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Exploring the gender imbalance within student involvement and leadership development
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Exploring the gender imbalance within student involvement and leadership development
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EXPLORING THE GENDER IMBALANCE WITHIN STUDENT INVOLEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT by Heather Larabee ________________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2007 Copyright 2007 Heather Larabee ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS While much of earning a doctorate is a personal quest as you alone accept the challenges, make the sacrifices, and live in your own head; completing the quest is not possible without the love, support and guidance of others. I share this accomplishment with all the individuals who helped me along the way, my colleagues, friends, and family. My committee chair, Dr. Michael Jackson, who I really believe had no idea what he was getting into with me. I sincerely appreciate his time and dedication, especially our one-on-one meetings where we could really discuss the topic and implications. He treated me like a colleague, an equal, and always talked in terms of when I finish, not if I would finish. My committee, who both challenged and inspired me to push harder and dig deeper, was extremely helpful. It was in Dr. Adrianna Kezars office that I first began discussing my topic. She was so supportive and has this unique way of putting me at ease. She makes you want to do well. Dr. Shaun Harper, who if it was not for him, I would not have even started this program. His encouraging emails and thoughtful correspondence always came at just the right time. You all are such amazing writers and educators. I never wanted to disappoint you, which made me try harder. Thank you! My direct supervisor, Patrick Bailey, who at times had to tell me not to come in to work so that I could stay home and write, was truly a blessing. He was so supportive and understanding throughout my course work and the dissertation process. I am very appreciative of my colleagues, staff, and students, who iii understood when I could not attend a meeting or an event due to class. During my research and writing phase, two people, Jason Handman and Katherine Searing, were instrumental to the continued success of all our activities and events. They both were phenomenal and I know I could never have finished writing without them on my team. The National Association of Campus Activities and the staff and students of the institutions I visited for interviews. There willingness to assist me was amazing. It made me realize how invaluable my friends and colleagues in campus activities are to my success. I offer my sincere appreciation to Carl Johnson, Beth Waltrip, and Sandy Winslow for working with me and sharing their students. In addition, I want to acknowledge my close friends and family. I am grateful for the core group of Ed.D. students who lived and shared this amazing experience with me. Their encouragement and venting sessions, support and genuineness was much needed and appreciated. My friends, both in LA and across the country, provided constant support, understanding and encouragement. My best friend, Cade, his unconditional love and wet dog kisses and high fives, would cheer me up even on the worst writing days. Lastly, I want to acknowledge my mom and dad. My father, although I think he is often frustrated with the business of higher education, is always supportive of my goals and dreams, whatever they may be. Thank you for our long discussions regarding my dissertation, our trip to University of Florida, making me laugh about my GPA, and for understanding the quirky part of me that has such a strong desire to achieve or maybe over-achieve is more accurate. iv My mom, her strength and compassion are unmatched. She may not understand exactly what or why I am doing something, but she supports me 110%. Her fight against cancer inspired me as she never gave up or allowed negative thoughts to overtake her. Knowing this shared accomplishment has made you two proud of me is all I need. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii Abstract viii Chapter One: Background, Purpose, and Overview of Study Introduction 1 Purpose of the Study 9 Significance of Study 10 Definitions of Key Concepts 12 Organization of the Dissertation 13 Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature Introduction 15 Title IX 15 Gender Imbalances and Tokenism 20 Gender and Student Development: Theoretical Perspective 22 Womens Ways of Knowing 23 Perrys Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development 24 Model of Epistemological Reflection 25 Leadership Identity Development Model 32 Theoretical Integration 40 Gender and Student Involvement 44 Male Development 49 Conclusion 55 Chapter Three: Methodology Chapter Overview 58 The Mixed Method Approach 59 Rationale for Mixed Method Approach to Inquiry 59 Methodological Approach: Case Studies 61 Research Design 63 Setting & Context 64 Data Collection Procedures 65 Data Analysis Procedures 69 Trustworthiness 70 Limitations 72 Summary 74 Chapter Four: Findings Chapter Overview 76 Research Question One 76 vi Marketing and Purposeful Outreach 85 Male-Targeted Programs and Direct Contact 86 Education and Mentoring 87 Institutions Look for Direction 88 Research Question Two 91 University of California, Irvine 92 University of Denver 95 University of Florida 97 Student Perceptions of Gender in Leadership 100 Role vs. Influence 101 Male Leaders vs. Female Leaders: Differences 106 Formal vs. Informal Leadership Development 110 Student Perceptions of Gender in Involvement 112 Inspiration and Personal Gain 113 Equal and Imbalanced 116 Competition and Selection 120 Student Perceptions of Gender and the University 124 Summary of Findings 125 Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations, and Implications Chapter Overview 128 Discussion of Main Findings 128 Leadership Programs 129 Leadership Involvement 131 Student Government 134 Co-curricular Involvement 137 Gender Balance 141 Role and Influence 143 Conclusions 145 Recommendations 146 Implications for Future Research 153 Closing 157 References 158 Appendices Appendix A: IRB Approval Letter 165 Appendix B: Survey Informed Consent Form and Survey 167 Appendix C: Interview Informed Consent Form 173 Appendix D: Participant Profile Form 176 Appendix E: Interview Protocol 178 vii Appendix F: Participant Recruitment Email - Survey 180 Appendix G: Participant Recruitment Email - Interview 181 viii ABSTRACT The purpose of this applied research study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance phenomenon at colleges and universities. More specifically, the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students is addressed. This topic is considered from the perspective of both the student and campus activities professional staff member. By incorporating both perspectives, the issue of gender imbalance is more fully explored. In addition, the differing implications for the students and campus activities staff members were analyzed as well as differences between genders. A better understanding of these gender specific differences lead to an increased awareness of students gender in issue surrounding leadership and involvement. This increased awareness and understanding can inform practice yielding positive developmental experiences for all students. This study utilized a mixed methods approach. A national survey administered through the National Association of Campus Activities was sent to campus activities professionals across the United States. After reviewing the survey data, three institutions were selected as sites for on campus interviews. Six student leaders (3 males and 3 females) were interviewed at the University of California, Irvine, the University of Denver, and the University of Florida. The findings confirmed that a gender balance indeed exists with respect to co-curricular activities and leadership development at institutions across the nation. However, the affects of this imbalance on students are very tentative and ix questionable. Not surprisingly, the findings indicated a discrepancy between the views of students and staff members with respect to this topic. However, four main conclusions are drawn from the data and five recommendations are presented for student affairs professionals. In addition, this research uncovered more questions that answers surrounding this topic, which warrant further examination. Recommendations for future research are also provided. 1 CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Introduction Institutions across the country are witnessing a unique type of gender imbalance that is affecting students educational experience. This gender imbalance is influencing the academic environment, residential living, as well as out of class activities. To compensate for the imbalance, administrators, either consciously or subconsciously, attempt to preserve an equal gender representation when selecting students for awards and honors, leadership programs or positions, and campus employment. The following scenario illuminates how gender and the need to maintain a balance are manipulating decisions within student activities. Jean and Wayne are seniors majoring in political science at a large, research institution. Both are good students, although Jean has a slightly higher GPA than Wayne. Jean is president of her sorority and president of two leadership honor societies. She attended Alternative Spring Break twice, regularly volunteers through a service organization, and is an active member of her academic student organization. Wayne is a member of an academic student organization and an honor society as well as a director within the Undergraduate Student Government. He held a position in his pledge class, participated in community service activities for his classes and participated in an internship program for a summer. They have both applied for a position on the very prestigious Senior Court, which highlights the institutions top 10 seniors. 2 The Senior Court is a long standing tradition that most highly involved students aspire to achieve. The students must demonstrate and uphold, through their actions during their time at the institution, the institutions ideals and mission, while excelling both in and outside of the classroom. The selection process is comprised of three steps with a variety of faculty, staff and alums serving as judges and committee members. This is truly the highest honor for any student at this university to accomplish and, as such, is taken very seriously. Over 100 students have applied for this honor, which traditionally selects five males and five females to represent the University. The applicant pool starts off relatively equal representation of men and women. As the selection process continues, the pool of candidates is narrowed resulting in the disproportionate dismissal of male candidate leaving only seven in the top 22 moving on to the final selection round. With 15 women vying for five spots and seven men for five spots the competition amongst the women is intense. On the other hand, the men are much more relaxed as they feel that they only need to beat two other men to make it into this elite group. As the final scores are tallied for the last selection competition, it becomes apparent that the women have outperformed the men. Based on scores alone, the Senior Court could be comprised of nine women and one man. However, the selection committee begins to discuss the lack of males and notion of gender balance. A couple members of the committee begin to suggest that a few women should be replaced with men. They admit that these women are more qualified and 3 have done far more than their male counterparts to further the ideals of the institution, but firmly believe that both genders should be fairly represented. The discussion turns to Jean and Wayne. Jean has consistently maintained better scores through every step of the selection process. Her extra-curricular activities are well beyond Waynes, yet the committee votes to remove Jean and replace her with Wayne. This decision happened three more times, until there was equal representation of men and women on the Senior Court. Unfortunately, this scenario is not uncommon. In addition to maintaining a diverse representation of students, preserving a gender balance has become an issue that many student affairs practitioners are now facing. The inconsistencies of the leadership and co-curricular experiences of men and women throughout their college careers, coupled with the increase of women entering higher education presents a new challenge for higher education administrators. This dissertation explores the implications of gender imbalance on student leadership and involvement activities from multiple perspectives. This chapter discusses the problem, purpose, and significance of this study. It concludes with the definitions of key terms that are used throughout this dissertation. Background of the Problem In 1972, a regeneration of our nations educational system began. This renaissance was fueled by the enactment of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Title IX). Not only did Title IX begin reforming our educational institutions, it signified societys acknowledgement of its limited view of women and 4 their roles within the larger society (Department of Education [DOE], 2004). Prior to Title IX, women did not share the same advantages as men in higher education. They did not have the same options as their male counterparts; they were discouraged from specific majors, and were held to higher admission standards (2004). While Title IX is generally associated with womens athletic programs, it has done much more to advance women in education and, ultimately, within society (DOE, 2004). Title IX leveled the educational playing field in terms of equity and access for women. In addition to new and/or improved athletic programs, Title IX brought gender-related issues to the forefront resulting in the creation of programs and services specifically for college women. With services such as womens centers and campus programs dedicated to womens issues becoming a common, if not expected, occurrence on campuses, gender equity has not been a hotly contested issue for the last few years. However, when inequities of a different nature began to appear, these concerns for gender in education resurfaced. Oddly enough, this time men are the subject of the inequity discussions. In fact, some researchers believe that Title IX has been so effective that they maintain segments of Title IX should be repealed to restore balance (Sadker, 2002). Gender inequity is, once again, becoming an issue for higher education. This is evident in graduation rates as well as enrollment numbers. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), the enrollment of students in degree-seeking institutions rose 15 percent from 1992 through 2002 (2005). During 5 this same time period, the female student enrollment increased by 18 percent while male student enrollment only increased by 10 percent (2005). By 1997, women accounted for 56 percent of all undergraduate students (DOE, 2004). Five years later, in the 2003-2004 admission cycle, the amount of females applying to higher education institutions rose to a record high of 56.1% of all potential college students (The Nation, 2003-4). The increase in female students entering higher education is appearing in both public private institutions. For example, at the University of Southern California (USC), the ratio is slightly less than the national standard as the 2006-2007 freshmen class is 52% female and 48% male (USC, 2006). In the Fall of 2004, Harvard Universitys first year enrollment was 1646 with women comprising just over half of the class (Harvard Fact Book, 2005, p. 6). This appears to be the first time this has occurred, at least since the 1996-1997 academic year. While the number might seem insignificant, just ten more women than men, since the 1996 entering class, men have consistently outnumbered women, sometimes by the hundreds (Harvard Fact Book, 2005). This trend continued through to Fall of 2005 where the first year class included 1655 students and women were represented slightly more than men (Harvard Fact Book, 2006). At another prestigious institution the numbers are more dramatic. At the University of California, Berkeley, the 2005 first-time freshmen class consisted of 1833 men and 2226 women (Common Data Set, 2005). Graduation rates also parallel this gender imbalance. In fact, it may be even more obvious with graduation rates than with enrollment (Postsecondary Education 6 Opportunity, Feb, 2002). Between the academic years of 1992-1993 and 2002-2003, the amount of female students completing bachelors degrees increased by 23 percent, whereas male students completing the same degree only rose by 8 percent (NCES, 2005). The current increase of female students applying to higher education institutions is not an anomaly. Researchers believe that this increase will continue for several years. The ratio is expected to grow to 138 women for every 100 men by 2010 (Report Sees, 2003, p. A30) or men representing just 42 percent of enrolled students (Men on Our Campuses, 2001). This is expected to translate to women outnumbering men in undergraduate and graduate programs by 9.2 million to 6.9 million by 2008 (Sadker, 1999). If this holds true, an assumption can be made that gender imbalance in student leadership and activities will only be amplified. This imbalance causes various problems and new developments for higher education. Even with more female students than male students, women are still treated differently than men in the classroom and engage less with professors than men (Funk, 2002; Sadker, 2002). This behavior may have been more reasonable with a higher percentage of male students enrolled; however, now it seems outdated. Outside of the classroom, women are involved in all types of activities and are much more engaged in the university community than their male counterparts (Kimmel, 2004). Looking at this imbalance from a much larger perspective, the Postsecondary Education OPPORTUNITY research letter in February 2002 states: 7 In a world increasingly dependent on the education and training provided by colleges and universities, women are preparing for that world and men are not. We are heading into a world where the interests and values of women will gradually come to displace the interests and values of men (p. 2). It is unknown how this change will ultimately affect society, yet is a very interesting consideration. For educational institutions, these new challenges will most likely be met with innovative strategies to increase male student learning and stimulate ambition (Sadker, 2002; Taylor & Lorimer, 2003). However, attention should be paid to the realm of student learning and development, which take place outside of the classroom. If this gender imbalance is manifesting itself within co-curricular activities and leadership opportunities, students are being affected. How students are being affected and the implications of this gender imbalance on student development need to be explored. Perhaps student development is negatively impacted? If so, students are not exploring the breadth and depth of their college experience. As a result, students are not reaping the positive benefits associated with involvement and leadership development (Astin, 1984; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). While female students are outnumbering men in enrollment and graduation rates, this imbalance is even more staggering in student involvement across campus. Based on researchers experience and conversations with colleagues across the country, a gender imbalance exists within student involvement and leadership development opportunities. Personal observations and experiences have made this gender imbalance strikingly clear. For example, in an effort to offset gender 8 imbalances, under qualified males are receiving positions and accolades primarily based on their gender rather than their credentials. Simply stated, male students are not competing at the same level as their female counterparts, yet male students are still receiving positions and awards. This researcher believes this practice is a disservice to all students. Males are not being challenged or held to the same standards as females and the added competition among female students is negatively impacting many female leaders. As the number of female students increases, it is likely that this competition will also increase, leaving both males and females with less than satisfying co-curricular experiences during their undergraduate years. A good deal of literature supports the benefits of student development outside of the classroom; a deficiency exists in the literature with respect to how this gender imbalance is affecting student development. Researchers have explored the lack of progress and underachievement of boys in the academic setting, particularly in the K 12 environment (Funk, 2002; Sadker, 2002; Taylor & Lorimer, 2003). Other literature has analyzed gender inequity and fairness in educational settings (Grossman & Grossman, 1994; Klein, Ortman & Friedman, 2002, Sadker, 2002). A significant amount of research has explored leadership and the differences in the development and styles of men and women (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003; Kezar & Moriarty, 2000; Murray & Hall, 2001). Yet, this same intensity has not been applied to exploring the affect of the gender imbalance on learning outside of the classroom through activities and leadership development. Very little research has been conducted to investigate the impact of the increased number of women in 9 higher education on leadership and involvement opportunities outside of the classroom. This study attempts to fill this gap in the research and provide a solid foundation for future research as well as suggest solutions to diminish the negative consequences from this gender imbalance. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this applied research study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance phenomenon at colleges and universities. More specifically, the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students is addressed. This topic is considered from both the student and campus activities professional staff member perspectives. By incorporating both perspectives, the gender imbalance is more fully explored. In addition, the differing implications for the students and campus activities staff members are analyzed as well as differences between genders. A better understanding of these gender specific differences might lead to an increased awareness of students gender issue surrounding leadership and involvement. This increased awareness and understanding informs practice yielding positive developmental experiences for all students. As higher education becomes more aware of this gender imbalance, administrators and students will grow increasingly concerned and, as such, this gender imbalance may soon be a societal issue as well. 10 Research Questions The following questions guide the design and implementation of this study. The goal is to explore this phenomenon from multiple perspectives those of students and professionals within campus activities. The overarching research questions are: 1. Does a gender imbalance exist within co-curricular activities and leadership development at colleges and universities across the nation? 2. How has the gender imbalance in student leadership affected students leadership and involvement experiences in higher education? Significance of Study My experience as an administrator at a large, private and three public institutions across the country has allowed me to witness this gender imbalance on a first-hand, personal basis. I have witnessed programs and student organizations struggle to find male students for various involvement and leadership opportunities. I have seen women turned down for leadership positions, not for lack of experience or potential to excel, but to maintain an equal representation of gender. Conversely, I have seen men afforded positions they were not capable of handling, therefore they struggle to manage and keep up with their peers. I question not only the fairness of this practice, but also how this impacts the development of women and men. My professional experiences, coupled with the lack of research focused on understanding this issue and its impact on students and staff working within campus activities, is the driving force of this study. Additionally, demographic research demonstrates 11 that women will continue to outnumber men as students in higher education. This indicates that a gender imbalance will be the norm rather than an expectation. Therefore, a need for this study exists, as higher education needs to become more aware of the implications of such an imbalance. The findings from this study help explain the affects of the current gender imbalance among college students in leadership and involvement opportunities from both a student and campus activities staff perspective. The findings demonstrate the extent of this phenomenon at institutions across the country. In addition, the results further increase the knowledge of gender based differences within involvement and student leadership. Ultimately, the results of this study sharpen student affairs professionals awareness of the gender imbalance and associated implications pertaining to student involvement and leadership development. Student affairs practitioners have an obligation to assist students in their positive development. This obligation dictates the need for practitioners to be flexible and current on new trends and future challenges. As a result, practitioners must act as change agents and begin establishing new leadership models which take into account gender, as well as ethnicity and both moral and cognitive development. This study will produce a grounded theory that emphasizes gender within a leadership development model. Many people believe that good leaders should be able to predict the future or see around the corner to anticipate the next challenge. The gender imbalance allows higher education practitioners an opportunity to see what is waiting around the 12 corner as this imbalance in student leadership is just beginning to surface. As the number of women attending colleges and universities continues to increase beyond that of men, so to will this imbalance, if left unmanaged. This is a new challenge for student affairs administrators. It needs to be explored and understood. As leaders within higher education, student affairs practitioners need to use this research to be proactive, to educate themselves regarding this gender imbalance and the potential consequence of decreased student development. Armed with this knowledge, meaningful programs can be created that are focused and appropriate. Definitions of Key Concepts The following are definition of a few key concepts, which will appear throughout this study. Gender - As defined by Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary (2002) the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex Gender imbalance The lack of balance or lopsidedness regarding gender composition of a group or organization; dominated by one gender. Involvement activities/opportunities Astin defines involvement as the quantity and quality of physical and psychological energy that students invest in the college experience (Astin, 1984, p.307). For the purposes of this study, involvement activities/opportunities will be those associated with out of class activities such as student organizations, community service activities, recreational sports, etc. 13 Leadership activities/opportunities Those activities/opportunities that influence and enhance the development of leadership skills such as leadership programs, workshops, and retreats. This includes serving as officers within student organizations and non-positional type of leadership positions. Student development As defined by Rodgers (1990) philosophy of student affairs work in Evans, Forney, and Guido-DiBrito (1998), an interest in the growth and progress of the total person. Student leadership development The expansion of students leadership skills and potential through both formal and informal means such as programs and involvement/leadership activities. Organization of Dissertation The following Chapter reviews current literature on gender issues, including Title IX, socialization, and leadership and personal development. Additionally, Chapter Two discusses the theoretical framework that guides the design and implementation for this study. Chapter Three details the methodology, data collection, and data analysis procedures. The studys findings are presented in Chapter Four. This chapter is followed by a discussion regarding conclusions, implications for practice, recommendations, and possible future research in Chapter Five. Lastly, a list of references cited and appendices are included. Conclusion This chapter provides a preliminary look into this study. The purpose of the study is explained as well as its significance for higher education. The overarching 14 research questions that guide this study are provided. The next chapter expands upon the concepts introduced and provides a theoretical framework for the study. 15 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE We need not just a new generation of leadership but a new gender of leadership Bill Clinton Introduction The purpose of study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance within student leadership at colleges and universities. More explicitly, this study investigates the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students. To that end, it is essential to understand what is discussed in recent literature and research about this gender imbalance. The first topic reviewed is Title IX due to the role this policy has played as a means to address gender imbalances in the past. Next, as very little research has been conducted on the gender imbalance as it relates to student leadership, a more detailed review of a cognitive development model based on gender is discussed to inform the examination of a new leadership identity model. Together these two models form the basis for the theoretical foundation of this study. The chapter then focuses on recognizing the importance of gender and gender differences as they relate to student involvement and leadership development. Title IX In 1972, Congress passed Title IX as a component of the Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX is most known for its progress made with respect to reducing sex discrimination in athletic programs. However, this act has played a 16 significant role in eliminating discrimination practices against women in several areas of higher education. Admission practices, financial awards, employment and equitable accommodations including housing and other facilities have all been impacted (Kaplan & Lee, 1995). Essentially, Title IX helped eliminate sexual discrimination practices that were rampantly infused in higher education via societys standards (Department of Education [DOE], 2004). Prior to its enactment, women were bound to societys view of what was acceptable behavior for women. As such, women were discouraged, even stopped from enrolling in certain majors and graduate programs and participating in athletic programs (DOE, 2004). Admission policies favored men, frivolously denying access to women on the sole basis of their gender (DOE, 2004). However, Title IX noticeably changed these practices. The primary tenet of Title IX states in subsection A that no person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. In addition, Title IX declares that . . . nothing contained in subsection (a) of this section shall be interpreted to require any educational institution to grant preferential or disparate treatment to the members of one sex on account of an imbalance which may exist with respect to the total number or percentage of persons of that sex participating in or receiving the benefits of any federally supported program or activity, in comparison with the total number or percentage of persons of that sex in any community, State, section, or other area. Stated more simply, women and men should be treated equally in any activity or program, which received federal funds. This was later amended to include all 17 activities and programs at institutions that receive federal funding (DOE, 2004). This change is much more inclusive allowing the regulations of Title IX to apply to the entire institution and all operations, not just a few programs. The passing of Title IX caused much controversy primarily due to implementation issues and enforcement concerns. According to the United States General Accounting Office (GAO) (2000), the vast majority of institutions accept students that receive federal financial aid of some type thereby making the implementation of Title IX a large undertaking. All institutions receiving federal funding had to comply, but these institutions needed direction in determining what was considered discrimination (DOE, 2004). As a result, Title IX now has four central elements to help clarify discrimination issues, guide institutions, and manage compliance. These elements are (1) the act, (2) the 1975 regulations, (3) the 1979 policy interpretation, and (4) the 1996 clarification letter added to further explain the policy interpretation (DOE, 2004). The 1975 regulations introduced by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) provide better definitions of sponsored programs and activities, conditions for sex discrimination in athletic programs, as well as time frames for compliance (Curtis & Grant, n.d.). It is this legislation that specifically ties in athletic programs to the standards set forth by Title IX (NCAA, n. d.). The policy interpretation in 1979 focuses primarily on sex discrimination through athletic programs and offers a three-part test to prove compliance (Curtis & Grant, n.d.; DOE, 2004; HEW, 1979). This three-part test is still in effect today and often challenged in litigation (DOE, 2004; Kaplan & Lee, 18 1995). The 1996 clarification letter was written and distributed by the Department of Educations Office of Civil Rights to further clarify the Departments procedures regarding the test to demonstrate compliance (Curtis & Grant, n.d.; DOE, 2004, GAO, 2000). Intentionally excluded from the reach of Title IX are tax-exempt social fraternities and sororities and other traditionally single-sexed organization such as the Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts (Title IX, 1972). However, Title IX regulations preclude new single-sexed student organizations to form on campuses. This is not to say that single-sexed organizations do not exist. The difference post-Title IX is that these organizations must accept members of the opposite gender if any wish to seek membership. To not accept members of a different gender would be discrimination, which allows the organization to become vulnerable to potential legal action. Title IX is a revolutionary piece of legislation that has transformed how women are treated in higher education. Title IX has helped to increase the number of women attending colleges or universities (DOE, 2004). From 1970 to 2000, the percent of women enrolling in 4 year institutions rose from 42 to 56 (NCES, 2004). In the Fall of 2002, approximately 1.2 million more women were enrolled in four- year institutions than men (NCES, 2004). Since Title IXs enactment the number of women participating in intercollegiate athletics has increased from 30,000 in 1972 to roughly 151,000 in 2000-2001 academic year (DOE, 2004). For the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 athletic programs, the average number of women participating per institution rose from 112 in 1991-1992 to 210 in 19 2002-2003 (NCAA, 2003). In these same years, male athletes represented 250 and 266 respectively (NCAA, 2003). When compared with the participation numbers for men, it is much easier to see the impact Title IX has made on womens athletics. It is important to mention that it is difficult to attribute all of the aforementioned, positive gains for women to Title IX. While researchers believe that Title IX has played a significant role in curtailing sex discrimination in higher education, societys evolving perceptions of women as well as other civil rights statutes have also influenced these changes (GAO, 2000). It is hard to dispute that Title IX provided elemental efforts to promote greater participation by women in higher education thus, changing the demographics of many institutions. The scope of Title IX is extensive. It affects co-curricular, academic and other programs and activities at all institutions receiving any form of federal funding, including financial assistance (GOA, 2000). Therefore, this act is essential to the understanding of gender equity in higher education. Title IX has helped alter the demographics of institutions across the United States. As women now outnumber men in higher education, some educators question the need for such continued support for women (Sadker, 2002). Perhaps the time is nearing when men will need some type of legislation to regulate this growing gender imbalance. Gender Imbalances and Tokenism As society has changed over the years, so too has the job market. It is not uncommon to find women in jobs considered to be only for men and men performing jobs once held only by women. This change has affected the cultures of 20 organizations and allowed for an imbalance in represented genders as well as tokenism. One clear example of women entering a male dominated workplace is the fire service. Looking at the fire service, it is had to argue against the popular societal view of fire fighters being strong men with seemingly limitless courage and bravado. However, women began entering the fire service profession in the early 1970s with the first woman career firefighter in 1974 (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Welcome section, ¶ 2). Currently, over 6,200 women maintain careers as firefighters with an additional 40,000 serving in part-time or volunteer positions (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Welcome section, ¶ 3). These women signify change, an unwelcomed change to the culture of fire service profession. In addition, women also alter or threaten the ways male firefighters perceive the job, themselves, and women in general (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Issue # 15 section, ¶ 4). The dominant group of male firefighters expects women, as the newcomers, to assimilate into the pre-existing culture (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Issue # 15 section). This goes well beyond the use of the firehouse facilities which most were built with a single gendered perspective. This assimilation permeates their being as women are expected to behave like men, yet maintain the males expectations of femininity (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Issue #15). This practice of assimilation has many adverse consequences for the women. Those women who cannot considerably assimilate experience stress, exclusion and 21 isolation, role confusion, unhappiness, poor performance and poor evaluations (Women in the Fire Service, 2006, Issue # 15 section, ¶ 7). These experiences are not unlike those described by Rosabeth Moss Kanter in her work on tokenism. Kanter defines tokens as individuals who belong to a social category that constitutes less than 15% of the entire group composition (McDonald, Toussaint, & Schweiger, 2004, p. 1). Kanter (1977) states that tokens are highly visible as people who are different and yet not permitted the individuality of their own unique, non-stereotypical characteristics (p. 211). Her work focused on a group of women manager at an industrial supply company, but other research supports her findings for women in various other male dominated careers (McDonald et al., 2004). These token women often experience increased visibility, performance pressures, social isolation, and assimilation into social stereotypes (McDonald et al., 2004, p. 1). As a result, token women are more likely to be isolated, have mistakes augmented, and forced into situations or roles that undercut their standing in the company (McDonald, Toussaint, & Schweiger, 2004). Researchers have found that when men do not experience the same negative outcomes when they are the tokens in a company (Budig, 2002; McDonald, Toussaint, & Schweiger, 2004). In fact, in some cases, the opposite occurs as men are favored and even experience the glass escalator, where men feel pressure to move up (Newman & Smith, 1999). Where women face challenges more analogous to sex discrimination, men do not experience these concerns from within the organization (Newman & Smith, 1999). Rather the issues token men have stem from 22 outside the company walls. Men may experience marginalizing negative stereotyping from people outside the office or even clients (Newman & Smith, 1999). For example, many male nurses, librarians or flight attendants are considered gay, wimpy, and less than masculine (Newman & Smith, 1999). While these outside pressures may influence their work, these pressures do not create an uncomfortable or hostile work environment, unlike what token women endure. Tokenism provides an interesting element to this gender imbalance discussion. The differences in treatment of token individuals based on their gender are applicable to this study. Perhaps the same holds true for men within co- curricular activities and leadership programs. Tokenism, coupled with the research regarding genders and their co-curricular preferences, represents another frame from which to analyze this imbalance. With this in mind, the exploration of gender and student development begins. Gender and Student Development: Theoretical Perspective The theoretical foundation of this study is based on the work Baxter Magoldas Model of Epistemological Reflection and Komives, Casper, Longerbeam, Mainella and Osteens (2004, 2005) leadership identity development model. Baxter Magoldas model was specifically chosen for its inclusion of two other key theories, which represent both genders cognitive development (Evans, Forney, & Guido- DiBrito, 1998; Brock, 1999). For male students, Perrys (1970) theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development is incorporated. For female students, Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarules (1986) theory of womens cognitive development, 23 Womens Ways of Knowing, is utilized. Together these theories heavily influenced Baxter Magoldas (1992) theory that focuses on gender related knowing and learning. Komives et al. (2004) leadership identity model was specifically chosen for its inclusion of many theoretical perspectives using gender as a basis for discovery. Together these cognitive and identity development models will form the theoretical groundwork to evaluate the gender imbalance. Womens Ways of Knowing While other theories exist to analyze womens development, Belenkys et al. theory was chosen for its ability to merge both Perrys theory of cognitive development based on male students and Gilligans theory of personal and moral development (Belenky, et al., 1986). In this theory, formal education was determined not be as central to a womans development as community involvements, relationships and crises (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Belenkys et al. (1986) theory is based on the development of self, mind and voice. Self is the identity; mind is the understanding of the knowledge and truth defined by self; and voice is the interrelationships of the self to others. This model defines ways women learn and construct knowledge based on the five epistemological perspectives that individually represent a level of knowing and reasoning: silence, received knowing, subjective knowing, procedural knowing and constructed knowing (Belenky et al., 1986). As women progress in development their self, mind and voice are further defined. The self, mind and voice each interact to form constructed knowing (Belenky et al., 1986). Constructed knowers represent the highest level of 24 development and tend to be articulate and reflective, to notice what was going on with others, and to care about the lives of people around them (Love & Guthrie, 1999. p. 15). Additionally, this theory discusses womens reaction to authority. Through the five perspectives the manner in which authority is viewed changes from absolute power associated with distrust and fear to the realization that women can be their own authorities. This transition is crucial as women move from having no voice to having a voice and a self. Women are no longer passive participants in their own lives. Generally, this change occurs in the subjective knowing perspective which is then strengthened throughout the remaining perspectives (Belenky et al., 1986). Perrys Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development Perrys theory characterizes how male students interpret their world based on their knowledge. While two women were included in his study, the primary source of information for the creation and validation of his theory came from the Harvard men interviewed (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). As students knowledge and ability to make meaning enhances, students progress to higher levels of cognitive development which enable them to view themselves, their decisions, and the world differently (Evans et al., 1998). This development is visualized through Perrys scheme consisting of nine positions. The positions may be manipulated into categories to facilitate understanding; however, the crucial change occurs at the fifth position, relativism. Here, students development shifts from cognitive to ethical (Evans et al., 1998). Even Perry described this position as the most significant 25 revolution in sense making (Love & Guthrie, 1999, p. 3). The development which occurs during this position signifies students transformation from viewing values and knowledge as universal and certain to comparative and conditional (Love & Guthrie, 1999). Students thinking is complex and they now analyze their own thoughts (Love & Guthrie, 1999). Similar to Belenkys et al. theory, Perry discusses authority. Throughout each position, the role and interactions with authority shape the students development. In position one, basic duality, students view authority as absolute. Love and Guthrie (1999) describe this as the stage when all problems are solvable by obeying and conforming to what is right and what Authorities want (p. 3). In contrast, by position five, students challenge authorities and their declarations. They realize that multiple authorities exist with conflicting views and thoughts (Love & Guthrie, 1999). Just as Belenky et al. (1986) demonstrated how women begin to question authorities as a process of their development, so too will men (Love & Guthrie, 1999; Perry, 1970). This acceptance of self and realization of their capacity to make and evaluate knowledge is a significant step in any students cognitive development. Model of Epistemological Reflection Baxter Magoldas (1992) model of epistemological reflection emphasizes how important the patterns of knowing used by students are in developing educational settings in and outside of the classroom. As this research study focuses primarily on out of classroom activities, this model contributes to the overall 26 understanding of students patterns of learning and knowing in this environment. In addition to drawing on the past research of Perry and Belenky et al., both female and male college students were evaluated in the creation of Baxter Magoldas model. Most specifically, this model breaks down the gender differences and preferences associated with these patterns and how students make meaning of their educational experiences (Bock, 1999). Therefore, this model is very relevant to this research. The model consists of four stages of knowledge (1) absolute knowing, (2) transitional knowing, (3) independent knowing, and (4) contextual knowing (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The stages reflect students experiences as their manner of knowing and reasoning changes in conjunction with their overall development and relationship to the social context of their learning (Brock, 1999, p. 18). Within the first three stages are gender-related patterns of knowing (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Baxter Magolda was very careful to point out, that while these patterns were primarily gender specific, they are not exclusive as many similarities were found between the genders (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The first stage, absolute knowing, is very similar to Perrys dualism, where students think in finite terms (Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Authority figures have all the knowledge and their role as students is to acquire that knowledge, not to create it (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999). Students view learning as collecting information in class to digest at a later time and different place (Brock, 1999). They interact with their peers, not to learn from each other, but rather merely to share 27 information (Brock, 1999). This type of knowing is most common among first year students (Baxter Magolda, 1992). Within this stage are the gender-related patterns of knowing which are receiving and mastery (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Receiving entails minimal interaction with instructors, an emphasis on comfort in the learning environment, relationships with peers, and ample opportunities to demonstrate knowledge (Baxter Magolda, p. 82, 1992). This pattern of knowing is more often attributed to women (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Students in the receiving pattern have little demands of their instructors and view their role as students to accept the information passed to them through the instructor without question (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999). Sadker and Sadker (1994) also found this to be true of women in higher education classrooms. Women are interrupted more, asked less questions, called upon less, given less time to respond, and make eye contact less with the professor than their male counterparts (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). At this stage, students in the receiving pattern will internalize learning difficulties as their own issue and not the fault of the professor (Brock, 1999). Here, students are not constructors of knowledge they simply assimilate; they are silent learners, not unlike the received knowers in Belenky et al. theory. The other gender-related pattern of knowing at this first stage is mastery (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Mastery is a more open, vocal approach to learning most commonly ascribed to men (Baxter Magolda, 1992; 28 Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). These students have higher expectations of their instructors than the receiving knowers as they wish to learn in a challenging and interesting manner (Brock, 1999). Mastery knowers are not afraid to be disparaging of their professors or peers who do not demonstrate the type of learning they expect (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). These types of students believe they are independent and readily accept responsibility for learning (Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). They enjoy competitive activities to demonstrate and to further their understanding without concern for the effects of such exchanges on their relationships (Brock, 1999, p. 19). This notion has been supported by Sadker (2002) who suggests that strategies to increase male motivation may include more competitions in the classroom and additional testing. The second stage is transitional knowing. This stage is characterized by the students more active role in the learning process, the recognition of knowledge as uncertain and the limits of the information of authorities (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Transitional knowers have moved beyond simply acquiring knowledge and now wish to fully understand and apply knowledge with the assistance of their instructors (Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). This development allows students to begin finding their own voice. At this stage the gender-related patterns of knowing are interpersonal and impersonal (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The interpersonal pattern is more often used by women while the impersonal is associated with men (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). All 29 students in this stage understand that knowledge is both certain and uncertain, the differences lie in how they reconcile this uncertainty (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The primary difference in these two patterns is the characterized by what is most appreciated in the educational process. For interpersonal knowers this is the relationships with their peers and for impersonal knowers they most value the challenges from their instructor and peers (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The student demonstrating the interpersonal pattern of knowing relies greatly on peers to facilitate understanding of uncertain knowledge. For these students relationships and personal knowledge are central to the learning process (Brock, 1999, p. 20). Interpersonal knowers realize the importance of fostering a relationship with instructors; however, they will also establish a distance from authority as they turn to their peers for more validation and acceptance (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The impersonal pattern of knowing reflects an emphasis on effectively understanding the learning process (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Impersonal knowers comprehend the ambiguity of knowledge, but unlike the interpersonal knowers, they seek direction from instructors rather than peers (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). In fact, these types of knowers will most likely absorb the instructors, or authorities, view which in turn influences their voice (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). 30 Similar to the last stage of mastering knowledge, interpersonal knowers enjoy academic challenges and debates as a means to enhance their understanding (Brock, 1999). The third stage is independent knowing and is differentiated by the students finding that a large amount of knowledge is vague (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Most students in this stage are junior and seniors (Baxter Magolda, 1992). Baxter Magolda (1992) maintains that this discovery changes the students foundation and method of knowing. Students now realize that they can create knowledge autonomously (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). With this realization comes the further development of their individual voice and a greater respect for their peers opinions and views (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). In addition, independent knowers are open to an exchange of ideas and broad spectrum of opinions with which they will determine the validity based on their personal experiences and knowledge (Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). The last set of gender-related patterns associated with the model is the interindividual and individual patterns (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). These patterns mainly vary on the weight given to a students thoughts and those of their peers and authorities (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). Women are more inclined to exhibit the interindividual pattern which maintains a more evenhanded view of their own and others thoughts; whereas men are more likely to lean toward the individual pattern which place a primacy on their thoughts over those of others (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). 31 The interindividual pattern of thinking includes an emphasis on the value of both their personal ideas as well as the ideas of others (Brock, 1999). The concentration is on relationships and connecting with others to share knowledge and ideas (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). On the other hand, individual knowers hold their opinions and thoughts above others (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). While they may value relationships and discussions with authorities and peers, individual knowers will not adjust their views to be more like those of others. The final stage in this model is contextual knowing (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). This is the most complex level of thinking and knowing; as such, many undergraduates never reach this stage during college (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Evans et al., 1998). Contextual knowing suggests a combination of the previous gender-related patterns (Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Within this stage, students create a viewpoint that necessitates contextual support (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Students still seek discussions and idea exchanges with their instructors and peers, but now students do not blindly accept knowledge, rather they critically analyze their own and others ideas (Brock, 1999). Baxter Magoldas theory has four primary suggestions for academic and student affairs, two of which are pertinent to this research study (Evans et al., 1998). First, students must be validated as knowers in order to enhance the development of their own voices (Baxter Magolda, 1992). Second, allowing students to learn in environments or through experiences where they are comfortable provides students 32 the foundation to construct new knowledge (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Evans et al., 1998). Baxter Magolda found that co-curricular involvements place the students experience in the forefront, thereby legitimizing it as a basis for constructing new knowledge (Evans et al., 1998, p. 158). This reinforces the importance of co- curricular experiences as vehicles for learning and development. To this point, Baxter Magoldas cognitive development theory that serves as the framework for this research study has been discussed with a brief synopsis of two contributing theories, Perry and Belenky et al. However, as this study examines the affects of gender imbalance on student leadership development, an exploration of leadership development is necessary. This study will utilize the recently developed Leadership Identity Development (LID) model as the basis for understanding and evaluation. Leadership Identity Development Model A great deal of literature and research has focused on leadership. Whether leadership development, best practices, worst practices, or how to lead effectively; the topic has been well covered. Yet, it is such a complex concept that leadership remains a topic of much discussion, debate and exploration. Despite the wide range of literature and research one characteristic of leadership that has not received ample attention is leadership identity (Komives et al., 2005). Komives et al. (2005) states that most leadership development scholarship focuses on skill-building or short- term interventions such as retreats or courses, rather than on the process of how leadership capacity or leadership identity is created or changes over time (p. 594). 33 Recognizing this gap in the literature, Komives et al. (2005) set out to understand the processes a person experiences in creating a leadership identity (p.594). Their study entailed interviewing 13 students, three times with specific focuses for each interview. Each interview was recorded, transcribed and analyzed resulting in the creation of an active process through which leadership identity emerges (Komives et al., 2005). This process was formulated into their Leadership Identity Development (LID) model. Komives et al. LID model utilizes six stages as positions in an individuals identity development. The stages are (1) awareness, (2) exploration/engagement, (3) leader identified, (4) leadership differentiated, (5) generativity and (6) internalization/synthesis. Each stage is accompanied by five categories that were generated from the analysis of the interviews. The categories are: (1) essential developmental influences, (2) developing self, (3) group influences, (4) changing view of self with others, and (5) broadening view of leadership. Within each stage, students progress through these key categories before transitioning to the next stage in the model. The end of each stage is signified by a transition. In this transition the old ways of thinking or being shift and news ways emerge (Komives et al., 2004, p. 4). As their leadership identity progresses, the student will interact differently with each category and the properties included in each category. For example, a student in the awareness stage of his/her leadership identity will interact differently with essential developmental influences than a student in the leadership 34 differentiated stage. However, students will undergo this same fluid process for every stage, all the while reflecting and nurturing their emerging leadership identity. Description of Model (Komives et al., 2005) Stages of Identity Development. The first of the six stages of leadership identity development is awareness. This is characterized by the acknowledgment of leaders with no personal identification as a leader. Most basic, leaders do exist, but the student in this stage does not view themselves as a leader. The second stage is exploration/engagement. Komives et al. (2005) describes this stage as a time of intentional involvement, experiencing groups, and taking on responsibilities (p. 606). The third stage, leader identified, students recognized leaders and followers and placed the overall success or failure of an organization on the leader. Komives et al., (2005) refer to this stage as leader-centric, one was a leader only if one held a leadership position (p. 606). Leadership differentiated is the fourth stage and is exemplified by students acknowledging that leadership is about collaborative efforts and mutual dependence on people. Positional leaders are now viewed as builders of community and mediators with a responsibility to shared leadership. In the fifth stage, generativity, students discover their passion and commit to activities and organization that support this passion. Additionally, at this stage, students begin to understand their role in developing future leaders and start to foster leadership in other students. Lastly, in the sixth stage, integration/synthesis, students were increasing in internal confidence and were striving for congruence and integrity (Komives et al., 2005, p. 607). Leadership became an everyday practice. This stage 35 is marked with self-confidence, ability to think universally, and knowledge of the complexity of organizations as well as leadership. Once a student achieves this stage, regardless of positional leadership, they will have truly integrated leadership into their daily lives and identity. Essential Developmental Influences. The properties of the developmental influences, as described by Komives et al. (2005) are adult influences, peer influences, meaningful involvement, and reflective learning (p. 596). Komives et al. (2005) study found that adults influence leadership development in various ways. Some adults were the first to recognize and encourage leadership, while others become role models and mentors. Whatever the case, the dimensions of adult influences ranged from being affirmers, models and sponsors in the early stages to being mentors and ultimately to being meaning makers and colleagues or friends (Komives et al., 2005, p. 597). In the early stages of leadership identity development, Komives et al. (2005) found that older peers served as role models as students cite older peers as the reason they got involved or interested in an organization in college (p.597). In many cases, peers provided the encouragement and support that enabled a student to join an organization or participate in an election. As students progressed in their development, peers took on a more critical role through group experiences and collaborative work (Komives et al., 2005). Komives et al. (2005) describes the property of meaningful involvement as the training ground where leadership identity evolved (p. 598). Students, through 36 meaningful involvement, gain a better understanding of themselves, their own beliefs and begin to expand their leadership abilities (Komives et al., 2005). Initially, involvement is a path to meeting people and establishing friendships; however, later, involvement is more complex and goal oriented (Komives et al., 2005). Lastly, the property of reflective learning is critical to successful leadership identity development as the art of meaningful reflection is the catalyst for personal growth, learning, and evaluation (Komives et al., 2005). Insightful discussions with family or peers and conscious journaling assists students in the discovery of their passions and values (Komives et al., 2005). Developing Self. The category of developing self contains five properties. It is within this category that gender plays a role as students struggle to develop not just to develop a leadership identity, but in many cases, their own personal identity as well (Komives et al., 2005). The property of deepening self awareness brings in issues of ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and race (Komives et al., 2005). Some students defined themselves through their ethnicity or gender, while others were oblivious to these influences (Komives et al., 2005). Other properties in this category include building self-confidence, establishing interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills, and expanding motivations (Komives et al., 2005, p. 599). These properties are self-explanatory, yet are vital to the development of identity, leadership and personal. Together these five properties of the developing self category work to enhance students personal growth throughout their leadership identity development (Komives et al., 2005). 37 Group Influences. Komives et al. (2005) believe that group influences directly relates with the category of developing self to further a students identity development. This category consists of the properties of engaging in groups, learning from membership continuity, and changing perceptions of the groups (Komives et al., 2005, p.602). Students engage in groups to foster a feeling of fitting in and create a comfortable place for them on campus (Komives et al., 2005). These groups could be culturally or gender based depending on a students emerging identity (Komives et al., 2005). Within this category, students are also determining why and what kinds of groups they will participate in and have a better understanding of the position groups play in their personal development (Komives et al., 2005). The researchers were captivated by the relationship of a strong group culture to the individuals view of themselves and how that culture influenced developing a leadership identity (Komives et al., 2005, p. 603). The learning from the membership continuity property refers to students committing to a few groups they are passionate about and maintaining membership in others that they have a lesser interest (Komives et al., 2005). By avidly committing to a few organizations, students developed more effective interpersonal skills as well as an increased self-awareness of their role within groups (Komives et al., 2005). In addition, students at this point are more conscious of their duty to help foster leadership in other members (Komives et al., 2005). 38 The final property within the category of group influences is changing perceptions of groups (Komives et al., 2005). This consists of the evolution of the importance of groups to the individual student. Initially, groups were a way to meet people and make friends. Then, as groups began to take on a purpose, students realized their role within the group and the role of others (Komives et al., 2005). Ultimately, students realized that groups enhanced their personal development and provided students with a larger scope of the intricacies of organizations and how they interrelate with one another on a college campus (Komives et al., 2005). Changing View of Self with Others. As the categories of developing self and group influences interrelate, these categories also effect how students picture themselves relative to others (Komives et al., 2005). This view of themselves changes as students advance through the stages of the identity development model. Initially, students are dependent on others for validation and encouragement (Komives et al., 2005). As leadership awareness and involvement increases, students engaged in groups from one of two primary pathways: independent or dependent (Komives et al., 2005, p. 604). Student choosing the independent path seek leadership positions and/or desire to make changes or improvements within their organizations (Komives et al., 2005). While other students, who remain dependent, are satisfied being members of groups (Komives et al., 2005). At this point, both pathways, independent and dependent, view leadership as solely focused on the leader (Komives et al., 2005). It is not until students become aware of the importance of mutually supporting relationships to leadership that students transcend 39 this way of thinking (Komives et al., 2005). Once students realize the interdependence of themselves with others (p. 605) they accept the notion that leadership may come from anyone and work to cultivate their own leadership as well as others (Komives et al., 2005). This philosophy is maintained throughout the remaining components of the model (Komives et al., 2005). Broadening View of Leadership. The final category within this model is that of the broadening view of leadership. This category is heavily influenced by the growth made while proceeding through the prior category of changing views of self and others (Komives et al., 2005). Here again, students move beyond the belief that leadership is only positional and not part of their identity (Komives et al., 2005). While students moved beyond their dependent or independent method, they began to engage with others in more meaningful, interdependent ways (Komives et al., 2005, p. 605). This prompted the realization that leadership was not merely positional, but more of a process involving all members of a group (Komives et al., 2005). Students moved from a very myopic view of leadership to the broader concept that leadership could come from anyone in the group regardless of position. This change in the view of leadership inspired the development of the students leadership identity and reinforced this identity as an element of their self (Komives et al., 2005). Equipped with a thorough understanding of the Leadership Identity Development (LID) model, the focus will now turn to the integration of this model with the cognitive model previously discussed, Baxter Magoldas (1992) model of 40 epistemological reflection. The ability of both models to interrelate with the other furthers awareness of the development of female and male students. This insight informs student affairs work through the increased understanding of the cognitive development and leadership identity of college students, a perspective that is critical to this research study. Theoretical Integration Komives et al. model for the development of leadership identity closely parallels Baxter Magoldas model of epistemological reflection. Each cognitive stage of Baxter Magoldas model is reflected in the leadership identity development model with a few prominent similarities. These similarities provide an interesting examination into the development of female and male college students. The absolute knowing stage of Baxter Magoldas model is depicted by students allowing their professors or authorities to tell them what is right and wrong. This is very similar to the awareness stage of the LID where students do not see leadership within themselves; rather leadership is embodied in adults or older peers (Komives et al., 2004). The gender-related patterns of knowing, receiving and mastery, are more reflective of the LIDs second stage of exploration/engagement. At this stage the male students, which more likely identify with the mastery pattern, while engaging in groups will be more intentional in their questions of individuals within the group. They will expect more from the leader, although at this stage, they may not be able to communicate what they need or fully comprehend this need. As Baxter Magolda 41 (1992) indicated, mastery pattern knowers enjoy competition; therefore, they may participate in groups with competitions. On the other hand, receiving knowers, which are most often women, are less aggressive and more likely to interact with members of the group, but not the leaders. They will follow the groups leader without question and learn from listening as well as observing (Baxter Magolda, 1992). Stage three, leader identified, of the LID is correlated with Baxter Magoldas second stage, transitional knowing (Komives et al., 2004). Transitional knowers, as applied to LID, take a more active role in learning and understanding leadership. Students recognize that groups consist of both leaders and followers and believe that the leaders are responsible for the functioning of the group. They are just beginning to understand leadership and are eager to explore it more fully. During the stage of transitional knowing, the gender-related patterns of knowing describe female students as primarily interpersonal and male students as chiefly impersonal (Baxter Magolda, 1992). The interpersonal female students rely on their peers and relationships to assist them and not necessarily the leaders. The male students, impersonal knowers, will turn to the leader for answers and direction rather than peers. This difference further demonstrates the female students need for meaningful relationships, which is also a principal leadership difference between women and men. Young women, more so than men, are drawn towards activities that promote an ethic of care and encourage relationship building and connectedness (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003; Rhoads, 1998). 42 Baxter Magoldas independent knowing, stage three, comprises the LIDs stage four of leadership differentiated (Komives et al., 2004). During this stage, students realize that they can construct knowledge. As a result students further develop their individual voice and utilize their own knowledge and experiences to make informed decisions (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Students also gain more respect for their peers thoughts and ideas and engage in discussions with peers to further their own knowledge. In LID, the same notion of a greater respect for their peers is also seen as students begin to view leadership as a process that is built upon the extremely interdependent nature of relationships among group members (Komives et al., 2005). Students are aware of their own influences of a group, whether the leader or a member. Due to this emerging heightened self- awareness and trust in their abilities, students are beginning to understand and feel comfortable with their leadership identity (Komives et al., 2005). The associated gender-related patterns with this stage are interindividual and individual (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock, 1999; Evans et al., 1998). Women are more prone to the interindividual pattern that, again, points to female students need to connect with others to share thoughts and experiences (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). This pattern places an equal amount of significance on the views of others as well as their own (Brock, 1999). In contrast, the individual pattern, more often demonstrated by male students, places more value on their own thoughts and ideas of those of others (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Brock 1999). Coupled with the stage four of the LID model, the difference between male and female leadership 43 identity is becoming more apparent. These differences will be reviewed later in the chapter. The final two stages of the LID model connect with Baxter Magoldas closing stage, contextual knowing (Komives et al., 2004). This is the most complex level of thinking and knowing; as such, many undergraduates never reach this stage during college (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Evans et al., 1998). Consequently, not all students fully reach stage six of the LID model (Komives et al., 2005). The prime attribute of this level of complex thinking is critical analysis of all views including their own (Brock, 1999). This concept of critical analysis is prevalent in both stage five and six of the LID model. For example, the careful examination of leadership as a process and a function of self, allowed students to commit to organizations and causes for which they were passionate. Through the connection of involvement opportunities to personal values and beliefs a students leadership identity is solidified. Another parallel between the models is the students ability to manage contextual ambiguity. At stage six of the LID model students were comfortable with contextual uncertainty knowing that because they had internalized leadership in their self-concept they could adapt and contribute to a new, unknown context (Komives et al., 2005, p. 607). At the conclusion of both models, students have advanced to a position of heightened self-awareness, the capacity to critically analyze their personal views and beliefs as well as others, and the ability to construct new knowledge. The cognitive model offered by Baxter Magolda both parallels and influences the leadership 44 identity development model of Komives et al. As students cognitive abilities advance so does the formation of their leadership identity. This leadership identity, as describe by Komives et al., (2005) is the cumulative confidence in ones ability to intentionally engage with others to accomplish group objectives (p. 608). The genderrelated patterns of knowing expressed in Baxter Magoldas model provide insight into how the different genders might go about this engagement. These differences will be further explored in the following section. Gender and Student Development: Practical Perspective Through the lens of the Model of Epistemological Reflection and the Leadership Identity Development Model, student involvement and leadership opportunities during college will now be examined. Both models support the benefits of co-curricular involvement and emphasize how involvement enhances development. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) agree that extracurricular involvement has a positive influence on institutional persistence and educational attainment, womens choice of nontraditional careers, and development of a positive self- concept (p. 616). Alexander Astin (1984) posed, in his student involvement theory, that the more involved a students is, the greater their learning and development. The central premise of his theory is that students learn by becoming involved (Astin, 1985, p. 133). Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) support this notion too as they maintain that co-curricular involvement has positive effects on cognitive growth. Further, research has shown that extracurricular involvement leads to the positive development of career-related skills (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). 45 Involvements in the form of co-curricular opportunities are significant to the development of students leadership (Astin, 1993; Kezar & Moriarty, 2000). Participation in campus organizations, residence hall groups and other campus activities allows students to learn through action, contemplation, reflection and emotional engagement (National Association of College Personnel Administrators [NASPA] & American College Personal Association [ACPA], 2004, p.11). These co-curricular activities are vital to the students development as every student club or organization provides learning opportunities for its participants to develop and practice such skills as leadership, time management, collaboration, and goal setting (NASPA & ACPA, 2004, p. 11). Further, student involvement, in the form of community service, helps to foster positive citizenship and social responsibility (Rhoads, 1998). In summary, students engaged in involvement opportunities enhance their collegiate experience, expand their learning processes, and leave college better prepared for careers and active, purposeful citizenship. With a general appreciation for the broad purpose and benefits of student involvement, the gender component of involvement can be further explored. Do specific activities exist that women are generally inclined to? Are these activities different from men? According to Murray and Hall (2001) specific types of activities often appeal to a particular gender. Using an instrument based on Hollands theory of occupational choice, Murray and Hall (2001) discovered that male students resonated with realistic and investigative activities (physical, mechanical, or scientific), whereas female students had greater interest in social and 46 artistic activities (service and creative). These findings reflect what can be currently seen in society and support the concept of gender socialization. Young women are drawn towards activities, which promote an ethic of care and encourage relationship building and connectedness (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003; Rhoads, 1998). This notion is further supported through this studys theoretical framework. The results of the Murray and Hall (2001) study affirms the powerful influence of gender- socialization on young adults (p. 26). The awareness of gender-related issues within campus activities is very important. It has resulted in an increase of programming focused on womens issues as well as the leadership development of women (Murray & Hall, 2001). In addition, with respect to student organizations, understanding gender-related issues may provide explanations for the culture of organizations and how the gender composition of membership can influence the organization and individual members (Murray & Hall, 2001). For example, how a single-gendered organization functions or why an organization may be heavily populated by one gender. Therefore, awareness and understanding of the affects of gender-socialization and gender- related issues can inform effective practice. In particular to higher education, researchers have found that women are often treated differently in the classroom and are not encouraged to ask for academic assistance, utilize student services, or completely integrate into campus life (Hall & Sandler, 1984; Sadker & Sadker, 1994). The utilization of student services and integration into campus life are key factors in a students leadership development 47 (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000; NASPA & ACPA, 2004). The notion that women experience higher education differently than men suggests that women may also develop leadership differently. This question of whether or not gender differences exist with respect to leadership lends itself to various conflicting schools of thought. Bolman and Deal (2003) maintain that only minor differences exist in the way men and women lead. Yet, Romano (1996) maintains that it is more difficult for women to be leaders on campus. Women need to exert more effort than men to be taken seriously and garner respect (Leonard & Sigal, 1989). Additionally, women student leaders must be willing to bear the consequences of losing peer approval and being perceived as too controlling (Leonard & Sigal, 1989). Further, in a study of leadership experiences of students of color, students discussed the differences they witnessed in their peers (Arminio, J., Carter, S., Jones, S., Kruger, K., Lucas, N., Washington, J., et al., 2000). Some examples shared are that men came immediately to the point and down to business, while women liked to process and talk about issues (Arminio et al., 2000, p.6). Other assumptions outlined in research are that women have a lower self image than men, that they tend to steer clear of leadership competition, and do not get elected to positions as much as men (Astin, 1993; Hafner, 1989; Sassen, 1980). However more recent literature indicates that women may receive a lesser amount of knowledge acquired benefits than men throughout college, but will experience a larger increase in self-esteem over men (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). 48 Additional research indicates that women do not have the aspirations to lead (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003). Boatwright & Egidio (2003) attribute this lack of desire to lead, in part, to the gender socialization of leadership as masculine. In addition research has illustrated that the developmental process among college students differs based on gender and ethnic identity (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000, p. 55). In a study conducted by Kezar and Moriarty (2000), they discovered that males and females upon entering and leaving college held significantly different perceptions of their leadership; males perceiving themselves much higher than females. Kezar and Moriarty (2000) examined what types of involvement increased the students self-perceptions of their leadership and skills over their years in college. Their findings suggest that males take better advantage of opportunities to continue their development in these important skill areas (leadership, public speaking, writing ability, intellectual and social self-confidence) during college (Kezar & Moriarty, 2000, p. 65). Romanos (1996) study of women student leaders found that women are participating in leadership and holding major leadership positions on campuses across the United Sates. The studys respondents indicated that their leadership participation helped them to attain numerous skills including public speaking, conflict management, interpersonal communication, motivational and organizational skills as well as an increase in their self-efficacy (Romano, 1996). Further, the women student leaders also designated important female role models and relationships with peers as contributing factors to their leadership development. The 49 theoretical perspective previously discussed in this chapter also supports this re- occurring theme of the importance of relationships with respect to women. To this point we have looked at both the cognitive and identity development theory as it pertains to leadership development and student involvement with an emphasis on gender. The importance of student involvement to a students positive development in college has been reviewed as well as the gender differences that exist within leadership and a students leadership development. Next, the chapter will focus on a closer examination of the developmental process of males. Male Development Gender research has increased greatly over the last two decades. However, this research is primarily focused on women and is conducted by women (Connell, Hearn & Kimmel, 2005). The initial literature that exists regarding male development came about due to the emergence of gender research, which at the time was focused on women. However, as the research exposed the intricacies of gender, the issues of males as a gender were also uncovered. This realization lead to further exploration of males and masculinities, which now has a significant amount of, dedicated research and literature (Connell, Hearn & Kimmel, 2005). While the field of gender research has grown over the last couple of decades, very little research exist specifically focused on male college student development (Davis, 2002). Although most student development theories used primarily, if not only, males as subjects, these theories did not focus on the males as gendered individuals ( Davis, 2002; Davis & Laker, 2004). Male identity development has not 50 been as heavily explored as other identities including women, students of color, and gay or lesbian students (Davis & Laker, 2004). Understanding any students identity development is key to effectively working with them to further develop students both personally and professionally (Davis & Laker, 2004; Evans, Forney, & Guido- DiBrito, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Operating without this understanding of male student development leads to either reliance on stereotypical gender scripts or failure to consider men as gendered beings (Davis & Laker, 2004, p.49). Either is unacceptable and threatens the positive development of male students (Davis & Laker, 2004). Therefore, to better understand college men we must understand the social construction of masculinity and the pressure for men to conform to these standards (Davis & Laker, 2004, p. 50). Masculinity is socially constructed; meaning that the notion of masculinity will change based on a variety of societal positions including political, economical, and societal (Adams & Coltrane, 2004; Davis, 2002). The principles of femininity and masculinity can be traced to 19 th century ideas that women and men operated in separate spheres (Adams & Coltrane, 2004; Swain, 2005). Women were in the private sphere and were seen as weak, passive, dependent, and powerless (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). Whereas men functioned in the public sphere due to their aggressiveness, power, and independence (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). Granted, much as has changed since the early 19 th century, yet, these socially constructed ideals have withstood with very few alterations (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). These ideals have influenced the socialization of men and women. Gender roles or gender 51 socialization is learning societys gender rules and regulations and becoming adept at behaving in accordance with the socially accepted gender patterns associated with our sex (Adams & Coltrane, 2004. p. 233). Therefore, society dictates how children should behave, based on their sex, which then provides gender roles for which they should assimilate. Gender roles are first learned, and then perpetuated in the family (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). The family provides the first social interactions with gender and allows for the observation of differing treatment and expectations based on gender (Connell, 1987; Adams & Coltrane, 2004). It is also within the family setting that gender stereotypes are commonly enforced. While both boys and girls receive these messages, the boys are persuaded to internalize their stereotypes much more than the girls (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). Thus implying that male stereotypes leading to male identity as prescribed by society are more important than the identity development of women. In addition to family, elementary schools are powerful sites for the constructions of culturally patterned gender relations (Adler, Kless & Adler, 1992, p.169). School settings foster a peer culture which maintains its own beliefs and customs (Adler, Kless & Adler, 1992). This culture then becomes enormously significant to a childs identity development and the creation of gender differences (Adler, Kless & Adler, 1992). From a very young age, children begin to form opinions of appropriate gender roles and gender role expectations that become entrenched in their thoughts and actions. Further, the school setting provides 52 children with an opportunity to form values and make meaning, which promotes identity development through a variety of social circumstances (Swain, 2005). As students enter college, their gender beliefs are now almost second nature and, as such, impact their college experiences. As defined by society, these concepts of masculine and feminine are mutually exclusive to the gender they represent. To be masculine implies not being feminine (Adams & Coltrane, 2004; Swain, 2005). Forcing male children to abide by this socially constructed ideal limits their growth and personal development. Allowing males to incorporate some of the attributes of femininity and vice versa as socially acceptable helps all of society. However, society is not accepting of this, at least not totally, which means men, college students in particularly, are struggling with identity issues and societal conformity (Adams & Coltrane, 2004; Davis & Laker, 2004; Kellom, 2004). All students should be permitted to evaluate their own gendered identity and they should be allowed to pursue an identity fitting of their skills, talents, and interests (Dawson-Threat & Huba, 1997). Here is the issue. This is where student affairs practitioners must focus in order to facilitate the development of not just male students, but all students. This powerful culture that dictates gender roles must somehow be transformed to allow individuals to develop in accordance to their true identity. Davis (2002) study that focused on male college students identity development offers some notable insight into the development of college men. The five themes that emerged from this study center on self-expressions, communication, 53 femininity fears, masculinity concerns, and lack of support (Davis, 2002). Davis (2002) found that contrary to the popular image of the in-expressive male, participants felt that self-expression and communications were very important (p. 514). However, in describing their interactions with others, the participants indicated they felt as if they were doing something un-masculine (Davis, 2002). This suggests a gender role conflict, as the male participants value communication and expression, but are aware that these actions may be perceived as un-masculine. Further, with respect to communication, the research indicates three qualifications that influenced male students (Davis, 2002). The three caveats are related to feelings of safety, worrying about how others will perceive them, and learned, socially appropriate ways of interacting, particularly with other men (Davis, 2002, p. 514). It appears that college men are more comfortable, and therefore, feel safe, speaking with women than men. Unless they view the woman as a potential partner, then different rules apply. Lowery (2004) supports this finding as he maintains that men have more difficulty forming relationships than women, especially with another man. When communicating with other men, the study found that men are more guarded in groups unless they have established a trust with the group (Davis, 2002). However, men are more apt to sincerely communicate in one- on-one situations. Another interesting finding, demonstrates the need for an activity to build relationships and contribute to meaningful communication. Participants described their connection to and relationship with other men in the context of an activity (Davis, 2002, p. 516). This is further supported by Pollacks (1999) 54 research which posits that activities involving action allows boys to communicate more effectively. Fear of being perceived as feminine or gay are two factors that drastically dictated mens behavior (Davis, 2002). Davis (2002) study participants all shared concerns about being perceived as gay or unmanly through either the communication style or their manner of dress and even the amount of cologne they wore. This clearly demonstrates how societys stereotypes have influenced gender roles and expectations. In the Davis (2002) study, the participants were all identified as student leaders. When these men were asked about being a man on campus, the interviewers were met with long silences (Davis, 2002). These students did not consider their gender as a function of the identity that is not unexpected (Davis, 2002). A reason for this lack of gender awareness, in part, could be associated with the multiple identity model of Jones and McEwens (2000). All the participants were White males and, according to this model, they would be unaware of privilege and inequality as they are members of a privileged system (Jones & McEwen, 2000). In addition, the participants described themselves as not typical of most men because they valued relationships and communication (Davis, 2002, p. 516). This demonstrates a separation or distancing from masculinity which further reveals gender role conflict. One of the most relevant findings of this study is the notion that male college students do not believe that as men, they have the same types of services offered to 55 them as women (Davis, 2002). The most pertinent example cited was womens leadership programs (Davis, 2002). These college students maintained that they are challenged, but not sufficiently supported. This result is also consistent with Pollacks (1999) findings. The notion of not feeling supported is further intensified with the belief that it is not considered masculine to seek help. Male college students not only struggle with the idea of seeking help, but also with a lack of sincere support if they do request assistance. The literature on male development and their college student development provides an interesting viewpoint. This information, unlike information regarding womens development, is not always considered when student affairs practitioners create programs and services for students. This literature review, while primarily focused on student development, also offered knowledge of socialization and gender roles which, although developed at a young age, influence the actions and thought processes of college aged men. This understanding of male student development will inform the findings of this study by providing for more effective analysis of data collected through interviews and, ultimately, better educated implications and suggestions for improvement. Conclusion The literature presented in this chapter offers a cumulative overview that represents the guiding principles for this research study. In researching the gender imbalance within student leadership and involvement activities, it quickly became apparent that very little research exists which directly targets this phenomenon. As 56 such, it was necessary to pursue topics in the literature that had the potential to influence or help inform this study. To gain a better overall picture of this phenomenon, Title IX was explored as this act has dramatically influenced higher education with respect to gender equality. Next, the melding of two models, the Model of Epistemological Reflection and the Leadership Identity Development model, were discussed as the theoretical foundation for this study. Each model was explained and the two were then integrated as a means to better understand gender- related development with respect to knowledge construction and the creation of leadership identity. Next, student involvement and gender was explored. Particular attention was given to the development of males as the research on leadership and involvement primarily referred to female students. This perspective was included to provide a more balanced overview of both male and female college students. A bit ironic given the studys focus on the gender imbalance. The literature reviewed provides a basic understanding of Title IX and the impacts this law has had on gender equity. It is necessary to understand all that Title IX has done to improve the welfare of women within higher education. By reviewing Title IX and the changes it brought, we can begin to understand the path higher education has already taken to dissolve inequities with respect to gender. It also provides a frame of reference from which to analyze the current gender imbalance within student leadership and activities. Additionally, the literature offers a foundation to effectively understand the nature of student development through the lens of a cognitive process as well as 57 through personal leadership identity development. Two developmental models are explored and integrated to form the theoretical framework of this study. This framework will guide the study and inform decisions made of data collected. Gender as a function of student involvement is investigated. The benefits of student involvement are explored with particular attention to gender. This knowledge will help enlighten the data analysis portion of this study. An overview of male development is provided to maintain a balance of gender information as there is a good amount of existing information on women, and comparatively, less for men. This literature presents a perspective, which is often assumed or overlooked when researching gender and student development. When considering the literature reviewed, very little research exists with respect to male students and co-curricular involvement. Even studies focused on leadership or involvement choices tend to favor the womens perspective and provided suggestions or implications for women not men. Even less literature exists which specifically discusses any type of gender imbalance within student leadership or campus activities. This review is an attempt to synthesize the available research and establish a theoretical framework that will guide this study. The following chapter explains the methodological approach for this study. 58 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Chapter Overview The purpose of this study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance within student leadership at colleges and universities. To accomplish this purpose three research questions guide the design and implementation of this study. The goal is to explore this phenomenon from multiple perspectives; those of students and professionals within campus activities. The overarching research questions are: 1. Does a gender imbalance exist within co-curricular activities and leadership development at colleges and universities across the nation? 2. How has the gender imbalance in student leadership affected students leadership and involvement experiences in higher education? The quantitative approach represented in the first question yields a statistical analysis of the phenomenon that provides a more complete explanation of the gender imbalance. The remaining question is explored through qualitative methods. Therefore, this study employs a mixed method approach to present a more complete description of the gender imbalance phenomenon. This chapter discusses the research methods employed in this study to understand how the gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students. First, an explanation and justification of the mixed method approach of this study is offered. Next, the methodological approach, setting and context of the study, data collection methods and analysis 59 procedures are illustrated. Finally, the studys trustworthiness and limitations are detailed. The Mixed Method Approach This study employs a mixed method approach to collection and analysis data as both qualitative and quantitative methods are applied. Patton (2002) refers to this combination of methods as triangulation which reinforces the study. Denzin (1978) was the first researcher to delineate triangulation (Dandekar, 2005; Patton, 2002; Onwuegbuzie, 2002) and describes it as the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon (p. 291). Triangulation has three outcomes: convergence, inconsistency, and contradiction (Onwuegbuzie, p. 425, 2002). Using the prevailing outcome, a researcher is able to create justifications for the studied phenomenon (Onweugbuzie, 2002). Therefore, depending on whether the data collected in the study is convergent, inconsistent, or contradictory, through triangulation, the gender imbalance phenomenon can be more fully explained. Patton (2002) maintains that analyzing discrepancies in findings from multiple types of data can be very elucidating. Further, using multiple approaches allows for data validity checks as well as works to alleviate some of the bias inherent to specific types of data collection strategies (Creswell, 2003; Patton 2002). Rationale for Mixed Method Approach to Inquiry It is very possible that this study be conducted using only a quantitative or qualitative approach. However, I chose this type of inquiry for several reasons. 60 Ultimately, I feel the mixed method approach is better suited for this study to provide a more complete picture of the gender imbalance within co-curricular involvements and leadership development among students. I feel the data collected provides for a much more detailed explanation of the gender imbalance and it affects on students. In addition, the data collected also indicates how far reaching this imbalance is in institutions nation wide. To borrow Pattons (2002) analogy, quantitative data provides a photograph. It is motionless, with no ability to provide reasons for emotions or thoughts. On the other hand, qualitative data is more like a documentary film. It is full deep, detailed- rich explanations of thoughts, feelings and the rationale behind actions. The photograph is isolated, trapped in that one moment, where as the film is full or movement and change. The qualitative approach is essential to this study as it provides the rich data that can only be discovered through a documentary style level of discovery. Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggest the use of qualitative methods to obtain intricate details about a phenomenon such as feelings, thought processes, and emotions that are difficult to extract or learn about through more conventional research methods (p. 11). Patton (2002) describes qualitative data as telling a story; the story of someones real life experiences as they relate to a particular phenomenon. This insight is invaluable to this study if the affects of the gender imbalance are to be truly understood. Further, qualitative research allows for individual engagement on the part of the researcher. Patton (2002) maintains that a human being is the instrument of qualitative methods (p. 64). The researchers 61 experience with the phenomenon and the participants help to guide the exploration and the explanation of results. As such, challenges may arise which will be further discussed in this chapter. Going back to the photograph and film analogy, quantitative methods, while inflexible in some ways, do provide valuable information. The snapshot of information the quantitative method approach provides for this study will help to further explain the gender imbalance. I feel the quantitative inquiry provides valuable information that cannot be gathered as effectively or efficiently through qualitative methods. For this study, a survey is utilized to collect information including trends and opinions from which results may be generalized (Creswell, 2003). This ability to generalize findings to the population makes this form of inquiry attractive. While quantitative data is not as descriptively rich and colorful, it will provide statistical data that will enlighten this study and allow for conclusions to be drawn regarding the scope of this phenomenon. Methodological Approach: Case Studies This study is guided by the case study research approach. Yin (1994) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (p. 13). This approach is the preferred strategy when how or why questions are being posed and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context (Yin, 1994, p. 1). Case study results provide such an inclusive description of a phenomenon that results may lead to the influence of policy, practice and research (Merriam, 1998). 62 Creswell (1998) maintains that a case study is an investigation of a case within a specific time and place. This is referred to as a bounded system (Creswell, 1998). A case may be an individual or group of individuals, an activity, event, or program (Creswell, 1998). Further, a multi-site study may focus on several programs whereas a within-site study entails just one program (Creswell, 1998). A case studys focus can be on the case itself or a particular issue. In this study, an issue, gender imbalance, is explored. Patton (2002) maintains that the term case study can refer to either the process of analysis or the product of analysis, or both (p. 447). Therefore, utilizing the case study approach provides a researcher with not only an analysis process but a product as well. The product in this study being information-rich stories, case studies, describing the experiences of student leaders and the function gender plays in their development. Merriam (1998) suggests that the goal of a study prescribes the type of case study utilized. As this studys purpose is to explore, describe, and analyze the manner in which gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership among students; the type of case study employed is both descriptive and evaluative. In addition, a comparative case method (Yin, 1994) or a collective case study (Creswell, 1998) is also utilized as each institution researched represents a distinct set of cases. This study also incorporates the use of an embedded case study as more than one unit of analysis exists (Yin, 1994). Therefore, this study is a 63 multiple case study making use of two types of case studies to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance at three institutions. According to Yin (1994), case studies permit an investigation to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events (p. 3). This is vital to the integrity of this study, as the cases explored should reflect real, significant events with honest emotions and results. Moreover, Merriam (1998) maintains that by concentrating on a single phenomenon or entity (the case), the researcher aims to uncover the interaction of significant factors characteristic of the phenomenon (p. 29). This, again, speaks to the purpose of this study making the case study method of research ideal for this study. Research Design This study utilizes a mixed methods sequential triangulation strategy. The data is sequentially collected, meaning the quantitative data will be collected first then the qualitative data (Creswell, 2003). This sequential implementation places equal priority on both types of data collected and allows for the integration of the data in interpretation of the results (Creswell, 2003). Quantitative Design Method A single-stage online survey was administered to professional staff members that work with student leaders at institutions across the United States. The survey was sent out through the National Association for Campus Activities (NACA) membership database. 64 Qualitative Design Method Interviews were conducted with 17 student leaders at three, large public institutions in the United States. The students, six men and six women, are all in their last undergraduate year and identified, by a university professional, as student leaders. These interviews explored how gender affects leadership and delve into the students personal experiences with gender and leadership. Patton (2002) describes qualitative methods as those that permit inquiry into selected issues in great depth with careful attention to detail, context, and nuance (p.227). Therefore, the interviews, the qualitative method, lend depth to this study. Integrating the two research methods affords the study with some breadth as well; thereby allowing for both breadth and depth to be associated with this research. Setting and Context Quantitative data was collected through a single-stage online survey administered through the National Association of Campus Activities (NACA) membership database. NACA is the nations largest collegiate organization for campus activities, with programs and services designed to reflect the fields increased responsibilities for student leadership development (About NACA, n.d.). All campus activities professionals at institutions with NACA memberships will receive this survey. Currently the NACA membership consists of 1,030 institutions. Of those institutions 839 are 4-year schools and 191 are 2-year schools this consists of community colleges, technical colleges, and junior colleges. These institutions represent 409 public and 428 private institutions. 65 The institutions used for the qualitative data collection were determined based on survey responses. Each of these institutions were selected due to the gender composition of their student population, the amount of leadership programs offered, and a positive response to the question regarding the selection of a less qualified student to keep a gender balance. All three institutions had student populations with less than 10% more females, yet a gender imbalance seemed evident based on responses. In addition, the responses from these institutions indicated potential issues arising from the gender imbalance that could potentially provide descriptive information. The three institutions selected were the University of California, Irvine, University of Denver, and the University of Florida. The institutions represent public and private, large and small institutions across the nation. Student affairs professional from each institution were asked to nominate student leaders from their institution for this study. Ideally, the students, six men and six women, are in their last year of undergraduate matriculation and highly involved in co-curricular activities on campus. Data Collection Procedures As this study employs a mixed method approach, a survey and interviews, the data will be collected sequentially. The survey, which incorporates both quantitative and qualitative data, was conducted first. Next, understanding that data collection for case studies can come from several sources including observations, documents, artifacts, and interviews (Creswell, 1998; Yin, 1994), interviews were used to gather 66 data to better understand the gender imbalance at institutions and this phenomenons impact on student leaders. Survey. The quantitative data was collected using a single-stage online survey. A single-stage sampling was chosen based on the accessibility of the respondents and the web-based survey. The survey was self-administered consisting of 17 questions with various types of scales for measurements including several open-ended questions. This survey was presented to potential respondents through the NACA membership database. In addition, the survey was accompanied with a brief endorsement from NACA. The survey was piloted to approximately 10 student affairs professionals at institutions across the United States. The feedback received through this field test was used to revise and sharpen the instrument prior to being administered to actual study participants. Interviews. The qualitative data was collected through the use of interviews. Patton (2002) maintains that interviews provide researchers with information that cannot be directly observed. Feelings, perspectives, personal thoughts, and how an individual makes meaning can all be explored through effective interviews (Patton, 2002). Therefore, this study analyzed 17 individual student leaders at three different higher education institutions in the United States. Patton (2002) states that when individuals are the focus of analysis, the primary focus of data collection will be on what is happening to individuals in a setting and how individuals are affected by the setting (p. 228). In this study, the setting is the co-curricular and leadership 67 development activities at each student leaders institution. The primary focus of these interviews was to gain an understanding of how gender has affected their co- curricular and leadership activities through their experiences and opinions. The participants responses were recorded using audiotape and transcribed for analysis. The data analysis procedures used are discussed in the next section of this chapter. The interviews were managed with an interview guide. This strategy is employed to ensure all the major topics are covered while allowing for free-flowing conversation (Patton, 2002). In addition, the guide assisted in ensuring all participants were asked questions along the same fundamental lines of inquiry. While the guide was important to provide a uniform interview process, the interviews were conversational in nature. This was beneficial to ease the students apprehensions regarding the interview and being recorded. Sampling. Several sampling techniques are borrowed from Strauss and Corbins (1998) grounded theory approach as grounded theories improve understanding and suggest perspective of a particular phenomenon. Strauss and Corbin (1998) define theoretical sampling as sampling on the basis of emerging concepts (p. 73). Specifically, sampling develops as the study progresses. Study participants are selected on the basis of their contribution to the study (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Initially, the survey was sent out through the National Association of Campus Activities electronic newsletter. However, response rates were extremely low and a more intentional approach was needed. The surveys were then sent out to groups of 68 member institutions at a time with the email requesting their participation. This approach allowed the survey to be the focus of the email as opposed to buried in the body of a newsletter. This change yielded improved response rates. The sampling procedures utilized for the interviews were more purposeful. The institutions used for the interviews were selected on the basis of their survey responses. Once selected, each institution was contacted to request their participation and assistance. The purpose of the study was explained to each staff member and the requisites for student participation. The student affairs professionals at each institution selected students for this study that they believed would provide the greatest amount of diversity in terms of involvement and leadership experiences. Participants The campus activities professionals at each of the three institutions selected the 17 student participants. These students represented student leaders from across campus. Students were involved with student government, programming boards, greek life, residential life, intramurals, and academic and cultural organizations as well as various campus student organizations. Each student held at least one leadership positions on campus. After the staff identified potential students, each student received emails explaining the purpose of the study, the requirements and the informed consent process. Once the students agreed to participate, dates and times for interviews were established and confirmed. All but one student were present for the interviews. Several attempts were made to interview this last student, but not progress was made. 69 At each interview the study was explained to the students and their consent was requested again. Each participant signed a consent form and agreed to be recorded. Following the interviews, each student received an email transcript of their interview. Each student was asked to review their remarks and make corrections or additions. Several students made positive comments about their interview experience and the topic, but no substantial changes were made. Data Analysis Procedures The mixed method approach allows for quantitative and qualitative data. Each type of data calls for a different type of analysis. The survey utilized many open-ended questions to solicit information. This data was analyzed by reviewing the responses for re-occurring ideas and themes. This form of analysis is very similar to the process utilized for the interviews, which is explained shortly. The remaining questions were analyzed using the resources provided through online survey website. The numerical data gathered was accurately reflected through sums and percentages and therefore, did not require the use of SPSS analysis. Both types of questions were used to provide descriptive statistics. This data helped to define the scope of the gender imbalance issue at institutions across the nation and provide perceptions of this issue from student affairs professionals. This information allows for a better understanding of this phenomenon as it is occurring at other institutions and may yield ideas or solutions that will reinstate balance. Creswell (1998) maintains that for case studies analysis consists of making a detailed description of the case and its setting (p. 153). In order to provide this 70 description, each case needs to be analyzed and a determination made about the case and its relation to its setting. This descriptive approach provides a detailed observation of each case. Several types of data analysis drive this examination: categorical aggregation, direct interpretation, the development of patterns, and naturalistic generalizations (Creswell, 1998). Through categorical aggregation, I sifted through the data searching for emerging themes or germane issues. This analysis is primarily centered on categories that represent issues relative to the research question. Next, the data was reviewed with a focus on single instances from which meaning can be made. Creswell (1998) describes this direct interpretation analysis as a process of pulling the data apart and putting them back together in more meaningful ways (p. 154). Both of these analysis techniques provided the opportunity to create patterns among the cases. These patterns may further enhance the understanding of the case and lead to a more complete picture of the gender imbalance issue. Lastly, naturalist generalizations can be drawn from the analyzed data. These generalizations provide the substance from which others can understand the cases and learn from them. Ultimately, the data analysis of this study described the studied phenomenon in such detail as to provide readers with a realistic picture of the gender imbalance and its affect on students. Trustworthiness The mixed methods approach enhances the studys trustworthiness. The multiple data sources allows for triangulation among collected data. Specifically, interview results and survey responses can be analyzed looking for both 71 consistencies and inconsistencies. In addition, the mixed methods approach decreases susceptibility to error caused by a bias associated with one particular method (Patton, 2002). The different types of data collected using mixed methods provide for cross-data validity checks (Patton, 2002, p. 248). Trustworthiness and accuracy of findings were enhanced using peer debriefing. An informal panel of student affairs professionals and students were assembled and asked questions about the study and results. The purpose of this is to ensure the study will resonate with people other than the researcher (Creswell, 2003, p. 196). In addition to supporting the research findings, the debriefing yielded interesting questions and observations on future research. Finally, in order to establish trustworthiness, it is important to reveal my biases. As an administrator at a prestigious, private institution with 12 years of experience in student development, I have witnessed the ramifications of this gender imbalance. At my current institution, it is much more difficult to find equally qualified men for leadership positions than it is to find women. By estimate, for every ten student leaders, eight are women. As such, I have seen better qualified women passed over for positions or awards to further the idea of equal gender representation. Conversely, I have seen young men afford positions that were not yet qualified for, and watched them struggle to keep up with others. Neither case is acceptable. These observations are the impetus for this study. 72 Limitations Quantitative This study utilizes a survey to obtain information from campus activities professional across the United States. A limitation associated with this type of data collection is the lack of ability to compel individuals to complete the survey. No incentive was offered, therefore, those individuals completing the survey did so on their own will and for relatively unknown reasons. In addition, the survey respondents are members of a specific national organization, which allows for lack of randomization in the sampling. Working with the National Association for Campus Activities was difficult at times. The survey was initially sent out in an e-newsletter, which garnered no responses. It was only after repeated attempts to get the association to send emails specifically about the survey that staff members began to respond. This difficulty is manifested in the sample size of 92. This response rate is lower than expected and presents a considerable limitation. In addition, the open-ended questions provided significant information with the inability to probe further. Many of the responses were intriguing, but could not be furthered explored. The opportunity to provide a means to delve into these comments could have provided more insight and explanations of this phenomenon. Qualitative Several limitations exist for this study. The first of which is selection bias due to a lack of randomization. Asking campus administrators to select students to 73 participate in this study, even given the criteria, allows for bias. Results may have been different if student leaders were more randomly selected. The second limitation is the number of institutions from which students were interviewed. More resources would have allowed for more in-depth interviews, which may have resulted in different findings. In any case, additional interviews would provide more information rich data to describe the affects of the gender imbalance. This also speaks to generalizability, which is limited by the case study approach. The third limitation encompasses one of the general drawbacks of qualitative analysis. Anytime one person is interpreting another persons emotions, experiences or thoughts, there is a certain degree of ambiguity and bias. The previously mentioned peer debriefing strategy was employed to alleviate some of this uncertainty as well as the multiple data collection methods. In addition, interview participants were sent their interview transcripts and allowed to make corrections or additions. However, incorrect interpretations of individuals perspectives are almost unavoidable. Another limitation is the scope of this study. As the gender imbalance phenomenon unfolds, numerous ways to dissect it appear. This study is just one facet of the phenomenon. Other studies could concentrate on ethnicities or even try to understand why this trend has come about. On an institutional level, research could explore other developments associated with an increase of women in higher education institutions. For example, research could focus on classroom implications 74 for effective teaching or if the need exists for more women faculty and administrators to reflect the changing student population. Further, as these women begin to graduate, research could be conducted on how the influx of more women into the working world impact society or even cultural norms. This study is reflective of one element of gender imbalance many others exist which deserve researchers attention. This study is specific to leadership development and campus involvement and as such it is limited. The goal is to provide a framework for understanding the affects of this phenomenon on this developmental piece of a students entire college experience. Much more research can and should be conducted as this trend has the potential to change not only the demographics of our institutions, but eventually, our society. Summary This chapter detailed the methodology of this research study. The mixed method approach was explained including the rationale behind using such a research design. Next, the case study methodological approach was reviewed. The data collection and analysis strategies are discussed; in addition to issues regarding trustworthiness and limitations being explored. Together these pieces comprise the research design for this study. The past chapters serve as groundwork for the final two chapters of this dissertation. The next chapter describes the research findings of this study. The descriptive information gathered from the student interviews as well as the data 75 collected from the survey is enumerated. This chapter offers a dramatic illustration of how the gender imbalance in leadership development and student activities is currently affecting college students. 76 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS Chapter Overview This study incorporates information from 92 survey respondents from colleges and universities across the nation and 17 student interviews. The goal of this data collection is explore the notion of the gender imbalance from multiple perspectives; those of students and professionals within campus activities. Using the overarching research questions as a guide, this chapter focuses on the research findings. The first research question, Does a gender imbalance exist within co- curricular activities and leadership development at colleges and universities across the nation? is explored through the national survey as well as the student interviews. Through interviewing student leaders, the second question, How has the gender imbalance in student leadership affected students leadership and involvement experiences in higher education? is investigated. Together these two data collection methods provide a better understanding of how gender affects co-curricular activities and leadership development of students. Research Question One To answer the question regarding whether or not a gender imbalance exists across the nation, a national survey was administered. Using the National Association of Campus Activities membership database, surveys were sent to approximately 800 institutions. Ninety-two institutions responded to the survey resulting in an ample collection of data from diverse institutions. 77 Survey Respondents Demographics Of the 92 institutions participating in the study 82 are 4-year institutions and 47 are public. Thirty-nine of the responding institutions report between 1,000 to 5,000 full time undergraduate students. Women represent 58% of the student populations surveyed. Most institutions reflected a slightly higher percentage of women attending; 75% being the highest reported percentage of women enrolled in an institution. Only five institutions still had a majority male population. Most of the institutions, 61, reported having between 100 to 200 student organizations. Overall institutions demonstrated a commitment to leadership development through the myriad of programs offered. Emerging leader programs and student organization leadership programs were the most prominent, closely followed by Greek leadership programs. Only five of the institutions had mens leadership programs while 27 of the surveyed institutions maintain a womens leadership program. 53 institutions used student applications as the basis for selection into leadership programs while 46 programs had no type of selection process. As expected, the number of students participating in these programs varied from institution to institution. However, several institutions reported hundreds of students participating on an annual basis. Figure 1 details the types of leadership programs offered by these institutions. Notable programs included in the other category are: leadership minors, servant leadership programs, sports leadership programs, spiritual leadership activities, capstone projects, establish leaders summit and certificate programs. 78 Figure 1. Details the different leadership programs offered at institutions (respondents could select all that applied). 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00% Emerging Leaders Program Greek Leadership Program LeaderShape Men's Leadership Program Multicultural Leadership Program Sophomore Leadership Program Student Organization Leadership Program Women's Leadership Program Other Leadership Programs The survey overwhelmingly revealed that women are participating at a much higher rate in leadership programs. Seventy-four institutions, or 84.1%, reported that more women participate in leadership programs than men. The same was found to be true of women in leadership positions. Of the responding institutions 63 stated they are experiencing lower participation rates of men in leadership positions than women. However, several institutions felt that more men held leadership positions through student government and intramurals than women. One survey respondent said that the one area where male participation equals or exceeds their proportional representation on campus is in student government. In addition, another institution reflecting on male involvement stated, our numbers are still very high on the men's 79 side as it relates to recreational sports. This isolating of a few activities is further reviewed through the student interviews. When asked to describe the gender composition of ten of their top student leaders on campus, the respondents indicated that women would make up the majority of the ten students. Women were reported at 6.18 and men at 3.87. This same question was presented to the students. Interestingly, the staff responses were a bit different from those of the students interviewed, which are elaborated on later in this chapter. Staff members answered that they believe men are participating less in co- curricular activities than their female counterparts. Fifty-eight institutions indicated witnessing a lower participation rate among men in co-curricular activities. One staff member stated that men do not get involved for the sake of being involved unless they see some direct pay-out. Others believe that more women seem to seek out involvement earlier than men. Several staff members mimicked the sentiment that men are less involved in everything from Greek Life to SGA and that men seem less engaged and the least interested in becoming involved as a group. Some institutions recognized the lack of male involvement as attributable to gender composition of the student population. This response reflects that understanding, in general more women participate both in organizations and events, but there are also significantly more women at the institution. Another survey respondent said, the percentage of women enrolled at the university is higher than men. However, the number of men who try out for orientation leaders, Leadership UNA, student 80 government positions is decreasing. Even considering the declining number of males on campus, in general, institutions are experiencing a decrease in male involvement. This lesser involvement does not hold true for all institutions. One staff member explained that involvement varies from year to year. Right now we are experiencing many men participating in leadership programs; whereas, a few years ago, more women participated. Further, institutions use the disproportionate numbers as a means to explain male involvement stating, it's proportional to the make-up of campus. Additional examples shared through the survey demonstrate the disparity between men and women and co-curricular involvement. Homecoming Week Steering committee is comprised of 25-30 student volunteers is 90% females, and our school has 35 organizations on campus; at this time, approximately 10 of those have a male serving in the role of President. Another respondent reflected I think that there are more opportunities and groups available to women. Men dont start up as many organizations as women do. One staff member might have touched on an explanation for the increasing female leaders with the response more women are in leadership positions across campus, which seems to drive higher participation by additional women in these activities. Of those respondents who believed men were participating less in co- curricular activities, 66.2% thought this posed a problem for the positive development of male students. Staff members elaborating on this issue gave various 81 reasons including lack of involvement leading to stifled student development and a lesser college experience, lack of basic leadership skills, inability to work with others, socialize and experience group dynamics. One respondent stated: Well, its great that women are getting the opportunities to develop their leadership skills in a historical context of having been the oppressed gender, but its getting to be a little ridiculous that the males are so underrepresented in leadership roles. They dont seem to have the drive or the initiative to participate in leadership programs or hold positions. Other staff members displayed concern for the male students development through statements such as, I am worried that men are not taking advantage of co-curricular opportunities that enhance their leadership skills and their socialization and opportunity to grow as a person and leader is not happening. Following the notion that male leaders are primarily involved in student government this staff member suggested that because men tend to be involved in roles that emphasize traditional, hierarchical notions of leadership (student government), I am concerned that they are not as engaged in collaborative models that focus on social change and are more congruent with our institutional mission. Further, with respect to post-graduation engagement, this staff person reflects on good citizenship by speculating that men will be less inclined to be involved in their communities. Lower participation rates of men in co-curricular activities and/or leadership positions, did not pose a problem for the positive student development of male students comprise 33.8% of the survey respondents. Respondents were not concerned with the number of male students involved. They believe that men tend to develop on their own in whatever they do and that men have different college priorities than the women. In addition, one respondent simply said men must be getting their student development from somewhere. Other staff members believe 82 that those men who do participate are strong leaders and therefore not lacking developmentally. This respondent expounds on that notion, I find the male students that are in the minority of holding key student leadership positions are more likely to be involved in leadership positions in male-dominated student organizations (sports teams, fraternities, etc.) and demonstrate strong leadership, communication and interpersonal skills which are critical to their student development. A similar question asked about whether lower male participations rates pose a problem for the positive development of female students. Of the respondents, 37.3% felt, to a lesser degree, this poses a problem for female students. Reoccurring sentiments reflected concerns for women due to diminished experiences with males. Staff members believed the lack of male interaction with females might negatively impact female students preparedness for life beyond college and the realities of the real world. As described by this respondent, without men around, they [women] cannot have the opportunity to lead and deal with men, which will be a needed skill in the workforce. Another response indicated women are not exposed to male leadership characteristics and thus may be unable to adequately deal with men in a professional setting. In addition, staff members expressed concerns for the leadership development of women without men playing an active role. As two respondents said, I think the dynamics are different and introduces a narrow view of reality for the application of learned skills and female students could benefit from having male counterparts in leadership positions. It teaches a balance and creates opportunities for growth, communication, and cooperation. Further responses 83 elaborate on this concern for women learning to work with male leaders. One staff member maintains that women build consensus with each other and then are confronted by men who rule based on their opinion and it can be difficult to reconcile those two leadership styles. The majority of respondents, 62.7% did not feel that the lower participation rates of males created any issues for the positive development of female students. Unfortunately, many of these respondents did not elaborate on their answers. Some comments suggest that women do better not having men around and women often enjoy working with women. Additionally, the lack of male involvement opens up many opportunities for women as this respondent states, I think it is positive in the sense that women are beginning to take on roles that have been more male- dominated and they have the opportunity to have a greater voice on campus. Survey results indicated the lack of male involvement in co-curricular activities and/or leadership positions is a larger developmental issue for men than women. This is not to say that women are not affected by the decreasing number of men involved as demonstrated through the furnished explanations. However, the student affairs professionals responding to the survey indicated their greater concern centered on how to promote positive student development amongst male students. Staff members often have the opportunity to select students for positions, awards, or honors. When making these selections the survey asked if maintaining a gender balance was preferred. The responses were more or less evenly distributed. 52.9% responded positively while 47.1% said they did not try to maintain a gender 84 balance. The results of this question are interesting especially as it relates to the following question regarding the selection of a less qualified student in order to maintain a gender balance. Even though 52.9% of the survey respondents answered that they did consider maintaining a gender balance when making selections for awards, honors, or positions only 13.3% of all respondents indicated they had ever selected a less qualified student as a means to preserve this balance. Those staff members responding positively elaborated on their answer by describing some of the decisions. One staff person states: I select student leaders on the basis of qualification; however, if the group is unbalanced in gender ratio, and the two candidates are equally qualified - I will go with the candidate who balances out the group in terms of gender. Other individuals felt specific experiences called for a balance in not just gender but ethnicity such as first year leadership program participants and retreat facilitators. In order to provide a diverse learning community a number of underrepresented applicant populations (men, commuters, students of color, etc.) are selected. Another institution admitted selecting less qualified students when selecting students for leadership programs or leadership positions in order to create a more balanced program or team. Other institutions also selected less qualified students when selecting leadership retreat facilitators, we selected less qualified males as retreat facilitators when there were more qualified women as a means to provide men with the opportunity to see other men in leadership positions in order for them to feel comfortable to take a larger role. Another respondent stated, equal 85 representation is not possible and further explained efforts to specifically encourage the participation, representation, and application of male students to help balance the selection pool. Finally, and perhaps the most telling, is this response regarding the selection of a less qualified student, if the student is male. Respondents were asked to share ideas about rectifying a gender imbalance, if they believed this imbalance did exist and was affecting involvement in co- curricular activities and leadership development. Fifty-six of the surveyed respondents answered this open-ended question. Several themes emerged through the responses: marketing and purposeful outreach; male-targeted events/programs and direct contact; education and mentoring; and institutions that did not have an answer to this concern. Marketing and Purposeful Outreach Better, more direct marketing was a popular response followed by more purposeful outreach to men. This staff member admitted they could be doing more outreach for men to get involved in our campus-wide leadership programs. One respondent detailed their institutions outreach through initiating a men's leadership and spirituality retreat this year to ask this very question - where are the men in leadership roles at (institutions name) and what does it mean to be a man in this environment? Another institution suggested the only thing you can do is try to reach out with your publicity to the men on campus. Other suggestions entailed partnering with other offices to outreach to male students including admission, career services, residential life and general institutional publications. This staff member 86 proposed intentional communication to students through a variety of methods whether it be formal programs such as orientation or career services training or marketing through brochures or advertisements. Male-Targeted Programs and Direct Contact Many respondents focused on specifically targeting males either through programs or direct individual contact. Suggestions range from separating men and women leadership programs, conducting focus groups with current male leaders to explore their motivations, to utilizing the fraternity system as a means to attract more men into co-curricular activities. Creating more participative activities and experiential types of learning which engage men may also be beneficial to increase involvement. As one staff member noted male leadership and engagement is needed, as well as programs that specifically address what it means to be male and to be a leader, on campus and in today's world. Instead of creating new programs, it was suggested to use existing activities to promote leadership and positive experiences for male leaders. Described in this response, it is also important to build positive leadership where the men already are - intramural programs, fraternities, etc. Many submissions indicated a need for direct contact and encouragement towards potential male leaders. It was suggested by many respondents that staff members should identify male students for specific opportunities and intentionally encourage their involvement in these activities. It was implied that men need more encouragement than women in terms of getting involved on campus. As described by 87 one respondent: We need to push men a little harder to develop those groups or social networks that will encourage positive development. Women tend to naturally group together and support one another. With men, it is not that easy. They need encouragement and a little bit of pushing to get started. Another institution stated that in order to increase male student involvement they try to encourage males to take more of a leadership or active role in organizations and leadership programs. Other examples of encouragement manifested in the creation of new ways to recognize men. Some institutions have awards highlighting both genders. Others developed categories of leadership awards focused on intramurals and recreational activities, which are more male dominated on their campuses. Education and Mentoring The purposeful education and positive mentoring of male students were two concepts repeatedly brought up by survey respondents as ways to increase male involvement. One staff member adequately summarizes the challenge, the education and encouragement of male students to be more involved is important if changes are going to be made. Further, this respondent shared: We need to break down barriers and educate men to branch out and try something new. They need to look beyond that something may appear to be for women and truly it is not. We need to prove to them the value of what their involvement can offer. The identification of male students for opportunities, education, and purposeful communication with these students may be a solution to overcome the growing gender imbalance. 88 Another re-occurring theme in the data suggests the mentoring of male students as a means to rectify the decreasing numbers in male involvement. Many staff members recommended mentoring and positive role models for men as a means to increase their involvement and leadership development. One institution is utilizing current males in leadership roles as role models to assist in recruiting others. As previously mentioned, some institutions selected less qualified males for positions in order to provide other male students with role models. Another interesting idea expressed was the hiring of more men in student affairs. This provides both mentoring and role model opportunities for students. Institutions Look for Direction Still other staff members did not have an answer, in fact, some posed more questions. Two institutions eloquently replied, I have no clue and we don't know - but it is something we are actively thinking about. Staff members did agree that more research needs to be done about the choices men make on what they will be involved in and whether they will seek leadership roles. In addition, student affairs professionals need to know what is making them [males] choose to do things or choose not to do things, and then think about strategies to meet them where they are at. Another respondent admitted, until this survey I hadn't really thought about the difference in numbers suggesting that this gender imbalance is occurring on campuses relatively unnoticed. Others are aware of this concern as described in this response, I think we need to start to focus more on men in college as we are slowly losing this group collectively. 89 The final open-ended question allowed respondents to share any additional comments regarding men and women participating in co-curricular activities and leadership development programs. Thirty-three reflected on this subject. Several institutions comments were intriguing and provided a deeper context for understanding this phenomenon on other campuses. The following response demonstrates how an institutions culture may affect student involvement: We are in the process of rebuilding student involvement and the leadership programs following the hurricane. Prior to the storm, it seemed that yes, there were more females in leadership positions; however, it seemed that after the storm, more men have expressed interest in co-curricular activities. We have restructured many of our leadership initiatives to include more "hands-on" work in the community. Another institution, in an effort to combat their commuter campus stigma, suggested that changing the institutional culture may result in a change in [the] perception of what this student culture is or can be and this change in culture may have a positive impact on the issues in this survey. Other respondents focused on the differences between male and female student leaders. This response attempts to provide a reason for the amount of females in leadership programs and training when the campus is fairly balanced in terms of their student government and student organizations. This staff member contemplates, “I wonder if this is because women are more willing to admit the areas they have challenges in and take advantage of ways to improve them, or if it is because our programs tend to be more interpersonal and our society does not encourage men to connect on this level. This next response expands on this 90 reasoning: It seems women are more interested in developing skills and building relationships than the men are. I believe the men want the same outcomes, but are not as inclined to do the work necessary to reach those outcomes. Many of our men want to wait around and expect it just to happen or they know someone who will make it happen for them. I do feel this is sad. Still other institutions felt that the societal differences between women and men directly affects leadership and involvement. This staff member maintains, women understand the positive social impact of being involved and do so more easily than men. Respondents differed in their opinion of male and female student leaders. Some staff members believe that current male students are not as qualified to lead as female students. This statement describes the male applicants for a leadership academy that is heavily female dominated, of the men who apply, few of them come with the same leadership/service experience of their women counterparts. An opposing opinion recognizes the lack of men involved, but maintains, the men who are involved are outstanding. In fact, this particular staff person has more problems with the women (usually lack of confidence in their roles). Further one respondent offered this reflective response, there seem to be a few elite men who excel at everything and do everything, many in the middle just cruising along, and then a large amount who do nothing but their own thing. Doing their own thing can be ok too. It is important to recognize this fact. Not all students want to be involved on campus and find other avenues to enrich their lives. 91 In summary, this final question regarding men and women participating in co-curricular activities and leadership development allowed respondents to elaborate on any facet of this issue. Most tried to explain the imbalance in terms of their institution, while others explored reasons to understand the imbalance from a broader perspective. This response best captures the current concern: We spent so much time over the last 50 years saying that men are leaders and have better access to education, business and the like. Now, looking at current college students, it seems that men are those that are not as likely to persist and succeed. To this point, only the survey, which was administered to student affairs professionals, has been discussed. This instrument primarily helps to provide answers to the first research question regarding gender imbalance as a national phenomenon. Based on the 92 survey respondents, it is a national issue. However, a good degree of variance exists from institution to institution. Some institutions are actively working to combat the imbalance. Others are not currently experiencing an imbalance regardless of their campus population. Some institutions do not believe a gender imbalance, if it exists, is even an issue. Those that did believe the imbalance was an issue and should be rectified offered solutions and insight into their specific institutional issues. The responses to the survey provided a better understanding of the staff perspective. The student perspective will now be presented. Research Question Two The second research question How has this gender balance in student leadership affected students leadership and involvement experiences in higher 92 education? is explored through multiple student interviews from three distinct universities. Six active, student leaders, three men and three women, were interviewed at each institution about their involvement and leadership experiences on campus. Unfortunately, one institution only had five of the six students show up for the scheduled interviews. Multiple attempts were made to interview this student via phone or email, but to no avail. This last student, a male, was the president of one of the largest cultural organizations on campus further adding to this disappointment. In order to provide a framework to better understand the students interviewed, each institutions students involvement profiles are shared. The names of the institution have not been changed, but the students names are not used to protect their identity. In addition to the students profile, a brief description of the institution is provided based on survey responses. University of California, Irvine The University of California, Irvine (UCI) has over 25,000 students and, within the University of California system, it is considered to be one of the fastest- growing campuses (website). 52% of the student population is female while 48% is male. UCI has between 300 to 400 student organizations and offers Greek, multicultural and student organization leadership development programs. UCI Female #1. This woman has been heavily involved in Greek life beginning her freshman year. She has held several significant leadership positions within her chapter, in Pan-Hellenic, and is currently the president of Order of Omega. In addition, she is the Universitys chair of Relay for Life which is a 24 93 hour event with over 400 students all working to raise money for cancer research. Her college involvements do not mirror her high school activities other than membership in a few honor societies. She credits her leadership training to her sorority and large leadership conferences she attended for Greek leaders. She did attend a leadership program at UCI, but did not feel it enhanced her leadership skills or abilities. UCI Female #2. This young woman is a transfer student and has focused most of her co-curricular involvements around cultural organizations and programs. She quickly became involved in the African Student Union where she serves as the co-chair. In addition, she is a resident advisor and sits on the governing council for the cross-cultural center. In high school, she was also very involved, although her involvements did not have a cultural focus. Her involvement in sports continued from high school to community college. Now, she is just focusing her co-curricular activities on her student organizations. With respect to her leadership development, she believes she has learned most of what she knows from role models and watching other leaders she admires. Her formal leadership training is through her residential life training for her resident advisor position. UCI Female #3. This woman did not begin her involvement until her sophomore year when she served on the Judicial Board of the student government. She then joined the Office of External Affairs where she could participate in student lobbying efforts. She discovered her love for programming and her activities began to reflect this, as she is currently the Vice President for Student Services, which is 94 the programming segment of student government. In addition, she is active within several cultural organizations on campus. She does not believe her co-curricular activities in college differ from what she did in high school. The Lobby Core Program, which is a class facilitated by student leaders and managed by the student government that teaches students how to lobby for students interests, was most beneficial to her development as a student leader at UCI. UCI Male #1. This male student is also involved in the Greek community; however, his involvement extends to the yearbook where he is currently the editor- in-chief and the president of a sexual assault/rape prevention program. He feels his college co-curriculars are an extension of his high school activities. The exact activities are a bit different, but the purposes of the activities are very similar. His most relevant leadership development experience was through his fraternity. He did not participate in any of the university sponsored leadership development programs. UCI Male #2. This young man began his co-curricular activities though recreational sports and then moved to the Greek system where he held numerous leadership positions as a founding father of his fraternity including recruitment chair and president. He then branched out into student government where he is currently serving as the Executive Vice President, which is the chair of the legislative council. His involvement in high school was only through athletics, so his college activities are much more extensive. His formal leadership training consisted of programs through his fraternity. 95 UCI Male #3. This leader immediately got involved in residential life through Community Council and the Activities Committee. He became a resident advisor and also served on the Student Center Board as well as working with the Counseling Center. He was not very involved in high school, but loved the new challenges college life provided him. Outside of residential life training, he did not participate in any formal leadership development activities. University of Denver The University of Denver (DU) is small, private university nestled within a residential suburb of Denver. The undergraduate enrollment is approximately 4500 students with 55% female and 45% male. The university has between 100 200 student organizations and various leadership development activities including those targeting emerging, Greek, sophomore and student organization leaders. Denver Female #1. This student has been heavily involved in an institution sponsored leadership program for first year students. After participating in the program, she served on the planning committee assisting with the student selection and facilitation of the programs. Other involvements include serving as an orientation leader and ambassador for the institution, the Student Involvement Assembly, and the Program Board where she is currently the vice president for operations. She does not feel her co-curricular involvement at DU mirrors her high school activities, as her main focus in high school was the yearbook. With respect to her leadership development, she participated in the formal program sponsored by the university. She attributes much of her success to this program. 96 Denver Female #2. This young woman is primarily involved with greek life. She held a few positions within her chapter and then began working with Panhellenic through rush. She is currently the Panhellenic President. When reflecting on her high school activities, she feels that her junior year in high school and in college were both transition years for her. It was at this time she decided she wanted to be involved and contribute to her experiences through active participation. While her choices of activities were not similar the overall growth experiences were alike. She did not participate in any formal leadership programs at the university. Although, looking back, she wished she had participated in the program for first year students, but at that time she was not interested in being a leader or even getting involved. Denver Female #3. This female leader began her involvement career in the Undergraduate Womens Council and the HIV/AIDS Awareness Committee. From here she went on to be an Orientation Leader and took on a leadership role in the Science Club. She is currently, an intern for the orientation program, a fellow in the admission office, chair of the HIV/AIDS Awareness Committee, and a student senator. Although she says she has cut back from her high school activities, her activities are very similar. She did not participate in any formal leadership program on campus. Her only training was for her internship with the orientation program. Denver Male #1. This male students primary involvement centers on greek life and his academic major. He served as president of his fraternity and is currently serving as the student body president of his college. He also found time to play a few club sports and participated in intramurals. His college co-curricular activities 97 are very similar to what he participated in during high school. He credits most of his leadership development in college to his fraternitys leadership programs and participation in the university-sponsored leadership program. Denver Male #2. This leader got his start with the Pioneer Leadership Program. He then branched out into greek life where he was president of his pledge class, secretary, then chapter president. Through his fraternity, her got involved with Inter Fraternity Council where he is currently serving as president. He also became heavily involved in a student-alumni organization where he was the vice president for operations and an intern for the orientation office. His current activities are not like his high school involvements, but he was very involved in high school. He did participate in a university sponsored leadership program when he first entered college. Denver Male #3. This leader began his career with the leadership program and greek life. After holding several positions within his chapter including both vice president and president. He also focused on student senate where he has served as chair of the finance committee for the last two years. In high school he was very involved with similar activities such as class president and president of a large honor society. He did participate in the university sponsored leadership program as he entered college. University of Florida The University of Florida is a large, public university with over 27,000 undergraduate students. Once an all male institution, the university now has an 98 undergraduate student population of 54% female and 46% male. Florida has over 600 organizations and numerous leadership development activities and programs including emerging leaders, Greek, multicultural and womens leadership programs. In addition, Florida also sponsors the national recognized LeaderShape program. Florida Female #1. This students involvement history includes starting several student organizations, the student unions programming board where she is a chairperson of a committee. In addition, she pursues her student film making aspirations through the production of a new film every two weeks. Her college involvement closely mirrors her activities from high school where she also worked in student filmmaking. She has not participated in any formal leadership training other than the programming boards annual retreat. Florida Female #2. This young woman is very involved within the greek community. She began her co-curricular activities the summer before her freshmen year in area government for the residential halls. That fall she rushed and has held major positions within her chapter. She is currently serving as the president of the Panhellenic Council. In addition to her greek involvements she is also heavily involved within the College of Business. Through the Business schools leadership class and academy she has honed the leadership skills she has acquired through her other co-curricular activities. Other than the College of Business leadership programs, she has not attended any formal leadership programs sponsored by the University. 99 Florida Female #3. The female leader became very active within the Hispanic/Latino community when she first came to college. Through this initial involvement she branched out and has served as an orientation leader, a Campus Diplomat, and in senate. She is the president of the Collegiate Living Organization, Inc., Hispanic Student Association, and the Peruvian Association of Students in Union. Her selection of college involvement and leadership activities is very similar to her high school activities. She did not participate in any formal leadership training or development sponsored by the university. Florida Male #1. This student got involved with the student union programming board towards the end of his freshmen year. Since then, he has assumed the chair position of two committees with the board and started a student organization for students interested in the music and entertainment industry. His co- curricular activities are not different from those he was involved with in high school. He played sports in high school and held no leadership positions. He has not participated in any formal leadership programs at Florida, yet did mention the programming board retreats. Florida Male #2. Similar to the female student, he started college the summer before his freshmen year and got involved in area government as the president of a council. He then rushed his first fall that led to his active involvement in his chapter. He also worked as a leadership consultant for the Office of Student Involvement and the speakers bureau sponsored by the Student Government. He served in several leadership positions within this bureau and is currently the chair. 100 While his selection of activities in college do not mirror what he did in high school, he did state that he transferred the skills he learned through high school to his positions at college. He did not participate in any formal leadership development program at the university. It is clear that all the student interviewees are actively involved in various facets of campus life. They each forged their own path at their respective institutions and have built much of their identity and self-efficacy through their selected activities and accomplishments. These 17 students are representative of the student leaders found on many college campuses today. Equipped with a brief overview of the student interviewees co-curricular involvements, the focus will now turn to the intriguing information these students offered through the interviews. Analyzing the data collected through the interviews produced several key areas of focus. These key areas assist in both the organization of the data and the understanding of the students perspectives. Three areas of student perceptions emerged regarding gender: leadership; involvement; and university issues. Within each of these areas are several themes that guide the organization of the relevant data. The first area explored is the students perceptions of gender in leadership. Student Perceptions of Gender in Leadership Overall, students are not aware of gender in terms of leadership. It is something they do not think about. In fact, the gender specific questions were difficult for them to answer. While the issues of gender in leadership were not immediately noticeable to many of the students, through the interviews they began to 101 reflect on what they had experienced. The interviewees seemed to change their perceptions of gender in leadership as the interviews progressed. Whether it be a realization that I am the only male or the statement, its just something I never really thought about students are not actively thinking about the gender composition of their organizations or their student leaders. One male student, after stating how more men were equally if not more involved than women, then stated I realized that its like Oh, actually no, its not balanced at all. After our discussions students said I do see gender issues in leadership and now I am going to pay more attention I think to totally different leadership styles and who is in leadership positions. Listening to them discuss their views, then pushing them to really think about the impact gender has on leadership created some very interesting revelations for students. This discussion will be framed using prevalent concepts from the interviews: role vs. influence, male leaders vs. female leaders with differences, and formal vs. informal leadership development. Role vs. Influence Students believed that gender played a role in campus leadership more so than gender influences leadership. 76.5% of the students, seven women and six men, maintained that gender did have a role, while 58.8% of the students, six women and four men, believed that gender influences leadership. This is a very interesting distinction. Apparently, based on gender, roles exist in campus leadership that are socially more acceptable. This is not to say that a different gender could not assume this role, however, it would be going against the norm and student culture. As this 102 student explained, there are social norms that play into what a leader becomes and these norms are primarily focused on gender. The perception that gender plays into a students role as a campus leader, yet does not influence leadership is intriguing and a noteworthy subject for the following chapter. Many of the answers regarding role and influence discussed the difference between men and women as leaders or based on societal values. Students cited common stereotypes to describe men and women as leaders. When discussing how gender plays a role in campus leadership, one male student simply stated, its just a matter of perception that people tend to see males as authoritative and therefore, gender just kind of sets the standard for like Oh, well, you know, they [men] can do a higher thing [leadership position]. This woman believes that ones gender plays a role in how people are receptive to them and how they act as a leader. She went on to say I think some administrators . . .not all, but I think some administrators are more receptive to male . . .males as leaders versus female leaders. Students also suggested that the role gender plays in campus leadership dictates the positions women can attain. A re-occurring example was that of student government. The campus perception was that a student government was a role almost exclusively for men. A student talked about a woman who ran for student government at the University of Florida with the slogan Put the She in SG. She lost. This male student commented, I dont know a lot about Senate and all that, but that leads me to believe that theres not a lot of female involvement. A female participant said that gender has a role when it comes to student government and their 103 selections of campus leaders as she explains: They keep their selection process secretive, a lot of times its very political . . . who you know will get you the position that you want . . .of course theres a lot more males involved in leadership at the SG level. This sentiment was echoed by a number of male and female participants, as well, with particular emphasis on the political nature of the organization. In addition, the students responses about student government and male dominance are not unlike what the staff members discussed through the survey. One male student reflecting on student government elections where a team of women was running for president and vice president commented, they are not going to win because they are both women. He further shared, that was kind of one of the first times where it was really, I think cookie-cutter clear, that it was kind of a role on campus. Both the male/female teams received a ton of votes, where the two females didnt. As a result, that institution has a male president and female vice president. The topic of gender influencing leadership styles provided much discussion. Gender did not dictate the answer to this question as both men and women felt that gender did or did not influence leadership. One young woman firmly stated that gender had no influence on leadership, and then recited a story about how she used her gender to influence men in a competition she wanted to win. While the depth of this leadership activity might be questionable, no question exists about her using her gender as an influence. 104 All but one of the students, regardless of their belief if gender influences leadership, provided descriptions of a time when their leadership was influenced by their gender. Most of the males discussed how their gender negatively impacted their ability to lead women. Two male students discussed sexual harassment issues and how carefully they had to behave around woman so as not to confuse their manners with any type of harassment. The notion of being in an unprotected group as a white male was also mentioned. This male student discussed an internship experience where he had to be conscious of how he motivated a mixed gender team: Everyone else is a protected group and that was kind of strange because you had to be careful because where maybe I would . . .in some of . . . say if Im working just with males, be able to push really hard and say certain things to kind of motivate or certain styles you cant really do there because of the mix . . . Another male student described a similar situation working with female students as the chair of large student committee. His comments about his gender influencing his leadership style follow: Me, being a male in todays society actually hinders my leadership because theres so much I cannot say or so much that I have to be careful on. Women are definitely the protected sex in todays world. You know, anything I can say can be used against me as sexual harassment, where it is ten times harder for a women to get in trouble for such actions. You know, even if I were to come down hard or even yell at one of my staff members who happens to be a woman, it can be seen as me picking on her, where I could scream for days at one of my male staff members and its just me as a boss, so it makes being a male leader on this campus makes it that much harder just because Im a male, and thats about it. 105 Another male described a time when he was the only man on the executive committee and he was the leader. At one of the first group meetings he walked in very serious, very . . . almost authoritative and people . . . Ive actually had people come up to me and say, you scared this person! Conversely, women discussed their gender influencing the leadership style more in terms of their positions and how their gender aided or hindered their progress in a broader sense than just working with men. In commenting on how her gender has positively influenced her leadership style, this woman said: I think that being a woman intrinsically makes me think first about how this will affect my community and how I can represent that community to the best of my ability, so I think the particular position that I am in and the relationships that I have are much more geared towards my gender. Another female student leader expressed her frustration as her gender influenced her leadership style in terms of the men not taking her seriously. When running her staff meetings she explained, I dont . . . people wont always listen to me, but when its my guy commissioner, they listen to him. This woman felt the pressures of being a female leader, especially when leading her peers: If Im going to work with a group of people and Im going to spend time with them, yeah, I want to develop a relationship with them, I want to be friends and a lot of times it is people that Im friends with who Im supposedly the leader of and thats hard . . . you know, I want to be nice to everybody I dont necessarily like confrontation, so if things come up, its always you know, its definitely an effort for me to assume that role of being more authoritative or especially with people that Im close with. This woman had the opportunity to share her views based on having a male serving as her co-chair: 106 I think for me as co-chair and the funny thing is that my co-chair is a male, so with us, I tend to be more about building relationships with board members and I mean, that could just be me or it could be my gender, I dont know, but I tend to want to build strong connections and strong relationships with my other board members because I think that that definitely plays a key role in how you got how the organization plays out and how things how responsibilities are taken care of and the relationship is just so important, but with my co-chair, its more just about like, OK, you do this, you do that, you do that and thats how its going to go, so I think that that [gender] definitely plays a role. Most students discussed gender influencing leadership styles based on their own gender. However, this young man discussed what he perceived as issues for women as he stated, they [women] dont know to control some of their males they want to tell them no or dont do this, but theyre trying to figure out how. He further explained that for a male this is not an issue. Male Leaders vs. Female Leaders: Differences The students descriptions of each gender were telling. The women had more comments about other women leaders than their male counterparts. One woman described female leaders as tend to be little more nice I almost want to say. You know, like dont want to lay down the law, dont want to be stern, they want to be everyones friend. Another young woman stated that females are more sympathetic and less quick to judge, less quick to make a decision. This woman described female leaders as having more open-mindedness and motivation than male leaders. Other terms they used were organized, strict, and nurturing. Another female student leader used adjectives such as assertive and aggressive when referring to strong woman leaders on campus; these terms that are generally utilized when describing male leaders. 107 Men described women leaders as taking things too personally and not being able to shrug it off because women take it more to heart than men. Women were also described as more compassionate and they care more about their members than the guy does. Some men termed this emotional and implied it was a drawback to their leadership. Women described male leaders as chaotic, laidback, impulsive, and unorganized. They described men being less tied to their emotions and willing to make a decision regardless of how it may affect their peers. One female said, I think men are definitely more vocal because they are more confident. Men described the abilities of male leaders by detailing what areas they believed women had trouble with, such as making the tough decisions, not being emotional or taking things to heart. Other descriptions included laidback, less stressed, and not easily upset. As this male leader describes dealing with a stressful situation with his female counterpart, I am able to sit back and handle it a little calmer than she can. This man offers an interesting observation about men as compared to women: I think in my mind I see men being more like really needing to achieve more and try to get more titles and stuff. Not necessarily do more but . . . from what Ive seen, I feel like there are more guys that are trying to kind of build that impressive resume more than girls. The interviewees were asked to describe differences in leadership styles they have witnessed between men and women. Most of the students had a response to this question, with only one male student stating he has not witnessed any 108 differences. One of the more provocative responses comes from this male student: Yes, the women have to work harder to assert themselves, especially on a college campus in a college organization group where you take a CEO of a Fortune 500 company who might be a woman, she does her work, she goes home at the end of the day, she can separate herself, whereas on a college campus, we usually see each other out drunk at the end of the night, so its very hard for a woman (a) to assert herself as a strong powerful woman, to then be seen crying in the corner of a bar over a dumped boyfriend. They have to assert themselves 24 hours a day, seven days a week as a strong independent person and if at anytime they act any bit what society sees as girly, their whole reputation is just tarnished because then she walks into the meeting the next week you know, I agree that shes a strong woman, I agree that shes totally capable, but then other people in the room are seeing that girl crying over her boyfriend in the corner. When this issue was further examined with an emphasis more to males, he explained, If a guy gets a rumor that he cheated on two of his girlfriends, you know, people arent going to vote for him either. Im just saying its a lot harder for women to keep up that persona. One female student claimed, men have a different way of going about things. Men behave and think differently than women. This woman detailed the differences she has witnessed in terms of men over compensating, she noted: I think sometimes men feel like they have something that they have to sort of like a stigma that they have to get past, they really have to prove themselves, but by the same token, you can say that about women too. They have to prove themselves past a certain point, but I think sometimes men overcompensate. If they have a weakness of some sort, then they become that leader whos like very aggressive. Another woman leader portrayed her experiences with differences through a discussion regarding thinking an action through and getting student and staff input in order to make the decision. Her male counterpart, in a similar situation proclaimed, 109 Oh, well, were doing this, in the middle of GPC [Greek Presidents Council] and it was like like the Greek Director had no idea, so I just feel like theyre a little more impulsive. Another female leader explained, theres a definite difference in styles and organization between men and women leaders. One student shared the differences in a committee chaired by a women one year, then a man the following year. She explained, the way she ran it was very organized, like step-by-step everything and there was always an agenda for us, it was done that way and very official seeming, whereas with him, its a little bit more laidback and theres not like theres definitely a little bit of a lack of organization. Lastly, one male leader described differences he witnessed when working with two organizations, one comprised of all males and the other all women: IFC was lazy, they did their work, but it wasnt very good, and Panhellenic was super organized, got all their work done, did most of the work for the IFC because everyone has their counterpart within the two boards, and so I saw that coming into it and I saw that there was this constant because this was the first that I had worked with strictly male and strictly female boards. Some students reflected on the challenges different genders face when working with the opposite gender. A male student leader discussed the difficulties a woman has in leading a co-ed student organization. She has a harder time earning respect, especially from males as many of the males think that they probably could do the same position or do it better to some extent. One young women described her experience leading a group of men as intimidating I think because theyre just so unfocused and so all over the place that it is hard. Conversely, a male leader working with an all female staff expressed his frustration as his serious, task driven 110 demeanor frightened the female students. Another leader, a very annoyed young woman, talks about running her staff meetings and stated, I feel like girls when they act really uptight or when theyre really just assertive about things, theyre seen as, you know, a bitch or whatever and its kind of unfair. Formal vs. Informal Leadership Development Gender did not seem to influence the students decision to participate in leadership development programs. However, the surveyed staff maintained that more women were taking part in leadership programs than men. Of the students interviewed, three females and three males took advantage of some type of school or university sponsored formal training program. Eleven students, six females and five men, maintained that they did not participate in any university-sponsored training. Of the students interviewed only six acknowledged participating in a university-sponsored leadership program that enhanced their personal development that was not considered job training. Some respondents did mention resident advisor training or other specific job training as relevant to their leadership development. However, in terms of a purposeful leadership development program, four of the six students from the University of Denver (DU), one from the University of Florida mentioned a university-sponsored program through her academic discipline, and one student at UCI mentioned a course. The program at DU is the Pioneer Leadership Program (PLP), which is a program targeting freshman. The PLP students live together in the same residence hall and participate in courses, events, and service activities. Participation in PLP is the first step in obtaining a leadership minor to 111 accompany their academic major. The students involved in PLP are very well connected and, in general, become the universitys premier student leaders. This student while thinking about her top ten student leaders on campus reflected, [they] do come from the PLP program, who came into school knowing that thats who they were and thats what they wanted to do. A young woman at the University of Florida had an extremely positive experience with her academic colleges leadership program. She participated in First-Year Florida, which is a leadership course for freshmen business students. Next she went into the Florida Leadership Academy for the top 100 sophomores in the Business School it is called a co-curricular leadership development program. While she had not participated in any university-wide program, she spoke very highly of the College of Business efforts to reach out to students and get them involved through the school. Some respondents claimed their most significant leadership development program or experience was through an outside organization such as their national fraternity/sorority. This male student stated, I did do formal leadership trainings in my fraternity. Our fraternity has a really good leadership program. Another male student also stated his formal training came from his fraternitys national leadership program called Horizons and to this young man it was one of the most amazing experiences. A young woman offered that her experience at the Western Regional Greek Leadership Conference was one of her most relevant leadership experiences. 112 Others maintained their leadership skills came from role models or watching and learning from other student leaders. One female student stated, I think most of the leadership skills that Ive learned have just been on my own and definitely from mentors. I am able to watch them and see the things they do. A very self-confident young man discussed his experiences on a presidents panel for the all residence halls. During his interactions he was able to learn about other clubs that I was interested in. So one [involvement] got me in the door and then it was my opportunity to move forward. Another characteristic of leadership development is the use of mentors and role models. Each student interviewee was asked to speak about one of their most influential role model or mentor relationship. Not surprisingly, every student, with two exceptions, selected a same-sex role model or mentor that was instrumental to his or her development or campus involvement. Two male students named a female as their role models. Several students listed a few other people in addition to their primary role model. A few female respondents named a male in this secondary role. All gender exceptions were staff members within an office that primarily works with student life. Most students named older campus leaders that they revered as young freshman as their role models. Student Perceptions of Gender in Involvement On the whole, students believe a gender imbalance exists with respect to involvement, but not necessarily leadership. Students overwhelming agreed that women were more involved than men. Keep in mind all three of these institutions 113 student populations are just slightly more female than male. However, when leadership and positions were discussed, the majority of responses favored an equal representation of men and women. In addition, the student interviewees offered thoughtful insight into student life and their involvement experiences. Their involvement is explored using these themes: inspiration and personal gain, equal and imbalanced, and competition and selection. Inspiration and Personal Gain Students were questioned regarding why students get involved and what was gained from their involvement in an attempt to understand if differences exist among genders. A better understanding of each genders motivation for involvement may provide ideas to increase involvement. However, both male and female student leaders expressed similar reasons for involvement and personal gains. The only difference was women better articulated their desire to get involved than the men. Women uses phrases such as giving back, desire to make a difference, and helping others to explain their inspiration for involvement. As described by one female leader I like giving back to my peers and helping people achieve their goals and kind of coach them to do what they want to do, and I also get a lot of personal satisfaction out of the things I do. Another female leader credited a leadership program she entered as a freshman for her involvement motivation as other leaders surrounded her. She explained, everyone seems to have something that theyre passionate about, so thats a good way to motivate yourself because everyone else is doing it. For this young woman, her high school and community 114 college experiences were solely athletic oriented so she was never able to delve into other co-curricular activities. Therefore, she knew entering college that she really just wanted to be involved in the black community, then she discovered that she really wanted to take on leadership. Another woman responded: . . . studying isnt always the purpose of education. Its going beyond that and beyond the classroom and trying to find what you like to do, where your interests lie, so I explored different activities, but I found that something that I love to do was programming and it kept me like it kept me going so I wouldnt be bored at school . . . Lastly, one woman shared that in high school she was rather introverted. However, reflecting back over her four years of involvement she says, I really grew up in college and just trying to make a difference, really trying to get out there and I want to leave UCI knowing that I made a difference. The male participants had similar responses. This student reasoned, I just really knew that there was a lot more out there beyond school and to get a good job or whatever I plan to do after college, I would need to get exposure to other things. For this young man, he seemed to accidentally fall into his involvement. This is his description of what inspired him to get involved: I had gone to the concert, I liked going to concerts, I like music, so I had just gone for fun and then just kind of started helping out, just to be nice I guess and then I was like, Well, if Im going to help out anyways, I might as well join, and then it just it was just a fun thing to do. I made a lot of friends doing it and liked being involved. Other men attributed their inspiration for involvement to their fraternities. One student shared that the creed of his fraternity empowers members to Forever be a credit to your fraternity and the campus in general. This student took this literally 115 and believed that he came to this campus for a reason and that he might as well do something good. Every student could quickly produce a list of all the benefits they receive from being involved. Among the genders no difference existed. Both men and women maintained that their co-curricular involvements defined their college experiences. That is my college life, one student exclaimed. This woman shared that her co-curricular involvements are a big part of me and how I learn and what I think is satisfying of my college experience. Another student reflected, I think it is kind of a shame for other people who dont take so much advantage of the extra curricular activities at school. This young man declared, You really do have to get involved and engaged to get the most out of your college experience. All the students would list communication, leadership, and time and stress management as important skills learned through their involvement. However, the students expressed other benefits. Being involved has provided one young woman with actual real experience thats really good to have, that I wouldnt be getting otherwise, and then as far as being a leader in it, I think its really helpful just to get that experience of being comfortable leading groups and talking in front of people. A male students involvement helped him realize his leadership potential: I think its really helped build my character, my confidence. I wasnt really one to accept the leadership position. I didnt want the responsibility on me, so having done that and done a lot of successful things, I think has . . . its made me more confident as a person and I feel good. 116 Another student commented on gaining not only leadership skills, but also learning how to follow. She learned a good deal about herself and other people she probably never would have interacted with had I not been involved. In dealing with people, this young woman learned how to approach conflict in a rational way and Ive learned a lot about myself too, kind of what makes me tick and how I perform best. Other lessons included those of the social nature and separating work and friends, as this student leader describes: A lot of these clubs, especially ones that Im in charge of, a lot of my friends are in them and a lot of times you gotta say no to them, you gotta lay down the law, or you just gotta not take them for a job just because, you know, I need something done right and I need it done by the best people and that might not be my friends, so theres just a lot of life lessons that you learn. One male student said it best when he stated, Ive learned infinitely more out of the classroom than I have in the classroom. Each student interviewed truly believed this; therefore demonstrating that both genders are receiving positive benefits from being involved. Equal and Imbalanced All 17 students agreed that their respective institutions offered equal opportunities for both genders in terms of co-curricular involvement and leadership development. Thirteen of the students also agreed that while the opportunities for involvement are present, women take advantage of those involvement prospects more so than men. The four remaining students believed that men and women were equally involved. None of the respondents felt men were more involved than 117 women. However, discrepancies become a factor when the focus moves beyond involvement to leadership. The interviewees opinions on involvement were demonstrated in different ways. A few expressed it quite clearly like this male leader, if anything, more women are involved than men. Others had to talk through their response before making a determination and even after they discussed the large number of females applying for positions and in organizations, they seemed a bit shocked with their answer. Those students who clearly felt women were more involved than men tried to give explanations for their remarks, such as this young woman, I think the females I know are much more on top of taking advantage of those [co-curricular] opportunities and I dont know if its a drive to snap them up before anyone else gets them or if theyre just better with deadlines. A woman further elaborates on why she believes more women are involved than men: I would think that more women are involved in yeah, I would think probably more women are involved just because the men that Ive seen, theyre more wanting to get the good grades and the I mean, women do too, but theyre women are from what Ive seen and from the women that Ive interact with, other leaders, its more about the experience that theyre trying to build here and the relationships that theyre trying to build and network with and with the men, its more just about getting that resume to look good and to sound good and to, you know, know how to interview well and that could just be stereotypes, but thats just from what Ive seen around. A male student realized during the interview that the committee he leads is actually all female except for myself and my co-chair and one other guy on the committee and I think theres like eight to ten women, so I guess it is not very split, huh? He 118 further explained, I just feel like women are more excited about being involved in things, which is cool, so I dont know what the deal is with guys. Those students who maintained that an equal amount of both genders took part in involvement activities suggested that some people are just lazy and they dont get up and go out there and try to go after something . . .. theyre equally lazy. Another student explained his response by asserting, strong personalities, strong leaders can come from anywhere. Similar to the question posed to staff members on the survey, each student was asked to describe the gender composition of their top ten student leaders. The students could select any student leader they felt was worthy of such a distinction. The results, for the most part, were split along gender lines. No male respondents selected more female leaders than males. Slightly half, five of the nine, female participants indicated more females than males as their top ten campus student leaders. Two women felt the leadership was equally distributed among the genders, while two other women believed more male leaders than female leaders existed on campus. Only one man named more females as leaders than men. An interesting note, all students that described their top ten student leaders as 3 women and 7 men were from the same institution and either highly involved in or aware of the operations of their student government. The following table represents the students responses to their top ten student leaders as well as their opinion as to whether more women are involved than men on campus. 119 Table 2. Comparison of Gender Composition of Students Top Ten Student Leaders to Belief that Women are More Involved than Men Participants Gender Female Male More Females Involved F 6 4 Yes F 5 5 Yes F 6 4 Equal F 6 4 Yes F 3 7 Yes F 6 4 Yes F 5 5 Yes F 6 4 Yes F 3 7 Equal M 4 6 Yes M 4 6 Yes M 4 6 Equal M 3 7 Yes M 4 6 Yes M 4 6 Yes M 4 6 Equal M 6 4 Yes 120 After determining the gender composition of their top ten student leaders, the students were asked to discuss how they selected their student leaders. Positional leaders, either by title or elected by the student body, was the most popular response, and influenced every students selection in some manner. This is how a male student described his choices: Well, the student body executive the student government executive is five males right now, so I put those five in there. The leader of BSU is a male, the leader of BHMBlack History Monthis a female, kind of HSA I put at the same, Jewish Student Union, I put at the same. Those are the huge organizations on this campus that really control a lot of money. After positional leaders, students selected leaders they respected or knew personally. In describing how she selected her top ten student leaders, this young woman said: I was thinking of people in various organization in RUB [student union program board] and I was thinking of a couple of service organizations and then like an Honors organization, so I dont know, I guess kind of a fair range of stuff, and the student body president. I dont know, I dont think hes very good. The table provided a visual demonstration of the students opinions. It is clear that the students interviewed believe that women are more involved, but men are still highly involved in campus leadership. Even the students with the highest number of male students in their ten leaders maintained that women were either more involved than men or equally involved. Competition and Selection The students were asked to discuss their feelings regarding competition and the selection processes for certain organizations, positions, and honors on campus. Most of the students had little to do with these processes and, therefore, could not 121 provide much insightful information. They were unaware of specific reasons as to why they may not have received positions or awards. However, a few of the respondents were responsible for selection processes of different organizations or honors. They provided the gender compositions of the applicant pools and, in some cases, discussed the marketing of these opportunities. A female student assisted in the selection of freshmen students for a university sponsored leadership program. Every incoming freshman receives information about this program in a mailing from the institution. When she was involved with the selection process 70% of the applicants were females. She and the committee struggled with attempting to maintain a gender balance of accepting the most qualified individuals. Here she explains their dilemma: That was something we actually struggled with and had to make a decision on, Should we accept applications that have the highest ranking, period, or do we fill these quotas? Im sure at every university, everybody struggles with that. So I mean, we definitely did we decided that we wanted to have some males in the program. The class that I helped to choose was about 2:1 female to male, which is not really representative of the applications that we got, so there were some females that didnt get in . . . so yeah, that definitely was an issue. Another student leader discussed a similar situation with respect to selecting orientation advisors. She admitted, we did pass over some women because we wanted to have more guys in the program. During this male leaders selection process for his organization, he illustrated, theres 55 spots on [name of organization], I got 200 applications, of which I would say 130 were women, and about 35 women on my staff, about 17 guys. 122 A similar situation was revealed in terms on honors and awards. This woman detailed the applicant pool for her institutions Homecoming Court. She stated: It was homecoming and we had over 20 applicants for the girls side, but for the guys, there were only 9 people, you know, and everybodys like, Oh, thats natural because there arent as many guys involved in a large amount of activities. Theyre usually in a fraternity or theyre just involved in a few things and theres just a few of them. Of those 20 women and nine men, only 5 of each gender were selected. She noted, there were definitely more qualified girls than guys. She shared this comment regarding the caliber of the interviewees, I actually facilitated the interviews with the staff and the staff were even saying, Oh, well, the guys werent as impressive as the girls, you know. It appears that this trend of more women applying for awards and honors than men also holds true for a single gendered student organizations as described in this example of fraternities and sororities. A student serving on a peer selection committee for a greek honor organization open to all fraternities and sororities described the applicant pool as having an inordinate amount of women who applied. In detailing the applicant pool for her institutions greek awards a female leader said, it is interesting to note that basically pretty much every sorority applied for every single award, whereas the fraternities, theres some awards that only five fraternities applied for, out of I think ten in total. Again, the anomaly is within student government. This male student describes his staff selection for the branch of student government for which he is responsible, I would say that more men did apply than women for the positions and 123 I think actually my staff probably has out of 17, I want to say 12 or 13 are men. He also stated actually my office isnt exactly known as the fun one. Its very political. Keeping with student government, this leader explained: Now when you talk about gender inequalities, as you get to the top of the top of student government, where I am, the top 10, 15 of us who really control student politics and student money on this campus, it is a very male- dominated area. A discouraged woman from the same institution had this to say about the student government and selection for positions, I feel that there are woman who try to eventually become the President or Vice President of the Student Body, however because it is already pre-determined who will be the next SG President, it is already in the works for males to take it over. Throughout the interviews, students continued to express that no individual should receive something solely on the basis of their gender. In general, students maintained the best person for the job should receive the position as shared by this participant, I tend to agree with, that just straight up, if youre qualified, then you should get the position. This male leader explained, I know that I have to build the best office I can, men or women, I dont care who it is because its going to make my job a lot easier. Another student leader vocalized his intentions saying, race is something that I will change my staff over, gender is not. Ironically, one of the ethnic minority student participants said, always make sure that the position is filled with the right person for it and you shouldnt sacrifice giving someone a position just because they are what you need for more diversity or for whatever. However, it 124 was noted by this same student that not maintaining a gender balance could have an affect on the way that men perceive leadership, just like you know, even with race or class or sexual orientation, all those things if you dont see yourself there, then youre not going to go for it, so I think it should be taken into consideration. Thats a really difficult line to walk, said a female student leader in response to whether or not to preserve a gender balance within organizations. Student Perceptions of Gender and the University Lastly, interviewees were provided the opportunity to make suggestions regarding gender, leadership programs and their institutions. Most students believed that the impending gender imbalance is just starting to be seen on campus, but that it was not affecting students yet. However, 12 students thought this gender issue was important enough for their institutions to pay attention to when dealing with the development of student leaders. As described by one women, when youre developing a person, you need, I mean theres were built totally differently and you have to cater to those differences and build the confidence and strengths in each individual gender. One student qualified his decision that institutions should pay attention to this matter by saying, if youre talking to me 61:39 [women to men], then I would say there is a problem, but if youre in that 60:40 range and under, youre fine. Another female student offered this insightful comment: Just that I think that gender in leadership, especially here at [institution], sometimes tends to get put on the back burner just because were more focused I guess on increasing diversity and skin color or ethnicity . . .. But 125 then it should always be a focus and that one thing thats important to always look at is the gender composition because it does change how you are looking at situations and it does change what people in the room are bringing to the table in the first place, and it changes how youre going to react or how youre going to talk in a situation. A different student suggested that institutions should pay attention to gender when developing student leaders because to a certain extent it is important to realize that youre dealing with people who are completely different from this other group and the way that you talk to them and the way that you face problems, the way that you hammer out solutions is different. She concluded with a recommendation for enhanced training for student leaders on the issue of gender. Other students echoed this suggestion for leadership training and workshops. Students made very specific suggestions for programs on their campuses regarding ways to improve or expand upon existing programs. A few students suggested that administrators work harder to make sure students are aware of all the opportunities available to students. One female leader suggested that administrators spend time working with the general memberships of organizations as opposed to just the executive officers. She explains, if the administrators make themselves more available to members and kind of give them more of a voice and empower them to come up with ideas and solutions to problems, I think that they would be more apt to make progress. Summary of Findings Two primary research questions framed this study: 1. Does a gender imbalance exist within co-curricular activities and leadership 126 development at colleges and universities across the nation? 2. How has the gender imbalance in student leadership affected students leadership and involvement experiences in higher education? Using a survey instrument and individual student interviews these questions were explored. The research indicates that staff members at institutions across the United States believe a gender imbalance does exist within co-curricular activities and leadership development. However, the student interviews indicate an imbalance only with involvement, not leadership. According to the students, men are participating in leadership activities. The student interviews produced no significant findings to point toward an issue with men and leadership. The second question is more difficult to answer as the students have varying perspectives and, prior to the interview, did not consider gender as a factor in student involvement or leadership. However, no differences existed in the personal gains the student described from their involvement. Both genders were equally satisfied with their involvement experiences and could not imagine their college life without their co-curricular activities. The research demonstrated that women are, overwhelmingly, more involved than men. This was supported by both the survey and the interviews. Even the majority of male students interviewed claimed this as true. This did not seem to be much of an issue for either gender. However, a few respondents discussed the disparity in numbers causing concerns for those selection processes looking for a 127 gender balance. This has resulted in qualified women being past over for positions or honors in order to maintain a gender balance. Unfortunately, not enough of the students had information regarding selection processes so this was not a topic that was consistently explored. The surveys reported just a small number of staff knowingly selected a less qualified male to keep a gender balance. In addition to answering the research questions, the data collected offers valuable insight into the perceptions of students regarding co-curricular involvement and leadership development. Key areas of interest are: gender as it plays a role in campus leadership yet does not influence individual leadership, student government, lack of student participation in formal, university sponsored leadership development activities, and students advice for campus administrators. These issues will be further discussed in the following chapter. 128 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Chapter Overview The purpose of this study was to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance within student involvement and leadership development at colleges and universities. Ninety-two institutions and 17 students from three different institutions participated in this study. The surveyed participants included institutions from across the United States, thereby representing a diverse group of schools, staff and students. To be eligible for this study, the students selected for interviews had to be highly involved on their campuses and in their last year of matriculation at the university. The seventeen students selected represent diverse backgrounds, interests, talents, and ambitions. In this chapter, a brief overview of the studys major findings is provided including discussion about how these findings are supported by current literature. Next, four conclusions drawn from the research are presented along with recommendations. Finally, implications for current practice and future research are discussed. Discussion of Main Findings The data collected offers perspectives from staff members within campus activities and active student leaders. The data allows for comparisons as well as differences to clearly be viewed. Six overall themes emerged from the two data sets. The themes provide the framework for this summary. 129 Leadership Programs Of the 92 institutions responding to the survey, 84% of the institutions indicated that women were participating in leadership development programs at a much greater rate than men. Every institution reported having some type of leadership development program. In most cases, institutions offered several types of programs and boasted high student participation rates. However, only five institutions maintained a mens leadership program, while 27 institutions indicated having a leadership program for women. This result correlates with Davis (2002) finding that male college students do not believe that men are offered the same types of services as the women. The most common example cited by students was leadership programs (Davis, 2002). Of the three schools utilized for the interviews, each institution sponsored several different leadership programs. However, only six students said they participated in an institution sponsored leadership development program. Four of the six students participated in the same leadership program, which these students credited for much of their co-curricular success. Additionally, the gender makeup of these students is equally distributed, three men and three women. Some of the information provided by the students supported the staffs notion that women are participating in leadership development programs at a higher rate than men. The four students who participated in the university sponsored leadership programs discussed the gender composition of that group. All of the students noticed more women involved in this program than men. Fortunately, one of the 130 students interviewed assisted in the selection and recruitment process for this leadership program. She stated, We had a lot more female applications than we did male. Probably like 70 percent of our applications were females. At the conclusion of the selection process, more women were selected at approximately a 2:1 ratio. In some cases the male students selected were not as qualified as the female students. A staff member also admitted to accepting less qualified males into a leadership program in order to create a more balanced program or team. A slight dissimilarity exists between the staff and students perceptions of leadership programs. The surveyed institutions maintained that hundreds of students participated in the offered leadership programs yet; only a small number of students interviewed participated in a leadership program. However, since the majority of the students interviewed did not participate in institution-sponsored programs, they may not have been adequately enough informed to respond to a question regarding gender in these programs. It was fortunate to have a student involved with the selection process among the interviewees as she provided insight into the students experience of selecting students for leadership programs. Still, I believe the staff members have an advantage over the students with respect to leadership programs. Staff members have the ability to view the applications for the leadership programs or actually work with the programs, which provides them the opportunity to better understand the gender ratios of those groups or applicant pools. The students seemed unaware of the leadership programs available to them. Those students who did participate in a program found it to be very useful. The 131 interviews revealed that students are not participating in these programs to the extent the staff maintained. In addition, the students interviewed were all active, successful, student leaders regardless of their lack of participation in a formal leadership development program. While students of both genders are not garnering benefits of these leadership development programs, it also seems that less formal leadership development practices are sufficient for some students. Leadership Involvement Again, the survey results show that staff members believe that men are participating in leadership positions at a lower rate than women. Of the responding institutions, 72.4% maintained higher participation rates of women in leadership positions. In addition, the survey results further demonstrated the staff members inclination to select women as student leaders. When asked the gender composition of the top ten campus student leaders, results reveal women were favored over men at 6.18 to 3.87. More specifically, the institutions the student interviewees were from claimed the women to men student leadership ratio was 4:6, 6:4, and 8:2. Conversely, the student interviews found that students believe men are just as involved in leadership positions as women. Students of both genders indicated the reasons why men are involved in leadership positions might be somewhat different than women, but nevertheless, men were involved in leadership positions. The interviews disclosed that students, when compiling their list of top ten students leaders, primarily made their selections based on gender lines. Five of nine women said the gender ratio was 6:4 women, while two other women selected seven men to 132 three women, and just one woman believed the leaders were equally divided among genders. For the men, seven of the eight men believed that men represented more of the leaders, while one men divulged his belief that women do slightly surpass men in leadership. The students responses demonstrate that both men and women engage in leadership on a relatively equal basis. The staff perspective has more women in leadership positions than men. However, current literature does not support this notion. The literature suggests that women do not have aspirations to lead (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003). Boatwright and Egidio (2003) maintain this lack of ambition towards leadership position is due to the gender socialization of leadership as masculine. While leadership roles may still have masculine undertones, according to this studys findings, it is no longer preventing women from participation in leadership positions. In addition, the findings from this study do not support Boatwright and Egidios claim that women do not aspire to lead. All the interviewed students and staff members reported women as active leaders in major positions on campus. A lack of aspiration was never discussed with respect to female students and leadership. Additional research indicates that it is more difficult for women to be campus leaders (Romano, 1996) and as leaders; women must exert much more effort to be taken seriously and respected (Leonard & Sigal, 1989). Based on the students interviewed these findings are accurate, however, perhaps not as widespread. Some students did not mention women having any more difficulty leading than men. Yet, 133 others did suggest that women had a more difficult time gaining and keeping their peers respect especially when working with male leaders. One male leader, in discussing this issue of respect, explained how men think they could do the same position or do it better to some extent. Leonard and Sigal (1989) also stated that female student leaders, unlike male leaders, have to bear the consequences of being perceived as too controlling and losing peer approval. The student interviewees supported this concept in varying degrees. One female leader while describing her need to be assertive when necessary commented that she is then perceived, as a bitch or whatever and its kind of unfair. Most notable about this data is the how the students selected the student leaders to comprise their top ten. The only direction provided to the students was the prompt to determine their top ten student leaders on campus and describe the gender breakdown of those leaders. The idea that the leaders should be whom they believe are the best campus leaders was emphasized. Interestingly enough, all the students had positional leaders included in their lists. Some students even said they selected positional leaders whom they did not respect, like, or believe to be good leaders. Yet, these positional leaders had a title or a position that was respected on campus, which is the reason for the inclusion. A student commenting on his leader selection said, I feel that people that are voted on are just of the higher quality of leadership. Other students discussed the politics surrounding student elections and the popularity contests many elections become. This woman explained the rationale behind her list of leaders: 134 I was thinking of people in various organization in RUB (student union program board) and I was thinking of a couple of service organizations and then like an honors organization, so I dont know, I guess kind of a fair range of stuff, and the student body president. I dont know, I dont think hes very good. I was surprised, when given the opportunity to select the leaders they each respected and thought were positive, effective leaders that so many titled positions appeared in each students list. I thought women leaders would be less inclined to name a positional leader than men, as the woman would reflect more on what characteristics a good leader should posses rather than a title. I thought all of these educated students would think beyond positions and base their decisions on accomplishments, integrity, and ethics of leaders instead of relying on titles or positions to dictate their beliefs. Student Government The survey results demonstrate a trend involving men and their involvement in student government. Many staff members maintained that men were still very involved in student government, perhaps even over represented considering the male and female rations in the student population. In fact, other than participation in intramurals or club sport, student government was the one consistent co-curricular activity mentioned with respect to males. This concept was fully supported by the students. In fact, student government was a large factor in the discussion regarding gender having a role in campus leadership. Many of the students felt gender dictated a students role within campus leadership, especially when student government was involved. This man shared, As far as on Senate, when I sat on Senate, I think it was 135 about there was like four girls out of like 18 people. Another women explained within her student government all the executive officers were guys usually. Clearly, student government carries the perception of a male dominated activity. A related finding to this student government theme involves the three students who reported their student leader gender ratio as three women and seven men. All three students are from the same institution with a very political, almost overbearing student government system. A male involved in what a female student explained as a politicians world shared that the top ten to 15 positions within student government were all held by males. He further explained, It helps because most of the major positions on campus are legacy, meaning they know who the persons going to be even before the vote takes place. With positions already promised through this legacy arrangement, it is very difficult for women to break into the upper echelon of student government leadership. Several students considered the current state of national politics as a pattern for student governments within higher education institutions. Therefore, societys values and norms are mirrored within the students perceptions of politics on campus and result in a male-dominated structure. This male leader suggested to affect change, we should begin nationally like the United States also I think we could use a woman president, I just dont know how to get there. This male leader said, I was kind of disappointed in the female motivation to be involved, but then you look at the Senate, like the U.S. Senate, and theres obviously you know, theres not as much female I mean, very few females on the Senate. 136 Another example of student government reflecting societys political views comes from a young woman of color. Here she describes her attempts to become involved with student government, The second time I tried to get involved with Student Government, I realized that is was a politicians world. I was indirectly told that I couldnt get involved because of my skin color. This is sad statement for a student to make about any co-curricular activity, yet even more disturbing when referring to the governing student body that, theoretically, should be representative of the student body. The hierarchical nature of student government could be what draws men to get involved. One male student even commented that he believes men get involved more to improve their resume than give back to the institution. Perhaps, a position in student government is universally more recognizable on a resume due the hierarchy of position and therefore more attractive to men. This male believes that the lack of creativity in a student government might turn women away: I dont know the last time we had a woman as the student body president and I dont know why really. I dont know if it just works out that way or not. I mean, that could be a difference there in that were kind of less theres almost like less creativity I think in the Senate. In addition, this man speculated, it might be kind of that macho kind of egotistical environment that you see in Senate that might scare off girls. This notion of women being turned away from less creative organizations, positions, or task is mentioned in Murray and Halls (2001) study exploring types of activities each gender finds appealing. Women were found to have a greater interest 137 in service and creative activities (Murray & Hall, 2001). Men were drawn to activities of a more realistic or investigative nature (Murray & Hall, 2001). Additionally, research indicates that women resonate with activities that encourage connectedness, relationships, and an ethic of care (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003; Rhoads, 1998). The students responses support these results as many students described these exact characteristics as differences between male and female leaders. Romanos (1996) study supports this studys findings as it suggests that women are participating in leadership and maintaining key leadership positions on campuses across the nation. However, the results do point toward a disparity within student government. Older research demonstrated women were less likely to compete for leadership positions and did not get elected to positions as much as men (Astin, 1993; Hafner, 1989; Sassen, 1980). This study found that women are competing, however, they are still not getting elected at the same rate as men. Students at each institution shared stories regarding women not getting elected for student government positions or the male dominance within their student government. One male student, reflecting on how the last female student body president was remembered, said they [students] just put a very feminine tone on her or if they tell stories about her, its always, you know, of a girly moment. Co-curricular Involvement Both the survey respondents and the students interviewed believed that women were more involved in co-curricular activities than men. Of the institutions surveyed, fifty-eight stated this imbalance was occurring at their campus. Fourteen 138 of the 17 students said that women were more involved. The remaining three students believed an equal gender representation existed with respect to co-curricular involvement. When asked if this imbalance in co-curricular involvement posed a problem to the positive development of male students 66.2% of the institutions believed it did create an issue. The same question was asked regarding the positive development of female students; 37.3% of the responding institutions asserted this was a concern for female students development. The survey data indicated this was an issue for the positive development of men and women and, therefore, should be addressed by institutions to begin relieving this concern. Additionally, if institutions are already experiencing the affects of the gender imbalance within co-curricular involvements and leadership as demonstrated by this study, it follows that these experiences will be magnified as the population demographics continue to increase for women. For example, if an institution is currently witnessing a gender imbalance of more women in co-curricular involvement and leadership opportunities with a student population of women to men of 60:40; it makes sense that as this institutions gender ratio changes to 70:30 that the imbalance within co-curricular and leadership programs will also increase. The development issues for both genders may then be magnified as well. Therefore, if left unmanaged, this gender imbalance will, most likely, become a much larger concern in the upcoming years. This study found staff members maintained an absence of any gender from co-curricular involvements and leadership development at co-educational institutions 139 created concerns for the positive development of both genders. The literature supports the concerns expressed by staff members. As Astin (1984) established, student involvement leads to greater learning and development. Co-curricular opportunities enhance students cognitive growth, leadership development, and social responsibility (Astin, 1993; Baxter Magolda, 1992; Kezar & Moriarty, 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Rhoads, 1998). Clearly, if these benefits are attributed to involvement and men are increasingly less involved, this is a problem for their development. In addition, lower male involvement rates also affect the development of female students. Women cannot learn how to communicate and effectively work with men if men are not involved in organizations and leadership activities. The interviews helped explore whether or not this imbalance was affecting students. Several questions were asked during the student interviews to elicit responses about each students involvement experiences. Students showed no significant differences, based on gender, with respect to benefits or personal gains from involvement. The students overwhelmingly discussed their co-curricular involvements and leadership opportunities as the best part of their college careers. One student declared, Ive learned infinitely more out of the classroom than I have in the classroom. Other students wholeheartedly agreed with this statement. Of the 17 student interviewees, 12 students thought gender was an important enough issue for their institutions to pay attention to when dealing with the development of student leaders. While the students themselves are not aware of any 140 positive or negative experiences associated with the perceived gender imbalance, they did think it was worthy of the institutions attention. The students varied on their thoughts as to what an institution should and should not attempt in an effort to offset any imbalances. Notable suggestions included outreach to all students, but with an emphasis on men, higher expectations for student leaders, leadership programs designed to include more personalized attention and focus on difference between male and females leaders, more advanced leadership programs, and taking programs to the students via organization meetings and existing activities. One female leader offered this intriguing advice: I think administrators work a lot with the executive boards, but I think that the membership of organizations dont really see the merit that the administrators have to offer and I think if the administrators made themselves more available to the members and gave them more of a voice and empowered them to come up with ideas or solutions to problems, I think they would be more apt to make progress rather than just do the some old things. Students did not want to see their institutions engage in so much outreach that it was obvious a gender gap existed. Some did not believe gender should even be discussed in leadership programs, believing that calling too much attention to any one gender would result in negative repercussions. In addition, students did not want administrators to select students for honors or positions based on gender. Instead selection processes should be reviewed to assure fairness, but the best person for the position should always be selected regardless of gender or race. 141 Gender Balance One of the issues associated with a disproportionate number of any gender applying for positions or honors, is whether to maintain a gender balanced selection. Just over half, 52.9%, of the surveyed institutions replied they tried to maintain a gender balance when making student selections for positions. Other institutions did not believe a gender balance was important enough to warrant deliberate selections of one gender over another gender. Staff members were then asked if they had ever selected a less qualified student as a means to support a gender balance. Only 13.3% of the staff positively answered this question. I believe many staff members did not honestly answer this question. It is suspicious that so many institutions felt a gender balance was important, yet such a small amount admitted to selecting less qualified students to maintain that balance. However, all three of the institutions utilized as a site for the student interviews responded they had turned down a qualified student in order to keep a gender balance. The interviewed students, for the most part, were unaware of any students being selected or not selected for a position or honor due to their gender. A few students had first-hand experience with selections and admitted to selecting a less qualified male over a qualified female in order to keep a gender balance. With the exception of student government positions, women outnumbered men in many of the scenarios offered by the students. One woman commented on the competition among women saying, as far as between women to get a certain position . . . its 142 fierce. A student provided an example of this fierce competition as it pertained to her institutions Homecoming Court. As previously mentioned, ten students, five of each gender, were selected for the court, 20 women and nine men applied. Fifteen women did not receive this honor while only four men were not chosen. It was much easier for the males to be selected, as they only had to be better than four other men, whereas the women had fifteen other women to compete against. While it is easier for men to be selected, the meaning behind this honor is not diminished for the men. The students believed that selecting the best person for the job was most important. They discussed building a team by only selecting the most qualified individuals. A female leader discussing the selection processes at her institution said, I feel like most of all if it has to do with how qualified you are and how you can work within the context that you have to work in. The notion of maintaining a gender balance was not as important to the students. Another student leader explained, Its about the individual. I dont think that it should really matter if its equally distributed. However, in the examples students provided of their direct knowledge of selection processes, they discussed selecting less qualified students in order to have an adequate number of males represented or a balance. One female leader in describing her experiences in a selection process stated, We did pass over some women because we wanted to have more guys in the program. In addition, the student detailing the Homecoming Court scenario shared that more qualified women were turned away from the court to keep the gender balance required for the court. She acknowledged, there were definitely more qualified girls than guys. 143 This gender balance practice further establishes more competition among women while it allows men to essentially perform at a lesser level than women, yet still receive awards or honors. Therefore, in some cases, men are rewarded for being less qualified than women. Role and Influence The findings provided by the student interviewees indicated a difference between the role gender plays in campus leadership and the influence gender has on leadership. The students seemed to make a definite distinction between role and influence. While fewer students maintained gender influenced their leadership, many of the students shared an occasion where their gender influenced their leadership styles. However, the majority of the students maintained that gender could dictate a students leadership role on campus or how a student is perceived as a leader. One woman explained, I think gender does play a role while the person is in leadership and how they are how people are receptive to them and how they act as a leader. A male student leader discussed the social norms of gender stereotypes as an influencer in campus leadership. He said, there are social norms that play into what a leader becomes and while some males may want to lead a certain type of organization they will not because they dont want to be the leader of it because they dont want to be out in front of it. The students description of gender roles and gender influence are rooted in their individual concepts about gender socialization. Gender socialization influences the activities each gender selects for involvement (Murray & Hall, 2001). Students 144 learn the appropriate gender roles for each gender at a very young age and spend much of the rest of their lifetime assimilating to those socially accepted roles (Adams & Coltrane, 2004). This research study demonstrates the weight these gender roles carry and how they remain a strong contributing factor in students decisions. An example of gender playing a role in campus leadership cited most often was student government. Students clearly believed that student government was an organization better suited for men. Of course, exceptions exist, but at all three institutions males were the dominant gender within student government. In addition, discussions revealed a propensity for women to be drawn to more service type activities and leadership roles that allowed for more creativity or nurturing and men to be involved in sports and student government activities. This finding was consistent with numerous comments provided by survey respondents. One young man in stated, males are trying to take more traditional roles on as in sports or things like that rather than leadership opportunities. A survey respondent commented, Men just dont seem to want to take on the leadership roles. I really dont know the reason why it is they are shying away from leadership positions. Another staff member shared, men still hold the most prominent positions, student body president, program board president, and men are still participating strongly in the intramural program. These comments are consistent with Baxter Magoldas model of epistemological reflection that states that men are more apt to the mastery pattern of knowing. This pattern of knowing is characterized by their enjoyment of competition (Baxter Magolda, 1992). The mastery pattern suggests why intramurals 145 with the competition inherent in these sporting events are so appealing to male students. As previously stated, research supports the idea that creativity and the ability to form relationships appeals to women (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003; Rhoads, 1998). Conclusions This primary purpose of this research study was to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance within student involvement and leadership development at colleges and universities. This study investigated whether or not a gender imbalance existed at institutions across the nation and the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students. To that end, the perspectives of both student leaders and staff members from various institutions were gathered and analyzed. These research findings lead to four conclusions regarding the gender imbalance phenomenon within co-curricular involvement and leadership development of college students. The four conclusions are: 1. A gender imbalance exists at colleges and universities across the nation. Staff members indicated witnessing a gender imbalance in student involvement and leadership development. Students believed that women are more involved than men, yet men are active in upper level leadership positions. The students perceived gender imbalance only affects involvement not 146 leadership as men participate in leadership positions as much or more than women. 2. Students were not aware of any negative repercussions of this gender imbalance. Essentially, the imbalance is not affecting students in ways that are apparent to the students. Staff members, on the other hand, believed that this imbalance negatively impacted students regardless of gender. 3. Students were not aware of gender in terms of students engaging in leadership and involvement opportunities. Gender was not considered a function of any students identity, at least not initially. 4. Intentional outreach, education and positive role modeling or mentoring were viewed as potential solutions to combat declining male involvement. Recommendations It is important to clarify that, at this current time, I do not believe men should be provided any preferential treatment with respect to student involvement and leadership development. I do recommend stimulating their interest and awareness of opportunities, but never to the detriment of women. I believe student affairs practitioners can begin to positively engage men without calling too much attention to the imbalance through very intentional programming and interactions. Based on the research findings and my experiences in campus activities at an institution experiencing a gender imbalance in co-curricular activities, I offer six recommendations for institutions. I believe the incorporation of these recommendations can work to alleviate the gender imbalance. However, as fewer 147 men continue to enter higher education, more needs to be done to resolve future concerns associated with what may become a dramatic gender disparity. 1. Hire more male staff members within student affairs. Both staff members and students discussed mentoring and role models as essential methods to engage male students. Several staff members indicated the lack of entry-level male student affairs staff members as a hindrance to male involvement. Based on the student responses, students generally stay with their own gender when selecting role models or mentors. Baxter Magolda (1992) found that students need comfortable environments or experiences in order to provide a foundation to construct new knowledge. Having male members of the student affairs staff directly working with students can provide the level of comfort needed for male students to succeed. In addition, staff members influence leadership development in several ways (Komives et al., 2005). Some staff members might be the first to recognize and encourage leadership in a student and others may serve as mentors and role models (Komives et al., 2005). To that end, male staff and faculty members should be encouraged to advise student organizations and other activities. This provides another avenue for contact with students that could lead to a positive developmental relationship. Students appreciate the encouragement of a staff member making them aware of a position or an activity that the staff member believes would suit them. Merely letting the 148 male students know that a staff member believes in them and their potential may ignite a students passion for involvement and leadership 2. Enhance student leadership development programs for all students. It appears that students are not taking advantage of the leadership programs offered at their institutions. The students either were not aware of the programs, would not make the time to participate in the programs, or did not see any direct benefit from participation. I recommend enhancing these programs to include targeted programs for both genders as well as a gender awareness component built into existing programs. Komives et al. (2005) recommends moving beyond the basic skill building to include the process of creating a leadership identity. These programs would assist students in the creation of the leadership identity and ensure gender is included in that identity. These programs, or a portion of the overall leadership development services, should be institutionalized. All first-year students should participate in a seminar class that helped the students learn about the benefits of involvement, leadership development opportunities, and general university knowledge. With such a class, I believe more students, including males, would get involved in co-curricular activities. Since only five of the responding institutions maintain a male leadership program, perhaps emphasizing this type of program will attract more men and help to reduce the gender gap in involvement. Davis (2002) held that 149 male college students felt challenged, but not supported. This type of leadership program would provide the needed support for the male students as well as a challenge. Lastly, we know that men are involved within intramurals and recreational sport organizations. In addition, Baxter Magolda (1992) indicated men like competition and working within groups that compete. I suggest this notion of competition be infused into some of the leadership programs or services offered. It does not have to be direct competition, but rather team competitions for projects or community service events. The main emphasis should not be the competition, just enough to incorporate this need for competition. 3. Provide role models and mentoring programs for both genders. The interviewees could easily list students or staff members who served as role models or mentors for them. In many cases, these individuals were the sole reason a student became involved in a particular activity. Therefore, I recommend creating first year mentorship programs pairing new students with seasoned student leaders and a staff member. The pairings are made once the student accepts their admission offer. This allows for correspondence to begin prior to the first year student beginning classes. The semester long program will include very specific requirements, but also allows for flexibility to encapsulates the interests and strengths of the mentoring pair. 150 As previously stated, the literature, students and staff all support the notion of mentoring programs. From my experience, I know they are difficult to maintain. In order for these programs to work, a dedicated staff member must remain in constant contact with the mentoring pairs and provide events, workshops, or activities for the pairing to attend. While difficult to implement, when successfully done, the benefits to both the mentee and mentor can be extraordinary. 4. Make involvement benefits clear to all students. The student and staff focused research suggested males were not as willing to try something new as their female counterparts. The students speculated that different reasons exist for why each gender decides to become involved on campus. Women were more likely to become involved earlier in their academic careers and did not shy away from new activities or organizations. The men were more apt to wait and see what could be gained from involvement and if a program was successful before agreeing to participate. If involvement benefits were clearly articulated from the onset through orientation, publications, and websites, male students might become engaged earlier. Perhaps even linking co-curricular activities to career achievements through young, successful alumni would help to motivate males. Regardless the exact method, making the long and short term benefits of involvement very clear to all students will aid in their decision to become involved and assume leadership positions. If this were coupled with the 151 enhanced leadership programs, students would also learn how to lead with integrity and genuineness, so as to avoid young leaders seeking titled leadership positions for the wrong reasons. 5. Intentional marketing and outreach. When asked their opinion of how to ameliorate the gender imbalance within activities and leadership development, both staff and students suggested improved targeted marketing. However, I tend to believe a few well-placed flyers will not make the difference. Instead, I recommend a concentrated effort to target males. This starts with focus groups of male leaders and male student organizations to determine where they go on campus, what attracts their attention and what programs do they believe will be well attended by males. An all male marketing team can be created with the purpose of attending fraternity meetings, classes known to have a higher number of males, and flyering locations on campus where male students were found to frequent. In addition, new Internet technology should be utilized to advertise opportunities and events. The marketing should go to the students, not make the students look for the marketing. Student affairs professionals, faculty members and current student leaders should all make an effort to encourage younger students. Again, having an individual communicate their belief in a student can provide the impetus needed to engage in involvement and leadership opportunities. The 152 intentional recruitment of males for positions or organizations may alleviate the imbalance found in so many student organizations. Creating a four year plan for all students may also alleviate this concern. This plan includes a list of programs, activities, and events every student should be aware of or participate in each academic year in order to progress toward a successful college experience and graduation. Embedded within each years plan are involvement and leadership opportunities. This outreach program would assist in providing all students with a more standardized approach to achieve specific developmental tasks, but flexible to allow for individual student interests and goals. 6. Raising gender awareness of students. As previously stated, students were unaware of gender and the role gender plays in their leadership identity. Perhaps if students were more aware of their gender and how gender is an essential component of their identity, they would pay more attention to gender and how it affects them. Working with students through intentional programs and reflection to raise their individual and collective perceptions of gender would work to alleviate this lack of knowledge. Gender components should be added to leadership programs to teach students about leadership identity and how their gender affects them either directly or indirectly. This increased awareness is not only working to create a more holistic view of all individuals, but it allows for difference and similarities to be examined and openly discussed. This type of 153 examination provides opportunities for dialogue resulting in positive student growth and improved communication and understanding. It should be noted that none of these recommendations should be used to the detriment of the other gender. Currently, the students do not see this impending gender imbalance as a concern; therefore, staff members should not draw so much attention to it that it becomes a larger issue for the students. Acting proactively now may lessen the impact of this gender imbalance later. Implications for Future Research This research study, while exploring a relatively new phenomenon, raises many more questions. It is clear that a gender imbalance exists at colleges and universities across the country in terms of co-curricular involvement and leadership. This imbalance goes beyond the demographic make-up of the institutions. However, what is not entirely clear is how the students are affected by this imbalance. This current study found students, for the most part, were unaware of the gender disparities even within their own organizations. As women continue to enter higher education at a rate larger than men, this imbalance will likely swell and students will become more aware of the affects. While it appears that a gender imbalance exists, the research tentatively suggests that the imbalance is not affecting students. This study only provide s snapshot of those participants at their particular institutions at a very specific time. However, the nature of this issue is very dynamic and, as such, cannot be definitively resolved. In addition, the student experiences described through this study may be 154 quite different from student experiences in five or even 10 years. Therefore, additional research is needed to further explore this phenomenon and provides practitioners with a better understanding of the affects of this gender imbalance. This study yields more questions than answers. The process of researching brought more issues to the forefront. Several other studies could be conducted on this topic with varying degrees of focus. For example, selecting institutions with 75% or more female students for student and staff interviews may result in discovering more dramatic affects of this imbalance. Research could be conducted with a more in depth analysis of each gender or a focus on students, not student leaders. An exploration of college students who are not actively involved in co- curricular activities on campus may reveal reasons why students do not get involved through campus. This type of research might also disclose off campus activities that positively contribute to their development thereby, rendering campus involvement unnecessary. In addition, a more intense look at each gender could expose gender specific areas of involvement or concerns that did not surface through this study. Further, this issue can also be explored from the staff perspective or through analysis of the greek system, where organizations are gendered. Interviewing staff members might reveal additional concerns with a gender balance and provide information rich accounts of experiences and possible ways to alleviate concerns for student development. The staff perspective was represented in this study through the survey results. However, interviews could provide more information as well allowing for better explanations of responses, which the survey did not afford 155 respondents. Additionally, utilizing the greek system as gender specific organizations for comparisons and contrasts of programs, benefits, and accomplishments could yield beneficial data pertaining to gender differences. Research can also be conducted with high school students. The involvement patterns of each gender in high school and beyond can be analyzed. What is the motivation for high school involvement and is it different for college? Are males active in high school as a means to enter into higher education, then once in college, is involvement no longer necessary? Perhaps a longitudinal study that follows high school freshman though college graduation would prove valuable. On a broader scope, an investigation focused on the reasons males are not entering higher education would also provide constructive information to help understand this phenomenon. Further research should look at student governments and the high propensity for male involvement. What does this activity provide, that others do not, that attract men? In addition, research could help better understand single-gendered student organizations and how participation in these organizations influences students. Attempting to understand why students do not think in terms of gender would be an interesting investigation as well. All of these studies would provide information, which can be used to more effectively engage students in co-curricular activities and leadership development. Additional research should be conducted on student leaders after graduation to determine how successful they have been, what they contribute their success to 156 and to examine any inequities. Focusing on female graduates would also provide interesting data. Research could determine if the lack of male involvement in college affected women in their careers. Did women feel they understood how to effectively communicate and work with men given the little experience afforded to them in college? Or did women seek other experiences outside of their college involvement that provided opportunities to work with men in order to gain this perspective? The purpose of all of these proposed research studies is to further explore student involvement and leadership development among students to better understand their reasons for becoming involved and the developmental benefits associated with involvement whether on or off campus. Additionally, this proposed research shares a focus on gender to again better understand differences, likenesses, motivations, and needs. Learning is central to every institutions mission. It takes place not just beyond classrooms but also beyond an institutions campus walls. Understanding how to promote learning and positive student development is a constant goal of student affairs administrators. This enhanced understanding translates to improved outreach, programs and opportunities, which augment the students development and college experience. This research study explored a phenomenon that has yet to reach its peak. The results offer perspectives from staff members and student leaders. Much more research can be done to further our understanding of this gender imbalance. This study substantiates the imbalance and provides a foundation for continued research. 157 Future research may provide more answers and eventual solutions to ensure the positive development of all students. Closing The intention of the study was to analyze an issue that, from the researchers perspective, is just beginning to take shape. This research demonstrates a perceived concern that was validated through staff and student testimony. However, acknowledging the issue is merely step one. Much more work is required if student affairs practitioners wish to alleviate the possible negative affects of this gender imbalance. It is my hope that this study brings this issue to the forefront and helps others to begin creatively thinking of ways to engage all students in co-curricular activities and leadership development programs. 158 REFERENCES Adams, M., & Coltrane, S. (2005). Boys and men in families. 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Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 165 APPENDIX A: IRB APPROVAL LETTER UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY PARK INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD FWA 00007099 Review of Research Involving Human Subjects C E R T I F I C A T I O N N O T I C E Date: Wed Sep 06 13:16:11 2006 Principal Investigator: Heather Larabee Faculty Advisor: Michael Jackson Co-Investigators: Project Title: EXPLORING THE GENDER IMBALANCE WITHIN STUDENT INVOLVEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT (Gender Imbalance within Student Involvement) USC UPIRB #UP-06-00290 The University Park Institutional Review Board has reviewed the information you submitted pertaining to the above proposal and has: ___ Approved Study Educ Psych SocWk Socio Bus Annen ___ Approved the Designated Review ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ X Claim of Exemption Certified ___ Approved continuation ___ Approved amendment X Certified under the review by the designee; exemption: - 45 CFR 46.101 (b) (2) (Certified without conditions on 9/6/2006) Note that the UPIRB has made minor revisions to the Information Sheet and/or recruitment documents. Your study is exempt from the regulations under 45 CFR 46; however, the UPIRB recommend that you use the revised documents when recruiting or enrolling potential subjects. The recruitment document(s) and/or Information Sheet will not be stamped by the UPIRB, and can be accessed under the Documents tab in the study workspace in iStar. Note the marked version of the revised document is attached for your records. Please use the documents as a template for future revisions. 166 Please note: This Claim of Exemption Certification Notice is valid for the life of the study. If there are changes to the study, an amendment must be submitted to the UPIRB for review and certification; prior to implementation. Please be advised that, per federal regulations, the IRB will be monitoring adherence to approved research protocols. The oversight process does not end with approval of a proposal. We appreciate your understanding of our collaborative efforts to maintain the integrity of our human subjects research approval processes and procedures to ensure continuous quality improvement and academic excellence at USC. Principles To Be Followed By Principal Investigators: As the Principal Investigator, you have ultimate responsibility for the conduct of the study, the ethical performance of the project, the protection of the rights and welfare of human subjects, and strict adherence to any stipulations imposed by the USC UPIRB. You must abide by the following principles when conducting your research: 1. Perform the project by qualified personnel according to the approved protocol. 2. Do not implement changes in the approved protocol or consent form without prior USC UPIRB approval (except in a life-threatening emergency, if necessary to safeguard the well-being of human subjects). 3. If written consent is required, obtain the legally effective written informed consent from human subjects or their legally responsible representative using only the currently approved USC-UPIRB stamped consent form. 4. Promptly report all undesirable and unintended, although not necessarily unexpected adverse reactions or events, that are the result of therapy or other intervention, within five working days of occurrence. All fatal or life- threatening events or events requiring hospitalization must be reported to the USC UPIRB in writing within 48 hours after discovery. 5. No subjects may be identified, contacted, recruited, or enrolled until the University finalizes the contract with the sponsor. RoseAnn Fleming, Program Specialist 167 APPENDIX B: SURVEY INFORMED CONSENT AND SURVEY Gender in Student Activities and Leadership 1. Consent to Participate in ResearchGender in Student Activities and Leadership EXPLORING THE GENDER IMBALANCE WITHIN STUDENT INVOLVEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Heather Larabee, Ed.D. student and Professor Michael L. Jackson in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California (USC). The results of this study will contribute to a doctoral dissertation. Your participation is voluntary. If you would like to skip directly to the survey, scroll to the bottom of this page and click on the word "NEXT". PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this applied research study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance phenomenon at colleges and universities. More specifically, the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students will be addressed. It is hoped that this study will provide valuable insight into this gender imbalance, therefore adding to the lack of existing literature in this area. Response to the survey questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project. PROCEDURES The data collection for this phase of the research study is to complete the online survey. POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS This study does not pose any foreseeable risk or discomfort to you. POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY There will be no direct benefits to you. However, it is hoped that this study will provide much needed information regarding this emerging phenomenon on college campuses. 168 PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION There will be no compensation for your participation in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY There will be no information obtained in connection with this study that can be identified with you. Your name, address or other information that may identify you will not be linked to your data. When the results of this dissertation are discussed, no information will be included that will reveal your identity. The data will be destroyed three years after the study has been completed. PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL You can choose whether to participate in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you dont want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so. IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Dr. Michael Jackson at 213.740.5240 or mjackson@usc.edu, University of Southern California, STU 201, Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Heather Larabee at 213.740.8731 or larabee@usc.edu, Office of Campus Activities, TSC 100, Los Angeles, CA 90089. RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, 213.821.5272 or upirb@usc.edu. 169 Gender in Student Activities and Leadership 2. Overview This survey is designed to gather information regarding gender in leadership development programs and campus involvement. * 1. Name of Institution * 2. Please describe your institution (check all that apply) 2 year 4 year Private Public Commuter Campus Residential Campus 1,000-5,000 Undergraduate FTE 5,000-10,000 Undergraduate FTE 10,000-15,000 Undergraduate FTE 15,000-20,000 Undergraduate FTE 20,000+ Undergraduate FTE * 3. Please describe your undergraduate student demographics in percentages. Female Male 4. How many student organizations exist at your institution? 100-200 201-300 170 301-400 401-500 501-600 600+ 5. Does your institution have the following types of leadership development programs (check all that apply)? Emerging Leaders Program Greek Leadership Program LeaderShape Men's Leadership Program Multicultural Leadership Program Sophomore Leadership Program Student Organization Leadership Program Women's Leadership Program Others (please specify) 6. How are students selected for participation in the leadership programs (check all that apply)? Selection committee based on applications and/or interviews Student applications No selection process Other (please specify) 7. How many students participate in leadership programs each year? 171 8. Do more women than men participate in leadership programs? Yes No 9. Have you seen lower participation rates of men in leadership positions than women? Yes No 10. Think of 10 student leaders that you would describe as great student leaders with the respect of their peers. What is the gender of those students? Female Male 11. Have you seen lower participation rates of men in co-curricular activities than women? Yes No If yes, please describe 12. If you have witnessed lower participation rates of men in co-curricular activities and/or leadership positions, do you think this poses a problem for the positive student development of male students? Yes No Please explain your answer 172 13. If you have witnessed lower participation rates of men in co-curricular activities and/or leadership positions, do you think this poses a problem for the positive student development of female students? Yes No Please explain your answer 14. When selecting students for positions or awards/honors, do you try to maintain a gender balance? Yes No 15. Have you ever selected a less qualified student for a position or award to maintain an equal representation of men and women? Yes No If yes, please describe 16. If a gender imbalance does exist that affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students, what ideas do you have to rectify this? 17. Is there anything else you would like to add regarding the number of men and women participating in co-curricular activities and leadership development programs? 173 APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT INTERVIEWS University of Southern California Rossier School of Education INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH ****************************************************************** CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH EXPLORING THE GENDER IMBALANCE WITHIN STUDENT INVOLVEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Heather Larabee, Ed.D. student and Dr. Michael Jackson in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California (USC). The results of this study will contribute to a doctoral dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a graduating senior and active student leader. A total of 18 students like yourself will be selected to participate in this research. Your participation is voluntary. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this applied research study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance phenomenon at colleges and universities. More specifically, the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students will be addressed. It is hoped that this study will provide valuable insight into this gender imbalance, therefore adding to the lack of existing literature. PROCEDURES The data collection for this study will occur in two phases. In the Spring 2007 semester, you will first be asked to participate in a one-hour face-to-face interview. In the interview, you will be asked a series of questions related to your involvement and leadership experiences on campus. Before the face-to-face interviews, I will seek your permission to audio-tape our interview. After each interview has been transcribed, you will then have a chance to correct the transcription. All interviews will be conducted at a place that is comfortable for you. After the completion of all the face-to-face interviews, you will be invited to review research findings of the 174 study and provide clarification or confirmation of these findings through email. All forms and audio-recordings will be stored and locked in the office of the principal investigator. If you choose not to be audio-recorded, then you will not be allowed to participate in this research study. POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS This study does not pose any foreseeable risk or discomfort to you. POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY There will be no direct benefits to you. However, it is hoped that this study will provide much needed information regarding this growing phenomenon on college campuses. PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION There will be no compensation for your participation in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY There will be no information obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you. Your name, address or other information that may identify you will not be linked to your data. After the completion of this study, all audio-tapes will be destroyed. You will have the right to review/edit your interview upon request. All data and audio-tapes will be stored in my personal password protected computer and will be coded to protect your identity. Only the researchers will have access to this computer and it is kept in a locked office. When the results of this dissertation are discussed, no information will be included that will reveal your identity. The data will be destroyed three years after the study has been completed. PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL You can choose whether to participate in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you dont want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so. 175 IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Dr. Michael Jackson at 213.740.5240 or mjackson@usc.edu, University of Southern California, STU 201, Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Heather Larabee at 213.740.8731 or larabee@usc.edu, Office of Campus Activities, TSC 100, Los Angeles, CA 90089 RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, 213.821.5272 or upirb@usc.edu. SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT I understand the procedures described above, and I understand fully the rights of a potential subject in a research study involving people as subjects. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form. I agree to be audio taped during my interview. I do not want to be audio taped during my interview. Name of Subject Signature of Subject Date SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR I have explained the research to the subject and answered all his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate. Name of Investigator Signature of Investigator Date 176 APPENDIX D: PARTICIPANT PROFILE FORM Academic Information: Year in School □ Junior □ Senior Major(s) Minor(s) Gender: □ Female □ Male Race/Ethnicity: □ African American/Black □ Biracial/Multiracial □ Asian/Asian American □ Native American/American Indian □ Latino/Hispanic/Chicano □ White/Caucasian Undergraduate Activities: Club/Organization Leadership Positions Held (if any) 177 Honors, Awards, & Achievements: Award Year(s) Received 178 APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL 1. Please introduce yourself by stating your name, year in school, gender, and hometown. 2. Tell me about your co-curricular experiences here at <insert institution> starting from your first year to present day. • FOLLOW UP: What inspired you to get involved in these activities? • FOLLOW UP: How important have these experiences been to you? • FOLLOW UP: What do you believe you have gained from participating in these activities? 3. Do these co-curricular experiences mirror what you did in high school? • FOLLOW UP: If not, how are they different? 4. Have your out of class experiences at <insert institution> been what you expected? • FOLLOW UP: Tell me about a time when you were disappointed with one of your experiences. 5. With respect to your co-curricular activities, have you been able to achieve all that you wanted to do at <insert institution>? • FOLLOW UP: If not, why? 6. What types of leadership activities did you engage in at <insert institution>? • FOLLOW UP: How were you made aware of these activities? • FOLLOW UP: Describe your most relevant experience? 7. Do you believe that gender plays a role in campus leadership? • FOLLOW UP: Do you think men and women are drawn to certain types of activities or leadership positions because of their gender? • FOLLOW UP: Please describe these activities or leadership positions? 8. Do you think that <insert institution> offers equal opportunities for both genders? • FOLLOW UP: Do you believe both genders take advantage of these opportunities equally? 9. What differences, if any, have you witnessed among men and women in leadership activities at <insert institution>? 179 10. With respect to competition for leadership positions, do you think an equal number of men and women apply for leadership positions? • FOLLOW UP: Do you feel the selection process is fair? • FOLLOW UP: Do you feel you have not been selected for a position or honor based on your gender? 11. Think of student leadership roles on campus, how would describe the gender composition of your top ten student leaders on campus? • FOLLOW UP: Tell me why you selected these student leaders. 12. Do you feel gender influences leadership? • FOLLOW UP: Tell me about a time when you felt your gender influenced your leadership style. 13. Do you have any mentors or role models at <insert institution> that facilitated your involvement or leadership development? • FOLLOW UP: Please describe one of these relationships. 14. If you were to give a campus administrator advice about leadership programs on campus, what would that be? • FOLLOW UP: Would you recommend any changes on the basis of gender? 15. Should your school or other colleges and universities pay attention to issues of gender when dealing with the development of student leaders? • FOLLOW UP: If yes, why? If no, why not? 16. Do you have any concluding remarks of comments you would like to add? 180 APPENDIX F: PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT EMAIL - SURVEY Dear Colleague, My name is Heather Larabee. I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern Californias, Rossier School of Education. I am conducting research involving male and female student leaders for my dissertation project. Your participation is voluntary. I would like you to complete the survey at the link provided http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=791512294536 regarding gender and student involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership programs at your institution. After the survey data is collected and analyzed, three institutions will be chosen for more in-depth interviews. If your institution is selected, I will contact you to discuss the possibility of your institutions participation. Again, this is completely voluntary. Any information obtained in connection to this study that can be identified with you will remain completely confidential. Data gathered from the survey will be used only for authorized research and will not be used by anyone for competitive advantage or financial gain. If you are interested, please complete the online survey. Thank you so much for your time and thoughtful responses. I am hopeful that this research will be beneficial to all student affairs professionals. Sincerely, Heather ____________________ Heather Larabee University of Southern California Topping Student Center 100 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0921 213.740.5693 Tel 213.740.3788 Fax larabee@usc.edu 181 APPENDIX G: PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT EMAIL - INTERVIEW Dear <full name>, My name is Heather Larabee. I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education. I am conducting research involving male and female student leaders for my dissertation project. Your participation is voluntary. I would like to interview you for approximately 60 minutes to discuss your experiences as a student leader and how gender may have influenced your leadership activities, experiences and development. Your participation in this study will allow me to explore gender in leadership and better understand gender differences amongst student leaders. Six student leaders will be selected from three distinct institutions totaling 18 students participating in this study. All students who agree to participate in this study will be sent the preliminary research findings via email to review. Your comments on the results will be incorporated in the final results. This should take you approximately 30 60 minutes to review and send feedback. Any information obtained in connection to this study that can be identified with you will remain completely confidential. Data gathered from the interview will be used only for authorized research and will not be used by anyone for competitive advantage or financial gain. If you are interested, I would like to speak with you to further discuss your participation in this study. Please let me know when you are available to do so. If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study, please contact me. I look forward to speaking with you. Sincerely, Heather ____________________ Heather Larabee University of Southern California Topping Student Center 100 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0921 213.740.5693 Tel 213.740.3788 Fax larabee@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this applied research study is to explore, describe and analyze the gender imbalance phenomenon at colleges and universities. More specifically, the manner in which this gender imbalance affects involvement in co-curricular activities and leadership development among students is addressed. This topic is considered from the perspective of both the student and campus activities professional staff member. By incorporating both perspectives, the issue of gender imbalance is more fully explored. In addition, the differing implications for the students and campus activities staff members were analyzed as well as differences between genders. A better understanding of these gender specific differences lead to an increased awareness of students' gender in issue surrounding leadership and involvement. This increased awareness and understanding can inform practice yielding positive developmental experiences for all students.
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Larabee, Heather
(author)
Core Title
Exploring the gender imbalance within student involvement and leadership development
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
08/01/2009
Defense Date
04/27/2007
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
gender,leadership development,OAI-PMH Harvest,student invovlement
Language
English
Advisor
Jackson, Michael L. (
committee chair
), Harper, Shaun (
committee member
), Kezar, Adrianna (
committee member
)
Creator Email
larabee@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m732
Unique identifier
UC1304276
Identifier
etd-Larabee-20070801 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-544944 (legacy record id),usctheses-m732 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Larabee-20070801.pdf
Dmrecord
544944
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Larabee, Heather
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
gender
leadership development
student invovlement