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Communicating to volunteers
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Content
Communicating to Volunteers
by
Patty L. Vignolo
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2022
© Copyright by Patricia L. Vignolo 2022
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Patricia L. Vignolo certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Emmy Min
Kimberly Ferrario
Corinne Hyde, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022
iv
Abstract
Nonprofit volunteerism is in a state of decline. The purpose of this paper is to use a gap
analysis methodology to reveal existent gaps in knowledge, motivation, or organizational
barriers of women in a mostly female political organization in California to determine the extent
to which communication influences recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention of
members. Data collection was in two phases: The first phase was an online survey, and the
second phase were interviews of those participants who self-selected during the survey to
participate in an interview. Two research questions guide this study: 1) What knowledge,
motivation, or organizational barriers do volunteers report are influential with their volunteerism
with the organization? and 2) What role do volunteers report that communication plays in their
engagement, satisfaction, and likelihood of retention in the organization? The aim of this paper is
to better understand the extent to which communication plays in the volunteer experience. I
identify general themes through analysis of the survey data, coding the interviews and providing
recommendations.
Keywords: nonprofit volunteering, volunteer communication, volunteer engagement, volunteer
satisfaction, volunteer retention, gap analysis, conservative women, conservative female
v
Acknowledgements
“What is the essence of life? To serve others and to do good.” - Aristotle
To my husband, Stephen for “organizing and nudging” me and to our son, Andrew; thank
you for having confidence in me when I had none in myself. Thanks to Beth Silver and Spencer
Insolia, Dr. Rebecca Weintraub, Dr. Brad Shipley, and Dr. Stylés Akira; because without their
early involvement this doctorate would not have happened. To Lynn Brown and Leilani Jeffery, I
treasure our friendship and thank you for listening and reminding me that I can do it. Thank you
to Dr. Adam Kho, Dr. Heather Davis, and Dr. Alexandra Wilcox for teaching me academic
writing and for gently guiding me when I desperately needed it. To Dr. Corinne Hyde, Dr.
Kimberly Ferrario, and Dr. Emmy J. Min; three amazing women who have my eternal deep
gratitude for being a part of this process. Thank you, Dr. Evelyn Felina Castro, for spending
hours with me discussing assignments and helping me to find my voice. Thank you to my
parents who gave me an early taste of volunteerism; I rely on my memories of you daily. And to
OCL Cohort 15, thank you for always pushing me intellectually. I truly love each one of you.
Thank you to the myriad of people who prayed for my doctorate success. Thank you, Andre
Burrell, Chris Naler, Sharon Owen, and Orion Welch for supporting me when I needed it from
someone going through it. And finally, I truly learned firsthand I can do all things through Christ
who strengthens me (Philippians 4:13).
vi
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 3
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 5
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 10
Communicating to Volunteers .......................................................................................... 10
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 34
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 37
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 37
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 37
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 39
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 39
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 41
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 47
Ethical Implications .......................................................................................................... 48
vii
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 50
Results and Findings for Research Question 1 ................................................................. 53
Research Question 1 Discussion ....................................................................................... 65
Results and Findings for Research Question 2 ................................................................. 66
Discussion for Research Question 2 ................................................................................. 79
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 5: Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 81
Integrated Recommendations............................................................................................ 82
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 85
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 86
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 86
References ..................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A: Survey Questions .................................................................................................. 103
Appendix B: Interview Questions ............................................................................................... 106
viii
List of Tables
Table 1 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 38
Table 2 Description of Interview Participants ............................................................................. 52
Table 3 Suggestions from Participants to Improve Monthly Meetings......................................... 64
Table 4 Committee Participation ................................................................................................. 70
Table 5 Integrated Recommendations and Connection to Lewin’ s Model ................................... 84
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1 Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework (2008) .......................................................... 6
Figure 2 Communication Path ..................................................................................................... 35
Figure 3 Retention is Strongly Positively Correlated with Knowledge ........................................ 56
Figure 4 Retention is Strongly Positively Correlated with Motivation ........................................ 59
Figure 5 Retention is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication ..................... 60
Figure 6 Retention is Strongly and Positively Correlated to Leadership Communication .......... 62
Figure 7 Engagement is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication ................. 67
Figure 8 Engagement is Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication ....................... 68
Figure 9 Satisfaction is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication .................. 73
Figure 10 Satisfaction is Strongly Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication ........ 74
Figure 11 Brand is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication ......................... 76
Figure 12 Brand is Strongly Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication ................. 77
Figure 13 Kurt Lewin’ s Three Step Change Model ...................................................................... 83
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The word “work” can be described in any number of ways with one way perhaps equated
with “earning money.” Volunteering, on the other hand, is when an individual chooses to work
out of free will (Verduzco, 2010) and for free to help others, with their efforts oftentimes
directed at helping complete strangers. Not-for-profit organizations such as churches, museums,
schools, youth programs, and other charities rely on this unpaid workforce to complete many
activities needed to accomplish the purpose of the organization such as teaching adults to read or
mentoring children. About 63 million people engaged in volunteer activities at least once
between September 2014 and September 2015 in the United States (United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2016). Son & Wilson (2012) reported in 2011 nearly one in four Americans
over the age of 16 participated in volunteering. Volunteers constitute 90% of all fire departments
(Evarts & Stein, 2020), and 90% of the American Red Cross (American Red Cross, 2020),
responding to over a million fires yearly (Evarts & Stein, 2020) and helping to shield over 60
million people via vaccinations against measles, malaria, and HIV/AIDS (American Red Cross,
2020). Without a strong volunteer force, the United States would be without the 63 million
volunteers who contributed over eight billion hours, equating to approximately $203 billion in
time and effort to nonprofit organizations in 2018 (Independent Sector, 2019).
While these numbers imply there is a vibrant culture of volunteerism, nonprofit
organizations are facing a shrinking volunteer workforce (Brayko et al., 2016; Cho et al., 2018;
Yamashita et al, 2019). Utilizing the numbers from United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
(2016) stated above, of the 321 million people in the United States in 2015 roughly 19%
volunteered 0.4% less than a year earlier, a further decline from 2011 (Son & Wilson, 2012),
when the U.S. population was 312 million. Compare this to the 89.2 million people who
2
volunteered in 1993 (Independent Sector, 2019), around 34% of 260 million people, and a
volunteer shortage presents itself. Nonprofit organizations can expect at least one-third of their
volunteer workforce to turnover each year (Eisner, et al 2009) leading some to say “If a job were
really worth doing, someone would be paid to do it” (Musick & Wilson, 2008, p. 4).
Those who choose to volunteer do so for a myriad of reasons, and many of these reasons
include connections to communication. Volunteers not only join organizations to “help,” they
also join because this group of people typically have rich communication networks which makes
it easier for them to find volunteer opportunities (Einolf & Chambré, 2011). Volunteers like to
exemplify their altruistic values (Merrilees et al., 2020) and oftentimes find brands they identify
as having values similar to their own (Mitchell & Clark, 2020). Leadership of volunteers is an
important aspect of volunteering (Allen & Mueller, 2013) as engagement, efficacy, and
commitment flow from leader or organizational communication (Hudson, 2021). Little
communication from these sources leads to a loss of commitment to the organization and higher
incidences of turnover (Waters & Bortree, 2012).
Political activism also sees the value of volunteers but has been in a state of decline as
people feel ignored by the professionalism of parties and their bureaucracies, with some people
preferring to boycott products as an easy way to display their political ideals (Whiteley, 2011).
The U.S. has the highest percentage of political party members of 36 western nations surveyed,
however proclaiming party membership in the U.S. does not require registering or payment of
dues, different from that in other nations wherein party dues are required for membership
(Whiteley, 2011). Whiteley goes on to posit a weakened government could result from political
parties void of many voices. Volunteers are essential to grassroots campaigning as they answer
phones, walk precincts, and set up events. Women have been particularly influential in politics
3
by holding seats in government which has effects larger than their voices in government because
it can lead to greater female involvement in the nonprofit sector overall (Themundo, 2009).
Organizations may be interested in understanding how to better recruit, engage, satisfy,
and retain people who volunteer to do things beneficial to society. Volunteers can offer
professional advice to legal or accounting matters and take on leadership roles in the
organizations they serve. Volunteers also benefit from the experiences of volunteering; for
example volunteers may learn valuable skills that transfer to the job market and an increase of 2-
8% in pay (Wilson et al., 2020) while expanding their social network (Nencini et al., 2016).
Volunteering in general has also been shown to have a positive effect on mental health (Son &
Wilson, 2012).
Research is lacking in the area of communicating to volunteers in nonprofit,
predominately female political and philanthropic organizations. When researching for this
project, studies revealed themselves regarding: candidate social media use and tone (Evans &
Clark, 2016); gender roles in politics (Schreiber, 2018), differences in male/female gendered
print media coverage (Heldman et al., 2005), candidacy (Banwart, 2010); and political
communication and psychological campaign effects (Iyengar & Simon, 2000). This paper
attempts to fill a gap in research as no peer reviewed studies surfaced involving communication
to conservative, predominately female, and all volunteer political and philanthropic groups.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
A common aspect that ties together recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention
of volunteers is the importance of communication. The purpose of this paper is to determine the
extent to which communication influences recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention
of women who are members of a mostly female political volunteer organization in the Central
4
Valley of California: Central Valley Ladies Volunteer Group (CVLVG), a pseudonym. CVLVG
was founded in 1963 and is a local chapter of a larger state and national organization. As a
grassroots organization, members pay a yearly fee for membership. An educational organization,
CVLVG informs its members about issues and political candidates via monthly meeting
speakers, attendance at conferences, and campaign work. Members are encouraged to participate
in various committees that support literacy projects, overseas troops, development of leadership
skills, supporting people in need within the local community, and offering scholarship to two
college-bound women each year. The state organization has over 11,000 members with CVLVG
being the second largest club in the state at the time of this study with 312 members. Leadership
at CVLVG has expressed concerns regarding attracting and retaining members to reach the
group’s stated membership goal of 500 members. Historically the group was not able to achieve
this goal. They are consistent at attracting a much lower number, typically hovering around 300-
325, which reduces the available human capital and the group’s effectiveness to attain stated
goals. Furthermore, many of the same women present at functions and events. Guiding this study
are two research questions:
RQ 1: What knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors do CVLVG volunteers report
are influential in their volunteerism with the organization?
RQ 2: What role do CVLVG volunteers report that communication plays in their satisfaction,
engagement, and likelihood of retention within the organization?
Importance of the Study
This problem is important to address because volunteers are considered the most
important resource in nonprofits (Balduck et al., 2015; Breuer et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2016).
The CVLVG executive committee feels a larger membership would allow them to have a robust
5
volunteer pool to serve as political activists and volunteers in their community. The CVLVG
executive committee feels it can adequately fill executive committee positions, however it cannot
adequately fill board of directors’ positions encompassing its 22 committees, as many
committees have a chair and no other committee members to assist the chairperson.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The problem of recruiting, satisfying, and retaining productive volunteers is addressed
using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework. This framework can reveal specific
points at which CVLVG is or is not communicating effectively with their volunteers and the
community to recruit, satisfy, and retain engaged active members. This framework acknowledges
employees as human capital and suggests knowledge, skills, and motivation are strategic assets
that help organizations recruit, manage, develop, motivate, support, and retain human capital
(Clark & Estes, 2008). It transfers well to the volunteer context and many of the aforementioned
assets may be accomplished in the volunteer context at least in part by better communication.
The theory posits there are three causes of performance gaps: people’s knowledge and skills,
motivation to complete a goal, and/or organizational barriers (see Figure 1).
.
6
Figure 1
Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework (2008)
Participants for this mixed methods study are member volunteers in a women’s political
leadership organization in the Central Valley of California. Sampling was nonprobability,
purposive, typical, convenience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), and census (Robinson & Leonard,
2019). The data was collected in two phases: Phase I utilized an announcement by the lead
researcher from the podium at a special event in November 2021, to introduce members to the
purpose and scope of the study, and to remind members to watch for a survey link distributed by
the 2020-2021 president of the organization. A survey was created by the lead researcher with
questions adapted from: Aaker et al., (2004); Blader and Tyler, (2009); Bozeman and Ellmers,
(2014); Dwyer et al., (2013); Mowen and Sujan, (2005); Nogueira et al., (2020); and Senses-
Ozyurt and Villicana-Reyna, (2016) and Webb et al., (2000). The 2021-2022 president of the
club sent a Qualtrics survey link to each member of CVLVG via an email message to garner both
quantitative and qualitative data. The intent of the sample was to have as many members
7
participate as possible. Most responses were across a 5-point Likert scale, with any
nonsubstantive options listed last and slightly away from other response options (Robinson &
Leonard, 2019). The survey also contained qualitative questions. To evaluate how
communication affects the volunteer experience, survey questions address volunteer
commitment, organizational identification, and communication preferences, while trying to
reveal any gaps in communication between the volunteer’s motivation or knowledge, or if there
is missing equipment or other barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008). Ethnicity questions were not asked
as that could make the few members-of-color feel their responses are not anonymous and
demographic questions were not asked because their data is not relevant to this study (see
Chapter Three for a full discussion). After analysis of Phase I data, Phase II consisted of
interviews of those participants who designated a willingness on the survey to offer deeper
qualitative data.
Assumptions
Some basic assumptions people may hold when joining a membership organization are:
• Members understand the goals of the organization (knowledge)
• Members are actively involved in the organization's activities (motivation)
• The purpose and goals of the local organization align with both the state and national
organizations (organization)
Definitions
In scientific study, definitions are presented to orient the reader. As research has placed
volunteerism squarely in the center of the social sciences (Wilson, 2012), volunteerism studies
benefit from added clarification.
8
Volunteer
Volunteer means those who freely offer their help to those who want it (Verduzco, 2010),
over time, without receiving a material reward, not occurring in an emergency, and often done
through association with formal organizations (Snyder & Omoto, 2008).
Engagement
Engagement means approaching work with an enthusiastic sense of pride, dedication, and
absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2006).
Motivation
Motivation means “the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain action,” (Clary et al.,
1998, p. 1517).
Nonprofit organization
Nonprofit organization means a not-for-profit, non-governmental community service
organization that uses income to keep the organization running (Kenton & Barry-Johnson, 2020).
Retention
Retention means a willingness to continue with the organization (Vecina et al., 2013),
and in this study retention indicates being a current member in good standing with at least one
prior renewal of membership.
Satisfaction
Satisfaction means a positive feeling that the amount of time committed to a volunteer
task was worth the results of the effort (Benevene et al., 2018).
Organization of the Dissertation
This chapter sought to offer context and background of the problem; to provide the
purpose for the research and to divulge the research questions; to provide for the importance of
9
the study; to give an overview of the theoretical framework and methodology used in this study,
and to offer definitions of key terms used throughout the study. Chapter Two is a review of
relevant literature pertaining to uses of communication in recruiting, satisfying, and retaining
volunteers. Chapter Three details the data collection methodology, reintroduces the research
questions, and provides for the theoretical foundations of knowledge, motivation, and
organization perspective. Chapter Four introduces research results and findings. Chapter Five
offers a discussion of findings and provides recommendations to any knowledge, motivation, or
organizational gaps and an implementation plan for recommendations.
10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Communicating to Volunteers
Nonprofit female political organizations may be interested in understanding how to better
recruit, engage, satisfy, and retain people who volunteer to do things beneficial to society. Many
themes presented while reviewing literature about volunteerism, however the single overarching
aspect connecting them was different forms of communication. This section offers a tour of
communication as it applies to recruitment; engagement; dissatisfaction; and retention of the
volunteer workforce, with research specific to politics and women also included.
Individuals often join organizations full of hope and the belief they are impacting the
world positively (Milbourn et al., 2019). Volunteer commitment is dependent on satisfaction and
engagement within the organization (Harp et al., 2017) and the fit of their individual personality
with the organization (Van Vianen et al., 2008). When volunteers experience unrealized
expectations, job satisfaction and retention suffer (Walker et al., 2016).
Understanding Potential Volunteers
Communication networks facilitate volunteering behavior. Einolf and Chambré (2011)
found that communication networks encourage volunteering. They studied how social theories,
individual characteristics, and resource theories combine to predict variation in volunteer
participation. Using the 1995 Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) survey of 3,032 adults born
between 1920 and 1970, the most complete survey of volunteer correlations at that time, Einolf
and Chambré found various statuses such as job, marital, family, or volunteering status all place
a social role on individuals that encourage volunteering and better social integration due to
prosocial motives and social networking. Communication networks fuel increased volunteering
because people with broad social networks are more likely to be asked to volunteer, simply
11
because they know more people (Einolf & Yung, 2018) with personal, two-way communication
appeals generally considered more effective (Wymer & Starnes, 2001).
Religious, social, and familial networks have a positive effect on volunteer intent. Einolf
and Chambré (2011) point to religious organization participation as an indicator of potential
volunteerism. Drawing on data from the MIDUS survey using bivariate logistic regression,
Einolf and Chambre (2011) found religious service attendance was a good predictor of
volunteering behaviors. Other variables that were good predictors of volunteering were generally
feeling obligated to volunteer and an intent to volunteer in the future. Religiosity may contribute
to a desire to positively affect the lives of others (Senses-Ozyurt & Villicana-Reyna 2016).
Other researchers document social connections that may influence a person’s intention to
volunteer (Apinunmahakul & Devlin, 2008). Statistics Canada partnered with five other agencies
and administered the National Survey of Giving, Volunteering, and Participating which yielded
14,492 surveys of the Canadian population aged 15 years and over. Researchers divided the data
into three groups: bonding networks, bridging networks, and religious networks. Bonding
networks are informal networks among family and friends, bridging networks are networks
created by membership in formal organizations, and religious networks which show religious
service attendance frequency. All three were statistically significant in impacting volunteering.
Apinunmahakul and Devlin (2008) further found men and women were similar in their volunteer
activities from their youth: 45% of women and 43% of men volunteered in some capacity in their
youth, with both groups engaging in door-to-door volunteering, with their parents also
volunteering at about the same rates. In adulthood, men in the study had a propensity to belong
to a greater number of formal organizations, and women scored very closely to that of the men.
In religious networks, women attend more regularly (1.69), but only slightly more than men
12
(1.38). While 10% of women belonged to a cultural or civic club, men enjoyed less participation
in such clubs (7%). Finally, across both genders, religious networks were important for giving of
both time and money.
Brand
Brand communication is a competitive lever for nonprofit volunteer recruitment and a
communication strategy that focuses on the needs and motives of its target audience. Mitchell
and Clark (2020) wanted to understand how volunteers choose which nonprofit to volunteer for.
Researchers interviewed 51 service delivery drivers from 16 locations across two causes in the
United Kingdom. This group of participants were selected because they were less likely to be
episodic volunteers as the nature of service delivery driving demands a consistent time
commitment. A well-established organization is a part of why people choose to spend their time
volunteering for one organization over another. Interviews revealed 47 mentions of a “big name”
organization, the most cited attribute (Mitchell & Clark, 2020). Participants felt a brand name
organization would better enable them to “make a difference,” to “feel valued, to “feel useful”
and to “help their career,” because a well-known nonprofit would afford them “a sense of
accomplishment,” “respect,” “social recognition,” “pleasure,” and to “live my values,” (Mitchell
& Clark, 2020; p. 76). In short, a recognized nonprofit was perceived by volunteers to offer
satisfaction of their personal needs.
Brand has a positive effect on volunteerism and its importance cannot be overstated.
Attracting individuals can be tied to brand image perception (Bowen et al., 2015) and mere
exposure to a brand can cause greater intent to volunteer (Febriani & Selamet, 2020). In their
study of 133 U.S. college students, the most coveted group of possible recruits (Berthon et al.,
2005), survey data revealed of the five brand personality dimensions of competence, sincerity,
13
excitement, ruggedness, and sophistication, all surveyed groups who had a visual of brand
representation were significantly more likely to volunteer as compared to the groups that had no
brand visual representation (Febriani & Selamet, 2020). Nonprofit brand image can impact
volunteer behavior because volunteers can infer common traits with brands (Aaker et al., 2004)
In their study of 1,415 Australian past and current volunteers, Randle and Dolnicar (2011) set out
to determine if individual self-concept matched their organization’s self- concept. To determine
organization preference, eight types of volunteering organizations were presented to participants
who were asked if they had to volunteer for one of the eight, which would they choose? Answers
were limited to one choice. To measure self-congruity, 156 volunteers, non-volunteers, and
managers of volunteer programs were provided a list of 18 attributes to use to describe
themselves and to describe the eight organizations. Data revealed volunteers who choose one
organization over another fluctuated in their self-concepts to a significant degree because, of the
18 attributes, ten were significantly different. Analysis also revealed that the three organizations
with the strongest brands had the highest match between perceived self-concept and brand image
higher than the other five organizations. Findings imply self-congruity theory may be more
present in strongly positioned and well-known volunteer brands.
Not only do brands attract volunteers by communicating common traits, volunteers
reciprocate by contributing to brand building. Using internal marketing strategies, brands can
recruit and retain volunteers by using the brand-volunteer relationship to build volunteer brand
equity (Nogueira et al., 2020). In their study of 227 volunteers across 28 organizations in
Portugal, Nogueira et al., (2020) administered a seven-point Likert scale survey to assess
perceptions of internal brand management across seven categories. The category “brand
commitment” enjoyed high scores showing the importance of the volunteer’s perception that
14
they are proud of the organizations they volunteer for. When volunteers have committed to the
brand they are more motivated to work beyond leadership’s expectations, speak highly to others
of the work they do, and recommend the organization to others. The highest scoring benefit of
volunteer brand equity was positive word of mouth; volunteers would forward information about
the brand to newer volunteers.
Political Brand
Political parties are aware of the importance of volunteers to win elections as armies of
unpaid people are needed (Pettitt & Lees-Marshment, 2019). For example, political brands can
offer engagement and satisfaction to volunteers by communicating to them with a user-friendly
campaign website. Once volunteers show an interest, internal marketing can keep them engaged.
Two front running candidates in the 2007-2008 primary Democratic Presidential campaigns saw
the importance of early use of technology to recruit volunteers. Hillary Clinton’s “Online Action
Center'' on the website made it easy for volunteers to join the effort to make phone calls, learn
about or plan campaign events, and recruit friends (Pettitt & Lees-Marshment, 2019). Barack
Obama’s website gave volunteers specific goals such as pledging to make a certain number of
calls and offering lists of phone numbers of targeted voters. The Obama website was purposely
created for ease of use and a highlight was how it and made volunteers feel valued by sending
messages from the candidate just before important announcements to allow volunteers to feel
personally connected (Cogburn & Espinoza-Vasquez, 2011). The campaign also had fluency in
uses of the Apple iPhone. When users of the Obama application enabled location services on
their devices to allow the campaign to “know” their location, the campaign used that information
to recommend local events the user could participate in as well as receive other communications
to again make supporters feel like insiders of the campaign which furhter connected volunteers
15
and supporters (Cogburn & Espinoza-Vasquez, 2011). U.S. Presidential candidate Bernie
Sanders and Jeremy Corbyn of the UK used similar strategies to encourage volunteers to make
calls or texts from their phones to large swaths of voters and encouraged communication dyads
(Pettitt & Lees-Marshment, 2019).
Likewise the Republican Party understood the importance of communication and
engagement by focusing their efforts on training President George Bush’s volunteers to walk
door to door, conduct surveys, enter survey data directly to campaign databases, and talk to
neighbors and friends about Republican values (Lees-Marshment & Pettit, 2014). The
Republicans also created a website wherein anyone of any party preference could give their
thoughts on what they felt were important issues, effectively and meaningfully contributing to
the final platform (Lees-Marshment & Pettitt, 2014).
Women in Political Volunteerism
Volunteers are a vital force in campaigning. Political organizations should conduct more
research on volunteer needs and motivations (Pettitt & Lees-Marshment, 2019). Therefore it is
important to meet the needs of females for efficient management of the many facets of
campaigning that involve them such as managing offices, phone banking, coordinating others,
fundraising, and word-of-mouth marketing, among many other leadership roles (Stromer-Galley,
2014).
Women, in particular, have been influential in politics and in some countries match the
participation of men (Themudo, 2009). Some studies go so far as to suggest women are more
engaged than men (Harp et al., 2017). Using the United Nation Development Programme’s
Gender Empowerment (GEM), an instrument that analyzes the number of women holding seats
in government, working in management and professional positions, and women’s income
16
between 1995-2000, Themudo found an 8.5% increase in female empowerment was associated
with increases of women volunteering for sports and recreation organizations, and organizations
addressing education, art, and culture. Findings suggest that women’s empowerment has a
positive relationship with women’s active involvement in the nonprofit sector (r = .563, p
<.001). Women’s empowerment is also associated with higher volunteering (r = .22, p < .15)
(Themudo, 2009), strengthening the mission of nonprofits that champion women’s
empowerment.
Leadership and Organizational Communication
Leadership communication to volunteers can shape the volunteer experience. Benevene
et al., (2018) found ethical leadership strongly influenced volunteer attitudes and commitment to
the organization. To explore relationships between volunteer satisfaction, intent to stay,
commitment to the organization, and ethical leadership, Benevene et al., (2018) studied a group
of 198 nonprofit volunteers in Italy. An ethical leader is someone who uses two-way
communication and demonstrates normative and appropriate actions when conducting
themselves in personal and interpersonal activity (Brown, et al., 2005). While no significant
direct link was found to connect ethical leadership and intent to stay, ethical leadership did
positively and significantly relate to volunteer work satisfaction. Volunteer satisfaction with their
duties was also positively associated with their intent to continue with the organization. Finally,
results showed ethical leadership is causally related to the commitment volunteers have to the
organization.
Leadership communication may positively influence volunteer satisfaction, engagement,
and organization identification. Leadership communication can be demonstrated in the leader’s
ability to empathize with their volunteer team to recognize their contributions and improve
17
organizational efficiency (Flauto, 1999). In a study of 171 volunteers from two nonprofit
organizations, Trent et al., (2020) found the volunteers' perceived ability to communicate with
leadership (volunteer “voice” or upward communication) influenced volunteer retention and the
volunteer experience. Not only were volunteers more engaged due to upward communication,
volunteers who also reported more interaction satisfaction with leadership (downward
communication) had a greater likelihood of higher engagement. Further, engagement mediated
the correlation between downward communication from leadership and volunteer commitment to
the organization. Across the previous studies, meaningful leadership communication can create
the appropriate environment for volunteers to thrive in their duties.
Some nonprofit organizations have both paid and unpaid workers, and good leadership
enhances both. For example, the American Red Cross has over 500,000 volunteers assisting
35,000 paid staff (American Red Cross, 2011). Some studies across paid employee organizations
can provide useful information for volunteer organizations, even though the organizational
structure and management practices may differ (Walker et al., 2016). Using leader-member
exchange (Schriesheim et al., 1992a; Schriesheim et al., 1992b) and the multifactor leadership
questionnaire (Bass, 1985) to find if being a good communicator helps with leadership
effectiveness, Flauto (1999) surveyed 151 employees across nine organizations in Ohio,
Kentucky, West Virginia, and Indiana spanning industries such as retail, military, coal mining,
police, banking, and food service. Participants were asked to rate leadership behavior and
leadership communication competence in their organizations. Researchers found similar themes
across all of the participating organizations. Flauto (1999) found significant correlations between
communication competence and: transformational leadership; transactional leadership; and
leader-member exchange. Participants who rated their leaders as presenting effective
18
communication and leadership matched in both the forced response and the qualitative comments
participants gave. The opposite was also true: poor communication led to ineffective leadership
comments in the participant’s qualitative responses. Another study conducted on paid employees
applied to volunteer employees found management can influence a volunteer’s need for
relatedness and interaction within the organization. In their study of 217 employees in four South
Korean companies, Jung and Sosik (2002) found charismatic leaders who promoted the mission
and vision of their organizations and who encouraged alignment of employees to the values and
norms of the company had a positive relationship with employee perceptions of empowerment
( 𝛽 = .15, p > .001), cohesiveness ( 𝛽 = .21, p >.001) , and effectiveness ( 𝛽 = .18, p > .001). Thus,
management can have a positive effect on workers and help them to work as a group. Volunteer
organizations could consider if leadership is doing enough to help volunteers understand how
their efforts fit into the larger organization and purpose.
Effective leadership increases engagement, influences satisfaction, and improves
volunteer outcomes. Competent management can lead to increased engagement and a reciprocal
relationship between leadership and staff (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Hudson (2021) found
volunteer-organization engagement positively affects volunteer efficacy and organizational
efficiency by avoiding turnover. In Hudson’s (2021) study of five healthcare organization leaders
in the southwestern U.S. who work in 100% volunteer organizations, when leadership had an
awareness of the needs of volunteers a simple social media promotion created more volunteer
interest from potential, previously untapped volunteers. When leaders lack a coherent and
methodical appraisal of volunteer satisfaction and engagement, it limits the organization’s
potential productivity and efficiency. Communication from leadership can influence volunteer
outcomes. In their study of 302 active volunteers in the northeastern U.S., Dwyer et al., (2013)
19
found a significant relationship between leaders who exhibited transformational leadership traits
(leadership that helps volunteers accomplish more through a motivational connection, see
Northouse, 2019) and volunteer satisfaction. The same was true when controlling for volunteer
motives. Research suggests transformational leadership influences volunteers’ satisfaction
because of better quality team relationships and volunteers’ perceptions that their work is
meaningful. Leaders who communicate well help volunteers to understand how their work
contributes to the organization in meaningful ways.
Management methods contribute to volunteer satisfaction (Allen & Mueller, 2013) and
positive interactions between managers and volunteers promote self-acceptance, purpose,
autonomy, mastery of environment, and personal growth; actions of volunteer psychological
well-being (Vecina et al., 2013). In their survey of 232 active volunteers in Spain, volunteer
engagement and volunteer commitment were separate factors but had high internal consistency
and were highly correlated. Further, organizational commitment mediated volunteer engagement
and intent to continue with the organization. When psychological well-being was included
instead of volunteer intent to continue, engagement mediated organizational commitment and
psychological well-being which resulted in an indirect effect. Results suggest the effect of
organizational commitment on psychological well-being was mediated by volunteer engagement.
Leadership helps volunteers to feel engaged and to belong. Senses-Ozyurt and Villicana-
Reyna (2016) found that leadership inclusiveness relates to volunteer satisfaction and the
volunteer’s intent to stay with the organization. In their study of 141 volunteers from 26
nonprofits researchers found a strong relationship between volunteer satisfaction and the
perceived integrity of leadership. They also found a strong relationship between volunteer
satisfaction and the volunteer’s perceived inclusiveness of leadership. While the data revealed no
20
relationship between intention to continue and leader integrity, the data did demonstrate leader
inclusiveness was strongly related to volunteer intention to continue (r = .17, p < .05). To
triangulate data, 13 of the 141 participants were interviewed to gain a deeper understanding of
unsupported hypotheses. Simply, volunteers committed to longer tenure when leadership made
them feel included by, for example, knowing the names of volunteers and acknowledging
important life events such as birthdays. Participant data did not reveal a significant relationship
between volunteer retention with either leader integrity or volunteer satisfaction. While
participants did not indicate a strong connection between their satisfaction and a greater intent to
continue volunteering, the authors postulate intrinsic motivation may be a better indicator, a
variable not tested in this study.
Volunteer Uncertainty
New experiences are by definition uncertain. Organizational entry is a time when
uncertainty is high. Messages from leadership and coworkers are typically inadequate at best,
which affect role and career uncertainty because it causes people to recognize everything they do
not know (Miller & Jablin,1991). Also known as “socialization,” it is a time when newcomers to
an organization learn how to successfully participate as a member of the organization and its
culture (Schein, 2017).
Appropriate communication can reduce uncertainty and enhance organizational
efficiency. For example about 75% of nonprofits do not regularly provide training for their
volunteers (Eisner et al., 2009) and newcomers often are without onboarding or training;
volunteers must make sense on their own of how to complete a task, where to go with questions,
who is paid or unpaid, and who holds power in the organization (Kramer, 2010). Communication
reduces volunteer uncertainty and increases volunteer engagement. In their ethnographic study of
21
a university choir, Kramer et al., (2013) surveyed 121 choir members to understand if task
related communication from leadership and socially related communication from peers reduced
uncertainty. Task-related communication from leadership predicted task certainty as did
friendship communication, those who met socially outside of the choir, and friendly
communication, members being friendly toward each other during choir events. Furthermore,
communicating to volunteers adequate preparation time decreased uncertainty and the difficulty
of the task inversely predicted both task and social certainty. Choir member volunteers reported
task certainty predicted satisfaction. Data also revealed higher certainty made members more
likely to ask others to join the organization. While organizational entry can cause uncertainty,
positive communication from supervisors can reduce uncertainty and generate feelings of
increased satisfaction for volunteers (Gailliard et al., 2010).
Volunteer Relationships with Supervisors
Sustaining strong interconnected relationships between volunteers and supervisors (Bang,
2011) is an important organizational factor for a robust volunteer force. Volunteers look upon
leadership as representatives of the organization so their feelings toward the organization will
influence the relationship (Bang, 2011). In a survey of 258 volunteer members of nonprofit
sports organizations in the midwestern U.S., Bang (2011) wanted to assess the significance of the
leader-member exchange concepts of affect (liking), loyalty (my supervisor would defend me),
contribution (working beyond typical effort), professional respect (respect for others’ job
knowledge or competence), and job satisfaction on volunteer job satisfaction and intent to
continue with the organization comprised of both of leaders and followers. Over 45% had
participated in the survey identified as both of those roles. When followers respect and like their
leaders the followers had greater job satisfaction, which was significantly related to job retention.
22
Data similarly revealed leaders’ professional respect significantly forecasted their intention to
continue with the organization. Data suggested the concepts of affect, loyalty, contribution,
professional respect, and job satisfaction were all important relationship elements.
Not enough can be said about the importance of positive relationships in a philanthropic
environment and its effect on volunteer commitment. A lack of trust between leadership and
volunteers affects turnover intentions (Milbourn, et al., 2019). In their study of 64 former
volunteers, qualitative interview data revealed participants indicated reasons for leaving their
organizations were due to a lack of trust specifically when problems were not addressed
appropriately and when volunteers did not feel supported by leadership (Milbourn et al., 2019).
Boezeman and Ellemers (2014) found a connection between volunteer pride and leadership.
They collected data from 183 surveys completed by active volunteers of a left-wing political
organization. Structured equations modeling (SEM) analysis of the data revealed volunteers felt
pride in the organization when they perceived leadership embodied the morality and identity of
the organization and when leadership communicated to volunteers about volunteer work
effectiveness. The two variables of perceived leader support and perceived support for
expressing ideas both related to respect. The volunteer-supervisor relationship and connecting
with other volunteers are factors in volunteer decisions to stay with organizations. In their study
of 79 volunteers of a Los Angeles based grief support center, Bauer and Lim, (2019) used a five-
point Likert scale survey and found a significant relationship between a volunteer, their manager,
and organizational identification. Bauer and Lim (2019) also found a significant relationship
between the volunteer’s organizational identification and internal communication (p = .005).
Volunteer retention is significantly influenced by the volunteer-supervisor relationship.
23
Usadolo and Usadolo, (2019) studied the impact of lower-level management on volunteers’
workplace outcomes in South Africa. They used a six-point Likert scale and surveyed 196
volunteers of community-based organizations through the framework of leader member
exchange, explained as the quality of the communication between leaders and subordinates.
Supportive communication from leaders who used interpersonal skills and who were sensitive to
the needs of their volunteers influenced both volunteer job satisfaction and retention. High
quality communication exchanges between leadership and volunteers is important to retain
volunteers.
Volunteer Motivation
Another important construct of volunteerism is the ability to exemplify altruistic values
and selfless concern for others. Dwyer, et al., (2013) examined how leadership and personal
motive influence volunteer outcomes. In their study of 302 active volunteers in the northeastern
U.S., researchers found volunteers were more likely to be satisfied with the organization when
they had the ability to communicate their altruistic principles. This suggests altruism is an
important factor in influencing people to join and stay in organizations, gaining importance the
longer the volunteer is affiliated with the organization (Merrilees et al., 2020). This study sought
to understand the differences in motives throughout the volunteer lifecycle. Using 375 surveys
from 14 Australian nonprofit organizations, “A compassion to help people” (p.35) ranked 4.41
on a 5-point Likert scale as motivation to volunteer, slightly behind a similar statement of
“Giving service to the community” (p.35) which ranked 4.45 as a motivation to volunteer. “The
organization has a great cause” (p.35) ranked the highest, 4.52. The researchers then placed
volunteers in four phases corresponding to years with the organization: 1 year, 2 years, 3-4 years,
or 5+ years. Data revealed altruistic motivation increased as tenure increased. Altruistic
24
motivation, while low at 1 year doubled by years 3-4 years, and increased again at 5+ years.
Thus, a volunteer’s altruistic motivation is an influential factor in volunteer motivation.
Altruism is a behavior motivated by values and core values positively relate to volunteer
behavior and attitudes (Briggs et al., 2010). Researchers applied the career motivation construct
to understand if “other oriented” or “me oriented” (Briggs et al., 2010; p. 63) reasoning
influences attitudes toward helping others (AHO). They explain the distinction that AHO is a
pro-social attitude directed toward a behavior not an attitude directed toward a target. They
mailed surveys to 1000 volunteers of four Australian nonprofit organizations. Of those, a sample
was created that closely matched the demographics of the majority of Australian volunteers with
respect to age and gender leading to 174 usable surveys. Researchers used Westaby’s (2005)
behavioral reasoning theory which fundamentally posits personal beliefs form positive or
negative attitudes to inform subsequent behavior. Briggs et al., (2010) found when people engage
in volunteer work there existed a positive relationship between the desire to work for the
betterment of others and the importance of expressing that value. When people assigned
importance to their personal values of benevolence, researchers found a relationship with their
AHO. Consequently, when people assign importance to achievement values (being successful,
influential, and ambitious) there is a relationship with gaining career-type benefits when doing
volunteer work. Researchers found a negative relationship in this subset’s AHO. Results show
strong support that values influence volunteering intent when those values are oriented toward
helping others. Researchers found internally oriented values are not a significant reason to help
others.
Leaders that motivate volunteers with appropriate goals, structure, and organizational
concentration have a greater influence on volunteer capacity. De Clerck et al. (2020) researched
25
how management processes and leadership style related to volunteer capacity. In their survey of
153 board members from all-volunteer Flemish sports organizations, they found a significant and
positive relationship between volunteer capacity and leadership management processes. Also,
leaders who used a motivating leadership style significantly related to volunteer capacity.
Bivariate correlations further support this finding: volunteer capacity is positively related to
social determination theory’s leadership styles of autonomy-supportive and structuring are
positively related to volunteer capacity. The hypothesis that volunteer capacity was not related to
a demotivating leadership style was not supported, however there was support that volunteer
capacity was negatively correlated with an unpredictable and inconsistent chaotic leadership
style. Thus, to keep volunteers motivated, leadership should understand that volunteers
appreciate structure and the absence of chaos.
Aside from leadership style, nonprofit leaders must grasp what motivates each person to
volunteer in the first place and then align individual motivations with assigned tasks (Bang &
Ross, 2009). In their study of 254 marathon volunteers Bang and Ross (2009) wanted to see how
a volunteer’s motivation impacts their satisfaction, by assessing 30 volunteer motivation
elements using a 7-point Likert scale. Expression of values represented concern for others, the
event, and society overall, scored the highest (M=5.92), followed by love of sport (M = 4.82).
Other items include: interpersonal contacts represented expanding the volunteers’ social
networks (M = 4.73); personal growth represented gaining perspective and feeling useful and
needed (M = 4.66); community involvement represented working at the event as a means of
being involved in their local community, (M= 4.64); career orientation represented gaining
experience and a widening network for a future career (M = 2.94); and extrinsic rewards
represented free uniforms, food, and admission (M = 2.17). Supervisors must understand what
26
motivates each person in order to guide volunteers in finding personal satisfaction in
volunteering. In smaller local events, volunteer managers could more closely consider individual
motivations then assign tasks based on those ideals to recruit, motivate, and retain volunteers
while satisfying the psychological needs of value expression, career positioning, and love of the
event itself (Bang & Ross, 2009).
When aligning tasks with volunteer preferences, it is valuable to understand that volunteers may also
hold intrinsic motivations that are related to their perceptions of the social context (causality
orientations) of their organization. Oostlander et al., (2014) suggests that when an organization embraces
autonomy-supportive leadership, a relationship exists between volunteers’ intrinsic motivations and their
perceptions of social context (causality orientations) in their organization. The researchers explain that
volunteers’ motivations and perceptions range from autonomy-supportive (giving time based on
freedom of choice) to controlling (giving time to impress others or avoid punishment). Oostlander et al.,
(2014) studied 1979 volunteers in Switzerland and data revealed a positive association between the
variables of volunteer autonomy orientation and volunteer autonomous motivation. Likewise, a positive
relationship was revealed between the variables of volunteer control orientation and volunteer control
motivation. No significant association was revealed between volunteers' autonomous orientation and
control motivation. Equally, there was no significant correlation between control orientation and
autonomous motivation. Therefore, the researchers proposed a moderating role of volunteer motivations
and volunteer perceptions in the presence of autonomy supported leadership.
Some volunteers require more care than others and this is also true when working with
highly engaged volunteers. Management must handle highly motivated volunteers with more
flexibility and communication because this group has higher sensitivities to trust, agreeableness,
and socialization. (Einolf & Yung, 2018). In their study to determine motivational factors of 26
27
people who donated 10 or more hours per week to a single organization, dubbed “super
volunteers,” Einolf and Yung (2018) found no significant difference between super volunteers
and less active volunteers in terms of age, race, ethnicity, or family status. The data revealed
personal values were the most important reason most respondents became super volunteers, and
that the organization’s values must align with their own. Researchers also found those volunteers
who had more “agreeable personality” traits (agreeable, prosocial and motivated to be helpful)
were significantly more agreeable (p = .025) when compared to less active volunteers. Super
volunteers also were more integrated and trusting of their neighborhoods (p = .009) and spent
more time socializing with people in their neighborhoods (p = .085), friends (p = .002), and
family (p = .04), confirming their broad activities that nonprofit leadership must be aware of and
sensitive to. A bureaucratic approach disallows this group to feel valued (Einolf & Yung, 2018).
Volunteer Dissatisfaction
Unsatisfied volunteers can lead to diminished performance of organizational goals.
Something as simple as misalignment of volunteer personality with the organization may lead to
volunteer dissatisfaction (Van Vianen et al., 2008). In their study to identify factors that
influence volunteer satisfaction, commitment, and retention by studying person-environment
relationships, Van Vianen et al., (2008) surveyed 158 volunteers across six volunteer
organizations spanning elder care, hospital, church, sports, and education. These were tenured
volunteers, having served over seven years, averaging five hours per week. To rate personalities,
participants were asked to determine the extent to which they thought their personalities matched
a list of 30 adjectives across a 5-point Likert scale. They were then asked to use the same scale to
rate their perceptions of a prototypical volunteer. The two measurements were correlated.
Participants were then asked to rate statements regarding satisfaction, commitment, and exit
28
intention. Satisfaction (r = -.41, p < .01) and commitment (r = -.22, p < .01) were negatively and
significantly correlated to exit intention, suggesting satisfaction and commitment are important
in volunteer retention. Data further revealed personality fit was positively and significantly (β =
.22, p < .01) related to volunteer satisfaction.
Job dissatisfaction can cause episodic volunteering, unmet expectations, and an unmet need
for organizational support and communication. Wilson (2012) documented a fluctuation toward
episodic and sporadic volunteering in which volunteers are less interested in long term
commitment and prefer shorter duration and less commitment to the organization, citing needs
for greater flexibility. This trend, in which people give irregular small amounts of time was also
confirmed by Hyde et al., (2016) in their study of 340 volunteers from Relay for Life, an event
supporting cancer research and patients while honoring cancer survivors. Hyde et al, (2016)
survey data showed episodic volunteering (EV) was related to age. Participants were placed in
three categories, each revealing different perspectives and patterns: novice EV were first time
Relay for Life volunteers, transition EV were those who had participated one or more times for
2-4, years, and sustained EV were those who volunteered for the event consistently for 5-6 years.
Hyde et al., (2016), found a significant difference between the EV average age of three phases
with sustained EV’s being significantly older than both the novice EV’s and transition EV’s.
Other differences were found based on the three EV phases: The sustained EV’s reported higher
incidences of: parent(s), partner or sibling(s) with cancer when compared to the novice EV
group. Those in the sustained EV group also experienced more friends who had been diagnosed
with cancer than the transition EV group, showing that the sustained EV group may have had
more connection with the event that resonated with their belief in the cause. The younger novice
EV’s revealed having grandparent(s) who were diagnosed with cancer when compared to the
29
sustained EV group. Further analysis revealed specific attributes for each group that predicted
retention, with satisfaction being a common trait across all three groups. The novice EV retention
attributes were social/enjoyment, benefit motives, social norm, and satisfaction, whereas the
attributes used to predict transition EV were commitment and satisfaction. The attributes used to
retain sustained EV’s were supporting the financial health of the organization, social norm,
satisfaction, and commitment. One limitation of this study is that researchers did not delineate if
participants were volunteers in other nonprofit activities, other than placing first time volunteers
in the novice EV group. Further, researchers did not fully address the personal nature of
supporting a cancer charity wherein participants (97%) had a personal relationship with someone
who experienced a cancer diagnosis, with 80% reporting knowing someone who got the cancer
diagnosis within the past two years.
Farmer and Fedor (1999) posited volunteers whose expectations were met would
participate to a greater degree than those with unmet expectations. Volunteers valued
organizational support over organizational reciprocity when deciding to remain (Farmer &
Fedor, 1999). In their study of 451 volunteers from 95 chapters of a large, U.S.-based fundraising
health nonprofit, using a 5-point Likert scale Farmer and Fedor (1999) found a significant
relationship with met expectations and volunteer participation: volunteers participated in the
organization to a greater extent when their expectations were met (β = 0.11, p < .05). Similarly,
when volunteers reported greater organizational support, they tended to participate more ( 𝛽 =
.45, p < .05). Those volunteers who perceived little organizational support and unmet
expectations participated the least, feeling that while some things could be overlooked because
they shared a common value with the organization, those volunteers who felt the organization
did not care about their well-being were less likely to put effort into volunteer duties (Farmer &
30
Fedor, 1999). Data revealed participation was correlated with turnover intentions; when
participation was high, turnover intentions were low (β = -.60, p < .05). In this study, the effects
of organizational support significantly impacted intent to leave, however met expectations did
not produce a significant result.
Organizational commitment and work satisfaction can decrease in the early years of
volunteerism leading to an intention to exit (Merrilees et al., 2020). These researchers conducted
a study of 357 respondents and placed volunteers in tenure groups: 1 year, 2 years, 3-4 years, and
5+ years. In year one, the most dominant factors of intention to stay were organizational
commitment and work satisfaction. However, by year three both organizational commitment and
work satisfaction dropped, illustrating that when a volunteer’s needs and ideals were less than
satisfactory, exit was warranted.
Volunteer Retention
Lack of organizational support and communication compounds the retention problem
faced by some nonprofit organizations. Boezeman and Ellemers (2014) found a connection
between organizational support and commitment to the organization. They developed two studies
to determine if pride and respect related to leadership communication about volunteer
effectiveness and organizational attachment. They first surveyed 109 participants who were
active volunteers of nonprofit organizations representing charities, churches, and animal shelters.
Researchers found there is a relationship between support from management for the volunteer,
their work and volunteer alignment, and satisfaction with the organization. Using SEM data
revealed when leaders communicate to volunteers about the effectiveness of the volunteer work,
the volunteers report they have pride in the organization. There is a direct relationship between
management’s support of effective volunteer activity and the volunteers feeling valued by
31
management. Communication from leadership regarding volunteer work effectiveness revealed
an indirect relationship of volunteer-organization alignment. When volunteers felt they had
support from leadership (β = 0.23, p < 0.01) volunteers were more likely to identify with their
organization resulting in increased volunteer satisfaction.
Walker, et al., (2016) studied volunteers of 721 Australian organizations addressing the
needs of communities, animals, youth, churches, the environment, and the arts. The data revealed
tenure was related to greater intention to stay with the organization compared to volunteers who
had less tenure. They found tenure resulted in less than 1% of intention variance (R
2
= .01, F(df)
= 3.93 (2, 718), p < .05). And while psychological contract breach (in the volunteer context,
according to Gouldner, 1960, psychological contract breach is when the volunteer perceives their
obligation is not reciprocated by the organization), tenure, and perceived organizational support
made significant contributions to the regression equation, the strongest predictor for volunteer
intent to remain was the absence of psychological contract breach (β = -.43, p < .05). The data
from these studies suggests that most quitters were at one point happy to participate in doing
what they could to accomplish organizational goals, however when they were not fully prepared
for the amount of work expected or the realization of “how bad things really are,” volunteers
became overwhelmed. It is a consideration that better communication from leadership may
improve the volunteer experience and avoid volunteer turnover. Honesty, transparency, and
social activities with other volunteers outside of the organization’s subject matter might help
volunteers stay with the organization.
Trust, satisfaction, and commitment were all important inclusion indicators of retaining
volunteers (Waters & Bortree, 2012). In their study of 471 volunteers (299 women and 173 men)
a nine-point Likert scale was used in surveys across 53 library branches, Waters and Bortree
32
(2012) found participants felt most included in their work groups but not in social groups. Men
and women perceived inclusion in different areas: men felt included in higher management, the
organization overall, and in decision making. Women perceived more inclusion in workgroups
and in the information networks within the organization. For both men and women, to explore
intent to continue, trust, commitment, and control mutuality (the agreement in a binary
relationship of who holds power), and satisfaction were all influential with commitment. This
information shows how men and women perceive inclusion differently and it is important for the
organization to match communication to volunteers that match the volunteers’ needs for
satisfaction, commitment, and control mutuality to encourage retention.
Volunteer Exit
Inclusionary communication and recognition are important elements of retention however
sometimes exit is unavoidable. Volunteers leave for many reasons but lack of training and
recognition is a factor as less than half of nonprofits match volunteer’s skills with tasks and
about a third recognize volunteers for their efforts (Eisner et al, 2009). Volunteer independence
is another element. Hustinx (2010) posits volunteers are “reflexive” (p. 238) in that individuals
permanently enjoy active and autonomous self-monitoring of their life choices. In doing so, they
use a coping tool called “biographical match” (p. 238) wherein situations of opportunity and
motivation must match to create goal setting. Hustinx (2010) studied 751 current and past
volunteers of five Belgian Red Cross organizations to investigate what motivates volunteers to
exit. Quitters were placed in three groups according to tenure with the organization: early leavers
(two years or less service), mid-term leavers (three to five years tenure), and veterans (more than
five years of service). Across all three groups, external time pressures created the most stress of
overload, affecting around 25% of ex-volunteers who were involved for shorter time periods.
33
Some volunteers did mention other reasons to leave: they were dissatisfied because they felt they
weren’t recognized for their efforts; the group had an uncomfortable atmosphere; or the work
was poorly organized. Others complained of heavy responsibility and complicated duties. It
appears leadership communication was not employed to a great extent in those situations.
Sometimes, other things take the volunteer’s attention away from the organization. A
common factor of volunteer exit, even when the volunteer enjoys the organization, was a lack of
balance between work life and volunteer life which lead to overload, burnout, unequal
distribution of duties, and a reduced sense of belongingness to the organization (Milbourn et al.,
2019). In their study of 64 past volunteers from an international community service organization
who volunteered between 2013-2016, Milbourn et al., (2019) found the participant’s decisions to
leave were influenced by five major themes surrounding a lack of organizational and work
satisfaction: burnout; lack of voice and autonomy; isolation; misalignment between the
organization and the values of the volunteer; and issues of trust with management. Furthermore,
63% indicated at exit they largely did not feel a sense of belongingness to the organization
(Milbourn et al., 2019) indicating a lack of appropriate communication. The authors did not
address the possibility that answering “a lack of life balance” may have been an easier answer to
a question that participants may have social difficulties answering honestly.
Volunteer exit is driven by job dissatisfaction and lack of engagement within the
organization. Volunteers sometimes join organizations who do not provide adequate training or
supplies which often leave volunteers frustrated at their own lack of task completion and
lingering questions about the efficacy of the organization. Harp et al., (2017) studied 235
volunteers from three non-profit organizations in California and Colorado and found a negative
association between organizational constraints and volunteer engagement. Furthermore, when
34
volunteer roles were not well defined, volunteers tended to be less engaged (Harp et al., 2017).
Reeb et al., (1998) applied Bandura’s (1997) concept of self-efficacy to volunteerism and found
volunteers have varying confidence in their own ability to influence positive change through
their nonprofit activities. Harp et al., (2017) found low levels of confidence had a negative
influence on volunteer engagement. Thus, even when faced with organizational constraints,
volunteers who believe they are making a difference tend to stay engaged. Leadership can define
roles to volunteers and communicate any lack of resources to help volunteers overcome the
constraints and assist them in completing their activities.
Conceptual Framework
The volunteer experience contains many of the facets discussed here and likely many
others. A conceptual framework can help us to understand how a volunteer fits into an
organization. The conceptual framework is a lens from which to explore the study and to find
concepts that connect within the theoretical framework (Grant & Ooslando, 2014). This study’s
theoretical framework is Clark & Estes’ (2008) gap analysis. Gap analysis is used to find
performance deficiencies that can be attributed to problems with the knowledge and skill,
motivation, or gaps in organizational processes and/or a lack of necessary equipment in
organizations. Clark & Estes postulate that all performance problems can be attributed to a gap in
one or more elements of knowledge, motivation, or organization gaps. If the organization does
not provide appropriate communication to the volunteer, the organization places the volunteer in
a restricted environment and the volunteer is powerless to un-restrict it. The volunteer may
already have at least some motivation because they are at the nonprofit, but without appropriate
knowledge and training by the organization, their intrinsic motivation (e.g., altruism) and
extrinsic motivation (e.g., networking, enhanced skillset) are unable to develop. In this sense,
35
The
Volunteer
communication can propel a volunteer toward or away from an organization (see Figure 2 for a
visual representation of the communication path).
Figure 2
Communication Path
TION
Little
Communication
Augmented
Communication
The
Organization
The
Volunteer
The
Organization
Lack of effective
organizational
communication
Diminished
communication
results in
diminished
knowledge,
inefficient
teamwork, and
loss of
motivation
Improved
communication
distributes
knowledge
effectively
Improved
knowledge
increases
motivation
and
performance
Optimal communication leads to
knowledgeable and motivated
volunteers resulting in organizational
efficiency
The Volunteer
with
Communicatio
n
36
Gap analysis is one way of addressing organizational issues however one thing cannot be
ignored: People make decisions and communicate based on their personal ontological,
epistemological, axiological, power balance, worldview, and lived experiences (Aliyu et al.,
2015). Thus, volunteers consider personal lived experiences within their personal environments
when deciding to participate in volunteer activity. From their world view, they hold values and
assumptions about the world around them. Their values and assumptions lead them to club
membership. Performance objectives present themselves as the level of participation the
volunteer chooses to employ.
Summary
Overall, research on volunteerism indicates that there are many elements that work
together to create the volunteer experience. Volunteer coordinators at both community nonprofit
and political organizations have many tools to manage and understand how to recruit, motivate,
engage, and retain volunteers. Communication remains a common theme across the many
elements of volunteerism.
37
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study seeks to evaluate the extent to which communication with volunteers positively
influences recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention of women who are members of a
political volunteer organization in the Central Valley of California: Central Valley Ladies
Volunteer Group (CVLVG). Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework may point to
specific areas in the club’s communication processes that need improvement. The three key
stakeholder groups are internal and overlapping because participation at any level requires
membership: the club’s executive committee, board of directors, and the general membership.
Whether intentionally understood or not, all three groups work in concert to accomplish stated
club goals through a shared common identity and commitment to the club (Lewis, 2019). The
focus of this chapter is: to highlight the research questions; to discuss elements of the research
methodology used to explain the participant pool and data-gathering process; and to discuss the
analyzed information.
Research Questions
RQ 1: What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors do CVLVG volunteers report are
influential in their volunteerism with the organization?
RQ 2: What role do CVLVG volunteers report that communication plays in their satisfaction,
engagement, and likelihood of retention within the organization?
Overview of Design
To gather information to answer the research questions, I selected an explanatory
sequential mixed methods approach that utilizes quantitative and qualitative elements to garner
richer and more complete data than using a singular approach (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
38
Survey analysis will inform interview questions to attend to specific themes or areas in need of
further investigation (see Table 1).
Table 1
A Survey and Subsequent Interviews are Needed to Answer the Research Questions.
Research questions
Quantitative
survey
Qualitative
interviews
RQ 1: What knowledge, motivational, and organizational
factors do CVLVG volunteers report are influential in their
volunteerism with the organization?
X X
RQ 2: What role do CVLVG volunteers report that
communication plays in their satisfaction, engagement, and
likelihood of retention within the organization?
X X
39
Research Setting
Participants were recruited from the current 312 voting members of CVLVG, who are all
over the age of 18 and predominately female. While voting members of sister organizations and
males can join CVLVG, they are not considered voting members of this group. A question
within the survey asked for membership status to easily identify voting members. While their
non-voting input should not be discounted and may be anecdotally important, voting members
are the key stakeholder group in this study. Permission to study the group was granted by the
president and executive committee at their meeting August 25, 2020 and is stated in the minutes
of the organization.
The 2020-2021 president sent two emails to members and a description of the study,
along with a link to the survey to encourage members to take the anonymous survey. Participants
self-selected to participate in Phase II of the study: the semi structured interview. Pazzaglia et al.,
(2016) encourages researchers to contact those who hold the sought after information in order to
find what is being researched. CVLVG members are those who hold the information about
possible communication process gaps that this study seeks to reveal.
The Researcher
I am a member of CVLVG and serve on the executive committee as recording secretary
and I am the rising second vice president. All executive committee positions serve for two years.
The recording secretary keeps minutes of all executive committee and board of directors
meetings and has four board of director positions who report to her. The second vice president is
responsible for fundraising for the organization and has six board of director positions who
report to her.
40
I identify as a white, Christian female. I joined the group several years ago then took a
25-year hiatus to raise our son and take care of my ailing parents. I rejoined the group five years
ago and while I did recognize a handful of members, most had either passed away or moved on.
After one year of membership the nominating committee asked and I accepted their nomination
to serve as the club’s recording secretary, a job I held 25 years ago. As an executive committee
member, I am expected to attend all or nearly all executive director and board of director
meetings and club events. I intend to present findings accurately, in an understandable manner
free of overstatement, and with adherence to descriptive validity (Bergin, 2018).
I spoke from the podium at a November 2021 special event to explain the purpose of the
study and how member participation is important while emphasizing the anonymous nature of
member participation in the survey. I was trying to collect data before installation of new officers
in December. While I had planned on it, I was not able to write a newsletter article to inform
those members who were not at the event, however all members received the emailed link to the
survey. I honored participant answers in both the anonymous survey and the qualitative
interviews without leading questioning or choosing sides and without the intent of placing
participant answers or the study in the best possible light (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The
purpose of the study is beneficial to those who participated, as they are the group that has the
information to guide the study in identifying communication gaps.
I remain diligent in adapting an open worldview as I identify with a post-positivist
worldview. Equipped with this realization, for this study, I am consciously adopting a
constructivist and/or pragmatist worldview to understand that members construct their realities
of what has meaning to them and their experiences, and to analyze their input to find practical
solutions to fill any identified gaps in communication. In short, the study is “with” participants
41
rather than “on” them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; p. 64). I do wish success for the organization
and am fully aware of the possibility of subtle biases that may (or may not) surface. I addressed
potential biases in a professional manner.
Survey and interview questions were adopted or adapted from established and published
resources: Aaker et al., (2004); Blader and Tyler, (2009); Bozeman and Ellmers, (2014); Dwyer et
al., (2013); Mowen and Sujan, (2005); Nogueira et al., (2020); Senses-Ozyurt and Villicana-
Reyna, (2016); and Webb et al., (2000).
Data Sources
Data collection was conducted in two phases utilizing an explanatory sequential mixed
methods approach: a quantitative survey followed by semi structured qualitative interviews. The
number of survey participants exceeded the number of interview participants. The survey link
was available for 2 weeks during the month of November. The president offered a paper copy of
the survey and self-addressed, stamped return envelope, to any members who preferred it over
taking the survey digitally, however none were requested. Survey data analysis was
approximately 2 weeks. Interviews were scheduled at the convenience of the participant(s), who
self-selected for the interview. All study designs were reviewed by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) for approval. The goal was to have most or all of data collection completed by
installation of new officers December 13, 2021.
Survey
A web-based survey consisting of 27 questions (see Appendix A) was administered using
Qualtrics software made available by my university. Most answers were on a 5-point Likert-type
scale, with “1” meaning “strongly disagree” and “4” meaning “strongly agree” with the “not
applicable” or “prefer to not disclose” answers listed last and away from the other answers to
42
avoid implying a midpoint or average answer (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). There were four
essay-type answers in the survey to garner qualitative data. Questions were designed to allow
participants to easily understand and formulate answers while reducing the possibility of
misinterpretation (Robinson & Leonard, 2019) while seeking to evaluate how communication
affects volunteer retention, engagement, satisfaction, performance, and brand awareness.
Participants
Participants were the 312 voting members and volunteers of CVLVG who can reveal
organizational communication gaps that can positively support recruitment, engagement,
satisfaction, performance, and retention of members of the group. All participants are active or
sustaining members over age 18. Sampling was: nonprobability, because the results are derived
from participants who happen to be available to contribute to the study (Creswell & Creswell,
2018); purposive, because results will not be generalized to the larger population and was
information rich to CVLVG; typical, because results are seeking information from the usual and
typical members of the group and is not seeking data from an uncommon set of participants;
convenience, because of constraints on time (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016); and census, because
data was collected from the entire membership as opposed to a sample of the total population of
CVLVG (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Demographic questions will not ask for race/ethnicity
because that may make the few members of color feel their responses are not anonymous.
Instrumentation
Qualtrics was used as the instrument to collect survey data to protect participant
anonymity. Qualtrics is a software program that delivers the survey and also creates spreadsheets
and graphs to assist with analysis. Questions are adapted or adopted from Aaker et al., (2004);
Blader and Tyler, (2009); Bozeman and Ellmers, (2014); Dwyer et al., (2013); Mowen and
43
Sujan, (2005); Nogueira et al., (2020); and Senses-Ozyurt and Villicana-Reyna, (2016) and
Webb et al., (2000), as their content covers elements easily adapted to gap analysis questions
relevant to this study. Questions from the Aaker et al., (2004) study were adapted and reduced
from 25 questions that addressed brand relationship and the importance of understanding how
the CVLVG brand influences participant tolerance for engagement, satisfaction and retention.
The Nogueira et al., (2020) studies also provided questions adaptable to address brand The
Blader and Tyler, (2009) study provided questions addressing elements of engagement. The
Bozeman and Ellmers, (2014) and Dwyer et al., (2013) studies provided questions adaptable to
address volunteer satisfaction. Mowen and Sujan, (2005) and Webb et al, (2000) studies
provided questions adaptable for engagement. The Senses-Ozyurt and Villicana -Reyna (2016)
instrument was a five-part survey with well over 50 questions, with some questions adapted to
this study, while other topics were not necessary for the CVLVG study.
Data Collection Procedures
The survey took participants approximately 15 minutes to complete. Participants had 2
weeks to complete the survey. After seven weekdays have passed from the first emailed link,
participants will receive a follow up email prompting them to complete the survey. Incomplete
surveys, while not desired, may contain information useful to the study and were used in the data
set.
Survey questions seek to uncover any knowledge, motivation, or organization gaps
present at CVLVG and to understand the role of communication in the satisfaction, engagement,
and likelihood of retention of CVLVG membership. An example of a knowledge question is “In
your own words, please describe the purpose of CVLVG.” An example of a motivation question
is “Given the opportunity, I would feel comfortable encouraging others to join CVLVG.” An
44
example of an organization question is “CVLVG acknowledges the volunteer work I do.” See
Appendix A for the survey questions.
Data Analysis
The survey will allow for identification of themes based on participant responses. I
generated descriptive statistics to organize and describe some of the basic features of the data
(Salkind & Frey, 2020). These statistics will allow me to confidently make statements about the
dataset. Once analysis of the survey datasheet was completed, further interview questions were
created for those self-selecting to participate in interviews.
Interviews
Data from the survey helped to inform interview questions. Preliminary sample interview
questions are in Appendix B. Interview questions follow Patton’s (2002) guidance on utilizing
six types of questions: experience and behavior; opinion and values; feeling; knowledge;
sensory; however demographics were not included. Questions were designed to connect to Clark
and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework and sought to inform areas of improvement in
communication processes of knowledge, motivation, and any organizational barriers. Questions
also seek to understand members’ perception of the role communication plays in their
satisfaction, engagement, and likelihood of retention within the organization.
Participants
Participants are those members who self-selected during the survey to offer additional
data to the study via personal interview.
Instrumentation
An interview protocol directed data collection (see Appendix B). Interview questions
varied based on Patton’s (2002) six question types: opinions and values, feeling, knowledge,
45
sensory, however demographics was not utilized. The interview protocol was tested on two
members from a different CVLVG club in a different California Central Valley city. Their
feedback helped to strengthen the protocol to its current state.
I discussed with participants a little about the study and offered my contact information if
participants have further questions or want to add to their initial comments. I asked, and was
granted by each, permission to use a recording device.
Data Collection Procedures
Survey participants had an opportunity to identify themselves as an interview candidate
by designating as such on a specific survey question. As typically participants prefer the
researcher coming to them (Weiss, 1994), in light of IRB requirements at this time, all semi-
structured interviews (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) were conducted by Zoom in keeping with the
confidential nature of the interviews and IRB protocols. The interviews were designed to last 45-
60 minutes. I created handwritten field notes of some participant answers and immediate
transcription of my thoughts. Since Zoom was used extensively, that technology created a
verbatim transcription of each interview.
Interview questions sought to uncover any gaps in the knowledge, motivation, or
organization communication the CVLVG group has with its members and to understand the role
of communication in the satisfaction, engagement, and likelihood of retention of CVLVG
membership. A knowledge interview question was “If I had just joined this organization as a new
volunteer, tell me how I would know what is expected of me.” A motivation interview question
was “Remember a time when you had an idea for the organization that you were really excited
about. Tell me about what you did with that idea.” An organization interview question was
46
“Overall, describe how well you feel the organization communicates with the volunteers?”
Please see Appendix B for the interview questions.
Data Analysis
Interview questions allowed for the collection of qualitative data and an opportunity for
participants to offer richer descriptions of how they construct their experiences with CVLVG.
The interview sample was smaller than the survey sample because participants self-selected
during the survey to participate in interviews. In-person interviews were transcribed using Zoom
technology. Data collected was coded to reveal themes that were inferred to the larger CVLVG
population. While studying the interviews, I found emerging themes within the data. These
themes were bucketed around similar comments and are discussed herein.
To make meaning of the qualitative data, I read through the answers to the interviews and
compared the responses to the responses of other interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I
conducted interviews over several weeks which allowed me to read participant responses several
times before and during subsequent interviews. I recorded the interviews and watched the video
as I read the transcript to make sure the transcript was correct but also to watch for expression
and voice inflection. I did not wait to complete every interview to engage in this process, rather I
did it as soon as possible after each completed interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I regularly
reviewed the research questions and I kept a notepad handy to record any ideas and thoughts that
surfaced. I continued this process, comparing previous interviews with new interviews until all
eight participants were interviewed and transcribed. I then highlighted common words and
phrases, using different color highlighters, applying straight highlighting, circles, squares,
brackets, or dots around or near words on the transcript.
47
From there I looked for patterns through the Clark & Estes (2008) KMO lens. I
synthesized themes from the open-ended answers provided. Other categories outside of KMO
were responses relating to volunteer satisfaction, brand awareness, volunteer engagement, and
volunteer retention. I reviewed and compared transcripts in tandem with the research questions.
Using exhaustive review of all data helped me to identify codes, categories, and themes (Bowen,
2009).I developed a codebook that identified major themes: members seeking connection; and a
lack of functional knowledge. The codebook allowed for deeper and repeated analysis which
helped me to understand participant meaning and connect it to the relevance of the study. For
example, the theme “seeking connections” was identified by three pieces of data: the code
friends indicated existent friendship relationships that pushed new members to join and the code
uneasy referenced all the instances participants mentioned they felt isolated, seemingly opposite
of the friends code. The theme lack of functional knowledge referenced three codes: the inability
of participants to name the organizational goals; their inability to indicate what the club expected
of them; and the times participants spoke about their desire for improved clear communication.
Validity and Reliability
Research is only as transparent and trustworthy as the researcher conducting the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To increase study credibility and quality, the I used different sources
of data, namely the survey and interviews. Member checks helped to avoid misinterpretation of
participant interview responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Members across California likely
have conflicting views of their affiliations with their clubs; therefore reliability and external
validity are not guaranteed, however if results are consistent and dependable then they are
considered valid (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). If findings are consistent with the presented data,
then dependability is achieved (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Test participants from a different club
48
in a different central California area reviewed the survey and interview questions for input on
ease of use (Robinson & Leonard, 2019).
Ethical Implications
The purpose of this study is to collect data as responsibly and ethically as possible in
order to have confidence in findings and to offer trustworthy, actable solutions to solve the
problem of practice (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Researchers are obligated to extensive
professional and ethical considerations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) and I accept the
responsibility to conduct this study to the highest ethical standards. Patton (2015) posits:
“…ultimately, for better or worse, the trustworthiness of the data ties directly to the
trustworthiness of those who collect and analyze the data…” (p. 706).
The researcher’s primary obligation is to protect participants, establish a trustworthy
relationship with them, and address any problems that may arise to guard them and the
organization of study (Israel & Hay, 2006). As an ethnographic member and executive
committee member of CVLVG, my profile within the organization, while unlikely, may have the
potential to cause members to feel coerced or forced to participate (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Interview participants were informed they may preclude themselves from the study at any time
without providing a reason and without any consequence. Participants were not compensated. All
responses were held to the highest levels of confidentiality. Survey links were supplied to the
2020-2021 president of the organization for distribution thus abating participant feelings of
possible coercion on behalf of the researcher. Any in-person contact between me and participants
followed strict protocol as dictated by the IRB and Office of Protection of Research Subjects.
This research sought to understand how communication influences volunteer recruitment,
satisfaction, performance, and retention in a singular nonprofit organization in the Central Valley
49
of California. Data was collected in an open democratic fashion: participants have input and
power to remove their comments from the study (Glesne, 2011). I hold an obligation of
transparency to participants regarding the aspects of the study without influencing the study.
There is no foreseeable negative consequence to participants who choose to offer their
perspectives to this study. Anonymized and analyzed study results were offered to the executive
committee of CVLVG and to participants who wish to review it.
The researcher and participants were both volunteers in the organization thus there is
likely no power differential (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants may “want to help” and
were asked ahead of the survey and interview processes to please give their honest and sincere
opinions. I acknowledge wanting to have a positive influence on the group, although study
results and suggestions may or may not be used by the organization, contingent upon executive
committee preferences to adapt or reject solutions outlined in the study. Study results and the
resultant dissertation was shared with CVLVG executive board and pseudonyms are used to
avoid revealing participant identification. I assumed responsibility for participant answers and
the resultant data was held in strict confidentiality, and the data was destroyed after dissertation
publication. I acknowledge using care when speaking on behalf of participants, who are better
able to voice their constructed realities (Tuck & Yang, 2014).
50
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to analyze the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that are necessary for the recruitment, satisfaction, engagement, and retention of
women who are members of an all-female political volunteer organization.
The theoretical framework used in this study is the Clark & Estes (2008) gap analysis to
discover gaps between performance goals and desired outcomes of recruitment, satisfaction,
engagement, and retention of volunteers in this paid-membership group. Two research questions
guide this study:
RQ1 What knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors do CVLVG volunteers
report are influential in their volunteerism with the organization?
RQ2 What role do CVLVG volunteers report that communication plays in their
satisfaction, engagement, and likelihood of retention within the organization?
As stated in Chapter Three, this study used a Qualtrics survey link, distributed to each
member of CVLVG via an email message from the 2021-2022 president of the organization to
garner both quantitative and qualitative data. Most responses were across a 5-point Likert scale
and the survey included a few open-ended qualitative questions. After analysis of Phase I survey
data, Phase II consisted of interviewing those participants who designated a willingness to offer
deeper qualitative data. Participants self-selected for an interview during Phase I of data
collection. Phase II consisted of conducting those interviews, using the Zoom platform, and
followed an informal, semi-structured interview protocol designed to understand volunteer
interface and experience to identify influential factors in their perceived satisfaction,
engagement, and likelihood of retention with the organization.
51
A survey was electronically conducted November 15, 2021 through November 29, 2021.
They survey yielded a 17% response rate, with 53 of 312 members participating. Participants
indicated their membership status: 92% were active members and 8% were sustaining members
of CVLVG. The difference between active and sustaining membership is that for the latter group
a larger dollar amount in membership dues helps to “sustain” the club. There is no difference in
benefits between active and sustaining members. While the study was directed at active and
sustaining members, none of the club’s 33 associate members (women who are active or
sustaining members of similar clubs or men) chose to participate, even though they were
included in all distributed emailed communication and survey completion reminders. The
anecdotal age range of active and sustaining members is 20-80 years of age, with the majority of
members were aged 45-70 years old, however this demographic was not collected as age was
unrelated to the purpose of the study. Qualitative interviews were conducted at participant
convenience from December 21, 2021- January 7, 2022 and lasted 45 to 60 minutes. See Table 2
for a description of the interview participants.
52
Table 2
Description of Interview Participants
Participant name
Years with
CVLVG
Participation as a
committee member/
chairwoman
Occupation
Participant 1 2 1/0
Unemployed
single mother
Participant 2 2 0/0
Insurance
Executive
Participant 3 2 1/0
Former Global
Fortune 500
executive
Participant 4 7 0/3
Retired from
higher education
Participant 5 3 2/1
Retired from
nonprofit industry
Participant 6 8 2/0
Construction
industry small
business owner
Participant 7 3 1/1
Retired from the
healthcare industry
Participant 8 3 0/0
Retired from the
energy industry
Note. Committee chair participation is different than being a member of a committee. One might
chair a committee yet be a committee member of a different committee. Data spans the duration
of each participant’s club membership. Also, a lack of committee membership does not imply
nonparticipation in club activities.
53
Results and Findings for Research Question 1
This section addresses the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that
members indicated are influential in their volunteerism with the organization. Clark & Estes
(2008) posit that knowledge reflects the overall knowledge and skillset of members and how to
accomplish the organization’s mission and goals; motivation reflects the internal desire to
accomplish a goal; and organizational barriers reflect any problems in the organization’s culture,
equipment, or other faulty organizational process.
Knowledge
Clark & Estes (2008) offer definitions of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
barriers. These researchers define “knowledge” as a type of efficacy: the understanding and level
of skills to know who to ask, what to do, where to go, and when and how to achieve a
performance goal. Survey and interview results are outlined below.
Survey participants felt they have a good working knowledge of the group. A majority
(94.34%) of survey participants agree (56.6% strongly agree and 37.74% agree) they are
comfortable describing CVLVG to someone unfamiliar with the organization and 90.57% of
participants (strongly agree 64.15% and 26.42% agree) they feel comfortable encouraging others
to join CVLVG. Furthermore, 87.5% of participants agree (39.58% strongly agree 47.92% agree)
they understand who to ask for volunteer opportunities within the organization.
While the quantitative survey questions give the initial impression that participants’
knowledge of the internal workings of the group is high, qualitative sections of the survey show
a different story. The organization’s website landing page states “Our main focus is to educate
our members…” When asked to describe the purpose of the organization, 25 of 49 survey
participants used terms such as “to gain knowledge” and “to give women information.” Of the
54
responses that did include the word “educate” such as “to educate women,” and “to educate the
citizens of California,” seven (14%) correctly identified the club’s purpose as “to educate
members.” While approximately half of members grasp that the purpose of the organization is
education based, less than a quarter grasped that the purpose is to educate the membership. This
contradicts the perspective that participants believe that they have sufficient knowledge of the
organization and reveals challenges. Survey participants’ qualitative responses indicated that
they feel they can confidently describe the club, invite others to join, and know where to go with
questions. Perhaps they shouldn’t feel quite so confident. Without a clear understanding of
CVLVG’s purpose, the data shows members are inventing their own versions which may or may
not be congruent with the club.
Interviews provided additional support that members’ knowledge may not be as complete
as the survey results suggest. The 2020-2021 CVLVG president highlighted the club’s yearly
five goals at most monthly meetings and these goals were displayed on a scrolling PowerPoint-
style display at most monthly membership meetings, even during meetings wherein the president
didn’t mention them. When the club reached a goal, it was highlighted at monthly meetings. The
goals were prominently displayed on page one or page two of each month’s club newsletter and
various executive committee members wrote articles highlighting the importance of each goal.
Of eight interviews, Participant 3 could correctly name two club goals and no interview
participant could list all five of the club’s goals. This is evidence that participants are without
clear and effective communication of the club’s objectives. Likewise, interview participants also
revealed a limited knowledge of CVLVG goals, and thus were left to create their own versions
which, like survey qualitative data, may or may not be congruent with the club. Goals are not
55
achievable or evaluable if members do not have a clear understanding of what they are and a
reason for working toward them.
One purpose of this paper addresses retention of CVLVG members, and an assumption is
that active and sustaining members experience a degree of knowledge certainty with the
organization and its activities. This knowledge can be interpreted as a reason to retain
membership. I computed a retention composite using responses to questions: a) I feel connected
to CVLVG because of my relationships with other members; b) I will continue my membership
with CVLVG; c) I would stick with CVLVG even if it let me down once or twice; d) When I talk
about CVLVG I use “we” rather than “they”; and e) If someone criticized CVLVG I would see it
as an insult to me personally. Answers ranged from strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or
strongly agree. Those participants responding “neutral” were not included in composite scores.
These instruments suggest sufficient commitment to the organization to continue paid
membership.
I then tabulated a knowledge composite score using these questions: a) I would feel very
comfortable describing CVLVG to someone who was not familiar with it; b) Given the
opportunity, I would feel comfortable encouraging others to join CVLVG; and c) I understand
who to ask about volunteer opportunities at CVLVG. These questions relate to having a strong
working knowledge of the organization. A Spearman’s correlation revealed retention is strongly
positively correlated with knowledge (rs(32) = .65, p < .001) suggesting when member
knowledge is higher, membership retention is higher (see Figure 3). If club leadership could
effectively communicate the knowledge of the club’s purpose and goals, it is possible fewer
members would exit, leading to increases in membership that the club is seeking.
56
Figure 3
Retention is Strongly Positively Correlated with Knowledge
One reason why participants lack club knowledge is because they lack training or
orientation. Survey participants were not asked about training, however interview participants
were asked about training and seven of eight interview participants said they were not offered
training of any kind. Common comments include: “None that I can recall,” and “I don’t think
there was any training. You just show up at meetings.” Participant 4 said when she joined over
10 years ago, “…they had a nuts and bolts…why we got away from that I don’t know.”
Participant 5 said “When you first (join) you don’t know who is in charge or where to turn.”
Members may have a difficult time participating in accomplishing the goals of the club without
an orientation or training because they remain unclear of the club’s purpose, architecture, or
inner workings. As many as 75% of nonprofits do not provide regular training for their
volunteers (Eisner et al., 2009).
57
Motivation
Clark & Estes (2008) define motivation as choosing a goal, expending sufficient mental
effort, and persisting to complete the goal. In volunteerism, motivation includes expressing
altruism and personal values. Motivation can mean choosing a goal (such as attending monthly
meeting), expending mental effort (going to the meeting, listening and learning from the
speakers), and persisting to complete the goal (staying for the entirety of the meeting and
reflecting on what was learned/discussed and deciding if the new information aligns with
personal values).
Active members pay $50 annually to join or maintain membership. Each member donates
time according to their lifestyle such as street clean up, campaign activities, cooking at the local
homeless mission, supporting military veterans, and supporting Ronald McDonald House
(lodging for families near their seriously ill hospitalized children). Survey results indicated when
CVLVG volunteers were faced with a cause important to them, 61.22% of participants indicated
they both expend volunteer time and donate money to the cause (with 18.37% prefer to only
donate money, 20.41% prefer to donate only time, and none responded they would neither
donate time nor money). Unlike paid employees, members donate work hours and other
resources for no material gain other than intrinsic value.
Perception of inherent value appeared to have importance. A majority of survey
participants (74%) indicated CVLVG says a lot about the type of person they would like to be
(46% agree and 28% strongly agree) while 89.8% feel CVLVG makes a statement about what is
important to them (51.02% agree and 38.78% strongly agree). Survey results revealed 85.72%
(44.0% strongly agree and 40.82% agree) of participants felt the volunteer work they do with
CVLVG is satisfying. Again, a majority of participants (61.22%) prefer to both donate money
58
and time to a cause important to them. I tabulated a motivation coposite score using the questions
above to see if survey participants are sufficiently motivated in their volunteerism to continue
membership with the organization. I correlated the motivation composite with the retention
composite. A Spearman’s ranked correlation revealed retention is strongly positively correlated
with motivation (rs(28) = .67, p < .001) indicating a positive and strong relationship between
motivation and retention. If motivation is high, the correlation suggests that retention will also be
high (see Figure 4). Highly motivated volunteers will likely continue with the organization.
Motivation and retention might also speak to a personal need for action. Survey
participants showed a desire to contribute energy and resources to a cause important to them and
the club serves as a vehicle to effectuate motivation. Interview participants echoed a desire for
action. Participant 1 said “I want to help the community,” while Participants 2 and 3 said “It’s
important to funnel …concerns into an actionable item,” and “People are tired of sitting on their
hands,” respectively. Participant 3 agreed: “I needed to do something other than just complain.”
Six of eight of interview participants noted motivation to join the group came from some form of
relationship; some had close friends who were members and invited them to join; while other
participants felt the group offered networking opportunities.
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Figure 4
Retention is Strongly Positively Correlated with Motivation
Organization
Clark & Estes (2008) cite any faulty process or lack of necessary equipment as
organizational barriers. Those authors intend the primary context of their framework to apply to
education, government, and other “business” settings, but mention its usefulness in volunteer
work. For the purposes of this paper, the definition of organizational barriers is adjusted slightly
to include lacking, problematic, or otherwise faulty organizational communication.
Survey participants were asked about CVLVG organizational communication.
Participants were asked if they feel the information from CVLVG meeting reminder phone calls
is valuable (28% strongly agree, 44% agree); how comfortable they felt navigating the website
(74% strongly agree or agree); and their level of comfort using the emailed link to make
reservations (94% strongly agree or agree). These questions reflect one-way communicative
actions taken by the organization that are heard by members. I computed an organizational
60
communication composite score with these questions and correlated it to the retention composite.
Spearman’s correlation results reveal retention is positively related to organizational
communication (rs(27) = .49, p < .008) but not strongly so. The results suggest increased
organizational communication to the membership may coincidentally result in increases in
continuance with CVLVG (see Figure 5). If CVLVG leadership increases the one-way
communication of monthly meetings, emails, and newsletters, it will likely not strongly influence
continuance intentions of membership.
Figure 5
Retention is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication
61
For further analysis, survey participants were asked if they perceived CVLVG
acknowledges their work, values them, and if they perceive leadership supports their volunteer
work. A majority of survey participants (77.55%) responded that CVLVG acknowledges their
volunteer work (30.61% strongly agree and 46.94% agree). A majority (83.76%) of survey
participants also felt valued by CVLVG (36.73% strongly agree and 46.94% agree). Over 85%
perceive CVLVG leadership supports them in their volunteer duties (43.75% strongly agree and
41.67% agree).
I created a leadership communication composite score using the above questions because
these questions imply a dyadic conversation between members and leadership. I then correlated
it with the retention composite. Spearman’s correlation revealed retention is strongly and
positively related to leadership communication (rs(30) = .68, p < .001) (see Figure 6). Data
revealed organizational communication is less preferred by members. It is the dyadic
communication that demonstrates validation and recognition from club leadership that influences
member continuance intentions. For example, increased two-way communication such as
conversations and committee meetings wherein members are able to express opinions, congruent
with literature (Villacana-Reyes & Senses-Ozurt, 2016; Wymer & Starnes, 2001) that advocate
for volunteers to be listened to and heard is more likely to have an influence on retention than
one-way communication such as the newsletter, emails, or social media.
62
Figure 6
Retention is Strongly and Positively Correlated to Leadership Communication
Beyond finding relationships between retention variables and leadership or organizational
communication, survey participants were asked qualitative questions regarding improvements to
the club’s newsletter, weekly email, and monthly meetings.
Newsletter
Qualitative survey participants offered suggestions to improve the monthly newsletter.
Of 39 participants, 16 commented that the newsletter did not need improving while 13 felt a
change was needed. Ten participants did not answer the question. Six survey participants had
problems with the length mentioning it was either “too long” or “too wordy.”
While interview Participant 8 said the newsletter is “professionally done,” other
interview participants were so as complementary. Voicing concerns with length of the
newsletter, Participant 2 feels the newsletter “could be a little more professional,” and Participant
1 feels “(the newsletter) is a big run on sentence…you can’t grasp it all. Bullet points would
63
make it easier to read.” Participant 6 said “…people are more visual and there’s a need for
photos.”
There is no overwhelming opinion regarding newsletter improvements overall, as almost
as many people want to change it as those who prefer to keep it the same. Anecdotally, when I
asked leadership why the club has a monthly newsletter, two executive committee members said
while the primary purpose was on one hand to communicate with members, on the other hand it
is needed to qualify for national awards, with one executive committee member saying “…so we
can’t not have one.” In their attempt to increase awareness or provide information to members,
the newsletter is not a forceful communication tool, but it does help the club qualify for national
recognition.
Weekly Email
I did not question survey participants about the ways in which the organization
communicates with them; however the weekly email medium was mentioned by all eight
interview participants as a way CVLVG communicates with them. Some made comments that
they do not closely read it. Participant 3 said “I used to read (the weekly email) word for word
but not anymore.” Participant 6 said something similar “I pretty much don’t read most of it…I
(scroll) down to when’s my next meeting and (if) there’s something else going on.” The other six
interview participants mentioned emails but did not further elaborate if they felt email was
useful. Weekly email does not seem to be a strong communication vehicle for this group.
Members tend to scan the weekly email, finding only those pieces of information relevant to
them at that moment in time at the expense of other, less relevant pieces of information.
64
Monthly Meetings
Qualitative survey results garnered suggestions for improvement of the monthly
meetings. Of 43 responses, six felt no changes were needed, seven did not answer the question,
and 30 offered suggestions for change. See Table 3 for specific suggestions from participants to
improve monthly meetings.
Table 3
Suggestions from Participants to Improve Monthly Meetings
Member suggested improvement Mentions
Meetings are too loud 9
Meetings should be longer/speaker needs more time 8
No improvement needed 6
End on time/Shorter meetings 4
Choose different days/times to accommodate younger or
working women
4
65
Almost 70% of participants have constructive ideas to improve monthly meetings,
indicating they are open to change. Except for this study, there is no reporting mechanism for
members to make their voices heard on this topic, or a way for leadership to respond to their
needs, leading to continued status quo. This suggests a communication gap as there is no
feedback loop between membership and leadership. While there are plenty of ideas to improve
meetings, no one is listening.
Social Media
CVLVG posts on three social media platforms: Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. A
majority (54%) of survey participants indicated they were comfortable using Facebook. A
majority of those participants indicated they are not comfortable using Twitter (72%) or
Instagram (56%). Two of eight interview participants mentioned social media as one way the
organization communicates with them. In total, social media appears to not be the preferred
method of communication by participants in this study. While social media might be considered
dyadic communication because people can comment, it is impersonal and lacks the human
element to which members respond.
Research Question 1 Discussion
CVLVG members provided insight into Research Question 1. From the knowledge
perspective, participants feel confident enough in their knowledge to speak to others about the
group and encourage new people to join the organization despite limited knowledgeable of the
goals and the purpose of CVLVG. Correlations revealed when member knowledge is higher
retention is also higher, and in this case, even when knowledge is deficient. The implication is
that members are creating their own mission and goals, which may not align or contribute to the
club’s mission and goals. Correlations in this sample suggest motivation is strongly positively
66
related to retention. CVLVG serves as a means for members to make their motivations
actionable. Participants also offered suggestions for improving the monthly newsletter, weekly
email, and monthly membership meetings. Finally, members may be less likely to continue their
membership based on one-way organizational communication, yet dyadic leadership
communication yielded a stronger likelihood of member continuance. This study reveals
members prefer personal communication to impersonal communication.
Results and Findings for Research Question 2
This section addresses the role volunteers report that communication plays in their
engagement, satisfaction, brand, and likelihood of retention with the organization. I tabulated
correlations to uncover relationships of those variables and the organizational communication
composite or the leadership communication composite. The results are detailed below.
Engagement
Engagement was defined earlier as approaching volunteer work with enthusiasm and a
sense of pride (Schaufeli et al., 2006). Engagement was identified in participants by using two
items that asked participants to indicate the extent to which they agreed (strongly disagree,
disagree, agree, strongly agree) with these statements: a) When I talk about CVLVG I use “we”
rather than “they”; and b) When faced with a cause that is important to me, I prefer to: neither
donate nor volunteer time to the cause, donate to the cause, volunteer time to the cause, or both
donate and volunteer time to the cause.
A majority of participants (80.02) use “we” rather than “they” when talking about
CVLVG (43.4% strongly agree and 39.62% agree). As I previously discussed, a majority of
participants (61%) choose to both donate money and volunteer time to a cause considered
67
important to them. I tabulated an engagement composite score using the engagement survey
questions above and correlated it with the organizational communication composite.
A Spearman’s correlation revealed there is a positive but not strong relationship between
engagement and organizational communication (rs(34) = .45, p < .007). This means an increase
in organizational communication may only coincidentally result in an increase in engagement
(see Figure 7).
Figure 7
Engagement is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication
68
Participants revealed they do not rely on organizational communication as a means to
increase their engagement.
I then correlated the engagement composite with the leadership communication
composite to uncover any relationship. Spearman’s correlation revealed there was a positive yet
not strong correlation (rs(31) = .49, p < .004). This suggests that an increase in leadership
communication may only coincidentally increase engagement (see Figure 8). Similar to
organizational communication, leadership communication does not have a strong relationship
with member motivation. Participants in this study garner their motivation elsewhere.
Figure 8
Engagement is Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication
69
Interview participants indicated one way they feel connected with CVLVG is with their
relationships with other CVLVG members. Specifically, committee membership was mentioned
as a way to vet ideas for the club. When asked what they would do with an idea they were
excited about, three of eight interview participants mentioned using committees because
“…several ladies had really good connections with others and the executive board,” Another
participant agreed “I brought it up (to the committee I’m on) and we discussed it.” See Table 2
for a comparison of select factors in the strongly agree condition that reflect engagement,
satisfaction, and likelihood of retention when participants serve on a committee versus those who
do not serve on a committee. Committee membership proved to be influential in participant
engagement, retention, motivation, and satisfaction in the strongly agree condition. However
when asked what steps they took if they needed clarification or had a problem, a single interview
participant mentioned asking her committee, while three others mentioned “going directly to the
board”. I did not qualify the term “the board” to determine if participants specifically intended
interaction with the “board of directors” or with the “executive committee” as oftentimes these
terms are used interchangeably in this organization. As a dyadic method of communication,
committee membership appears to be one important means whereby members can give input to
club activities, a strong factor in determining retention. While approximately six of ten
participants not on a committee said they intended to continue their membership, seven of ten
participants who do serve on a committee said they would. Additionally, better relationships,
leadership support, club knowledge, and intrinsic value were exhibited by committee
participation (see Table 4) This suggests engaging with a committee allows for two-way
communication and greater retention, congruent with current literature (Trent et al., 2020).
70
Table 4
Effect of Committee Participation on Select Engagement, Retention, Motivation, and Satisfaction
Survey Questions in the Strongly Agree Condition
Survey question Committee
participation
No committee
participation
I will continue my membership with
CVLVG
71.4% 63.3%
I feel connected because of relationships
with other members
61.9% 32.1%
CVLVG values me 57.1% 21.4%
CVLVG leadership supports the work I
do
57.1% 33.3%
I know who to ask for a volunteer
opportunity
52.4% 29.6%
CVLVG acknowledges the work I do 47.6% 17.9%
71
There is the possibility that participants may have negative committee membership
experiences. One survey participant mentioned one such experience: “I used to be part of a
committee in 2019 and ended it because I didn’t feel like the time I was donating was
appreciated.” This participant may not have felt engaged enough to continue committee
participation yet was engaged with the organization to a satisfactory extent to continue
membership.
Interview participants gave varied answers when asked why they volunteered with
CVLVG, with half remarking that they wanted to act. Participant 2 summed it up best by saying
“It’s important to funnel thoughts and concerns into actionable items.” I mentioned earlier that
survey participants feel they are connected to the group because of their relationships with other
members. Half of interview participants expressed their reason for joining was that a friend who
was already a member invited them into the organization.
Interview participants were asked if they perceived their work contributes to the goals of
the organization. Keep in mind none of the eight were able to name all five of the club’s goals.
While Participant 3 stated “I wasn’t clear on the goals…there was no strategy roadmap,” and
Participant 5 said “That’s a good question because (the goals) are not immediately obvious,” four
others felt their work contributes to the goals of the organization, and Participants 1 and 2 feel
they had not spent enough time volunteering to warrant answering the question. CVLVG
leadership might consider making the organizational goals more central to its messaging.
While participant articulation of club goals was deficient, other possible motivational
elements surfaced relating to an element of belonging. Three of eight interview participants
voiced little sense of belonging with CVLVG. “At one point I felt like nobody really cares if I
show up or not…I don’t feel welcomed at times” said Participant 3, “I don’t feel like I have a
72
connection with anyone or anyone to sit with.” In contrast, three interview participants did have
a sense of belonging. Participant 6 said “I have a huge sense of belonging…I enjoy being women
only…I just feel the camaraderie here that I don’t feel (with other groups).” The volunteer’s
sense of belonging could contribute to their continuance intentions, as literature shows as much
as 63% of volunteers exit organizations due to a lack of belonging (Milbourn et al., 2019).
Participant 4 mentioned belonging was less important: “…a sense of belonging…I don’t need
that.” Committee membership therefore offers one way for participants to feel engaged, to feel
satisfied, and to continue their membership with the organization.
Satisfaction
Satisfaction was defined earlier as a positive feeling that the work was worth the effort
(Benevene et al., 2018). Satisfaction was identified using four survey questions. Participants
were asked to identify the extent to which they agree (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly
agree) with the following statements: a) CVLVG acknowledges the volunteer work I do; b) The
volunteer work I do with CVLVG is satisfying; c) CVLVG values me; d) I feel CVLVG
leadership supports me in the work I do.
A little over three-quarters of participants (77.55%) feel CVLVG acknowledges the
volunteer work they do (30.61% strongly agree and 46.94% agree). A majority of participants
(85%) feel the work they do with CVLVG is satisfying (44.9% strongly agree and 40.82%
agree). A majority (83.76%) of survey participants also felt valued by CVLVG (36.73% strongly
agree and 46.94% agree). Slightly over 85% of participants perceive CVLVG leadership
supports them in their volunteer duties (43.75% strongly agree and 41.67% agree).
I tabulated a satisfaction composite score using the above responses. I then conducted a
correlation to understand if there was a relationship between satisfaction and organizational
73
communication. While there exists a positive relationship between the two, it is not strong. A
Pearson’s correlation revealed organizational communication is positively related to satisfaction
(r(28) = .50, p < .006). Correlation results suggest when organizational communication is
increased any increase in satisfaction may be coincidental (see Figure 9). Participants do not
necessarily experience more satisfaction from organizational communication.
Figure 9
Satisfaction is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication
74
I then correlated the satisfaction composite with the leadership communication composite
and found a strong and positive relationship (r(37) = .93, p < .001). This suggests that increases
in leadership communication may increase member satisfaction (see Figure 10). Communication
from club leaders might increase member satisfaction.
Figure 10
Satisfaction is Strongly Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication
75
Brand
CVLVG is a local organization that is associated with a state and a national organization.
By its very nature, it is associated with the brand of both. Brand can be a powerful recruitment
tool. I tabulated a brand composite score using five survey questions: a) I would feel very
comfortable describing CVLVG to someone who is not familiar with it; b) If someone criticized
CVLVG, I would see it as an insult to me personally; c) Given the opportunity, I would feel
comfortable encouraging others to join CVLVG; d) CVLVG says a lot about the type of person I
want to be; and e) CVLVG makes a statement about what is important to me. All responses
ranged from strongly disagree, disagree, agree, to strongly agree. I correlated the brand
composite with the organizational communication composite. Pearson’s correlation results (r(24)
= .48, p = .013) suggest when organizational communication increases any increase in brand
could be coincidental (see Figure 11).
76
Figure 11
Brand is Positively Correlated with Organizational Communication
Using the leadership communication composite showed a different story. A Spearman’s
correlation suggests brand has a strong positive relationship (rs(26) = .53, p < .005). When
leadership communication increases, brand may also increase (see Figure 12). Communication
from club leaders may influence participant brand awareness.
77
Figure 12
Brand is Strongly Positively Correlated with Leadership Communication
78
Brand may contribute to survey participant’s reasons for joining and continuing
membership due to Cialdini’s (2008) principle of liking: People generally prefer the company of
others who are similar to them. Of 49 survey responses, 30% specifically mentioned “like
minded” when describing CVLVG’s purpose. Additionally, three of eight interview participants
mentioned similarity as a reason for joining. Participant 5 said “I knew it was a generally
conservative group.” Participant 6 mentioned she likes “networking and connecting with other
ladies of like mind.” Participant 7 said “I knew (CVLVG’s) values met my values.”
On the other hand, three of eight of survey participants specifically indicated a friend
who was already a member invited them. Participant 1 said “…a specific member who is a close
friend” invited her to join. Participant 4 stated she “had a friend who used to be in the group
connected her with another friend who is a current member,” and Participant 7 said “I knew
ladies (from church) who were active members.” These interview responses also indicate
Cialdini’s liking principle as a reason to join because of similar interests. Beyond the brand, it is
possible members join and stay with the organization simply because of the strength of
friendships.
Retention
From earlier correlations, retention was positively but not strongly related to
organizational communication (see figure 5) whereas retention was strongly and positively
related to leadership communication (see Figure 6). One way-organizational communication
(newsletters, membership meetings, speakers for example) does not appear to be the preferred
method of communication by participants of this group. Dyadic, two-way communication
between participant members appears to be a more ideal way to communicate.
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Discussion for Research Question 2
Survey participants indicated their varying degrees of satisfaction, engagement, brand,
and likelihood of retention with CVLVG. While organizational communication enjoyed a
positive relationship with engagement, satisfaction, brand, and retention, any increases in
organizational communication could not be strongly attributed to increases in those variables. In
contrast while increases in leadership communication could not be attributed to increases in
engagement, leadership communication did enjoy strong and positive relationships with the
satisfaction, brand, and retention variables. The personalized experience of committee
membership was more relevant to retention than the less personal style of organizational
communication.
Summary
This chapter explored the data and identified insights related to the two research
questions. Participants showed a lack of organizational knowledge however it would not
preclude them from confidently speaking about the club to others and recruiting new members.
Neither survey nor interview participants could articulate the purpose or goals of the club.
Furthermore, participants who sat on a committee tended to be more satisfied, engaged, and were
more likely to continue their membership than those participants who were not on a committee.
Data analysis and statistical results suggest retention is strongly and positively correlated
with knowledge, motivation, and leadership communication. Organizational communication can
be a minor influence in this organization as it is positively but not strongly related to participant
satisfaction, engagement, brand, and retention. Participants seem to appreciate the relationship of
dyadic leadership communication over one-way, organizational communication. Outside of
80
leadership and organizational communication, half of interview participants indicated one simple
reason they joined the group was because a friend who was a current member invited them.
There exists some congruency across the qualitative and quantitative data in this study. In
both groups, a majority of participants could not properly identify neither the purpose nor the
goals of the organization. Without this knowledge, it might be difficult to ascertain personal
alignment with the organization yet participants are satisfied as exhibited by their intentions to
continue membership. In short, it may be the friendships, brand, and similarity of shared interests
that make the group attractive.
Emerging themes include a) a gap in the knowledge component of participants regarding
overall club purpose and goals; b) a lack of participation on committees indicating a motivation
issue; and c) the unrecognized importance of leadership communication to participants because it
was strongly related to satisfaction, brand, and retention. Chapter Five will focus on
recommendations to close these revealed gaps.
81
Chapter 5: Recommendations
This chapter provides a discussion of findings and offers recommendations to close gaps
that surfaced during data analysis. This study used gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) as a
framework to find gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers.
Recommendations span all three areas.
Recommendation 1 (K): Offer Member Training and Orientation
The study’s findings demonstrate a gap in knowledge because 14% of 53 survey
participants could correctly state the purpose of the organization and none of the eight survey
participants were able to articulate all 5 organizations goals. Members need to have basic
declarative knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) to understand organizational purpose and
goals. Being able to explain the reason the organization exists is the first step in organizational
training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Focusing effort on the organization's vision is
correlated with improvements in performance (Lipton, 1996). Exposing members to training or
orientation can close this knowledge gap and increase participation in the club’s various
activities.
Recommendation 2 (M): Increase Communication About the Value of Committee
Membership
This study found when participants were involved with a committee they had greater
satisfaction, engagement, and retention in the strongly agree condition. The problem is around
half of participants revealed they participated on a committee. Motivation increases when people
are interested in an activity and if they place value on a task, they are more likely to succeed at it
and have greater motivation to do it (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The recommendation is to
encourage committee membership.
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Recommendation 3 (O): Effective Leadership Communication
Of 49 survey responses, just 14% of survey participants could correctly state the purpose
of the organization and one of eight interview participants could recite two of the five stated club
goals. The Executive Committee has not effectively communicated the organization’s goals or
strategy toward goal completion. The recommendation to increase communication effectiveness
is for the Executive Committee to set and articulate clear, concrete, and measurable goals aligned
with the organization's vision (Taiwo et al., 2016). Also known as SMART goals, they are
specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely.
Recommendation 4: (O) Create Relationships.
Participants in this study indicated they value the personal relationship with leadership.
People yearn for a balance of wanting acceptance and wanting autonomy (Bakan, 1966). A mix
of goals, relationships, and cooperation are all needed for organizational performance (Bolman &
Deal, 2017). The recommendation is for CVLVG leadership to create deeper connections by
building and maintaining positive relationships with the membership using person-centered
communication and greater recognition of member efforts in volunteer activities.
Integrated Recommendations
This section provides integrated recommendations based on the results of the study.
Recommendations imply change. One uncomplicated model that would apply to CVLVG is Kurt
Lewin’s (1947) three stage process of unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. Simply stated,
unfreezing refers to communicating the need for change, changing is when people understand the
needed change and alter work and behavior to meet the change, and refreezing is when the
change is made permanent (see Figure 13).
83
Figure 13
Kurt Lewin’s Three Step Change Model
The set of integrated recommendations for CVLVG fits into the Lewin model as survey
and interview participants demonstrated: a lack of declarative knowledge of the organization;
little committee involvement; and implied leadership communication is a key factor in their
continuance with the organization while organizational communication was less important. Table
5 outlines the recommendations and offers specific activities to support the recommendations,
accountable parties, and timing. Efforts can start immediately upon review and acceptance by the
Executive Committee and/or Board of Directors.
Unfreeze
Communicate a need
for change
Encourage new behaviors
Determine what needs
to change
Change
Training/Orientation
Committee Involvement
Leadership
Communication
Alignment with Goals
Refreeze
Reinforce the Change
Support Members as they
Accept the Change as the
New Normal
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Table 5
Integrated Recommendations and Connection to Lewin’s Model
Recommendation Activity Accountability Timing Lewin
Member training or
orientation
Member training
or orientation
Executive
Committee
One to two times
for all current
members and
quarterly
thereafter to
align new
members
Unfreeze
Encourage
Committee
Membership
Increased
communication of
committee
opportunities
Board of
Directors
Monthly Unfreeze
Increased
Leadership
Communication
Create SMART
goals
Discuss goals at
meetings
Highlight goals in
newsletter
Executive
Committee
Executive
Committee
Executive
Committee
Immediately
Monthly
Monthly
Monthly
Refreeze
Create
relationships
Create dyadic
opportunities with
members
Create dyadic
opportunities with
Committee Chairs
Executive
Committee &
Board of
Directors
Executive
Committee
Quarterly or as
needed
Refreeze
85
Change management efforts have varying degrees of success. The Executive Committee
and Board of Directors can support each other along the way and address resistance as it
surfaces. The next section examines potential limitations and delimitations of this study and
recommendations for future research.
Limitations and Delimitations
Given how I chose to bind the study and the problem of practice with the gap analysis
framework and a mixed methods approach, this research effort is open to possible limitations and
delimitations. Limitations beyond my control are the truthfulness of participants and their
perceptions of the club’s realities. I have no guarantee that all interview responses were honest,
or that responses might have been partly due to social pressure to say only positive things about
the organization, or that the “agree” condition was chosen as the easiest answer to quickly
progress through the survey. One interview participant was dropped from consideration as she
said she gave answers I wanted to hear. Those who chose to participate in the data collection
procedures were a small percentage of the club and were not evaluated to be representative of the
club or the community in any demographic consideration. Due to the small sample size, results
may not be generalizable to other clubs in the state or nation. A more even distribution of types
of questions across satisfaction, retention, engagement, & brand may offer different insights.
Participants were recruited during November and December, a holiday season and busy time for
people in the United States. To ensure timely collection, data was collected from a convenience
sample which is less credible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and may not be generalizable to
organizations outside of CVLVG. While participants were asked to not share the survey link, the
researcher has no control over who had access to it.
86
There may be survey or interview questions that could have resonated more or less with
participants, and it is possible many questions I did not ask could have impacted the data.
Likewise, composite scores could be shuffled into many different variations based on what
makes the most sense to any researcher at any moment. Other knowledge, motivation, or
organizational gaps may present themselves in the future as membership ebbs and flows.
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research include investigating similar groups by geographic
area or different membership size to understand communication gaps. During the time of this
study, the California state and federal government were not aligned to the political ideology of
the group. Future research may consider conducting studies on similar groups in states wherein
political ideology is similar to that of the club and discover changes to the variables in this study.
A future researcher may consider studying similar all-male or liberal women’s organizations.
Conclusion
This research effort studied how communication affected the engagement, satisfaction,
brand, and retention of members of a conservative women’s group in Central California. Much
of what the club seeks to change is well described in the existent literature. Effective
communication will continue to play a pivotal role in the organization.
Clark & Estes (2008) gap analysis framework and survey and interview data revealed
participants lacked in declarative knowledge of the organization and benefitted from
participation in the club’s committees. Club leadership can create and effectively communicate
them to the membership to help members feel relevant in their organization. One way to do this
is to train or otherwise familiarize the members to the club with the purpose and goals of the
organization.
87
Volunteerism for community service and nonprofit organizations has been in recent
decline. Studying nonprofit volunteers is important to address because volunteers are considered
the most important resource in nonprofits. Findings stress the importance of communication in
the enhancement or limitations of voluntary organizations. Leadership of nonprofit organizations
must demonstrate readiness to recruit, satisfy, engage, retain, and most importantly communicate
to their volunteer workforce.
88
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Appendix A: Survey Questions
Please rate the extent to which you agree with the following statements with 1 meaning “strongly
disagree” and 4 meaning “strongly agree.”
1. When I talk about CVLVG I use “we” rather than “they.”
2. I would feel very comfortable describing CVLVG to someone who was not familiar with it.
3. If someone criticized CVLVG, I would see that as an insult to me personally.
4. Given the opportunity comma I would feel comfortable encouraging others to join CVLVG.
5. In your own words please describe the purpose of CVLVG. Take as much space as you need.
6. I have successfully navigated the CVLVG website.
7. I can successfully use the emailed link to make meeting reservations.
8. Please rate your level of comfort posting on the following social media programs:
Facebook
Twitter
Instagram
9. When faced with a cause that is important to me I prefer to:
Donate to the cause
Volunteer my time toward the cause.
Both donate AND volunteer my time to the cause
Neither donate nor volunteer my tie toward the cause.
10. The volunteer work I do with CVLVG is satisfying.
11. CVLVG acknowledges the volunteer work I do.
12. I feel connected to CVLVG because of my relationship with other members.
13. CVLVG values me.
104
14. I feel CVLVG leadership supports me in the volunteer work I do.
15. I understand who to ask about volunteer opportunities at CVLVG.
16. I will continue my membership with CVLVG.
17. I serve on a CVLVG committee
Yes
No
18. The information I receive from CVLVG phone calls is valuable.
19. Please describe some ways, if any, you feel the newsletter might be improved. Take as much
space as you need.
20. Please describe some ways, if any, the monthly meetings might be improved. Take as much
space as you need.
21. Is there something you wish CVLVG was doing that you feel it is not doing?
22. I would stick with CLVLG even if it let me down once or twice.
23. CVLVG says a lot about the type of person I would like to be.
24. CVLVG makes a statement about what is important to me.
25. My membership is:
Active
Sustaining
Associate
26. If you would like to add to Phase 2 of the study, please leave your contact information. If you
decline the interview simply skip this part. If you decide later you would like to help with Phase
2 of the research by participating in an interview, please contact CVLVG member Patty Vignolo.
Name
105
Phone Number
Email
27. Do you have anything you would like to add? Take as much space as you need. If not, simply
skip this part.
106
Appendix B: Interview Questions
1. I would love to know a little about why you volunteer here. (RQ 2)
2. Thinking back to when you first joined this organization walk me through any training or
orientation that you had. (RQ 1)
3. If I had just joined this organization as a new volunteer tell me how I would know what is
expected of me. (RQ 1)
4. If I had just joined the organization as a new volunteer and I asked you about the goals of the
organization what would you say? (RQ 1)
PROBE: Describe how you feel your work contributes to the goals of the organization?
(RQ 2)
5. Remember a time when you had an idea for the organization that you were really excited
about. Tell me what you did with that idea. (RQ 1)
6. Describe your experience at any meetings you have been to. (RQ 1)
PROBE: If I had attended this meeting with you tell me what we would see when we
went in and sat down. (RQ 1)
7. Think about a time when you needed clarification or had a question or a concern. What did
you do? RQ 1)
8. Now I would like you to tell me about how you feel the organization communicates with you.
Please name or list some of the ways the organization communicates with you. (RQ 1)
9. Overall describe how well you feel the organization communicates with its volunteers. (RQ 1)
10. When thinking about volunteering describe the ideal benchmark best way you think a
volunteer organization should communicate with members. (RQ 1)
PROBE: Describe if you feel you description matches your reality?
107
11. Tell me about a time if any when you felt like you might leave the organization. (RQ 2)
12. Describe any sense of belonging you have here. (RQ 1, 2)
13. Describe your favorite experience on a committee. (RQ 2)
14. Is there anything at all you feel you would like to add or is there anything that I forgot to ask
you?
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Vignolo, Patricia Lynn
(author)
Core Title
Communicating to volunteers
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2022-08
Publication Date
08/02/2022
Defense Date
08/02/2022
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
conservative female,conservative women,gap analysis,nonprofit volunteering,OAI-PMH Harvest,volunteer communication,volunteer engagement,volunteer retention,volunteer satisfaction
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Hyde, Corinne (
committee chair
), Ferrario, Kimberly (
committee member
), Min, Emmy J. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
pattyvignolo@gmail.com,pvignolo@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC111375992
Unique identifier
UC111375992
Legacy Identifier
etd-VignoloPat-11067
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Vignolo, Patricia Lynn
Type
texts
Source
20220803-usctheses-batch-967
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
conservative female
conservative women
gap analysis
nonprofit volunteering
volunteer communication
volunteer engagement
volunteer retention
volunteer satisfaction