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Centering women's voices in CQAD accredited post-secondary institutions

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Centering women's voices in CQAD accredited post-secondary institutions

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Centering Women ’s Voices in CQAD Accredited Post-Secondary Institutions
by
Karen Ann Keesing

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

December 2022

© Copyright by Karen Ann Keesing 2022

The Committee for Karen Ann Keesing certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Paula Carbone
Monique Datta
Patricia Tobey, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022

iv
Abstract
Women have made significant advances in executive management within the workforce.
Throughout the decades, women are making slow progress into the executive management
echelon within private sector companies, secular colleges, and universities. However, there has
been little to no progress in attaining executive positions within Christian post-secondary
educational institutions. This underrepresentation may persist due to a variety of gender
stereotypes and roles that women employed in Christian post-secondary colleges and universities
encounter. Clark and Estes’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational gap analysis model was
applied to explore the experiences of male and female executive managers who hold leadership
positions in Christian post-secondary institutions and who were appointed to serve on an
assurance task force. Eight task force members were interviewed to explore their experiences and
to provide insight on the lack of women holding executive management positions within Bible
colleges and universities. Findings suggest that organizational influences play the biggest role in
preventing women to succeed within executive leadership in organizations with strict patriarchal
structures and hierarchies.
Keywords: Christianity, underrepresentation, executive leadership, women, mentoring

v
Acknowledgments
All thanks, praise, glory, and honor go to God for bestowing this milestone and these
fantastic people in my life. I want to thank my husband, Donald, and my son, Nicholas, for their
support, love, and understanding. I also want to thank the students, staff, and faculty at Pacific
Rim Christian University, without your support and encouragement, I would be lost. I cannot
forget to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey, and her amazingly gifted capstone
assistant, Dr. Don Murphy—both of you have the patience of saints! Additional heartfelt thanks
go to Dr. Monique Datta and Dr. Paula Carbone who kept on encouraging me when things got
tough. Lastly, I want to thank my amazing friends in Cohort 12. I have been so blessed to get to
know all of you and you have made such a profound positive impact on my life!

vi
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Background to the Problem of Practice .............................................................................. 1
Importance of Addressing the Problem .............................................................................. 2
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 3
Organizational Stakeholder/Performance Goals ................................................................. 3
Related Literature................................................................................................................ 3
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals .......................................................... 4
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 4
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 5
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................. 5
Conceptual and Methodological Framework: Clark and Estes Gap Analysis
Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 10
Documentation .................................................................................................................. 10
History of Bible Colleges.................................................................................................. 12
Historical and Organizational Context of Women in Christianity and Christian
Higher Education .............................................................................................................. 18
Overview of Leadership Barriers Faced by Women in Christian Higher Education ....... 28
Gender-Based Societal Leadership Barriers ..................................................................... 29

vii
Gender-Based Organizational Leadership Barriers .......................................................... 32
Gender-Based Individual Leadership Barriers .................................................................. 40
Clark and Estes’s Organizational Problem-Solving Framework: QACD Assurance
Task Force Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors .................................... 42
Conceptual and Methodological Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’
Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context ........................................... 61
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 62
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 64
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 64
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 65
Survey Instrument and Interview Protocol ....................................................................... 66
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 67
Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................. 67
Role of the Investigator ..................................................................................................... 68
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 68
Chapter Four: Results and Findings .............................................................................................. 70
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 71
Results for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ................................ 74
Synthesis ......................................................................................................................... 100
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations....................................................................... 102
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................... 102
Recommendations for Practice ....................................................................................... 102
Recommendations for Further Research ......................................................................... 107
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 108
References ................................................................................................................................... 110
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 132

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Appendix B: Adapted Interview Protocol................................................................................... 137
Appendix C: Recruitment Letter (Email) ................................................................................... 142
Appendix D: Informed Consent .................................................................................................. 143
Appendix F: Acronym Key for Alignment and Assessment ...................................................... 146

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, Knowledge Assessment 48
Table 2: Motivational Influences and Assessments for Analysis 56
Table 3: Assumed Organizational Influences 60
Table 4: Stakeholder Demographics 72
Table 5: Threshold for the Evaluation of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational Needs 73
Table 6: Summary of Presumed Knowledge Needs and Evaluation Results 83
Table 7: Summary of Presumed Motivation Needs and Evaluation Results 92
Table 8: Summary of Presumed Organizational Needs and Evaluation Results 96
Appendix E: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix 145
Appendix G: Atlas.ti Codes and Detailed Assessment Matrix 147
Appendix H: List of QACD Documents 148

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Gap Analysis Process 8
Figure 2: The Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Culture on the
Underrepresentation of Women in QACD Accredited Colleges and Universities 62

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Women have made significant advances in executive management within the workforce,
and more women than men attend college and earn baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate degrees
(Carbonell, 2014). Even though women are making slow progress into the executive echelon
within private sector companies and secular colleges and universities, there has been little to no
improvement in attaining executive positions within Christian post-secondary educational
institutions. The role and retention of women in executive leadership positions in post-secondary
institutions accredited by the Quality Assurance Christian Delegation (QACD; a pseudonym) are
deficient (Ibbotson, 2006).
Background to the Problem of Practice
In addition to being underrepresented in executive leadership positions, women also face
more obscure barriers like microaggressions, gendered leadership stereotyping, unconscious bias,
and the leadership labyrinth. On top of those ambiguous barriers, there is another area where
women are lacking: executive leadership at QACD-accredited Christian colleges and universities
(Ibbotson, 2006; Liddell, 2018; Palmer, 2017).
Ibbotson’s (2006) seminal study for QACD found in a quantitative survey of
approximately 100 QACD post-secondary institutions that 99% of all QACD college presidents
were male and that women comprised 1%. Ibbotson (2006) noted that White males are the
dominant population in executive management in QACD Bible college leadership. Moreover,
Ibbotson (2006) suggested additional future research regarding the lack of women in executive
leadership positions in QACD post-secondary institutions.
Equally important, Lafreniere and Longman (2008) reported that women are still
generally underrepresented in Christian colleges and universities. The researchers surveyed 105
2

Council for Christian colleges and universities (CCCU) and found that less than 1% of women
are represented within upper management. In later research, Longman and Anderson (2011)
stated that women’s hiring into positions within CCCU institutions’ top management lags behind
the national norms of 4%. Based on data collected over a 12-year period of CCCU institutions of
higher education, their data showed that less than one woman per CCCU institution was being
hired. Further, ATS’s annual data table on full-time faculty employment reported that women
have held steady at 27% since 2013. Meanwhile, the hiring of full-time male faculty has also
remained constant at 73%.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Several factors make it vital to address the underrepresentation of women in executive
leadership positions at QACD-accredited post-secondary institutions. Additional research has
shown that women bring a higher level of emotional intelligence to the workplace, increased
communication, and teamwork (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hoyt & Simon, 2016; Lafreniere, 2008).
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2019, women hold 57.4% of all jobs in the
United States. It is evident, however, in the existing literature that women are not achieving
executive management positions within Christian post-secondary institutions due to role
incongruity (Eagly & Karau, 2002), doctrinal differences (Carbonell, 2014), stereotype threat
(Vicari, 2017), and stained-glass ceiling (Liddell, 2018; Longman & Anderson, 2011) issues.
This dissertation sought to examine and offer recommendations for the limited opportunities for
the advancement of women in executive positions within QACD-accredited post-secondary
institutions.

3

Organizational Context and Mission
The QACD is an independent accreditation agency rooted in the Bible college tradition
and accredits over 150 post-secondary colleges and universities across the United States,
territories, and Canada. Its mission is to enhance the quality and credibility of Christian higher
education. Its governance structure is hierarchical and composed of 13 members of the board of
directors and 12 association staff with roles including president. The QACD also has 13 male
senior fellows to assist member institutions in professional development training opportunities
and serve as faculty for leadership conferences. Accredited colleges and universities range from
large Christian universities to small Christian colleges, which hold various theological views.
Organizational Stakeholder/Performance Goals
The QACD promotes and supports Christian education by investing in its member
institutions and increasing their institutional effectiveness, relevance, credibility, and resiliency.
The QACD aims for a spiritually robust, culturally relevant, and professionally respected biblical
higher education movement.
Related Literature
The lack of female executive leadership within Christian post-secondary institutions has
been recognized in several studies conducted over the last decade (Carbonell, 2014; Dahlvig &
Longman, 2014; Ibarra et al., 2013; Ibbotson, 2006; Johnson, 2011; Lafreniere, 2008; Lafreniere
& Longman, 2008; Liddell, 2018). Furthermore, evidence suggests that patriarchal views are
inhibiting women’s advancement into executive positions within Christian post-secondary
institutions (Barnewall, 2016; Dahlvig, 2013; Steele, 2017; Vicari, 2017). Moreover, further
research using the Gender Social Norms Index (GSNI) by the Pew Research Center discovered
gender bias against women worldwide and that women are overrepresented in low-paying jobs
4

but underrepresented in executive positions in business, government, and education (Barroso,
2020; GSNI, 2020; Parker, 2018). In short, whether conscious or unconscious, gender bias and
discrimination are still common issues worldwide.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders ’ Performance Goals
The QACD takes many stakeholder groups into consideration. There are the students of
QACD-accredited post-secondary institutions; the staff and faculty of QACD post-secondary
institutions; the women working in executive positions of QACD-accredited post-secondary
institutions; the parents of the students of QACD-accredited post-secondary institutions; the
QACD 16-member board of directors of whom 87% are male and 12% are female; the staff and
senior fellows who serve as faculty during QACDs leadership development conferences as well.
The QACD also has global affiliates that belong to the International Council for Evangelical
Theological Education, which has 1,000 institutions across 113 countries. Numerous
stakeholders’ joint efforts may contribute to the QACDs organizational goal of increasing
women in executive positions within their QACD-accredited institutions.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to identify, understand, and examine the causes of women
not reaching the executive leadership echelon in Christian post-secondary educational
institutions accredited by QACD with an emphasis on organizational influences.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), each organization develops its own culture. Christian post-
secondary institutions have been shown to have a patriarchal organizational culture, thereby
limiting women’s abilities to reach executive management positions within those institutions
(Lafreniere & Longman, 2008).
The research questions that guided this study are as follows:
5

1. What is the status of the stakeholder’s knowledge, skills, and motivation related to
executive management roles within QACD-accredited member post-secondary
institutions?
2. What is the gap between organizational culture/context and stakeholder knowledge
that either facilitates or limits women’s representation in executive positions in post-
secondary institutions accredited by QACD?
3. Which recommended solutions will allow QACD to promote increased representation
of women in executive positions for their members?
Definitions
● Executive leadership: For the purposes of this dissertation, executive leadership will
refer to “an executive-level president, vice president, or provost position in an
institution” (George, 2014, p. 10).
● Patriarchy: Within the context of this study, patriarchy refers to “a social system in
which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership,
moral authority, social privilege, and control of property” (Macionis, 2012, p. 223).
● Stained-glass ceiling effect: For the purposes of this dissertation, this metaphor will
be used “to describe an invisible barrier women face as they seek to gain leadership
roles within the church or related religious organizations” (George, 2014, p. 10).
● Theoretical framework: For the purposes of this dissertation, theoretical framework
refers to a “lens or perspective used to examine a particular topic” (George, 2014, p.
10).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are the influences on a study that the researcher cannot control (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These identified influences are researcher bias, self-
6

reporting bias, and the possible hesitation and unwillingness of QACD Assurance Task Force
members to be interviewed. The methodology involved an investigative process using semi-
structured interviewing with a purposeful sample of eight representatives. Replies from
participants cannot be easily controlled by the researcher and can be influenced by the interaction
between the participant and investigator, exaggeration of responses, false responses, the
participant’s state of mind, and a masked willingness to participate (Grad, 2019).
Researcher bias and researcher worldview are also limitations, as is self-reporting bias,
where participants provide answers they believe are socially or professionally desirable rather
than their true beliefs and experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I hold a Christian egalitarian
worldview regarding women in executive positions. An additional limitation is that the length of
the study may not have captured the full array of issues considered by the institution. That
limitation was mitigated as much as possible through triangulation, including witness interviews
and extensive document review from low-inference notes. Triangulation through document
review, interviews, peer review, member checking, data analysis, and ruling out additional
alternative explanations also mitigated the limitations. My own lived experiences and key
contacts within the QACD facilitated access to QACD documents and leaders. I purposely
selected interviews, document review, and data analysis, rather than surveys and focus groups,
making this study more targeted and purposeful in obtaining data-rich information (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
I approached this study from a transformative worldview, which “holds that research
inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social
oppression at whatever levels it occurs” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 9). Delimitations are
influences that the researcher can control through a carefully and well-designed study (Creswell
7

& Creswell, 2018). This study was restricted to eight purposely selected QACD Assurance Task
Force representatives and utilized criteria established for the selected participants.
Conceptual and Methodological Framework: Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Conceptual
Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis provides an evidence-based framework for
systematically identifying the root causes of organizational performance gaps. As reflected in
Figure 1, a systematic gap analysis involves (a) identifying organizational goals, (b) assessing
whether current organizational structures are optimized for attaining performance goals, (c)
identifying the factors that create performance gaps and impede organizational goal attainment,
(d) identifying critical knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences impacting
performance gaps, and (e) evaluating, recommending, and implementing solutions (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The assumed stakeholder KMO influences organization were examined through
interviews, document review, and artifact analysis, consistent with the methodology in Chapter
Three.

8

Figure 1
Gap Analysis Process

Note. This figure illustrates the recursive and exploratory nature of the process used in gap
analysis. From Turning research into results, by R. E. Clark & F. Estes, 2008, Information
Age Publishing, and Applying best practices to optimize racial and ethnic diversity on non-
profit boards: An improvement study, by R. J. Grad (Publication No. 27740175) [Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

The methodology used was purposeful, qualitative interviews, specifically using one-on-
one semi-structured interviews with eight QACD Assurance Task Force members. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) stated that interviewing is necessary when the behavior and interpretation of
people are not directly observable.
The methodological approach to this study utilized Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis
to explore influences and processes potentially limiting the institutions’ lack of women in
executive positions. Qualitative data were collected to assess and validate assumed KMO
9

influences on the underrepresentation of women in executive leadership within QACD-
accredited post-secondary institutions.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is organized into five chapters, with Chapter One starting with the overview,
purpose of the study, the research questions, as well as the limitations, delimitations, and the
definition of the terminology used in the study. Chapter Two encompasses the review of the
current literature related to women in executive positions in Christian post-secondary institutions
and presents Clark and Estes’s KMO gap analysis theory. Chapter Three discusses the
methodology, sample size, instrumentation, and data collection and analysis. Chapter Four
reports and summarizes the data and analyzes the results of the study. Chapter Five provides
recommendations using the new world Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) and
discusses implications for future research pertaining to the lack of women in executive positions
in QACD-accredited post-secondary Christian institutions.

10

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature relating to the
underrepresentation of women in QACD post-secondary colleges and universities. This chapter
starts with an overview of barriers that women executives face in Christian higher education and
then reviews the social science research and theoretical constructs that support the call for more
women to be represented with QACD post-secondary institutions as well as the operational,
financial, stakeholder, and equity benefits of having a higher representation of women within
QACD colleges and universities. The chapter will further examine the critical importance of
inclusive practices for maximizing the benefits of gender diversity in higher education. The
chapter concludes by reviewing Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis and multiple KMO
influences affecting QACD and its accredited institutions’ ability to recruit women. Identifying
these KMO influences will be the key to properly addressing the gaps to initiate change that will
benefit QACD and its institutions.
Documentation
The review and research of the literature looked at peer-reviewed journals, associated
dissertations, institutional and governmental reports, and articles and books by leadership,
organizational, and gender experts. To begin with, the literature search focused on women in
higher education leadership within QACD institutions; however, the research only contained one
report by Ibbotson (2006). Therefore, the search expanded to include women in higher education
leadership in other Christian and faith-based organizations. Additional searches of the literature
found several useful qualitative and quantitative survey instruments. Ellen’s (2013) qualitative
survey instrument evaluated women working in Christian complementarian conservative
colleges and universities and the impact of their experiences and perceptions of theological
differences while employed at their institution. Hardesty’s (2003) quantitative study randomly
11

selected 200 female respondents at 44 Christian colleges and universities affiliated with the
CCCU. Hardesty (2003) examined these female administrators and reported that female college
administrators had increased job satisfaction at colleges and universities with a close relationship
with their sponsoring church affiliation and denomination. Lewis’s (2012) qualitative study
utilized Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework to explore the underrepresentation of women in
leadership texts. Lewis (2012) found that women were significantly underrepresented in
leadership texts. Moreton’s (2001) qualitative field study interviewed 16 women in Christian
colleges and universities affiliated with the CCCU and explored the women’s career paths.
Moreton (2001) found that women in executive management were underrepresented in
leadership. Additionally, Moreton (2001) also found that mentoring had a significant positive
impact on those women and their career paths. Lastly, Stockton’s (2019) research was built upon
earlier research by Steele (2017), Dahlvig (2013), Dahlvig and Longman (2014), Moreton
(2001), and Porterfield (2013). Stockton’s (2019) qualitative study interviewed 14 women
working in CCCU colleges and universities and confirmed that almost 20 years later, women still
have not made significant progress in executive leadership within CCCU institutions.
Women in Christian post-secondary institutions face many of the same barriers as women
in the private sector (Barone & Assirelli, 2019; Langford, 2010; Starr-Parker, 2012; Vicari,
2017). The literature found that women rarely reach the upper echelons of executive
management within Christian post-secondary institutions (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017; Johnson,
2011; Lepkowski, 2009; Longman & Anderson, 2011; Longman & Lafreniere, 2012; Vicari,
2017). Although some women have attained the positions of provost or president at many secular
colleges and universities across North America, women have not achieved those same positions
at Christian post-secondary institutions, even though “women earn 57% of the bachelor’s
degrees, 60% of the master’s degrees; and more than half of the doctoral degrees” (Ginder et al.,
12

2018, p. 4). According to Longman and Anderson (2011) and Vicari (2017), gender equity
remains elusive in much of North American society, even though more women than men are
enrolled in college. Furthermore, Howard and Gagliardi (2018) found that 90% of college and
university presidents found that it was “very important or important for the president to ensure
periodic review of institutional or system policies and procedures to eliminate gender bias” (p.
6).
History of Bible Colleges
Overview of the Bible College Movement
To understand the context of this study and how the QACD is structured, it is necessary
to provide an overview of the Bible college movement. Publications from noted 19th-century
English theologian and scholar John Nelson Darby provided the impetus for the American Bible
College movement (Sutherland, 2010). Sutherland’s (2010) research identified that the American
Bible College movement was due to the need for training missionaries and resisting the liberal
secularization of newly established American colleges and universities. However, more
extensive historical research on the Bible college movement and the changes that QACD has
undergone has been found in research by Palmer (2017), which is utilized in much of this section
of the literature review. Additional research on the Bible college movement was also found on
the QACD website.
Schools accredited by QACD hold a variety of Biblical and denominational worldviews,
but the commonality all QACD colleges and universities have pertains to the curriculum
requirements that QACD policy requires (Palmer, 2017). Current QACD accreditation policies
for undergraduate programs reflect the foundational aspects of the Bible college movement. Also
foundational to the Bible college movement, QACDs mission, vision, and values reflect the
13

influence that the Bible college has had on the QACD (Palmer, 2017). Therefore, it is necessary
to understand the history of the Bible college movement and the intersection of the current social
and political climates that QACD institutions face.
Bible College Beginnings
There were 40 Bible institutes and Bible schools founded between 1882 and 1920
(Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017). These schools and institutions had strong beliefs of Biblical
inerrancy, Christian living, and a Bible-centered approach to teaching and education (Palmer,
2017; Ringenberg, 2006) and were not meant to compete with universities or seminaries (Palmer,
2017). As Liddell noted (2018), “Depending on the institution, the religious heritage of the Bible
college influences varying aspects of the current culture and structure of the institution. Bible
colleges are often connected with a particular religious heritage” (p. 69). Therefore, Bible
colleges started by Christian denominations more often than not share the same “components
with the denomination from the same governing board to doctrinal statements” (Liddell, 2018, p.
70). By 1918, these same schools and institutions began to discuss early accreditation efforts and
standardize Bible-based education delivery to students (Beatty, 2013). What made Bible colleges
unique and distinctive from colleges of the era was that Bible colleges prepared their students for
employment in church, ministry, or mission-related occupations (Millard, 1995; Palmer, 2017;
Womble, 2018). Additionally, these Bible colleges “were operating on the cutting edge of
education by offering education to students regardless of socio-economic backgrounds, and most
were co-educational” (Palmer, 2017, p. 59).
Further, rapid growth took place within the Bible college movement during the 1930s
through the 1960s, in part due to the implementation of the G.I. Bill and the baby boom after
World War II (Palmer, 2017), resulting in 100 new schools built between 1941 and 1950
14

(McKinney, 1997; Palmer, 2017). The late 1940s saw additional organizational and educational
standardization within the Bible college movement (Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017; Ringenberg,
2006). Starting in 1947, a serious discussion was held regarding establishing an accrediting
agency solely focused on Bible colleges (Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017). The Accrediting
Association of Bible Institutes and Bible Colleges (AABIBC) was officially formed in late 1947
(Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017). By 1948, the AABIBC had already accredited 18 institutions
(Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017). Additionally, by 1960, the AABIBC had grown to 36 accredited
and 13 associate institutions (McKinney, 1997; Palmer, 2017). Ringenberg (2006) found that by
1948, “The United States Office of Education acknowledged the organization [AABIBC] as the
only accrediting body in the field of undergraduate theological education” (p. 166). Finally, in
the 1950s, AABIBC shortened and changed its name to the Accrediting Association of Bible
Colleges (AABC).
In the 1960s, there was continued growth and refinement of the organizational and
educational standards within Bible colleges (Palmer, 2017). By the late 20th century, the
majority of Bible college faculty had terminal degrees (Beatty, 2013; Palmer, 2017).
Accordingly, the rise in instructor quality also led to the increase in the quality of the school’s
curriculum (Palmer, 2017; Ringenberg, 2006). However, by the 1980s, many original AABC
institutions also began seeking regional accreditation, becoming Christian liberal arts colleges
and leaving the AABC.
Eventually, by the late 1990s, AABC expanded its mission statement to allow for broader
non-church academic class offerings at its member schools. By 2004, the AABC underwent
another name change and became known as the QACD. According to Beatty (2013, as cited in
Palmer, 2017) and, “this change reflected an evolution in the association’s scope and its
15

inclusion of graduate and programmatic accreditation” (p. 56). In 2015, QACD had 90 accredited
institutions in the United States and accredited another 18 outside of the United States (Liddell,
2018). As Liddell (2018) identified, as far back as 2015, Bible college student enrollment was
beginning to be problematic. Liddell (2018) found that 79 institutions accredited by QACD out
of the 90 accredited institutions in the United States reported student enrollment data to the
federal database, the Integrated Postsecondary Educational Data System (IPEDS; NCES, 2018).
Liddell (2018) calculated that the median number of QACD-accredited Bible colleges
was 259, but the mean number of Bible college students was 456. Also, Liddell (2018) found
that seven larger QACD institutions skewed the mean with student enrollments between 1,000
and 3,800. Liddell (2018) further found that Bible college enrollment from 2010 to 2013 was flat
or declining. Additionally, recent statistics from NCES provisional data spanning 2010 to 2019
showed that over half of these same institutions had flat or declining enrollment (NCES, 2018).
Liddell (2018) presented additional evidence that the Bible colleges’ fiscal stability is in
jeopardy due to their over-reliance on unsustainable business plans and tuition for their budget.
According to Liddell (2018),
The fiscal health of Bible colleges is significantly impacted by one student. Although this
statement seems outlandish, an older study on economies of scale at Bible colleges
revealed the following relationship: if one student with full-time status enrolled and paid
full tuition and fees, then the overall cost to the institution was decreased by $68,617. The
relationship between revenue from tuition funds and the financial stability and
sustainability of Bible colleges is quantitatively described. If one student is connected
with approximately 70,000 dollars, then Bible colleges are too dependent on student
enrollment for institutional health. (pp. 75–76)
16

The simple fact that Bible colleges need students and money to remain a part of higher education
also supports Liddell’s (2018) findings that they need to undertake systematic organizational
change to survive current and future challenges to their existence.
The Infancy of the Bible College Movement and Gender
In the 19th century, many pressing social changes directly impacted the Bible college
movement. Along with the secularization of higher education, the major emerging issue was
women’s rights in higher education (Palmer, 2017; Ringenberg, 2006). The largest supporter
during this era was the president of Oberlin College, abolitionist, and Christian revivalist Charles
Finney (Ringenberg, 2006). Finley ushered in the Second Great Awakening and urged women to
share their Christian testimonies in public, despite critics claiming that women speaking publicly
about Christ were taking part in a type of “spiritual undressing” (Ringenberg, 2016, p. 194).
Finney also founded the practice of coeducation by allowing women full and equal access to
higher education during his presidency at Oberlin College in Ohio (Ringenberg, 2016).
During this era, other champions of women’s rights in education were Dwight Moody,
Wheaton College founder Jonathan Blanchard, and Presbyterian Minister A. B. Simpson,
founder of Nyack College and the Christian and Ministry Alliance (Ringenberg, 2016; Wheaton
College, 2021). Additionally, Simpson facilitated overseas missions, and “overseas missions
became one of the earliest professions open to women on an equal basis with men” (Ringenberg,
2016, p. 194). Locally,
Simpson employed women on all college and denominational ministry levels, including
Bible professors, ministers, evangelists, and administrators. His philosophy on the role of
women as ministers is set in the context of his view of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit
upon all people (see Joel 2:28–29; Acts 21:9). (Ringenberg, 2006, p. 195)
17

However, these same champions of female equality were not required to pay women the same
wages as men (Goldin, 2006).
By 1920, despite the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment allowing women to vote and
the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1923, allowing women to file for divorce, the cultural acceptance
of women in ministry, education, and employment had changed for the worse due to the arrival
of the Fundamentalist Movement, especially the notion of Dispensationalism, a literal
interpretation of the Bible. This negatively and severely impacted women’s participation in
leadership positions within Christianity. Dispensationalists cited, utilized, and misinterpreted
Scripture to support the Danvers Statement and actively suppressed women’s rights and
participation in the Church. Most notably, the Biblical passages of 1 Corinthians 14:34–35 and 1
Timothy 2:12 were taken out of context and misinterpreted and employed against women for
speaking in Church and teaching men (Ringenberg, 2016). Denominations such as the Southern
Baptists, Missouri Synod Lutherans, and the Christian Reformed Church of America still place
limitations on women’s involvement in the Church. Moreover, a renowned egalitarian institution,
Moody Bible Institute, had reversed course and adopted the fundamentalist view on women
(Ringenberg, 2006).
It took 5 full decades for the fundamentalist points of view on women in Christianity to
be challenged. In 1973, the evangelical women’s movement began with the formation of the
Evangelical and Women’s Caucus. Three major groups support different ideologies on women:
the liberal organization, Evangelical and Ecumenical Women’s Caucus (EEWC); the centrist,
egalitarian Christians for Biblical Equality (CBE) founded in 1988; and the conservative,
complementarian Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood established in 1987
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(Ringenberg, 2016). While these three organizations are biblically called to unity, they
marginalize one another. According to Ringenberg (2016),
The CBMW believes that the EEWC and the CBE do not hold as high a view of
the Bible as they do. By contrast, the CBE-type people wonder how the CBMW would
respond to a sensitive young woman who asks, ‘why would God give a woman the ability
to do something and then forbid all women from doing it?’ or an innocent young girl who
engages in conversational prayer as follows: Dear God, are boys better than girls? I know
you are one, but try to be fair. (p. 199)
Historical and Organizational Context of Women in Christianity and Christian Higher
Education
Swidler’s (2018) simple, true, and bold statement that “Yeshua’s [Jesus’s] women
followers created Christianity” (p. 46) cannot be overlooked. Women have been involved in
Christian culture for over 2 millennia. Also worth noting, Swidler wrote in the Gospel of Mark
that Yeshua healed both men and women. Additionally, Swidler posited that it could be
“evidence that an awareness of Yeshua’s sexual egalitarianism preceded the composition of the
Gospel of Mark, and that Mark affirmed it and handed it on” (p. 48). More evidence of women’s
prominence in Christianity, in John’s Gospel, “Mary Magdalene, not Peter, is presented as the
model for discipleship” (Torjesen, 1993, p. 45). Further evidence of the influences women have
had in Christianity was stated succinctly by Hamilton (2000) in that women were “first at the
cradle and last at the grave” (p. 112). Critically important, Cunningham et al. (2000) reported
that Mary, Jesus’s mother, and not a man, “was the only human source for Jesus’s DNA” (p. 23).
Moreover, Hamilton (2000) also noted that “Jesus revolutionized the lives of women. … What
he offered was totally different from their usual treatment in a male-centered world. For Jesus,
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there was no double standard, no exclusion, and no limits on their God-given destiny” (p. 112).
Moreover, women have founded religious communities and churches as well as recent 19th and
20th-century denominations such as The Quakers, The Shakers, The Society of Universal
Friends, The International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, The Seventh-Day Adventist
Church, and the Christian Science movements (Muir, 2019).
An organization’s worldview and cultural values directly influence its culture (Bolman &
Deal, 2017; Dahlvig & Longman, 2014; Hoyt & Simon, 2016; Schein & Schein & Schein, 2017;
Vicari, 2017). Additionally, according to Ayman and Korabik (2010) and Vicari (2017), gender
and culture have comparable aspects concerning leadership. Vicari (2017) and Wood (2009)
pointed out that most faith-based schools are affiliated with their denominations. The
denomination’s beliefs about women and their role within society will shape women’s
experience at that post-secondary institution. Women’s influence in Christianity has been
documented despite earlier attempts in the 4th century to silence and erase all mention of women
in the Bible.
Christian organizational culture is a culture that is slow and highly resistant to change.
Agócs (1997) defined numerous characteristics of change-resistant organizations, these being
“inertia, sunk costs, scarce resources, threats to the power base of the old dominant coalition,
values and beliefs, conformity to norms, and inability to perceive alternatives” (pp. 917–918).
Agócs (1997) further delineated the types of resistance that organizations undertake to shut down
calls for change: outright denial for the need to change, including personal attacks on the
credibility of the message and the person calling for change; not accepting responsibility for
having to implement change; the refusal to undertake change, once the change has been agreed
to; repression and the active undoing of change processes that had been started. Agócs affirmed
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that “when advocates are women and minorities, they find themselves working for change from
within the very structures that create and perpetuate their disadvantage. … For them, the ‘playing
field’ is never level” (pp. 920–921).
To achieve gender equality in Christianity, Torjesen (1993) emphasized the importance
of understanding the why and how women’s involvement in Christianity became marginalized.
Torjesen’s seminal research highlights ancient historical evidence of women’s power in the 1st
and 2nd centuries. Torjesen noted that the newly formed Christian ecclesiastical leadership
looked to the leadership models in their society. Furthermore, Torjesen reported that both men
and women in Christian, Jewish, and Roman communities wielded economic power and
authority, prophetic abilities, and political influence. Brooten’s (1982) research further supported
gender equality and leadership evidence. Brooten analyzed 19 Hebrew engravings and epitaphs
and found that women held various high-ranking positions within synagogues. So, when newly
established Christian churches were founded, those same churches copied the Synagogical
leadership models, which had women in leadership positions. Further, “women’s leadership was
a widespread phenomenon in the early Christian churches,” but there was an increasing conflict
between the acceptance of women’s leadership and the “strict Greco-Roman demarcation of
gender roles” (Torjesen, 1993, p. 35).
Finally, Torjesen (1993) described the increasing conflict between women’s roles in the
Christian church and the growing influence to conform to Greco-Roman societal expectations
that led to the suppression, removal, and ignoring of women’s involvement in the Biblical canon.
Scapegoating Eve
Wood (2009) wrote of the harm that gender inequality has on women and noted that
gender inequality goes back to Adam and Eve. The pervasive Christian cultural stereotype that
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women are inferior due to women’s perceived wickedness and to God having created and
considered man as superior (Wood, 2019) is still perpetuated by the Catholic church, the
Reformed Christian Church, Churches affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention, and other
complementarian worldview Christian denominations. Coleman (2021) affirmed that blaming
Eve for Adam’s seduction reaches back to the 3rd century B.C. in Jewish and early Christian
literature, beginning with the Hellenistic Jewish Scribe, Jesus ben Sirach. Additional research on
the Genesis creation story from 19th-century Assyrian language scholar Friedrich Delitzsch
(1903) posited that the creation of Eve is thought to be derived from an ancient Babylonian tale.
Delitzsch’s (1903) controversial paper argues that the Genesis creation story was plagiarized
from the Enuma Elis and was then re-envisioned during the Babylonian Exilic period of the
Jews.
Wood (2017) noted the systematic denigration of Eve in Christianity starting with the
Church Fathers like Tertullian, who considered women “the devil’s gateway” and that “The
fusion of all women with Eve came with the apostolic sanction, and Eve became the scapegoat
for the limiting of women’s activities and authority to generally justify women’s submission to
men” (p. 3). Further proof of the ongoing misogyny and subjugation of women throughout
Christian history, reflecting the Greek and Roman culture at the time, comes from other early
Church fathers’ writings. Irenaeus, Origen, Chrysostom, Cyprian, Jerome, and Augustine
systematically erased evidence of women’s leadership within the early Church and vilified Eve
(Wood, 2019). Moreover, these same Church fathers also neglected to notice the female leaders
written about in the Old Testament who came after Eve and supposedly carried her stain of
disobedience. Eve’s femme fatale status continued in the medieval and Reformation eras, with
Luther proposing that women were not worthy of equal status (Coleman, 2021). Even Elizabeth
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Cady Stanton (1895) showed her frustration and voiced her disgust with Eve’s blame and
subsequent subjugation through marriage.
Women at the Cross, the Burial, and the Resurrection
The presence and mention of women in the New Testament provide significant evidence
that Jesus valued women over men as disciples. Swidler (2018) posited that “it should be noted
that there is no record of women seeking the death of Yeshua; all those in any way involved in
promoting Yeshua’s death were men” (p. 72). Also noted by Swidler (2018) as well as in
Matthew 26:56 (NASB) and Mark 14:50 (NASB), all of Jesus’s male disciples deserted Him.
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John made specific references to Mary Magdalene, Mary of
Clopas, and Mary the mother of James being present at the cross, at the burial, and visiting
Jesus’s tomb, and they were the first to whom Jesus appeared after His resurrection (John 20:11–
18; Matt. 28:9–10; Mark 16:9). However, D’Angelo (1998) warns that just because women were
participants in Christianity, it did not mean that women were treated as equals and that there
were no barriers anymore. Rather, D’Angelo (1998) posited that “gender roles were not so much
directly challenged as superseded by the urgency and power of God’s reign” (p. 38). However,
the growth and spread of Christianity was helped by the Apostle Paul, who utilized and wrote
about seven separate women in his letters. These women evangelized and held positions of
power in the Corinthian and Philippian Churches and held Christian services in their houses
(Peterson, 2010) in the growing Christian movement. Additionally, history noted they also were
persecuted and died as martyrs for Christianity.

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Women in Christianity in the 1st and 2nd Centuries
Women were active in Christianity in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Torjesen (1993) noted
that Christian congregations did not have specific buildings dedicated to Christianity; instead,
Christians met in homes. There were many prominent women leaders of these house churches.
Torjesen (1993) noted that a woman founded the Church of Philippi, and its leadership
also “continued on in the hands of women” (p. 16). Torjesen (1993) cited Paul’s letter to Euodia
and Syntyche in the Philippian Church as evidence. Furthermore, Torjesen (1993) wrote of
additional significant women and co-workers of Paul helping spread the Christian faith. Women
such as the sister of Nereus, Julia, Olympas, Priscia, Junia, Mary, Phoebe, Lydia, Tryphaena,
Tryphosa, and Persis “established the Christian faith through their work of teaching and
exhortation” (p. 33). However, there was increasing opposition regarding church leadership by
women by the 4th century. Torjesen (1993) wrote,
Epiphanius interpreted the curse pronounced on Eve, “Your desire will be for your
husband, and he shall rule over you,” to mean that woman had an inferior nature because
it was her fate to be ruled rather than to rule. (p. 45)
Torjesen (1993) documented Epiphanius’s active censure of women, “In the end, Epiphanius
denounced women prophets, not for heretical beliefs or practices but because their active
leadership roles in public assemblies contravened his ingrained assumptions about women’s
place in society” (p. 44). Also,
Ultimately, the prevailing Greco-Roman social thought at the time was the
perceived vulnerability of female sexuality that required the safeguard of male protection.
Protection implied subordination, and as subject to fathers and husbands, women became
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subordinate to all men in general - their subordinate role reinforced by an assumed
inferiority of woman’s nature. (Torjesen, 1993, p. 45)
This line of thinking led to the increasing marginalization, removal, and silencing of
women in leadership positions in the Church and in the Bible. By the 12th century, Hildegarde of
Bingen and her cloister exemplified the literal silencing of women. They were banned from
singing by the ecclesiastical hierarchy due to having compassion for a deceased former
excommunicate (Wootton, 2015).
Even today, Wootton (2015) emphasized “women are often blamed for the disunity and
disintegration of the churches” (p. 124), which leads to “intense psychological suffering brought
about by the power of the vocation coming into direct conflict with the internalization of deeply
destructive societal and ecclesiastical view of women’s nature” (p. 124). Further support for
“underdevelopment or negation of the self” also comes from Saiving’s (1960) seminal research
on feminism in Christianity (p. 160). Goldstein (1960) explained that Christian theology and
Biblical interpretation were shaped by men and, therefore, reflect the male point of view and
culture. At issue is the notion and question of headship, which Paul addressed in 1 Corinthians
11:2–16.
Headship and Hermeneutics
Paul’s letters addressed the issue of gender in 1 Corinthians 11:3. Cunningham and
Hamilton (2000) noted Paul’s vast legal knowledge and use of the Greek language, in which 1
Corinthians was written. Cunningham and Hamilton (2000) identified the Greek word for head
as kephale, which had dual meanings. Egalitarians Cunningham and Hamilton (2000) noted that
it could mean ruler or source. This particular passage is written in the NASB version of the Bible
as, “But I want you to understand that Christ is the head of every man, and the man is the head of
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the woman, and God is the head of Christ.” As reported by Peterson (2010), “this passage was
never meant to demote women, rather it was to address faulty worship practices taking place in
the Corinthian Church” (p. 32). Peterson (2010) identified the metaphorical use of the word
“head” as being mistranslated by complementarians as “authority over.” Additionally, previous
extensive source document research by Cervin (1989) confirmed that the evidence
complementarians cite as invalid and logically faulty. Furthering Cervin’s (1989) premise, as
mentioned in Peterson (2010), Cervin never claimed to be on either side of the gender argument
and remained a neutral party to the issue.
As Bilzekian (1985), Peterson (2010), and Giles (2020) emphasized, proper interpretation
of Scripture needs to be done within the cultural, historical, and theological context it is written,
a process referred to as hermeneutics. Complementarians apply their interpretations to 1 Timothy
2:8–15 to undermine and exclude women from leadership positions (Giles, 2020). Giles (2020)
and Peterson (2010) cited the evidence that there is nowhere else in the Bible. Other than in
Ephesus and 1 Timothy 2:8–15 are women being called upon to learn sound Christian tenets in
“quietness and full submission” to the doctrine, not the male gender (Giles, 2020, p. 75).
Additionally, Peterson (2010) and Giles (2020) found that there no other places in the Bible
where “Adam was not deceived,” and in “Romans 5:12–19 and in 1 Corinthians 15:20–22, Paul
holds Adam responsible for all the sin in the world” (Giles, 2020, p. 76).
Power and Patriarchy in Christianity
Some denominations within Christianity still have beliefs and practices that allow male
dominance over women as individuals and as groups due to an incorrect Pauline interpretation.
(Orme et al., 2017). Orme et al. (2017) surveyed 267 respondents from conservative protestant
Christian denominations. They confirmed earlier research by Scholer (1987) and Schüssler
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Fiorenza (2001) that “personal attitudes and beliefs regarding sexism and power, specifically
Traditionalism and Hostile Sexism are significantly related to the Biblical interpretation process”
(p. 284). Much has been written about Christianity needing a form of cultural and organizational
change. Former President Jimmy Carter (2015) recently wrote about the ongoing widespread
gender discrimination and abuse of women and girls worldwide. Carter (2015) attributed the
increased violence against women to the teaching of male gender superiority over women. Phan
(2016) wrote, “Christianity has a longstanding and ingrained ambivalence, if not overt hostility,
toward women and the feminine” (p. 117). Patriarchal Christianity’s entrenched and historic
careless wielding of dominance, power, and control over women has led to injustices inflicted on
women for millennia (Wood, 2019).
Historical evidence shows that there have been cultural changes within Christianity,
making adaptations to fit and model the existing culture when needed. Gender inequality within
Christianity needs to adapt to modern culture. For example, Purnama’s (2021) recent qualitative
study is another example of the call and warning to the Christian church to reflect upon,
examine, and change its tacit organizational approval of systemic gender inequality. Purnama’s
(2021) study found that Christian colleges and universities can adopt Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick’s (2016) new world model to affect long-term organizational change and support in
Christian academia. With this, it is essential to address and recognize two distinct Christian
worldviews on the participation of women in the institution of Christianity.
Complementarian Versus Egalitarian Christian Worldviews
Within Christianity, there are two positions regarding the role of women. These two
positions are complementarian and egalitarian. The complementarian point of view is more
traditional and discriminatory. This position “believes that Biblical Scripture confirms a
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hierarchy between genders are among diverse roles assigned to each gender” (Wood, 2009, p.
79). Complementarians hold a strict interpretation of 1 Timothy 2: 1–15. As noted by Peterson
(2010), Wayne Grudem and John Piper promote the complementarian agenda and fear-
mongering, both of whom rely on, misinterpret, and misuse Paul’s words in 1 Timothy 6:20.
Looking deeper at the use of 1 Timothy 6:20, Peterson (2010) found that verse 20 cannot be used
solely by itself and that the next verse, verse 21, needs to be read with verse 20 to understand its
context. Additionally, Peterson (2010) and Chappell (1991) discovered that the two verses have
nothing to do with gender roles in the Church or Christianity. Lastly, Peterson (2010) summed
up what would happen if the Church and Christianity removed women entirely from service,
Whether Piper, Grudem, and their followers admit it or not, “the Body of Christ” would
be dramatically paralyzed if female officials in the Church were to be hypothetically
removed from history and/or asked to step down from their present-day leadership roles.
(p. 29)
Giles (2020) noted that churches that subscribe to the complementation worldview
experienced a steep decline in membership and participation. Giles (2020) specifically
mentioned the steep decline of close to one million members since 2003 of churches in the
Southern Baptist Convention (SBC). Furthermore, former President Jimmy Carter and his wife,
Rosalynn, left the SBC over their views regarding male headship (Giles, 2020). Disturbingly,
Giles (2020) pointed out the SBC’s teaching and sanctioning of abuse, whether physical, verbal,
sexual, or psychological, as not a good reason for divorce. As Giles (2020) noted, “the all-too-
common advice complementarian pastors give to women who come to them telling of abuse by
their husband is to tell the wife to pray for her husband, be submissive, and accept things the way
they are” (p. 11). While comparing non-church-going abusers and church-going domestic
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abusers, Giles (2020) addressed the power structures that keep Christian abusers in power,
explicitly noting that “The Christian abuser believes he has divine approval for the way he acts in
his home” (p. 40).
In 2019, member churches of the SBC finally admitted to the ongoing sexual abuse and
harassment endemic in some SBC member churches after reports surfaced that 380 pastors of
SBC member churches had abused over 700 women and children victims within their churches
(Giles, 2020). Gjelten (2019) noted that the SBC’s complementarian view on women made those
Christian churches shaped “a culture that is friendly to abusers.”
In contrast, egalitarianism holds the belief that God created men and women as equals
and that “women should be allowed to hold leadership positions based on their individual
abilities, gifting and talents rather than on their gender” (Vicari, 2017, p. 49). This study is
informed and supported by the Christian egalitarian worldview. As stated by Cunningham and
Hamilton (2000), “What is modeled for us in the Godhead between God the Father, God the Son,
and God the Holy Spirit? Equality. There is no hierarchy in the Trinity, only absolute equality”
(p. 43). Furthermore, Cunningham and Hamilton (2000) wrote that God in the Garden of Eden
created man and woman in His image; therefore, God created man and woman to be equals.
After all, it was Paul who stated in Galatians 3:28, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is
neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for all you are one in Christ Jesus.”
Overview of Leadership Barriers Faced by Women in Christian Higher Education
This next section discusses specific leadership barriers faced by women in Christian
higher education. This is not to ignore the verbal, emotional, social, economic, spiritual, sexual,
and physical domestic abuse women can face on a daily basis. Although women have made
significant strides in the workforce since the 1970s, they are still underrepresented within
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Christian higher education. The following sections will discuss barriers that directly impact
women in Christian higher education. The gender gap is noticeable across all world religions
(Pew Research Center, 2016). Adams (1995), Ward (1990), and Graves (2011) have discussed a
variety of Christian organizational barriers that women face on a day-to-day basis. These barriers
range from acceptance to role conflict and gender bias. Lafreniere (2008) found that
organizational culture has a direct impact on women and their leadership styles. Christian
colleges and universities also have a unique organizational culture. Hostetter (2003) noted that
loyalty, teamwork, commitment, and the grace of God ultimately provide the resources for
Christian colleges and universities to grow and to prosper. However, QACD-accredited Christian
post-secondary schools are not immune to the pressures of societal issues. Bailey (2017) stated
that “the underrepresentation of women in senior-level positions has also been a perpetual issue
among the members of the [CCCU]” (p. 3).
Gender-Based Societal Leadership Barriers
This section addresses the societal, organizational, and individual leadership barriers
women face in the employment sector. While overall gender bias remains rare due to laws and
the awareness of potential consequences (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017), these barriers have been the
unspoken norms and procedures across organizations that negatively impact women and their
ability to view themselves as effective leaders (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017; Ely et al., 2011; Ibarra
et al., 2013).
Control of Women ’s Voices
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) found instances in Christian academia where women’s
perspectives are suppressed, primarily when their opinions differ from those of the dominant
group. Diehl and Dzubinski interviewed a female mission executive who reported that the men in
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her meetings “have commented more than once that it feels like I’m interrupting them, and that I
should wait until they’re finished and then I can talk” (p. 188). In 2018, former popular SBC
complementarian Beth Moore experienced first-hand direct and indirect control of her voice and
views within evangelical Christianity once her essay A Letter to my Brothers was published.
Moore’s (2018) essay described her disheartening and demeaning experiences as a female pastor
in the SBC. Finally, after experiencing 2 years of backlash and criticism from her fellow SBC
peers, Moore left the SBC in 2021 over the treatment and views towards women (Wamsley,
2021).
Cultural Constraints on Women ’s Own Choices
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) cited societal expectations regarding career choice and
college major as one limiting factor for women. This barrier is prevalent in Christianity,
depending on the denomination to which one belongs. Diehl and Dzubinski reported an example
of one married mission executive who was told that it would be expected of her to raise her
children before being allowed into any leadership positions. Additional evidence from Diehl and
Dzubinski described a female higher education executive only thinking that, if she were younger,
she would only be able to be a teacher or a nurse because that was what was expected of her.
Gender Stereotypes and Stereotype Threat
The cause of this barrier is the generalizations held by society about women, which are
too simple and fixated (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017). Research by Bordalo et al. (2019) obtained
results from their study showing that stereotypes hurt women and foster discriminatory attitudes.
Moreover, gender stereotyping has been so problematic worldwide that gender stereotyping has
been classified by the United Nations as a human rights violation (United Nations Human Rights
Office of the High Commissioner, 2014). Women’s experiences of gender stereotyping and
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stereotype threat negatively impact their psychological, behavioral, and physiological health
(Rydell et al., 2017). These negative impacts are manifested in a few ways: increased negative
thoughts, greater than usual focus on using anxiety-related words when talking, and
hypervigilance and hypersensitivity towards signs of errors in their performance (Rydell et al.,
2017). However, the opposite is true when the issue of motivation is involved in gendered
stereotype threat. Rydell et al. (2017) noted that “because of their desire not to confirm the
stereotype, negatively stereotyped group members are motivated to perform well, and this
motivation can be seen in their performance on easy and less complex tasks” (p. 298). Overall,
gender stereotypes and stereotype threat are two of the most significant contributors to the lack
of women in many fields like STEM and some denominations of Christianity.
Gender Unconsciousness
This barrier was defined by Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) as a “lack of knowledge or
awareness of the role gender plays in the workplace” (p. 188). Lewis (2017) discussed her
experiences as the first female president of the United Theological College of the West Indies
pertaining to gender unconsciousness. Lewis (2017) recognized that in her lived experiences, she
encountered men who were simply unaware of their dismissive attitudes and behaviors towards
women. In another interview example by Diehl and Dzubinski, one male higher education
executive said, “I don’t really believe in a glass ceiling, and I don’t really believe in a gender
gap. I fundamentally believe that women or men are successful as they set out to be. Too often
women use the glass ceiling as an excuse” (p. 188).
Leadership Perceptions
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017), Morgan (2019), and Bronkema (2020) researched this
phenomenon, and their research has confirmed that most people believe that leadership qualities
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are directly related and correlated with the idea of masculinity. A disturbing narrative was when
one female mission field leader was “relegated to serving tea, while her husband, also a mission
field leader, was invited to fully participate in governmental meetings” (Diehl & Dzubinski,
2017, p. 275).
Scrutiny
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) defined this as an intense, overly critical examination of
women in leadership roles. It is important that Diehl and Dzubinski noted that scrutiny could
come from other women as well as males. Another example is a higher education executive who
“describes a female colleague who would not take a female job candidate seriously” because she
did not wear pantyhose (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 275). Additionally, Langford’s (2010)
study reported the perception of scrutiny from 20% of the respondents.
Gender-Based Organizational Leadership Barriers
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017), Castellani (2016), Bronkema (2020), and Purnama (2021)
investigated one or more of these 16 organizational leadership barriers. Some of this research
found that since leadership “takes place within groups and organizations, it makes sense that
many barriers occur at this level” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 276).
Devaluing of Communal Practice and Discrimination
This particular impediment relates to the “lack of acknowledgement, support, and respect
for communal activities in organizations” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 189). Diehl and
Dzubinski (2017) gave examples of this as women being assigned notetaking duties during
meetings, cleaning out the work kitchen’s refrigerator, and even serving in interim positions.
Even though there are laws like Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, discrimination,
whether overt or covert, still exists. Homan and Burdette (2021) investigated endemic structural
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sexism in religious congregations and found that it negatively impacted the health of women
being marginalized. More overt forms of discrimination have been reported on CCCU member
evangelical Christian college campuses (Abscher, 2009; Castellani, 2016), who related that
female professors experienced “considerable hostility from administration, male colleagues,
administration, and even their students” (p. 12). Purnama (2021) emphasized that it is imperative
that overt and covert structural discrimination needs to be addressed within Christian institutions.
Purnama argued that there needs to be an effort by organizational administration to prove their
interest in remedying covert and overt gender discrimination.
Exclusion from Informal Networks
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) noted this barrier as women being excluded from unofficial
social events. Mickey (2018) held 50 semi-structured qualitative interviews that highlighted
numerous cases of exclusion during networking events within a high-tech corporation. Previous
studies documenting this barrier have been performed by Eagly and Carli (2007) and
Chliwniak’s (1997) seminal study. Both of these investigations confirmed that exclusion from
networking remains another way women are marginalized and cut off from hiring, tenure, and
promotional opportunities in higher education. Access to informal networks and networking
opportunities remains vitally important for women to have access to being nominated for
leadership positions (Stockton, 2019).
Glass Cliff
In 2005, Ryan and Haslam described the phenomenon of the “glass ceiling” as occurring
whenever women are hired or appointed to failing organizations and are not provided with
adequate resources to prevent the organization from failing. Further research by Ryan et al.
(2016) reviewed and summarized a decade of literature that supports the existence of the glass
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cliff and delves into the processes in which the glass cliff occurs. Lastly, Diehl and Dzubinski
(2017) related an example of one mission executive being assigned a difficult task that most of
her male predecessors had previously failed at, and when she failed and was eventually let go,
the organization publicly scapegoated her for the failure of the task.
Lack of Mentoring, Sponsorship, and Support
According to qualitative research, Diehl and Dzubinski (2017), Stockton (2019),
Purnama (2021), and Stellway (2021) supported previous research by Lafreniere and Longman
(2008) that identified mentoring as a crucial success strategy for women in executive
management administrative positions within Christian colleges and universities. Closely related
to mentoring is the idea of sponsorship. Diehl and Dzubinski linked the lack of sponsorship as
analogous to being in a state of limbo. Both researchers recognized that women in higher
education lack access to sponsors to “recommend them for leadership or further promotions”
(Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 277). Lastly, another crucial element related to mentoring and
sponsorship is organizational support (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017). The lack of corporate support
for women happens when leadership “withholds or removes resources and support needed to
perform their jobs” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 277). Notably, Diehl and Dzubinski’s study
had accounts of having major decisions overturned. In one case, another female study participant
told of a time when a man refused to report to her because she was a woman, leaving the female
feeling invalidated and powerless. Purnama (2021) noted that “Limited financial resources
contribute to the vicious cycle of staffing shortages and inefficient systems” (p. 39) in
organizations and prevent authentic organizational learning, change, and growth.

35

Male Gatekeeping and Male Organizational Culture
Christianity and those post-secondary institutions affiliated with complementarian
Christian denominations are notorious for covert or overt endemic male gatekeeping and
organizational culture (George, 2014; Morgan, 2019; Purnama, 2021; Stockton, 2019). Diehl and
Dzubinski (2017) described these two circumstances when a male-dominated organization
controls the access, authority, and the type of women an organization decides to hire. Diehl and
Dzubinski noted that the kind of women employed in this type of organization is usually
“perceived to be willing to fit into male culture and not cause trouble” (p. 277). There are many
examples of male gatekeeping and organizational culture within Christianity. For instance, the
SBC (1984), the Roman Catholic Church Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (1976), the
Lutheran Church Missouri Synod Commission on Theology and Church Relations (2004), the
Orthodox Church of America (Kontouma, 2012), the Council on Biblical Manhood and
Womanhood (Lyons, 2013), the Jehovah’s Witnesses (Weddle, 2005), the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints (2013), and the Calvary Chapel movement (Rolph, 2016) all prevent
women from holding and attaining leadership positions to entrench male superiority and
dominance as well as keep the “old boys network” in power.
Sanctified Sexism
Closely related to male gatekeeping and male organized culture is the notion of sanctified
sexism and harassment (Eliason et al., 2011; Lewis-Hall et al., 2010). Sanctified sexism is
defined as “sexist acts justified by a religious belief system, worldview, or Biblical interpretation
about gender” (Eliason et al., 2011, p. 347). An example of this was mentioned by Burke (2020),
who reported that some female theological scholars had been told by their male advisor, “if you
want to be taken seriously, don’t quote women authors” (p. 470). Marshall (2017) cited the
36

purposeful omission of women’s voices in scholarly historical surveys within hermeneutics
because they are not considered scholarly enough. Further examples of institutional sanctified
sexism include institutions affiliated with complementarian views on women, which use Biblical
Scriptures to marginalize women’s voices and participation. Feminist bell hooks (2015) exhorted
conservative Christian believers to transform their patriarchal worldview and formally recognize
that “no conflict need exist between feminism and Christian spirituality” (p. 108) and warned
that “until that happens, organized patriarchal religion will always undermine feminist gains” (p.
108).
Organizational Ambivalence
Organizational ambiguity arises when “an organization’s words or actions may show a
lack of confidence in a woman’s leadership” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 278). An incidence of
organizational ambivalence was reported in a study by Brower et al. (2019) from one participant
selected to interview for an interim provost’s position as
For many, many reasons, I believed that I was a very strong candidate for the interim
provost position. When it was announced that someone else had been given that job, a
number of people came to me, both males and females, and said, “I think the only thing
that I can possibly think as to why you weren’t named interim is because of your gender.”
(Brower et al., 2019, p. 127)
Queen Bee Effect/Self-Group Distancing
At a panel discussion in 2004 at Wellesley College, former secretary of state Madeleine
Albright stated, “There’s a special place in hell for women who don’t help other women.” This
quote describes women already at the top of their career who “may fail to help, or even actively
block, the promotion of other women” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 278). Further research in
37

this area by Derks et al. (2011, 2016) linked the queen bee effect along with the glass cliff and
detailed the adverse impact on women in the workplace. Recent research by Faniko et al. (2021),
have found that the Queen Bee effect still exists in academia, 15 years after it was first
documented. The authors prefer to use the term, self-group distancing, rather than using the
gender specific term of Queen Bee. Additionally, Faniko et al. (2021) noted that well established
female academics tend to emulate the male institutional culture they work in in order to better
navigate and succeed within academia.
Salary Inequity
Chen and Crown’s (2019) study on the pay gap for women in academia highlighted that
women are still chronically underpaid compared to their male counterparts. Diehl and Dzubinski
(2017) examined salary inequity in Christian organizations and had one female university
president describe her experience as “I’ve never made [the salary] the male people ahead of me
made and what the male people after me made” (p. 279). Corroborating the fact that women earn
less than men, Western Carolina University professor of economics, Dr. Angela Dills reported
that, as of 2019, women still make 80 cents on the dollar compared to men (Rae, 2019).
Additionally, this pay gap becomes more pronounced when factoring in race and ethnicity
(AAUW, 2020, p. 4).
Tokenism
This barrier develops when women comprise less than 15% of a workgroup (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2017). Tokenism leads to women having trouble being heard and being accepted.
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) reported hearing from a female mission executive, “They needed a
woman, because it doesn’t look good when an organization’s executive leadership team has no
women” (p. 279). Adams’s (1995) original qualitative research reported on the issue of tokenism
38

regarding the sole woman in a president’s cabinet and her career path but had not yet identified it
as tokenism.
Two-Person Career Structure
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) established this phenomenon as being “formal and informal
demands placed on husband and wife, but only one is employed by the organization” (p. 190).
Both researchers relayed a quote from a higher education executive exemplifying this issue as
“The [university] president is interesting because his wife works full-time and so, she has
conflicts. She can’t always come to things and people get offended” (p. 190). Papanek (1973)
first described the two-person career structure as occurring when middle-class women married to
working males had dual roles for which they were neither paid nor acknowledged but were
expected to do. These roles ranged from supporting their husband’s aspirations, rather than their
own, to taking on the roles of an unpaid secretary. Murphy-Geiss (2011) further explained the
particular expectations of women married to Methodist pastors and the societal expectations of a
pastor’s wife and its stressors on a marriage. Murphy-Geiss (2011) surveyed 3,000 United
Methodist clergy spouses across the United States and found that women are still expected to
uphold traditional societal values and to not complain about the lack of pay or recognition for the
time they are required to put in in order to best support their husbands’ career aspirations.
Unequal Standards
This obstruction is defined as holding women to higher performance standards than males
(Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p. 191). Demonstrating this barrier Baxter (2017) and Muhr (2011)
described one linguistic study where a female leader working to achieve gender equality used
perceived masculine speaking tactics but ended up “reinforcing gender inequality because it
suggests that women have to work twice as hard as men to achieve comparable effects as
39

leaders” (p. 116). Ultimately this reinforces and leads to the double bind (Baxter, 2017). The
double bind for women, in this case, is, Baxter (2017) found, “if they speak and sound overly
‘masculine,’ they are characterized by colleagues as aggressive, and if they sound overly
‘feminine,’ they are characterized as tentative, hesitant, or weak” (p. 116).
Workplace Harassment
This behavior is another problem women encounter. Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) and
Eliason et al. (2011) explained women in their studies experienced sabotage, verbal abuse,
demonization, gaslighting, bullying, intimidation, and sexual harassment to frighten and provoke
reactions from them in their workplaces. According to Mayock (2016), “Language is, of course,
an intrinsic part of harassment” (p. 96). Mayock also noted the example of how institutional
language was used to silence, demonize, and retaliate against Anita Hill to invalidate and nullify
her experience of being sexually harassed by Supreme Court Justice Judge Clarence Thomas.
Recent reports of harassment are not limited to Christian academia. In 2020, a Christian
pastor affiliated with Hillsong Church, Carl Lentz, and former Liberty University President Jerry
Fallwell, Jr., resigned from their positions of power due to harassment and misconduct
(Shellnutt, 2020). However, there are still concerns that there continues to be a severe lack of
organizational procedural justice and gender socialization that keeps the cycle of gender inequity
moving (Mayock, 2016). Muldoon and Wilson (2017) recognized that some harassers explain
their harassment as being permitted within the bounds of Christianity—termed by Muldoon and
Wilson as “divine discrimination.” Muldoon and Wilson’s (2017) study of 244 women enrolled
in a Catholic university reported that 92% of these women directly experienced forms of sexual
harassment or knew of someone who had been sexually harassed within the year. Lastly,
Muldoon and Wilson (2017) cautioned that “church leaders and Christians need to be aware of
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how perceived Christian motivation amplifies resulting negative consequences for college
women” (p. 271).
Gender-Based Individual Leadership Barriers
Communication Style Constraints
Brescoll and Uhlmann’s seminal 2008 study highlighted differences in the perceptions of
women showing negative emotions in the workplace. In their research, Brescoll and Uhlmann
(2008) explored how gender bias negatively impacted women who got angry. Moreover,
Brescoll and Uhlmann (2008) identified that gender bias could be eliminated when anger was
attributed to an outside factor, such as poor co-worker behavior. In later qualitative research,
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) confirmed that this barrier happens when women are perceived as
too direct or too emotional in their speech. Directness in speech is considered a masculine norm
while using tentative or emotional speech undermines a woman’s perceived credibility (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2017; Mayock, 2016). Even the notion of silence from a woman in the workplace is
viewed critically (Mayock, 2016). Mayock (2016) wrote about organizational silencing of female
victims of sexual harassment, “Colleagues often cast the quiet, silenced worker as sullen and
unapproachable and then avoid that person, both personally and professionally” (p. 100). This
leads to the “silenced worker herself refraining from making key comments that could help
advance the work” (Mayock, 2016, p. 100). Ultimately, this leads to the silenced becoming
alienated in her workplace, thus resulting in a form of organizational shunning.
Conscious Unconsciousness
The old adage “you can’t change what you don’t acknowledge” remains true. Diehl and
Dzubinski (2017) illustrated this as women in the workplace choosing to ignore or “challenge the
role that gender plays at work” (p. 280). The authores even found that “women may realize that
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aligning with women’s causes may damage their own reputation” (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017, p.
280). In an essay, Fordham (2019) warned that sexism is not only perpetrated by men alone, but
women can also be complicit in sexism as well. Fordham’s call to women is to reflect upon their
role and challenge sexism wherever it may be.
Personalizing
Personalizing by women is described by Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) as “assuming
personal responsibility for system or organizational problems” (p. 281). The women in this case
make the incorrect assumption that the issues they are encountering are their fault. Diehl and
Dzubinski reported one of their respondents was held responsible for a bad audit, which was
attributable to her predecessor. Ironically, none of the women were to blame, but each took that
responsibility.
Psychological Glass Ceiling and Self-Handicapping
Diehl and Dzubinski (2017) defined this barrier when women seem to be unwilling to
“appear assertive and may undervalue their own abilities. Thus, they are deterred from
negotiating for what they want or need and may even advocate against themselves” (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2017, p. 281). Jones and Berglas (1978) coined the term “self-handicapping” (p.
200). The self-imposed psychological glass ceiling is closely tied with self-esteem and self-worth
(Ferrari & Thompson, 2006). A study by Keller (2002) discussed motives behind self-
handicapping and tied it to negative stereotyping. Keller found that a stereotype threat “induced a
need to protect the self from negative attributions” (p. 197). Moreover, Mittal and Kaur’s (2021)
study on 244 women employed in the healthcare sector in India confirmed the link between the
existence of the psychological glass ceiling and its detrimental impact on women’s psychological
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health. These studies confirm that women who work in patriarchal organizations need to reflect
upon themselves and reassess their connection with themselves.
Work-Life Conflict
As explored by Diehl and Dzubinski (2017), the work-life conflict happens when women
balance their professional responsibilities with family or personal responsibilities. As they
pointed out, this issue is due to the “gendered nature of organizations built upon the male life
norm and the assumptions of someone at home caring for domestic responsibilities” (Diehl &
Dzubinski, 2017, p. 281).
Clark and Estes ’s Organizational Problem-Solving Framework: QACD Assurance Task
Force Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors
This section will address the QACD Assurance Task Force KMO factors that this study
examined by drawing from Krathwohl’s (2002) research. Krathwohl (2002) asserted that it is
essential to differentiate knowledge types. Krathwohl (2002) split knowledge types into four
separate categories: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Accurate knowledge
contains discrete elements, conceptual knowledge contains organized more complex forms of
knowledge, procedural knowledge is how to perform a task, and metacognitive knowledge is the
awareness of and knowledge of one’s cognition.
Knowledge and Skills
General Theory
Krathwohl (2002) found three types of knowledge: declarative (which can be subdivided
into factual and conceptual), procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. To further explain,
Krathwohl (2002) detailed that factual knowledge is the basic information a person needs to
understand a discipline and to solve problems in a particular domain. As described by Krathwohl
(2002), conceptual knowledge is the understanding and relationships between pieces of
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information that allow a person to infer how these pieces of information work together.
Procedural knowledge is how to perform a task step by step, and metacognitive knowledge is the
awareness of and knowledge of one’s own cognition. Further clarification of the importance of
knowledge comes from Clark and Estes (2008), who asserted that knowledge is the storehouse of
experiences and how we perform tasks. In order to be successful in an area or discipline, it is
imperative that learners obtain the correct skills, practice those skills, and understand the
situation in which those skills learned by the person can be applied (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). Lastly, Schraw and McCrudden (2006) mentioned that the knowledge base needs to be
practiced continuously or until the skill becomes automatic. Additionally, Mayer (2011) added
that a person needs opportunities to practice the new skill to increase learning to promote and
further learning.
QACD Assurance Task Force Specific Factors
It is important for the QACD Assurance Task Force to understand the lack of women in
executive management positions in QACD-accredited institutions. At the time of the writing of
this dissertation, the QACD Assurance Task Force comprises 55.6% male and 44.4% female
commission members. The majority of the 145 plus accredited QACD member colleges and
universities are composed of White males, and women in executive positions are significantly
underrepresented.
Knowledge and Skills Assessment
It is important for the QACD Assurance Task Force to understand the conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of the financial, organizational, and stakeholder
benefits of gender diversity. Utilizing Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework, the three
major causes of performance gaps: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers
can be addressed. Clark and Estes recognized that knowledge is imperative to understanding an
44

organization’s purpose, especially when obtaining insight on an existing gap, addressing the gap,
and then achieving the organization’s performance goals.
Conceptual Knowledge Influences Assessment. The QACD Assurance Task Force
needs to know and understand the benefits women bring to executive leadership in Bible
colleges. Conversely, the Assurance Task Force also needs to understand the numerous systemic,
individual, and organizational barriers that hinder the success of women striving to reach the
executive level. As Purnama (2021) noted, “This knowledge influence is conceptual as it focuses
on the interrelationships of the basic elements and organizational structures” (p. 28). Some of the
benefits of having women in executive positions, according to Schreiner (2012), are resiliency,
adaptability, and the ability to form and build relationships. In their study, Kellerman and Rhode
confirmed that female leaders “tend to adopt a participatory, consultative leadership style” (p.
29) and excel in collaboration with stakeholders (Eagly & Carli, 2007). However, there is no one
particular leadership style that will ensure success. Goryunova et al., (2017) underscored the
importance of adapting leadership styles to the situation presented. Other related leadership
literature shows that secular female presidents overseeing universities and colleges excel at
acknowledging criticism and mistakes and, most importantly, reflecting on failures (Kellerman
& Rhode, 2017; Madsen, 2008). Interestingly, Kellerman and Rhode (2017) noted that female
college and university presidents mentioned that it was crucial to have a sense of humor as a
leader, especially as a way of relieving tension. Lastly, when using humor, Kellerman and Rhode
(2017) added that one needs to be aware of power dynamics and using humor wisely by not
alienating or offending people.
In contrast, there are many barriers that women have to overcome, and these barriers are
not unique to Christian colleges and universities. Women in many sectors face the double bind of
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work and family (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2017; Longman & Anderson, 2011; Dindoffer et al.,
2011), internal ambivalence (Longman & Anderson, 2011), and male-normed organizational
cultures (Longman & Anderson, 2011; Yoder, 2003). However, what is unique about Christian
culture is the conflict between complementarian worldviews against women participating in
leadership roles and egalitarian worldviews welcoming women in leadership roles (Longman &
Anderson, 2011). It is important to note that QACD, as an accrediting agency, accepts and
respects both worldviews.
In order to assess the gender gap in QACD-accredited post-secondary institutions,
Purnama (2021) recommended that “an analysis of the organizational history, structures, and
systems will be insightful in navigating the process of achieving the stakeholder goal” (p. 29).
The assessment methods utilized were interviews to determine the QACD Assurance Task Force
members’ knowledge of the benefits and the barriers of women in executive positions.
Procedural Knowledge Influence Assessment. D’Anjou (2017), Krathwohl (2002),
Mayer (2011), and Rueda (2011) mentioned that knowledge consists of taxonomy or schema
with a focus on procedural knowledge. There is literature on procedural knowledge on
procedural influences regarding the underrepresentation of women in executive positions within
Christian accredited post-secondary institutions (Ibarra et al., 2013; Vicari, 2017). Procedural
knowledge influences were assessed by asking the respondent to demonstrate or describe in
detail the steps necessary to perform the task. To increase the number of women in executive
positions within QACD colleges and universities, the Assurance Task Force needs to know how
to get more women interested in executive leadership positions. This knowledge influence is
considered procedural knowledge because it addresses how to do an action, specifically how to
grow the candidate pool of female executives. Whitford (2020) found a looming wave of
retirements and empty presidential positions in June 2021. Therefore, it is a good time to start
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identifying female candidates. Additionally, Okahana et al. (2020) reported that women hold
more graduate degrees than men for the eleventh straight year. Moreover, women hold 52.9% of
doctoral degrees, while men hold 47.1% (Okahana et al., 2020). Women holding advanced
degrees are uniquely positioned to be candidates for executive positions, yet literature searches
show that women are still not reaching parity with men in the executive echelon.
To reiterate, research across the literature has found some significant barriers for women
to be considered for executive positions in QACD colleges and universities. One of the
significant barriers is the theological and denominational worldview pertaining to women in
positions of power. For the past 5 years, Bible colleges have seen enrollment drop precipitously.
When a complementarian Bible college marginalizes women further, women will attend college
elsewhere to gain the skills they need to thrive in the 21st century. It is financially risky and
shortsighted to deny women the right to lead based on an uninformed and faulty interpretation of
Scripture without understanding the cultural context in which those Scriptures were written. If
complementarian Bible colleges want to remain financially viable and influential, they need to
seriously consider adapting their worldview to be less misogynistic if they want to remain in
business and in balance with God’s plan.
Metacognitive Influence Assessment. Metacognitive knowledge, the awareness of one’s
cognition and cognitive processes (Purnama, 2021; Rueda, 2011), is crucial. To understand why
women are still underrepresented in executive positions in Christian post-secondary institutions,
the members of the Assurance Task Force need to evaluate and reflect on their own biases and
efforts in leadership. Reflection allows the Assurance Task Force members to recognize the role
their unconscious or conscious biases play in continuing and perpetuating the problem of
gendered leadership styles. (Dunn et al., 2014; Purnama, 2021). Gendered leadership styles
create numerous obstacles for women, which cause doubt and frustration for women and prevent
47

them from viewing themselves as leaders (Diehl, 2014; Ely et al., 2011; Ibarra et al., 2013).
When the status quo is continued, then “women’s underrepresentation in leader positions
validates entrenched systems and beliefs that prompt and support men’s bids for leadership” (Ely
et al., 2011, p. 475). It is a moral imperative to discontinue the notion of male leadership as
usual.
Table 1 summarizes the three knowledge influences, categorized by their knowledge
types, and includes the assessment methods for exploring the knowledge influences.

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Table 1
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, Knowledge Assessment
Organizational global mission
QACD is the quality and credibility resources partner that connects efforts among Christian
post-secondary educational institutions and with others invested in serious Bible learning
that shapes a life of godly influence and service to the most effective means for maturing,
thriving, and sustaining.
Organizational global goal
Envisioning a future in which QACD members and affiliates comprise a spiritually robust,
culturally relevant, and professionally respected 21st century North American Biblical
higher education movement whose contributions to global Gospel impact are multiplying in
their scale, scope, and significance.
Knowledge type Knowledge influence Knowledge assessment
Conceptual Assurance Task Force members
need knowledge of the ways
women executives contribute
to the organizational and
stakeholder benefits of an
institution.
Through interviews,
QACD Assurance Task
Force members will be
asked to identify their
contributions and value
they bring to leadership.
Procedural Assurance Task Force members
need knowledge on how to
develop skills needed for
successful executive
leadership.
Through interviews QACD
Assurance Task Force
members will be asked to
discuss their career path
and growth.
Metacognitive Assurance Task Force members
need to reflect and evaluate
upon their own biases,
expectations, and abilities in
executive positions.
Through interviews
Assurance Task Force
members will be asked
how their views on gender
impact their leadership.

Motivation
General Theory
According to Clark and Estes (2008), Pintrich (2003), and Clark (1999), motivation
consists of four aspects: intrinsic value, extrinsic value, attainment value, and cost value.
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Intrinsic value measures interest, extrinsic value measures utility, attainment value measures the
importance, and cost value measures the benefit. Furthermore, Clark and Estes expressed that
motivation keeps us going, keeps us moving, and tells us how much effort we need to spend on
tasks at work.
Motivation Assessment
Justification of Influences for Assessment Purposes. According to Clark and Estes
(2008), the influence of motivation is essential to understand as it rules three critical aspects of
our work and private lives. Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) described the three crucial
elements of motivation: active choice, persistence, and the mental effort an individual invested in
completing the job. The majority of motivational issues and problems are solved by focusing on
the underlying issues of active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Rueda, 2011).
Task Value Influence Assessment. Task value is closely related to expectancy-value
theory. Based on expectancy-value theory, a person’s expectations (expectancy) of how well
they will succeed and the importance (the value) of a particular task directly influences
motivation (Eccles, 2006; Purnama, 2021). There are two questions directly tied to motivation,
these are: “Can I do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” (Eccles, 2006; Purnama, 2021).
So, passion for performing a task is directly related to how an individual perceives the value of
completing and being engaged with that task. Ultimately, the QACD Assurance Task Force
needs to assess their perceived value of having women in executive positions in the colleges and
universities that QACD accredits.
Four factors work in conjunction with determining the perceived value of tasks: intrinsic
interest, attainment value, utility value, and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006). As Purnama (2021)
described,
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Intrinsic interest is the enjoyment an individual experiences while engaging in a task.
Attainment value refers to the consistency between engaging in a task and one’s own
identity. Utility value is the usefulness of a task in achieving the goal and obtaining
rewards. The perceived cost refers to the negative factors associated with engaging in a
task; such as the amount of time and effort required as well as social consequences (e.g.,
rejection, discrimination, etc.). (p. 33)
Next, attainment value is how an individual’s self-image aligns with the assigned task.
Attainment value is a vital part of increasing the number of women in executive leadership
positions. Several factors work within an individual’s self-image. Eccles (2006) listed these
factors as the long-range goals, the arrangement and hierarchy of female and male roles within
culture, ideal images of appearance and behavior, and instrumental and terminal values. Gender
stereotyping, stereotype threat, and role congruity are significant endemic barriers across cultures
(Hoyt & Simon, 2016). Women are often described as having nurturing qualities. These qualities
do not fit in with the cultural expectation of male-normed leadership, resulting in prejudice
against females in leadership roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hoyt & Simon, 2016).
Christian culture suffers from institutionalized discrimination based on early Christian
negative cultural stereotypes about women. The number of people who identify as Christians are
dropping. The Pew Research Center (2019) found that in 2009, 51% of adults in the United
States identified as Protestants; that number has fallen to 43% in a decade. This decrease needs
to be seen as a warning signal that Christianity must adapt to the changing culture. The fewer
Christians there are, the fewer Bible colleges and institutions will survive. Due to the decreasing
numbers of Christians, QACD Assurance Task Force members must value training on gender
diversity.
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Self-Efficacy Influence Assessment. Self-efficacy is derived from Bandura’s (1997)
social cognitive theory (Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy relates to the beliefs and perceptions of a
person’s ability to learn and perform a task (Pajares, 2006; Purnama, 2021). Clark and Estes
(2008) established that self-efficacy is strongly correlated with persistence. In this case, the way
self-efficacy relates to the QACD Assurance Task Force is in personal judgements and beliefs
that the actions taken, or recommended help increase or positively influence the number of
women in executive positions within QACD-accredited institutions. One example of this relates
to students’ self-efficacy. As cited by Purnama (2021) and Pajares (2006), students who believe
they are able to be successful and do well have a high degree of persistence. Additionally, those
who have a high degree of competence will use effective self-regulatory strategies to work hard
at any task and see it through to completion.
It is necessary to distinguish self-efficacy from self-esteem (Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy
is influenced by one’s prior knowledge, feedback from others, and past successes and failures
(Pajares, 2006; Purnama, 2021; Rueda, 2011). To increase self-efficacy, one needs to clarify that
individuals are able to learn what is being taught or that individuals are capable of performing a
task. Next, providing opportunities for observation and setting concrete, challenging goals that
allow the learner to experience success at a particular task will also increase self-efficacy.
Thirdly, there need to be multiple opportunities for goal-directed practice, which include
scaffolded instructional support early on. Support needs to be gradually removed. After support
is removed, there needs to be immediate, frequent, accurate, and private feedback on the
learner’s progress needs. Finally, the last way to improve self-efficacy is by linking rewards with
the learner’s progress to show improvement and learning (Malloy, 2019; Purnama, 2021; Rueda,
2011). This bolsters further evidence by Ibarra (2015), Dahlvig and Longman (2014), and
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Longman et al. (2019) that mentorship support at the self-efficacy level is crucial for women
seeking positions in executive management.
Attributions Influence Assessment. Attributions are key in motivation. Heider first
examined attribution theory in the 1950s. Heider found that attribution has three steps. First,
behavior is observed. Next, behavior is determined to be deliberate, and lastly, behavior is
attributed to external or internal causes (Hamm et al., 2017).
Bernard Weiner refined attribution theory in the 1970s (Hamm et al., 2017). Weiner’s
refinement found that achievement can be attributed to four factors: effort, ability, task difficulty,
and luck (Hamm et al., 2017). Weiner further refined his previous theory to include three
dimensions that affect thinking and emotions (Hamm et al., 2017). The first dimension is the
locus of causality, which
refers to a cause residing inside or outside the person (e.g., aptitude vs. chance); stability
implies that the cause changes or endures over time (e.g., fatigue vs. industriousness);
controllability suggests that the cause can or cannot be altered by either oneself or
another person (e.g., laziness vs. the weather). (Hamm et al., 2017, p. 62)
To elaborate, Weiner documented that all causes can be classified as having internal or external,
stable or unstable, controllable or uncontrollable. Stability is vital as it affects the expectations
about how successful or unsuccessful the QACD Assurance Task Force would be implementing
an across-the-board mandate of having at least one woman in executive positions in all QACD-
accredited colleges and universities. According to Hamm et al. (2017), a stable cause “elicits
hopelessness because the cause will not change” (p. 62). Working alongside the dimensions of
stability and instability are the factors of controllability and uncontrollability. Controllability and
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uncontrollability look at the feeling of responsibility toward the cause and directly affect feelings
of guilt or shame.
Additional research by Butler and Hasenfratz (2017) noted significant differences in the
way males and females attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability. Butler and
Hasenfratz (2017) discovered that females attributed their failure to their personal inabilities.
Both Butler and Hasenfratz (2017) suggested one way to remedy women’s lower attributions is
“to train them to attribute setbacks to controllable factors, such as effort or strategies” (p. 502).
The QACD Assurance Task Force needs to believe that improving and promoting gender
diversity is a part of the governance duties and accreditation functions (Eccles, 2006; Mayer,
2011; Rueda, 2011). One example as a way to remedy the Assurance Task Force’s low
attributions on gender diversity in executive management is to have them engage in values
affirmation interventions (Butler & Hasenfratz, 2017). Having the QACD Assurance Task Force
list and write about values that are important to them to increase their sense of engagement
towards increasing the number of women in executive positions would reinforce their
motivation.
Another intervention Butler and Hasenfratz (2017) suggested was based on the notion
that low attributions “are the creation of single-sex schools and classes” (p. 503). Earlier research
exploring gender-sensitive mentoring models by Tangenberg (2013) and Bryant (2009)
discovered that women “are faced with a barrage of conflicting conceptions of gender—both
within and beyond the religious sphere—it is unsurprising that evangelical women’s appraisals
of gender differences and associated roles would appear inconsistent” (Bryant, 2009, p. 551).
Furthermore, Tangenberg stressed the importance of
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A feminist mentoring approach can be used to support students with both
complementarian and egalitarian perspectives on gender issues. Due to its primary
emphasis on the nurturance and strengthening of relationships, feminist discussions of
structural processes and power issues can be engaged in a way that difference theological
views are respected. (p. 213)
Attributionally, the lack of women in executive positions in QACD post-secondary
institutions can be attributed to external, stable, uncontrollable factors. This is directly due to the
theological viewpoint a college or university has regarding women in executive positions.
Task Value Influence Assessment. Lastly, the QACD Assurance Task Force has both
female and male participants who hold varying theological views on women in leadership. I
wanted to gauge the task value whether there might be a difference in the way male QACD
Assurance Task Force participants value the task of recommending gender diversity in executive
positions versus the way female Assurance Task Force participants value the task of
recommending additional gender diversity in executive positions. Clark and Estes (2008),
Pintrich (2003), and Clark (1999) described task value as having four dimensions. The first
dimension of task value is called intrinsic value, which gauges the interest or enjoyment one gets
from performing the task (Wigfield et al., 2017). The next dimension is extrinsic/utility value
which refers to how useful a task will be in a learner’s future (Wigfield et al., 2017). The third
dimension is attainment value, which is defined as the importance of doing well on a task
(Wigfield et al., 2017).
Lastly, there is cost value, which has several subdivisions. One subdivision of cost value
is opportunity cost, which refers to the benefits that a person needs to give up to do a task
(Wigfield et al., 2017). The second is effort cost, pertaining to the effort that an individual has to
55

put into a task (Wigfield et al., 2017). Psychological cost is defined as negative or harmful
emotional or psychological consequences that might happen during participation in a task
(Wigfield et al., 2017). Sunk cost “refers to one’s evaluation of how much effort one has already
put into an activity” (Wigfield et al., 2017, p. 123). Opportunity cost is interpreted as
determining whether the sacrifice of time is worth completing a task. Lastly, economic and social
cost refers to the impact to social standing with others perceived as important by participating in
a task (Wigfield et al., 2017). Butler and Hasenfratz (2017) noted slight differences in the ways
females and males value tasks, especially regarding the role those sociocultural beliefs and
expectations play. For the number of women in executive positions to increase, the QACD
Assurance Task Force members need to value their role in promoting gender diversity.
Table 2 summarizes four motivational influences, categorized by their motivation types,
and includes the assessment methods for exploring the knowledge influences.

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Table 2
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Analysis
Motivational type Motivational influences Motivational influence
assessment
Attributions Assurance Task Force members
need to believe that gender
diversity is an integral part of
their function.
Through interview
questions Assurance Task
Force members will be
asked questions about
their beliefs on gender
diversity and how
important it is for them.
Expectancy-value Assurance Task Force members
need to appreciate the value of
gender diversity for improving
the accredited school’s
operational success, support,
and community engagement
that they accredit.
Through interview
questions Assurance Task
Force members will be
asked questions on the
value of gender diversity
for improving the
accredited school’s
operational success,
support, and community
engagement that they
accredit.
Self-efficacy Assurance Task Force members
need to believe that they help
increase and improve gender
diversity.
Through interview
questions Assurance Task
Force members will be
asked questions on their
knowledge and skills on
gender diversity.
Attainment/Task value Assurance Task Force members
need to believe it is important
to learn about increasing the
number of women in the
executive-level positions of
schools they accredit.
Through interview
questions Assurance Task
Force members will be
asked to discuss any
gender diversity training
they have received in the
past.

57

Organization
General Theory
According to Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), organizational culture is based on the
cultural settings and models in an organization. Cultural settings include the employees, the tasks
the employee performs, how and why those tasks are completed, and the context in which the
employees do their work. Again, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) postulated that cultural
models refer to cultural practices and a shared mental schema within a particular organization.
Stakeholder Specific Factors
Within accredited QACD post-secondary institutions, there are various Christian
denominations, ranging from conservative to liberal, with which these colleges and universities
are affiliated. From a cultural setting perspective, there are a variety of factors at work to explain
the cause of organizational problems for the underrepresentation of women in executive
leadership positions: (a) the institution is resistant to change, (b) since Christianity and Christian
institutions have reputations of having a culture of niceness or conflict avoidance, (c)
authoritarian leadership, (d) attitudes of helplessness, and (e) hypocrisy (George, 2014; Graves,
2011).
Organizational Culture/Context Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) conveyed that “work culture is present in our conscious and
unconscious understanding of who we are, what we value, and how we do what we do as an
organization” (p. 107). It is important to note that QACD accredits a variety of colleges and
universities that contain complementarian and egalitarian Christian theological worldviews
regarding the acceptance of women in executive positions. These organizational worldviews
have a direct impact on women in executive positions within their institutions. Clark and Estes
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indicated that organizations contain employees who do not always agree with their underlying
organizational cultural beliefs and expectations.
In support of Clark and Estes (2008), Purnama (2021) noted that “organizational
environment impacts the ability of knowledge and motivation systems to interact effectively, and
therefore, organizational barriers may cause performance gaps and impede progress” (p. 36).
Correspondingly, an organization will be inefficient and ineffective when it lacks “the proper
structure, tools, equipment, materials, policies, practices, and resources” (Purnama, 2021, p. 36).
Additionally, it is crucial to understand that organizational culture contains norms and roles in
the way individuals relate to each other (Schein & Schein, 2017). These norms and roles dictate
the relationship between those who hold higher status positions and those who hold lower-status
positions and guide interactions between peers (Schein & Schein, 2017).
Schein and Schein’s (2017) research established that there are four levels of relationship
in society, and these levels vary by culture, religion, and ethnicity. Level 1 is where the
organizational culture is seen as exploitative, and its relationship with its employees is negative,
lacking trust and openness. Level 1 is where the organizational culture is seen as civil, mainly
composed of polite conversations, but the employees are kept at a “professional distance”
(Schein, p. 101). Next, Level 2 is where the organizational culture fosters a deeper level of trust
and openness with the employees. Lastly, Level 3 is where the organization encourages close
friendships and strong support amongst its employees (Schein & Schein, 2017).
It must be remembered that all religions have their own form of organizational culture,
and each Christian Bible college and university accredited by QACD contains a unique culture
strongly tied to the Church denomination with which they are affiliated. QACD and the Bible
colleges and universities it accredits need to understand that organizational effectiveness will
only increase when QACD and those in executive leadership actively and continuously build
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relationships with their stakeholders (Schein & Schein, 2017). Accordingly, complementarian
institutions accredited by QACD do not believe that women should hold positions of authority
over men. This view comes from a literal interpretation of 1 Timothy 2:12 (ESV).
Complementarian institutions preserve and uphold traditional gender roles through a hierarchical
Christian worldview (Longman & Anderson, 2011). Purnama (2021) stated, “These deeply held
convictions impact aspirations, limiting the extent to which women would consider leadership
roles” (p. 38). Moreover, males are also impacted as well, as leadership is viewed as a distinct
male role; if a man does not want to lead, that impacts his career choices as well.
Schein and Schein (2017) emphasized that leaders create and manage culture but that
there are additional competing factors with which organizational culture is managed and
conveyed. Leaders reinforce culture by (a) what they pay attention to, measure, and manage; (b)
how they react to crises; (c) how they allocate resources; (d) how they model, teach, and coach;
(e) how they allocate status and rewards, and (f) how they promote, select, recruit, and exclude
(Schein & Schein, 2017). These competing priorities can also negatively impact the awareness
and understanding that QACD and its accredited Bible colleges and universities lack women in
executive positions. Bierema (2016) stated, “The playing field is not level for women, no matter
how chief executive officers spin evidence of equality or claim organizations are gender blind”
(p. 145). This lack of awareness further reinforces and sustains Christianity’s gendered
leadership barriers and bias.
Table 3 summarizes organizational influences, categorized by their organizational types,
and includes the assessment methods for exploring the knowledge influences.

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Table 3
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organizational influences Assumed organizational
influences
Organizational influence
assessment
Cultural model The QACD organizational
environment needs to
demonstrate a
commitment to gender
diversity.
Through interviews,
Assessment Task Force
members will be asked to
describe their organization’s
views in relation to women
in executive positions.
Cultural setting QACD needs to devote
resources, training,
policies, and procedures to
facilitate gender diversity.
Through interviews,
Assessment Task Force
members will be asked to
share their experiences as
leaders within the QACD and
discuss their institution’s
policies and practices for
supporting women and their
aspirations for attaining
executive positions.
Analysis of documents, such
as QACDs vision and
mission, strategic plans,
Assessment Task Force
policies, handbooks, will
provide insight into QACDs
policies and practices
pertaining to women
attaining executive positions.

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Conceptual and Methodological Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders ’ Knowledge
and Motivation and the Organizational Context
It is important to have a conceptual framework that permits the researcher to simplify the
aspects of the study. It also creates an initial theory about the investigated issue (Maxwell, 2013).
It is the conceptual framework in which a study is structured and designed (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Clark and Estes’s (2008) framework is unique in that each of the
discrete KMO influences are interrelated even though they are presented as single concepts.
Ultimately, the conceptual framework allows the researcher to illustrate the complexities of the
interrelationships and aspects of the study.
The literature covered within this chapter examined the literature on gender diversity and
leadership within Christianity and specific literature pertaining to the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational influences that affect the lack of women in upper administrative
positions in colleges and universities accredited by QACD. Based on the literature review, there
is a definite intersection between organizational culture and the lack of female leadership in
Christian post-secondary institutions. This relationship is represented in Figure 2. Of particular
note, Christian culture, specifically theological views regarding women in leadership are the
greatest influence on the representation of women in executive leadership positions

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Figure 2
The Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Culture on the
Underrepresentation of Women in QACD-Accredited Colleges and Universities

Summary
Research demonstrates that gender diversity in Christian colleges and universities
enhances decision-making, improves operational outcomes, and increases creativity and
innovation, and limits myopic tendencies that impede organizational success. Although the
business case for financial benefits is uncertain, studies and social science theories demonstrate
that improved diversity in Christian higher education facilitates fundraising, improves
organizational outcomes, encourages stakeholder support, and increases community engagement
and involvement. Also, the literature documents that QACD, its governing board, and the
Assessment Task Force need to have an awareness of the benefits of gender diversity in
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executive management, the need for gender-diverse leadership, and minimizing unconscious
bias. Increasing gender diversity in Christian higher education will facilitate the motivation to
improve in this area. The literature also states that Christian colleges and universities need to
actively cultivate more gender-inclusive environments, “as heterogeneity alone is not enough to
realize the full array of benefits of diversity and may backfire, generating tokenism that
potentially marginalizes minority members” (Grad, 2019, p. 84). Implementing and promoting a
gender-diverse management strategy employing best practices may help limit these KMO
barriers and create a more inclusive climate that reflects society’s needs as an important
organizational priority. Chapter Three will set forth the methodology for evaluating these
barriers in the context of QACD’s performance goals, utilizing Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO
analysis.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter presents the research design and methods used to identify, collect, and
analyze data pertinent to barriers regarding increasing gender diversity within the executive level
in QACD-accredited colleges and universities. Also discussed are the details pertaining to the
study sample, data collection procedures, and instrumentation used in this qualitative study. The
chapter then addresses details regarding data analysis, trustworthiness, credibility, and ethics
pertinent to the study. The research questions that guide this study are as follows:
1. What is the status of the stakeholder’s knowledge, skills, and motivation as it relates
to executive management roles within QACD-accredited member post-secondary
institutions?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture/context and stakeholder
knowledge that either facilitates or limits the representation of women in post-
secondary institutions?
3. What recommendations will allow QACD to promote increased representation of
women in executive positions for their members?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Utilizing and adapting Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework and model
allowed the researcher to view QACD Assurance Task Force members through the lens of the
KMO influences to discern possible knowledge, motivational, and organizational performance
gaps that the stakeholders (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Next, qualitative data in the form of semi-structured interviews were collected to assess and
validate assumed KMO influences on QACD Assurance Task Force members’ viewpoints on the
lack of female executives in QACD-accredited post-secondary institutions.
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Lastly, multiple publicly available documents were collected and analyzed to facilitate a
deeper understanding of KMO influences and emerging themes. Documents included publicly
available research in the QACD online library, QACD Assessment Task Force reports, and
minutes covering the period of 2015 to 2019.
Participating Stakeholders
There are numerous stakeholders to whom QACD is beholden. However, the QACD
Assessment Task Force is the key stakeholder group that this dissertation addressed. The
Assessment Task Force has 12 to 18 elected representatives from various QACD-accredited
institutions and three appointed public members and is its decision-making body. I interviewed
eight task force members.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Respondents were members of the Assessment Task Force, who, at a minimum, had been
on the committee for 6 months, which allowed them to give insight into their actual experiences
(Johnson & Christiansen, 2014). The survey was designed to be taken by executive-level
Assessment Task Force members. The original intent was to survey up to 12 participants with
more than 6 months of experience serving on the Assessment Task Force.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) stated that obtaining access to fieldwork can be problematic.
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) recommended using a cooperative style so as not to alienate potential
participants. Therefore, I utilized the cooperative style of research approach and leveraged my
contacts within QACD to encourage the recruitment of interested QACD Assessment Task
Force. Additionally, I obtained written permission from the QACD president to conduct research
on the task force.
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The interview recruitment strategy utilized purposeful sampling and network sampling to
reach out and get responses from potential participants. I contacted and invited 17 persons who
sit on the QACD Assessment Task Force by email and by telephone. However, eight
participated. Many who were contacted either expressed a lack of time or a lack of interest in
participating. The participants were selected based on their Assessment Task Force experience
and understanding of the influences pertaining to KMO influences, including and the Assessment
Task Force resources, culture, structure, and climate, the processes, and policies.
Survey Instrument and Interview Protocol
I utilized and adapted an existing survey instrument in Appendix C. The qualitative
survey instrument was adapted from Grad’s (2019) improvement study on best practices
regarding racial and gender for an art museum’s board. Grad interviewed 12 out of 35 board
members using a 12-question protocol, utilized Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO framework, and
reviewed 10 years of board reports and minutes.
Once I obtained approval from the University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board (IRB), I emailed Assessment Task Force members from my email account through the
University of Southern California. All participants received a sheet explaining the study’s focus
and the procedures. Upon receiving interest and affirmation of participation and following
COVID-19 pandemic social distancing rules, a Zoom encrypted video interview was scheduled,
and I sent a link to the participant. All interviews were then recorded after obtaining the
participant’s verbal consent. After completing the interview, the Zoom audio files were uploaded
to rev.com for secure and confidential transcription. Then, after receiving the completed
transcript, I re-reviewed each interview transcript to redact any personal identifying information
to preserve each participant’s confidentiality. All eight Assessment Task Force interviews were
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semi-structured and followed ordered interview protocols suggested by Patton (2002) and
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) to make sure that the interview questions followed and fit the
research questions, as well as to evaluate the KMO elements of the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework. Each interview lasted approximately an hour.
Data Analysis
I undertook a thorough search of the literature presented in Chapter Two to develop a
working list of a priori codes. Once I developed the codes, I created an Atlas.ti codebook that
defined and color-coded each item in alignment with the Clark and Estes’s (2008) framework.
The codes were then associated by a particular color with each aligned KMO influence.
During the process, my Atlas.ti codebook underwent several revisions and refinements.
All transcripts were reviewed three times to assign codes, to see if any codes were accidentally
omitted from the first review, and finally, to refine and correct codes to make sure that the actual
content aligned with the designated code. Ultimately, all open and a priori codes were grouped
and reviewed for patterns related to the KMO influences.
Lastly, after the review of each interview transcript was complete, I looked at each
response to see if axial codes began to emerge. Axial codes allow the data gleaned from each
interview to be grouped into themes so that influences could be validated, partially validated, or
invalidated.
Trustworthiness
Creswell and Creswell (2018), Merriam and Tisdell (2016), and Maxwell (2013) stressed
the use of triangulation to increase reliability in qualitative research. Therefore, to increase the
trustworthiness, validity, and reliability of the responses, I utilized triangulation of the data. The
first part of triangulation was to compare the interview findings against the existing literature
68

outlined in Chapter Two. The next part of triangulation was to compare the existing
documentation from QACD, specifically from the organization’s published articles within the
QACD online library. Additionally, I undertook member checking if any responses were unclear
to ensure proper interpretation of responses and to mitigate possible researcher and recall bias.
Further triangulation took the form of looking for emergent themes and needs discerned after
each interview. Lastly, I was the only person working and creating codes within Atlas.ti, thereby
avoiding problems with inconsistent coding.
Role of the Investigator
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) wrote about three issues present in qualitative research:
insider/outsider issues, positionality issues, and reflexivity issues. Therefore, it is vital to address
insider/outsider issues. I am a mid-career, middle manager, White female on the pathway to a
vice-presidency. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) termed this positionality as being an insider, which,
if not disclosed, could negatively affect or skew the study’s results. In Christianity, women have
been traditionally marginalized, so it was essential that I phrase questions in a way to allay
participants’ fears regarding my agenda.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were a number of limitations present in this study. These limitations include the
lack of diverse participants and a small sample (N = 8), as lack of interest in being interviewed
provided the researcher with a small pool of participants. The majority of the task force members
are White; therefore, it was impossible to discuss and research leadership barriers unique to
represented minority groups in QACD colleges and universities. I contacted all representatives
numerous times, but only eight expressed interest in being interviewed. The majority of contacts
never replied to my queries.
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A second limitation was that only egalitarian points of view are represented in this study.
I made every attempt to include both complementarian and egalitarian points of view on women
in executive in this study. However, all participants identified as egalitarian in their Christian
worldviews.
Another limitation was that, as this is a qualitative study, the data relied heavily on the
openness and truthfulness of the respondents. In addition, the COVID-19 global pandemic
negatively affected the respondents’ lives and how their respective organizations operated.
Lastly, I attempted to analyze organizational documents, but due to QACD organizational
confidentiality policies, I was limited to documents publicly available through QACD’s website.
One identified delimitation is that there is a lack of organizational research on QACD and
the lack of women in QACD-accredited institutions. Therefore, there is an opportunity for
further research on QACD as an organization and on how best to support women in their
accredited institutions.

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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine the possible reasons why women are
underrepresented in upper management positions in QACD-accredited post-secondary
institutions. Additionally, the study also investigated assumed KMO needs and influences, which
have been discussed in Chapter Two. Qualitative data were collected in order to validate the
assumed needs through interviews and document analysis. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic face-
to-face meeting restrictions, the three men and five women who met the qualifying criteria
identified in Chapter Three were interviewed via Zoom video conferencing using the Protocol in
Appendix A. Due to the confidential nature of the Assessment Task Force documents, after the
interviews were completed, the researcher performed web searches on the QACD website to
identify publicly available corporate documentation.
This chapter begins with a discussion of the stakeholder demographics, then continues
with an overview of the analysis of the results, followed by a more detailed look at each KMO
factor. Lastly, the chapter will conclude with a summary of the validated influences. This study
was based on Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework with assumed KMO influences.
These same influences are used to scaffold the results of the eight interviews and 900-page
document review. To reiterate, three research questions guided this study:
1. What is the status of the stakeholder’s knowledge, skills, and motivation as it relates
to executive management roles within QACD-accredited member post-secondary
institutions?
2. What is the interaction between organizational context/culture and the QACD
Commission on Accreditation that either facilitates or limits the underrepresentation
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of women in upper management positions in QACD-accredited post-secondary
institutions?
3. Which recommended solutions will allow the QACD Assessment Task Force to
promote increased representation of women in executive positions for their members?
Participating Stakeholders
Eight QACD Assessment Task Force members were interviewed as key stakeholders for
this study. For the purposes of this study, an executive leader is an executive-level president, vice
president, or provost position in an institution” (George, 2014, p. 10). The eight stakeholders
were recruited through my network. Moreover, to reduce the potential for bias, the participants
did not know me personally, nor did they work at a post-secondary institution where I worked.
Lastly, the participants all worked at different post-secondary institutions accredited by QACD
across North America. Table 4 presents descriptive information for each participant.

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Table 4
Stakeholder Demographics
Stakeholder
Interview length
(minutes)
Committee Interview location
Stakeholder 1 60 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 2 58 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 3 57 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 4 62 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 5 60 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 6 60 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 7 52 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom
Stakeholder 8 56 QACD Assurance
Task Force
Zoom

Note. Not identified by gender and race

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Data were collected through interviews and document analysis. Interviews ranged from
45 to 60 minutes long and were conducted by Zoom video conferencing. Transcripts were
automatically generated and enabled in the video conferencing software and then reviewed and
updated using Rev.com. To reiterate, I performed web searches to find publicly available
documents and reports. To mitigate possible errors, both triangulation and member checking
were utilized to evaluate multiple data sources through document analysis and verification
agreement with the existing literature (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Each participant had their
own point of view, but common themes emerged upon completion of all eight interviews. Table
5 presents the threshold for evaluating the assumed influences.

Table 5
Threshold for the Evaluation of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs
Assertion Threshold
Validated When seven stakeholders displayed
evidence supporting the need, and when
applicable, document analysis confirmed
the finding.
Partially validated When between four and six stakeholders
displayed evidence supporting the need,
and when applicable, document analysis
confirmed the finding.
Invalidated When seven stakeholders displayed
evidence supporting this was an asset and
not a need, and when applicable,
document analysis confirmed the finding.

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Results for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This section reports on the results of the interviews and document analysis. The
information in this chapter uses the conceptual framework discussed in Chapter Two and is
guided by the research methodology discussed in Chapter Three. The interviews and documents
were assessed independently and collectively to see whether the assumed KMO influences were
validated, partially validated, or invalidated (Table 5). To clarify, a validated influence means the
analysis of triangulated data confirms the need exists and that a solution is required to close the
identified performance gap. An invalidated influence means the assumed need identified in the
conceptual framework was not a barrier to achieving the organization’s performance goals,
according to the evidence. A partially validated influence means that the assumed need was
confirmed by the evidence, but that data analysis suggested did not present itself as a critical
barrier. The results and findings are categorized and reported by KMO influences identified in
Chapter Two. Each KMO results section will begin with a summation of the findings and will be
supported by a table that will identify the need associated with the specific KMO influences. A
detailed analysis follows the summary of findings in each section and includes data points and
participant quotes supporting the findings. Chapter Four will then conclude with a synthesis of
aggregated findings associated with KMO needs and influences. Lastly, Chapter Five will
discuss recommendations to remedy the validated performance barriers.
Knowledge Results
This study examined three knowledge influences through interviews and extensive
document analysis. First, the interviews evaluated the commission and board members’
conceptual knowledge of the organizational, financial, and stakeholder benefits of gender
diversity (KC-DB; Appendix E). Next, the Assurance Task Force members’ procedural
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knowledge of the nomination and recruitment process was also evaluated in the interviews and
through document analysis (KP-GD). Even though conceptual knowledge and procedural
knowledge are separate and dissimilar, they are interrelated and closely aligned with Clark and
Estes’s (2008) framework. The QACD Assurance Task Force members’ metacognitive
knowledge of how unconscious bias and beliefs may affect their views toward recruiting and
nominating women in upper management positions were also analyzed (KM-UB).
Analysis of interview transcripts and documents showed that the commission members
welcome and are happy with the gender diversity efforts QACD has undertaken. All participants
had detailed conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge associated with improving
gender diversity in post-secondary QACD-accredited institutions. Each participant also stated
that it would be up to the specific college or university to hire the person that institution felt
would fit within its Christian culture and mission. They also said that even though the
commission may recommend that a school undergoing accreditation or reaccreditation undertake
gender diversity programs, their recommendation is just a recommendation and could not be
mandated. This is especially true at U. S. QACD-accredited colleges and universities due to the
protections the First Amendment provides. Furthermore, Stakeholder 6 stated that the Assurance
Task Force “can make recommendations, but they really can’t force per se, if we know what the
school’s mission is.” To add further support, Stakeholder 1 mentioned that the Assurance Task
Force upholds the QACD standard on institutional practices that “the faculty is representative of
the diversity of the constituency and consistent with institutional theological distinctives.” All
stakeholders made the link between the standards that the Assurance Task Force is looking for
and the need for diversity and respect within the variety of Christian theological viewpoints
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regarding gender diversity. Table 5 shows the summary of presumed knowledge needs and
evaluation results based on participant responses and frequencies.
Assurance Task Force Members Have the Knowledge of the Financial, Organizational, and
Stakeholder Benefits of Gender Diversity
The Assurance Task Force members and leaders were asked four questions to obtain
their knowledge of the benefits of gender diversity. I then looked at the respondents’ replies that
closely aligned with the direct or indirect benefits found in the literature pertaining to gender
diversity in Christian post-secondary institutions.
Analysis of the interviews showed that all eight stakeholders showed some knowledge of
the importance of gender diversity in upper management in Christian colleges and universities.
Stakeholder 2 stated that there was “too little focus on gender diversity, and also on racial and
ethnic diversity as well.” Stakeholder 3 mentioned the “benefit is having a different voice to
bring to the table, especially when history has told women that their voices are not considered.”
Stakeholder 7 mentioned,
In certain contexts, there are still discriminatory practices that need to be addressed and
dealt with. Absolutely, in some cases, there are discriminatory actions that an institution
will undertake to show that the institution is all about gender and ethnic diversity,
especially with discrimination against White men.
Stakeholder 6 highlighted the need “to be able to have good gender diversity while maintaining
the balance of gender and whomever is qualified.”
All of the stakeholders articulated and understood the financial benefits that gender
diversity has in colleges and universities, and all mentioned that an institution’s Christian
theological/denominational viewpoint and even donors also had a role to play in gender
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diversity. Stakeholder 7 stated that “after talking with some other people on the board, they
decided that it is too early in the history of the institution to allow for a woman to be president of
that particular institution because there were some elderly conservative donors who would likely
discontinue their financial support if they invited a woman to interview or hired a woman to be
president.”
Assurance Task Force Members Understand the Importance and Use Best Practices to
Optimize Gender Diversity in Executive Positions of the Schools They Accredit
Stakeholders as a group demonstrated full knowledge of the strategies, procedures, best
practices, and processes that would increase recruitment and nomination of gender-diverse
candidates in upper management in colleges and universities accredited by the QACD. All but
two stakeholders interviewed held presidential positions in their respective institutions, so it
would make sense that the stakeholders would fully understand the strategies, best practices, and
processes regarding gender diversity. Stakeholder 8 added,
The only major barrier I see regarding implementing gender-diverse practices or
mandating that there needs to be one female candidate for each male candidate is the
theological view that the accredited institution has. I mean, the Assurance Task Force
simply cannot force an institution to hire a woman if their theological interpretation,
however incorrect it may be, does not allow for women to be in positions of authority
over men.
Stakeholder 5 stated, “It isn’t the job of the Assurance Task Force to police an institution’s
procedures and policies to tell them to hire more women. We need to respect the institution’s
doctrinal view and make sure the institution meets and/or exceeds the QACD standards for
accreditation.”
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All eight stakeholders had knowledge regarding setting gender diversity issues at
Assurance Task Force meetings. However, according to Stakeholder 8,
Assurance Task Force members don’t usually solely discuss gender diversity at meetings,
we could ask the Assurance Task Force Chair or vice-chair to see whether it might fit on
an agenda for a particular school, but again, we can’t mandate an institution to implement
gender-diverse practices.
Stakeholder 4 articulated that the Assurance Task Force would not
touch on that issue at all. I think their focus is more on the work of the task force, which
is on the institutional accreditation process and the substantive change process reports
and applications. So, I don’t know that agenda really plays a role in that.
The assumed procedural influence that Assurance Task Force members need to know
how important and use best practices to optimize gender diversity in executive management
positions was not determined to be a need. All Assurance Task Force members already
understood the importance and utilized the best practices QACD set forth in their guidelines
were determined to be theologically appropriate.
Assurance Task Force Members Understand How Unconscious Bias and Beliefs May Affect
Their Predispositions About Assurance Task Force Members Recruiting and Nominations
Inconsistent with the predictions in the conceptual framework, all stakeholders were
aware of the knowledge that unconscious bias may positively or negatively affect gender
diversity in executive positions. Five interviewed stakeholders had anecdotal evidence that they
were on the receiving end of or witnessed some form of unconscious gender bias. Stakeholder 2
mentioned,
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In the NFL, they have what’s called The Rooney Rule, which suggests that there has to
be a minority candidate interviewed. I’ve seen groups, I’m afraid, that go through the
motions sometimes and interview one minority candidate so they can simply check off
that box.
Stakeholder 3experienced, “with my own institution, it was a struggle for me to get to
this level because the background of the school is the Church of Christ, they do not believe in
women in leadership.” Stakeholder 3 elaborated further,
So, I was fighting two fights, but luckily my predecessor believed in me, and he opened
the door, and so, I think that’s the major issue. We just don’t get the opportunity unless
there’s someone that’s going to take that risk.
Stakeholder 3 also added,
The lack of gender diversity is not always the intention of the male counterpart. I believe
that, to some extent, they aren’t aware. And I will use this example: my husband and I.
He’s a pastor, and we went to a church to rent out their gym for an activity our school
was holding. We were talking, and, you know, kind of negotiating and everything for the
entire time, even though he introduced me as [doctor], but during the entire conversation,
they only referred to him and did not include me in the conversation at all. After the
conversation ended, my husband didn’t even notice until I casually brought it up.
Stakeholder 4 also referred to unintentional gender bias:
I’ve been on evaluation site team visits to other institutions, and their entire faculty is
male. Like I’ve said, it’s not always intentional. Like, they don’t do that, and when you’re
not a female, you don’t notice or recognize that gender diversity is a problem.
Stakeholder 1 stated,
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We don’t have any female pastoral majors at the institution I work at because it is not
actually allowed. In our movement, it just doesn’t occur. Our Biblical Counseling
Department is a little narrow-minded. There are various belief systems in counseling.
Previously, ours was always called Nouthetic Counseling. It is really associated with the
conservative reformed type group, and the department head at our school has a very
strong belief that men do not sit under women. We also have counseling classes that are
only for females.
Other participants, like Stakeholders 3 and 8, have seen women on boards and
committees tasked with bringing food and arranging parties. After prompting, Stakeholder 8
further elaborated,
On some of the committees and boards I serve on, I’ve been asked to bring food and plan
holiday parties, both of which I’m not very good at, but I do not ever hear of male
committee and/or board members ever get tasked with that role or the ones that offer will
usually state that they’ll have their wife throw something together.
Stakeholder 3 also mentioned the double bind that women are often put in: “The question now
becomes, from a woman’s point of view, do I stay silent or be quiet and meek, because I don’t
want to cause any problems.”
Document Analysis
Documents analyzed include the task force’s manual and team handbook,

a publicly
available document and presentation from a group named ABC Guides, Inc. (ABC), 4 years of
task force action letters, all articles on QACDs online library, statistical reports and QACDs
journal spanning the years of 2015 to 2021. Document analysis revealed a dearth of gender-
related issues. The few documents that pertained to gender diversity are listed separately.
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Assurance Task Force Materials. These materials cover the policies, responsibilities,
and procedures of task force operations. These documents included information on the history,
philosophy, proper protocols and procedures in performing a quality site visit and
recommendations, suggestions, and guidelines pertaining to the expected behavior and ethical
considerations of task force members. There is specific reference in the manual to gender
diversity. Gender diversity is also mentioned in the task force’s policy. A general definition of
diversity is also outlined within the manual’s glossary of terms.
QACD Online Library Articles. A search of articles in the QACD online library
revealed that there was only one article specifically relating to gender diversity in executive
management positions in Bible colleges. The sole article was the seminal study done by Ibbotson
(2006). Ibbotson examined 103 QACD college presidents and ascertained that 83% of Bible
college presidents were White males. Additional search strategies using the terms “female
leadership,” “female headship,” and “female presidents” were utilized and found 10 articles
mentioning women in the QACD online library which covered broad topics of interest, such as
board governance, leadership styles, preparing for transitions, and internal politics of Bible
colleges.
ABC Guides Presentation. This presentation at the QACD annual meeting specifically
reported on the emerging issue in Bible college leadership and academic culture of the
perception of a glass ceiling/diversity gleaned from ABC Guides’ 2017 survey. This presentation
warns QACD of complacency, obstacles, and barriers, as well as a lack of vision playing a role
in change failure. ABC Guides suggested and championed Kotter’s (2007, 2012) eight-step
change model when undertaking change management and planning for strategic change.
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QACD Online Library Summary. The results show that the procedural knowledge,
procedures, strategies, and QACDs best practices for gender diversity recruiting and nomination
were closely tied to stakeholders’ conceptual knowledge of constructs and QACD practices with
commission structure and gender diversity concepts. The knowledge results invalidated the
knowledge influences associated with gender diversity. The Assurance Task Force participants
were well seasoned, had over a decade of executive management experience, and were well
informed and knowledgeable of ways to improve gender diversity. However, all participants
stated that an institution’s theological viewpoint on women in leadership was the most
significant factor why there would not be more women in executive positions. The needs
assessment of this study’s conceptual framework found that all participants were acutely aware
of self-reflection and the ways role awareness would and could affect their views in mitigating
unconscious bias.
Table 6 presents a summary of the results regarding knowledge influences.

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Table 6
Summary of Presumed Knowledge Needs and Evaluation Results
Assumed knowledge
influence
Knowledge type
Knowledge influence
assessment
Validation
(KC-DB) Assurance
Task Force
members need
knowledge of the
financial,
organizational, and
stakeholder
benefits of gender
diversity.
Declarative
(Conceptual)
Interviews,
document analysis,
data analysis
Invalidated
(KP-GD) Assurance
Task Force
members need to
know how
important and use
best practices to
optimize gender
diversity in
executive positions
of the schools they
accredit.
Procedural Interviews,
document analysis,
data analysis
Invalidated
(KM-UB)
Assurance Task
Force members
need to know how
unconscious bias
and beliefs may
affect their
predispositions
about Assurance
Task Force
members
recruiting and
nominations.
Metacognitive Interviews,
document analysis,
data analysis
Invalidated

Note. Knowledge conceptual-diversity benefits (KC-DB); Knowledge procedural-gender
diversity (KP-GD); Knowledge metacognitive-unconscious bias (KM-UB).
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Motivation Results
Assurance Task Force Members Know That Improving and Promoting Gender Diversity in
Executive Positions Is Part of Their Function in Egalitarian Post-secondary Colleges and
Universities They Accredit
Participants were asked a series of questions pertaining to outside factors that could
potentially impact gender diversity in executive positions and whether Assurance Task Force
members thought that improving gender diversity in executive positions was a part of their duties
as Assurance Task Force members. As an example of this theory, if Assurance Task Force
members view improving gender diversity in schools QACD accredits or reaccredits as an
Assurance Task Force function, then, according to attainment theory value and attribution
theory, the Assurance Task Force members would be highly motivated to complete this duty
(Grad, 2019). Data analysis of interviews and documents affirmed that Assurance Task Force
members agreed that their function was to uphold the QACD institutional and programmatic
standards as set forth for colleges and universities undergoing accreditation or reaccreditation,
not just solely focusing on recommending gender diversity. Regarding external forces, all
participants perceived a limited pool of qualified female Assurance Task Force candidates
interested in serving on the Assurance Task Force or attaining an executive position in a
Christian post-secondary institution.
Reflecting further on whether promoting gender diversity in executive positions is part of
the Assurance Task Force, several participants reiterated the feelings of Stakeholder 7: “It boils
down to being respectful of the theological and/or denominational viewpoint institution who’s
undergoing accreditation or reaccreditation. Historical tradition plays a large part, too. Executive
positions weren’t roles, historically, that were open to women.”
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Seven out of the eight participants referred to upholding the 11 programmatic and the 11
institutional standards that QACD is looking for in granting accreditation or reaccreditation to a
member institution. Stakeholder 8 stated,
While gender diversity in executive management is important, QACDs philosophy of
accreditation, and you can find this in the manual, on page 10, is really, continuous
institutional improvement for an institution.
With attribution theory, if Assurance Task Force members gain greater conceptual and
procedural knowledge and view gender diversity as important to the vitality and continuity of
Christianity and QACD, they may be more motivated to initiate change. Stakeholders
interviewed stated they understood the importance of having women in upper management but
that the major issue is the need to respect all denominational and theological viewpoints in
Christianity. As Stakeholder 2 stated,
It’s difficult. Even though we all sign the same tenets of faith and we’re all Christian
institutions, not all of those denominations that the schools are affiliated with are
accepting of females in leadership positions. There has to be a balance, [QACD] they
want to retain as many schools as possible while still understanding that some of the
schools have differing views on women’s roles.
Assurance Task Force Members Value Gender Diversity for Improving the Accredited
School ’s Operational Success, Support, and Community Engagement That They Accredit
Stakeholder interviews invalidated the conceptual framework regarding the lack of the
expectancy and utility value of gender diversity as a barrier to the Assurance Task Force’s
motivation in improving gender diversity. All interviewed participants fully understood and
grasped the concept that gender diversity in executive management positively impacted an
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institution. However, gender diversity is not the sole issue at stake when the Assurance Task
Force views an institution’s application for accreditation or reaccreditation. For example,
Stakeholder 2 stated, “So, unless you have an intentional effort to hire ethnic or gender-diverse
leaders, it’s not going to happen. It has to be intentional, or you’re just going to hire people who
look, act, and sound like you do.” Additionally, a statement made by Stakeholder 8 gave further
support to expectancy-value theory:
We [members] do understand the economic importance of having a gender-diverse
institution, but again, you’re going to run into and ultimately need to respect the
institutions’ theological perspective regarding women in leadership positions. The
Assurance Task Force is not out to change an institution’s theological perspective at all.
We keep in mind that the programmatic and institutional standards take priority.
Further support regarding the profound impact that Christian culture and theological distinctives
have on the lack of women in executive and leadership positions came from Stakeholder 5, who
touched on the importance of the collective “we” culture of Christianity:
As Christians, we operate together, working together toward a common goal, and not
separately, if you were to look at 1 Corinthians 12 and Ephesians 1, it is stated right there.
There is no opportunity to go rogue, if you will.
Many Assurance Task Force members interviewed mentioned that financial motivations
from donors also played a part in gender diversity. Stakeholder 7 added, “In an earlier institution
I worked for, there was an elderly constituency of donors that still believed that leadership was
not a place for women, and so would withhold or discontinue their contributions. So, yeah,
money talks.”
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Ultimately, an institution’s cultural theological viewpoint on women in leadership and
upholding QACDs programmatic and institutional standards, and not the lack of conceptual
knowledge had the greatest impact, thereby resulting in a lower expectancy-value regarding
women in leadership positions.
Assurance Task Force Members Believe That They Help Increase and Improve Gender
Diversity in Egalitarian Post-secondary Christian Institutions
Four out of eight participants stated that as individuals working in their institution, they
would be effective in promoting women into leadership positions. All participants added other
factors as well, such as the views of their institution’s governing board and/or outside major
donor support and the range and quality of the applicant pool and donors and whether they would
be effective in recruiting women into leadership positions in their respective institutions. Three
participants also expressed concern and frustration over the lack of ethnic diversity on the
Assurance Task Force. Stakeholder 3 added,
The make-up of the commission is typical of America and higher education. Yes, you
have a few minorities, you know, kind of spread throughout. A few women of color, a
few males here and there, but there’s no way near the amount of diversity that should be.
Conversely, Stakeholder 1 said, “I think the Board of QACD and the Assurance Task Force has
done a pretty good job of trying to have representation.”
As supported by the conceptual framework, external factors had the greatest impact on
the inability to hire and retain women in leadership positions. Stakeholder 5 mentioned the
impacts that working and having a family had on women in leadership and a perceived lack of
financial compensation:
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So, women who work still have to care for their family while working 40 hours per week,
unless they are lucky enough to have a husband who makes enough money to support the
family alone – but I honestly believe that those are bygone times – especially if you live
in an area that has a high cost of living.
Stakeholder 8 added,
I know that working in a Bible college will not make me rich, and I didn’t get into this
line of work to be wealthy, but there has to be a point where Bible colleges can
compensate women in leadership positions fairly.
Stakeholder 3 added, “I know of other women at different schools and things of that nature, but
usually, depending on what school you’re at, you’re not really making a livable wage.” One
participant linked unconscious bias with the lack of females in leadership positions. Stakeholder
7 mentioned,
I know a woman in QACD that’s been a VP for a long time and who would love to be
president but is finding it very difficult to break into that and find an institution who
would be willing to consider her. Some would say they’re open to it and would allow
women candidates, but they will still knowingly or unconsciously treat a woman as
inferior.
Assurance Task Force Members Believe It Is Important to Learn About Increasing Gender
Diversity in the Executive-Level Positions of Schools They Accredit
All participants placed high intrinsic value serving on the Assurance Task Force and
placed high extrinsic value on receiving gender diversity training if it were available at their
places of employment. However, none reported receiving specific training on gender diversity
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within the last year. Only one participant, Stakeholder 8, mentioned the impact that COVID-19
had on her institution. Stakeholder 8 stated,
COVID-19 has really done a number on our school’s training budget because the
majority of our budget is heavily influenced by student enrollment, and we’ve seen our
enrollment drop, which negatively impacts the kind of staff and faculty training we are
able to provide.
Sokol’s (2020) mixed-methods KMO study on the lack of gender diversity in an
engineering organization suggests that organizations need to understand their own hiring biases
and have support to increase the number of women in the workforce. Directly related to task
value, Sokol (2020), Virick and Greer (2012) found that when managers had positive beliefs
regarding the benefits of gender diversity initiatives, they actively promoted, backed, and
implemented the actions to increase gender diversity. Further support comes from McCrudden et
al. (2009), who discovered that interest was increased in initiatives when supported by recent
data, which, in turn, were implemented faster.
Again, all participants reported seeing the increased cost value (benefit) of completing
gender diversity training, even if it would take time for their school to implement or complete
training. However, all participants had egalitarian views on women in leadership, so the
recommendation made in this study for those QACD members who choose to attend gender
diversity training is to include information from credible outside studies and demonstrate the
internal data from QACD that show the benefits of having a gender-diverse executive
management team.

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Document Analysis
Hundreds of pages of documents in the QACD online library and its subsections, as well
as publicly available documents on the QACD website, were reviewed and analyzed as a part of
this study. However, no documents were found to speak directly to motivational influences
pertaining directly to gender diversity in executive management. One document by Ibbotson
(2006) was found that reported on the demographics of QACD college presidents. Ibbotson’s
findings in 2006 were that the majority of college presidents in QACD were White males, with
only one female college president. In another document in the QACD online library, Dingman
(2018) wrote an anecdote on asking the wife of a ministry executive who had recently become an
attorney to join a board of directors. After attempting to request Assurance Task Force meeting
minutes from QACD, the researcher was informed that the task force meeting minutes were
confidential but that all actions taken on assurance matters were available online from 2018 to
present as summaries under Assurance Task Force actions on the QACD website. The reported
actions contained information pertaining to colleges requesting major changes to their programs
and task force actions, such as reaffirming assurance, placing colleges on warning, removing
colleges from warning, reporting voluntary withdrawal from consideration, informing colleges of
candidate status, the granting of initial accreditation, and Assurance Task Force action letters. No
mention was made of any motivational influences pertaining to gender and executive positions.
There were also no motivational influences pertaining to gender and executive positions with the
recent February 2021 Assurance Task Force policies and procedures manual and bylaws.
Motivation Results Summary
All interviewed members fully support and promote QACD’s mission and the
programmatic and institutional standards that the Assurance Task Force needs to uphold. The
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data demonstrate participants consistently and actively seek to support QACD’s financial,
operational, and strategic objectives that champion the organization’s interests. Participants
provided similar attribution responses on whether it was a part of the Assurance Task Force’s
function to actively promote gender diversity in upper management. All participants stated that
the organization undergoing accreditation and/or reaccreditation is not forced to promote gender
diversity or training if that particular college’s doctrinal perspective does not believe that men
serve under women in positions of power.
Table 7 presents a summary of the results pertaining to motivation influences.

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Table 7
Summary of Presumed Motivation Needs and Evaluation Results
Assumed motivation influence
Motivation influence
assessment
Validation
(M-AT) Attributions:
Assurance Task Force
members need to believe
that improving gender
diversity in executive
positions is part of their
function.
Interviews, document
review, data analysis
Invalidated
(M-EV) Expectancy-Value:
Assurance Task Force
members need to
appreciate the value of
gender diversity for
improving the accredited
school’s operational
success, support, and
community engagement
that they accredit.
Interviews, document
review, data analysis
Invalidated
(M-SE) Self-efficacy:
Assurance Task Force
Members need to believe
that they help increase and
improve gender diversity.
Interviews, document
review, data analysis
Invalidated
(M-TV) Task Value:
Assurance Task Force
members need to believe it
is important to learn about
increasing gender diversity
in the executive-level
positions of schools they
accredit.
Interviews, document
review, data analysis
Invalidated

Note. Motivation-attribution theory (M-AT); Motivation-expectancy value (M-EV); Motivation-
self-efficacy (M-SE); Motivation-task value (M-TV).
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In addition to understanding the Assurance Task Force members’ knowledge and
motivation, an analysis of organizational influences impacting the Assurance Task Force’s
ability to affect diversity outcomes is essential to gap analysis. The organizational influences
assumed to be impacting attainment of the Assurance Task Force’s gender diversity objectives
are evaluated in the next section.
Organizational Results
The study evaluated several data sources to examine the four organizational influences
and needs thought to positively influence or limit the Assurance Task Force from implementing
gender diversity in the institutions that desire accreditation or reaccreditation. Analyzing the
interviews and documents, the review evaluated how the organizational and cultural environment
in QACD reflected the Assurance Task Force’s commitment to implement and recommend
gender diversity (OCS-A), the need for leadership within QACD and the Assurance Task Force
to focus on gender diversity and the potential for unconscious bias (OCS-L), the need for
refinement of policies and procedures to facilitate and improve the Assurance Task Force
recruiting and nominations process (OCS-PP), as well as the need in QACD for strategic gender
diversity management pertaining to procedures, practices, and policies (OCS-M).
Consistent with the second research question and the study’s conceptual framework, the
data showed that the Assurance Task Force’s culture and QACD embrace gender diversity.
However, the primary barrier to women attaining executive roles is the institutional theological
views. This issue hinders the Assurance Task Force and QACD’s organizational ability to
recommend gender diversity in executive positions. As an organization, QACD’s environment
supports, respects, and validates both egalitarian and complementarian viewpoints. QACD’s
main concern is not to strictly promote or enforce gender diversity in executive management; but
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rather to ensure institutions undergoing accreditation or reaccreditation uphold financial,
educational, and theological standards as set forth by QACD.
Additionally, the findings indicate happiness with the gender balance on the Assurance
Task Force and within QACD, as well as a concern from the participants regarding the
nominating process for Assurance Task Force members. Stakeholder 4 stated,
It is a positive step in the right direction, I think they build it into the commission, so
when they have elections, they would have two women running for one position. They
won’t replace a female [Assurance Task Force member] with a male. So, they’re careful
to have that balance, and I appreciate that.
Stakeholder 6 reported, “I think there’s good diversity in the task force itself. … I don’t see it
just coming from the women on the task force. It’s coming from the task force itself.”
Stakeholder 6 further elaborated,
We all play a role in doing the review, leading in the review. One of the things we always
do is pray for the institution, and again, when there is a woman who is the primary leader,
then that will be a woman who is praying for them. … I do not sense within the
commission a sense of what would be the affirmative action kind of idea. It’s just the
normative. This is how we function. There’s a role for the [Assurance Task Force]
nominating committee in putting forward nominees for the positions that when there’s a
vacancy for the first term. There’s representation, and there will be two women being
nominated. So, there’s always two people nominated. So, for that position, you’re going
to have a woman in that position. … There’s a deliberate attempt to keep gender diversity
in there as well as racial diversity.
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The majority of participants had some form of their own institution’s
diversity/unconscious bias training and have attended past Title IX training. However, after
finding out the Assurance Task Force meeting minutes were confidential and unavailable to the
researcher, it was impossible to discern whether or not gender diversity was discussed. Upon
being referred to review the publicly available Assurance Task Force Summary of Accreditation
Actions on the QACD website, there was no mention of gender diversity, and the summary gave
information on the actions the Assurance Task Force took with regards to accreditation. All
participants stated how supportive QACD is pertaining to their member institutions, but that
QACD is focused on constant educational improvement and excellence and that QACD is not
there to force their particular cultural and organizational culture on member institutions.
Stakeholder 6 expressed,
Women have not been allowed or have not been encouraged and has led to a glass ceiling
that’s been within their particular denomination reflected in their schools. That they have
never been given the opportunity to get the experience that you would look for in
someone who’s going to take a senior leadership role. That’s a problem, but it’s not
something we [the Assurance Task Force] can mandate. We can’t mandate it that because
that would be crossing over and disrespecting their theological perspective.
Table 8 provides a summary of the assertions aligned to each of these needs and
influences.

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Table 8
Summary of Presumed Organizational Needs and Evaluation Results
Assumed
organizational
influence
Organizational type
Organizational
influence assessment
Validation
(OCS-A) The
QACD
organizational
environment needs
to demonstrate a
commitment to
gender diversity.
Cultural setting Interviews,
document review,
data analysis
Invalidated
(OCS-L) QACD
needs to devote
resources, training,
policies, and
procedures to
facilitate gender
diversity.
Cultural setting Interviews,
document review,
data analysis
Invalidated
(OCS-PP) QACD
needs leadership to
focus on gender
diversity and
unconscious bias
training.
Cultural setting Interviews,
document review,
data analysis
Invalidated
(OCS-M) QACD
needs strategic
gender diversity
policies,
procedures, and
practices.
Cultural setting Interviews,
document review,
data analysis
Invalidated

Note. Organizational culture setting-alignment (OCS-A); Organizational culture setting-
leadership (OCS-L); Organizational culture setting-policies and procedures (OCS-PP);
Organizational culture setting-management (OCS-M).
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After analyzing documents and participant interviews, the findings were validated for one
organizational setting aspect, specifically which QACD needs to devote resources, training,
policies, and procedures to facilitate gender diversity.
The QACD Organizational Environment Demonstrates a Commitment to Training on Gender
Diversity Policies and Procedures in Egalitarian Christian Post-secondary Institutions
Stakeholder interviews found that all Assurance Task Force participants understood and
verified that QACD does utilize gender diversity best practices when able, and most importantly,
when they align with the denominational worldview pertaining to gender. When asked to
elaborate further, Stakeholder 1 stated,
QACD promotes the encouragement of gender diversity, solely pertaining to men and
women, the Biblical viewpoint on gender, within the Assurance Task Force Manual,
Standard 4 and also in a school’s governing board as well, but QACD has noted where
theologically appropriate.
Stakeholder 2 added, “QACD has made it their focus, in an effort to nominate people who are
diverse both gender and ethnicity to the QACD board and to the Assurance Task Force.”
Conversely, Stakeholder 3 said,
But those recommendations come from the school, like someone on a staff at a school
recommending someone. Yeah, and if you’re not really involved in a significant way,
you’re not going to make it your intent on recommending someone that’s a little
different. I don’t see that they’re trying to be diverse.”
Another view was expressed by Stakeholder 4: There’s not a pro or a con. It’s just the person
called to be in that position. So, that’s the way I see it.” When asked to elaborate, Stakeholder 4,
stated, “Well, QACD, maybe they still have a diversity committee focused on race, more than
98

anything. I think that was handled by the board of directors more because I haven’t heard about it
on the commission.”
Stakeholder 6 expressed,
I think it’s an opportunity, a chance for the Christian Church to stand up and give some
leadership, instead of being the follower. It’ll be hard both for women and men who take
on these roles and for the churches that would allow a man or promote a woman into that
role. Because the media, the culture, is still saying, “Oh, look at that. There must be
something wrong going on in there.” No matter what you espouse to be, there’s still a
reticence.
QACD Members Have Had Training Focused on Gender Diversity and Unconscious Bias
The findings revealed that it was not QACDs responsibility to provide training focused
on gender diversity and unconscious bias. Rather, all participants perceived that that training was
the responsibility of the institutions, and not in the purview of the QACD.
QACD Devotes Resources, Training, Policies, and Procedures to Facilitate Gender Diversity
All eight participants revealed that it was not QACDs responsibility to micromanage the
post-secondary institutions they accredit. All participants cited that QACD does have a policy
within the task force manual regarding gender diversity, but that it only applies to those
institutions whose theological and doctrinal viewpoints support women in upper management
positions. Stakeholder 4 added,
This whole gender thing has exploded, and, of course, they [QACD] have talked about,
you know, the issues of gender, but not about any being in leadership. So, there’s not
enough focus. I don’t think there needs to be focus on it; and I, you know, might be
where I’m coming from, but you know I’m in a position where, in leadership, I don’t see
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that it matters that I’m a female and my institution doesn’t theologically see it like that;
that it matters. But I think then, you have to walk carefully because you would want not
to walk pridefully. You need to be under somebody’s authority, whether you’re male or
female.
Document Analysis
The triangulation of data, including extensive document and interview analysis,
invalidated the study’s conceptual framework and KMO influences. Data analysis included a
review of 900 pages of documents, including a 242-page task force manual and a 60-page team
handbook, and reviewing 5 years of QACDs annual journal.
Assurance Task Force Materials. These materials cover the policies, responsibilities,
and procedures of Assurance Task Force operations. These documents included information on
the history, philosophy, proper protocols, and procedures in performing a quality site visit and
recommendations, suggestions, and guidelines pertaining to the expected behavior and ethical
considerations of task force members. Based on Atlas.ti coding, the materials contain three
instances that mention gender diversity in the document. The manual makes specific reference to
gender diversity. Gender diversity is also mentioned in the task force’s policy. A general
definition of diversity is also outlined within the Assurance Task Force’s manual glossary of
terms.
Summary of Assurance Task Force Action Letters. ATLAS.ti coding for the publicly
available years 2018 through February 18, 2021, revealed no references to gender diversity.
Assurance Task Force Nominating Committee Minutes. These were not made
available to me or to the public, as they are confidential.
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2020 and 2021 QACD President ’s Report. ATLAS.ti coding revealed no references to
gender.
QACD journal. ATLAS.ti coding for years 2016 to 2020 of the publications revealed no
instances, mentions, or references to gender diversity.
Statistical reports. ATLAS.ti coding for the publicly available years 2015 and 2016
showed no references of gender.
Organizational Results Summary
The data obtained from the participants does not support the conceptual framework’s
theory that QACDs organizational culture does not support gender diversity in executive
positions. The Assurance Task Force promotes, prioritizes, and reinforces the importance of
gender diversity. Still, it is a different matter for supporting gender diversity in an institution
undergoing initial accreditation or reaccreditation. As an organization, QACD and its Assurance
Task Force respects, values, and encourages the stakeholder institution’s theological perspective
and is unable to mandate a particular recommendation if that recommendation is misaligned with
the institution’s mission and theological perspective regarding women in leadership positions.
Synthesis
This study evaluated 11 KMO influences that were assumed to be impacting the
Assurance Task Force’s ability to affect and increase the number of women in leadership
positions within QACD institutions. The study identified some opportunities to improve
stakeholder’s conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. The study also validated the
largest organizational barrier, theological perspective, on women in leadership positions. This
study’s findings suggest that gender diversity for women in executive leadership positions in
Christian colleges and universities is still an ongoing struggle. Participants were also aware that
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change in gender equity in some denominations of Christianity is nonexistent but that it was far
more important to QACD as an organization to respect and recognize differences in theological
opinion as an overarching goal to fulfill Christ’s mission.
In summation, 10 knowledge and motivation influences were invalidated. Only one
organizational cultural setting influence was also validated. QACD and the members of the
Assurance Task Force are acutely aware of the lack of women in executive management
positions; there is still a culture of “niceness” that permeates Christian organizations. This
culture of “niceness” allows for gender discrimination to exist in some denominations of
Christianity and is one of the elements of work environments that destroys motivation. If
Christianity as a religion and Bible colleges and universities want to remain relevant in the 21st
century, they will have to seriously examine outdated practices, barriers, rules, and agreements
for these campuses as a whole to maintain their relevance worldwide.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The organizational culture and climate, which includes processes, structures, and
initiatives, is imperative to reaching organizational, operational, and performance goals and
measures (Clark & Estes, 2008; Grad, 2019; Schein & Schein, 2017). Clark and Estes’s (2008)
gap analysis was utilized to provide a framework for recommendations to address the gaps
validated in the study. Lastly, this chapter will cover recommendations for future research and
discussions of limitations and delimitations.
Discussion of Findings
The results of this study somewhat align with the literature review in Chapter Two. The
literature confirms organizational and denominational factors that negatively impact women
striving to attain executive positions within QACD colleges and universities still exist. The
greatest barrier to women who want to obtain executive leadership positions is due to the
organization’s theological and denominational worldview pertaining to gender equity.
Recommendations for Practice
Knowledge Recommendations
This study identified three knowledge influences declarative, procedural, and
metacognitive. Krathwohl (2002) defined declarative knowledge as factual aspects required to
know how to help solve a problem, procedural knowledge is the knowledge of how to perform a
task or action, and metacognitive knowledge is the awareness of one’s own thinking about the
task or action. No gaps were identified in the declarative, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge since all interviewees already had gained the specific knowledge of the declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of the benefits of having gender diversity in executive
management. However, this does not mean that factual, procedural, and metacognitive
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knowledge is unnecessary. Again, each of the participants had 5 to 20 years of experience in
their respective fields, so they had already gained and built upon the factual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge needed to link the benefits of gender diversity in executive
management.
Motivational Influences
This study examined four motivational influences: attainment value, expectancy value,
self-efficacy, and task value. Testing Clark and Estes’s (2008) conceptual framework in
motivation pertaining to task value, a series of questions were asked of the participants to gauge
the knowledge, motivation, and performance regarding participant’s intrinsic value (interest),
extrinsic value (utility), cost value (benefit), and the attainment value (importance) of women in
executive positions in accredited QACD colleges and universities. Data from this study
invalidated the suggested QACD Assurance Task Force members’ motivational influences
regarding task value, self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and attainment value. Expectancy-value
theory holds that Assurance Task Force members’ motivation regarding gender diversity would
be less important if there are other competing priorities (Eccles, 2006; Grad, 2019; Mayer, 2011).
All participants identified and believed that women would be capable leaders in executive
positions and all participants stated that the biggest barrier for women was the institution’s
theological and denomination viewpoint towards women in leadership. Furthermore, according
to Rueda (2011) and Grad (2019), attribution theory would predict a lack of motivation if
Assurance Task Force members believe that external forces limit their ability to successfully
recommend implementing gender diversity in executive positions when institutions undergoing
the accreditation or reaccreditation process. All interviewed participants were highly experienced
leaders within QACD colleges and universities who understood each motivational influence
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supporting women in leadership positions. The researcher asked 17 members of the Assurance
Task Force; however, only eight participants agreed to be interviewed.
Organizational Influences
Knowledge and motivation are not the only factors affecting performance gaps. Clark and
Estes (2008), Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), and Schein and Schein (2017) detailed the ways
in which organizations’ subcultures develop, adapt, and evolve over time. In this case, QACD
accredits post-secondary colleges and universities containing a variety of Christian
denominations and theological viewpoints which need to be considered and respected. As “every
culture is nested in some larger culture and can only do what the larger culture affords, tolerates,
and supports” (Schein & Schein, 2017, p. 181), QACD has its own office subculture. Also, the
Assurance Task Force has its own subculture, each QACD-accredited college and university has
its own unique Christian denominational subcultures, and the Christian worldview in which
QACD operates also has its own Christian denomination subcultures to take into consideration.
Clark and Estes (2008) and Schein and Schein (2017) explained that organizational leaders need
to look at external and internal criteria prior to implementing a new change and verify if the new
change is aligned with the greater culture in which the organization operates. If the new change
is not aligned with the organizations’ culture, then the new change will not be successful (Schein
& Schein, 2017). Clark and Estes (2008) pointed out three ways in which culture and
performance interact within organizations. Furthermore, they characterized these three as the
cultural environment, the group culture, and individual culture. To further clarify, QACD
operates as a group culture within Christian North America. Therefore, the recommendations this
study proposes will “identify ‘leverage points’ where cultural patterns can be selected (through
hiring and promotion) and utilized or, if necessary, modified (through training, social
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experiences, and job assignments) and focused on the achievement of organizational goals”
(Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 109).
Recommendation 1: Allot Resources and Encourage Policies and Practices That Support
Women Leaders in Egalitarian Institutions
While QACD respects all Christian theological viewpoints regarding women in
leadership, for QACD to increase the number of women in executive positions in the institutions
they accredit, the QACD Assurance Task Force can further suggest and bolster egalitarian post-
secondary institutions holding egalitarian theological viewpoints towards women in leadership.
During a scheduled initial or reaccreditation site visit, the Assurance Task Force recommends
and follows Clark and Estes’s (2008) guidance that the organization have the appropriate
resources, such as equipment, personnel, and time available to ensure that change efforts will be
successful. In fact, the Assurance Task Force manual identifies the type and scope of appropriate
resources.
Ultimately, this study revealed the biggest barrier for women working in Christian post-
secondary institutions to overcome is the prevailing institutional theological worldview towards
women in leadership. Since QACD cannot mandate a complementarian private Christian
institution change its theological viewpoint regarding women in leadership, they can still help to
support and empower egalitarian institutions to increase the number of women in executive
leadership. Another similar Christian organization, the CCCU has an annual women’s leadership
institute that was first started in 1998 after the CCCU began to question the lack of women in
leadership positions within their membership. The only major difference between the CCCU and
QACD is that the CCCU is not an accreditation agency.
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To reiterate, Schein and Schein (2017) found that culture and leadership are closely
intertwined. So, a leader is tasked with creating, reinforcing, managing, and revolutionizing
organizational culture. Churches and Christian colleges and universities are seeing a drop in
enrollment and attendance. Therefore, if Christian institutions want to remain economically
viable and relevant, they need to adapt and encourage innovation within their organizational
cultures. The leader of an effective innovative organization demonstrates and encourages
innovation by hiring diverse individuals who bring “complementary discovery skills, but also
different expertise and diversity of backgrounds to look at problems through multiple lenses”
(Dyer et al., 2011, p. 191). The QACD and its Assurance Task Force can encourage egalitarian
colleges and universities to reassess and re-evaluate existing policies and practices which
historically have created barriers in achieving equity (Bensimon, 2005; Purnama, 2021).
Purnama (2021) emphasized that institutional leaders need to demonstrate tangible action by
hiring and promoting qualified women into executive positions to reinforce positive
organizational commitment towards women.
Recommendation 2: Implement and Incentivize a Mentoring Program Using Experienced
Leaders
Extensive reviews of leadership literature have shown that innovative, responsive
organizations utilize and leverage experienced leaders as mentors in the workforce and in
education (Butler & Hasenfratz, 2017; Kezar & Wheaton, 2017; Varner, 2012). Therefore, the
recommendation to QACD is to provide, implement, and incentivize a mentoring program using
experienced leaders to assist women interested in obtaining senior positions and working within
egalitarian QACD-accredited colleges and universities. Varner (2012), Longman and Lafreniere
(2012), Stockton (2019), and Purnama (2021) have recommended establishing formal
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organizational mentoring programs to provide the knowledge and perseverance to equip women
with networking opportunities.
Stockton’s (2019) recent phenomenological qualitative study of 14 male CCCU
presidents who actively sought out, supported, and mentored women into leadership positions,
stressed that change within male-normed post-secondary institutions to construct accountability
and transparency measures with respect to gender equity involves eradicating systemic gender
bias and barriers and actively explaining and reflecting upon theological views on gender equity.
Varner (2012) and Longman and Lafreniere (2012) researched the positive effect the CCCUs
formal mentoring program, the Executive Leadership Development Institutes had on women as
well as citing other secular formal mentoring programs for women in leadership offered by the
American Council on Education, the Harvard Institutes, and the Bryn Mawr Institutes. Varner
(2012) and Murphy et al. (2017) also cited the benefits and effectiveness of informal mentoring
on women and the benefits of viewing themselves as leaders. Ultimately, the establishment of a
formal or informal QACD mentoring program for women would assist women in closing skills
gaps and increase a member institution’s return on investment.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study was broadly focused on understanding the influences on the lack of women in
executive leadership positions in QACD-accredited colleges and universities. The first
recommendation for future research is to focus on improving diversity and intersectionality
within QACD-accredited colleges and universities; to include more minority voices and their
unique cultural perspectives.
A second recommendation for further research is to gather data on emerging female
leaders within egalitarian QACD colleges and universities. This study only obtained data from
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those with significant experience in executive leadership positions in QACD colleges and
universities.
QACD is a small organization that respects and includes all Christian theological
worldviews, so the third recommendation for further research is to focus on women working in
QACD-accredited complementarian Christian colleges and universities and their experiences and
identity and points of view on male leadership.
Lastly, there is a need to spotlight the male leaders in QACD-accredited egalitarian
institutions who have championed women and have played a role in developing female leaders.
All of the women interviewed for this study mentioned that having a male mentor supporting
their career development and journey was helpful to them reaching the presidency. Ultimately,
including the male mentor perspectives will further provide a deeper understanding of women’s
leadership development in QACD colleges and universities.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to understand the myriad of factors that played a role in the
lack of women in executive leadership positions in QACD-accredited colleges and universities.
According to 2020 Census data, women comprise 50.8% of the U.S. population and have
attained more advanced degrees than men. Additionally, in foreign countries, women have
attained positions in the highest levels of foreign government. Yet, women still remain
underrepresented in executive leadership positions within higher education institutions in the
United States. Statistical trends show that as the nation becomes more diverse in culture, race,
and religion, Christian colleges and universities are closing due to a decrease in the population
identifying as Christian. With the gender constraints that complementarian Christian worldviews
place on women in leadership positions, it is imperative for Christian colleges and universities to
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begin to address 4,000 years of gender inequity and patriarchy in order to remain relevant. Barr
(2021) noted the insidious correlation of patriarchy and abuse: “Hierarchy gives birth to
patriarchy, and patriarchy gives birth to the abuse of sex and power” (p. 207). The time has more
than come to stop the subjugation and oppression women face worldwide on a daily basis. It is
time to fight back and reclaim Paul’s discernment of equality in Galatians 3:28 and note, “Jesus
set women free a long time ago. Isn’t it time for evangelical Christians to do the same? Go, be
free!” (Barr, 2021, p. 218).

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me and provide information relevant to my
dissertation study. I feel fortunate to interview you, as QACD is one of the most highly
acclaimed Christian quality assurance a college or university can obtain. I appreciate the time
you have set aside today to answer some of my questions. The interview should last
approximately an hour. Will that time commitment still work for you?
Before we get started, I wanted to provide you with an overview of what we will be
talking about today and answer any questions you might have about participating. My study is
looking at the factors that play a role in the underrepresentation of women in executive positions
in QACD-accredited colleges and universities. My research will include interviewing Assurance
Task Force members in order to explore knowledge, thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, and
experiences regarding gender diversity within QACD institutions. I am the principal investigator
for this study, and I am working with a faculty advisor at USC. Do you have any questions about
the purpose of the study itself?
Everything we discuss today will be treated as strictly confidential. All of the findings for
my study will be reported in the aggregate. When I report an actual quote in the study, it will be
anonymous and identified in the form of “QACD Assurance Task Force member.” No names
will ever be associated with the findings. Additionally, no one will ever see the transcripts of this
conversation. The audio recordings will be deleted when the study is completed. Do you have
any questions about the interview?
If you have questions about your rights while taking part in this study, or you have
concerns or suggestions, and you want to talk to someone other than me about the study, please
call (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu. You can reference IRB # UP-20-00941.
133

The last couple of things that I would like to cover include the logistics of the interview
process. I will be recording the interviews via Zoom today so that I can accurately capture what
you share. The recording helps me focus on our conversation and not on taking notes. Do I have
your permission to record the interview? If at any time you wish to turn off the recording, you
can push this button, and you may make your comments “off the record.” Your participation in
all aspects of data collection is completely voluntary. You may skip questions or end the
interview at any time. May I have your permission to get started? (Begin recording. Mention
time, date, and interview type).
I would like to begin the interview by discussing your professional background and
experience, including your history on the QACD Assurance Task Force.
1. Please describe what you do professionally, and tell me about your involvement on
the QACD Assurance Task Force?
● when joined, reasons for joining; committee service
● professional title; duties and responsibilities
● views on QACD functions
2. What benefits or limitations do you believe are associated with having women in
executive management positions in accredited QACD institutions?
3. Do you think there is too much focus on gender diversity within executive positions
in Christian post-secondary institutions?
4. Tell me about your involvement, or observations, of QACD Assurance Task Force
involvement in promoting gender diversity in QACD-accredited institutions?
● If no involvement, why not?
● Examples involving diversity/inclusion initiatives?
134

● Past experiences affecting your comfort level in diverse settings?
● QACD discussions of promotion of gender diversity at accredited institutions?
I would like to now explore certain aspects of the Assurance Task Force’s gender
diversity and culture.
5. How would you describe the current state of the Assurance Task Force’s motivation
to promote gender diversity and inclusion?
● Effects of Assurance Task Force gender diversity on cohesion and
collegiality?
● Underrepresentation of women on the QACD Assurance Task Force?
6. Do you see any gaps in the current QACD Assurance Task Force?
7. What factors and challenges impact the Assurance Task Force’s ability to promote
gender diversity at QACD institutions?
8. Can you tell me about a time when the Assurance Task Force has demonstrated its
commitment to gender diversity?
9. What effects do doctrinal differences have on the Assurance Task Force’s ability or
inability to promote gender diversity in QACD institutions?
10. Is promoting gender diversity in executive positions at accredited institutions part of
the Assurance Task Force’s activities?
11. Why do you believe there are not more women in executive management positions in
QACD institutions?
12. Is there anything else you would like to add to our conversation today that was not
already covered?

135

I have a few demographic questions I would like to ask.
13. Gender?
 male
 female
 prefer not to answer
 non-binary
 ____________ (short answer)
14. What is your age?
 0–15 years old
 16–30 years old
 31–45 years old
 46+
 prefer not to answer
15. Please specify your ethnicity
 African American
 Latinx, Hispanic, or Spanish origin
 White
 Native American
 two or more
 Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander,
 Asian

136

16. Highest level of education?
 high school
 bachelor’s degree
 master’s degree
 PhD
 EdD

137

Appendix B: Adapted Interview Protocol
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me and provide information relevant to my
dissertation study. I feel fortunate to interview you, as the [MMA] museum is universally
regarded as a preeminent art intuition and robust center of culture in the region. I appreciate the
time you have set aside today to answer some of my questions. The interview should last
approximately an hour. Does that time commitment still work for you?
Before we get started, I wanted to provide you with an overview of what we will be
talking about today and answer any questions you might have about participating. My study is
looking at what factors might limit, or enhance, the museum board in improving its racial and
ethnic diversity. My research will include interviewing certain board members who serve on key
operational committees (executive, nomination, and diversity and inclusion), three racially and
ethnically diverse board members, and two members of the museum’s senior leadership. Today,
we will be exploring knowledge, thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, and experiences regarding board
diversity. I am the principal investigator for this study, and I am working with a faculty advisor
at USC. Do you have any questions about the purpose of the study itself?
Everything we discuss today will be treated as strictly confidential. All of the findings for
my study will be reported in the aggregate. When I report an actual quote in the study, it will be
anonymous and identified in the form of “MMA board member,” or “[MMA] Committee
Member” or “member of [MMA] senior leadership.” No names will ever be associated with the
findings. Additionally, no one will ever see the transcripts of this conversation. The audio
recordings will be deleted when the study is completed. Do you have any questions about the
interview?
138

If you have questions about your rights while taking part in this study, or you have
concerns or suggestions, and you want to talk to someone other than me about the study, please
call (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu. You can reference IRB # UP-XX-XXXXX
The last couple of things that I would like to cover include the logistics of the interview
process. I have brought a recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share.
The recorder helps me focus on our conversation and not on taking notes. Do I have your
permission to record the interview? If at any time you wish to turn off the recorder, you can push
this button, and you may make your comments “off the record.” Your participation in all aspects
of data collection is completely voluntary. You may skip questions or end the interview at any
time. May I have your permission to get started? (Begin recording. Mention time, date, and
interview type).
I would like to begin the interview by discussing your professional background and
experience, including your history on the museum board [or senior management position].
1. Please describe what you do professionally, and tell me about your involvement on
the museum board?
 when joined, reasons for joining, board committee service.
 professional title; duties and responsibilities externally [if senior leadership,
internal at MMA]
 views on board governance functions
I want to explore your views regarding certain aspects of the board activity and board
operations.
2. What traits and experiences (background, qualities) do you believe personify an
exemplary board member?
139

 proper nominating committee targeting
 gaps on the current board
 collective attributes/traits of the full board
 What matters most to the museum’s success?
 new connections/internal assistance (law/marketing/finance)
 ineffective board members
3. What are your strengths and weaknesses as a board member?
 Following up on Q2 answer is racial/ethnic diversity and inclusion part of
your board governance functions?
 [If senior management member, same question from their perspective.]
 Do you periodically reflect on improving in certain areas?
4. What benefits or limitations do you believe are associated with increased board
racial/ethnic diversity?
 Why do you think there is so much recent focus on diversity?
 [If participant mentions decision-making, creativity/innovation, stakeholder
support, fundraising, or social policy objectives, probe further].
5. Tell me about your involvement, or observations, of any board diversity and inclusion
activities or initiatives?
 Recruitment and nomination success/failure/processes?
 Executive and/or other committee discussions?
 If no involvement, why not?
 Examples involving diversity/inclusion issues or initiatives?
 Past experiences affecting your comfort level in diverse settings?
140

6. Do you think you could be an effective diversity recruiter? Why or why not?
 Identify the attributes of an effective diversity recruiter?
 Were you ever asked to assist in diversity recruiting?
I would now like to explore certain aspects of the board’s racial and ethnic diversity
status and board culture.
7. How would you describe the current state of board racial/ethnic diversity and
inclusion?
 effects of board racial/ethnic diversity on cohesion and collegiality
 underrepresentation of board members at diverse exhibitions
 importance of grants, foundations, stakeholders, recent AAM pronouncements
8. How would you describe the culture of the Board generally, and specifically, as to
racial/ethnic diversity?
 values and beliefs (manifested climate)
 board member comfort and diversity engagement
 historical experience/performance of racially diverse board members
9. What factors and challenges impact the Board’s ability to attract racially/ethnically
diverse candidates?
 internal, external, or uncontrollable factors (e.g., candidate pool; multiple
board service; dues requirements; networks)
 composition of the nominating committee
 board financial/dues requirements
10. Can you tell me about a time the Board (expressly or implicitly) has demonstrated its
commitment to racial/ethnic diversity and inclusion?
141

 board member recognition/incentives for promoting racial/ethnic diversity
 encouragement to recruit diverse candidates
 the purpose behind diverse exhibitions—board or curatorial focus
In the last part of the interview, we will cover any ideas you may have regarding
optimizing the board’s racial and ethnic diversity.
11. If you were in charge of the recruiting and nominating process, what would you do to
improve the Board’s racial/ethnic diversity?
 cross-committee engagement (diversity/nominations)
 diversity consultants; training
 broaden candidate pool
12. Is there anything else you would like to add to our conversation today that was not
already covered?

142

Appendix C: Recruitment Letter (Email)
Dear Participant:
My name is Karen Keesing, and I am a 3rd-year doctoral student at the University of
Southern California’s Rossier School of Education specializing in Organizational Change and
Leadership. I have received USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval to undertake
research for my study. My study will be utilizing Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis
framework and looking at the reasons pertaining to the lack of women in executive positions in
colleges and universities accredited by the Quality Assurance Christian Delegation.
As you serve on the QACD Assessment Task Force and have valuable expertise and
insights that would be of great benefit to this study, I am reaching out to you to see if you would
be willing and available to participate in an online virtual interview that would run
approximately 45–60 minutes in length as part of this research study.
To adhere to the recommended CDC requirements for physical distancing, all interviews
will need to be conducted via Zoom. All interview content will be kept confidential, and no
names will ever be associated with the findings. All video, audio recordings, and transcripts will
be deleted once the study is completed.
I greatly appreciate your consideration of my request to participate. Please feel free to
reply to this email with your response to this invitation.
Thank you for all you do to serve the Lord, QACD, as well as support the students, staff,
and faculty of each QACD member institution.
Sincerely,
Karen Keesing

143

Appendix D: Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089

STUDY TITLE: The Underrepresentation of Women in Executive Management Positions in
QACD-Accredited Post-Secondary Institutions

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Karen Clarke-Keesing

FACULTY ADVISOR: Patricia Tobey, Ph.D.

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine the root causes of the underrepresentation of women in
executive positions in colleges and universities accredited by the Quality Assurance Christian
Delegation. We hope to ascertain the factors that emerge as barriers to advancement as it relates
to knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences. You are invited as a possible
participant because you serve on the QACD Assessment Task Force

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to select an interview time that works
with your schedule, and you will be provided a Zoom link and calendar invitation as
confirmation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be
used. Interview recordings will be provided to a confidential third-party transcription service.
Video interviews and completed transcripts will be saved to the password-protected hard drive
on the researcher’s computer and will then be destroyed in accordance with university policy
regarding the retention of records.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Karen Clarke-Keesing, Principal
Investigator, clarkeka@usc.edu, (213) 555-5555 or Patricia Tobey, Ph.D., Faculty Advisor,
tobey@usc.edu, (213) 740-0224

144

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

145

Appendix E: Theoretical Framework Alignment Matrix
Research question Theoretical framework Data instrument questions
What is the status of the
stakeholder knowledge,
skills, and motivation as it
relates to executive
management roles within
QACD-accredited post-
secondary institutions?
KMO (Clark & Estes, 2008) Interview Questions 1, 2, 3, 5
What is the interaction
between organizational
culture/context and
stakeholder knowledge that
either facilitates or limits
the representation of
women in post-secondary
institutions?
KMO (Clark & Estes, 2008) Interview Questions:4, 6, 7, 9,
and 11
Which recommended
solutions will allow QACD
to promote increased
representation of women in
executive positions for
their members?
KMO (Clark & Estes, 2008) Interview Questions 8, 10, and
12
Demographic questions

Survey Questions 13–16

146

Appendix F: Acronym Key for Alignment and Assessment
Description
Interview data
IQ Interview questions asked during interviews
Organizational documents
D Internal QACD documents and reports
Knowledge
KC-DB Knowledge: Conceptual knowledge of gender-diverse benefits
KC-DRN Knowledge: Conceptual knowledge of diverse gender recruiting and nominating
processes
KM-UB Knowledge: Metacognitive knowledge of unconscious bias
Motivation
M-AT Motivation: Attribution of gender-diverse leadership as governance function
M-EVT Motivation: Expectancy/utility value of gender diversity in executive management
Organizational
OCS-A: Organizational cultural setting, Alignment with Culture
OCS-PP: Organizational cultural setting, policies and procedures
OCS-L: Organizational cultural setting, leadership
OCS-M: Organizational cultural setting, management

147

Appendix G: Atlas.ti Codes and Detailed Assessment Matrix
Influence codes Applicable questions Data sources
Knowledge influences
KC-DB Iqn2-Iqn5 Interviews, documents
KC-DRN Iqn3-Iqn6, Iqn11 Interviews, documents
KM-UB Iqn2, Iqn7-Iqn11 Interviews, documents
Motivation influences
M-AT Iqn3, Iqn4, Iqn6 Interviews
M-EVT Iqn2-Iqn5 Interviews, documents
Organizational influences
OCS-A Iqn2 – 11 Interviews, documents
OCS-L Iqn2, Iqn6-Iqn7, Iqn9- Iqn11 Interviews, documents
OCS-PP Interviews, documents
OCS-M Iqn6, Iqn8, Iqn10-Iqn11 Interviews, documents

148

Appendix H: List of QACD Documents
Document code Document name
D1 QACD Assurance Task Force manual
D2 Assurance Task Force Team handbook
D3 Assurance Task Force action letters 2018–
February 2021
D4 2020 QACD presidential reports
D5 2021 QACD presidential reports
D6 2015–2016 QACD statistical report
D7 Assurance Task Force 2020 Delegate
Assembly minutes
D8 2016 QACD statistical highlights
D9 Assurance Task Force 2021 Nominating
Committee report
D10 Assurance Task Force 2021 proposed changes
to conditions of eligibility
D11 Assurance Task Force 2021 delegate assembly
agenda
D12 Assurance Task Force action letters: February
21, 2018–March 8, 2021
D13 99 articles within the QACD online library
D14 QACD Journal Vols. XI–XVI
D15 Assurance Task Force bylaws
D16 QACD member directory

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Women have made significant advances in executive management within the workforce. Throughout the decades, women are making slow progress into the executive management echelon within private sector companies, secular colleges, and universities. However, there has been little to no progress in attaining executive positions within Christian post-secondary educational institutions. This underrepresentation may persist due to a variety of gender stereotypes and roles that women employed in Christian post-secondary colleges and universities encounter. Clark and Estes’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational gap analysis model was applied to explore the experiences of male and female executive managers who hold leadership positions in Christian post-secondary institutions and who were appointed to serve on an assurance task force. Eight task force members were interviewed to explore their experiences and to provide insight on the lack of women holding executive management positions within Bible colleges and universities. Findings suggest that organizational influences play the biggest role in preventing women to succeed within executive leadership in organizations with strict patriarchal structures and hierarchies.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Keesing, Karen Ann (filename)

Core Title Centering women's voices in CQAD accredited post-secondary institutions

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-12

Publication Date 11/04/2022

Defense Date 11/03/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag christianity,executive leadership,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,underrepresentation,Women

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Datta, Monique (committee member)

Creator Email clarkeka@usc.edu,kkeesing1420@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112305793

Unique identifier UC112305793

Identifier etd-KeesingKar-11301.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-KeesingKar-11301

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Keesing, Karen Ann

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20221107-usctheses-batch-990 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

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