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An investigation into the equipment, techniques, and problems associated with underwater cinematography
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An investigation into the equipment, techniques, and problems associated with underwater cinematography
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Content
INVESTIGATION INTO 'IHE EQUIPMENT, TECHNIQUES, AND
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH UNDERWATER CINEMATOGRAPHY
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of Cinema
Institute of the Arts
The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for t he De ree
Master of Arts
by
Robert William Johnson
August 1952
--
,_
,- .
I ..,
This th esis) w ritten by
under the guidan ce of /i 1,_ ______ Fa ulty C ornnzitt ee)
and approved by all its n1 en1b ers) has been
presented to and a c ep ted by th e Coun ii on
Graduate Study and R esearch in partial fullfill
n z n t of th e r qui r 111 n ts f u r th d !J r e of
. r . . ..
·------ -- -~ --- --- · ----- _ __ .. _ .).._ --- - --- .. -- - \. --- ----- ----- -- ----- -- --- -
Fa ulty Co 111mitt
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
The problem and its scope .
The problem •••.•.•
Statement of the problem
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • •
Importance of the problem
• • • • • •
Organization of the remainder of the
the s 1s • • . . • • • . • . . . • •
Definitions of terms used.
Dissolved matter
Suspended matter
Nuisance light
• • • •
• • • •
• • • • •
• •
• • • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
water haze
Haze light
Photo-diver
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Review of related studies
• • • • • • • •
PAGE
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
Method of procedure and sources of data. 4
II. A BRIEF HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF
UNDERWATER CIN IvlATOGRAPHY.
• • • •
History
Dr. L
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Boutan • .
• • • • • • • •
. . ..
• • •
• • •
5
5
6
CHAPTER
Mr. c. Williamson
• •
Mr. H. Hartman
• • •
Dr. w. H. Langley
• •
Dr. P. Bartsch
• • •
Mr. A. c. Pillsbury
•
Dr. w. Beebe
• • • •
Mr. E. R. F. Johnson
Mr. Dan Clark .••.
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • •
• • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
Mechanical Improvement Corporation
•
Jean Painleve
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Captain J. D. Crary .
• • • • • • • •
Drs. E. Newton Harvey and Edward R.
Baylor
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
Dr. W. Maurice E~ing
Mr. Frank Haymaker
• • • • • • • • •
U. S. Navy
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
W. F. Dudley Whitman
Eclair Camera Company
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
Professor J. F. Storr.
• • • • • • •
Present status
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Hollywood ..•.
Jacques Cousteau
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
iii
PAGE
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
17
CHAPTER
III.
IV.
v.
U.S. Navy
Amateurs
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
PHOTOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS UNDERWATER
Physical qualities of water .•
Nuisance light . • . • • . .
• • • •
• • • • •
• • • • •
Measure of clarity
• • • • • • • • • •
Spectral qualitv of water ••.•.
• • •
Filtering action ..•..••.
• • •
Filming with sunlight ...... .
• • •
Underwater dangers
• • • • • • • • • • •
Fish ...•..
• • • • • • • • • • •
Coral.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Compressed air diseases •.•
OPTICS OF UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY
• • • • •
• • • • •
Cine lenses
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Focus correction ....•..•.
Spherical and chromatic aberration
• •
• •
Reduction of lens angle .....
• • •
Filters . . • . . . . . . . . . . .
• • •
Correction filters
• • • • • • • • • •
Polarizing screens .....•....
UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHIC EQ UIPMENT .•.•.
Design requirements •
• • • • • • • • • •
iv
PAGE
18
19
21
21
22
22
23
24
26
27
27
28
28
29
29
29
30
30
31
31
32
34
34
CHAPTER
VI .
Fenjohn 16 mm . camera
• • • • • • • • •
Aquaflex
35
mm . camera
• • • • • •
• •
Aqualung
• •
~
•
• • • • • • • • • • •
Welborne camera
• • • • • • • • • •
• •
Naval Ordnance Laboratory high speed
cameras .....
• • • • • • • • • •
Gottschalk camera .
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
Fenjoh expo ure meter
SUMMARY AND CO CLUSION . . . . .. . . . .
Summary . .
Conclusions
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
V
PAGE
36
38
40
41
42
43
45
47
47
51
55
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
As the reader might surmise, underwater cinema
tography is the technique of filming motion pictures
below the surface of the , water, and, since three-fourths
of the earth's surface is covered by water, this offers
a vast new and exciting world to record on film.
Submarine photography is nothing new, but with
the recent advancement in technique and equipment, its
long-recognized potentialities are today being realized.
Naturally, underwater photography introduces certain
problems that are quite foreign to surface photography,
but through the efficient design and use of the under
water camera, these difficulties can be minimized and
excellent results can be achieved.
The future for underwater cinematography is ex
tremely bright, not only in the entertainment and
scientific fields, but also in the production or educa
tional films, navy training films, salvage explorations,
the investigation of underwater missiles, and countless
other areas of research.
I • THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem.
----- - --- ----
The purpose of this
study is (1) to consider the historical background and
present status of underwater cinematography; (2 ) to
examine the photographic conditions found under water;
(3) to consider the optics of underwater photography;
and (4) to discuss the vario s pieces of equipment de-
signed to operate under water.
2
Importance of the problem. To date, no study of
-
this kind has been made at The University of Southern
California or at any other university, to the r1ter s
knowledge. The importance and implications of submarine
photography to the United States Navy , and o oceano graphers warrants this investigation in terms and within
the scope of this thesis.
Organization of the remainder of the thesis.
--------- -- --= - -
Chapter II will trace the history and present status
of underwater cinematography. Chapter III will be con cerned with photographic conditions under water. Chapter
IV will be devoted to the optics of underwater photo graphy. Chapter V will examine the equipment designed
3
to operate under water. Chapter VI will be a summary
of the study and will present conclusions drawn from the
foregoing data.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Dissolved matter. Matter which, du_ e to the
solvent property 0f water, is dissolved, thus reducing
the optical transparency of the medium .
Suspended matter. Particles of organic or in~
organic mat t er held in suspension by water due to its
dens i ty and viscosi y .
Nuisance light . A haze that ori ginates in the
scattering of light by the water and suspended matter
between the camera and the subject . It tends to mask
detail and contrast· as the distance becomes greater,
the haze becomes bri gh er , compared to the brightness
of the subject.
water haze . The equivalent of nuisance light .
Haze light. The equivalent of nuisance light .
Photo- diver . A cinematographer or cameraman who
operates a camera under water, utilizing a suitless
diving helmet or a self-contained compressed air diving
mask.
III. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
There have been no other studies here at the
University of Southern California whic h deal with, or
are related to this study.
IV. METHOD OF PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF DATA
4
The method of .this investigation has been the
examination of the literature concerning underwater
cinematography currently avai · able, correspondence with
designers and users of underwater equ i pment, and personal
interviews with others interested in underwater cinema
equipment.
CHAPTER II
A BRIEF HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS
OF UNDERWATER CINEMATOGRAPHY
I. HISTORY
Someone once said, "There is nothing really new
under the sun," and this is eertainly true about undersea
cinematography. Since there has been ver little written
on this phase of photographic history, most people assume
that it is a rather new development, but this is a false
assumption, for men have been photographing underwater
life since late in the nineteenth century. Not all of
their attempts have been successful, but with each
failure a new lessons was learned, and the succeeding
descents always proved more rewardin. Today , under
water cinematography is rapidl being recognized a a
definite part of the photographic art and not merel an
amateurish hobby or a freak.
1
The year 1893 marks the birth of underwater
1
Henry s. Moncrief, "Historical Development in
Underwater Photography," hotographic Society of America
Journal, 17:11-26, Nove ber, 1951. -
6
photograph· • In that year, Dr. L. Boutan, a French
biologist, enclosed a fixed - focus camera in a monstrous
water- tight copper box and took some recognizable pic tures of still objects beneath the surface of the water.
Seven years later, in 1900, he made the first successful
underwater night pictures by using crude arc lamps which
consisted of blowing magnesium over an alcohol lamp
2
burning in a submerged bell jar.
3
In 1908, Mr. c. Williamson, of Norfolk, Virginia,
proposed and illustrated an apparatus designed to photo graph beneath the surface of the sea at a m·~h greater
depth than was ever before attempted. His device was
a steel sphere, large enough for a man to get inside
and operate a camera . It as to be connected to t he
bottom of a barge b y a collapsib e steel tube. I lumina tion was to be furnished by several arc amps attached
to a cross beam an 1
barge.
red beneath the surface from the
Five years later, Williamson and his son success fully operate this sphere on the ottom of Hampton
2
Ibid., p . 26 .
3
Scientific American, 109 :6- 237, J uly, 1913.
7
Roads Bay, Virginia, and obtained some rather satisfactory
still and motion pictures. From the experience gained
from this venture, Williamson photographed what was
probably the first photoplay utilizing underwater se
quences,
1
w nty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," in the
4
year 1915.
5
Early in 1917, Mr. H. Hartman, a New York civil
engineer invented an electric camera rig for deep sea
photography. It consisted of three steel drums mounted
one above the other and supported by a bridle which was
connected to a cable leading to a ship's boom. The top
drum contained an electrically- driv n propeller hich
rotated at 400 RPM and permitted the rig to revolve,
taking pictures in all directions. The next drum con-
tained a still earner hich had shutter and focus, and
tilting was done el c ric lly from the deck or the ship.
The last dru as th light source hich as nitrogen
gas under pressure.
Little is kno n as to the use or resul s obtained
4
E. R. F. Johnsen, "Undersea Cinematography,"
Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineer$, 32:3-1, Janu~y, 1939.
5
"An Electric Camera for Deep Sea Photography,"
Scientific American 116:4-483, May, 1917.
from this equipment, which was by far the most unique
design yet utilized.
8
In 1917, Dr. W . H. Langley, ho is recognized as
the rather of underwater photography in the United States
of America, produced some usable underwater pictures and
his success encouraged others to experiment further. Dr .
Langley conducted most of his experiments at the Carnegie
Institution Station in Dry Tortugas , using a 4x5 Auto graphlex camera enclosed in a heavy brass box. This
camera, although heavy and clumsy , had the focus, speed,
and trigger available o the diver and was a great ad vancement in un erwater camera design.
Dr. Langley continued his experiments and in
l 23 he obtained the first underwater color pictures,
cal ed Autochromes . Because these pictures required
very long exposur s, subject matter as limited to still
6
ife. B 1 26 he as able to obtain color photographs
of fish by a unique and highly dangerous process which
involved the ignition of a pound of magnesium powder
on the surf ce of the ater with a reflector over the
top synchronized 1th the camera. This set-up was con fined to shallow water--ten to fifteen fe t--and was
6
Moncrief, 2.E.· cit., p. 26 .
moderately successful using an exposure of one-twentieth
of a second.
After several experimental ears, Dr. Paul
7
Bartsch, of the Smithsonian Institution, designed a
successful underwater motion picture camera in 1927 .
As there is no authoritative information on the first
underwater motion picture camera , it is assumed that
Dr. Bartsch's camera holds this distinction. At any
rate, it was the first motion picture camera tha could
be focused under water and operated by a diver rather
than from the inside of a bell or sphere.
8
Around thi same time, Arthur c. Pillsbury,
9
scientist, inventor, and lecturer, constructed both an
underwater still camera and motion picture camera .
Successful underwater pictures to illustrate his lectures
were taken. His motion picture cameras continued in the
hea class, weighing about one hundred seventy pounds .
The American Museum of Natural History conducted
9
an expedition to Haiti in 1928 to study fish and their
7
Ibid. , . 27 .
CL
8
Loe. cit .
9
William Beebe, Beneath Tropic Seas (New ork·
G. P. utnam's Sons, 1 28), . 211.
10
habits. An underwater motion picture camera compart
ment was constructed at the museum under the direction of
Messrs, William Beebe, Mark Barr, and John Tee-Van.
A 35 mm. DeVry motion picture camera was selected,
partly because of its shape, and was enclosed in a brass
water-tight box with a glass port. The rear opened to
allow insertion of the camera and was clamped closed by
ten screw clamps. It was water-tight, having no open ings of an kind, even the trigger the only underwater
control being the trigger which was operated by pressing
a rubber torsion disk . As there ere no outside adjust ments or controls, the camera had to be returned to the
surface for re-winding and for lens and focusing adjust
ments. In spite of these handicaps, some satisfactory
footage was obtained, as well as practical revisions for
future underwater camera designs .
10
E. R. Fenimore Johnson, of Ardmore , ennsylvania,
became interested in underwater photography in 1928
and designed a cylindrical water- tight housing for his
Eyemo motion picture camera. In this first apparatus,
only the trigger was available to the diver and very
little usable footage was obtained
10
Johnson, o . cit., p. 2 .
-
11
Johnson continued his development of an under-
water movie camera nder e name of he Mechanical
Improvements Corporation (later changed to Fen ohn)
and pt to good us e thee perienc gained from h s first
underwater at empt .
I n 1929 , Dan Clar, A. S.
11
C. , a ameraman for
tl ~ Fox Studi s , desi ne ad bu lt a ood n diving b 11
in whic h ph togra h ~ om n rat r seen s of
horses w ming for a Tom M pictur . he foota ob-
tained was quit usable, although Mr . Cla k was nearly
drown d hen th hors s b came X 'J i d and nearly kicked
his frail wooden bell to piece s .
12
In 1931, Mr . Johnson s omp ny built a cast
alum nurn housing or a ell and o e 1 E emo, which was
us d y h Vanderb t - G 1 s Oceanographic Exp d tion
or 1 31 . Some of e footage from this expedition was
C e int e commercial mot on picture production
by Van erbi t, called "Devils Playground . "
The Johnson- Smithson an deepsea camera hous i g
11
Loretta K. Dean, "At the B ttom of e S a,"
American Cinemato raphe, 10: - 34 , August , 1929 .
12 l "
A fred L. Gi ks, A • • c. , Undersea Photo-
raphy 1th an Ey mo," A erican Cinematographer, 12:
6- 9, 0 tober, 1 31 .
13
was constructed in 1933. Two features were ingenious
and interesting: on the optically flat quartz window
that lay on a lapped steel surface, no gaskets were
used; a perfect, non-leaking fit was accomplished when
the housing was closed through the use of a soft copper
gasket, which flowed under pressure when the housing
was closed. This camera was successfully owered to
12
a depth of 3,000 fathoms on the first descent, but,
unfortunately, on the second, the suspending ire parted
and the camera was lost.
14
Mechanical Improvements Corporation, in 1939,
produced an underwater motion picture camera with an
Akeley mechanism which embodied many ne feat re not
found on previous cameras. It included an electric
power-drive, a rotatable polari zing plate, interchange
able filters, and a choice of thr e lenses, all within
the housing and operable y the diver . This was a great
step forward in the functional design of the modern
undersea movie camera.
At this same time, a ater-t~ght housing for both
the Weston model 650 exposure meter and an underwater
1
3 Moncrief, £E.,· _s!_!., p. 27 .
14
Ibid., p. 26.
rangefinder was developed by the Mechanical Im rovement
Company to quickly determine the correct exposure and
camera- to-subject distance beneath the surface of the
water.
In France, Jean Painleve and Commander Le
15
Prieur, of the French Navy, got together and formed
13
the Club des Scaphondriers (Diver's Club), in 1935.
Painleve and club members did much to develop underwater
cinematography and the techniques evolved had important
consequences during World War 11. Painleve has produced
several films on underwater life, using oh the diving
and the aquarium technique . Among his works are
"L 'Hippocampe" (The Sea Horse), "Prodeces la Promenade
au Jardin," "Les Oursins" (Sea Urchins), and "La
Pienore" (The Octopus) .
A very colorful personalit~ in the person of
16
Captain John D. Crary entered the scene in 1935 . He
constructed an underwater motion picture camera using
a DeVry :tA" newsreel camera and took some hair- raising
adventure-type footage which was sold to various motion
l5 John Madison, "The World of Jean Painleve,"
Sight and Sound, 19.6-249, August, 1950.
16
Moncrief, op. cit., p. 26 .
-
picture companies.
In 1939, Drs. E. Newton Harvey and Edward R.
17
Baylor designed a pressure chamber with two windows,
one for a 16 mm. motion picture camera, the other for
a light, and recorded some small organisms at a depth
of from 500 to 700 fathoms.
18
Dr. w. Maurice Ewing, of Woods Hole Oceano-
14
graphic Institution, designed a very successful under water camera in 1941. He used a German Root still
camera in a water-tight case on a pole some twelve feet
long. Flash bu l bs att ached to the pole were set off
upon contact with the bottom. The camera was not joined
with the boat in any wa but returned to the surface
after taking the pictures upon automatically dropping
her ballast . Very successful pictures of limited areas
were taken down to 2,700 fathoms.
19
Using the Ewing camera , Frank Haymaker, of the
Scripps Institute of Oceanography , photographed the
17
Ibid., p. 27.
18
Ibid., p . 26 .
19
Francis P. Shepard, "Terrestial Topography of
Submarine Canons Revealed by Diving," Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America, 60:10- 1597, OctobeF,
1949 . -
15
submarine canyons off La Jolla, California. He o tained
several good photographs despite the fact that photo graphic conditions were not the most satisfactory.
20
During World War II, the navy produced several
training films which were photographed under water with
some success. A standard 35 mm. camera was encased in
a bulky water-tight housing without external controls
and was used successfully only with difficulty. Mr.
E. R. F. Johnson was recalled to active duty to coor dinate and develop the technique necessary to produce
satisfactory underwater motion pictures.
Around the latter part of 1948, William F.
21
Dudley Whitman, of Miami Beach, Florida, designed an
unusual underwater motion picture camera housed in
lucite. Successful underwater pictures taken with this
camera were published in Life magazine.
The latest and most advanced professional under water motion picture camera was introduced in 1950 by
the Eclair Camera Company of France. This camera, the
20
R. R. Conger, "U. s. Naval Underwater Cinema-
tography Technique," Journal of the Societ of Motion
Picture and Television EngineeFs, 55:6- 627, 'December,
1950.
21
Moncrief ~· cit., p . 26.
16
22
Aquaflex, is a self-contained motor- riven, underwater
motion picture camera with external lens controls and
automati c interio r pressurization. This rofessional
35 mm. submarine camera of revolutionary concept is en
tirely independent of air supply and electric ca lea
leading to the surface.
23
Professor John F. Storr tried his hand at
underwater cinematography in 1951 . He designed and had
constructed an aluminu housing for his Bolex H-16
motion picture camera. His camera was equipped with an
Yvar 16 mm. f/2.8 lens. He filmed undersea life off the
coast of the Bahamas and obtained quite satisfactory
results.
II. PRESENT STATUS
The most o vious and ell-known applic tion of
underwater cinematography today is in Holly ood prod c
t1ons. Underwater sequences have been effectively used
in the photoplay as early as 1916, when the were used
in the picture,
0
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea."
22
Conger, 52.E.· cit., p. 628.
23
John F. Storr , "Filming Fifty Feet Down,"
International. Photographer, 23:7-10 , July, 1951.
Today the tendency of producers to show what
happens under water as a part of their stories has
17
grown vastly, to say nothing of pictures having the
principal parts of their plots based on action allegedly
taking place th re. The recent picture, "Frogmen,"
directed by Norbert Brodine, was an excellent example
of the effective use of underwater scenes to reveal the
action taking place below the surface of the water.
There have beeo innumerable other productions
employing underwater scenes. Among them were "Sunset
-
Boulevard," "Red Sea Adventure,
11
and "Maru Maru."
Walt Disney has ·recently reveal ed that he will produce
a new "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea" in color .
He intends to utilize under sea footage that will
be filmed all over the orld and estimates it will take
a yea r to complete this film .
In France, Jacques Cousteau recentl produced an
24
exci t ing film t itled "Carnet de Plongee" (A Diver's Log).
The film was photographe~ in Agfa Color and is in three
parts . The first part shows a.n ancient submerged Greek
temple off the Tunisian coast near Mahdia· the second
24
French Films Information, Bulletin No . 9,
April, 1951, p . 8.
18
part reveals the spectacle of the coral reef s shown off
by artificial light; and the last part shows the dramatic
undersea episodes of tuna f ishing off the North African
coast.
Universal- International Pictures has recently re leased two short subjects entitled "Danger Under the
Sea" and "Rhythm on the Reer.
1125
Both of these f'eatures
were directed and photographed by Cousteau and ably
demonstrate ho the underwater motion picture camera
has been graduated from a novelty classifi cation .
The most effective application of underwater
cinematography today is not in Hollywood but in the
United States Navy. The Navy is not only producing
training films photographed under ater, but they are
also employing the se of high speed cameras to record
and study under ater explosions, the desi n character istics of high speed missiles und r water, and the ef fectiveness of various designs of ship propellers.
At Bikini after the underwater atomic blast,
the Navy discov red the only logical way to examine the
underwater hull damage was to photograph it, and so a
25
"Camera Under the Sea," U. s. Camera, 15:
3-86, March , 1952. - -
19
new use was found for this ever-expanding technique of
sub-aqueous photography.
Scientists engaged in underwater research are now
turning more and more to underwater cinematography to
record on film the geological features of sea bottoms
and the habits and characteristics of marine plant life.
For teachers, underwater films are bringing to
the classroom an accurate living biology text in color.
Steel and construction companies are resorting
to underwater photography to make a permanent record on
film of the corrosion tendencies on various underwater
structures due to the action of salt water .
Today in Southern California, there are many
amateur cinematographers who have disco1ered the wondrous
beauties of underwater life and have turned their atten
tions and talents to recording this m ysterious world on
film. The"'/ have designed and constructed excellent sub
marine cameras, incorporating in their designs man
.
novel and useful features . Among these amateurs are:
Bob Gottschalk of West Los Angeles, C alifornia, Al
Fisher of Torrance, California, LaMar Boren of San
Diego, California, and Ra McAllister of LaJolla,
Cal i fornia.
__.
20
.
Several companies are now offering stereo attach-
ments for 16 mm. motion picture cameras, but at this
writing, underwater stereo cinematography is limited or
non- existent. The application of stereoscopy to under water cinematography should prove to be exciting and ef fective, especially if the photography is in natural
color.
CHAPTER III
PHOTOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS UNDERWATER
The physical qualities of water are responsible
for many of the difficulties encountered in underwater
photography . The purest of water is far less trans
parent than air; and, because it is an excellent solvent,
it is rarel pure i n nature, and dissolved matter pro-
1
foundl affects its optical properties. Then, oo ,
water, having a greater density and viscosity than air,
supports a much grea er proportion of s uspended matter,
both organic and inorganic, and this has an even greater
effect on its optical properties. The quantity and kind
of dissolved matter are relatively constant fo any
location and, at least in sea water , ar nearl t he
same for almost all areas here underwater pictures can
be taken. Suspended matter, on the other hand, is
highly variable both at different locations and at the
2
same location with varying season and weather . It is
1
E. R. F. Johnson, "Undersea Cinematography,"
Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television
~ng1neers7 32:1-3, January , 1939.
2
I bid., p . 2 .
22
the quantity of suspended organisms and particles that
full determine whether or not satisfactory pictures can
be taken at a p --.t1cular place or time.
The scatter~ng of light by th water and the sus
pended matter form what is commonl called water haze or
"nuisance light." It is 1;4uite analagous to aerial haze
but, being much more intense, its effect shows up in
pictures of an object only a few feet away, rather than
a matter of miles.
3
Is effect to the camera is a uni form exposure over the whole picture, hich tends to
mask detail and contrast· as he distance becomes greater,
the haze becomes brighter, compared to the brightness
of the object, finally masking it completely .
A convenient measure of he ater clarity 1s ob-
4
tained by means of a Secchi isk, w ich is simply an
eight-inch white circular disk. The limiting depth to
which it can be lowered in the sea and remain visible is
a reliable and reproduceable measure of clarity. A rough
rule for submarine photograph is that adequate resolutio
3 Ibid . , p . 3 .
Paul M. Frye, "The High peed Photography of
Underwater Explosions," Journal of the Societ of Motion
Picture and Televisio En ineers-;-5,:4-~14, AprIT, 1949.
23
can be obtained for a camera- t0- target distance equal
to about one-half of the Secchi disk reading .
So far as haze light is concerned, studio tank
work offers the same problem as natural settings . Mr.
5
Johnson cites one producer who found to his sorrow
that even though expensive distilled water 1s used in
a freshly scrubbed tank, the haze remains and the crisp,
sharp pictures desired were not obtainable.
The fact that this nuisance light is present even
in distilled water that has stood long enough to be free
of air bu bles indicates tha the origin of much of it
must be molecular scattering by the ater itself . There fore, according to the Raman- Einstein- Smolchowski theory,
6
i should be alma t completel polarized.
When photographing y s nlight, the first factor
to be considered is the overall reduc ion in the inten sit of light. This varies greatly 1th condition, but
under average con 1t1ons the limiting depth is from
twenty- five to forty feet . Fortunately , he largest per centage of inte r ting marine life and human activity
is to be found ithin this range . At greater depths
5
Johnson, o . cit., p . 4.
6
Loe . cit .
photographic subjects become more scarce and diffi
culties are materially increased.
A further complication is added by the fact that
water does not absorb different colors equally . Sea
water is most transparent in the blue-green region be tween 4400 and 5400 A
0
and red light is quickly ab sorbed. This filtering action of water makes a true
monochrome rendering of. subjects difficult, and has an
even greater effect on pho ography in natural colors .
24
Dr. William Beebe
7
describes the spectral quality
of the sea duri ng a dive in his Bathosphere off Be rmuda
in 1934:
On this and ther dives I carefully studied
the changin colors , both b di rect observation
and b means of the s ectroscope . Just beneath
the surface the red diminished to one-half its
normal width. At twent feet, there was only
a thread of red and at fifty feet, the orange
was dominant . This, in turn, vanished at fifty
feet. At 300 feet the whole spectrum was found
to be dimmed, the yellow almost gone and the
blue appreciabl narrowed . At 350 feet I should
give as a rough summary of the spectrum 50%
blue violet; 25% green, and an equal amount of
colorless pale light . At 450 feet, no blue re mained , only viole and green too faint for
naming . At 800 feet there was nothing visible
7
O. E. Hulbert, ''On the Penetration of Daylight
into the Sea," Journal of the Optical Societ of A merica ,
7:22- 408, July, 1932. - - -
but a narrow line of pale gra ish- w it
blue- green area.~
in the
Objects at a distance do not appear to b t e
same color to a diver as when they are close by . A
diver's vision fades out in a misty blue- green haze .
Color film , however, accentuates this effect , making
the background an unnaturally intense blue- green .
9
Mr. Flo d Crosby who, in 1 36, shot the first
technicolor underwater footage for ioneer Productions ,
made this observation a bo t color ren i ion under
water:
..• and this matter of color balance broug t
up a very interesting psychological point .
Under water, everything is definitely tinged
with the lue- reen of the water . But after
one has een dow a few minutes , he is no longer
conscious of this coloring. On the screen, how ever, if the scene as printed exactl as rou
eye (the camera) sa it underwater, that blue green is objec ionable. I suppose it is due to
the relatively confined area of the screen; at
an rate , t hee e does not accommodate itself
to this coloring on the screen as it does under
water . Accordingl, the print has to e balanced ,
or rather unbalanced , toward the red, if the audi e ce 1s to accept it as natura1 . lO
8
William ee e, Beneath Tropic Seas . ew York:
Harcourt , Bra ce , and Company, 1934, p . 119 .
9
Jonson,~- cit . , p. 5.
10
Flo d Crosb, American Cinern tographer, 17:
9- 376, Septemb r , 1936 .
25
26
For the best results when filming with existing
light, it is recommended to limit the shooting time to
11
between 10:30 AM and 3:30 PM in bright sunlight. On
overcast days the resulting pictures will b e so flat and
"muddy" that they will be found useless.
It 1s best to shoot where the bottom is light so
as to reflect some light upwards i nto the shadows. If
possible, one should shoot most of the scenes either
shoreward or have the camera pointed sideways along the
shelving part of the beach . Shots made with the camera
po i nting s~raight out to deep water usually have a
dark background, and nothing to give them depth or per-
12
spective .
Li ght rays pas ing into ater trough the surface
are bent until they travel nearl· straight down , so by
natural illumination underwater subjects are inclined
to be overly contrasty with hi ghli ghts on top and dense
13
shadows underneath . Mr . Johnson tried to relieve
this situation with reflector boards but found that
11
Johnson , 52£.· cit., p. 4.
12
Thomas Tutweiler, "Making Movies Underwater,"
American Cinematographer, 23:8- 360, August, 1942 .
13
Johnson,~· cit., p. 5.
27
boards large enough to help at all had so much water
resistance that even in slack water they were difficult
to handle and with any current it became impractical
either to set them or keep them in position . Shadows
can be relieved to a certain extent by the use of arti
ficial lights. Reflectors must be small and highly ef
ficient or they become unmanageable in any current.
In using lights, it is necessary to exercise extreme
care in placement; other ise, haze ight makes t e l~mp
beam visible. Since most of the energ from an incandes
cent light is in the red end of the spectrum, in which
region water has its greatest absorption, the power re quirements are much greater than for equivalent illumi
nation at the surface.
The clear waters most favorable for undersea
photography are found intro ical ays, lagoons, and
other shel tered areas where horizontal v1s1 ility 1
greatest. These warm, still waters are also attractive
to large and, often imes, potentially dan erous fish .
The photo-diver's working location is usuall on
or near the sea bottom where here are moray eels , octo
puses, and other fearsome-looking creatures . Usually,
these fish do more to enhance the pictur than to hinder
28
the photographer •
• • • The underwater crew encountered quite a
few manta or sting rays, several large sharks,
~ny barracuda (one measured five and one- half
feet in length), and three moray eels, one having
a head five inches wide. The bat- like appear ance and the thrashing, barbed tail of the fast
moving manta rays made the crew uneasy although
none attempted to attack ••. 14
Oddly enough, the photo-diver's greatest enemy 1s
the coral and not the fish . After prolonged exposure
to water, the divers skin becom es soft and 1s easily
cut on jagged cora . These ounds ake six eeks or
15
longer to heal and leave pronounced scars .
The compressed air d seases are another source
of danger to the photo- diver whe using the suitless
diving rig or the no - popular self- conta ned Aqualung
unit . Hence, i cannot be too highl stressed that the
photo- diver, for his own safety, must be completely
familiar with his equipment and must be in excellen
phys i cal and mental health if he 1s to void mishap
while photographing under ater .
14
R.R. <.,;anger, "U . s. Naval Underwater Cinema-
tography Technique," Journal of the Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engi.neer's, 55: 6- 629, December,
T950.
15
I bid . , p . 630 .
CHAPTER IV
OPTICS OF UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY
It is general practice in underwater photography
to use ordinary cine lenses computed for use in air and
protected by a glas window. This naturally introduces
a water-air boundary which affects the focus and correc tion of the lens . Objects under water appear nearer
and larger both to the eye and to the camera . This ef-
1
feet on focus was computed and it turned out that the
ratio of the air focus to the underwater focus is equal
to the index of refraction of air with respect to water.
The index varies with the salinity and temperature of
the water, but the value 0.750 may be used for all
conditions with negligi le error . Hence, to focus on
an object at any distance under water, the same lens
extension 1~ required as for an object at hree-fourths
2
of that distance in air.
1
E. R. F . Johnson, "Undersea Cinematography,"
Journal of th Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineer"s,"" 32:1-3, January , 1939.
2
Ibid., p . 4 .
30
The presence of the water-air boundary in front
of the lens also introduces spherical and chromatic
aberration . Fortunately , if the pla e of the window is
perpendicular to the axis of the lens , they are both too
small to require correction . In tank work, any attempt
to position the camera other than normal to the plane
of the window will result in objectionable aberration .
3
4
Mr . Thomas Tu weiler points ou that refraction
also narrows down he lens- ang e consi erably, so that
an nderwater scene filmed with a 6 mm. camera equipped
with a 25 mm . ens looks on th screen as though it ad
been made with a two - inch le s . He recommends the best
a to get around ti is to use a wi e- angle lens s uch
as he 15 mm . as it 111 give one underwater about the
same coverage as one would expect from the 25 mm . lens
on lan.
As it was pointed out i n the previous chapter,
water oes not absorb different colors equally, making
dif ic lt to rec r an nderwater su jec in tr e
nder
1942 .
3 Ibid . , p. 4.
4
Thomas Tut eiler, A . • c., "Making Movies
ter , ' American Cinematographer, 23:8- 360, August ,
31
monochrome. In color photography, compensating filters
can be used to correct for the spectral quality of light
5
at any given depth. Mr. Johnson points out that
theoretically a different filter would be required for
every depth and the same would be true for different
distances from the camera to the obje t . Thus if an
object six feet deep is being photographed at a range
of six feet, a cornpen ating filter correct for twelve
feet of water would be require .
6
In 1936, when Floyd Crosby experimented with
Technicolor under water , he sed a Wratten 6A filter
to filter out some of the lue- green , which was felt
to be objectionable.
,,.
The
0
reatest bete oire of he underwater photo-
grapher is haze, or "nuisance light ."
... It was felt that water haze like aerial
haze, should consist principall of light in a
limited spectral region and that a color filter
would eliminate much of it. With this in mind,
we conducted a series of experiments with an
underwater spectrograph . Tank tests showed
great improvement when a Wratten Aero o . 2
filter was used.7
5 Johnson , .£2.· ~it . , p . 5.
6
Floyd Crosby , American Cinematographer, 17.
9-376, September, 1936 .
7
Johnson,_££• ~it., p . 5 .
32
The chief objec .. tion in black and white photography
to the use of colored filters to eliminate haze 1s the
fact that water is most transparent to the blue- green
region of the spectrum; but this is also the region of
maximum intensity of the haze light, so, by eliminating
8
it, the most efficient photographic light is also lost.
Through the use of polarizing screens, it 1s
possible to eliminate a greater part oft e "nuisance
light" than by any other means. Their use requires an
exposure increase of from about to to four times . Un fortunatel y , the haze light is not completely polarized
so that, while he distance at which sati s factor pic tures can be obtained is extended, here 1s still a
9
very definite limit .
Probably the most advantageous feature of this
method of elim nating haze ligh· t is that polarizing
10
ere ns are almos spectrall - neutral. The do not
distort the monochrome rendering nor do the eliminate
the most useful portion of the spectrum as does a
yellow or red filter. This spectral neutrality further
9
10
I bid., p . 4.
Loe . ct .
Ibid., p . 6 .
makes possible haze elimination when using color film,
but at present, the speed of color film does not permit
the use of both a compensating filter and a polarizing
screen under normal conditions.
33
CHAPTER V
UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT
The history of underwater cinematography, sketchy
as it may be, clearly illustrates the fact that there 1s
much more to submarine photography than just merely en closing a motion picture camera in a water-tight case .
As with any creative work, there ere month and years
of patient work, sweat, and disappointments before a
successful and efficient underwate r motion picture
camera was developed.
Having outlined the technical and practical
difficulties confronting the underwater cinematographer,
we shall now consider briefly the ideal attributes of
apparatus required to meet these difficulties and the
practical equipment developed by e professional and
the amateur to operate successfully and effectively
under water.
1
Mr. E. R. F. Johnson points out several design
1
E. R. F. Johnson, "Undersea Cinematography,"
Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers'; 32:1-6, January; 1939.
35
considerations necessary for the efficient and successful
operation of an underwater motion picture camera .
The returning of equipment to the surface for
adjustments of stop or focus or change of filter is
wasteful of time. Therefore, the first requirement of
underwater photographic equipment is that all adjustments
may be made quickly and conveniently undersea by the
photo- diver.
The fact that water is a far less yielding
medium that a.ir, dictates other requirements A camera
that would be quite stable in a twenty mile wind might
easily be thrown over by even a two mile current. For
this reason, a camera should be light enough for ease
of carrying, but heavy enough to b e stable . The addition
of fins, similar to those of an airplane, are quite
effective in minimizing the sway and billow often en countered in shallow water work.
Man becomes a clumsy, slow- moving creature when
he works bel ow the surface of the water. It is there fore important that any couplings that must be made
should be large and distinct, and all controls and
calibrations should be visible and operable from one
position .
36
..
Even after short submergence, the photo-diver's
skin becomes softened and easily cut by things tat
would not do so on the surface. For this reason, every thing must be made smooth, with no sharp edges .
Direct focusing is difficult, if not impossible,
and therefore accurate focus calibrations of lenses is
a necessity.
The construction of face masks and helmets, plus
the fact that it is difficult for a diver to rema n per fectly still, makes it necessary that view- finders be
corrected for an eye position well back of the port.
Because of the reduced illumination under water, it is
important to have a large, brilliant image view-finder .
Today there are several professional underwater
motion picture cameras available which are desi ned to
give the underwater cinematographer an instrument
possessed of the greatest possible flexibility and con venience of operation.
The Fenjohn Underwater Photo and Equipm nt Com-
2
pany of Ardmore, Pennsylvania, 1s the only company known
2
Henry s. Moncrief, "Historical Development in
Underwater Photography," Journal of the Photographl
Societl £!_ America, 17:11-28, November, 195!.
37
to the writer who is manufacturing underwater cameras in
quantity in the United States . The camera presently in
production is built around a 16 mm. Bell and Howell motion
picture camera with a fifty foot film capacity. The
camera 1s equipped ~lith an r/1 . 5 13 mm . Elgeet wide-angle
lens which mounts four filters. It is electrically ope rated by self- contained batteries, and has a useful run
of 1,000 feet at sound spee . The aperture, focus,
filter, and speed settings can be made under water by
the diver, the first three settings bein visible through
the large, brilliant image view- finder . The trigger is
convenientl placed on the right handle and is easily
operated by the thumb . The ater-tigh housing is cast
aluminum machined to a fine tolerance, and the entire
camera weighs but twenty- one pounds in air, and onl
three and three-fourths pound when un er water .
This camera is now being ed by the navies of
two countries as we 1 as y man amateurs and scientists .
It light wei h, ase of operation, and rapid reloading
(twenty- five seconds) make this an ideal camera for the
un ersea cinematographer, whether a professional or an
amateur .
Another excellent professional undersea motion
picture camera available today is the Aquaf lex , manu factured by the Eclair Company of France .
38
The Aquaflex is primarily an Eclair Camere t te ,
which is contained in an underwater housing with external
controls to operate the lens d aphragm, focus , and start ing switch. The camerette is driven by a 6- 8 volt, 7
Ampere motor, which is powered by four batteri es . It is
supplied with 28, 40 , and 75 mm. coated f/2 Kinoptic
lenses . However, these are not interchangeable nder
water. Small lights are located in the Aquaflex blimp
to illuminate the interior exposure meter, film speed
t a chometer, internal pressure differential gauge , ad
the film footage counter loca ed on the 400 foot film
magazine . These lights go off hen the starter switch
is turned on to give th motor maximum voltage . The
Camerette u ilizes a reflex optical system so that he
diver- photographer views the image through the taking
lens . The shutter may be set at any desired opening
.
from 200 to thirty- five degrees, thus presenting an
exposure range from one- fourteenth of a second at eig t
3
R. R. Conger, ttu . S . Naval Underwater Cinema to0raphy Technique ," Journal of the Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineer's-:---55:6- 631 , December,
1950.
39
frames a second to 1/413 second at forty frames a second .
The front secti on of the Aquaflex contains the
plastic photographing port, the control gears, and camera
mount , the batteries and wiring, the pressure gauges and
exposure meter, plus all the necessary mechanisms for con trolling the Camerette under water . The rear section
covers the 400 foot film magazine, contains the three
smaller viewing ports, and seals the camera . The Aqua flex is delivered with two 400- foot film magazines,
three one-li t er compressed air bottles, and other access ories, plus the necessary fillin adapters and camera
case . The detachable wings and vertical rudder aid
greatly in transporting and stabilizing the camera under
water . With them , it i s possible to guide the camera
with one hand, using the other to aid in swimming . The
camera wings actuall act as a planing surface, so that
the photo- diver can sight on his target through the
view- finder , kick his flippered feet, and guide himself
by tilting and anking the camera in a manner similar
to a plane flying through the air . The Aquaflex , com plete, weighs about 107 pounds in air, but can be ad justed to have either positive, negative, or neutral
buoyancy n er water .
40
4
The Aquaflex is by no means leakproof, but the
supply- demand type compressed air valve is so regulated
that the housing contains about three pounds per square
inch over the sea pressure at any depth the camera may
be taken . The camera air supply is carried in a charged
cyli nder, compactly arranged on the underside of the
Aquaflex blimp . As the Aquaflex is descending , the de mand valve incre ses the interior pressure to equal the
depth pressure plus three pounds per square inch . On the
ascent, the demand valve closes and excess air pressure
e scapes through the rel ef valve . The three pounds per
sq are inch interior-exterior pressure difference should
always remain the same and is visible on a gauge located
in the Aquaf ex blimp.
Because the quaflex is a completely free and
mobile underwater uni, the photo- diver must be equipped
with self- co tained or free diving equipment . The French
Aqualung
5
has been found to be the bes t and most com pl etely automati c compressed air self- contai ned diving
unit. It has a separate mouth i ece breathing hose with
which the "Squale " face mask may be used . This i s an
4
I bid . , p . 631 .
5
Ibid . , p . 632 .
41
ideal piece of equipment as it leaves the photo- diver's
hands free to operate the camera, and his mind is free to
concentrate on his photographic work .
Both the Aquaflex and the Aqualung operate on the
same automatic supply- demand principle. The greater the
water pressure, the greater the pressure of air supplied
to both the diver and the A uaf ex. Both the camera and
diver are of neutral buoyancy so that the photographer,
with the aid of swim fins on his feet, is able to swim
wi th the camera in any direction or to any depth down
6
to approximately two h ndred feet .
7
Mr. Scotty Welborne, a Holl woo cinematographer,
has deslgne and built an underwater camera arou d a
Bell and Howell E emo. The water- tight ho sing was co -
structed of teel i n the shape fa sphere . The motor,
focus, stop, and lens turre a e o erated electrically
by self- contained batteries . The camera weighs ninety
pounds in air and is equipped with a compressed air sys tem or in e nal pressurization .
In the st y f underwater explosions by the navy
6
Ibid ., . 632 .
7
Scotty elbo ne , "ew Under ater Carnera,u
Internatio a Ph tograph~r, 23:3-10, March, 1951.
42
at the Davi d Talor Model Basin, three hi h speed cameras
were used. One was the Eastma Hi - Speed; the second was
8
the 35 mm . Fa ax · and the third was a rotat i ng-mirror
frame camera of Naval Ordnance Laborator design .
The aval Ordnance Laborator camera was designed
9
y s. J . Jacob s an A. A. Klebba and is essentially a
modified o en camera . . The image is focu ed on a spin ning mirror which has the focal axis of the taking lens
sys em for its ax s of ro ation . The l ane of rotation
is forty- five degrees to this s . One hundred raming
lenses provi e o e hundred pictures . With the mirror
revolving at a rate o 18 000 RPM, one hundred pictur
can be tak n a he rate of 30 , 000 frames per econd .
The aval rdnance Labora ory came a was u ed to
pho ograph underwater explosions at a epth of two miles,
while the Eastman camera was used at a depth no g ater
10
than 1,000 fee .
Of the cameras designed by the amateur cinema-
B Paul M . Frye, "The Hi h Speed Photograph of
Underwater Explos ons "Journal of the Soc ety of Motion
Picture a Television Engineers--;-5-;-:zr-414, AprIT
! 950 .
9
Ibi ., p . 415.
10
Loe . cit .
43
tographer, the most efficient and successful examined by
the writer was a camera designed and constructed by Mr .
11
Robert Gottschalk, of West Los An eles, California .
I t must be pointed out here that this camera is far from
being amateurish in construction, as it incorporates in
its design all the features found to be necessary to
the professional .
Mr . Gottschalk's nderwater camera, which he
named the Hydroscope, is designed around a Bole H- 16
16 mm . motion picture camera and is equipped with an
Elgeet 13 mm . f/1.5 lens . The water- ti ht housing is
of stainless steel with ex ernal controls to operate
the lens diaphragm, focus, peed and starting switch .
The camera is electrically operated by self- contained
six-volt batteries . An exposure meter, built into the
top of the housing, makes it simple for the photo-diver
to determine the correct exposure unde r water .
The front section of the blimp contains the
glass photographin port, recessed to form a sunshade ,
and the exposure meter photo- electric cell . On the
bottom is located the internal pressurization system .
Like the Aquaflex, the pressurization is obtained through
11
Personal interview , March 25, 1952.
a supply-demand type of compressed air valve. The
pressure within the housing is maintained at three
pounds per square inch over the sea pressure at any
depth. On the right side is located the footage indi
cator which is fitted with a magnifying lens and may
be illuminated by the operator to facilitate reading
when submerged.
The photo-diver views the subject through a
direct frame finder which has phosphorescent cross wires, and which is adjustable by the operator for
parallax. This type of finder allows the photographer
a full vision of the entire underwater area, permitting
him to be on the alert for any s1 n of danger or for
additional subject matter .
44
As with the Aquaflex, Mr. Gottschalk has employed
small wings to give stability to his camera, but, unlike
the Aquaflex, he utilizes only the horizontal stabilizers.
These wings have about a twelve degree dihedral , are
adjustable as to pitch, and may be completely removed
if desired. The underwater camera weight may be adjusted
to positive, negative, or ~eutral buoyancy and the
photo- diver can cause the camera to glide, dive, bank,
or rise by altering the pitch of the small wings . The
camera weighs sixty- five pounds in air, but as was
mentioned previously, its underwater weight can be ad
justed to suit the needs of the photo- diver .
Like the majority of photo-divers today , Mr.
45
Gottschalk uses the Aqualung in conjunction with the
Squale face mask while photographing beneath the surface
of the water. As was pointed out previously, the Aqua
lung permits the diver to descend to a depth of about
200 feet and allows him to remain under water for f rom
one to one and a half h ur~, depending on depth and
activity .
A camera called the Visola is now being produced
in France for the amateur who ishes extre e simpl city
of operation. The water-tight blimp is constructed of
one-fourth nch clear plastic about a Bolex 16 mm .
spring-driven motion picture camera . The onl y external
controls available to the operator are the f stop a Jus -
ment, re-winding key, and the trigger .
The Fenjohn Underwa er Photo and Equipment Com pany , of Ardmore, Pennsylvania, has produced a small,
efficient underwater exposure meter built around the
12
Weston Model 852 . The water-tight housing is of cast
12
Fenjohn Underwater Photo and ~quipment Company
Catalog , 1952. -
aluminum; the only moving part is the knob to adj ust
the calculator. The meter weighs sixteen ounces in air
and but nine ounces under water.
The underwater ~otion picture cameras and asso
ciated equipment discussed in this chapter represent
the latest and most efficient in design. More cameras
will appear on the scene in the future, but their con
struction will remain similar to those in existence
today, for the requirements that dictate efficient sub
marine camera design will always be applicable.
46
CHAPTER VI
SUMMAR Y AND CONCLUSIONS
I . SUMMARY
Having its birth in 1893 , underwater cinematography
progressed slowly until about 1917, when ci entists,
among w hom were Bartsch , Beebe, and Minor, turned to
nderwa er moti on ic ures to llustrate th ir lectures
on underwater life.
Over the years, cameras of all de criptions were
cons r cte countless problems e countered , and numer-
ous di fficulties ov r come . As a resul of these lon ,
patient , and often disappoi nting ear , the underwater
cameras of today are efficient and conveniently operable,
and the technique of underwater cinematography is taki ng
its r ght ul place in the field of the cinematic art .
Just as in atmospheric photography, there are
certain inherent difficulties in sub- queous photogr aphy
•
which must be overcome in order that satisfact ry results
m ay be achieved. The greatest problem of he photo diver is the haze, or "nuisance ligh ," which results
from the i ssolved and uspended matter present in water .
48
Suspended matter, both organic and inorganic , is present
in f resh, salt, and even distilled water in varying de grees, depending on location, season , and weather . Dis solved matter, on the other hand, is relatively constant
in any location where undersea pictures can e taken,
and it greatly affects the opti cal prope r t ies of water .
A further compli cation in underwater photograph
is the fact that water does not absor different colors
equally . Sea water is most transpa ent in the lue-
o
green region between 4400 and 5400 A and red light is
the quickest to be absorbed . This filterin action of
water makes difficu t a rue monochrome rendering of
subjects and has an even greater effec on color photo graphy . The use of filters o correc for thi s spectral
quality of underwa er light 1s possi le, but the results
obtained do no warrant their use .
When using sunlight for i llumination of under waters bjects, it has bee found t ha the most sa is factor results re obtained here the bottom i s extremely
ligh . This tends to reduce the harsh contrast that re-
s lts when there is no refl ctive material unde r the
s bject.
n ndersea photographJ , i t is the general practice
to use ordinar cine lenses computed for se i n air and
49
protected by a glass window. This introduces a water
air boundary which affects the focus and causes under water objects to appear nearer and larger. Hence, it is
necessary to focus on an underwater subject as if it were
three-fourths that distance in air.
Refraction of light through water tends to narrow
down the lens-angle considerably, so that an underwater
scene filme d with a 16 mm . camera equipped with a 25 mm .
lens looks on the screen as though it had been made wi h
a two-inch lens. This effect can be overcome by usin
a wide- angle lens, such as a 15 mm., which will give the
same coverage as the 25 m . lens on land.
The underwater motion picture cameras of today,
both professional and amateur, are efficiently desi ned
to give maximum reliability, convenience, and speed of
operation to the photo- diver . There are several prac tical and technical dictates tat necessarily govern the
efficient underwater motion picture camera design .
Briefly these are: (1 ) adjustments of focus, stop,
filter or lens change~ should be operable undersea y
the photo-diver; (2) tne camera should be light enough
for ease of handlin, b t heavy enoug to be stable nder
water; (3) the surface and edges of the housin should
be smooth to preclude cutting he o erator· (4) the
50
camera motor should be electrically operated by self
contained batteries, or, if spring-driven should be rigged
for rewinding under water; and (5) the view-finder should
be large, of the brilliant-image type.
There are two professional submarine motion picture
cameras available today, namely, the 35 mm. Eclair Aqua
flex of French design, and the 16 mm. Fenjohn, which is
built around the Bell and Howell camera. Both cameras
boast of all of the design feat ures listed above and con
sidered necessary, but the Aquaflex also includes internal
pressurization, a built-in exposure meter, stabilizing
fins, and a reflex-type view~finder.
Of the amateur cameras examined by the writer,
the camera constructed b Robert Gottschalk, of Los
Angeles, California, i s most unique. It is designed
around a Bolex H-16 and includes man , of he excellent
features found in the Aquaflex.
Associated underwater equipment necessary in sub
marine cinematography include: the Aqualung, which is a
self-contained compressed air diving unit which cllows
the photo-diver complete freedom of movement; swim fins
tha · fit on the feet of the diver and enable him to
propel himself through the water w th a minimum of
51
movement; and the water- tight exposure met ; to determine
the correct diaphragm setting for the existi g underwater
illumination, if a meter is not built into the camera
housing.
II. CONCLUSIONS
During and since World War II, underwater cinema tography has made its greatest strides , both technically
and esthetically. Through t e effective and efficient
use of specifically designed and engineered underwater
motion picture cameras, underwater cinematograph has
been elevated from t he novelty classification to that
of a respected part of the cinematic art .
Although Hollywood is today usin underwa r
sequence more and more to show the action taking place
beneath the surface of the water, it has yet to capital ize completely on this vast new and exciting field of
cinematography. Several short subjects of foreign or igin
have been released recently which tend to point the way
to th e utur e trend in t hrillin adve ture photop as.
, e r e fa iliar with the travelogue t hat coves
us , t hro h the ag c off l m, o every corner of the
earth but cons der t e poss i 111 ies of a travelo
0
ue
sowing the wonders of t he unde r a t r worl . Ro ert .
52
1
Dietz points out that we know less about the topography
of the oceans than we do about the surface of the moon .
An underwater film tour of the ocean floor showin
0
the
great undersea mo ntains , deep submarine can ons and
strange and weird sea life would certainly be breath takingl y beautiful and unbelievably grotesque , parti
cularly if it were filmed i n color .
Stereoscop 1s a facet of underwater cinema to0raphy that is st 11 relativel, unex lored ut with
a tremendous future. Presently there are several 16 mm .
stereo attachments availa le u there is some question
as to their value , for they split the frame verticall r
in ha l f and reduce the p i cture area co siderably . A
more prac ica, although a difficult m ean of achieving
t hree di mensionali t i s through the application of tw
cameras arranged at the interocular distance with the
film projected likewise by means of two rejectors .
Regardless of the techni cal dispute , underwater
stereo coul pro e invaluable to the navv "frogmen" in
.etermi n ng accuratel the extent , type, and vul erabil i y of un erwater barriers and installations . The
1
Roberts . Dietz, "The Pacific Floor,
11
Scienti f i c
American, 186:4- 9, Ap ril, 1952 .
thought occurs to the writer that possibl · r an audience
viewing an underwater scene, filmed in stereo, might
have the uncomfortable sensation of being completely
submerged in water . If this were the case , it might
possibly discourage an ~audience from participating i n
such a performance !
53
As was pointed out in a previous chapter, under water mot i on pictures have found an appl i cation in the
study of underwa er explosious and the performance of
hi gh speed underwater missiles . There is ever reason
to assume tat many other applications of submarine
photography 111 be found by the avy as well as by
scientists and engineers . Concerning camera des i gn , the
wri er can only bri ng o m i nd one change or alteration
to be recommended in existing cameras . Thi s one modifi cati on would be the enlarging of film capacity to 200
feet and, if possible, to 400 feet . This suggestion
is made on the basis that , in filming underwater scenes ,
the normal run for a single scene is about fifty feet
and, a t times, 100 feet . With the film capacity of
100 fe~t available toda , this mea that the photo diver must return to the surface several times before
comple ing a sequence . This could e costly in subject
matter, as man has no control over the action or movement
of the sea life; hence, he must e prepared to shoot
rapidly and on a second's notice.
54
In conclusion, it can be safely said that today
underwater cinematography is on the threshold of its
greatest development and application. Never before has
man had the excellent and efficient underwater equipment
to film this strange, fabulous, and unexplored world
that lies beneath the surface of the seas .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. PERIODICAL ARTICLES
Collens, J.B., "Underwater Photography," American
Cinematographer, 31:7-236, July, 1950.
, "Underwater Photography," American Cinemato
---g-rapher, 31:8-274, August, 1950.
Conger, R.R. "u. S. Naval Underwater Cinemato
grapher," Journal of the Societ' of Motion Picture
and Television EngTneers, 55:62 -T; Becember, 1950.
Crosby, Frank, American Cinematographer, 17:9-376,
September, 1936.
Darby, Johnson, Barnes, "Studies on the Absorption and
Scattering of Solar Radiation by the Sea," Carnegie
Institute of Washington, 475:191, October, 1937.
------
Dean, Loretta K., "At the Bottom of the Sea," American
Cinematographer, 10:5-34, August, 1929.
French Films Information, Bulletin No. 9, April, 1951,
p. 8.
Frye, Paul M., "High Speed Photography of Underwater
Explosions," Journal of the Society of Motion
Picture and Televls!onEnglneers, 55='+-414, April
T949.
Gabbani, T11, "Underwater with the Aquaflex," American
Cinematographer, 32:132-134, April, 1951.
General Electric World, 132:103-97, July, 1950.
Gilks, Alfred L., "Undersea Photography with an Eyemo,"
American Cinematographer, 12:6-9, October, 1931.
Housler., James, "Technicolor Photography Underwater.,"
American Cinematographer, 30:4-122, April, 1939.
Hulbert, O. E., "On the Penetration of Daylight into
the Sea," Journal of the O~tical Society of
America, .7:22-406,July, I 32. -
Johnson, E. R. F., "Underwater Cinematography," Journal
of the Society of Motion Picture and Television
rri'glneers, l:32-=3", January, 1939.
Journal of the Optical Society of America, 36:307-21,
Janu'ary, 1946. -
, 40:823-4, December, 1950.
----
, 41:645-8, September, 1951.
----
Knapp, R. T., "Highspeed Underwater Photograph ,
J~urnal of the Society of Motion Picture and
Television Engineers, 49:74-5, July, 1947.
Maddison, John, "The World of Jean Painleve," Sisht and
Sound, 19:6-249, August, 1950.
Mechanical Engineering, 70:1004-5, December, 1948.
Moncrief, Henry s., "Historical Development i n Under
water P. hotography," Journal of the Photographic
Societz ~ America, 17:ll-26, ~ovemoer, 1951.
Science, 93: Sup. 44, February , 1944.
_____ ,
100: Sup. 30, October, 1944.
Scientific American, 109:6-237, Jul, 1913.
, 116:4-483, Ma, 1917.
----
Shepard, Francis P., "Terrestial Topo r a h- o f Sub marine Canyons Revealed by Diving," Bulletin of
the Geological Society of America, 60:l0-1597-;-
0ctrA)ber, 1949. - -
57
Storr, John F., "Filming Fifty Feet Under," Inter na t iona l
ft1_2tographer, 23:7-10,, July , 1951.
Tutweiler, Thomas, ''Making Movies Underwater," American
Cinematographer, 23:8- 360 , August, 1942.
u. s. Camera, 15:3-86, March, 1952 .
- -
58
Welborne, Scotty, "Underwate r Photography, n International
Photographe r , 23: 3-10, March, 1951 .
B . B001CS
Beebe, William, Beneath Tro~ic Seas .
Putnam's Sons, 1928 . IT pp.
New York: G. p .
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Johnson, Robert William
(author)
Core Title
An investigation into the equipment, techniques, and problems associated with underwater cinematography
School
Institute of the Arts
Degree
Master of Arts
Degree Program
Cinema
Degree Conferral Date
1952-08
Publication Date
08/25/1952
Defense Date
08/25/1952
Publisher
University of Southern California
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