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The influence and role of social connections on international students' acculturation and sense of belonging

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The influence and role of social connections on international students' acculturation and sense of belonging

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The Influence and Role of Social Connections on International Students' Acculturation and
Sense of Belonging

by Jie Su

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF EDUCATION
(EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING)

August 2022

Copyright 2022 Jie Su

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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I appreciate my thesis professor Dr. Sheila Banuelos, who is always
patient in listening to my ideas and guiding and educating me in the course of my study. And
always being so patient, kind, and trustworthy. I am fortunate to have met you and to be one of
your students, as you have been incredibly encouraging and motivating in helping me complete
this thesis on a subject I have always desired. With your insight, all challenges and snags
associated with the thesis were resolved.
Second, I want to thank my committee, Dr. Atheneus Ocampo and Dr. Sourena Haj-
Mohamadi, expressing how fortunate I am to be one of your students and how privileged it has
been to work with you. You showed such expertise and concern throughout the course. Even
when I was facing isolation and loneliness during my time at USC, you made me feel warm and
fuzzy. Thank you individually for the insight and perspective you've contributed to my work and
for your support up until this point.
Finally, I want to extend my gratitude to my parents and my partner, both of whom are
distant from home. Despite the distance between us, they have provided me with emotional
support and understanding on several occasions to help me overcome my bad feelings. I am very
grateful to my entire support system and to everyone who has allowed me to do this work.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... v
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Brief Description of the Theoretical Framework and Relevant Theories ................................... 5
Main Research Question ............................................................................................................. 9
Purpose and Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 10
Brief Description of Methodology ............................................................................................ 10
Key Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 10
Overall Organization of the Thesis paper ................................................................................. 12
Chapter 2: Research and Design Approach .................................................................................. 13
Design and Technical Standpoint .............................................................................................. 13
Researcher’s Background. ......................................................................................................... 16
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 18
Chapter 3: Review of Relevant Literature .................................................................................... 20
The Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 20
General Challenges ................................................................................................................... 23
Language Barriers among International Asian Students ........................................................... 26
Isolation & Sense of Belonging among International Students ................................................ 28
Support & Impact on International Student Experiences .......................................................... 33
Transition & Acculturation among International Students ....................................................... 38
Chapter 4: Implications for Practice, Policy, and Further Research ............................................. 45
Recommendations for Practice ..................................................................................................... 45
Improve Communication and Language Skills ......................................................................... 45
Facilitating the Relationship between Counselor and Student .................................................. 47
Social Connectedness and Mutual Benefits between International and Domestic Students..... 50
Increase Counselor’s Cross-Culture Ability ............................................................................. 53
Recommendations for Policy ........................................................................................................ 54
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 57

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Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 58
Significance ............................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 5: Epilogue ...................................................................................................................... 62
References ..................................................................................................................................... 65

v

Abstract
As a student body that is currently increasing in proportion to U.S. colleges and
universities each year, international students have a huge role to play in many aspects of
education, including sources of financial revenue, diversification of the higher education
population, and cross-cultural exchange. The purpose of this work is to review issues related to
Asian international students in higher education by reviewing multiple studies and discussions on
Asian international students and social connectedness theory. In the literature review, the article
discusses and explores concepts related to social bonding theory, using the various challenges
faced by international students as the main thread. It concludes with a more comprehensive
collection and analysis of research findings, an in-depth formulation and discussion of future
research hypotheses, and a reflection on the findings of international students. Relevant solution
ideas are provided regarding policies at both the university and government levels.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
The Institute of International Education (IIE) has completed comprehensive statistics in
the New Open Doors Data national education portal data for 2019. As of 2019, international
students in the U.S. reached 1,095,299, an increase of 0.05 percent compared to 2018.
International students, in turn, account for 5.5 percent of all U.S. higher education students and
bring in nearly $15 billion in economic revenue to the United States (IIE, 2019). According to
Vlasova (2022), international students at all levels (undergraduate, graduate and Optional
Practical Training (OPT)), have seen an impressive increase in enrollment over the past decade.
The majority of international students coming to the U.S. to study are from Asia (Vlasova,
2022). The increase of international students studying in the U.S. is reason alone to ensure that
postsecondary institutions are ready to serve this growing student population. Given the
increased global competition for talent and the expansion of higher education options in many
major sending countries, Allan E. Goodman, president of the Institute of International Education,
said: “The United States needs to continue to take proactive steps to ensure that U.S. academic
doors remain open and that students from around the world understand that they will be warmly
welcomed” (IIE, 2007). As a result, it is in higher education institutions' best interests to devote
more attention to their present and future international student bodies (Erichsen & Bolliger,
2010). Because of the expanding number of international students in higher education, their
experiences and challenges while studying in American colleges and universities must also be
considered and addressed.
In their report on the development of study abroad, Wang and his team members (2013)
argue that the benefits of the study abroad industry are evident to both countries. On the one
hand, the importation of quality talent can provide a huge economic benefit and talent pool for

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the United States. Thus, the development of international student education will undoubtedly
promote scientific research and the economic development of the host country. On the other
hand, the host country will also gain long-term social benefits through the development of
international student education (Wang, Miao & Zheng, 2013). Through the cooperation between
national government departments and educational institutions, the host country will be able to
establish long-term international networks, consolidate and strengthen diplomatic, economic, and
trade relations, and continuously improve academic quality and national competitiveness.
Domestic students will also benefit from the opportunity to meet international students from
other countries. Through daily interaction, domestic students can better understand the culture of
other countries, enhance their understanding of the world, and expand their international
perspective (Wang et al., 2013).
For the international students themselves, studying abroad in the U.S. brings great
benefits to them in terms of academic, career, and personal growth (Zhou, 2011). Some scholars
point out that academically, studying abroad for international students can experience and
improve students' foreign language skills, broaden their professional knowledge, discover the
direction of academic development, enhance their international academic communication skills
and develop their social activities (Zhou, 2011). In terms of career and personal development
goals, the experience of studying abroad can cultivate self-confidence, develop a personal
identity, develop flexibility, and develop a sense of relevance to foreign cultures and intercultural
communication skills. In addition, studying abroad for international students is not only a
process of learning knowledge but also an opportunity to learn about a foreign culture (Zhou,
2011). By actively integrating into the local society and culture of the country you are studying
in, and by communicating with people from different countries, international students can

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broaden their horizons. As the process of studying abroad is full of challenges, the process of
facing difficulties, overcoming them, and solving them is also the process of getting to know
themselves and challenging themselves, in which they can improve their self-confidence and
grow individually (Collen, Bochner & Furnham, 2001). Thus, the benefits of studying abroad for
international students are evident. As an international student, I feel that studying abroad
broadens one's experiential horizons and gives students with additional options to pursue further
education.
Additionally, the international student population, a group that cannot be ignored in U.S.
colleges and universities, is under-discussed in terms of the educational advising profession. Just
as academics value and categorize multicultural ethnicities in the United States, there are several
important categories of factors to consider in research related to international students. When
international students travel to a host country that is geographically and culturally different from
their home country, they experience a significant transition in their lives (Curtin, Stewart &
Ostrove, 2013). This transition is not only visible on a physical level, but also psychologically
and cognitively. Schlossberg's transition theory suggests (1) people constantly experience
transitions, (2) reactions to transitions depend on the type of transition-event and nonevent-
perceived and contextualized, and the impact on their lives, (3) and transition is a process that
occurs over time and has no end point, including stages of assimilation and ongoing assessment
as people move in, through, and out (Anderson, Goodman & Schlossberg, 2011). Based on this
premise, international students experience both moving into a new environment and moving out
of their old life framework during the transition phase. International students are faced with
trying to balance and integrate the effects of the new situation during this "transition" phase until
the transition is integrated into their lives and remains stable for a period of time (Zhang, 2016).

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Furthermore, research studies have shown that international students are more likely to
encounter challenges as they transition on a U.S. campus, such as losing established and
culturally appropriate social support, defining their cultural identity, getting accustomed to the
American way of life, communicating and learning in a second language, adapting to a new
educational system and maintaining good academic performance, establishing effective
interpersonal relationships, maintaining financial stability, and coping with their psychological
responses to stress (Fang, 2013). In order to succeed academically in a different country,
international students often need to learn how to function by assimilating into an academic
environment that is oftentimes completely different from their home culture, a process that can
oftentimes be overlooked by university personnel, including faculty and staff (Slaten, Elison,
Lee, Yough & Scalise, 2016). Additionally, researchers have suggested that international
students are also coping with psychological stressors that may be related to their cultural
experiences in the U.S (Liao & Wei, 2014). Liao and Wei (2014) presume this stress stems from
the students' cultural norms and values that can shake international students' positive emotions in
the face of academic stress, placing them in a vulnerable, shame-inducing mood. In these
instances, instead of seeking professional psychological help and support, international students
seem to rely on their social networks for support to cope with this related stress (Dao, Lee &
Chang, 2007).
The section to follow will include definitions of key terms and provide a brief description
of the theoretical framework and related student development theories. Additionally, this section
will also include a review of the problem statement, stating the main research questions,
describing the purpose and significance of this study, briefly describing the methodology, and
concluding with the overall organization of this thesis.

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Brief Description of the Theoretical Framework and Relevant Theories
This research will focus on social connectedness and social support as the main
theoretical threads and their two closely related constructs, belonging and acculturation, as the
main theoretical perspectives. This particular thesis will examine the issues and difficulties faced
by international students from Asia during their study abroad experiences in the U.S. The
purpose of this literature review is to propose recommendations for practitioners and faculty who
regularly work with and have the capacity to make a difference in the experiences of
international students within our higher educational institutions.
Social connectedness plays an important role during the acculturation of international
students (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). For international students, they experience not just a
physical separation from their families, but also an emotional separation. At the same time, they
need to adapt to new roles and rules of adjustment, lack of learning skills and peer relationships,
and a host of other challenges transitioning from their home country to study in the U.S.
(Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). The international student community is limited in the resources
they have access to and address this adjustment (Hsi, 2020). Media sources commonly refer to
the challenges of adjustment and isolation among international students as part of their
experience in the U.S. Therefore, it is critical for U.S. postsecondary institutions to not only
acknowledge the experiences of so many international students but to also build intentional
forms of support to work toward creating a sense of belonging for these students and offer
student support services to aid in their transition. Generally, long-lasting social connection
structures will play a prominent role in the relationship between interpersonal expectations in
terms of bonding and social support and psychological results arising from social competence
(Williams & Galliher, 2006). The use of this systematic theory as a foundation in higher

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education might begin with a more deliberate engagement between individual advisors and
counselors, as well as student affairs practitioners with students and administrative departments
to allow for prospective project renewals. When pursuing a career in higher education, the
support and requirements of various groups of students change, which is why educators must
continually push the boundaries of their own talents and become more aware of the experiences
and challenges that international students face.
In addition to social connection theory, two concepts similar to this theory, sense of
belonging and acculturation, also provide direction for student affairs practitioners and advising
and counseling staff when working with international students. In the field of studying
international students, belonging has come to the forefront in recent years. Belonging is used as a
theoretical framework to understand the motivational dynamics of interpersonal relationships
among international students (Glass, Kociolek, Wongtrirat, Lynch & Cong, 2015). In an
extensive analysis of empirical research in evolutionary, social, and cognitive psychology,
Baumeister and Leary (1995) identified belonging as a basic human motivation. According to
Glass and Westmont (2014), social interactions that satisfy a person's need to belong are
characterized by stable and enduring expressions of emotion toward each other's welfare.
Because of the evolutionary roots of the human need to belong, cross-cultural research has
shown how social exclusion frustrates the need to belong, decreases emotional well-being and
academic performance, and increases susceptibility to self-destructive behavior patterns and
social avoidance in educational settings (Glass & Westmont, 2014).
Other studies have shown that social connections can effectively predict follow-up
acculturation (Rice, Leever, Christopher & Porter, 2006). An individual's experience of social
connection develops earlier and plays an adaptive role through continuous life experiences.

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Through the cumulative influence of all past and present relationship experiences, it extends to
early peer relationship attachment experiences and relationships with other groups, forming a
relatively stable sense of social connection (Williams & Galliher, 2006). Related to the theory of
belonging, the acculturation framework states that psychological aspects of acculturation are
predicted by factors such as personality, life changes, and social support. In contrast,
acculturation is influenced by the amount of interaction with host nationals, cultural adjustment
strategies, and length of residence in the host culture (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). Psychological
adaptation can be applied in stress and coping frameworks for related research. On the other
hand, acculturation refers to "the ability to 'fit into the environment,' acquire culturally
appropriate skills and interact with the interactive aspects of the host environment. Acculturation,
as measured by the difficulties encountered in daily work, needs to be understood in terms of
social skills or cultural learning paradigms (Zhang & Goodson, 2011).
Statement of the Problem
International students are often faced with trivial and unexpected challenges as they study
abroad in the U.S. These are challenges that may not occur in their home country. The hardship
and loneliness that overseas students suffer when they first arrive in the U.S. is the first lesson
that all young students must learn. Additionally, the language barriers that international students
have to go through may also discourage them from seeking help (Omar et al., 2016). Although
international students are oftentimes required to earn a passing score on language exams prior to
enrolling in the program, these language exams focus more on academic logic and specialized
vocabulary (Omar et al., 2016) and thus may not be predictive of their application in the U.S. the
different messages contained in everyday use and language culture can cause international
students to feel ill-equipped to make real sense of the English language in everyday conversation

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and can become a barrier when seeking help from college and university staff and faculty (Omar
et al., 2016). For international students, the necessity to initially grasp a language other than their
own can be a continual battle. Learning a foreign language entails not just mastering normal
speech, but also gaining a linguistic edge by learning the subject's academic nomenclature.
Additionally, international students endure cultural shock and adaptation in addition to linguistic
barriers (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). It is not just a process of acclimating to the host culture, but
also a process of navigating academic culture and ways of thinking and viewing the world, which
is oftentimes referred to as learning shock. Often, these experiences present further challenges as
difficulties in communicating with members of the host culture hinder the communication of
necessary information and can lead to a decrease in international students' satisfaction with life in
the U.S. (Luo, Fang & Brunsting, 2019). Additionally, Luo's study (2019) found that
international students' acculturation processes revealed that self-reported English language
proficiency was a predictor of significant factors of acculturation stress, sense of belonging, and
psychological stress.
Furthermore, the lack of social support and social connections faced by international
students was also exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. In the most recent (as of this writing)
related research, Asian international students may have been coping with the stressors of
increased racial discrimination, especially under the former U.S. presidency (Koo, Kim, Lee &
Nyunt, 2021). During the pandemic, Asians experienced higher levels of racial discrimination,
including hate crimes, microaggressions, and discrimination (Lee & Waters, 2021). To cope with
these racialized experiences, forms of social support and social connectedness can alleviate the
stressors associated with such discrimination and aggression (Koo et al., 2021). Katie Koo
(2021) also summarized the dilemmas faced by international students during the pandemic:

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corona depression; (not) seeking help for mental health; social isolation and homesickness;
anxiety about uncertain legal status; and limited career opportunities.
Therefore, this thesis will focus on the comprehensive support needed by international
students that includes all aspects of their socially supported psychological development, with
special attention to their state of living and psychological adjustment in their host country. While
the existing literature is replete with single studies addressing acculturation issues and belonging,
there is less research conceptualizing the impact of social connection theory and its associated
acculturation and belonging on international students of Asian descent. Given that this group
represents the largest proportion of international students in the United States (IIE, 2019), more
investigation is needed in this area. Finally, more research and discussion are needed on
international student experiences to impact not only future research but also recommendations
for administrators and practitioners, who are often charged with programs designed to support
this student population.
Main Research Question
This study is mainly based on the theory of social connection, focusing on the cultural
adaptation and sense of belonging of international Asian students in U.S. colleges and
universities. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis will focus on the following research question:
How does the role of social connection influence international Asian students in their
adaptation and integration into a U.S. post-secondary institution?
With this focus, the goal of this thesis will be to discuss the role of social connection as it
relates to the experiences of international Asian students, along with their adaptation and
integration into this new environment. Unlike a traditional thesis, this thesis will include a robust

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review of the currently existing literature associated with the research question and will include a
concluding chapter on recommendations associated with the literature review.
Purpose and Significance of the Study
The paper utilizes the theory of social connection as its main framework and expands on
the Chinese adaptation of East Asian international students as a whole to the colleges and
universities in the United States and their sense of belonging to the university environment. The
conclusion and purpose of this work are to propose more educational counseling opportunities
for student affairs, student services, advising and counseling staff, and faculty to better support
international students in U.S. colleges and universities.
Brief Description of Methodology
This thesis paper is primarily literature review focused. By focusing on international
students as a marginalized group in American society through the use of constructivist and
grounded theory approaches, it is possible to understand their situation and make valuable
constructive frameworks that advance the educational community's attention to this social group
and call for positive impact and change. The benefits of using constructivism and grounded
theory are that they have an important role to play in research findings on international students
up to the reflective implications of the research.
Key Definitions
Social Connectedness. Lee, Draper, and Lee (2001) suggest that social connectedness is
defined as a broader global self-tendency that reflects relational networks and the beliefs and
perceptions of the general "other" at large. Synthesizing scholars' conceptions of social
connectedness, this paper defines social connectedness as the self-aspect of an individual's total
awareness of the interpersonal intimacy of the world around an individual, and as the structure of

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an individual's unique perception of the regularity of interpersonal patterns (Lee, Draper & Lee,
2001; Lee, & Robbins, 1998). This sense of intimacy is an important component of an
individual's sense of belonging and is based on a collection of experiences in both near and
distant relationships (e.g., parents, friends, peers, strangers, groups, and society). It is an
enduring and pervasive experience of the self and the world around it.
International Students & Asian International Students. According to IIE, an international
student is defined as (Pollock, 2009):
Anyone who is enrolled at an institution of higher education in the United States who is
not a U.S. citizen, an immigrant (permanent resident), or a refugee. These may include
holders of F (student) visas, J (exchange visitor) visas, and M (vocational training) visas.
Therefore, the focus of this thesis includes international students from Southeast Asian cultures,
such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, etc. Therefore, all references to "international students"
in the following paragraphs refer to "international students from Asia."
Sense of Belonging. Educational psychologists use a sense of belonging as a means of
understanding human interpersonal behavior (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), where a sense of
belonging refers to the degree to which students feel "part of the campus community," "members
of the campus community," and "belonging to the campus community" (Locks, Hurtado,
Bowman & Oseguera, 2008, p. 260).
Acculturation. Acculturation refers to "the dual process of cultural and psychological
change that results from contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual
members" (Ma, Pitner, Sakamoto & Park, 2020). Initially, acculturation theory focused on the
issue of immigrants, discussing how they shed their original culture and formed a new identity in
the host culture. Over time, acculturation theory has been modified to a two-way process model

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(Ma et al., 2020), which samples the fact that such people retain the values and identities of both
the host culture and the culture of origin.
Origin Country & Host Country. The origin countries that appear in this paper are
considered to be the Asian countries of origin from China, Japan, Korea, and Singapore, etc. The
host country, on the other hand, refers to the United States.
Overall Organization of the Thesis paper
Chapter 2 will discuss the research and design methodology used in this literature review.
Chapter 3 focuses on a review and exploration of relevant themes in the literature, especially
regarding the social support status of international students and the corresponding impact, on
students' sense of belonging and cultural adaptation. Chapter 4 including conclusions,
implications and recommendation for future research are subsumed. The recommendations
mentioned and practiced in Chapter 4 are all in line with the themes covered in the literature
review. Finally, Chapter 5 is an epilogue with a concluding reflection from the writer.

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Chapter 2: Research and Design Approach
This chapter will discuss my thesis research process, including the search tools and
keywords used, as well as the relevant articles reviewed. It is worth mentioning that during my
studies as a graduate student in the Educational Counseling program at the University of
Southern California (USC), I was in close contact with and had direct experience with this group
as an international student. Also, working on matters related to international students during my
undergraduate years has given me significant cumulative experience with such topics and
research. As a result, I was able to use this a priori experience skillfully in selecting articles and
compiling my research. Direct contact and interview data directly with international students in
the United States were not included in this study.
Design and Technical Standpoint
This literature review takes a constructivist approach and views international students as
the sole object of communication and collaboration. The benefit of using constructivism is that it
makes the purpose of this study not only to control and predict an outcome but to bring the
attention of international students as a marginalized group in American society, to be able to
understand their situation and to develop a valuable constructive framework. It is also important
to collect and analyze research data, formulate and discuss future research hypotheses, and
reflect on the results of research on international students up to the significance of the study.
In addition to the literature review, the work completed here emphasizes the principle of
understanding as an epistemology. The aim is to provide an interpretive understanding of the
personal experiences and meanings of the researched population (international students), thus
providing some ideas for future qualitative research. The ethnography of describing culture from

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the perspective of people within the cultural bureaucracy and the interview method of collecting
people's behaviors, attitudes, and feelings also contribute positively to the theme of this thesis.
Grounded theory will also be applied in the process of research and reflection. Theories
are constructed by analyzing the collected data in depth from the bottom up through an inductive
approach (Deering & Williams, 2020). At the same time, the researcher is able to remain
sensitive to the theory, which not only allows for some direction and focuses on finding
information but also helps to find concepts that can express the content of the information in a
more condensed manner. All of these design approaches have significant benefits for
understanding the psychological profile and academic needs of today's international students.
There is also value in these design approaches relevant to other marginalized groups with similar
backgrounds, such as student in lower-income or gender issues.
To initiate my research, I used the USC Libraries home page to search for scholarly and
peer-reviewed journal articles. The available databases included EBSCOhost, google scholar,
psycINFO, and Proquest-Multiple Database. I accessed these databases through USC Libraries'
search direction and article availability. Initially, I searched using the following terms:
1) "International Students and Social Connections", 282,896 articles were found. These
terms were used because this is a major part of this review. However, not all articles were of
direct relevance within the higher education context. Therefore, I attempted to narrow the search
by adding in context relevant key terms, such as “higher education”, and “college.”.
2) 23,882 articles were found for "international students and acculturation". This is an
important key element that will be covered in this thesis.

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3) "International students and social support" found a broader search, but as one of the
research factors studied, with over 639,996 articles. These broader search terms were used to
find information about the impact of social support aspects for international students.
4) "International students and social support and acculturation" led to 18,680 articles.
This correlation search led me to some papers that were more useful in scope. Additionally, these
articles were used to help begin the foundations for the discussion and research.
5) A search for "international students belongingness" found a total of 6,085 articles.
These articles in particular were most relevant to the conceptualization of theories related to
belongingness for international students found within this scope.
To ensure a standardized search process as possible, the top 20 articles for each search
were reviewed. If a search did not have the relevant content needed, modified terms and/or
parameters were added to the search, including higher education; East Asian students;
educational counseling and mental health; and social relationships. This also included keywords
related to international students, such as: "international student depression and anxiety, cross-
cultural differences", etc.
As I continued my search, modifying the search criteria to narrow it down to only peer-
reviewed and journal articles with full-text literature, and narrowing the years of the research
literature to 10 years, which provided more specialized and relevant results.
In cases where I could not find an appropriate article, I would refer to the article's
reference page. I also searched for specific authors, such as searching for "Berry's theory of
social adaptation" to find specific articles. I also read the reference pages of articles in order to
be able to find relevant prior literature, experiences, and theories. I also targeted articles and
specific authors in the relevant field, such as searching for "social connectedness, dysfunctional

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interpersonal behaviors, and psychological distress: Testing a mediator model." It is worth
adding that some search terms lacked sufficient research, such as "social connection and
international students with acculturation", or "social support and educational counseling". In
these two categories, there is little direct literature, with most only a few pages mentioned. As a
result, there is no direct consideration of these two themes in this thesis.
Researcher’s Background.
My experiences studying abroad started when I enrolled in a U.S. university as an
undergraduate, and I decided that I wanted to work as an international student advisor in the
future during my graduate studies. As an Asian international woman, I am always horrified when
I hear about Asian crime in the social news, and often international students are seen as the "rich
lambs", making them a vulnerable group in society. For those of us who were born and educated
in China, and are coming of age to study and live abroad, we are in many cases at the "fringe" of
society. We cannot find a proper group in the current society. We may belong to any culture but
find areas of self-awareness. We need to live like a "chameleon" most of the time, and we need
to behave more like that side of the culture when working with certain people. But ultimately,
what is this "shifting culture" for us? Can it help us define our own identity? Will it become the
trend of the future? The stress and anxiety of this uncertainty became one of the biggest obstacles
in study abroad life from my own experiences.
During my undergraduate studies, I worked as an international student adviser and an
assistant in the Office of International Student Affairs. I supported overseas students' personal
growth by providing academic and life counseling at work. In these roles, I was able to help
overseas students lessen their worry about their new environment and transition more rapidly to
academic life in the United States by working with and communicating with them. We discussed

17

the problems they had while studying in the United States, their ambitions for their future
professions and job, and the challenges they faced in life. I used to spend the entire day with
these new overseas students as a student mentor, assisting them with their fundamental daily
academics and routines. Fortunately, by the time I entered the graduate program at USC, I was
already familiar with the U.S. educational system, and my undergraduate work and study
experiences had matured my perceptions and developed my own style of coping with the
situation. The adjustments that come with this new environment might be even more daunting
for some overseas students who arrive in the United States as new graduate students and did not
study in the U.S. as undergraduates. They must adjust to and get acquainted with American study
and living circumstances in a matter of one or two years. The "conflict" becomes even more
severe as a result of this.
As both an international student and an international student advisor, I have found in my
past study and work experiences that most international students have weak connections and
relationships with the campus environment and their home students. First, many international
students who are new to campus do not know where to go for help. If there is a local
organization or club for international students from their home country, it can quickly help them
cope with the discomfort of being in a new environment. However, such organizations can also
limit international students' ability to build their own social circles and social support in the host
countries. Second, international students do not know whom to turn to when they first arrive on
campus. Usually, the university's international student office (or association) will send emails to
international students to provide some essential academic guidance. Some offices focus on the
general direction of academic issues and ignore the personal concerns of international students.
The large campus structure and organization also make it challenging for counselors and

18

advisors to focus or follow up on every international student. It also leaves students who do not
seek help potentially overlooked. Finally, international student offices and services at colleges
and universities treat all foreign students as a group, neglecting the unique individual challenges
that international students from various cultural backgrounds experience. However, issues and
situations in different contexts of difference have been conflated in relevant research on
international students. The voices of students who rely on quantitative methods (e.g., surveys)
are overshadowed by comprehensive research methods that tend to treat international students as
a homogeneous group (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004). As a result, it is impossible to develop
customized assistance and support.
Limitations of the Study
There are several limitations to this thesis. First, this literature review-based thesis is
unable to provide any first-hand information about the experience of international students in the
present. All accounts based on individual experiences were drawn from existing literature. A
second limitation is the lack of a direct theoretical study of "social relations" in this field. In this
attempt, I will try to alleviate and remedy this limitation through the search technique area
mentioned in this section. The third limitation is that this study focuses on the social support of
international students in East Asia and does not comprehensively address the experiences of
international students in other regions because of their different factors in language and cultural
adaptation. By understanding the methodology used for the selection of literature and the
limitations of this study, a robust literature review is provided for the literature review in Chapter
3. The following section reviews the relevant literature on social support and adjustment of
international students. It covers the impact of social support on international students and then
explores the research related to the sense of belonging and acculturation.

19

Finally, utilizing social connectedness theory as the fundamental framework, this thesis
will analyze how the function of social connectedness influences the adaptation and integration
of international Asian students into U.S. higher education institutions. The next chapter will
provide a review and synthesis of relevant studies, followed by an analysis and reflection on
higher education institutions' ideas to alleviate the challenges and experiences of international
Asian students.

20

Chapter 3: Review of Relevant Literature
The Theoretical Framework
Social connection is a self-attitude expressing the feeling of a lasting interpersonal
closeness with the social world as a whole. Lee and Robbins (1998) defined social connection as
a relationship pattern or "cognitive structure indicating the regularity of interpersonal
relationships." Regarding social connectivity, the independent self in relation to others is
emphasized. In this way, social connectivity differs from the sense of belonging defined by
group membership or peer relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and loneliness defined by
emotional responses regarding the loss of a specific relationship (Lee et al., 2001). Social
connectivity is established early in infancy and persists throughout life (Lee et al., 2001). For
instance, parent-child attachment creates a sense of stability and similarity with others during
childhood. Peer relationships and group membership allow adolescents to identify with persons
who share similar looks, interests, and abilities. The sum of these past and present relational
experiences by adulthood is gradually integrated into an individual's general sense of self,
resulting in a rather stable sense of psychological connectedness (Lee et al., 2001).
It is anticipated that a person's sense of long-term social connection is influenced by their
exposure to or involvement in stronger, more durable relationships or relationship experiences.
Individuals with a strong feeling of social connection are viewed as engaging in more social
activities, accepting others more positively, and tending to join relationship groups (Lee et al.,
2001). Thus, strong social relationships are demonstrated to be a protective factor against various
psychological pressures. In contrast, persons with low expectations of social connection are
related to discomfort in social circumstances, feeling understood or alone, and unadapted
interpersonal actions, such as relationship dissatisfaction. Additionally, persons with limited

21

social connections encounter various social and relationship challenges, which induce more
chronic psychological stress (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Relatively long-lasting social
connection structures will play the leading role between interpersonally desired experiences of
partnerships and social support and psychological results of social competency (Williams &
Galliher, 2006). individuals with poor relatedness frequently suffer numerous unpleasant
emotions, including loneliness, anxiety, jealousy, rage, sadness, and low self-esteem (Baumeister
& Leary, 1995).
The Social Connectedness Scale (SCS) was created by Lee and Robbins (1995) to
evaluate social connectedness, as stated by Kohut (1984). Some researchers reported that the
SCS is distinct from proxy measures of social connection, such as social certainty, social
identity, loneliness, the extent of social support, group membership, and social regulations (Lee
& Robbins, 1998). Lee and colleagues (Lee, Draper & Lee, 2001) explored the structure of social
ties and their evident correlations with human functioning. According to several pieces of
research (2001), social connectedness, as evaluated by the Social Connectivity Scale (1995) and
the updated Social Connectivity Scale, is highly associated with anxiety, self-esteem, stress, and
cultural adaptability.
In the context of mental health, however, the conceptualization and assessment of social
connectivity remain ambiguous. Hare-Duke and colleagues (Hare-Duke, Dening & Oliveira,
2018) undertook a new systematic review to discover measures of social connectivity among
adults linked with mental health and construct a conceptual framework of social connectedness
using the included measures. They identified five dimensions by thematically synthesizing
elements from all measures describing the sensation of social connectedness, consisting of
identification and shared bond, proximity, involvement, cared for and accepted relationships, and

22

valued relationships (Hare-Duke et al., 2018). Hare-Duke et al. (2018) highlighted several sub-
dimensions of numerous constructs, composed of social support, belongingness, social inclusion,
and social identity. Belongingness is considered a universal measure for gauging social
connections among individuals and one of the requirements with the strongest psychometric
features. In contrast, social acculturation in social identity is typically regarded as the most
significant challenge that immigrants must confront upon entering a new setting (Bertram et al.,
2014). A self-identity characteristic is correlated with social interaction or social connectivity.
Khout (1984) underlined the desire for individuals to experience a feeling of belonging and noted
that social connectedness is an intrinsic sign of belonging and a fundamental part of the self with
respect to interpersonal interactions (Khout, 1984). On this basis, Lee & Robbins (1995, 1998)
defined social connection as a component of the self and a subjective feeling in the individual's
close link with the social world. Social bonding depends on how others portray themselves.
Some individuals possess a sense of closeness with others, including family, friends, peers, and
even strangers, whilst others may not (Lee & Robbins, 1998). Social bonding can influence an
individual's emotions, perceptions, insights, and the relationship between his/her social contacts.
Social connection, according to Lee and Robbins (1998), is a subjective consciousness that is
directly tied to the social world and represents an inner sense of belonging to the world.
Therefore, individuals build a sense of belonging through interactions with family, friends,
acquaintances, strangers, and other individuals (Lee & Robbins, 1995). Social connections, as
the social lens through which individuals perceive the world, influence their feelings, beliefs, and
behaviors, particularly in social circumstances (Lee & Robbins, 1998). It enables individuals to
feel at ease in an external social setting and recognize those who may be dissimilar to themselves

23

(Zhang et al., 2010). A social link is the self-attribute connected with social contact (Lee, Draper
& Lee, 2001).
Therefore, a comparative discussion of belonging and social adjustment will be presented
later in the paper in conjunction with the situation of international students in the main research
question.
General Challenges
Over the past two decades, research has demonstrated the various issues encountered by
international students in U.S. universities, linking stress, lack of social support, and language
abilities to academic difficulties and poor psychological adjustment (Glass & Westmont, 2014).
It has been established that a lack of integration can be stressful for overseas students (Curtin et
al., 2013). Besides, several studies have emphasized the negative consequences of loneliness on
overseas students and the ameliorating effect of peer support on depression and stress (Glass &
Westmont, 2014).
Students from Asia may be at a greater risk for psychosocial adjustment issues than
students from other countries since they tend to endure more remarkable psychological anguish
(Zhang & Goodson, 2011). Many Asian international students may appear collectivist (Ma et al.,
2020). These international students face disconnection from their initial social network, while
adjustment to new responsibilities and rules, deficient language skills, loss or absence of peer
support, and psychological problems are among the concerns requiring treatment. Students who
have not established social connections may be harmed by their isolation from primary support
relationships in this adjustment setting. Generally, collectivist societies are distinguished by
intimate ties to small groups. Students relocating to a new culture may suffer negative emotions
owing to the loss of their support system. The imbalanced interplay between collectivist and

24

individualist cultures may cause superficial interactions with host nationals that do not
compensate for the loss of this support network (Ma et al., 2020). Counseling psychologists have
investigated Asian students' cultural stress, social self-efficacy, university adjustment, and
overall well-being (Slaten et al., 2016). Increasing data reveal that AISs (Asian international
students) face a great degree of psychological anguish during the process of acculturation.
Consequently, the process of transitioning to living in American society becomes rather
challenging for many international students (Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). A significant amount
of acculturation stress may be experienced by Asian international students ascribed to disparities
in academic and social norms across cultural backgrounds (Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006).
International students have the issue of adjusting to a different culture when relocating to
a host country, suggesting more extreme changes (Terrazas-Carrillo, Hong & Pace 2014).
International students as non-native English speakers are subject to the pressures of acculturation
when being exposed to a different educational system requiring English proficiency for academic
success (Trice, 2003). During the process of adapting to a new environment and learning a new
language, pupils begin to ascribe cognitive and emotional significance to the locations in their
new environment. Personal experiences of living in a new culture can boost students' sense of
mastery and provide a setting for making new connections with places in the host culture
(Terrazas-Carrillo et al., 2014). Moreover, overseas students must continue to pursue their
academic goals, establish relationships with individuals, discover new meaning in a new
environment, and finally earn a degree. The experience of one student interviewed by Terrazas-
Carrillo et al. (2014) illustrates the variables contributing to a lack of place attachment and the
extreme suffering induced by the failure to build new meanings and social interactions in a new
environment.

25

Every overseas student must adjust to a new educational and social environment (Yusoff,
2011). The process of adjusting to these new environments can be demanding for international
students who must also adopt new cultural norms, languages, and study habits. Yusoff (2011)
suggested that the majority of overseas students in U.S. universities experienced academic,
cultural, social differences, and substantial health issues; international students experienced
academic demands, linguistic and academic stresses, difficulties in connecting with instructors,
and cultural barriers. Understanding the experiences of international students is essential for
designing and implementing academic and personal assistance programs.
During cross-cultural transitions, acculturation issues become apparent when pupils
encounter more adjustment challenges than they have resources to manage. Moreover, pupils
must exert significant effort to meet this task. Without social support, the stress of acculturation
can persist and harm a person's mental health. Prolonged exposure to this acculturation stress can
lead to mental health problems (Ma et al., 2020). Students with a strong sense of belonging in an
academic environment adapt better to academic life and have lower levels of depressive
symptoms, lower attrition rates, and better social adjustment than students without a strong sense
of belonging at school (Slaten et al., 2016).
Therefore, as a response to the distress experienced by Asian international students, four
specific areas of distress and challenges that impact on the international student experience are
cited later for discussion in relation to the theory of social bonding. These areas include a sense
of isolation and belonging, social support, language barriers, and transition and acculturation.

26

Language Barriers among International Asian Students
Ra & Trusty (2017) unveiled that acquiring foreign language skills would be the most
prominent issue for most international students. Initiating intercultural interactions is generally
challenging due to language issues or a lack of comfort with the culture.
Mastering a second language can be a constant struggle for international students. Learning a
foreign language involves not only mastering everyday conversation but also gaining a linguistic
advantage by mastering the academic terminology of the subject (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010).
Apart from language, international students encounter the process of culture shock and
acculturation. It is not only a process of finding oneself in the host culture but also a process of
navigating the differences in academic cultures and ways of thinking and seeing the world, or
learning shock (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010).
Traditional learning styles have led most international students to learn English typically
in the classroom. Ra and Trusty (2017) mentioned that knowledge of English language learning
in a traditional classroom setting is by no means a guarantee of the language proficiency required
for real-life in American universities since inefficient learning styles and high levels of anxiety
can cause significant difficulties for English learners. Similarly, scoring high on English
proficiency tests required for admission, such as the English as a Foreign Language test, does not
indicate that international students have the necessary language skills to succeed in American
higher education. High scores on language tests sometimes only reflect a student's ability to pass
the test, instead of their ability to use the language proficiently in an English-speaking
environment (Ra & Trusty, 2017). Furthermore, limited language proficiency may hinder
international students' ability to make social connections with students and professors in the U.S.
Ra and Trusty (2017) uncovered that this inability to interact fluently in the dominant language

27

spoken by the host society may further hinder international students' ability to participate in the
social activities of the dominant culture and to make corresponding social connections.
Simultaneously, this failure to make social connections in the dominant culture can result in
academic difficulties for international students, as well as their isolation, which can lead to
higher levels of acculturative stress. Moreover, language proficiency in the host country is an
essential factor in international students' adjustment process concerning their well-being (Ra &
Trusty, 2017). International students should adjust their attitudes and social behaviors from time
to time to fit in with the local environment and society when pursuing successful interactions
with members of the host culture. Students with lower English proficiency experience greater
overall academic stress. Particularly, low language proficiency may affect international students'
procrastination behaviors, inducing increased stress and lower quality of academic performance
(Ra & Trusty, 2017).
Feedback from teachers and counselors suggests that language difficulties prevent
students from seeking academic and psychological help from them. Lack of mastery of the
dominant language of the university can create social challenges for international students
reluctant to seek help (Trice, 2003). Difficulty expressing themselves fluently in the host
language, unfamiliarity with local idioms, and limited understanding of the local culture can
undermine visiting students' efforts to build relationships with students and teachers in their
home countries (Bjork, Abrams, Hutchinson & Kyrkjebo, 2020). Trice (2003) revealed that
although 89% of teachers surveyed enjoyed working with international students, 87% felt that
the language skills of non-native students caused communication problems. Thus, the professor
should spend additional time with them in the classroom or laboratory. This can also harm

28

students' general performance in the course, involving their motivation to engage in class and
their response to assignment feedback, especially during their initial period of study.
Ra & Trusty (2017) argued that a lack of confidence in one's language ability in social
communication may undermine international students' social self-efficacy and social
communication skills. Social self-efficacy in an English-speaking environment is significantly
and positively correlated with English proficiency. Language barriers frequently present further
challenges since difficulties in communicating with members of the host culture hinder the
communication of necessary information and may lower both international students' satisfaction
and expectations of life in the United States.
Students' perceptions of their English language proficiency are associated with positive
mental health and academic success outcomes, which require higher levels of language
knowledge and interaction with faculty and staff (Ra & Trusty, 2017). Interestingly, perceived
language proficiency was correlated with higher levels of two other aspects of well-being,
namely autonomy and personal growth, as well as overall psychological well-being (Trice,
2003). Nonetheless, it can be confirmed that students who report high levels of social
relationships experience lower levels of acculturation stress (Ra & Trusty, 2017).Thus,
improving the professional language skills of international students has become the focus of
attention for universities today.
Isolation & Sense of Belonging among International Students
International students struggle and are perceived as isolated (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010).
There are two main categories of their feelings of isolation: academic isolation and social
isolation (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). Erichsen & Bolliger (2010) defined academic isolation as
feelings of marginalization and anxiety in adjusting to new learner roles and relationships, as

29

well as stress in terms of performance in the teaching environment and the ability to conduct
independent research. Social isolation is defined as a pervasive sense of loneliness,
dissatisfaction, marginalization, and high interpersonal tension leading to withdrawal or inability
to successfully integrate into one's social environment (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). Multiple
studies highlighted the deleterious effects of loneliness on international students and the
buffering effects of peer support on depression and stress (Glass & Westmont, 2014). Social
isolation, particularly from peers in the United States, is a common theme in topics related to the
experiences of international students (Curtin et al., 2013). Fang (2013) argued that moving away
from established support systems and rebuilding new ones in a new environment filled with
unfamiliar customs and cultures may induce social isolation for international students. As
revealed by many related studies, international students are more likely to feel isolated and
lonely. Nonetheless, Asian and Eastern cultural values emphasize interdependence and
collectivism (Fang, 2013). Hence, interpersonal relationships are significant for most Asian
international students during their stay in the United States. Additionally, long study periods may
prevent international students from maintaining their relationships with significant others and
forming new relationships with others (Fang, 2013). International students often feel fraught with
challenges due to differences in communication styles, social expectations, and stereotypes,
though they frequently report a strong desire to make friends with domestic U.S. students (Hsi,
2020). These experiences of marginalization and the loss of distance from their home country's
previous social networks can lead to strong feelings of loneliness and isolation among
international students, resulting in mental health damage or negative perceptions of their
American experience (Hsi, 2020). The lack of meaningful relationships is associated with

30

increased feelings of isolation among students in the campus community (Glass & Westmont,
2014).
A sense of belonging can effectively alleviate feelings of isolation and regulate academic
performance (Glass, Kociolek, Wongtrirat, Lynch & Cong, 2015). It is also one of the most
frequently recognized variables in college students' academic perseverance and success (Glass &
Westmont, 2014). Glass & Westmont (2014) utilized this word to particularly assess students'
sense of connection with the university, the level of social support, academic challenges, and
support experiences. Students' social and intellectual connections in their new nation contribute
to the development of this sense of belonging. A sense of belonging is particularly crucial to the
academic success of overseas students, in part because they are expected to meet the same
demanding academic demands as domestic students without the necessary social support (Glass
& Westmont, 2014). Academic achievement is also connected with several significant cultural
elements, including English language competency, familiarity with American teaching and
grading systems, and the ability to manage working relationships with professors and peers (Hsi,
2020). Belonging boosts cross-cultural connections between international and host country
students and significantly enhances the academic achievement of international students (Glass &
Westmont, 2014).
Kohut and his researchers (1984) established that a well-developed sense of belonging
can facilitate the feeling of personal worth and the formation of good social connections.
Conversely, a disrupted sense of belonging can hinder the formation of a sense of social
connectedness in adulthood. For most individuals, the lack of belonging in life is a temporary
and unpleasant experience that can be overcome by reassessing relationships, mending
friendships, seeking new social bonds, and engaging in social activities. These individuals never

31

feel completely disconnected from society at large and are still able to make appropriate
interpersonal changes in their lives to re-establish a sense of belonging. However, the lack of
belonging is a constant and pervasive experience that is psychologically distressing and
potentially crippling for a small group of individuals. These individuals have some friendships
while tending to feel like loners or outsiders (Lee et al., 2001). It is suggested in the paper that
society should focus on this smaller group of individuals that may have similar experiences to
the international student population on our college campuses.
Students who experience a strong sense of belonging in an academic setting can better
adapt to academic life and the local social environment, reduce levels of maladjustment, and
decrease student attrition (Slaten et al., 2016). Educational psychologists adopt a sense of
belonging to understand human interpersonal behavior (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Belonging
has undeniable practical benefits for international students. Hsi (2020) summarized belonging
that individuals are more likely to trust, interact with, and reap the health benefits of social
groups with which they identify more strongly. It creates a secure foundation for exploring cross-
cultural relationships and is one of the most frequently cited foundational factors for academic
success in university research (Glass & Westmont, 2014).
External conditions influencing students' sense of belonging also contain connections to
the campus environment, university resources, campus culture, and academic achievement. In
Slaten et al.'s interviews (2016), participants tended to describe the classroom as a place that
reflected their role as students and interacted with others within the structure of the classroom
environment. Participants noted that interactions with authority figures were influential in
facilitating inclusion in the classroom environment. However, some students mentioned that it
was only academically supportive and did not imply a social or emotional intimacy. Moreover,

32

this university classroom environment also represents how students fit into the campus identity.
Participants similarly described how campus facilities, including campus geography, contributed
to their physical comfort on campus and satisfaction with the university space. They described
these facilities as a means of making them feel comfortable in student-related activities, such as
studying, socializing, and exercising. The theme of university resources is related to the
programs, individuals, and professional opportunities that the university offers to students.
Concerning the awareness of university resources, participants reported a sense of privilege in
their university's ability to provide services to students that were not available to them, especially
in comparison to what they felt was available to students in their own countries. Furthermore,
three participants claimed an increased sense of belonging to the university through the use of
university resources.
Glass and Westmont (2014) similarly demonstrated the negative relationship between
racial bias and college students' academic success and sense of belonging. International students
experiencing verbal insults, negative stereotypes, or experiences of discrimination tend to feel
more depressed and isolated. International students who are non-native English speakers
experience more acculturative stress. Relevant studies unveiled the role of strong social support
networks in moderating the effects of racism (Chen, Mallinckrodt & Mobley, 2002). Thus,
belonging is expected to buffer the impact of discriminatory experiences on cross-cultural
interactions and academic success since discriminatory experiences are expected to have a direct
negative impact on all students' sense of belonging. Yeo (2018) insisted that international
students are fundamentally in the most structurally disadvantaged position regarding power
relations. International students have fewer support systems or resources on campus, and
exclusion from the local environment impedes them from adjusting to life in the United States. In

33

this case, international students will experience more challenges in their daily lives. In general,
staying away from the original social environment and relationships, experiencing racial
prejudice and feeling isolated are among the main reasons why international students perceive
loneliness. This loneliness can be alleviated to a greater extent by increasing their sense of
belonging and perception of American colleges and universities.
Support & Impact on International Student Experiences
Domestic and international students frequently inhabit separate social spheres and lack
meaningful relationships (Glass & Westmont, 2014). Meaningful cross-cultural interactions
necessitate a social framework that allows both domestic and international students to investigate
cross-cultural relationships. Intercultural communication can enhance the well-being of
international students while contributing to cultural awareness and respect for diversity among
domestic students (Caligiuri, DuBois, Lundby & Sinclair, 2020). Isolation among students in the
campus community is correlated with a lack of meaningful relationships. Nonetheless, social
relationships with co-national, international, and local students boost international students'
connection to the campus community; a strong identification with the campus community
provides international students with a secure foundation for exploring the cultural environment,
forming relationships with domestic students, and buffering the effects of stress (Glass &
Westmont, 2014). There are no meaningful and intentional opportunities on most college
campuses, for international and domestic students to cross interact with each other. Under the
unlikelihood of these cross interactions, the likelihood is that a divide remains between our
international and domestic students.
Liae et al. (2020) held that forms of social support and connection are critical for
international students when they leave their host country to study abroad. Therefore, developing

34

new or relying on former forms of social support can help international students adjust to the
United States (Ra & Trusty, 2017). As discovered by Ra and Trusty (2017), social support from
old friends and family in their home countries, along with new friends in the U.S. (such as U.S.
students, other international students, and the community) and from universities and colleges
(such as faculties, staff, student government, and international student centers), are essential
sources of social support for international students. International students feeling more social
support may have greater self-efficacy to tackle difficulties resulting from cultural adjustment,
second language, academic performance, and interpersonal and financial challenges (Ra &
Trusty, 2017). It can be concluded that these relationships are critical for international students in
their transition to a college in the U.S.
An attribute of self-identity is also correlated with social interaction, that is, social
connectedness. Khout (1984) described the need for individuals to feel a sense of belonging and
emphasized that social connectedness is an intrinsic representative indicator of belonging and a
core aspect of the self in terms of interpersonal relationships. With this foundation, Lee &
Robbins (1995, 1998) defined social connectedness as an aspect of the self and a subjective
feeling in the individual's intimate relationship with the social world. Luo et al. (2019)
determined that social support from local students may assist international students in forming
new relationships. Given the benefits of local student assistance for achieving success in a new
setting, social support from domestic students would be connected with positive or supportive
mental health constructs. Lee and Robbins (1998) argued that social connection indicated a
subjective consciousness, which was closely related to the social world and reflected an inner
sense of belonging to the world. Therefore, individuals develop a sense of connection through
experiences of intrinsic interaction with family, friends, acquaintances, strangers, and individuals

35

(Lee & Robbins, 1995). Social connections, as a social lens of individuals' perception of the
world, guide individuals' feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, especially in social settings (Lee &
Robbins, 1998). In this way, individuals feel comfortable in an external social environment and
recognize those different from themselves (Zhang et al., 2010). The self-attribute associated with
social interaction is a social connection (Lee, Draper & Lee, 2001). In other words, no man is an
island, and good social contact is essential for meeting individual requirements and maintaining
mental health.
Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of strong social connections, especially as
it is associated with the unlikelihood of these students developing mental health and
interpersonal behavioral problems, such as depression and interpersonal disorders (Lee et al.,
2001; Lee & Robbins, 1998). Lee and Robbins (1995) reasoned that individuals with high social
connections can effectively manage their emotions. As a result, anxiety and depression are less
likely to occur in individuals with high social connections. Individuals with high social
connections also have a stronger sense of interpersonal trust that enables them to participate in
social opportunities with others, which in turn may strengthen connectivity. These characteristics
of social connections may apply to international students who are adapting to life in the United
States. International students possessing more social connections with Americans may feel more
comfortable communicating with each other and more likely to identify with Americans different
from their own cultures. With a greater sense of connection, students would be more willing to
learn American culture and appropriate social skills to promote socio-cultural adaptation and
could develop cross-cultural friendships or social support, which can contribute to psychological
adaptation (Zhang et al., 2010). These characteristics of social connectedness can also apply to
international students as they are adjusting to life in the United States. A better sense of social

36

connectedness may facilitate them to manage emotional stress and master American
sociocultural skills (Zhang & Goodson, 2011).
Misra et al. (2003) summarized how social support was effective in supporting
international students' moods overseas. They revealed that international students with more
social support were more likely to be socially active and willing to interact with others. Social
support had a direct and moderate effect on international students’ stress symptoms; social
support from academic programs, including financial aid, staff assistance, and flexible and varied
programs, as well as programs from home were significantly associated with lower levels of
stress symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, and physical complaints (Misra et al., 2003). They
also discovered that international students perceived support and concern from immediate
family, new friends in the United States, and members of their own culture as helpful. Social
support from family and academic programs (such as faculty and other students) could alleviate
these kinds of stress for international students (Misra et al., 2003).
International students are generally disconnected from their previous social support
systems when leaving their home countries. Nevertheless, building a new social network is
challenging for international students compared to the local group (Luo et al., 2019). Many
reported feeling socially isolated (Caligiuri et al., 2020). For instance, Luo et al. (2019)
investigated the possibility that local students' social support may assist international students in
developing new relationships. Social support from domestic students would be connected with
notions of good or supportive mental health owing to the benefits of help from local students to
succeed in a new setting. This two-way intercourse is not simple and instantaneous; however,
and Bjork and his colleagues (2020) pointed out that even though domestic students are generally
kind to international students and seem eager to get to know them on a surface level, friendly

37

interactions do not always result in relationships based on mutual trust and respect for one
another. This is despite the fact that domestic students seem eager to get to know international
students on a superficial level. The process of domestic students and international students
developing close friendships can be made more difficult by social norms, cultural reference
points, and existing relationships. This is despite the fact that domestic students do not actively
reject the attempts of international students to develop close friendships.
The social support of domestic students is considered a significant predictor of
international students' mental health (Luo et al., 2019). Students who self-reported high levels of
social support had lower levels of acculturative stress. However, establishing a new social
network can be challenging for international students compared to the local group. Many reports
feeling socially isolated (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). Social support from domestic students may
help them to build new relationships. Luo et al. (2019) examined the extent to which university
support was related to students' academic, social, physical, and psychological well-being,
revealing that university support predicted generally higher levels of well-being.
Additionally, bonding with Americans assists international students in learning social
skills under American culture and provides them with opportunities to practice their English and
communicate their cultural values with Americans. Thus, Fang (2013) indicated that
international students learning new social skills and interacting with Americans may ease their
cultural adjustment stress. Interacting only with native speakers may help international students
feel connected and maintain their cultural identity when they first arrive in the United States;
however, it hinders their friendships with Americans, their understanding of the host culture, and
their practice of English, impacting their long-term psychological well-being (Fang 2013).
Moreover, acquiring intercultural skills through introductory courses or other means can increase

38

social support for international students (Luo et al., 2019). In short, access to meaningful social
support and social contact with students in their home countries promotes positive attitudes
towards social connection among international students.
Transition & Acculturation among International Students
The integrated model of the cultural adaptation process developed by Berry and
colleagues (1987) has been widely used as a framework for contemporary research. Berry et al.
(1987) proposed five categories of factors to moderate the relationship between acculturation and
the mental health of minority populations (such as immigrants, indigenous individuals, and
international students): (1) The nature of the larger society; (2) the type of acculturated group;
(3) the pattern of acculturation; (4) the demographic and social characteristics of the individual;
(5) the psychological characteristics of individuals. Different patterns of cultural adaptation are
investigated by Berry's model. The core of this theory is the interpretation of the process and
outcome of cultural adaptation, the analysis of attitudes and destinations of cultural adaptation,
and the clarification of cultural adaptation groups (Berry, Kim, Minde & Mok, 1987). He argued
that the process of cultural adaptation actually can impact the two different cultures contacting
each other, while the mainstream culture exerts little impact. Thus, his two-dimensional model
extends the study of cultural adaptation to two dimensions of consideration: the propensity to
maintain traditional culture and identity; the propensity to communicate with other ethnic
cultural groups (Berry et al., 1987). Additionally, different patterns of cultural adaptation have
different effects on the pressure and adaptation problems of cultural adaptation (Wang &
Mallinckrodt, 2006). Individuals with marginalized or separatist tendencies tend to experience
more stress and difficulty adapting, while those who integrate tend to respond to lower levels of
pain and better resilience. Therefore, importance should be attached to the cultural adaptation of

39

the host culture, and a strong identification with the culture of the home country should be
continuously developed, which are the best, necessary social and cultural adaptations. Theorists
have claimed that it is essential to differentiate and evaluate psychological discomfort and
sociocultural adjustment issues. The psychological adjustment indicates mental and emotional
health, which may be quantified by examining self-reported psychological symptoms and
perceived discomfort (Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). In contrast, cultural acculturation is the
capacity to learn and use culturally relevant social skills and behavioral competencies for
adjusting to the host culture. Different from psychological adaptation, which involves cultural
learning and the acquisition of social skills, socio-cultural adaptation is more dependent on
factors such as length of residence in the new culture, cultural knowledge, language skills, and
cultural adaptation strategies (Zhang & Goodson, 2011).
International students are most accurately described as sojourners (Wang & Mallinckrodt,
2006) since most international students spend their undergraduate or graduate academic careers
in the United States only briefly. It was the five distinct culturally adapted groups identified
following Berry et al.'s characterization of their cultural contact with the host country:
immigrants, refugees, native individuals, ethnic groups, and sojourners (Wang & Mallinckrodt,
2006). Notably, international students are a special group of sojourners. Most of their sojourn
time relies on their academic time. Therefore, their adaptation occurs more frequently in the
context of education, and the content of adaptation tends to be education-related. Many
international students experience acculturation stress when adjusting to a different culture and a
new academic environment. While some may argue that acculturation stress is common among
international students, its severity would be much more severe among Asian international
students as what they experience might significantly differ from Western culture (Ma et al.,

40

2020), comprising both academic and life aspects. These students will be more concerned with
issues such as academic stress, interpersonal problems, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination,
the well-being of their families back home, job security after graduation and readjustment to
their home country (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004).
There are four modes or strategies of acculturation-integration, assimilation, separation,
and marginalization, as a combination of high or low levels of the two acculturation dimensions
(Zhang & Goodson, 2011). Zhang et al. concluded that individuals were considered to have
chosen the integration strategy when they adhered to their home culture and the host culture.
They used the assimilation strategy when they assimilated the host culture but rejected the home
culture; they chose the separation strategy when they maintained their home culture but did not
assimilate the host culture. Finally, marginalization occurred when a person rejected both the
home and host cultures. Integration is associated with optimal mental health outcomes because it
allows students to reconcile conflicts between the two cultural systems in the host country and
the culture of the origin country. Social connections with host nationals, attachment to the host
culture, and social interactions with host nationals explain these two areas of adjustment (Zhang
& Goodson, 2011). It is worth noting, however, that there have been some critical developments
in the advancement of acculturation theory with regard to understanding the interaction between
immigrants and the dominant culture. In the original one-way theory of acculturation, researchers
ignored the destructive impact of the extinction of national cultural identity during assimilation
on immigrants' well-being and its potential role in creating a bleak socio-economic reality for
some immigrants. In the existing literature, the oppressive intentions behind the one-way through
process have often not been carefully examined and thought through (Ngo, 2008). In turn, the
subsequent development of two-dimensional acculturation and interactive acculturation has also

41

been instrumental in ignoring issues of acculturation and dominant-subordinate oppression, the
mutual transformation of immigrants and receiving societies, identity formation and
reformulation, and social justice (Ngo, 2008). Critically, in a bicultural socio-cultural context,
the dominant culture reacts to forms of ideological control (Ocampo, 2016). For immigrant
students, they are faced with a bipolar choice: that is, to become radicalized by becoming as far
down the American hierarchy as possible, or to be marginalized by holding on to their traditional
cultural forms. As such, Ocampo (2016) illuminates that intercultural students are forced to be
constantly torn between the tensions between dominant and subordinate cultures. In Antonia
Darder's (1991) Culture and Power in the Classroom, she discussed how the process of
acculturation is actually a systematic process of maintaining hierarchies in the United States.
Thus, models like Berry's (1987) maintain these systems of power by normalizing them, rather
than changing them by challenging them as universal norms, and continually influence those
who enter American culture from other cultures by reinforcing dominant-subordinate oppression.
Acculturation is thus not only a phenomenon, but a systemic process of marginalization. In this
literature it is hoped to achieve the goal of supporting international students through the division
of different identities within the theory of acculturation, focusing on their identity within this
framework and their individualized willingness to seek acculturation.
In contrast to the integration and isolation experienced by students from immigrant dual
backgrounds in the acculturation framework, the unique sojourner status of international students
can be compensated for by maintaining ties with friends from their home country and increasing
interpersonal relationships with American students and faculty. With meaningful personal
relationships, international students can adapt more effectively to the culture. Participants
highlighted the social, emotional, and academic benefits of building close relationships with

42

friends or family, in which they felt cared for and could rely on support (Slaten et al., 2016). This
meaningful relationship is described as a source of emotional intimacy and a place where their
doubts about study abroad decisions and student status can be discussed and encouraged to be
dispelled. Slaten et al. (2016) detailed the adaptation of international students during the process
of acculturation. They also summarized and analyzed the good adaptations received by
international students in two types of social support: family support and local support.
Describing the support from their families, one Chinese trainee said: "Despite the
potential cultural barriers, many participants mentioned that building close relationships with
international students had unique advantages over domestic students. The most meaningful
relationships reported by the participants were those related to their families of origin. The
participants saw their families as a source of encouragement for their academic efforts and a
source of motivation for their decision to study abroad, regardless of the distance (Slaten et al.,
2016). Friends with shared cultural backgrounds and adaptive experiences are more likely to
build emotionally intimate relationships. Participants described the need for students to have the
opportunity to interact with their peers and social connections within and near campus.
Additionally, social activities can strengthen the identity of participants as university students.
Cultural adaptation is defined as "the process by which individuals from one culture gradually
adopt the norms and values of the dominant host culture” (Slaten et al., 2016). The experience of
cultural adaptation coincides with the development of international students. Thus, negative
experiences associated with cultural adaptation, such as difficulty adapting to Western teaching
methods or being shunned by local students because of their international status, verify that they
do not belong to the university. Adaptation to new cultural practices also extends to the

43

classroom. The most cited cultural stress factor is the difficulty of participants communicating in
a new language (Slaten et al., 2016).
During the process of adapting to the new host culture, participants reported experiencing
various forms of discrimination related to their ethnic identity and international status.
Consequently, participants felt miserable, developed feelings of rejection, and negatively raised
awareness of their minority status on campus. Furthermore, five participants mentioned systemic
discrimination, such as higher tuition fees and the challenge of accepting graduate employment
in the United States. Along with cultural adaptive pressures, participants described positive
personal changes in their lives in the host culture, comprising the opportunity to start anew as a
college student in a new country and the experience of learning about a new culture. Identifying
these aspects assists participants in appreciating their study abroad experiences and developing
their identity as international students in the campus community (Slaten et al., 2016). Overall,
factors that promote more interaction between international and local students and enhance
cultural knowledge and empathy are positively associated with integration (Shafaei & Nejati
2016).
According to the EYES theory (Yeo, McKee & Trent, 2018), individuals are influenced
by their social environment. This phenomenon explains how the perceptions and judgments of
others about international students influence their self-perception formation and the development
of their racial identity. Hsi (2020) revealed that students with low identification with their
ethnicity and university environment experienced more transition stress and lower self-esteem.
Those with a stronger sense of ethnic identity tended to engage in relevant university activities
and were better able to re-inscribe their previous identity based on their family background into
the university environment and connect with the supportive social elements of the university. Hsi

44

(2020) argued that international students should undergo a transition from cultural majority to
cultural minority and from embeddedness to independence in the host country. The analysis
suggests that positive cooperation with each other, a sense of belonging, and psychological well-
being are improved when a student experiences these transitional dimensions; and vice versa.
Besides, appropriate social and structural scaffolding can positively influence the experience of
identity transitions, as well as belongingness and psychological well-being.
In this chapter, the implications of social connectedness theory and its associated strands
on the experiences of international students in Asia are examined, as well as the links between
relevant theories and the experiences of this group. This chapter offers an in-depth overview of
the experiences of Asian international students and their difficulties with a focus on topics
including belonging, language difficulties, acculturation, and social support. In the next chapter,
an evidence-based and enlightening perspective will be provided on the many ways in which
practitioners interviewed were able to help international students.

45

Chapter 4: Implications for Practice, Policy, and Further Research
In this last chapter, I will build on the theory of social connectedness and its related sub-
concepts to talk about four existing international student services that are established at the state
and university level, as well as ideas for the development of literature-based programs and
services. The chapter comes to a close with some recommendations for ways that professionals
in student affairs and counselors in higher education can better support international students.
These recommendations include improving language skills, improving relations between staff
and students, increasing tutors' cross-cultural competence, and improving the benefits of social
relations for learners on both sides. Last but not least, some proposals for ongoing research will
be included as well. Through an examination of social connections and the points of view of
international students, the purpose and goal of this thesis was to conduct a review of the
published research on the sense of belonging experienced by international students, the social
support structures they have access to, and their ability to adjust to life in American society.
Recommendations for Practice
Improve Communication and Language Skills
Language skills are essential for academic achievement and enhancing pupils' spoken and
written communication abilities. Directly, the acquisition of language skills is the most
immediate key to improving international students' sense of belonging, adaptability and
academic confidence. Even though the library and other services, such as the University's
Student Learning Program, offer writing assistance to students, it is suggested that the library's
writing services offer more specialized courses and extended weekly hours to meet the academic
writing needs of international students. In interviews conducted by Omar (2016), faculty
members acknowledged that typical English entrance examinations for overseas students who

46

speak English as a second language are insufficient for determining students' language
proficiency for graduate studies in an English-speaking setting. Therefore, candidates should be
forced to have an admission interview with their advisor to assess if they possess the necessary
English language skills to compete successfully in a university's graduate program. There is no
denying that the process can be fraught with bias. It is therefore also worth considering explicitly
giving the interview to someone who has experience of working with students from a language
country.
A second strategy to improve the language skills of overseas students is to compel them
to enroll in an English communication course during their first semester or year of study (Omar
et al., 2016). This is especially crucial for students whose first language is not English or who
have never received an English education. The Office of Intercultural Affairs has established
mentoring programs to ease the transition of new international students to campus and the city by
pairing them with current students. These mentoring initiatives can enhance the educational and
social experiences of overseas university students (Omar et al., 2016).
The findings of Luo's (2019) study emphasize the significance of language proficiency
for the well-being of international students in U.S. universities. They contend that
communication is a crucial element of integration for overseas students undergoing
acculturation. And so that they can develop confidence and competency in their English
language skills, overseas students should undergo a comprehensive and exhaustive evaluation of
their language skills, including spoken English, academic writing, and reading speed. If they are
able to devote more time to enhance their language skills, they may arrive in the United States
with greater confidence.

47

Facilitating the Relationship between Counselor and Student
Significantly contributing to the effectiveness of international student education is the
link between teachers and international students. Relationships and exchanges with advisors have
a significant role in students' academic achievement and professional growth. This interaction
may be even more crucial for overseas students, who face more language obstacles as well as
academic and cultural adaptations since professors and counselors are the priority social
connection that international students have access to. Erichsen and Bolliger (2010) asserted that
communication between advisors and students is the most crucial aspect of international student
growth. Research on the advising relationships of overseas graduate students reveals higher
interpersonal and cultural anxiety, a lack of supervision, and communication breakdowns. These
behaviors may contribute to overseas graduate students' perception of academic isolation.
International graduate students rely more heavily on mentorship connections for constructing
social networks and gaining academic and emotional support (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010). The
NACADA working group examined the comprehensive and complex task of defining academic
advising, and they defined roles and responsibilities to guide graduate students and faculty in
building academic relationships: "Advising is a process in which advisor and advisee enter a
dynamic relationship respectful of the student's concerns. Ideally, the advisor serves as a teacher
and guide in an interactive partnership aimed at enhancing the student's self-awareness and
fulfillment" (Banion, 1972).
According to the findings that were published by Omar et al. (2016), the researchers
suggest that academic counselors should be aware of the differences that they need to recognize
while working with students from other countries. The teachers and the students were both
conscious of the fact that they needed to learn how to adapt to the culture of their new

48

surroundings in order to be successful in their new endeavors. In addition, the professors were
conscious of the varied backgrounds of their graduate students and the necessity to meet the
needs of each and every one of their students, regardless of the nations from which their students
hailed. When it comes to making a smooth social adjustment while attending a college or
university in the United States, students may find it helpful to consult with the Office of
Intercultural Affairs and foreign student advisers about potential social problems. Additionally,
students may find it helpful to participate in university social activities (Omar et al., 2016). For
example, students can be encouraged to interact with faculty advisors and other students outside
of the classroom or in other academic settings in order to develop opportunities for social
interaction and a sense that they are a part of the community on campus. This can also help
students feel like they are a part of the community on campus. This may entail hosting holiday
parties and barbecues, as well as meeting visiting visitors for lunch and supper throughout their
stay. It is strongly recommended that counselors carry out more assessments of this kind on a
regular basis in order to learn about and reflect on the requirements and dynamics of both
international and domestic students who are enrolled in the University (Omar et al., 2016). A
significant component of the assessment that has to be taken into consideration in the
investigation of the experiences of domestic graduate students, as well as the ways in which
these experiences differ for international graduate students and the ties that they build with their
counselors. The interactions between domestic and international students, as well as between
students and faculty members and administration, have the ability to boost academic
achievement, develop good relationships, and, as a consequence, add to a student's perception of
being socially connected.

49

Counselors can have a larger role in assisting overseas students to assimilate into local
schools and cultural surroundings (Ku, Lahman, Yeh & Cheng, 2008). Ku (2008) stated that
counselors might create strong and collaborative working relationships with other professionals
who assist international students, including residential counselors, staff from career services and
placement, and international student counselors. However, counselor education programs seldom
include information on international students and their unique needs in their courses. As a result,
the majority of counselors learn about this group by trial and error. To meet the needs of
students, particularly those from extremely varied nationalities and cultures, counselors must
explore critical issues in the creation of culturally sensitive services (Ku et al., 2008). How can
international students, for example, handle their transition experience when living and studying
in a foreign country that is substantially different from their own country? How can consulting
services be improved to better accommodate their transitional needs? How should counselors
communicate with international students, particularly those from non-Western or developing
nations, in a relevant, effective, and ethical manner? Counselors must be knowledgeable of
intercultural changes, the particular needs of this population, and multicultural counseling skills.
The significance of advisor help and faculty to the college experiences of international
students exceeds expectations. Numerous research on the relationship between students and
advisors have emphasized the advisors' role in student attrition (Curtin et al., 2013). Curtin et al.
(2013) discovered that students who met with their academic advisers frequently had a higher
likelihood of graduating. Typically, these instructors and mentors have closer relationships with
their students. Mentors can create good self-perceptions as learners in addition to helping
students feel connected to the institution. For example, the extent to which students feel their
academic counselors have positive judgments of them correlates positively with their academic

50

self-concept (Curtin et al., 2013). Numerous international students were inspired to continue
academics by their counselors and teachers, who also provided insightful feedback for their
academic future. Curtin and his colleagues acknowledged in 2013 that the support of an
academic advisor is seen as essential to academic achievement and well-being. Interviews
conducted with overseas students revealed that their expectations for interactions with their
academic advisors may differ from those of local students. For example, they appreciated a
mentor-mentee relationship based on personality and profound interpersonal relationships.
Social Connectedness and Mutual Benefits between International and Domestic Students
Social integration between international and domestic students can both enhance the
well-being of international students and also contribute to cultural awareness and respect for
diversity among domestic students (Caligiuri et al., 2020). Universities must address ways to
promote integration through targeted interventions. Social integration of university students is
important as it increases students' sense of belonging and increases their perceived social support
(Zhang & Goodson, 2011). International students who are more socially connected to Americans
may feel more comfortable in cross-cultural exchanges and identify more easily with Americans
whose culture is different from theirs. A greater sense of connectedness may make students more
willing to learn about American culture and appropriate social skills, promoting sociocultural
adjustment. It may also enable students to develop cross-cultural friendships or social support
(Zhang & Goodson, 2011). While some of the factors that influence students' social integration
are specific to individuals, such as one's personality traits (Tsai, Wang & Wei, 2017)). However,
other factors are institutional in nature (Caligiuri et al., 2020), such as living-learning
communities, encouragement to participate in campus clubs, academic guidance, and student
counseling.

51

Consider that domestic students can provide informational support, instrumental support
and, if friendships are formed, emotional support (Caligiuri et al., 2020). Although important for
adjustment, many international students do not have close relationships with domestic students,
often because it is easier to make friends with fellow students who speak the same language and
face the same cultural challenges (Tsai et al., 2017). Domestic students can increase the support
they receive from fellow students to help facilitate overall adaptation. Education abroad has the
potential to develop students' cultural agility, the ability to work in different countries and with
people from different cultures (Montgomery & McDowell, 2008). Higher education institutions
hosting international students are in a unique position to actively promote the integration of
international and domestic students (Erichsen & Bolliger, 2010).
In research by Caligiuri et al. (2020), they conclude that in addition to the socio-
emotional benefits, structured interactions give all students. In particular, those students who will
never study abroad, provide an opportunity to gain an international experience of emotional
development. We believe that this type of experiential activity is a powerful learning tool for
students who eventually wish to work on a global scale, those planning to study abroad, and
newly arrived international students. The potential contribution of international students also
includes developing a worldwide network of alumni, providing resources for the
internationalization of the curriculum, providing links to future recruitment and education
programs, and building long-term international relationships. International students are an
underutilized resource in the classroom and in building cross-cultural relationships with local
students, as their future employment roles may require a global perspective (Ku et al., 2008).
Whichever way it is implemented, the embedding of social integration experiential
activities will help to increase integration between international and domestic students and

52

increase their social facilitation with people from different cultures. By studying on a
multicultural campus, students can learn to demystify demographic differences and become more
open to students from different countries and cultures. In doing so, they will provide students
with a high level of belonging and support, and students can graduate with a higher level of
cultural agility, an ability that has become key to professional success. There are beliefs that
bonding friendships with students in their home countries can serve as a way to alleviate
students’ anxiety when starting an academic program (Sullivan & Kashubeck-West, 2015). This
approach encourages international and domestic students to engage in dialogue about their
similarities and explore their common ground. The method of sharing information about
themselves in a structured form through conversation partners has been found to produce a
degree of emotional closeness among college students.
It is clear that Asian international students (AIS) need to support connections with other
students who identify with their ethnic culture as well as those who identify with the dominant
culture (Slaten et al., 2016). It is therefore important for universities to provide opportunities for
students to connect with others from their own ethnic communities. For example, campus
cultural centers can help to facilitate relationship building. In addition, it is crucial to provide
structured social events where AIS has the opportunity to interact with American students.
Current research and previous studies have shown that AIS consider relationships with American
students to be important and contribute to their subjective well-being (Slaten et al., 2016). The
potential contribution of international students also includes developing a worldwide network of
alumni, providing resources for the internationalization of the curriculum, providing links to
future recruitment and education programs, and building long-term international relationships.
International students are an underutilized resource in the classroom and in building cross-

53

cultural relationships with local students, as their future employment roles may require a global
perspective (Ku et al., 2008).
Increase Counselor’s Cross-Culture Ability
As was discussed in the preceding section, the fundamental characteristic of international
students is their ability to adapt to cultural differences (Ku et al., 2008). In research examining
how counselors may successfully handle the challenges of international students and best fulfill
their various needs, Ku suggests that counseling services for international students can be
structured around health promotion and preventive activities. The emphasis of the study is how
counselors can effectively accommodate the different requirements of these students. It should
come as no surprise that a range of university departments should participate in a health
promotion initiative for overseas students. These departments should include, among others,
those that offer counseling services, health services, and a specialized office for international
students. Additionally, counselors have a duty to increase their intercultural competence in the
three connected areas of self-awareness, knowledge, and skills, as counseling international
students almost always includes working across cultures. When advising international students,
the cultural milieu of the educational institution is taken into account. The cultural context of the
educational institution is considered while establishing a tutoring plan for international students.
It might be difficult for overseas students to possess the same degree of academic experience as
the majority of students from the host country. In order to properly lead international students
through their studies, tutors must be aware of the relevance of cultural adjustment pressures
during this process and the unique challenges it presents (Sullivan & Kashubeck-West, 2015).
According to the findings of Sullivan and Kashubeck-West's (2015) study, counselors may be
able to aid their clients in overcoming feelings of social alienation by encouraging students to

54

become more engaged and active members of the campus community and the larger community.
Student affairs staff and advisors for international students can be of assistance by developing
programs that emphasize cross-cultural contact, by developing student mentorship programs, by
involving a larger portion of the student body in the process of welcoming international students
to campus, and by establishing more partnerships through host friend and family programs in the
local community.
It is recommended by Ku (2008) that counselors play an active role in the development of
their organizations by participating in strategic planning, contributing to campus
internationalization planning, campus education, and establishing a favorable profile of
international students. It is possible for counseling services to begin with a session of strategic
planning with the sole objective of exploring how they might best serve a population of
international students who come from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Workshops that educate
the campus's large number of international students can also be designed and developed in
collaboration between counselors and other members of the student services team. It would also
be helpful to examine how counselors can begin to move beyond the traditional office
environment and appointment making in order to make use of alternative, creative, and non-
traditional methods and outreach in order to develop positive and meaningful relationships with
international students (Ku et al., 2008).
Recommendations for Policy
As ACE collects data for the 2022 edition of the U.S. Campus Map Internationalization
Study (Sannam, 2022), academic exchanges, study abroad and research are the traditional types
of partnerships that U.S. universities have engaged in with international universities. However,
traditional partnerships have been severely impacted. This has prompted universities around the

55

world to re-examine and re-evaluate their internationalization goals. As Yeo (2018) declares in
her proposed EYES theory, international students are at a structural disadvantage in the U.S. on
college campuses. International students' studies, status, and jobs can easily be affected by the
fluctuations of the U.S. government and policies.
For example, the international climate during the pandemic under the previous Trump
administration greatly impacted the experience of many, if not all, international students
pursuing studies in U.S. colleges and universities (Haelim & Jung, 2021). Since 2020 and the
COVID-19 pandemic, international students and scholars have experienced three years of
uncertainty and now face new uncertainty about their visa status. International students are under
increasing pressure to cope with race and uncertain legal identities (Koo et al., 2021). On July 6,
2020, the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's Student and Exchange Visitor Program
(SEVP) announced that non-immigrant students (F-1 and M-1 visa holders) enrolled in online
only courses for the fall semester must leave or transfer to institutions that offer face-to-face
courses (Haelim & Jung, 2021). Policies and practices such as these have made international
students feel unwelcome and have been part of the structural dilemma that international students
have faced while studying in the U.S over the past few years. Another is the idea that these
policies are built around international students and scholars, exacerbating the general
unwelcoming climate for international students in the U.S. Additionally, current OPT policies
permits undergraduate and graduate students with F-1 status to work for one year on a student
visa or three years in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) sectors to
complement their studies with practical training (Haelim & Jung, 2021). However, in order to
work after graduation, overseas students must get permission from the US government, which
may be costly and time-consuming for many businesses. Also, OPT only enables overseas

56

students to stay for a limited time and must be submitted during graduation season, but under the
Trump administration it can take up to five months to process OPT (Haelim & Jung, 2021). This
delay has impacted the start date and amount of time students may work under the visa, causing
many firms to be hesitant to accept such students and prompting some students to drop out and
depart before their visa applications are approved. Under these tightening government
regulations, international students will face more limited career opportunities and personal
development directions (Koo, 2021).
Currently, the United States has devised multiple resources to support international
students in U.S. higher education institutions (Georgiana & Robin, 2019) to help with their
cultural integration and academic success. The U.S. Department of State has established 433
advising centers for potential and accepted international students in all regions of the world and
has developed a glossary containing U.S. higher education-specific terminology to help these
students better understand the system (Georgiana & Robin, 2019). Regional and national
associations, such as NAFSA, offer a wide range of resources for international students, such as
explore international education and how NAFSA is advancing the field through campus
internationalization, global learning and thought leadership, and promoting the role of
international education in producing globally competent graduates, intercultural learning
environments and international partnerships. Additionally, higher education institutions immerse
international students in extensive centralized orientation sessions, distribute comprehensive
information materials, require international students to complete department tailored orientation
sessions with their advisors, and provide an ongoing space for on-campus and virtual dialogue
(Georgiana & Robin, 2019). Much of this collective effort is aimed at ensuring that international

57

students understand the culture of American higher education and are equipped to navigate it,
and are knowledgeable of the resources they have access to as an international student.
In her study of university institutions' sense of belonging and social relationships with
international students, Hsi (2020) found that the development process of DEI (Diversity, Equity,
and Inclusion) institutions and internationalization in U.S. higher education sheds light on how
institutions can respond to thematic issues related to international students. The study proposes
(Hsi, 2020) that university belonging is increasingly seen as a category of values, symbols, and
spaces of diversity, equity, and inclusion. Therefore, a framework is needed to fully integrate
DEI and international student-related issues into all aspects of university operations and campus
life. At the same time, the open campus culture and an inclusive attitude toward cultural diversity
are necessary for international students to successfully implement integration strategies.
Collaborative efforts among various campus entities are needed to provide a positive climate,
reduce discrimination, and increase awareness of the needs of international students among U.S.
students, faculty, and staff (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). In response to the active student growth
and changing campus demographics, many Higher education institutions have created senior-
level DEI administrators. Many universities' DEI offices have made efforts to better meet the
needs of diverse and inclusive communities. As higher education communities become more
diverse, it becomes more important to consciously communicate the challenges and advances of
diversity.
Conclusions
The results of this research include a discussion on the concepts of social connection
theory as well as numerous of its associated subtopics with the purpose of addressing the
challenges that are experienced by foreign students. Social connectedness theory, as a core self-

58

indicator focusing on people's social interpersonal relationships (Khout, 1984), is relevant to the
subjective feelings of individuals in socially intimate relationships. A literature review of the
dilemmas experienced by tangible international students in American colleges and universities is
discussed around the three themes under social connectedness theory of belonging, social
adjustment and social support. Good social connectedness means less isolation based on fluid
and effective communication skills, strong social support, and individualized choices of social
acculturation frameworks. In addition, the findings suggest a variety of approaches that may be
taken by guidance counselors and educational institutions at the postsecondary level to aid
overseas students. Some of the ways in which adjustment stress can be alleviated include
assisting students in adapting to local academic norms and expectations, cultivating additional
connections and relationships with the campus and local community, and addressing difficulties
related to social support and language barriers. Stress caused by transitioning to new situations
can be alleviated, in particular, by addressing challenges connected to social support. Suppose
these students are encouraged to widen their social interactions and venture outside of their self-
imposed comfort zones. In that case, it is feasible that the detrimental consequences of the
multiplicity of various pressures they face can be reduced. One way to achieve this would be to
encourage these students to build their new social connection in the U.S.
Future Research
This body of literature might provide support for a variety of subject areas that could
focus on further investigation in future research relevant to this issue. Future researchers on this
group of students may include:

59

1. Conducting longitudinal studies of international students from different cultures
and regions to extensively examine and compare their psychological profiles at
U.S. colleges and universities.
2. Quantitative studies that examine the impact of different social relationships on
international students' academic and psychological well-being in both local and
home environments.
3. A longitudinal qualitative study that explores how different social relationships
affect international students' academic and psychological well-being in both local
and home environments.
4. A longitudinal study that explores how different social relationships affect
international students' academically and psychologically.
In addition, the Social Connections Scale (SCS), which was established by Lee and
Robbins (1995), is still used by a significant number of quantitative research to quantify social
connections. Therefore, in the future, research focusing on social connectivity may think about
conceptualizing and measuring using Hare-Duke's (2018) five dimensions (identity and a
common bond, followed by closeness, involvement, cared for and accepted, and finally, valued
relationships), which would be progressive.
Moreover, as a result of the Covid epidemic, overseas students face a rising number of
mundane but anxiety-inducing obstacles. These challenges include but are not limited to
difficulties with identity, visas, healthcare, educational resources, and other related issues.
Because of this, the number of social relationships that overseas students have been able to
maintain has suffered a significant blow. Therefore, foreign students cannot be considered as a
separate group for the international student office to deal with; rather, they represent a change in

60

the way higher education practitioners assist the growth of all of their students. In subsequent
research, it would be interesting to frame how the "pandemic" social situation affected the
vulnerable group of international students and to examine the various psychological issues that
secondary school students faced during this period of time. This would be done in conjunction
with an examination of the various psychological issues that international students faced.
Significance
In terms of how institutions in the United States respond to students from other countries,
this study has a variety of repercussions that can be drawn from it. Even though it is difficult to
generalize about foreign students or institutions in general, a summary of the data might help
administrators at universities, international staff members, and school counselors make educated
assumptions to help with future decision-making. The necessity of maintaining engagement with
one's perceived social connections and the significance of cultivating relationships between
international students and members of the university staff are the primary influences and
potential solutions that could be of benefit to all international Asian students who are enrolled in
international programs abroad. Universities will be better positioned to satisfy the requirements
of foreign students by implementing appropriate interventions when the areas and sources of
stress that contribute to the various forms of distress experienced by international students are
recognized. These interventions may include support groups that are made up of Asian students
studying abroad in the United States, particular chances to engage with students from the United
States, and social skills training that is guided by a tutor. Mentors are strongly encouraged to
create good and lasting connections with overseas students via the use of tactics and outreach
that are unconventional, innovative, and non-traditional. The school’s awareness of this specific
set of students at the University and College may be improved by putting more of an emphasis

61

on the positives of international students, such as their fortitude, adaptability, ability to cope, and
contributions.
Finally, the relevant research concepts and refinable methodologies described in the study
are not just applicable to Asian international students as individuals. These concepts and
procedures are also applicable to a wider audience. The United States' higher education system is
enormous, diversified, and notoriously tough to manage, as Georgiana and Robin (2019) note in
their study. As a result, earning a degree can be challenging in the United States. Students who
are completely new to the higher education system and the culture of the United States are
particularly likely to feel challenged. This includes students who are the first generation in their
families to attend college as well as students who are studying in the United States for the first
time. Even though they are both located on campus, these two categories of counseling and
assistance are frequently kept apart. However, disadvantaged groups still share a great deal in
common with one another and stand to gain from collaborative institutional development.

62

Chapter 5: Epilogue
The first time I arrived in the United States as a student from another country a few years
ago, I was filled with a mixture of excitement, curiosity, and nervousness. This is something that
I still remember very vividly to this day. When I made a choice to "study abroad," both my
parents and my friends gave me the advice that I should be ready for any type of challenge that
could come my way. At that time, I was not aware of the specifics of what I needed to do in
order to get ready. When I first came to the United States, I had no idea how challenging it
would be to adjust to a new environment and fight for my future in this country.
Both my undergraduate and graduate schools offered extremely distinct social
environments tailored specifically to the needs of international students. My undergraduate
institution did not have nearly as many opportunities for students to interact with one another in a
social setting, which made it more difficult for me to find friends who shared the same cultural
experiences as me. When I first arrived in the United States, I faced many of the same challenges
and obstacles that I have since encountered from a large number of other students that I have met
in the course of my academic and internship experiences. USC's large and diverse social scene
and its large and active international student community are both factors that contribute to USC's
reputation as one of the top universities in the world. Not only is the curriculum entirely different
from the studies that were done in the beginning, the new pattern of assignments, and the
laborious and complicated life concerns, but also the original studies. It is a difficulty in and of
itself for young children to part with their families and the social and living surroundings that
they are accustomed to in order to try to find their way in a nation that has a cultural background
that is different from their own.

63

"How do I fit in?" is a question that practically every overseas student who comes to
study in the United States for the first time has on their mind. The anxiety of wondering whether
or not you should try to fit in is often overshadowed by the anxiety of being afraid that you won't
be accepted. Everyone is responsible for their own decisions. Some students will exert a great
deal of effort in an attempt to isolate themselves from their social environment. These students
will steadfastly refuse to make friends who come from the same nation as them and will do their
best to ensure that their social circle is comprised entirely of students from domestic students.
Others may be too timid to venture out of their comfort zone and prefer to maintain relationships
with others who come from the same nation. There is a common misconception that creating new
social connections is not a tough endeavor; however, this is not the case for many foreign
students who come from Asia since their alternatives are quite limited. As a consequence of this,
many students are unable to grasp why their social connections are so challenging and do not
know how to make adjustments that would improve the quality of their interpersonal
interactions.
In the course of my studies in the United States of America, I had the concept of doing
research into the influence that the social ties of international students in a variety of settings
have on the challenges they encounter in their new surroundings. I learned about the historical
development of social bonding theory and the concepts discussed by various researchers under
this umbrella by reading and gathering information from a variety of literature. These include
belonging as a foundational construct, acculturation, which is framed more as a migration issue,
and social support in relation to mental health. I also gained an understanding of how these
concepts relate to one another. I was given information regarding the research and interviews
that had been conducted by earlier researchers on issues that are unique to international students.

64

In addition, I gave some thought to new research directions for potential future topics that are
related to my professional and work experience. As someone who has worked in the past as an
adviser to overseas students, I found this to be a really helpful perspective. In addition, it acted as
a manual and instructed me to engage in in-depth contemplation on my future job in the field of
international student affairs, which is something that I continue to desire to achieve.
When I was looking through all of the available data, one piece that stood out to me was
what Bjork and his study team (2020) had to say about how you shouldn't change who you are.
They have a positive outlook on the possibility that being socially isolated does not always result
in academic failure and that overseas students are able to negotiate and pick potentially
challenging settings for their own advantage. According to the conceptual framework developed
by Berry (1987), foreign students typically cultivate a sense of belonging in spite of the fact that
they do not have as many intimate ties as domestic students. The ability to form relationships
with students from different countries helps expatriate students adjust to their new surroundings.
However, there is no requirement for these students to abandon the characteristics that make
them distinctive.
There are many students on campus who do not conform to values that are in conflict
with their own, but are able to appreciate themselves and reexamine their place in society. To all
international students who are new and confused, you may initially be disappointed by the
feeling of being out of step with the mainstream culture on campus. However, there are many
students who are able to appreciate themselves and reexamine their place in society on campus:
"Don't make an effort to blend in. Don't try to be someone else " (Bjork et al., 2020).
I pray that the road ahead of you is paved with success, and I assure you that this is just
the beginning of your journey.

65

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract As a student body that is currently increasing in proportion to U.S. colleges and universities each year, international students have a huge role to play in many aspects of education, including sources of financial revenue, diversification of the higher education population, and cross-cultural exchange. The purpose of this work is to review issues related to Asian international students in higher education by reviewing multiple studies and discussions on Asian international students and social connectedness theory. In the literature review, the article discusses and explores concepts related to social bonding theory, using the various challenges faced by international students as the main thread. It concludes with a more comprehensive collection and analysis of research findings, an in-depth formulation and discussion of future research hypotheses, and a reflection on the findings of international students. Relevant solution ideas are provided regarding policies at both the university and government levels.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Su, Jie (author)

Core Title The influence and role of social connections on international students' acculturation and sense of belonging

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

Degree Program Educational Counseling

Degree Conferral Date 2022-08

Publication Date 08/03/2022

Defense Date 08/02/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag acculturation,Asia international students,Higher education,international students,OAI-PMH Harvest,social connections,the sense of belonging

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