPU Elin noted that “instructors not only

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wanted support and guidance on how to promote student well-being virtually, but they also
needed that support themselves because they were struggling” and now department leaders have
reached out to Elin to ask for further training for the transition to on-campus work and learning.
Lennon observed, “We're much more open about talking about mental health and well-
being.” While Lennon explained that they were already talking about mental health and well-
being at AU, she emphasized that COVID pushed the importance and the depth of those
conversations. Lennon highlighted the 2021-2022 school year,
It has been a tough year…I have faculty who are very anxious about being in the
classroom…we have students who are anxious, students who are so excited to be back. It
is just, there is so many different emotions running right now, and I think as tough as
COVID was, I think this year will even be harder because there is so much more. People
are in so many different places, I think, than we were in the past year.
Logan also agreed that “this year is even going to be worse” and is concerned about the
documented student stress and anxiety alongside suicides, because the feeling of overall unrest
continues without an end in sight.
Jordan believed COVID-19 has “just accelerated the importance of social emotional
learning.” Jordan also noted that she found it more difficult to talk with students “dealing with
anxiety, depression, and isolation,” who had not completed the MRU program versus those who
had completed the program, because those students could pull directly from the curriculum and
their coursework. Jordan further explained,
It was a lot easier for me to have conversations with students who understood and already
had those tools developed, to say: Okay remember when we talked about optimism? We
know this is temporary, it is isolated right, and we know that with effort it is possible. So,

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having those conversations really opened doors to have students be able to see the light at
the end of a tunnel and be able to kind of walk through it versus students who did not
[complete the course].
Jordan also considered that COVID-19 has “raised attention” to providing SEL to all students
across campus to safeguard them from additional stress caused by the pandemic and the many
changes students experienced.
Logan considered that his experience teaching the promising practice course for 2020-
2021 was different from his colleagues, who taught other courses and were complaining about
their experience. In contrast to his colleagues, Logan reported that his students thanked him for
the course and enjoyed attending. Logan further explained, “This space helped them. No
question. No doubt. Like they were there every week; attendance was probably stronger than
ever.” Furthermore, Logan suggested that students increasing their awareness of their
experiences helped them understand the things they are processing, and students used the
readings and lectures in the promising practice course to talk about themselves and better
develop their acceptance and commitment to self-awareness. Clotilde also experienced the
pandemic through the eyes of her students, who are “working in hospitals primarily” and noted
that the students have taken the content and enhanced their skills for “having compassion for
themselves and for others and being able to say, this is where I am right now, and this is what I
can do, and this is what I can't do,” which she believed gave students the ability to “regulate”
during challenges.
Theme 3: Evaluations That Measure Outcomes
Promising practice interviewees identified several types of evaluations during an
interview question directed at all interviewees. The question asked if any official evaluation

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measures used to track promising practice program performance. Promising practice
interviewees suggested multiple types of evaluation existed from program participant feedback
to informal and formal data collection for academic research journal articles and other
publications.
Program Participant Feedback
The promising practice programs collected distinct types of program participant feedback
over time. Formal university surveys, student focus groups, informal listening opportunities, and
feedback from faculty and staff who participated in programs were all used to understand
program strengths and weaknesses better and used as an opportunity to further advocate for
program expansion across universities. The majority of promising practice interviewees reported
that formal university surveys of students for courses were their main use of evaluation.
University-sponsored midterm and final feedback forms reported student opinions of
coursework. One college also included an official careers outcome survey tied directly to the
promising practice coursework. Flynn suggested that student surveys of teaching effectiveness
allow modification to the promising practice courses because faculty have “clues to making it
better” through the student’s responses. Gwen noted that one specifically memorable student
evaluation said that the course helped the student pass all their other courses at the university.
Other promising practice interviewees suggested that student evaluations could be positive and
negative, and if they were not overly hurtful, faculty considered suggestions and comments for
future semesters.
Other types of participant feedback reported included student focus groups and informal
listening to students in the program. Specifically, Lennon hosted focus groups for students that
allowed program leadership to listen to students’ ideas and suggestions in real-time. Lennon also

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noted that the program hires a student every year who is “very integral in helping us
communicate with the students about the program… and gives us real-time feedback.” Informal
listening and communication have worked well for the AU program, as Lennon found the
leadership team can shape the program in real time based on the suggestions and informal chatter
communicated to the program’s office.
Promising practice interviewees also gathered feedback from participants in the programs
that specifically cater to faculty and staff and other programs looking to better influence the
faculty and staff perspective. Erin suggested that faculty participant feedback on evaluations
included a self-assessment of the participant’s ability in the promising program subject matter
and helped the program leadership to further understand how students feel in their courses and to
be “open and vulnerable with themselves” and others about their growing skill levels to
effectively use program materials. Elin surveyed all instructors applying practices and surveyed
students to see compare what the instructor believes they are doing and how that is coming
across to students in the classroom. A larger guidebook of knowledge and experiences given to
new faculty and staff using the program’s materials used this data to develop suggested
practices.
Informal Collection of Data by Promising Practice Interviewees
Promising practice interviewees reported collecting data informally to improve their
courses or programs. The interviewees suggested that collecting data on assignments and writing
their notes on their experiences with students in the classroom allowed for more profound,
personal reflection and opportunities to refine their style in the classroom. Jamie reported
collecting additional survey data when students completed the formal university evaluations.
Jamie noted that because the course is subjective, to track student learning, the survey questions

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ask students to rank on a scale of one to 10 their ability to present themselves to job and
internship recruiters at the beginning of the courses and then another ranking on a scale of one to
10 their ability to present themselves at the end of the course. Jamie reported finding an increase
in student confidence and used this data in a dossier to prove their teaching abilities. Myron
asked students to complete informal surveys on emotional intelligence. And while assigned
readings did not specifically cover emotional intelligence, Myron noted that the students
suggested that they enjoyed and learned the most about emotional intelligence through a strategy
of simply talking about it in the classroom. Clotilde included alumni in informal surveys and
used the data alongside further program assessments to link career transitions and how alumni
are using the promising program practices in their careers outside of the university.
Formal Data Collection for Research Studies
Formal data collection included promising practice interviewees using scales when
measuring the outcomes students experience. Scales reported include the Mindful Attention
Awareness Scale, Dispositional Positive Emotion Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, Sleep Quality
Scale, other non-specific scales measuring meaning and accomplishment, and brief inventories
for anxiety and depression. Three promising practice interviewees reported using pre and post-
tests, to see try and validate a program in increasing student skills and considered this as data
collection for research in future academic journal articles.
Promising practice interviewees report more formal academic research studies helped
them gain and maintain administrative interest in the courses and programs. Flynn noted that
course instructors survey each student in addition to standard university surveys, so that a data
set could grow for increased studies over time. Flynn also noted, “this year we're also
interviewing all the students of color who've taken the course to try to examine issues of

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inclusion and equity and how we can improve the course to be more culturally responsive.”
Continuous improvement through data is a critical focal point at MAU where Flynn explained
that the instructional team is separate from the research team. Researchers played a role in the
class but did not instruct students; instead, they focused on gathering and utilizing the data from
the classes in further academic journal articles.
Gwen at NSU suggested that the NSU course has a research agenda “attached” to it and
includes an “experimental design with a control group,” so curriculum focused researchers can
further ensure the rigor of the studies. Shane reported that research began the promising practice
course at NAU. Shane explained,
It started off historically because there is a research project at [institution name] which I
believe other schools are involved in with the college… It started off because they were
doing research, where they collect saliva samples from students their first year and then
survey them over the years and look out for any genetic correlations with the experiences
of students. And then they wanted a way to sort of feed their findings back to students, so
the core class was started by people involved in that research project.
The NAU course expanded to instruct students about the findings and the research process itself
with the researchers checking in with the instructor for anecdotal student reactions about the
coursework. Elin reported data collection took place over the last five years from incoming
students for longitudinal studies. Survey data response rates are high because the survey is part
of an online orientation program. Elin noted that the study will soon report if there are any
“particular ways that seem to have an impact on the way students cope with stress, while they're
here, and cope with transitions” and hoped that further publications will result.

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Theme 4: Defining Success for Promising Practice Programs
Promising practice interviewees identified several definitions of success in an interview
question directed at all promising practice interviewees. The question asked how the promising
practice interviewees measured the success of their course or program and asked them to give
their expectations and definitions of success. Promising practice interviewees gave several
definitions of success that aligned with their missions or visions for the course or program itself
and what it accomplished.
Administrative Success
Promising practice interviewees reported that administrative success would meet their
course or program’s definition and expectation of success. One type of administrative success
reported by interviewees was gaining a required course status. Jordan said that success occurred
when the promising practice course became a general education requirement. Jordan hoped that
further faculty and staff would begin to understand the course and that further required courses
could be in the general education system for students. Erin also agreed that the course met a
definition of success for the program and hoped to further create a required program for all first-
or second-year students that would be “integrated.” Erin explained that the required course
would be “part of the distribution requirements, where the social and emotional dimensions of
learning and equity are woven in transparent ways; so that the language, the terms of
transformative SEL, link the SEL and equity.”
Lennon defined that part of success is giving students the “best experience possible” and
“leaving a place better than you found it.” Lennon further explained this idea, “I think it’s a great
principle for all leaders, because if you're motivated by that, you're not focused on some of the
other things that can get in the way if you're looking at the long-term value you can add to the

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organization.” Saraswathi also noted that the “fundamental definition of success is that people
come, and people stay” describing that student retention in the program is a critical metric. This
metric is something that Lennon also considered to be essential, and Lennon suggested utilizing
several marketing and technology touchpoints to measure student attendance and engagement.
Alison’s definition of success included other faculty members understanding and being
involved with the promising practice courses. Alison noted that parents have a “bit better
perception of our programming,” because of the efforts the dean of the college uses to promote
the promising practice and courses throughout the semester and during the student recruitment
process. Alison further explained, “I think that sticks with parents. I think they know the value of
it.” Now, gaining further faculty appreciation for the course’s value is critical to Alison’s
definition of success. Alison further described,
The work going forward is going to elevate what we do to the rest of the school. It is a
big school, and you know we have been isolated. I do not know if it was done purposely
before…it was a little bit comfortable, I think, for people to have some insulation around
us. But it is problematic for a couple reasons and so we are starting to kind of bridge out,
like we just met with the ethics faculty as a group…because we need to hear from other
parts of the school. What we are doing affects the students in those classes too and those
parts of the school need to know what we are doing so they can build on it, and so that we
can use common language.
Alison further explained that common language would also benefit the students, as finding the
elevation on a large campus to use the language and ideas that the promising practice promotes
across multiple student touchpoints will help the students identify and further utilize the skill
sets.

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Promising practice interviewees considered the perception and acceptance of the program
by the university community and broader community of stakeholders, in part, as administrative
success. Jordan suggested that if students could continue to promote and implement the ideas and
skills in the promising practice course it would help students, because “SEL has to be ongoing,
and it has to be continued throughout their career here at [the university name]” and further
courses would be Jordan’s benchmark for true success of the program. Perception of a wider
community was essential to promising practice interviewees as well. Jamie suggested that job
and internship recruiters’ opinions of MEU students would be a benchmark for the course,
because it has so much to do with further professional development and “preparing them for the
professional world.” Furthermore, Gwen had a goal for the perception of the entire college
community in that she hoped the community itself could be seen as “thriving” and students who
participate in the program could be spotted in the community as people who are working towards
a goal and “expressing themselves authentically” to enjoy their time in the community and to
benefit the larger environment.
Student Learning Gains
All promising practice interviewees reported that student learning outcomes were
essential to their definition of success for courses and programs. Shane noted that data from the
NAU program showed that students from the promising practice course have higher graduation
and retention rates than average. Shane hoped that students learn to reflect and apply, reflect on
the lectures and readings, and apply learning to their life experiences. Multiple promising
practice interviewees reported the importance of reflection by students understanding themselves
and showing instructors that they engaged in a formalized reflective process. Logan hoped that
students used the reflection to transform themselves. However, not all interviewees emphasized

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the formal process. Flynn suggested that his goals for students are not the “usual suspects,”
Flynn further explained his definition of success for students would include,
Not believing everything you think, not feeling every feeling is final, not being too
idealistic, not being too pessimistic, but being realistic. Remembering every moment is a
chance to begin again. Remembering that no person is an island, each person is a part of
the main. Remembering if you wish to be for others to be happy, practice compassion and
if you, yourself, wish to be happy, practice compassion.
Flynn noted that these goals are “in the spirit of social emotional learning,” but cautions not to
use these as a benchmark for success because “education works in an achievement oriented
individualistic society.” To Flynn these areas are not good benchmarks for achievement, but
instead an opportunity for students to be honest with themselves.
Myron noted that he looked for students understanding the concepts and using these
concepts as well. Myron explained,
As a teacher, you can see when that light turns on. And they and they get it, and so that is
what I am really hoping that yeah this is, this is the measurable stuff the outcomes, but I
am really looking for it to become part of who they are, which changes their lives.
Promising practice interviewees often emphasized looking for students to use the materials in the
assignments. This was critical for Jamie who looked towards students’ final assignments to see if
self-reflection is present. Clarissa looked for students to gain resilience and communicate that
they feel confident in their resilience skills at the end of the SAU programs. Maddy noted that
they hoped students could feel more confident about their abilities to use “mindset to recognize
that challenges, barriers, setbacks, and failures really are opportunities for growth and

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opportunities for reflection.” Maddy further explained that she hopes students can see that if their
original plan changes, then they can still be successful.
Promising practice interviewees also identified that using the materials for students’
current and future careers is an essential definition of success. Clotilde noted that she hoped
students go on to managerial positions and “create systems that take care of their people, so that
their people can take care of others” while striving to use a “systems perspective” and set a
vision to succeed while using the skills the promising practice courses taught them. Noel also
considered that future career use of the promising practice course skills is an essential aspect of
success. Noel suggested that students working in the field in organized teams together, cognizant
of emotional intelligence, is an essential tool for development that can then “bleed over” into
careers. By cooperating with local businesses, Noel used an emotional intelligence curriculum
specifically to help students have a positive team experience, and keep students focused on the
end goal of their career research and destinations after college.
Interviewees of promising practice programs that are faculty and staff focused reported
that their definitions of success revolved around the faculty and staff’s abilities to use the
promising practice program’s skills in the classroom and student’s perceptions of that classroom
and their experience with the faculty or staff member. Elin explained that the program goal is for
instructors to self-evaluate the way they teach and promote skillsets to students and makes
changes to their teaching styles and classroom management, based on four foundational pillars of
success that include “diversity, equity, connection, and resilience” that were determined by the
best practices of university-wide award-winning teachers. Elin further explained that measuring
students’ opinion of instruction determined if students could connect that the class used these
skills specifically and if students note that their instructors valued compassion and well-being.

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Theme 5: Making Space for Connections and Relationships
Of all the promising practices programs, nine programs focused on students,
undergraduate, graduate, or continuing studies students. Four programs focused on both students
and faculty or staff. One program focused only on faculty with the intention to develop official
student-based programing in the future. All promising practice interviewees prioritized
differentiating between the student experience and the faculty or staff experience with the
curriculum. Promising practice interviewees placed special importance to faculty or staff training
in SEL when recruiting other faculty or staff to work on programs or during evaluation for
promotion and tenure.
Putting on Your Seat Belt
Promising practice interviewees discussed the importance of putting on your seatbelt
when it came to faculty and staff and their ability to use SEL skills themselves. Elin suggested
that promising practices “cannot just focus solely on the students.” Elin related developing a
“movement” in colleges and universities to help instructors to focus on K–12 teachers and
principals learning SEL currently. Elin’s program focuses on both students and faculty and staff.
It provides resources for faculty to develop SEL in classrooms, but by doing so regards the
practice and use of SEL skills by faculty and staff as an essential part of the learning process. By
teaching faculty and staff to use SEL themselves, Elin viewed this as an opportunity to scale SEL
across the campus with everyone participating in programming on 10 different associated
campuses in the university’s system. These “multi campus cohorts” work together to learn SEL
skills and Elin noted that multiple participants have stuck together to refine their skills. Elin
explained, “We support staff and instructors in bolstering their resilience coping because the
students will come and go, but the staff and faculty are a bit more permanent, and so I think that

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could elicit some culture change.” Currently the program uses online learning to develop groups
where faculty and staff can learn how to facilitate SEL skills for their students by learning the
skills themselves and is looking into in-person opportunities.
Training for faculty and staff who function as instructors is common throughout the
promising practice interviews. Flynn suggested the importance of faculty and staff understanding
SEL, how to use it personally, and how to use it when creating opportunities for students and
further related,
You must be a bit ecumenical yourself. You know, we live in a world of specializations
and this course is transdisciplinary. It it's about a mixing of the humanities, the sciences,
and experiences, so I think it takes a bit of flexibility and not knowing as a key virtue on
the part of the professor and some specialized training and thinking about how do I not
only learn about meditation and these mental training practices, but practice them
myself? So, there is a kind of embodiment that is very helpful as we tell the students we
are not on the other shore beckoning them across, but rolling along with them in the
course, so that is helpful.
Multiple promising practice interviewees suggested that training instructors who will be working
with the students helps develop instructor capabilities for a deeper understanding of the materials
and creates a shared space where students and instructors are on a “journey” together.
The emphasis that faculty and staff must care for themselves first by “putting on their
oxygen mask” as both Elin and Clarissa suggested, a systems-based approach is critical to not
only changing university culture but part of solving part of the root causes of problems around
increasing anxiety and stress in college students. Clarissa explained,

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In every university or college that I have talked to about this, I said, you know you cannot
ignore your faculty and staff. You can say yes, but our number one commitment is to
students. . . but I think you have to really be thinking about how you equip faculty and
staff with this knowledge and with these tools, because they are suffering too. They are
reporting anxiety, stress, and burnout and faculty do not know how to respond to
students’ mental health issues and concerns. So, I think, you know, using a systems
approach to this work is a high impact practice.
The promising practice interviewees developed a systems-based approach that encompasses
faculty and staff learning in multiple ways, from WPU circulating PDF guides and connecting
faculty and staff in the university’s system-wide cohort courses to NU developing faculty
fellowships for learning more about SEL. The promising practice programs explored the area of
faculty and staff development formally through the offerings of fellowships and cohorts and
informally by promising practice interviewees developing professional connections with other
faculty and staff, who were also interested in being involved with the promising practices and
were concerned for student well-being.
Humanizing Teaching
The concept of humanizing the instructor and humanizing teaching came up in multiple
interviews as a topic of interest. Erin suggested that faculty want to “humanize” their teaching to
“feel more connected with their students.” Erin emphasized that teaching SEL skills allows
instructors to better understand the skills for themselves and allows them to see students in a
different light. Erin further explained,
You know they move from just focusing on the neck up and start to really see their
students as whole human beings and bring themselves into their teaching and ways where

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they bring their whole selves more. It can be easier to give a lecture, teach your content,
and then, you know, you talk to students about the subject.
Logan also related to the difficulties of teaching this subject versus other subjects. Logan
suggested that faculty must become facilitators instead of teachers to effectively create the space
for students to trust them as facilitators, and to trust each other in peer relationships in the
classroom. Logan suggested that trying to “facilitate someone’s ability to increase their
awareness that they have more choices and responsibility” can be a challenge for faculty
members that also develops their ability to use skills and changes the way they may teach in
other classes. Jordan only calls the instructors in the MRU promising practice course
“facilitators,” continuing the focus that leading the course requires different skills than
instructors may be familiar with using in the classroom.
Teaching SEL and related skills can further help instructors adopt the practices
themselves. Lennon explained,
For the past two years, I have spoken about vulnerability, passion, and empathy. I knew
those topics previously, but to me once you start to deliver them it becomes a little bit
more of a different level of understanding and so certainly the concepts that I have had to
speak about and research on before presenting to the students, it has been great for me. I
think I have certainly been challenged and found new ways to be able to deliver that
information.
Instructing the promising practice courses may require different skills that at first could be a
departure for instructors. Flynn suggested that instructors must “differentiate between two ways
of learning in the course and in the extension of teaching” and by making the differentiation,

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instructors may find themselves working with students in “declarative ways of learning,” but also
in “procedural ways of learning.” Flynn further elaborated,
Procedural learning is a kind of motor learning that gets in the body and that refers to
[promising practice name] lab where we teach specific meditation skills, so we really
think that the way to become a mindful and compassionate person is to practice
mindfulness and compassion and there's no doubt it's useful to have a conception of what
that what mindfulness and compassion are and how they work, but we see that form of
learning is insufficient to realize the goal here. Because we are trying to be the change we
wish to see in the world, and what neuroscience has taught us is that the way that we can
become something is by practicing it and practicing it repeatedly until it becomes second
nature.
Promising practice interviewees suggested that teaching and leading practice skills can bring
about further adoption of the skills by the faculty, even faculty who may at first be skeptical such
as Gwen, who admitted that while she does not meditate as often as perhaps one would think
someone teaching the promising practice course would, she has seen it make a positive impact in
her life. Logan further accepted that the practice has been helpful with his professional life, and
personal goals in athletic development.
Promising practice interviewees found themselves pushing to continue humanizing their
teaching and creating experiences for students that could further create a community. Jamie
wanted a smaller class size that would allow her to better connect with her students. She
explained that she had 600 students a year and that the biggest challenge is working “one-on-one
with students….and really working with them and staying with them through the process.” With
300 students per semester, the MEU promising practice courses are the largest in the study. MEU

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assigns an instructor 300 students in groups of 50 students one time per week for a 75-minute
class. However, multiple promising practice interviewees crave a higher attendance, with Gwen
and Shane both wishing their classes would grow in student numbers and in the number of
sections offered.
Developing Distinct Types of Spaces
Multiple promising practice interviewees emphasized developing physical, mental, and
emotional types of spaces to improve connections. Physical spaces in the classroom and campus
community supplied an area for relationship building practices, which allowed students to focus
on specific activities surrounding their learning and self-awareness. Multiple program
interviewees suggested that making a common language for students in these spaces was a
critical requirement. Clarissa said that well-being subjects are spoken about in a way that
students can use it as “individualized kind of pursuit,” but it is helpful for students to consider
how they will accept the “kinds of experiences and evidence-based tools” the promising practice
program offers for themselves in be able to express that with other students. The pursuit of
common language is important for faculty and staff as well. Erin explained,
The hope is that over time there will be multiple faculty in each department, who have
gone through the program and have the language, have the deep understanding of social
and emotional learning; and, very essentially, see the ways that SEL is so connected to
equity to develop racial literacy, that emotional stamina to be an antiracist educator.
Promising practice interviewees emphasized that the connection to language drives a sense of
belonging for students and faculty. Promising practice interviewees also noted that that further
emphasis on both in-person and online classroom populations and the need for diverse types of
spaces as related to the experiences of students would take place in future program development.

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An understanding of how to use physical, emotional, relational, and physical and virtual
learning experiences is essential to the promising practice interviewees. One of WPU’s programs
specifically helps instructors in “creating learning environments that promote well-being.” Elin
expounded,
For students who are enrolled in classes, where instructors have given that some thought
and maybe are applying different practices and teaching modalities to support student
well-being, they might just experience that classroom well, hopefully in a way where
they feel cared for and where they feel like their well-being is valued.
Promising practice interviewees emphasized well-being subjects should focus on the individual
to increase a student’s openness to trying distinct types of practices. For faculty-based
programming at WPU, the major goal is to help instructors create a classroom space that
supports a student’s well-being but is also an “inclusive space…that is all about access,
inclusion, and equity.” Multiple promising practice interviewees emphasized that physical spaces
used in community-based mental health centers allowed them to highlight DEI implications and
create a link between resilience and nurturing connections between the people within that space.
Logan focused on creating space in the in-person and online classroom specific
environments,
I want to increase their self-awareness of their subjective relational experience. I want to
teach them to self-observe. I want to teach them to learn from their experience and take
responsibility for it and realize that it is unique. While there's commonalities within the
classroom spaces, it is about facilitating relationships among students to deepen their
learning right; so, to use their interactions in a way that deepens their individual learning,

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and they have a sense of responsibility for others’ learning just by making or creating a
space where they learn from their peers.
Logan explained that when students share experiences and think about themselves and other
people, it helps students “work through their traumas together,” and “take responsibility to
develop their own self-transformation.” The goal for creating space is a “shared purpose process”
and Logan suggested that faculty need to develop a space where learning will take place but also
where relationships with students can take place between the instructor and the students, the
students themselves. This builds the instructors’ ability to lead student development with a
balance between personal development and content-driven exercises. While the promising
practices have both in-person and online platforms, creating physical space for students to
experience curriculum is essential for multiple interviewees. Elin found that students completed
the promising practice program’s material together in “community spaces they often hang out in
such as the LBTQ Center or Intercultural Center.” NSU and MAU both developed a physical
center for practices and meditations as a lab space for students and the campus community.
Shane suggested that his goal is for students to have the space physically or virtually to “acquire
skills and ideas that they can use to manage themselves in any other space and equip them to
cope with life better.” In-person or online, promising practice interviewees focused on students
learning the skills that would help them the most in a space that made them most comfortable.
Theme 6: Skepticism over Curriculum and Roadblocks to Progress
Skepticism was prevalent throughout the interviews, with it playing a significant role in
roadblocks experienced by promising practice interviewees that they had to strategize to
overcome. Working in the face of those roadblocks and finding solutions to challenges was a
focus in the interviewee experience. Roadblocks included misconceptions and malalignments of

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the subject matter, administration and other faculty not buying into the importance of the
programs, concern over a lack of rigor, and faculty performance in promotion and tenure
committees.
Misconceptions and Malalignments
The promising practice interviewees across all programs noted that they had experienced
stakeholders not understanding the importance of the topics their programs taught from students
to other faculty and administration. While most stakeholders seemed supportive of the promising
practice programs, the roadblocks of administrators and other people saying “no” or rejecting the
course felt personal. These roadblocks often stuck out to promising practice interviewees as the
main challenge to developing and running their programs.
Skepticism through stakeholder misconceptions and malalignments is not just from
students or other faculty. One promising practice interviewee had to convince themselves that the
practices worked and were worth pursing to solve the problems of student anxiety that concerned
them. Gwen explained,
And, and frankly I probably would say was a skeptic before I joined [the promising
practice program name] …I decided I'm going to give this a chance right because, clearly,
something is terribly wrong right now with college students…so, when I joined forces
with [the promising practice program name] I started really becoming more interested in
understanding what types of practices work and how they can be helpful to students.
By analyzing the promising practice program and curriculum, Gwen decided that the practices
were “simple things” that were not “incredible rocket science,” but helped students. Gwen
further emphasized, “So you know my journey in this process has gone from zero to 100 in terms

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of really beginning to believe that these kinds of practices do make a difference in people’s
lives.”
Promising practice interviewees also reflected on the students’ skepticism when
presented with new materials and new program requirements. Jamie described, “We had to fight
to make it a course that people wanted to take, I mean in the beginning, students hated it.” Alison
further explained, “Students certainly struggle, sometimes, and so our course is not perceived at
the same level. And in the past, it was really not perceived well at all; we have been working
through those issues.” Lennon had a similar experience, “I think one of our misses early on, is
that it was really complicated to explain.” Logan suggested that misperception is common
because of the requirement for students to struggle by challenging content. Logan further
explained,
When I was first teaching, they are like this is all touchy feely, whatever that means,
stuff; blah blah blah, this is, it is therapy. It has been, yeah, so it has been maligned in
some senses right and some students in their own mind sometimes. Like I had a couple
over the years, like, like I am trying to I am doing something to them. Because they are
exploring something and they are reacting to that, but just trying, learning, more and
more how to manage that as it is unfolding in the moment.
Classroom management and further communication were the answers for promising practice
interviewees when experiencing these challenges. Jamie explained that they had to use student
quotes when talking about the course because students would panic during the first day. Now
students come back to class as panelists to talk about how the course helped them on the first
day.

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Lennon had a similar experience and used focus groups to help communicate and
reiterate the value of the promising practice program. Alison further suggested that previous
students emphasizing the value they gained helped with current students’ attitudes, “Last year
was when I started seeing the turn around by giving them some type of hard report that they can
you know work through, learn from, process, that helped them with their interviewing skills and
their recruiting skills.”
Support by colleagues and administration can be of help when looking to correct
misunderstandings of the curriculum as Logan explained,
So now like it is like, like, yo, I am legit right? So that in terms of administration at first,
my dean was saying something to me about it a few years ago, I had a complaint, and I
am like: ‘Well, what do you want me to do? Do you want me to stop?’ And they are like,
‘No, no, no I am not telling you to stop’…so it is about managing that, with the student
entering the course it is hard to really describe, because it is so different from any
educational experience they have had.
The promising practice interviewees emphasized that coming back to the core message of their
promising practice was essential to correct misunderstandings. Erin explained, “It is about
developing that emotional agility and cognitive flexibility and with it the five core competencies
[of SEL]. Really having those five core competencies guide this course.” While Erin struggled to
find support of an overall class at the beginning, NU did adopt multiple opportunities to help
students navigate the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to an opportunity to develop further
student experiences, including a larger class, because faculty and administration had an example
of the curriculum’s value in front of them.

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Lack of Administrator and Faculty Buy-In
While administrators and faculty members can be supportive of promising practice
interviewees and help them with problems of misconceptions and malalignments, they can also
be a roadblock in and of themselves. Even with a donor who was ready to support the program
monetarily, Erin met with multiple deans to find administrative support for their program. Erin
explained,
Because it is not so easy for a donor to just say here is the money…it just does not work
that way… You know, so at some points we felt really dismissed. Even though here is
this alum saying, ‘I want to give this money’ they [the administration] just did not
understand, really understand, what social and emotional learning was and why it would
have anything to do with higher education or university life.
Erin suggested the experience convincing the deans and faculty of SEL’s value was like
“pushing a boulder up a mountain” and while Erin found a dean who was supportive of SEL, it
took many meetings to reach this goal.
Lack of buy-in from faculty can also be a roadblock with various impacts from simply
not helping promising program leaders develop content to stopping a course offering. Lennon
explained, “The faculty were really skeptical at first, so we had to tell them that we are not
getting in their way at all, and we really just wanted to compliment what they're doing in the
classroom.” Furthermore, faculty can stop or pause a course from becoming an official course at
the institution. Logan noted,
The best example is when I proposed the course of the Faculty Senate. It was rejected and
pretty viscerally. They are like, ‘You're stepping in our spaces and you're not an expert in
these areas.’ Yeah, so there was a lot of kickback right. We talked about wanting to be

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interdisciplinary but, once you start stepping on other people's things… There was a big
reaction to the course, it was rejected, and…I kept iterating it out, like as a special topics
course, [special topics courses do not need Faculty Senate approval] for years. Then it
just went up again and that was the same thing, it started getting that visceral reaction.
Logan experienced a respected faculty member speaking up for the course in the Faculty Senate
after he altered the presentation of the course and the course description received Faculty Senate
approval.
Promising practice interviewees depicted other people’s lack of buy-in included a lack of
understanding of the course material, concern that the promising practice interviewees were not
experts in the subject matter, or skepticism that the course content would help students. Erin
further explained, “It is hard dealing with the effects when faculty will bring in this skeptical
voice, or be doubting it, and it creates a tension. And you know, through that process, it also
helps to develop more of a resolve.” Alison found that most faculty, except for the management
department faculty, were uninterested in partnering with the promising practice program. Alison
suggested the student opinions and evaluations may be a part of faculty unease for a partnership,
“The students, kind of, they were vicious; but I can see where they were coming from, and it
didn't seem like anybody had ever really addressed what the root problem of those concerns
were.”
Clarissa suggested that the overall culture of the university system may be essential to
consider when thinking about how administrators would view SEL and promising practice
programs,
Because I think you know in universities and colleges, if you do not see results right
away there is a tendency to go on to the next thing, to abandon this and go on to the next

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thing. And, I think when you get engaged in the work of [the promising practice program
name] it is not a quick fix. And, if done properly, with the goal of high impact, then I
think really then you are talking about, for sure, the long game.
Finding patience for multiple iterations of programs and content was essential to promising
practice interviewees when facing a lack of administration or faculty buy-in on their campuses.
Concern for Lack of Rigor
Promising practice interviewees discussed concern for lack of rigor in their programs,
mostly because the curriculum may be different than what students often experience. Logan
explained, “What they are trying to accomplish over the course of semesters is not learn abstract
knowledge and regurgitate that or you know skills necessarily. So, it is a much, much different
process than a traditional classroom.” Jamie further suggested their program was “really
unusual” and that the biggest challenge was to personalize the course for over 600 students per
year. Erin emphasized that faculty must overcome their “deep seeded assumptions” about SEL,
The cognitive, the rational, the logical, and the analytical is privileged and emotion is
often pushed to the sidelines, so faculty realize how they have been caught up in that, and
how there was almost a fear of bringing attention to the social and emotional dimensions
of their discipline, or of their subject because of feeling like the students, or their
colleagues, would you know really just see them… this is you know, this is not real
academics, this is not real scholarship. You know it is. This is not kindergarten, this is
about academic rigor and so it has been so interesting to see how faculty, both in the
humanities and in the sciences…come to realize how much they had internalized those
messages.

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Erin emphasized the acceptance of the concepts of being “vulnerable” and faculty “giving
themselves permission” to be vulnerable are essential to consider for leaders in the field.
Alison suggested that pushing past the “surface level” of the curriculum was essential to
increasing the reputation of rigor. Bringing on other concepts beyond emotional intelligence
allowed the MEU promising practice to “give students more language to understand and see
behaviors that are associated with the skills and the dimensions in a way that we couldn't do
before.” By bringing on multiple assessments and reports, students at MEU were able to
distinguish the concepts for themselves to help them understand themselves, but this was also
concerning for faculty. Alison elaborated,
Designing your curriculum and assessments so that people can actually see that students
are learning [is a challenge], because they are not going to see rigor, there is just no way
you can get rigor from this course content. It is too individualized, and it is not hard like
the students are already experts, they come in as experts, because it is about them, they
become more expert because they learn more about themselves as they go through it, but
it's not like they've never heard of any of the stuff we're talking about.
Multiple promising practice interviews echoed the concern over figuring out the meaning of
rigor for faculty who teach promising practice courses.
Decisions about assignments and assignment types weighed on promising practice
interviewees. Shane explained that he does not give tests or content grades, because the
assignments are all reflections on things that the students do. Concerns over potential dean
complaints or not seeing the academic content within the course were essential aspects to
consider for leaders in the field. However, embracing the “ecumenical” path as Flynn suggested
allows leaders to develop “many paths” for students as Flynn described, “there are many ways of

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knowing, but you may have noticed that no matter how hard we think about it, it doesn't make us
happier.”
Promotion and Tenure
Multiple promising practice interviewees suggested that being part of their program may
be a problem for faculty looking to gain promotion and tenure due to a misunderstanding of
rigor. Alison suggested,
It depends on where an institution is in terms of what people are in the promotion
processes, and you know as to whether rigor matters. For example, if the evaluations are
part of the promotion process; because if they are, then that is a different set of curricular
challenges. Then, if they are not, I have taken the approach that we should not really be in
the business of rigor and a different approach than the previous director had when talking
to the deans, and they get it.
Allison believed that the issues of rigor also hurt faculty in the teaching award possibilities,
because they cannot appropriately communicate to the review committee about the uniqueness of
the program.
Showing “evidence of learning” also allows for a better outcome in the promotion
process, when communicating to review committees. Jamie emphasized that the creation a multi-
point scale for students helped in her promotion process,
I got to know paid student evaluations very intimately…The vast majority love the class
and appreciate it, and you know they learn a lot in it, we have a seven-point scale, all of
my students’ scores or evaluation scores are in the mid to high sixes and…it seems like
they really do value and enjoy the course.

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Being a part of a popular promising practice program with students does not come without risk.
As Logan suggested,
I think there is there are a lot of obstacles to it right, because if you are going up for
tenure and promotion right and your colleagues do not like what you are doing, then you
are in trouble. . . Right, so if you are on tenure…I would say it is probably not worth the
risk.
Pushing students and “negotiating” the risk of interacting with students so “you push them, but
don’t offend them” Logan held paramount when teaching, but he believed in the power of the
promising practice program, both for his students and himself.
Theme 7: Further Challenges of SEL in Higher Education
All promising practice interviewees discussed major challenges to using SEL in higher
education. Multiple interviewees suggested it requires a great level of vulnerability on the
students and the instructors. Jordan suggested, “there's still a lot of work to do with
destigmatizing emotions and just sharing about feelings, especially for males I see that can be
very difficult.” Jordan believed a further requirement of vulnerability occurs when students and
faculty or staff must express their cultures and backgrounds and face the stigma of emotions and
breaking down barriers to expressing themselves in front of others. Logan considered that
instructors must “put themselves out there right to be vulnerable,” because they may “get in
trouble” and experience risk by working with emotions and discussing personal issues in
classes.
This echoes the same considerations that Erin suggested; faculty realization of the
vulnerability is an essential consideration for this work. Elin furthered this idea of realization and
openness to vulnerability alongside DEI and discussed the challenges of being an instructor who

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also teaches SEL topics is essential to consider in terms of “who the instructor is in their rank”
and in their positionality. Elin explained what she learned when leading a promising practice
program for instructors,
One instructor, who is a woman of color, who is postdoc, who is teaching a 400-student
science class was like, ‘Hey for me to lead a mindfulness practice in front of 400 students
when I'm a postdoc woman of color in science it's like really different than that person
leading a mindfulness practice for 10 students in a graduate program in the school of
social work, and she's tenured. What you are recommending, you cannot recommend
without taking into consideration who we are as instructors, what we are teaching and
where, and for whom’ and so that was really an important moment in thinking about what
social emotional learning means in higher education. It is different from a classroom in
K–12 and fairly uniform, this could be 10 students to 400 students and a TA to a tenured
professor.
Elin also emphasized that while this example refers to the sciences, the assumption made that
“STEM-based programs might not be interested in social emotional learning” are false, and in
WU’s promising practice, the schools of engineering, business, medicine, and law were the
earliest adopters.
Promising practice interviewees also mentioned an overall lack of resources in social
justice instructors as Lennon explained,
The world has changed, not only from a COVID standpoint, but from the awakening of
social injustice that has happened, and so, I think there is a lot more complexity to
bringing in some of the programming with that lens. And, I do not think we have access
to all the resources, not the financial resources; we do not have enough skilled

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facilitators’ help to have the conversations needed to help students advance enough in
that space.
Lennon does note that the program does have great speakers, but there is always a push to have
students advance further with more resources without increasing budgets.
Mental health was also a concern for promising practice interviewees. Maddy expresses
concern that the SCU faculty has expressed in conversations that academically gifted students
are “driven and smart, but their social, emotional development is really immature.” Maddy
suggested,
Students’ relationships with their parents are really different. From a counseling
standpoint, I think that there has been such, for many of our students, such a reliance on
their parents to tell them how to cope and do things…they also do not want to burden
their parents. They are so worried about what their parents are going to say that they will
not seek support when they need it for challenges. That sounds like it contradicts each
other, but they want their parents to think they are okay. Anything that would indicate
that they are not okay, their parents would be disappointed, too worried, or could not
handle it. It is like their parents are very fragile or something. That or they feel that way,
so I think it makes for a complicated relationship for students to differentiate from their
parents. You know they are texting their families several times a day, but they are always
fine, and if they are not fine, they are afraid to tell them.
Maddy noted that in her experience, multiple students have had trouble expressing themselves
and “tolerating uncomfortable emotions during challenging times or perceived failure” due to
what Maddy considered a lack of ability to manage emotions and tolerate distress.

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Promising practice interviewees suggested the university system itself was a challenge.
Flynn pulled from the history of SEL in elementary and secondary schools and suggested that
instructors must have additional capacities to teach the materials and asserted that “education is
intergenerational to the extent that we are only focusing on the younger side of that equation and
forgetting we need to create the conditions necessary for educators, so they create those
conditions for students.” By focusing on instructor competencies in SEL, Flynn maintained that
“they implement the program with fidelity” and “embody the very thing that they are trying to
teach.” However, Flynn suggested that administrators will not create these conditions for
instructors. In Flynn’s opinion, needed conditions would include professional development,
including training, faculty support, and time off to develop skills; but this is difficult to achieve
unless administrators believe the “indirect” expense of teaching students is worth the investment
and “pays off” for students. Gwen further explained the “skepticism” that SEL is a “fad that is
going to go away” but also that “faculty still believe they have agency over their own courses.”
Faculty may not be bought-in and want to adopt an “infusion” of SEL. However, Gwen believed
the “infusion” is better for students than one-off courses and that SEL “needs to be integrated
into the curriculum in all of the courses,” but faculty may not want to integrate the skills. Shane
noted that SEL does not have “an academic silo” to go into, which may be the problem
administratively. Lastly, Noel considered from his 40 years of experience that “we’re not quite
there,” and especially in STEM and engineering fields, the administration may not understand
the demands of professionals to be cooperative and to be unified; faculty must emphasize those
skills and teach them in a profound way and memorable within the classroom.

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Theme 8: The Future of SEL in Higher Education
All promising practice interviewees discussed what they believe the future for their
program or course in their college or university might be. Most interviewees asserted that they
are gaining momentum. Jordan hoped that her program would be “bigger and expand more” but
that she believed it is “definitely here to stay because it is such a new thing in higher education,”
and they are “being that pioneer” in the field. Lennon suggested that students use the AU
program in job interviews as a “talking point about their skill and their self-awareness.” So, the
AU team “continues to evolve and grow the program to make sure it is current with what our
employers need, and what our students need.” Elin explained that there is a solid administrative
commitment to WPU's promising practice. The role now requires a “deepening of the impact of
well-being and learning” by collaborating with early adopters to bring in more departments
throughout the university. For example, Elin will be collaborating with the School of Medicine
faculty this upcoming year to “develop a community of practice around wellbeing and learning
that brings instructors together to talk about how they might start to reshape their learning
environments.”
Promising practice interviewees suggested that creating a system to go more in-depth
with topics and impact required the administration's support and the encouragement of faculty.
Senior leadership’s support of promising practice programs and courses was essential to
interviewees. Clarissa noted that senior leadership’s support allows faculty to engage in research
projects connected to the promising practice topics. The SAU promising practice program has a
variety of research projects through their “senior scholars” program, with faculty researching the
promising practice program topics while holding different appointments in departments across
the university.

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Flynn viewed the promising practice program to “solve mental health problems and
world problems” Flynn further explained,
It seems to me, after 30 years, SEL has come into the mainstream in a time when we need
it most. You know, I do not want to be Pollyanna-ish, but part of this, it must continue. I
was not always a part of it, and I will not always be a part of it, but I do think it is the
right thing for our time.
Flynn remained “hopeful about its scope” but knew that “the world has its own agenda too.”
However, he also believed “it can serve many of the functions that we've talked about in terms of
the mission of the university and in terms of kind of creating the kinds of alumni and alumnae
that the world really needs.” Myron noted that the administration is currently considering
requiring their promising practice program for all new faculty and staff hires and creating a
course for students that will continue every semester. Jordan also encouraged SEL
implementation in the local community and hoped to create a community empowerment class
that focuses on businesses and organizations implementing emotional and mental wellness
planning alongside student input and consultations.
Promising practice interviewees considered the overall community that students live and
work in and the help that SEL can be within their environment. Erin hoped that SEL could
continue to shift the climate of the university and create a “ripple effect” where “we become a
more emotionally intelligent university” with “more empathy and perspective-taking.” Erin
foresaw that the ideal community would allow students, faculty, and staff to be honest,
vulnerable, and connected by implementing and taking part in “transformational” activities and
learning. Elin wanted to use SEL as a skillset and mindset that allows further conversations about
“race and confront racial dialogue fatigue” and “supporting students in terms of academics,

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retention, well-being, career readiness, and leadership.” Elin believed higher education SEL
should be part of a “continuum” that connects SEL learning in K–12 to SEL used in careers.
Clotilde valued the relationships that SEL can create between people. That self-awareness and
self-reflection can help people “understand their own values as they relate to whatever is
happening” and relate to others. While she believed, “You cannot be everything to everybody,
not everybody is going to like you…You will always have people telling you that you are not
doing a good job, right? How do you do that and still be compassionate and open?” In Clotilde’s
opinion, further work and understanding must take place around building resiliency with burnout
and “emotional resiliency” to help people “when they really do become a target” as they “rise up
the ranks.”
Other Emergent Themes Identified in RQ3
Multiple emergent themes were identified throughout the interview analysis. Emergent
themes included a focus on experiential learning, working with first-generation and transfer
students, and developing a further depth to materials. Lennon continued to evolve the AU
promising practice program and hoped to use experiential learning as part of the AU promising
practice. She considered outdoor experiences the most essential and expected to take students to
outdoor leadership courses locally. Still, she also thinks students should travel and be part of
more extensive worldwide experiences to understand themselves in the world and allow the
world to teach them.
Noel believed first-generation students are a student group who would benefit from the
promising practice course materials in high school and community colleges. Myron, who teaches
at a community college, agreed that the material is excellent for community college students
specifically and hopes to create an opportunity for the promising practice course credit to transfer

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quickly to all bachelor’s level programs. Clarissa also wanted a required course for all transfer
students that included touchpoints on well-being practices over a semester in length and beyond.
Bringing further depth into promising practices was essential for multiple promising
practice interviewees. Lennon considered that life skill coaches would also be necessary for
students to develop opportunities to go deeper into AU's promising practice curriculum. Alison
believed smaller classes would allow instructors to build depth for students to give better
feedback. Logan thought that instructors of promising practice courses need to “push the depth
of their own understanding” and create opportunities for themselves to understand emotions and
trauma in a better way than they have before to develop a deeper understanding of the space they
are teaching in and being able to relate to student emotions more readily. While Logan liked the
SEL framework, he considered that he is genuinely “teaching people about being people in their
bodies in relationships with others” and that “human potential” is a meaningful way to label and
support that experience. Flynn further believed that more “follow-on experiences” would occur
in the promising practice program to help provide more understanding of human experiences, “so
it's not a one-off because we know in developmental science inoculations work sometimes, but
even there, we need boosters.”
Summary for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 strives to understand the opportunities for future research and
potential issues of importance around the implementation of SEL and authentic leadership
development in higher education. The research question identified the different areas of
promising practice in interviewees' interests in how the practices could evolve in the future. The
research data included themes that pair with the research question and discovered future research
and practice areas.

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Document analysis found that the promising practice interviewees emphasized a variety
of od opportunities for research in peer-reviewed journal articles, chapters, and preprint articles.
These writings placed an emphasis on discussing first-year students and preventative efforts to
help with depression and anxiety around the transition to college alongside a more holistic
student development attempt for positive social and health behavior skills. Highlights included
instructor pedagogical style and the impact that it may have across groups of students and the
self-efficacy of instructors to work with students on the material, with an emphasis on the
instructor’s ability to use coaching skills when interacting with students.
The interview analysis found that promising practice programs and courses may develop
an opportunity for a sense of satisfaction for those who teach them. Interviewees noted that the
promising practice programs and materials have significantly affected their lives. There was also
a specific emphasis on the positive impact of SEL for STEM-based students and those students
going into highly technical fields. All promising practice interviewees discussed how, if at all,
COVID-19 increased attention or awareness of SEL in higher education. Interviewees suggested
COVID-19 increased overall awareness of trauma and its impacts on individuals and emphasized
further concern over the larger, globally connected, world.
Promising practice interviewees named multiple types of evaluations when asked if any
official evaluation measures tracked promising practice program performance. Types of
evaluation included program participant feedback, informal data collection, and formal data
collection for academic research journal articles and other publications. Promising practice
interviewees also described personal definitions of success when asked how they measured the
success of their course or program alongside their expectations and definitions of success. The
promising practice interviewees’ definitions of success often aligned with their missions and

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visions for the course or program and what it accomplished, including administrative success and
student learning gains.
While developing and championing SEL practices in higher education is not without risk,
promising practice interviewees emphasized that SEL allows faculty and staff to make space for
connections and relationships across campus communities. Promising practice interviewees
suggested that faculty and staff needed to use the SEL practices to show students that they were
going “on a journey” together. Multiple interviewees described positive benefits to the practices
in their lives. Understanding the “transdisciplinary” nature of the courses may help instructors
turn into “facilitators” and create a space for students to express their feelings safely and
authentically. Promising practice interviewees also emphasized creating space for marginalized
students and described SEL as an opportunity to create a system-based approach on campuses for
championing equity and racial literacy.
Skepticism over the curriculum occurred, and all interviewees discussed the roadblocks
to progress they faced. Sometimes the roadblocks brought about more resolve by the
interviewees to further push for widespread adoption of their practices in their campus
communities. Roadblocks promising practice interviewees faced included misconceptions of the
subject, malalignments of materials described as “group therapy,” and administrators questioning
the qualifications of interviewees to teach the materials. Developing buy-in by other faculty and
staff and highlighting the importance of addressing anxiety and stress in the student experience
allowed promising practice interviewees to make progress. However, a lack of buy-in from other
faculty and staff, especially administrators, harmed the development of the promising practice
programs. Promising practice interviewees expressed concern over a lack of rigor was a
challenging issue and suggested that faculty and staff must overcome their personal “deep-seated

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assumptions about SEL” and biased thoughts about the “role of emotions” in their fields.
Promising practice interviewees believed that they and others who start using SEL in higher
education do not do so without risk, with the rejection of promotion and tenure considered one of
the top risks.
When considering the further challenges of implementing SEL in higher education,
multiple promising practice interviewees suggested it requires a significant level of vulnerability
for the students and the instructors. Promising practice interviewees emphasized the assumption
that STEM-based program students and leaders would not be interested in SEL is false. The
earliest adopters of promising practices have been engineering, business, medicine, and law
schools. All promising practice interviewees discussed the future for their program or course in
their college or university and most asserted they are gaining momentum by creating a “ripple
effect” throughout their campuses.
Emergent themes include a focus on experiential learning, working with first-generation
and transfer students, and developing a further depth to materials. Promising practice
interviewees suggested that outdoor experiences, travel, and projects created assorted
opportunities to practice SEL skills outside of the classroom. Interviewees highlighted
community colleges as an opportune place for SEL programs to positively affect students
transitioning to jobs and other educational institutions. Lastly, promising practice interviewees
emphasized “human potential” as an opportunity to encourage the development and flourishing
of SEL and authentic leadership for students throughout their time in higher education and could
have a lasting impact on the development of self-narratives and future decisions. This research
will continue in the next chapter by discussing the implications for practice in the field, specific
recommendations to apply the findings, and conclusions with personal reflections and insights.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This study identified promising practices of SEL in higher education to develop authentic
leadership skills in college students, which can lead to students gaining skills for resilience while
addressing increasing anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide
curriculum. This study further connected the theory of authentic leadership to SEL to provide a
better understanding of how SEL can positively influence authentic leadership development
within the context of a college-based curriculum. The study used SEL as defined by CASEL as a
conceptual framework to identify promising practice programs that focus on the areas of self-
awareness, self-management, responsible decision making, relationship skills, and social
awareness. This study also used the theory of authentic leadership as a lens to focus on self-
awareness and ethical leadership skills.
This study used a qualitative case study methodology to answer the three research
questions:
1. What subject matter from promising practice programs matches with SEL component
definitions?
2. How do the promising practice programs’ desired outcomes compare with the
influence factors associated with authentic leadership?
3. What are the self-reported lived experiences of the promising practice leaders
regarding the implementation of programs now and in the future?
To answer the research questions, 30 promising practice programs were identified through expert
nomination. Out of the 30 contacted program leaders, 16 participants from 15 universities
scheduled interviews and opted into the study. Publicly accessible university websites and

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documents given to the researcher by the interviewees created the data pool for document
analysis. The research then recorded, transcribed, and analyzed all interviews.
Chapter Five results in a discussion of findings, limitations of the study, and implications
for practice. The findings, based on the Chapter Four data, answer the research questions and the
implications section further extends the results to practice for higher education leaders. The
findings section includes a demonstration of the types of SEL subject matter and related teaching
methods utilized in promising practice programs, the authentic leadership influence factors and
promising practice programs related desired outcomes, and an in-depth review of promising
practice interviewees lived experiences. The implications section includes a further
understanding of the link between SEL and authentic leadership, connecting promising practices
to new institutions, and using design thinking to apply a theory of change.
Recommendations to support SUBC Deans and Directors provide an opportunity to
create a curriculum that addresses increasing student anxiety while developing student skills
within the classroom environment and for future employment. This study’s problem of practice
explored the growth of self-reported anxiety in undergraduate student populations in the United
States over the last decade and what promising practices use social and emotional learning in
higher education to develop authentic leadership skills in college students, which can lead to
students gaining skills for resilience while addressing increasing anxiety and qualifying as part of
a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. The example of SUBC and the creation of
Leadership SUBC allows for a fuller exploration of the problem of practice, as SUBC Deans and
Directors are more aware of rising student self-reported anxiety alongside the AACSB push for a
new curriculum that focuses students on rapid change and promotes leadership development. The

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example of SUBC may help other institutions looking to make changes in line with AACSB for
the continuous review process.
Discussion of Findings
This study identified promising practices of social and emotional learning in higher
education to develop authentic leadership skills in college students, which can lead to students
gaining skills for resilience while addressing increasing anxiety and qualifying as part of a new
AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. To better understand the use of SEL in higher
education, a group of SEL practitioners and researchers using SEL in higher education were
identified by director level or higher leaders associated with 11 U.S. based and nationally
recognizable higher education, SEL, leadership, and university student mental health based
professional organizations.
This research group was associated with higher education and leadership development by
holding faculty, staff, or administrative leadership positions in an accredited four-year higher
education institution or as part of a higher education-specific association such as the American
Council of Education, the Association for the Study of Higher Education, or academic author
published in peer-reviewed research journals in the domains of higher education, SEL, and/or
authentic leadership. Program leaders identified in Conley’s (2015) and Conley et al.’s (2015)
meta-analyses of SEL and mental health programs in higher education as well as other programs
were identified through additional keyword research.
The researcher used document analysis with interviews to further ensure the triangulation
of data. The researcher selected multiple documents from each promising practice organization
to create a preponderance of evidence (Bowen, 2009). This interview protocol followed a semi-
structured interview format. Patton (2002) noted that this approach requires each interviewee to

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respond to the same questions in the same order. Ravitch and Carl (2020) further explained that
due to the semi-structured nature, the researcher asks all interviewees the same question, but
probing questions and sub-questions may be unique to the interviewee and chosen by the
researcher during the interview process. The researcher used document and interview analyses,
alongside the literature review, to provide an evidence base demonstrating how to create SEL
experiences for higher education students. To narrow the useful aspects of promising practice
programs, the literature identifies specific pedagogies that connect with authentic leadership, and
the researcher reviewed promising practice programs based on their use of pedagogies that are
adoptable by the SUBC Deans and Directors.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked the following: What subject matter from promising practice
programs matches with SEL component definitions? Research Question 1 identified the types of
subjects and related teaching practices that programs utilize when developing authentic
leadership capabilities in students that are definable within the SEL conceptual framework. This
included three major findings that help answer this question directly with the types of SEL
subject matter used by promising practice institutions. Several emergent themes provided
similarities and differences between curriculum geared to students and then to faculty and staff,
further information on the risks and setbacks promising practice interviewees faced, as well as
the and the various spaces required for programs.
Types of SEL Subject Matter Utilized by Promising Practice Programs
Promising practice data demonstrated that promising practice program interviewees
utilize a variety of subject matter and related teaching practices that fit into the components of
SEL as defined by CASEL (2020). Both document analysis and promising practice interviewee

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transcripts identified self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and
responsible decision making in all the promising practices. The document analysis found the
terms “life,” “science,” “resilience, “development,” leadership,” self,” and “practice”
emphasized the most throughout the document set. The practice of emotional intelligence came
up the most in documents and assignments. Most programs blended several practices and
emphasized a variety of terms in the documents associated with the program. While promising
practice interviewees utilized many different terms, the various practices and applications of
subject matter and related teaching practices used by promising practice interviewees match with
the definitions of the SEL components as defined by CASEL (2020). The following is a table
that relates specific practices with the SEL components.

Table 10
SEL Component and Related Promising Practices
SEL component Self-awareness
Understanding one’s personal emotions, thoughts, and values and
considering how these areas influence actions. Recognizing
strengths and weaknesses. Labeling emotions. Linking thoughts,
emotions, and values. Utilizing a growth mindset. Realizing
personal biases. Demonstrating interests with a sense of purpose
(CASEL, 2020).
Related promising
practices with
examples
1. Developing mindfulness over
time
• Specify space where
students can engage in
mindfulness
meditations
• Use mindfulness in live
or asynchronous
classes.
• Assign repeated
mindfulness practice as
homework.
3. Utilizing self-assessments
• Use StrengthsFinder, Blue
EQ, and other validated
scales.
• Develop a personal brand
for internship and job
interviews.
• Encourage students to
understand themselves in
relation to their major.
• Help students complete
“research and

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• Provide lists of
mindfulness resources
and applications for
further exploration.
2. Requiring multiple check-ins
• Check-in with students
every class period
before starting the
content.
• Lead conversations
with students about
how they are feeling.
• Use a check-in process
alongside a reflection
process on the material.
Students will cover in
class before the class
begins and what have
students. List what they
want to learn more
about at the end of the
class.

development” on
themselves.
• Explore life paths and
journeys with career being
only one of several aspects
of that journey.
• Teach that a “self-science”
to understand values,
beliefs, and choices can
develop purpose.
4. Writing with prompts
• Engage in why a student
likes or dislikes a type of
work, or challenges a
student faced and
overcame.
• Develop a “journaling
experience” for students to
create their own reflections
about their experiences.
• Synthesize information
from readings, exercises,
and class lectures and
relate it to experiences.
• Label changes that students
want to want to make in
the future for life paths,
journeys, and further study.

SEL component Self-management
Managing one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in
various contexts to achieve personal or collective goals. Ability to
delay gratification. Managing stress. Using motivation and agency
to achieve goals. Identifying and using stress-management tools.
Using self-discipline. Planning and organizing. Taking initiative
(CASEL, 2020).

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Related promising
practices with
examples
1. Regulating emotions
• Use mindfulness, self-
compassion, and other
practices to regulate
emotions and cope with
stress in combination
with each other.
2. Considering the timing
• Bring more awareness
to faculty and staff
about transitional
issues for students on
coming to college,
cultural shifts, and
trauma journeys based
on personal student
lived experiences
(tradition, non-
traditional, transfer,
first-generation).
• Create a series of SEL
specific courses that
build on subject matter.
• Develop opportunities that
follow the students
throughout their college
careers and give them more
positive outcomes and
successes over time that
they can further use for
internships and career
opportunities.
3. Learning about university
resources
• Help students understand
resources that are available
to them.
• Show students how to
determine if they need the
resources.
• Teach students how to
navigate the university
atmosphere and develop
navigation skills for future
career atmospheres.
SEL component Social awareness
Understanding the perspectives of others and empathizing with those
perspectives with respect to people from various backgrounds.
Feeling compassion. Understanding cultural, historical, and social
norms. Recognizing support systems. Labeling strengths. Showing
concern, empathy, and compassion. Expressing gratitude.
Identifying unjust social norms (CASEL, 2020).

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Related promising
practices with
examples
1. Using resources from
multiple cultures
• Use resources from the
Dalai Lama.
• Understand the
relationship between
happiness and suffering
to develop concern and
empathy.
• Encourage being broad
minded to accept other
ways of knowing.
• Emphasize that some
things students already
do like taking a deep
breath to calm down
are associated with the
novel approach they
are experiencing.
2. Creating a pluralistic
viewpoint
• Help students develop
their “whole self.”
• Help students
understand various
sexual orientation, race,
religion, or country of
origin points of view.
• Engage with enriching
cultural and training
experiences on campus.
• Emphasize the use of
varied materials and
styles including
scientific, aesthetic,
and experiential
learning.
• Blend wisdom from
multiple perspectives
outside of “canonical
Western perspective.”
3. Emphasizing DEI and social
justice
• Connect course content to
equity and racial literacy.
• Develop practices that
speak to students of
various backgrounds.
• Consider students who may
experience stigmas around
mental health seeking
behaviors due to their
backgrounds.
• Bring in further DEI and
engagement with multiple
audiences.
• Weave DEI and social
justice throughout the
program.
• Design specific well-being
experiences for
marginalized students.
• Engage in differences and
biases.
• Value sources of
knowledge from multiple
cultures.
• Include diversity talks “not
just on unconscious bias,”
but also on “equity and
social justice.”
SEL component Relationship skills
Establishing and maintaining positive relationships and navigating
numerous opportunities for new relationships in different contexts
with diverse individuals and groups of people. Communicating with
others effectively. Listening and cooperating with others to problem

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solve. Practicing healthy conflict. Seeking or offering support.
Resolving conflicts and resisting negative relationships. Positive
leadership. Standing up for other people (CASEL, 2020).
Related promising
practices with
examples
1. Developing stress coping
skills
• Teach stress coping
skills to connect with
others.
• Give students a variety
of tools to respond to
stress in positive ways.
• Develop opportunities
for students to create a
shared purpose to relate
with each other.
2. Experiencing healthy
relationships
• Use workshops to
improve
communication
abilities (ex. Improv).
• Require team building
exercises that focus on
developing trust in
each team member and
trust in the team.
• Invite guest speakers
who focus on teams
every day to talk about
how to build the
required trust for
leading a team.
3. Working in teams
• Use team charters before
group projects to build
team efficacy.
• Learn about personal
strengths and seeing
strengths in others as it
relates to emotional
intelligence.
• Build structure around
team projects to include
team leaders, virtual
teaming, a specific
communication.
• Allow students to practice
working in a team.
• Deemphasize being a
“perfect” teammate and
focus more on practice.
• Develop skills around
cooperation and healthy
problem solving.
• Create a structure for
approaching forgiveness
when things do not go to
plan.
SEL component Responsible decision making
Making positive choices about behavior and interactions in various
contexts. Considering ethical and safety concerns. Thinking about
benefits and consequences. Being curious and open-minded. Making
a logical and reasonable decision. Using foresight to evaluate
consequences. Reflecting on personal behaviors and the impact of
behavior on others (CASEL, 2020).
Related promising
practices with
examples
1. Practicing skills
• Discuss what it means
to be human.
• Emphasize growth
through challenges.
3. Validating stressors
• Teach about learning from
experience and taking
responsibility.

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• Teach how to change
and undo unhealthy
habits, learn new
habits, and change
behaviors towards
healthier ones.
2. Creating an inner compass
• Discuss complexities of
being good versus
being happy.
• Explore the meaning of
good deeds, happiness,
and well-being.
• Discuss ethical choice
moments and how to
allow students’ “heart
and mind to guide
them.”
• Encourage students to take
responsibility for
individual learning.
• Engage in the materials at a
deep level to apply the
work to life.
• Connect experiences from
the classroom to day-to-
day life.
• Understand how stressors
impact students every day
and how students can use
the skills they acquire to
better face challenges.
• Create a space where
students learn from their
peers.

The examples of promising practices matching with self-awareness used mindfulness,
check-ins, self-assessments, and writing prompts to help students identify their own strengths
and weaknesses, labeling emotions, and demonstrating a sense of purpose. The literature review
directed the creation of these categories based on the work of CASEL (2020) and CASEL
(2020a). The skill of being able to label emotions occurs in CASEL (2020) definitions for both
self-awareness and self-management. Several practices such as mindfulness can meet both
requirements as found by Conley (2015) and confirmed by Seli and Dembo (2019). In the
courses and programs developed for students, self-awareness took place throughout the
curriculum, often in terms of using mindfulness or mediation to label emotions. Multiple
promising practice programs listed mindfulness or meditations as a core competency with an
emphasis on the skill leading to the outcome of understanding and identifying what is happening
inside the body. Some courses utilized simple check-ins at the very beginning of class to help
students determine how they were feeling and to give themselves a sense of self-awareness in the

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moment. Furthermore, promising practice interviewees described using assessments to help
students understand themselves as well as their strengths and weaknesses with an emphasis on
students using these assessments for professional and career development opportunities.
Assignments given in classes were often writing-based and included reflections on future career
opportunities as well as opportunities for further growth in the future.
The examples of promising practice subject matter matching with self-management used
emotional regulation, an understanding of timing, and helping students learn how to navigate
university resources for help-seeking. The literature review directed the creation of these
categories based on the work of CASEL (2020). Promising practice interviewees highlighted
regulating emotions is a key part of self-management and wanted students to use multiple skills
used in combination to attain goals in this area. Timing was important to promising practice
interviewees and many suggested the year that a student completed the course or program was
important to their ability to manage themselves and plan their future at the university.
Understanding the campus resources available to help students with self-management was also a
key focus in several of the programs. Multiple promising practice programs were available to
undergraduate students at any time during the college experience as standalone courses without
prerequisites.
The examples of promising practice subject matter matching with social awareness used
resources from multiple cultures, a pluralistic viewpoint, and emphasized DEI and social justice
in the classroom environment and throughout the college to message the underlying culture of
the college. Multiple promising practice programs utilized eastern philosophy and Buddhist
teachings when developing curricula. Skills to better develop a student’s “whole self” are used to
develop what Flynn specifically called “a pluralistic view…that can allow people to bring their

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whole self whether that has to do with sexual orientation, or race, or religion, or country of
origin.” The promising practice interviewee transcripts and document analysis echoed this need
for a pluralistic view through the focus on cultural experiences and training as well as blending
subjects and materials from multiple disciplines and backgrounds. Promising practice
interviewees identified DEI and further understandings of social justice as concerns and topics of
training that go through iterations over time in further classes and campus experiences.
The examples of promising practice subject matter matching with relationship skills
developed stress coping skills, focused on students experiencing healthy relationships, and
emphasized working in teams. The literature review directed the creation of these categories
based on the work of CASEL (2020). Promising practice interviewees emphasized that when
students receive multiple options for skills to help them deal with stress in multiple situations,
they have a framework to lean back on and feel more confident and connected with others. The
concept of relationship skills goes further with the relationships that promising practice
interviewees strive to create with their students and facilitate among students. Across multiple
institutions, promising practice interviewees maintained a positional leadership role and exuded
the confidence that while students were to participate and work together, they were the leader of
the class and practice and in-charge of conversations and experiences. Interviewees suggested
that these actions helped create an opportunity for students to see healthy relationships and
through paying special attention to their actions and the space they were creating and exuding the
characteristics of healthy communication and conflict resolution, the way students engaged with
each other and with faculty members allowed for further learning opportunities. Understanding
how to work on teams was also an important aspect of promising practices for further job
opportunities for students. Alison asserted that being the “perfect teammate” should be

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deemphasized and instead faculty and staff could place importance on the practice of being on an
effective team.
The examples of promising practice subject matter matching with responsible decision
making focused on practicing skills and rewiring habits, creating an inner compass, and
validating stressors. The literature review directed the creation of these categories based on the
work of CASEL (2020). All promising practice programs focused on students practicing skills to
help them live in the world and giving them skills that help them with building desirable
outcomes by using them as tools. It was important to promising practice interviewees that
practitioners did not misinterpret responsible decision making as speaking down to students.
Shane emphasized, “They feel like they are treated as grown-ups; it is not just like do not do
drugs kind of be like be healthy like high school kind of stuff, it is much more realistic about
here is what they are going to be doing.” Further validating stress gave students a deeper
understanding of anxiety, well-being, and mindfulness and allowed students to consider how
those stressors affect their responsible decision-making skills.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked the following: How do the promising practice programs’
desired outcomes compare with the influence factors associated with authentic leadership?
Research Question 2 identified the desired outcomes and promising practices both from
interviewee transcripts and document analysis. Furthermore, categorization of desired outcomes
into themes related to the authentic leadership influence factors as identified by Northouse
(2019) from the work of Avolio and Gardner (2005) occurred. This includes findings that help
answer this question directly by pairing promising practice desired outcomes with associated
authentic leadership influence factors.

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Authentic Leadership Influence Factors and Related Desired Outcomes
Promising practice data found that promising practice program interviewees describe
desired outcomes that matched with authentic leadership influence factors. Document analysis
and promising practice interviewee transcripts, assignments, learning objectives, and course
descriptions categorized and matched with increasing positive psychological capacities, moral
and ethical reasoning, and understanding critical life events (Avolio & Gardner, 2005;
Northouse, 2019). The document analysis found that promising practice assignments and specific
exercises emphasized reflection through writing, emotional intelligence, and teamwork to help
students further develop self-awareness and communication skills required for success.
Document analysis also used the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy to categorize learning outcomes
and goals for promising practice institutions where course descriptions, assignments, and syllabi
were available (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). This analysis found that the institutions used all
levels of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, with a specific emphasis on the “remember” level.
However, a textbook used by one of the programs emphasized “remember” the most from the
learning outcomes. When removing this outlier, the documents emphasized the “apply” level the
most throughout the promising practice programs and courses.
While promising practice interviewees utilized many different terms, the various desired
outcomes used by promising practice interviewees and documents relate to the influence factors
for authentic leadership as defined by Avolio and Gardner (2005) and reemphasized by
Northouse (2019). Relating the promising practice program’s desired outcomes from the
document analysis and interview analysis demonstrates that the promising practice programs can
be authentic leadership development opportunities. All promising practice programs in either the
documents or interviews discussed some aspect of leadership alongside other well-being and

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SEL terminology; given the newness of both authentic leadership and SEL multiple terms can be
associated with the influence factors and components. The following is a table that matches
specific promising practice program desired outcomes with the authentic leadership influence
factors to establish a connection between the two.

Table 11
Authentic Leadership Influence Factors and Promising Practice Desired Outcomes

Authentic leadership
influence factor
Positive psychological capacities
Positive psychological attributes of confidence, hope, optimism,
and resilience that are trait and state like and predispose or
enhance authentic leadership development capacity. Utilizing
fixed traits such as extraversion or learning how to be more
comfortable with extraversion skill sets with coaching or training.
Demonstrating gratitude. Considering the future. Demonstrating
optimism during challenges (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).
Related promising
practice desired
outcomes with
examples
1. Accessing help-seeking
resources
● Knowledge of
available resources
on campus.
● Spot problems and
seek help.
● Sustained
attendance either in-
person or online at
events.
● Develop events to
cover the entire year
and increase
retention year-to-
year.
2. Developing deeper
teamwork opportunities
● Faculty members
mentor students to
develop their
abilities to work on
4. Demonstrating gratitude
● Apply gratitude to work
through trauma and
stressors.
● Respond to writing prompts
about gratitude and
resilience.
● Using cognitive reappraisal.
● Develop an understanding
of using gratitude for self
and others.
5. Planning for the future
● Focus on future planning
through self-understanding
and what that means for
future careers.
● Use a personality type
indicator to consider skills
alongside previous
experiences to determine a
“fit between yourself and

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a team while
maintaining a sense
of individualism and
personal values.
● Display an increase
in confidence.
● Online and in-
person teamwork
with a specific
highlight on virtual
teaming in large
organizations.
● Share common
goals and value
experience more
readily.
3. Focusing on positive
attributes
● Understand and
describe strengths to
others.
● Express competitive
advantage in the
workplace to future
employers.
● Demonstrate the
ability to label
strengths through a
LinkedIn profile
assignment.
● Complete Clifton’s
Strengths
Assessment to
correctly utilize
vocabulary language
and assess strengths
in others.
● Consider personal
specific strengths
that students bring
to a team project.

possible majors, careers, and
work environments.”
● Develop a “personal brand.”
● Develop “apprentice-level
networking skills.”
● Tell stories about personal
brand.
● Manage the transition to
career and the stress of new
careers.
● React to mistakes and
misunderstandings with
kindness and compassion.
● Respond to “all of life’s
challenges and things that
come at them” by embracing
“the good with the bad.”
6. Demonstrating optimism during
challenges
● Apply skills and mindsets to
cope with academic stress
and life.
● Regulate emotions.
● Develop best practices for
instilling resilience skills.
● Understand that “perceived
failure” may not be failure
at all.
● Use growth mindset to see
failure as “opportunities for
growth.”
● Use skills or frameworks as
needed like pulling a “tool
from a toolbox.”
● Promote growth mindset,
gratitude, mindfulness, or
action in the classroom.

Authentic leadership
influence factor
Moral and ethical reasoning

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Using ethics to make decisions and developing the ability to use
morals over a lifetime. Searching for understanding of what is
right or wrong and good or bad. Making decisions that transcend
personal gain. Being selfless. Uniting individuals in a common
goal regardless of individual differences. Focusing on the greater
good. Promoting justice. Valuing community (Avolio & Gardner,
2005).
Related promising
practice desired
outcomes with
examples
1. Using ethics
● Understanding
“ethical standards,
safety concerns,
social norms, and
realistic evaluation
of consequences of
various actions and
the well-being of
self and others.”
● Reflect on ethics
and understand
ethical choice.
● Demonstrate a
moral responsibility
when teaching a
course specific to
promising practice
subject matter
(instructor specific).
● Demonstrate
responsibility for
choices.
● Mirroring what
taking responsibility
for practicing the
skills looks like in
everyday life.
2. Making decisions beyond
personal gain
● Reflect on choices
and the “ability to
take those choices
and to create better
outcomes.”
● Develop
relationships and
understand how
3. Uniting for a common goal
● Sponsor talks that focus on
DEI and justice (instructor
specific).
● Help the campus community
in “developing that tolerance
for distress or discomfort”
(instructor specific).
● Acknowledge, understand,
regulate, express, and name
strong emotions around DEI
subject matter.
● Consider the macro
environment students face
and that they may not be
equipped with “the skills
and abilities” to see the
violence or political unrest
that they experience on the
news and social media
(instructor specific).
● Talk openly about what the
experience of the world and
how that impacts the
students themselves as
individuals and the larger
class (instructor specific).
● Maintain control of
classroom space during the
conversation (instructor
specific).
● Look at an experience with
different points of view and
accept those differences.
4. Valuing a community
● Participate in programs
within a physical or virtual
community space

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personal choices
impact people.
● Balance
relationships’
impact on
understanding of
self.
● Separating identity
from those of other
people while
making decisions.
● Understand how to
be part of a whole
community, either
in the promising
practice class,
university, or larger
world.
● Developing self-
compassion and
taking responsibility
for choices to
realize “human
potential.”

● “Talk about skills and
practices as they relate to
their community and culture
context” in a virtual or
online community.
● Create a community of
practice with faculty, staff,
and students in promising
practice subject matter.
● Discuss virtually across
multiple campuses how to
engage in the promising
practice work to be “deeply
collaborative.”
● Lead the promising practice
community add promising
practice subject matter to the
university’s overall strategic
priorities.
Authentic leadership
influence factor
Understanding critical life events
Reflecting on the impact of life events that are positive or negative
and make a significant impact on one’s experience of their life
story. Demonstrating a written or verbal reflection on life events.
Gaining insights. Developing self-knowledge and clarity about
traits through life experience. Using life events as a catalyst for
change (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).
Related promising
practice desired
outcomes with
examples
1. Reflecting on the impact of
events
● Listen to self and act on
inner voice.
● Develop a sense of
knowing oneself
through reflection.
● Feel confidence in
decisions.
● Use heart and mind to
guide in a direction or
create a life path based
on considering
● Study industries and job
roles, paired with
networking interviews,
and reflection on life
experiences to determine
a path for college
experiences and after
graduation.
● Write or verbally reflect
on life events, insights,
self-knowledge, and
clarity to make

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strengths, weaknesses,
and influences.

decisions, give feedback,
and ask deep questions.
Engage in reflexivity
through practice to
“notice more.”

The examples of promising practice desired outcomes matching with increasing positive
psychological capacities included the goals for students as accessing help-seeking resources,
developing deeper teamwork opportunities, focusing on positive attributes, demonstrating
gratitude, and planning for the future The literature review directed the creation of these
categories based on the work of Harter (2002), Luthans and Avolio (2003), Luthans et al. (2006),
Luthans et al. (2007), Northouse (2019), and Walumbwa et al. (2008). Several promising
practice interviewees discussed their programs and courses in terms of coaching or training with
learning outcomes associated with knowledge of available resources for help-seeking, showing
up to program events and retention in the program, as well as students’ further development of
leadership capabilities through coaching processes with the promising practice leader and their
peers. Leadership development through coaching and training and working with the promising
practice interviewees, other course or program leaders, and peers was an important outcome for
promising practice interviewees. Promising practice interviewees in multiple programs
highlighted a focus on positive attributes by labeling positive strengths. Multiple promising
practice programs utilized demonstrations of gratitude both as an exercise students used in
assignments, but also for the courses and programs themselves. When considering optimism, the
promising practice interviewees discussed optimism in several ways including how students
could positively navigate emotions and stressors, use skills or frameworks as needed like a
toolbox, and use the materials in school or work environments as well as home or personal
relationships.

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The examples of promising practice desired outcomes matching with moral and ethical
reasoning included the goals of students using ethics, making decisions beyond personal gain,
uniting for a common goal, and valuing a community. The literature review directed the creation
of these categories based on the work of Luthans and Avolio (2003), Luthans et al. (2006),
Northouse (2019), and Walumbwa et al. (2008). Morals, when combined with decision making
and right and wrong, drive ethical development and promising practice interviewees firmly
expressed this as a desired learning objective. Multiple promising practice interviewees
highlighted choices and the process students use to make choices. Valuing diversity while taking
responsibility, looking at an experience with different points of view and accepting differences
alongside building a team are all desired learning outcomes of promising practice interviewees.
Several of the promising practice interviewees discussed fostering community in a variety of
contexts in both the student communities as well as the faculty and staff communities.
Specifically, promising practice interviewees emphasized that a grassroots nature of community
building brought a natural importance and emphasis to the promising practice subject matter to
the entire university by adding the subject to the university’s strategic priorities, thereby further
ensuring current and future administrators would place a priority on funding and resources.
The example of promising practice desired outcome matching with understanding critical
life events all revolved around students reflecting on the impact of events. The literature review
directed the creation of the category based on the work of Avolio and Gardner (2005), Gardner et
al. (2005), Harter (2005), Northouse (2019), and Walumbwa et al. (2008). Promising practice
interviewees suggested that reflecting on the impact of both positive and negative life events that
make an impact on how a person views their life story can be part of how students develop a
further sense of purpose.

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Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked: What new emerging practices or opportunities are important
for future research and potential implementation of SEL and authentic leadership development in
higher education? Research Question 3 identified new areas of research and implementation that
will be essential to the future of higher education. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
alongside cultural changes in higher education paired with significant life events for traditional
college students dominated the interests expressed by promising practice interviewees. The
findings informed on the opportunities for future research as well as the pros and cons of
developing programs like the promising practices in other higher education institutions.
Directions for Future Research
Between the years of 2018-2021, research published by the promising practice
interviewees and associated researchers with specific promising practice programs in Anxiety,
Stress, and Coping; Frontiers in Psychiatry, Stress, and Health; The Journal of American
College Health; and The Journal of Management Education discussed opportunities for further
research in the following areas:
● first-year students and preventative efforts to help this subset of students with
depression and anxiety around the transition to college
● holistic student development for positive social and health behavior skills
● instructor pedagogical style and the ability to use coaching skills
● self-efficacy of instructors to work with students on the material
● long-term costs of disengagement when managing stress for all campus stakeholders
● using development activities that promote students’ ability to make positive decisions

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The literature review identified academic buoyancy (Duckworth, 2016; Dweck, 2006; Gallagher
& Stocker, 2018; Martin & Marsh, 2008), coordinated efforts in the classroom (Conley, 2015;
Elliott et al., 2015; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Seli & Dembo, 2019), experiential learning
(Conley et al., 2013; Laufer et al., 2018; Pritchard and Wilson, 2003; Seal et al. 2010; Stuhr et
al., 2017), and integrating SEL offerings throughout a college system (Committee for Children &
CASEL, 2016; Conley et al., 2015; Lipson et al., 2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016; Taylor & Haras,
2020) as opportunities for SEL development and research in higher education. These articles,
published between 2001-2020, from multiple experts and researchers unassociated with the
promising practice programs considered how students could benefit from specific techniques and
how leaders use the campus environment to develop courses outside of orientation and create
firsthand experiences for the development of specific skills. The articles discussed mindfulness
and growth mindset as predominant techniques for students to use inside and outside the
classroom. Promising practice articles extend the research field from the literature review
articles. However, these topics are natural extensions of the literature review articles, with a
focus on coaching and instructor pedagogical style extending academic buoyancy and holistic
student development, integrating SEL offerings throughout a college system, and coordinated
efforts in the classroom.
Areas of Interest in the Promising Practice Programs
Promising practice interviewees suggested important aspects of their career and the SEL
field as continued fuel for being part of their promising practice program. Promising practice
interviewees emphasized the following:
● a personal satisfaction from teaching
● impact of promising practice programs and materials on their lives

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● watching students engage with the materials and overcome their own resistance
● the value of SEL for STEM-major students
● other discipline-specific students engaging with SEL
● across campus impact of SEL programs
● the benefit students and the university gain from promising practice materials
Promising practice interviewees at larger campuses also expressed excitement about the
opportunities their program can bring as far as a positive impact campus wide and campus
system wide. This furthered the emphasis placed by the literature review on integrated SEL
offerings throughout a college system (Committee for Children & CASEL, 2016; Conley et al.,
2015; Lipson et al., 2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016; Taylor & Haras, 2020) as well as experiential
learning or outside of the classroom learning in the STEM fields and other discipline specific
fields where SEL is being applied by students (Conley et al., 2013; Laufer et al., 2018; Pritchard
& Wilson, 2003; Seal et al. 2010; Stuhr et al., 2017).
The Impact of COVID-19
Promising practice interviewees discussed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Promising practice interviewees emphasized the following:
● increased overall awareness of trauma and the impacts trauma can have on
individuals
● concern over the larger political world and anxiety alongside COVID-19
● fear causing people to disconnect to empathy
● students realizing what is the most essential and worthwhile in their lives
● the impact of COVID-19 on social interaction
● online class pros and cons on implementation and impact

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● increased student self-reported loneliness and suicide
● increased dollars allocated to on-campus mental health
Promising practice interviewees also emphasized the anxiety faculty, staff, and students had
about the 2021-2022 school year given the unforeseeable circumstances that the continued
pandemic might bring. The literature review considered the impact of COVID-19 and major
political events that the promising practice interviewees also highlighted. While Levinson et al.
(2020) suggested that reopening primary public schools safely was a priority for SEL abilities,
promising practice interviewees suggested that anxiety reopening created also needed addressing
from higher education institutions. Owens et al. (2020) found early into the pandemic that
COVID-19 had already financially and physically impacted college students through food,
housing, and job insecurity. ACHA (2020) reported that the pandemic significantly affected
college students’ financial stress with two-thirds of students reporting increased financial stress
and one-third reporting a change in living situations. With a further understanding of the root
causes of college student anxiety and how the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbates these root
causes, promising practice interviewees echoed the literature review on the impact of COVID-19
on college student mental health (Active Minds, 2020; Brown & Kafka, 2020) and the other
areas of anxiety including the increasing cost of college (The College Board, 2020),
perfectionism (Barnett & Sharp, 2016; Curan & Hill, 2018, Rice et al., 2003), political events
(Kornbluh et al., 2022), and social media (Adams et al., 2020; Adams et al., 2017; Alt, 2015;
Sharma et al., 2022; Watercutter, 2020). This further confirmed the opportunity Mintel (2020)
suggested that Gen Z students and their parents may be accepting of rising tuition rates if they
found that a university specifically supported a student’s mental health with more comprehensive
and accessible services.

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Evaluations that Measure Outcomes
Promising practice interviewees discussed the evaluations they used to track promising
practice performance. Promising practice interviewees emphasized three main types of
evaluation including program participant feedback, informal data collection by promising
practice interviewees, and formal data collection for research studies. Program participant
feedback included formal university surveys, student focus groups, informal listening
opportunities, and feedback from faculty and staff who participated in programs. Promising
practice interviewees suggested that these evaluations could make effective changes in
programming if they were not hurtful to faculty or staff. Promising practice interviewees
emphasized informal data collection helped with tenure and promotion portfolios and was an
effective way to make mid-course adjustments to curriculum and coursework. Promising practice
interviewees also considered that several promising practice programs gave students the ability
to understand research studies on student wellbeing and even research students the students
themselves participated in so researchers could “feed their findings back” to students. The fact
that promising practice interviewees are engaging in research on college student stress, anxiety,
and the impact of well-being practices calls back to the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles
and Standards for Business Accreditation that business schools must focus on shifting societal
changes and address demographic, global, economic, and societal forces alongside emerging
technologies while addressing a greater sense of social responsibility and sustainability. This also
echoes AACSB (2019) The Five Opportunities to Thrive, which called for business college
administrators and faculty to develop a new vision for business school education where business
schools’ intellectual contributions are drivers of change in society, the business community, and
in higher education. AACSB (2019) suggested that business college faculty and staff must

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complete a variety of tasks, including deciding novel approaches for education and creating
interdisciplinary research and curriculum. By taking on these promising practice programs and
courses along with completing published research in multiple discipline areas, promising practice
interviewees would be fulfilling the requirements of the AACSB (2019; 2020) and helping
students and further faculty and staff develop new skills.
Defining Success for Promising Practice Programs
Promising practice interviewees discussed the evaluations they used to track promising
practice performance. Promising practice interviewees emphasized two main definitions of
success, both administrative success and student learning gains Administrative success included
the following:
● gaining a required course status as a general education requirement
● giving students the “best experience possible”
● leaving their institution “better” than when they first arrived
● long term student retention
● other faculty members understanding and being involved with the promising practice
● a positive perception and acceptance of the program by the university community and
a broader community of stakeholders
The literature review suggested that working with other faculty and administration was important
to higher education SEL practices because it helped to create coordinated efforts in the classroom
(Conley, 2015; Elliott et al., 2015; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Seli & Dembo, 2019) that
more faculty and staff understood and supported, so SEL offerings could be integrated
throughout a university (Committee for Children & CASEL, 2016; Conley et al., 2015; Lipson et
al., 2019; Posselt & Lipson, 2016; Taylor & Haras, 2020). Student learning gains success

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included the following: students completing the promising practice course gaining higher
graduation and retention rates than average, students using a formalized reflection process, and
students learning how to be honest with themselves. The literature review found that creating
academic buoyancy for students was an opportunity to help students feel more resilient and
encouraged positive student outcomes, like higher graduation and retention rates (Duckworth,
2016; Dweck, 2006; Gallagher & Stocker, 2018; Martin & Marsh, 2008).
Making Space for Connections and Relationships
Promising practice interviewees discussed the concept of making space and how that
space can provide students with what they need to make connections and relationships.
Promising practice interviewees emphasized the importance of putting on their own seat belts,
humanizing teaching, and developing distinct types of spaces. When discussing putting on their
own seat belts, promising practice interviewees emphasized their concern that faculty and staff
need to be able to use the SEL skills themselves. The literature review discussed SEL related
skills such as growth mindset and resilience (Dweck, 2006; Yeager & Dweck, 2012) as ways for
people to persevere during challenges. This can relate to the needs of faculty and staff as pointed
out in Gallagher and Stocker (2018) and may be helpful as higher education’s culture of
competitiveness, lack of work-life balance, and extreme persistence towards academic goals can
also negatively impact faculty and staff mental health (Evans et al., 2018). Promising practice
interviewees characterized faculty and staff learning as essential to the process of developing
their programs and teaching students as well as creating a systems-based approach to changing
university culture and solving root causes of the problems of student anxiety and stress.
Promising practice interviewees suggested that humanizing teaching allowed faculty and staff to
practice the SEL skills and give students a representation of what SEL looks like when used

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professionally. Promising practice interviewees emphasized that physical, mental, and emotional
types of spaces can improve connections, especially when faculty and staff consider what would
work best for students and develop a common language students can use in the spaces. Promising
practice interviewees considered space as both physical and virtual, especially given the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic and the transition to virtual classrooms and noted that it was
important to make strides in treating these spaces with respect and helping students feel
comfortable no matter where they were located. The literature review also included the concepts
that faculty and staff can change environments through facilitating SEL and SEL practices can
create positive climate and cultural impacts within different spaces (Weissberg et al., 2015;
Durlak et al., 2011; Patti et al., 2015).
Skepticism over Curriculum and Roadblocks to Progress
Promising practice interviewees discussed the skepticism and roadblocks they often
faced. Promising practice interviewees emphasized that misconceptions and malalignments of
their programs, lack of administrator and faculty buy-in, a concern for lack of rigor, and issues
gaining promotion and tenure concerned them the most. In terms of misconceptions and
malalignments, promising practice interviewees had to convince themselves that the promising
practice subjects worked; coming in with skepticism themselves and wanting to solve the
problem was important to their personal development. Some promising practice interviewees had
to manage student skepticism and misconceptions with the idea that their programs were therapy.
In the literature review, Hunt and Eisenberg (2009) considered that students’ skepticism of
treatment effectiveness is a common barrier to using counseling services and gaining support for
their mental health. Lack of administrator buy-in included promising practice interviewees
struggling to receive administrative support for their programs and required in many instances

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multiple meetings and explanations of why the subject matter was important and why they were
qualified to lead discussions on the skills. Gaining faculty senate approval for courses to finding
patience to make multiple iterations of their programs and courses challenged the promising
practice interviewees throughout all promising practice programs. DeMoranville (2010) and
Fitzpatrick and McConnell (2014) echoed the issue of administrative burden and suggested that
faculty and staff are hesitant to work through the accreditation process because of overloaded
schedules and the work required to develop courses and meaningful learning goals with
consistency and support from multiple stakeholders in an institution. Promising practice
interviewees expressed concern over rigor, or lack of rigor, because of the fear that other faculty
and staff did not perceive the subject matter as “real scholarship.” Furthermore, this impacted
promotion and tenure, with promising practice interviewees’ concern growing over their own
opportunities for tenure as well as the opportunity for new faculty and staff to gain tenure by
teaching and promoting these types of courses due to the risk and vulnerability required of
teaching. While the literature review did not specifically find issues related to tenure, further
investigation of DeMoranville (2010) and Fitzpatrick and McConnell (2014) led to a better
understanding of the frustrations that faculty face in the administrative process, which does
include tenure and promotion complications.
Further Challenges for SEL in Higher Education
Promising practice interviewees also discussed the further challenges for SEL in higher
education that they could foresee. Promising practice interviewees emphasized the vulnerability
required of faculty and staff in the promising practice programs as a consideration that they will
be working directly in DEI and will face multiple challenges and positionalities they have never
considered. Learning from others about positionality and the requirements of vulnerability,

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specifically who feels comfortable being vulnerable when teaching and who does not based on
their positionality, was a key take away from one promising practice interviewee. Diddams and
Chang (2012) suggested that authentic leaders should question the use of vulnerability as it could
have unintended consequences. A deconstruction of assumptions take place when teaching
faculty and staff how to consider DEI alongside an emphasis of SEL in the classroom and this
may surprise leaders involved in SEL programs. As found in the literature review, Nyberg and
Sveningsson (2014) asserted that self-awareness and the expression of self was a privilege, and
marginalized people may not want to take on the risk from that expression. Furthermore,
promising practice interviewees considered the university system as a challenge but noted that
emphasizing the indirect expense of SEL for all students is worth the investment that universities
must make in allocating both funds and time for development. This echoes the findings of
Reinert (2019), Conley (2015), Cotler et al. (2019), Gallagher and Stocker (2018), and Stuhr et
al. (2017).
The Future of SEL in Higher Education
Promising practice interviewees discussed the future of SEL in higher education.
Promising practice interviewees emphasized that their programs are gaining momentum with
students often using programs as a talking point in job interviews. The literature review
emphasized SEL skills as an opportunity for students to make a good impression when applying
for increasingly competitive jobs (Beck-Dudley, 2018; De Novellis, 2019; McKinsey Global
Institute, 2017). Promising practice interviewees also hoped collaborating with early adopters
and departments would create an in-depth system with the support and encouragement of more
faculty. While one promising practice interviewee remained “hopeful about its scope” they knew
that “the world has its own agenda too.” Promising practice interviewees encouraged SEL

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implementation in the local community and the university community to shift the climate of the
university and create a “ripple effect” where “we become a more emotionally intelligent
university” with “more empathy and perspective-taking.” The literature review also considered
what Rose (1992) described as the ripple effect of public health; using SEL as Greenberg et al.
(2017) considered would be helpful to a larger population. Promising practice interviewees
maintained a positive outlook for SEL in higher education, with one specifically emphasizing
that higher education SEL should be part of a “continuum” that creates a total SEL experience
from K–12 to higher education and then careers. The literature review further confirms the need
for a continuum of practice based on research from Beck-Dudley (2018), Conley (2015), Conley
et al. (2013), Martin and Marsh (2006), and Weissberg et al. (2015).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations for this study included the limitations found in all qualitative research
studies. Qualitative validity does not imply objective truth (Maxwell, 2013) and this research
could not establish an ultimate truth. However, the lived experiences of the promising practice
interviewees and the demonstration of practices from the document analysis create an
opportunity to understand how the promising practices work and paired with the literature review
develop findings and implications (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research used extensive
memos to review potential bias and positionality and this reflexivity took place during the entire
research process (Maxwell, 2013; Ravitch & Carl, 2020). In delimitations for document analysis,
particular attention was paid to creating a keyword search term strategy as well as a
comprehensive review of promising practice program websites, social media pages, and other
online or offline materials so that comparisons and contrasts can be made and some level of
confidence in the authentic and accuracy of the documents can be considered and while that

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keyword strategy was limited to areas of the study, it also allowed for specificity to be
maintained and focused on higher education institutions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Ravitch &
Carl, 2020). Further fidelity analysis considered if the documents differed from interviewee
transcripts and the researcher found no substantial differences during reviews (Mowbray et al.,
2003). Delimitations also included interviews held on the Zoom platform and not in-person
interviews due to COVID-19, so considerable instructions were given on how to use the platform
as well as alternative technological options to provide for the comfort level of the interviewee
and emphasized the relational aspect of the interview process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Ravitch & Carl, 2020). The researcher made multiple efforts to reach out to a variety of
promising practice programs based on expert nominations and while half of the programs
contacted responded and became research participants, the inclusion of other programs could
have changed the findings in this study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Ravitch & Carl, 2020).
Implications for Practice
These implications for practice extend the findings from the research questions and helps
practitioners work towards implementing promising practice program findings into their own
institutional contexts. These implications emerged from the study and each link to the findings in
this chapter. Higher education leaders will benefit from these implications by learning from the
experience of 15 leaders in institutions across all parts of the United States and will also benefit
from tables that connect specific examples of promising practices with desired outcomes. Lastly,
the implications will revisit the example SUBC and use SUBC Deans and Directors’ core
competencies as an example of taking a set of requirements and using the findings to create a list
of promising practices to reach desired outcomes for a new curriculum in the continuous review

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process for the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business
Accreditation.
Understanding the Link Between SEL and Authentic Leadership
The literature review, promising practice document analysis, and promising practice
interview analysis established an overlap between SEL components and authentic leadership
influence factors. To better understand each area of the conceptual framework and the theory, the
researcher compared peer reviewed and accepted definitions of each component and factor in the
findings within this chapter. To better understand the implication to practice, the research then
took those findings and compared the overlap in definitions alongside the data from the
promising practice programs. This allowed for the creation of the following table that further
demonstrates where similarities between SEL components and authentic leadership influence
factors were striking.

Table 12
Overlap Between SEL Components and Authentic Leadership Influence Factors
Positive psychological
capacities
Moral and ethical reasoning Understanding critical life
events
SEL self-management,
SEL relationship skills

SEL responsible decision
making, SEL relationship
skills, SEL social awareness
SEL self-awareness

This table demonstrates that it requires further self-awareness, internalized moral
perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency to develop the positive
psychological capacities, moral and ethical reasoning, and understanding critical life events as
required in authentic leaders. Further comparison of the overlap between SEL components and

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authentic leadership influence factors to SEL component and related promising practices
developed the next table by applying the overlap in components and influence factors to match
the related promising practices categorized by SEL component type as demonstrated in Chapter
Four.

Table 13
Authentic Leadership Influence Factors and Related SEL Components
Authentic
leadership
influence factor
Authentic leadership
influence factor
definition
Related SEL
component definition
Examples of promising
practice programs using
SEL components in the
development of
authentic leadership
influence factors
Positive
psychological
capacities
Positive psychological
attributes of confidence,
hope, optimism, and
resilience that are trait
and state-like and
predispose or enhance
authentic leadership
development capacity.
Utilizing fixed traits
such as extraversion or
learning how to be more
comfortable with
extraversion skill sets
with coaching or
training. Demonstrating
gratitude. Considering
the future.
Demonstrating
optimism during
challenges (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005).
Self-management:
Managing one’s
emotions, thoughts,
and behaviors
effectively in various
contexts to achieve
personal or collective
goals. Ability to delay
gratification.
Managing stress.
Using motivation and
agency to achieve
goals. Identifying and
using stress-
management tools.
Using self-discipline.
Planning and
organizing. Taking
initiative (CASEL,
2020).

Relationship skills:
Establishing and
maintaining positive
relationships and
navigating numerous
Students may develop
positive psychological
capacities with SEL by
using:
1. Self-management
● Regulating
emotions
● Considering the
timing
● Learning about
university
resources

2. Relationship skills
● Developing
stress coping
skills
● Experiencing
healthy
relationships
● Working in
teams

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opportunities for new
relationships in
different contexts with
diverse individuals
and groups of people.
Communicating with
others effectively.
Listening and
cooperating with
others to problem
solve. Practicing
healthy conflict.
Seeking or offering
support. Resolving
conflicts and resisting
negative relationships.
Positive leadership.
Standing up for other
people (CASEL,
2020).
Moral and
ethical
reasoning
Using ethics to make
decisions and
developing the ability to
use morals over a
lifetime. Searching for
understanding of what
is right or wrong and
good or bad. Making
decisions that transcend
personal gain. Being
selfless. Uniting
individuals in a
common goal regardless
of individual
differences. Focusing
on the greater good.
Promoting justice.
Valuing community
(Avolio & Gardner,
2005).
Responsible decision
making: Making
positive choices about
behavior and
interactions in various
contexts. Considering
ethical and safety
concerns. Thinking
about benefits and
consequences. Being
curious and open-
minded. Making a
logical and reasonable
decision. Using
foresight to evaluate
consequences.
Reflecting on personal
behaviors and the
impact of behavior on
others (CASEL,
2020).

Social awareness:
Understanding the
perspectives of others
and empathizing with
Students may develop
moral and ethical
reasoning with SEL by
using:
1. Responsible decision
making
● Practicing skills
and rewiring
habits
● Creating an inner
compass
● Validating
stressors

2. Social awareness
● Using resources
from multiple
cultures
● Creating a
pluralistic
viewpoint
● Emphasizing
DEI and social
justice

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those perspectives
with respect to people
from various
backgrounds. Feeling
compassion.
Understanding
cultural, historical,
and social norms.
Recognizing support
systems. Labeling
strengths. Showing
concern, empathy, and
compassion.
Expressing gratitude.
Identifying unjust
social norms (CASEL,
2020).
Understanding
critical life
events
Reflecting on the impact
of life events that are
positive or negative and
make a significant
impact on one’s
experience of their life
story. Demonstrating a
written or verbal
reflection on life events.
Gaining insights.
Developing self-
knowledge and clarity
about traits through life
experience. Using life
events as a catalyst for
change (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005).
Self-awareness:
Understanding one’s
personal emotions,
thoughts, and values
and considering how
these areas influence
actions. Recognizing
strengths and
weaknesses. Labeling
emotions. Linking
thoughts, emotions,
and values. Utilizing a
growth
mindset. Realizing
personal biases.
Demonstrating
interests with a sense
of purpose (CASEL,
2020).
Students may develop an
understanding of critical
life events with SEL by
using:
1. Self-awareness
● Developing
mindfulness over
time
● Requiring
multiple check-
ins
● Utilizing self-
assessments
● Writing with
prompts

The effort to match the SEL components with the promising practice program document
analysis and interview transcript analysis demonstrates that authentic leadership is one of the
main desires for programs and program leaders. The analysis shows that some programs speak
about leadership directly, but most speak about it indirectly. Rarely do the programs in their

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documents or in promising practice interviews say outright authentic leadership, in relation to
authentic leadership theory, but the desired outcomes point directly to the three factors that
develop authentic leadership outcomes in people and the practices the promising practice
programs champion connect to SEL and SEL connects to the authentic leadership influence
factors which builds a bridge between developing authentic leadership and utilizing these
promising practice pedagogies.
Connecting Promising Practices to New Institutions
Understanding how the promising practice programs are related to authentic leadership
development through matching promising practice program desired outcomes with authentic
leadership influence factors derives a further implication regarding the AACSB (2020) 2020
Guiding Principles and Standards for Business Accreditation and using the lens of SUBC
creating a new college-wide curriculum for the upcoming AACSB CIR review as discussed in
Chapter 1. The AACSB (2020) gives several examples of applicable curriculum changes that fit
within their requirements. Noticeably, the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and
Standards for Business Accreditation gives the example of using established frameworks to
ensure a high quality of learning for students. This document specifically uses an overlay of the
“U.N. Sustainable Development Goals” (p. 58) when considering a framework to prove that
students are learning sustainability as a societal impact activity. Having the framework of
CASEL (2020) SEL components as well as the backing of authentic leadership theory may help
business college administrators who are looking to use frameworks to prove their strategy and
related outcomes during an AACSB review.
The SUBC Deans and Directors identified several core competencies they believe
students should be able to utilize after completing the Leadership SUBC courses and these

254

include the following: career planning; professional communication; critical thinking;
appropriate use of technology; diversity, equity, and inclusion; resilience; global and cultural
understanding; self-awareness; leadership; and teamwork. This study’s focus on SEL
development in higher education and how current promising practices in utilizing SEL in higher
education to develop authentic leadership culminates in the aim of making recommendations for
how SUBC Deans and Directors can utilize a promising practices based approach for curriculum
in SEL areas to increase authentic leadership and help students overcome potential challenges
and obstacles in regard to rapid change and increasing anxiety while meeting the AACSB
requirements. The following table connects the SUBC Deans and Directors’ core competency
desires to the promising practice program’s desired outcomes to understand what authentic
leadership influence factors may reach the desired outcomes and the SEL core competencies that
SUBC program leadership could use to meet these influence factors with related promising
practices. The previous tables throughout this chapter depict further and specific examples of
how these practices relate and correspond.

Table 14
Desired Core Competencies for Leadership SUBC and Related Promising Practices
Desired SUBC
Deans and
Director core
competencies
for Leadership
SUBC
Matching
promising
practice
program
desired
outcome
Related
authentic
leadership
influence
factors for
desired
outcome
SEL core
competencies
that could be
used by
Leadership
SUBC
Related
promising
practices
Career planning Focusing on
positive
attributes,
planning for
the future,
Positive
psychological
capacities,
understanding
Self-awareness,
self-
management

Utilizing self-
assessments,
learning
about

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reflecting on
the impact of
events
critical life
events
university
resources
Professional
communications
Developing
deeper
teamwork
opportunities,
focusing on
positive
attributes,
demonstrating
gratitude,
reflecting on
the impact of
events
Positive
psychological
capacities,
understanding
critical life
events
Self-awareness,
relationship
skills
Writing with
prompts,
develop stress
coping skills,
experiencing
healthy
relationships,
working in
teams
Critical thinking Using ethics,
making
decisions
beyond
personal gain
Moral and
ethical
reasoning
Responsible
decision
making
Practicing
skills,
creating an
inner
compass,
validating
stressors
Appropriate use of
technology
Using ethics,
making
decisions
beyond
personal gain,
valuing a
community
Moral and
ethical
reasoning
Responsible
decision
making
Practicing
skills,
creating an
inner
compass,
validating
stressors
Diversity, equity,
and inclusion
Uniting for
common goal,
valuing a
community
Moral and
ethical
reasoning
Social
awareness

Using resources
from multiple
cultures,
creating a
pluralistic
viewpoint,
emphasizing
DEI and
social justice
Resilience Accessing help-
seeking
resources,
focusing on
positive
attributes,
demonstrating
gratitude,
Positive
psychological
capacities
Self-
management,
relationship
skills
Regulating
emotions,
considering
the timing,
learning
about
university
resources,

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demonstrating
optimism
during
challenges
developing
stress coping
skills
Global and
Cultural
Understanding
Making
decisions
beyond
personal gain,
uniting for a
common goal,
valuing a
community
Moral and
ethical
reasoning
Social
awareness
Using resources
from multiple
cultures,
creating a
pluralistic
viewpoint,
emphasizing
DEI and
social justice
Self-Awareness Reflecting on the
impact of
events
Understanding
critical life
events
Self-awareness

Developing
mindfulness
over time,
requiring
multiple
check-ins,
utilizing self-
assessments,
writing with
prompts
Leadership Accessing help-
seeking
resources,
developing
deeper
teamwork
opportunities,
focusing on
positive
attributes,
demonstrating
gratitude,
planning for
the future,
demonstrating
optimism
during
challenges,
using ethics,
making
decisions
beyond
personal gain,
Positive
psychological
capacities,
moral and
ethical
reasoning,
understanding
critical life
events
Self-awareness,
self-
management,
responsible
decision
making,
social
awareness,
relationship
skills

Developing
mindfulness
over time,
utilizing self-
assessments,
writing with
prompts,
regulating
emotions,
using
resources
from multiple
cultures,
creating a
pluralistic
viewpoint,
emphasizing
DEI and
social justice,
developing
stress coping
skills,
experiencing

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uniting for a
common goal,
valuing a
community,
reflecting on
the impact of
events
healthy
relationships,
working in
teams,
practicing
skills,
creating an
inner
compass
Teamwork Developing
deeper
teamwork
opportunities
Positive
psychological
capacities
Relationship
skills
Experiencing
healthy
relationships,
working in
teams

This table shows how the promising practices can inform the SUBC Deans and Directors’
desired core competencies and potential SEL subject matter SUBC could use when developing
curriculum. For example, the SUBC Deans and Directors’ desired core competency of career
planning best matched with the promising practice program desired outcome of focusing on
positive attributes, planning for the future, and reflecting on the impact of events, which then was
related to positive psychological capacities and understanding critical life events authentic
leadership influence factors. The SEL core competencies of self-awareness and self-management
match positive psychological capacities and understanding of critical life events with related
promising practices to the SEL core competencies being utilizing self-assessments and learning
about university resources. Previous tables gave further examples of the related promising
practices from the document analysis and interview analysis. For example, utilizing self-
assessments includes the following: Use StrengthsFinder, Blue EQ, and other validated scales;
develop a personal brand for internship and job interviews; encourage students to understand
themselves in relation to their major; help students complete “research and development” on
themselves; explore life paths and journeys with career being only one of several aspects of that

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journey; and teach that purpose can be developed through a “self-science” to understand values,
beliefs, and choices. Learning about university resources includes the following actions that
faculty and staff can take: help students understand resources that are available to them; show
students how to determine if they need the resources; and teach students how to navigate the
university atmosphere and develop navigation skills for future career atmospheres. The
remaining SUBC Deans and Directors’ desired core competencies follow the same route through
the table, and by using previous tables specific examples of related promising practices faculty
and staff can consider when developing their own programs.
Understanding the lived experiences of promising practice program interviewees as
depicted in the findings for Research Question 3 allows for potential institutional leaders to learn
from the promising practices on the positives and negatives of implementing programing in SEL
and authentic leadership. These findings show that the COVID-19 pandemic made a significant
impact on the importance placed on the promising practice programs that intersect directly with
the areas of interest about the promising practice programs. Promising practice programs
discussed their concern about rising student anxiety, the student mental health crisis, and the
impact of large-scale political events on college students. This emphasized the importance
promising practice interviewees felt for their programs and the allocation of time, money, and
attention from administration. Evaluations measured the impact of programs and included
university evaluations and informal and formal research data gathering for program improvement
and peer-reviewed publication opportunities. The negatives emphasized by promising practice
interviewees are important for institutional leaders to recognize before creating a program in
their own institutions, so they can proactively address these problems. Promising practice
interviewees expressed concern over gaining promotion and tenure as well as proving the rigor

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of courses and programs to students, administrators, and others who may be skeptical of their
importance. The findings in this research strive to show how the programs connect to authentic
leadership influence factors that develop the opportunity for students to further become authentic
leaders to address the concern of lack of rigor. By tying the programs to applicable leadership
development, promising practice leaders and leaders in institutions developing programs may be
able to demonstrate rigor more readily, gain further buy-in for allocation of resources, and prove
that this type of programming will be beneficial for accreditation reviews such as the CIR
process with the AACSB for business colleges.
Using Design Thinking to Apply a Theory of Change
A theory of change is a roadmap for leaders to determine how change occurs in their
organizations and which strategies and resources will create change while keeping the
organization’s mission statement as a determining factor for the types of change that will take
place (Dhillon & Vaca, 2018). Research can lead to change for practical matters (Tuck & Yang,
2014). Culver et al. (2021) suggested that design thinking is one way to implement change in a
higher education institution because of the predominant use of committees that can function as
design teams. The Stanford d.school Design Thinking Process (2022) requires design thinkers to
work through the five steps of empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test. Emphasize focuses
on design thinkers using a non-judgmental stance to seek understanding from stakeholders that
they are helping to better define the pain point they experience, challenges, and decisions
designers must make to help solve that pain (Stanford d.school, 2022). Design thinkers use the
definitions they created to ideate and prototype; ideate allows design thinkers to consider and
iterate on all ideas, and prioritization of ideas begin the creation of potential prototypes,
including mockups and storyboards with an emphasis on failing fast and quickly iterating on

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prototype for further prototypes (Stanford d.school, 2022). The last step requires design thinkers
to test ideas to understand what works and what does not work and then to change those tests
based on their understanding of constraints and requirements (Stanford d.school, 2022).
Design thinkers use this multi-step process as a loop to consider all stakeholders and what
is best for them with stakeholders taking a main priority in the process as interviewees and main
sources of information for each step of the process; this is also known as user centered design
(Culver et al., 2021; Stanford d.school, 2022). Culver et al. (2021) added steps to the beginning
and end of the Stanford d. school (2022) process with notice at the beginning and reflect at the
end to create the Design for Equity in Higher Education (DEHE) model. Culver et al. (2021)
suggested that equity plays a role in design thinking by emphasizing that designers must notice
what they do to add equity in the process and then reflect on how they engage in the process to
understand how actions, emotions, and insights impact the process. The following figure
indicates each step for the DEHE model that uses equity as a mainstay to consider areas of
identify, power, and values throughout the use of the model. Importantly, the steps include a
reiteration process through evaluate and refining a prototype system until the outcome meets the
needs of the stakeholders.

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Figure 4
Steps in Design for Equity in Higher Education (DEHE) Model

Note. Adapted from Design for Equity in Higher Education, by Culver, K.C., Harper, J., and
Kezar, A. (2021). Pullias Center for Higher Education. https://pullias.usc.edu/download/design-
for-equity-in-higher-education/

In the case of SUBC adopting the Culver et al. (2021) model, SUBC Deans and Directors
could function as designers, especially those Deans and Directors who are responsible for the
Leadership SUBC curriculum. Since they have already established the desired core
competencies, SUBC Deans and Directors would now think of students as colleagues and other
individuals and groups at SUBC and SU, including the president, provost, faculty, and staff as
key stakeholders (Culver et al., 2021). Taking up the “equity minded practice” (p. 5) that Culver
et al. (2021) establishes, the SUBC Deans and Directors would address issues of identity, power,
and values upfront as they organize their design thinking sessions and then work through the

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steps of empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test with additional steps of discussing bias,
reflecting, and collaborating to establish buy-in and trust and evaluate outcomes and refine
programs (Culver et al., 2021). In this case, SUBC Deans and Directors can look to the
promising practice program research and findings established in this study to determine what
types of subject matter match back to their desired core competencies that would work for their
students, defined in this framework as colleagues, as well as for implementation by faculty and
staff (key stakeholders), and that they would like to further establish as part of their continuous
improvement review within the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for
Business Accreditation alongside further outcomes and measurements that SUBC Deans and
Directors want to use as benchmarks for success.
Future Research
This study focused on promising practice programs in the United States within four-year
higher education institutions; however additional research should consider other types of higher
education institutions such as two-year community colleges and those institutions outside of the
country that may include different practices based on cultural preferences and international
differences. Further research should take place on the outcomes of specific pedagogy and how to
ensure student learning. Promising practice interviewees raised concerns around establishing
rigor for their courses and programs as well as addressing skeptics. This study found that nine
out of the 15 promising practice institutions with available promising practice documents used
action verbs found in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy and all programs and courses included
various assignments, reflections, and requirements of students. Further research that could
pinpoint validated scales and potentially determine the effects of the programs with pre-test and

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post-test studies with a control group could further confirm these practices as truly viable and
important to include in higher education.
The AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business Accreditation
requires institutions to determine not only the framework they will use to meet updated
requirements, but also what leadership must measure as the “outcomes related to curriculum,
scholarship, and internal and external initiatives and activities” (p. 58). Further research should
also take place using other accrediting bodies’ standards as a lens to determine how to implement
promising practices across an entire university. The promising practice programs in this study
included business colleges as well as other colleges and university-wide initiatives. However,
SEL can be helpful to students in multiple colleges, who are studying a variety of subjects.
The document and interview analyses highlighted that further research regarding faculty
and staff implementation of the promising practice program skills for their own use as well as
students and a further study of how the culture of higher education could be more supportive of
the mental health of all stakeholders is important for the future of institutions. While this study
focused on the causes of generalized anxiety in the generalized population of U.S. college
students, the researcher cannot ignore the increased reporting of college student suicide (Kella,
2021), especially with the recent high-profile media coverage of multiple female student-athlete
suicides (Gluckman, 2022), and believes that more research must take place on how to safeguard
all students. Further research for best practices regarding subsets of students would also be
helpful when understanding how SEL can interweave with DEI initiatives. Stakeholders should
not misconstrue SEL as a total solution for mental health care, but instead as one of many tools
that higher education leaders may use to support students. Further research about the use of these
promising practices and others should take place when considering the ever-rising student mental

264

health crisis and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 virus variants on
student populations (Aslanian & Roth, 2021; Carrasco, 2022; and Xie, 2022).
Conclusions
This study’s purpose was to identify specific SEL promising practice programs in higher
education that could help college students develop authentic leadership skills while addressing
anxiety and qualifying as part of a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. This study
connected subject matter from promising practice programs with SEL component definitions,
compared the promising practice programs’ desired outcomes with the authentic leadership
influence factors, and categorized promising practice leaders’ lived experiences to inform leaders
in other higher education institutions who are interested in developing these types of practices in
the future. The study found that promising practice subject matter could connect to each SEL
component as defined by CASEL (2020), with self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making. Promising practice program
interviewees emphasized mindfulness, emotional intelligence, reflection through writing, and
connecting SEL with DEI and social justice as well as other practices as ways to work with
students on increasing their SEL skills at an appropriate developmental level.
A further understanding of authentic leadership theory in this study connected the
promising practice program desired outcomes to the factors that influence authentic leadership
development. Given its newness in the field, often authentic leadership components, as well as
SEL components, have gone by various terminology as there is a lack of common language in
these fields. By using document analysis and interview analysis, this study found that promising
practice program desired outcomes aligned with authentic leadership influence factors for
positive psychological capacities, moral and ethical reasoning, and understanding critical life

265

events. Some promising practice program documents and interviewees used terms specifically
associated with authentic leadership and some did not. However, by connecting the programs to
the three areas that develop authentic leaders, the program leaders can point to this as an
opportunity when gaining buy-in for the programs with students, administrators, and other key
stakeholders.
This study connected SEL and authentic leadership influence factors together by
considering the authentic leadership influence factor’s definition and related SEL component
definition, pairing together positive psychological capacities with self-management and
relationship skills, moral and ethical reasoning with responsible decision making and social
awareness, and understanding critical life events with self-awareness. Faculty and staff at
different institutions can use the examples of promising practices as an opportunity to better
understand how promising practice program leaders have gone about teaching these concepts to
students and gives those faculty and staff members a model for materials in a list form. As a
practitioner, the researcher was especially interested in how these lists could inform faculty and
staff about how to use the promising practices to create desired outcomes and further confirm
specific teaching practices as even more vital than face value. Further understanding the lived
experiences of promising practice program interviewees categorized positive and negative results
that leaders in this field experienced and can help others interested in this area proactively
consider areas that would be challenging as well as rewarding for their future planning.
Using the lens of SUBC, a business school that must complete a review process and
update curriculum based on the AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for
Business Accreditation, the study connected the SUBC Deans and Directors desired core
competencies for their program Leadership SUBC with the promising practice program desired

266

outcomes and then matched those outcomes with the related authentic leadership influence
factors to develop a list of SEL core competencies and promising practices uncovered in the data
that the developers of Leadership SUBC could use in curriculum. This table allows for SUBC
Deans and Directors to immediately consider lessons learned from 15 promising practice
programs across all parts of the United States, many of whom the SUBC Deans and Directors
would consider as competitors or aspirational institutions, as a guidepost for more immediate
implementation of curriculum for students. Using design thinking, as guided by Culver et al.
(2021), is a strong opportunity to drive change within the organization and evaluate several types
of promising practices to determine if this would connect with their students as well as faculty,
staff, and the SUBC Board of Trustees.
This study utilized the change in AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards
for Business Accreditation as the ultimate buy-in for action for business college deans across the
country, many of whom place utmost importance on meeting accreditation standards every year
(Kelley et al., 2010; Miles et al, 2015; Wheeling et al., 2015). While the AACSB does not
require the use of specific frameworks or types of curriculums, accreditation association leaders
in organizations such as the AACSB and other governing boards could create a further catalyst
for building authentic leadership development by further encouraging deans of accredited
institutions to implement strategic plans for teaching leadership skills that are applicable to
today’s current leadership challenges. Furthermore, these associations can provide the necessary
professional development needed for faculty and staff to learn how to implement the promising
practices and other skills related to authentic leadership development for students in the
classroom. The AACSB (2020) 2020 Guiding Principles and Standards for Business
Accreditation currently functions as a springboard for this development and allows for further

267

opportunities to ensure student support within the campus environment and for upskilling future
abilities when students engage with the world at large after graduation.

268

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Appendix A: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix
Research question Theoretical
framework
Influences on SUBC
Deans and
Directors
Data instrument
questions
1.What subject matter
from promising practice
programs matches with
SEL component
definitions?
Authentic
leadership theory
(Walumbwa et
al., 2008) SEL
core
competencies
(CASEL, 2020)
Gen Z’s attitude
towards to
authentic
leadership,
elements of
authentic
leadership, SEL
conceptual
framework
Document
analysis

Interview
questions: 10-
15

2. How do the promising
practice programs’
desired outcomes
compare with the
influence factors
associated with
authentic leadership?
Authentic
leadership theory
(Walumbwa et
al., 2008) SEL
core
competencies
(CASEL, 2020)
SEL assessment
measures
(CASEL, 2019)
AACSB, justifying
tuition increases,
root causes of
college student
anxiety

Interview
questions: 16-
21
3. What are the self-
reported lived
experiences of the
promising practice
leaders regarding the
implementation of
programs now and in the
future?
Authentic
leadership theory
(Walumbwa et
al., 2008) SEL
core
competencies
(CASEL, 2020)
Gen Z’s attitude
towards to
authentic
leadership,
elements of
authentic
leadership, SEL
conceptual
framework
Interview
questions: 10-
27
Demographic questions Interview
questions: 1-9

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Appendix B: Interview Script
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me. This interview will take approximately 60
minutes or less to complete. The five core competencies of SEL are self-awareness, self-
management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (CASEL,
2020). The core components of authentic leadership are self-awareness, internalized moral
perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency (Walumbwa et al., 2008).
Pseudonyms will be utilized to ensure the information you share will stay confidential. You do
not have to answer all the questions. If you are uncomfortable with a question, please let me
know and we will skip that question. You can withdraw all of your answers from the interview at
any time. Is it okay that I am recording this session so that I can go back and review what is said?
Please tell me at any time if you would like to stop recording and I will do so. Thank you.

First, I would like to ask you:
1. Did you receive the information sheet for this exempt study?
2. Do you consent to being recorded for this interview?
3. I would like to jot down some notes while we speak, is that okay?
4. Do you have any questions about the interview or the information sheet for me?

Pre-Interview Questions
I am going to ask you several pre-interview questions and you are welcome to not answer
any question that you do not want to answer. Just let me know you do not want to answer the
question and we will pass over that question. As a reminder, I am recording this session so that I
can go back and review the transcripts. However, your name, your school’s name, and specific

306

course name will not be revealed in the findings. Please tell me at any time if you would like to
stop recording and I will do so.

Background Questions
1. This study will use pseudonyms, to protect identities of respondents. What would you
like your pseudonym to be or would you like me to randomly assign you a
pseudonym?
2. How do you identify your demographic information including gender and ethnicity?
(For example, this might include any information you are comfortable giving to
describe yourself to others.)
3. What is your current role with your organization?
4. How long have you been working in this role?
5. Are you considered faculty, staff, or another type of employee of your organization?
6. What department in your organization are you based in? (For example, are you in an
academic department or a student support department?)
7. Is your role considered full time, part time, freelance or another type of role?
8. What is your educational background? (For instance, what is your highest degree
level and what did you earn your degree in?)
9. Do you work alone in your role or as part of a team? (If you are part of a team how
many other people are involved with you in your work?)

307

Interview Questions
Now we will move into our main interview questions. You are welcome to not answer
any question that you do not want to answer. Just let me know you do not want to answer the
question and we will pass over that question.

RQ1: Subject Matter that Matches SEL Components and RQ3: Lived Experiences for
Potential Implementation Now and in the Future
10. In your own words, what does your program for students involve?
11. What do you think students experience when participating in the program?
12. In your experience, how do students react to the program’s content and material
during or after the program? (In your opinion, are students’ reactions positive,
negative, neutral? Why do you think this? Could you give some examples that stand
out to you?)
13. What has been your experience with working on this program and delivering content?
(What have you personally learned or experienced through this process? Has your
experience been positive, negative, or neutral? Why do you think this?)
14. What do you wish others understood about the program?
15. What do you think are the challenges to developing the curriculum in these types of
programs in higher education?

308

RQ2: Desired Outcomes Compared with Influence Factors and RQ3: Lived Experiences
for Potential Implementation Now and in the Future
16. Have you or others involved in the program developed specific goals, missions,
and/or visions for the program?
17. Based on your experience, what do you think students gain and use from the program
currently? (For instance, what kind of feedback - written or verbal - have students
given about the course or how they use the course materials in their everyday lives
that stands out to you?)
18. From your experience, how do you think students will use the material from the
program in the future? (How might students maintain the skills developed in your
course in the future? Are there parts of the course material that you foresee being
used by them in future endeavors?)
19. In your opinion, what are the expectations and definitions for the success of the
program? (For instance, to you what makes the course a success? Is it student
feedback, student work, responses, or something else? What are your course
outcomes? Do you set the expectations for success or does someone else such as a
course coordinator, chair, or dean?)
20. Do you use any official evaluation measures to track the program’s performance?
(These could be student reviews, peer faculty reviews, or other forms of evaluation
such as surveys or informal feedback.)
21. Is the program being used by the college to fulfill any accreditation requirements or
as a marketable highlight of the college experience for rankings and/or further
promotion? (Is the course listed as part of an accreditation review? Has the course

309

been covered as part of PR for the college or university? Have you been asked
questions about the course for rankings or other outside the college systems of
promotions?)
RQ3: Lived Experiences Regarding Implementation Now and in the Future
22. What interests you the most about using these types of programs with students?
(What excites you? Is it the material itself, the way the course is delivered, student
outcomes, or something else? Let’s go back to what inspired you in the first place to
be a part of the course, is there something about that inspiration that makes you
interested in this subject?)
23. Do you think these programs will continue to be part of the college or university in
the future? (Why or why not? Is there something stopping this type of course from
being a part of the college of the university? Are there barriers to using the course
materials?)
24. How, if at all, has COVID-19 increased attention or awareness of social and
emotional learning in higher education? (You may have seen or experienced this in
your own context within your course, or the college or university, or in the larger area
of higher education.)
25. What challenges could you identify about social and emotional learning that are
important to address now? (What about in the future? Are these challenges different
than ones that could be future challenges five to 10 years down the road?)
26. Are there other areas of practice that you wish you could expand on in the program?
(Do you have plans to revise the course or make substantial changes, if so, what
would you do?)

310

27. Is there anything that I did not ask that you would like to share with me?

Thank you for your time and for your perspective. Please feel free to reach out to me if
you have any further questions or if you decide you would like to review the transcript or
materials or withdraw from the study. As noted in the information sheet, you will receive your
$15 gift card to Starbucks as a thank you in the next 48 or 72 hours by email.

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Appendix C: A Priori Codes for Data Analysis

Code Name Definition Examples Sources
Academic
buoyancy

Reducing anxiety through
increasing student
resilience to challenges
through techniques
associated with a
generalizable form of
grit that students might
experience more
equally and is strongly
related to growth
mindset.
Countering the
prevalence of stress due
to tests and homework
deadlines. Measures
taken to increase self-
efficacy in students.
Duckworth,
2016; Dweck,
2006;
Gallagher &
Stocker, 2018;
Martin &
Marsh, 2008
Authentic
leadership self-
awareness
An emerging process of
understanding how one
makes meaning through
their talents, strengths,
purposes, values,
beliefs, and needs and
how the process of
making that meaning
impacts personal views
of themselves over
time.
Demonstrating strengths
and weaknesses.
Actively gaining
insight into self wants
and needs through
talking with others.
Being aware of one’s
impact on other people.
Understanding the
origination and
evolution of values and
personal thoughts on
identity, emotions,
motives, and goals.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005;
Gardner et al.,
2005;
Walumbwa et
al., 2008
Balanced
processing
Objectively analyzing
data before making
decisions while asking
for differing viewpoints
that challenge strongly
held beliefs as a form of
self-regulation.
Genuinely desiring to
understand other
viewpoints. Collecting
all and analyzing all
relevant data before
deciding on a plan.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005;
Walumbwa et
al., 2008
Coordinated efforts
in the classroom

Using faculty to create
synchronized and
explicit practices in the
classroom. Mindfulness
and other techniques
required inside and
outside of a classroom
over multiple sessions.
Use of a practice
associated with SEL,
that has something to
do with cognitive
behavioral, relaxation,
and social skills, in a
classroom environment
guided and required by
a class leader as part of
Conley, 2015;
Elliott et al.,
2015; Salas &
Cannon-
Bowers, 2001;
Seli & Dembo,
2019

312

a classroom practice or
homework.
Experiential
learning

Outside of the classroom
experiences related to
creating friendship and
mindfulness practices
as well as the
development of soft
skills through more
firsthand experience.
The use of out of class
environments either in
a short to long-term
durations such as field
trips, travel, but also
internships and work
experience.
Conley et al.,
2013; Laufer et
al., 2018;
Pritchard and
Wilson, 2003;
Seal et al.
2010; Stuhr et
al., 2017
Integrated SEL
offerings
throughout a
college system

Promoting mental health
by using proactive
messaging,
communication, and
norm setting.
Developing courses
outside of orientation
that students must
complete in areas such
as creativity, complex
problem solving, and
emotional intelligence
used to promote
resilience across
campus.
Using multiple networks
across a college or
university system to
promote messages and
communication that
college students can be
happier and healthier,
productive members of
campus. Experiences
lead to overall
employability skills for
students across the
college and are broad in
nature.
Committee for
Children &
CASEL, 2016;
Conley et al.,
2015; Lipson et
al., 2019;
Posselt &
Lipson, 2016;
Taylor &
Haras, 2020
Internalized
moral
perspective

The personal drive for
integrity between
values and actions that
is manifested and
integrated into self-
regulation and is guided
by personal moral
standards, not by
outside group pressures.
Expressing decisions and
behaviors aligned with
personal values. Being
unique and separated
from group,
organization, and
societal pressures to
conform with behaviors
inconsistent with
personal morals.
Utilizing moral
capacity, efficacy,
courage, and resilience
to address ethical
issues.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005;
Walumbwa et
al., 2008
Moral reasoning Using ethics to make
decisions and
developing the ability
to use morals over a
lifetime.
Searching for
understanding of what
is right or wrong and
good or bad. Making
decisions that transcend
personal gain. Being
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005

313

selfless. Uniting
individuals in a
common goal
regardless of individual
differences. Focusing
on the greater good.
Promoting justice.
Valuing community.
Positive
psychological
capacities
Positive psychological
attributes of confidence,
hope, optimism, and
resilience that are trait
and state-like and
predispose or enhance
authentic leadership
development capacity.
Utilizing fixed traits such
as extraversion or
learning how to be
more comfortable with
extraversion skill sets
with coaching or
training. Demonstrating
gratitude. Considering
the future.
Demonstrating
optimism during
challenges.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005
Relational
transparency
Presenting oneself to
others in a way that is
genuine and true by
openly sharing
information and
expressing thoughts and
feelings while
minimizing
inappropriate behaviors
driven by emotions.
Disclosing true
information to others.
Striving to tell the truth
in depictions of oneself
versus creating a fake
or distorted self for
others to see. Using
self-regulation to align
values, motives, and
goals with actions in
positive social
exchanges.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005;
Walumbwa et
al., 2008
Relationship
skills
Establishing and
maintaining positive
relationships and
navigating
opportunities for new
relationships in
different contexts with
diverse individuals and
groups of people.
Communicating with
others effectively.
Listening and
cooperating with others
to problem solve.
Practicing healthy
conflict. Seeking or
offering support.
Resolving conflicts and
resisting negative
relationships. Positive
leadership. Standing up
for other people.
CASEL, 2020

314

Responsible
decision
making
Making positive choices
about behavior and
interactions in various
contexts.
Considering ethical and
safety concerns.
Thinking about benefits
and consequences.
Being curious and
open-minded. Making a
logical and reasonable
decision. Using
foresight to evaluate
consequences.
Reflecting on personal
behaviors and the
impact of behavior on
others.
CASEL, 2020
Relational
transparency
Presenting oneself to
others in a way that is
genuine and true by
openly sharing
information and
expressing thoughts and
feelings while
minimizing
inappropriate behaviors
driven by emotions.
Disclosing true
information. Striving to
tell the truth versus
creating a fake or
distorted self. Using
self-regulation to align
values, motives, and
goals with actions.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005;
Walumbwa et
al., 2008
Understanding
critical life
events
Reflecting on the impact
of life events that are
positive or negative and
make a significant
impact on one’s
experience of their life
story.
Demonstrating a written
or verbal reflection on
life events. Gaining
insights. Developing
self-knowledge and
clarity about traits
through life experience.
Using life events as a
catalyst for change.
Avolio &
Gardner, 2005
Self-
management
Managing one’s
emotions, thoughts, and
behaviors effectively in
various contexts to
achieve personal or
collective goals.
Ability to delay
gratification. Managing
stress. Using
motivation and agency
to achieve goals.
Identifying and using
stress-management
tools. Using self-
discipline. Planning
and organizing. Taking
initiative.
CASEL, 2020
SEL self-
awareness
Understanding one’s
personal emotions,
Recognizing strengths
and weaknesses.
CASEL, 2020

315

thoughts, and values
and considering how
these areas influence
actions.
Labeling emotions.
Linking thoughts,
emotions, and values.
Utilizing a growth
mindset. Realizing
personal biases.
Demonstrating interests
with a sense of
purpose.
Social awareness Understanding the
perspectives of others
and empathizing with
those perspectives with
respect to people from
various backgrounds.
Feeling compassion.
Understanding cultural,
historical, and social
norms. Recognizing
support systems.
Labeling strengths.
Showing concern,
empathy, and
compassion.
Expressing gratitude.
Identifying unjust
social norms.
CASEL, 2020

316

Appendix D: Document Analysis Categorization
Document Categorization Definition
Name or title The title of the document to better manage data points (Gross,
2018).
Completeness and balance Completeness refers to the scope of the document in terms of
comprehensive coverage of multiple subject matters or one
individual subject. Balance relates to the amount of detail in
the document with equal or unequal detail on the other
subjects covered in the same document (Bowen, 2009).
Content Important aspects that summarize the information provided by
the document (Gross, 2018).
Document location Where one can access the document, i.e., website, social media,
online or offline (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Target audience Who the document is written for and talks to directly; special
attention will be taken if the document refers directly to
students or other stakeholders (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

317

Appendix E: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Incorporating Social and Emotional Learning in Higher Education: A
Promising Practices Based Development of Authentic Leadership
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Susan Fant, Organizational Change and Leadership EdD
Program Student
FACULTY ADVISOR: Patricia Tobey, PhD, Professor of Clinical Education at Rossier School
of Education
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to identify promising practices of social and emotional learning in
higher education to develop authentic leadership skills in college students, which can lead to
students gaining skills for resilience while addressing increasing anxiety and qualifying as part of
a new AACSB accredited college-wide curriculum. Your feedback will be used to inform the
identification and understanding of these promising practices. This research will use document
analysis and interviews to collect information and all participant’s names, institution names, or
information potentially identifying the person or institution will remain anonymous. We hope to

318

learn what social and emotional learning pedagogy is present in promising programs for higher
education students as well as specific evaluation tools for authentic leadership development
outcomes and new or emerging practices in the field. You are invited as a possible participant
because you meet the following criteria:
1. You work with a university or college in a program that promotes social and emotional
learning for college students.
2. You were nominated by a professional organization associated with social and emotional
learning, yourself, or a peer in the field.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
The research for this study will be collected with document analysis and interviews. Responses
provided by participants in this study are confidential and pseudonyms will be used to ensure the
information you share will not affiliate you with this study. You can withdraw from the study at
any time by asking to be withdrawn.

Participants who meet defined criteria, will be contacted online via email, and asked to consider
being part of the interview process with a wide variety of times to schedule the interview
provided. The interview will take an estimated 60 minutes to complete. Interviews will be online
using the Zoom meeting platform. The interview has 27 questions, divided into two categories.
The first set of questions asks about you and your background. The second set of questions asks
about your experience with social and emotional learning programs and your opinion on social
and emotional learning in higher education.

319

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to complete the interview with the opportunity to
pass on any questions you do not want to answer and the ability to withdraw your participation at
any time.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Compensation includes a $15 Starbucks gift card to thank interview participants for their time.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
There are no other alternatives to participation in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. All responses in interviews will be used for research and educational
purposes. Your name nor your program or institution’s name will not appear on any transcript,
notes, or publications. Interview participants will be asked to choose a pseudonym to be used for
this study.

Interviews will be recorded for accuracy. The researcher will be the only person to review the
recording. All identifying information will be removed before recording storage and recordings

320

will be deleted when research process is completed. Participants have the right to review/edit the
audio/video-recordings and transcriptions upon request. Audio and video recordings will be
stored in Zoom cloud and password protected. The researcher is the only person with the
password for Zoom cloud.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Susan Fant, sfant@usc.edu or Dr.
Patricia Tobey, tobey@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

321

Appendix F: Promising Practice Programs Document Analysis Categorization Table
Generalized
name/title
Location Completeness
/balance
Target audience Content
About (7) University
websites
General
information
Faculty, Staff,
Students,
Other
Stakeholders
General
information
about promising
practices and
goals
Academic
Resilience
Guidebook
University
website
General
information
Faculty and
Staff
Guidebook that
identifies
promising
practice.
Activism and
well-being
poster
University
website
Event
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Event that
discusses
student activism
and well-being /
resilience
Anxiety journal
article
Anxiety, Stress,
and Coping:
An
International
Journal
General
information
Journal readers Description of
promising
practice course
written by
interviewee
Article preprint Interviewee
email
Journal article Journal readers Article about
replication
possibilities for
promising
practices at
multiple
campuses
Assignments (4)

Interviewee
emails
Assignment Students Assignments sent
voluntarily by
interviewee as
an example
Blog posts (9) University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Blog posts
discussing areas
and skills for
resilience
Book about
SEL
Email General
information
Stakeholders
interested in
SEL
Book focuses on
how to use
games when
teaching SEL to
multiple
audiences.
Book chapter Author email General
information
Readers on
college
Chapter
interviewee

322

teaching
pedagogy
wrote for a book
that reflects on
promising
practice
Center mission University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Mission statement
for the center
Chronicle article Chronicle
website
General
information
Readers of The
Chronicle
Description of
promising
practice course
Classes and
videos
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
List of classes and
descriptions of
classes from the
upcoming
promising
practice
program. Also
includes videos
of sample
classes.
College mission
statement
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Mission statement
that relates to
the promising
practice
College health
journal article
Journal of
American
College
Health
General
information
Journal readers Article about the
course
Course blog
projects (2)
University
websites
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Blogs written by
anonymous
students in the
course over a
semester
Course
description
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Description of
promising
practice courses
Course
information
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Information about
asynchronous
course for
students
Course on
resilience
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, and
staff
Describes learning
objectives,
course content,
and how to

323

grade course
responses
Course readings University
website
General
information
Students Reading samples
from week one
of promising
practice course
Definitions University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Definitions of
practices and
how skills will
be developed by
using center
resources
DEI poster University
website
Event
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Event that
discusses DEI
resources in
conjunction with
promising
practice
Emotional
intelligence
University
website
Short list of web
links
Faculty, staff,
students,
other
stakeholders
List of emotional
intelligence
resources
Events University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Program flyer
about how to
find happiness
while focusing
on wellness and
stress reduction
Facilitator’s
guide
Physical
textbook
General
information
Faculty and
staff
Textbook used in a
promising
practice course
Fellowship
brochure
University
website
General
information
Students Marketing piece
on promising
practice subject
Full Time
student
curriculum
and courses
list
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
List of courses and
experiences for
students
Full Time
student
leadership
development
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
List of program
leadership
opportunities
General
education
requirements
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff
Checklist includes
promising

324

practice class
requirement
General news
(11)
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
News article about
the promising
practice program
Guidebook for
faculty
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Guidebook for
faculty involved
with the
promising
practice
History University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Program history,
timelines, and
events
Promising
practices
guidebook
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Promising practice
topics and
coping with
COVID-19
Launch news (3) University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
News article about
the launch of the
program
Methodology
journal article
Journal of
Management
Development
Conceptual
paper
Journal readers Presentation of
methodology for
promising
practice
Mindful outdoor
journal
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, and
staff
Journal PDF that
guides readers
through a series
of prompts
about being
mindful in a
nature setting.
Minors and
courses
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Discusses the
minors in the
promising
practice subject
and individual
courses students
can complete.
News University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
News article about
resilience
resources and
framework used

325

to teach
resilience
Overview University
website
General
information
Current and
potential
students
Reviews format
for a degree
program that
includes topics
related to the
promising
practice
PowerPoint
presentation
(2)
University
website
General
information
Students Information about
the promising
practice program
PR news (2) University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
PR article about
the course.
Program
announcement
University
website
General
information
students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Announcement of
most recent
group of faculty
members
accepted into the
promising
practice program
Program
application
University
website
General
information
Faculty and
staff
Description of
promising
practice and
application to
apply
Psychiatry
journal article
Frontiers in
Psychiatry
General
information
Journal readers Description of
promising
practice course
Resources University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
List of online and
telehealth
resources for
students seeking
help in
counseling,
spiritual affairs,
COVID-19, and
other stressors
Resilience
resources
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, and
staff
List of campus and
online resources
for students with
presentations on
wellbeing,
college success,

326

control, outdoor
experiences, and
mental health
Schedule University
website
General
information
Current and
potential
students
Course schedule
for degree
program
includes class
names and
focuses on
classes about
mindsets
SEL in higher
education
SEL
organization
website
General
information
Faculty and
staff
Marketing piece
for using SEL
related textbook
Senate
committee
course
submission
form
University
website
General
information
Faculty and
staff
Proposal for
promising
practice course.
Open access.
Includes sample
syllabus.
Speaker
engagement
news
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Article about a
speaker for the
promising
practice program
Students University
website
General
information
Current and
potential
students
Generalized
profile of
current cohort
demographic
and
opportunities for
further activities
in the program
Syllabus (3) University
websites
General
information
Students Course syllabus
information on
readings,
assignments,
and expectations
Transcript for
university
president
video
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Discusses the
importance of
the course
Undergraduate
catalogues (8)
University
websites
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff
Course description
of the promising
practice

327

University
newspaper
article (8)
University
websites
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Article about the
program in the
university
newspaper
University
strategic plan
University
website
General
information
Students,
faculty, staff,
other
stakeholders
Goals for the
university
including a goal
for promising
practice subject
matter and is
related to the
promising
practice center

Note. Numbers next to generalized name and titles in parentheses indicate how many total
documents in this category the document analysis includes.

Abstract (if available)

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Intelligent Learning Quotient

Asset Metadata

Creator Fant, Susan Chesley (author)

Core Title Incorporating social and emotional learning in higher education: a promising practices based development of authentic leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 08/03/2022

Defense Date 06/21/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag authentic leadership,business colleges,college student leadership development,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,social and emotional learning

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Fox, Glenn (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email sfant@usc.edu,susanchesley@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111375999

Unique identifier UC111375999

Legacy Identifier etd-FantSusanC-11088

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Fant, Susan Chesley

Type texts

Source 20220803-usctheses-batch-968 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu