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Stress and burnout: a qualitative study of the influences on female leaders' decision to leave

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Stress and burnout: a qualitative study of the influences on female leaders' decision to leave

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Stress And Burnout: A Qualitative Study of the Influences on Female Leaders’
Decision to Leave
by
Melissa Cochran

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2023

© Copyright by Melissa Cochran 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Melissa Cochran certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Alyson Daichendt, Committee Member
Helena Seli, Committee Member
Jennifer Phillips, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
This study explored the perspective of female leaders regarding how environmental factors,
including stress and burnout, influence their decision to remain in or leave the workforce. The
qualitative study focused on understanding how Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model's micro
and macro systems, informed through the lens of social role theory, specifically gendered role
assumptions, created stress and burnout for women in senior leadership. The study participants
included women who worked in organizations of at least $100 million in annual revenue, served
in a director-level or above role, and worked in the United States. Three key themes emerged in
the findings of this study: stress and burnout associated with gendered role assumptions
influence women’s premature departure from the workplace, women’s decisions to remain or
leave leadership roles is influenced by organizational behaviors around gendered assumptions,
and personal and professional support system(s) influence women’s decision to remain or leave
leadership roles. Seven of the 10 participants in this study had chosen to leave their role or were
looking to leave their role. This study created four recommendations focusing on offering more
personal and professional support for women in leadership, an organizational focus on
eliminating gendered role task assignments, and establishing policies around diversity, equity,
and inclusion. Recommendations for future research include focusing only on women's
experiences after the COVID-19 pandemic, women who are not caregivers, and women who
identify as non-White or are first-generation immigrants to the United States.
Keywords: gender roles, women in leadership, social role theory, Bioecological model

v
Dedication
To my family, friends, and classmates, thank you for your unwavering support and patience as I
navigated this journey to continue to learn and explore my passion. I could not have done this
without you. To my mom and dad – you have shown me so much and have always been my
biggest supporter. I could not be where I am, doing all the things I do without your love and
support. To Jason – you are my rock and always are there when I need you. Your love and
support of our family has been instrumental in my life and through this journey.

vi
Acknowledgements
“Progress is impossible without change, and those who cannot change their mind cannot
change anything.” – George Bernard Shaw
Thank you Jason Cochran, my husband and partner for life, for your support and
commitment to allow me to pursue my dreams of learning forever.
Thank you to my parents, Ray and Rhonda Gordon, for your eternal support and
unwavering love as I navigate through life and continue to be a better person.
Thank you to my loving boys, Blake, Wade, Brennan, Kasey, and Remington, I hope my
passion for education and ability to complete this journey serves as an inspiration to you to
continue to strive to be the best you can be. I am grateful for your patience while I took time to
focus on learning.
Thank you to the amazing faculty at USC Rossier School of Education dissertation
committee members, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Alyson Daichendt, and my inspirational chair, Dr.
Jennifer Phillips, for all of your guidance and support on this journey.
Thank you to my colleagues from Pepperdine University who inspired me to continue my
pursuit of learning, including my advisor Dr. Robert Radi, Wendy Frank, and Qiana Crenshaw.
Thank you to my fellow OCL Cohort 19 colleagues, including my amazing Cloud 9 study
crew, for the continued support and motivation, even on those less than easy days. Rachel
Reuter, you pushed me to be better.

vii

Table of Contents
Stress And Burnout: A Qualitative Study of the Influences on Female Leaders’ Decision
to Leave ............................................................................................................................................ i
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Field Context and Mission .................................................................................................. 3
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................... 4
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 6
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 10
Women’s Participation in the Workforce and Leadership ................................................ 10
Stress and Burnout Among Female Leaders ..................................................................... 18
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model ............................................................................ 32
Social Role Theory ........................................................................................................... 37
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 39
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 44
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 45
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 45

viii
Overview of Methodology ................................................................................................ 46
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 46
Data Source: Interviews .................................................................................................... 47
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 50
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 50
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 51
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 52
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 52
Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................................................... 54
Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................................................... 60
Findings for Research Question 3 ..................................................................................... 66
Summary of Results and Findings .................................................................................... 70
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations......................................................................... 72
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 72
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 77
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 83
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 84
Connection to the Rossier Mission ................................................................................... 85
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 86
References ..................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A: Recruitment Questionnaire.................................................................................... 107
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 108
Appendix C: Information Sheet .................................................................................................. 114

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Self-Identified Demographics of Interview Participants 53
Appendix B: Interview Protocol Crosswalk 99

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model Through the Lens of Social Role
Theory
43

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
As of 2021, women comprise approximately 47% of the workforce in the United States
and hold approximately 40% of positions in management (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
However, women represented only 7% of CEO roles in Fortune 500 companies as of 2019
(Larcker & Tayan, 2020). In addition, Larcker and Tayan (2020) found that in a survey of 100
Fortune 500 companies, women represented less than 25% of C-suite roles.
The lack of gender diversity in leadership is exacerbated by challenges female leaders
experience in their roles leading to stress and burnout. Women who experience burnout are four
times more likely to leave their job than their male counterparts (Donohue et al., 2021). Women
in leadership roles are twice as likely as their male counterparts to experience stress, depression,
and headaches (Gregory-Mina, 2012). Women have also indicated that children are their top
stressor in balancing work and family life, with over 90% of women who leave the workforce
being caregivers at home (Roebuck et al., 2013). From February 2020 to June 2020 at the
beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, the United States saw a 7% reduction in the number of
working mothers aged 25 – 44 with children under 13 (Delamater & Livingston, 2021). Anxiety
and depression, both of which have a higher prevalence in women, have been linked to stress and
burnout in personal and professional contexts (Phillips & Grandy, 2018; Soares et al., 2007).
This evidence highlights the importance of understanding and supporting women by mitigating
drivers of burnout and stress to help keep women in leadership roles. Addressing the
disproportionate levels of stress and burnout experienced by female leaders is important to
address so that current working female leaders and aspiring female leaders have a work
environment that reduces stress and burnout, which may impact female leaders' decisions to stay
in organizations.
2

Background of the Problem
Women's participation in the workforce has increased from approximately 38% in 1970
to 47% as of 2020 in the United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022b). In 1966, women held
less than 10% of management positions in the private sector, which has increased to 40% in 2020
(U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2013; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020).
Despite the increase in women working and in management, women are twice as likely to leave
the workforce than their male counterparts (Masterson, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic saw a
significant reduction in the percentage of women who were fully employed. In 2019 55% of
women were fully employed, compared to 51.5% in 2020. Women’s participation saw an uptick
in 2021 to 53.2% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022b).
The pandemic created a heightened second shift for women, defined by Hochschild
(1989) as "the unpaid work of childcare and housework" (Blair-Loy et al., 2015, p. 436). The
second shift women experience notably increased during the COVID-19 pandemic (Aldossari &
Chaudry, 2021; Carli, 2020). Additionally, Aldossari and Chaudry (2021) found that the second
shift increased stress and burnout of women due to the additional workload women carried at
home due to the pandemic.
Women experience higher work stress and personal stress rates than their male
counterparts. This higher rate of work stress and personal stress are due to a variety of factors,
including lack of support in leadership roles and increased job scrutiny (Phillips & Grandy,
2018). In addition, female leaders report experiencing a double standard of not being directive
enough or too directive, both of which are negative for a female leader (DeSimone, 2020;
Kossek et al., 2017). Women also experience feelings of guilt related to work-family conflict and
the burden of the second shift (Aldossari & Chaudry, 2021; Bernard, 2017; Blair-Loy et al.,
3

2015; Gregory-Mina, 2012; Phillips & Grandy, 2018). Female leaders in a dual-parent household
generally have a working spouse, whereas many male leaders do not have a working spouse at
home (Bernard, 2017; DeSimone, 2020). For example, one study found that 82% of male doctors
had a stay-at-home partner if they had young children, whereas only 5% of female doctors
reported having a stay-at-home partner (Bernard, 2017).
Women are four times as likely as their male counterparts to leave their roles due to
burnout, and the key contributors to their burnout are anxiety, depression, managing the second
shift, and stress (Aldossari & Chaudry, 2021; Bernard, 2017; Gale Literature Resource Center,
2021; Kalaitzi et al., 2017; Phillips & Grandy, 2018; Soarres et al., 2007). In addition, female
leaders have more responsibilities for childcare and household chores, which results in women
reporting higher rates of burnout or exhibiting factors leading to burnout (Bernard, 2017; Moore
et al., 2019). Other research has noted that female leaders choose to leave leadership roles due to
factors that include lack of pay equity, lack of mentors, lack of flexibility, lack of alignment to
personal values, and prioritizing family over advancement (DeSimone, 2020; Elias, 2018;
Gregory-Mina, 2012; Kossek et al., 2017; Roebuck et al., 2013). Improving the retention of
women in senior leadership positions could help reduce wage disparities for women, financial
challenges for families, and overall stress and burnout among employees in organizations.
Field Context and Mission
This field of study focuses on women who hold or have held a director-level position or
higher in the private sector in the United States within an organization of at least $100 million in
annual revenue. For the purposes of this study, a director is defined as a role higher than a
manager or senior manager in organization. As of May 2022, there are approximately 2,600
public companies in the United States with annual revenues over $100 million (Company Market
4

Cap, n.d.). Women represent approximately 47% of the workforce and 40% of management as of
2021 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). McKinsey & Company (2021) noted that women
represent 35% of director level roles in U.S. companies, with decreasing participation rates at
higher levels in the same companies. Women hold less than 25% of C-suite roles.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to investigate how stress and burnout influence women in
senior leadership’s decision to remain or leave their role. Focusing on understanding the key
factors and influences impacting female leaders' decisions to exit their roles will facilitate the
development of tools and resources for female leaders, aspiring female leaders, and corporations
who want to retain female leaders. Many women also choose to remain in their roles in
leadership, and as part of the research, understanding the factors that are keeping female leaders
in their roles was also important to understand. Therefore, the following research questions were
addressed in this study:
1. How do societal factors and expectations related to gender roles influence a female
leader's decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
2. How does corporate culture in the context of gender roles influence a female leader's
decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
3. How do female leaders perceive the interaction between their micro and macro systems
as creating stress and burnout for them?
Importance of the Study
The disproportionate departure of women in senior leadership roles is important to study
because women represent approximately 51% of the population in the United States as of 2020
(Census Bureau, 2021). The participation of women in the workforce and leadership positions is
5

critical for the continued viability of businesses in the United States. There are three key focal
points to support the importance of this study: outsized downstream financial impact on families
if women do not stay in leadership roles, continued exasperated wage disparity for women who
remain in leadership roles, and the impacts of stress and burnout of other employees when there
are women in leadership roles.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Statistics (2022c), women make on average 83 cents for
every dollar a man makes. As of 2018, female-led single-family households represent
approximately 18% of total households in the United States but represent 27% of all families
living in poverty (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). Additionally, Schaffer and Westenberg (2019)
noted increased female participation in a job or industry results in the wage rates for that job to
decrease. Addressing the downstream financial impact experienced by women could reduce the
disproportionate departure of female leaders.
The wage disparity women experience is mediated when there are more women in
leadership and in board-level roles of their organization (Carter et al., 2017; Shin, 2012). Carter
et al. (2017) noted a 5% reduction in wage disparity when the board of directors includes
women. If women continue to exit senior level leadership roles, compensation differences cannot
be reduced through increased board level representation of women.
Stress and burnout for other members in an organization are impacted by the number of
women in leadership roles. Kossek and Buzzanell (2018) found that employees value female
leadership characteristics to support an improvement in work-life improvement. Addressing
stress and burnout in all individuals can improve organizational culture.

6

Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study employed the bioecological model informed by social role theory. With the
aim of understanding how the perceived messages of social role theory exist in each layer of the
bioecological model and influence a female leader in her decision to stay or leave her role.
Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model focuses on how four different systems interact and
influence an individual, given their proximity to the individual. The four systems are the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The element of time, either
temporal or chronological, is a final dimension of the model. The microsystem is the closest to
the individual and includes those activities that the individual is directly involved in, including
dyadic relationships with other individuals. The mesosystem is the next layer, which includes
settings where the individual is present or contains influences transitioning between the micro
and exosystems. The exosystem is the next layer and is a setting where the individual does not
participate, but that impacts the individual. Finally, the macrosystem is the outermost layer and
consists of policies and laws that shape the environment. The element of time spans all systems
and can measure through chronology or temporal factors (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model was expanded to the bioecological model, which
includes proximal processes, personal characteristics, context, and time, also known as the PPCT
model (Tudge et al., 2016). Proximal processes consider the role a person plays in their
development over time. Personal characteristics include forces, resources, and demands. Context
refers to the original four nested systems defined in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. Time,
included in the chronosystem of the ecological model, includes both chronological and temporal
time (Tudge et al., 2016).
7

Social role theory is the secondary lens through which the bioecological model will be
viewed. Social role theory states that societal beliefs define roles and responsibilities about who
should occupy roles based on who has been the predominant participant in the role based on their
gender (Eagly & Steffen, 1984). In addition, specific characteristics and behaviors are defined as
male or female. For example, social role theory notes that women who work outside of the home
often exhibit more male characteristics and are more directive than women who do not work
outside the home (Eagly & Steffen, 1984; Koenig & Eagly, 2014).
Exploring the considerations that influence a female leader's decisions on whether to
leave a leadership role in the private sector through the lens of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological
model as informed by social role theory allows one to see how variances in the micro and macro
systems for different female leaders influences their decisions. Kubu (2018) noted that women
who work in higher-level roles inside organizations are often viewed negatively in the context of
social role theory when evaluating success as women have often been more directive to reach
their role but are viewed poorly as they are not acting in a more agentic fashion. With conflicting
messages to female leaders on what success looks like, the role of leadership may be more
challenging and thus makes this research a critical area to understand further.
This study was conducted using a qualitative approach. Qualitative research aims to
understand why decisions are made and the story behind the experiences that influence and
inform the decisions of individuals (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The research was conducted with
any individual who identifies as a woman, meeting selected criteria. The focus of director-level
and above roles was to target women who have ascended to senior leadership roles of an
organization. The research did not include women who are the founders of their organizations.
The study did not use race or ethnic background as a criteria for inclusion.
8

Understanding the story and the meaning behind the decisions of female leaders to stay
or leave their leadership roles inside the private sector was the primary objective of this study.
Possible participants in the study were asked to complete a brief recruitment questionnaire to
ensure they meet the specific criteria to be a participant. The study was conducted through one-
on-one interviews of female leaders via online video conference software, or by telephone if the
participant was not comfortable using video conference software.
Definitions
Below is a listing of some key words related to this study and a brief definition.
 The private sector refers to either a publicly traded company or a privately held
company, and not by the government (Wigmore, 2013).
 A publicly traded company refers to a company that issues shares of stock available for
purchase by the public (Murray, 2020).
 A privately held company refers to a company that is owned by a limited number of
individuals and whose shares are not publicly traded on the open market (Murray, 2020).
 A male-dominated industry includes non-traditional industries and occupations where
women are less than 25% of job incumbents (US Department of Labor Women’s Bureau,
2014).
 A glass cliff refers to when a women is given a position of leadership with greater risk of
failure (Ryan & Haslam, 2007).
 A glass escalator refers to the means by which men are accelerated through
organizational ranks (Ryan & Haslam, 2007).
9

 A glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier between women and executive suite,
preventing them from reaching the highest levels of the business world regardless of their
accomplishments or merits (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995, III).
 An essential worker refers to a worker in an ‘essential’ industry sector such as human
health and social work (i.e. healthcare, residential care and social workers), emergency
and personal services, critical manufacturing, energy, transport, an agriculture
(DeMatteis, 2021, p. 305).
 The term opting out refers to professional women’s decisions to suspend or interrupt their
careers (Stone & Hernandez, 2013, p. 237).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the
macro-level problem and some perspective on the theoretical framework used to study the
problem of practice. Chapter 2 will consist of a literature review of the relevant research that
exists on the problem of practice and the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Chapter 3 will
address the methodology for the study and the data collection procedures used. In addition,
positionality and other key information on the researcher will be presented. Lastly, Chapter 3
will cover limitations and delimiting factors for the study. Chapter 4 will provide the results of
the study. The study participants will be discussed in the presentation of the results, and key
insights, observations, and quotes from study participants will be included. Finally, Chapter 5
will discuss findings and recommendations for further research. Chapter 5 will also have a
conclusion of the entire research study conducted.

10

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This study explored the perspective of female leaders regarding how environmental
factors, including stress and burnout, influence their decision to remain in or leave the
workforce. This chapter provides a review of the literature based on Bronfenbrenner's
bioecological model informed by the lens of social role theory. The first section of this chapter
will provide an overview of women's participation in the workforce and leadership, including the
current state of participation. The second section of this chapter will provide an overview of
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model. The third section of this chapter will provide background
and an overview of social role theory. Lastly, the conceptual framework used in this study will
be presented. The research will be focused on the private sector of the workforce in the United
States. However, stress, burnout, and lack of gender representation in leadership are not unique
to the United States, and I will also draw upon literature from other countries.
Women’s Participation in the Workforce and Leadership
In the United States, women's participation in the paid workforce has been influenced by
global events that created changes in demands in roles men and women play (Alon et al., 2020).
With women leaving leadership roles disproportionately compared to their male peers, reviewing
research on women's participation in the workforce is important. This literature review will focus
on historical and current participation rates of women in the workforce and leadership positions.
Historical Trends of Women in the Workforce and Leadership
World War II was the first global event that saw an increase in women's, particularly
married women's, workforce participation due to men's involvement in the war (Alon et al.,
2020). In 1920, women represented approximately 20% of the workforce, which increased to
24% by 1940. By 1970, women represented 37.5% of the workforce; at the turn of the 21
st

11

century, women comprised 46.5% of the workforce in the United States. However, from 2000 to
2020, women's participation in the workforce increased by only about 1% in the aggregate (U.S.
Department of Labor Women's Bureau, 2020).
As women saw significant increases in their decisions to join the workforce, the drivers
for their career choices are important to understand. Allen et al. (2016) noted that women
consider their personal lives, including desired relationship status and willingness to have
children, at the onset of their careers. The thoughts of family life are evident as women generally
seek jobs that require social skills, offer flexibility, and roles that contribute to society. By
contrast, men's career aspirations have been led by finding roles that support competition, are
analytical, and require math (Eagly et al., 2020). As women's participation in the workforce
grew, their roles changed as they became more educated.
Some women saw education as a path toward achieving their desired career aspirations.
As a result, women have seen a seven-fold increase in attaining a college education, as compared
to a four-fold increase for men, from the 1970s (Allen et al., 2016). Additionally, Allen et al.
(2016) noted that during the 2009 – 2010 academic year, women earned 57% of bachelor's
degrees, 63% of master's degrees, and 53% of doctoral degrees. These educational gains have
supported the growth of women in the workforce and leadership roles.
Women's representation in leadership has always been disproportionate to their
participation in the workforce. For example, in the 1960s, women held less than 10% of
managerial positions in the private sector yet represented 32% of the workforce (U.S.
Department of Labor Women's Bureau, 2020; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, 2013). By 2020, women represented approximately 47% of the workforce and held
40% of managerial positions (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020; U.S. Department of Labor
12

Women's Bureau, 2020). However, despite the increase in participation in management-level
roles, women represent less than 25% of C-suite roles as of 2020 (McKinsey & Company, 2021).
Current State of Women in the Workforce and Leadership
With the growth of women's participation in the workforce, it is essential to understand
the current state of women in the workforce and leadership to help understand why women leave
leadership roles disproportionally compared to their male peers. This section of the literature
review will discuss the impacts of COVID-19 on women's workforce participation, career
aspirations, experiences as leaders, and required roles in the workforce due to changes in
household makeup. Finally, this section will conclude with the role of women working as part of
a family unit.
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic struck and continues to impact women in the
workforce and leadership significantly today. Since the onset of the pandemic through the first
quarter of 2022, 2.3 million women abruptly exited the workforce after schools and childcare
facilities were closed due to the pandemic (Thomas et al., 2022). Seven percent of working
mothers between 25 – 44 with children under 13 left the workforce because of COVID-19
(Delamater & Livingston, 2021). The effects of COVID-19 showed the role many women play
while also participating in the workforce.
Women seek and aspire to be in leadership roles, and when given these opportunities,
they face challenges that result in them leaving their roles. Some women are given more
leadership opportunities in young companies and financially distressed companies or are offered
lower wages for the position (Gregory-Mina, 2012). Additionally, women experience the glass
cliff, with sexism, a lack of professional networks, and perceptions around the ability to lead in
crisis, all creating challenges for success (Gregory-Mina, 2012). Hideg and Shen (2019) also
13

suggested that benevolent sexism by both men and women adversely impacted women's ability
to attain and stay in leadership positions. Kossek et al. (2017) outlined women in leadership roles
are pushed out in addition to opting out due to the challenges they experience.
Women's career aspirations have been seen through the growth of women's participation
in the workforce and leadership (U.S. Department of Labor Women's Bureau, 2020). Fritz and
Knippenberg (2020) highlighted that some male bosses think women have low career
aspirations. However, Hoobler et al. (2014) posited that both men and women managers viewed
women's career aspirations as low. Kanji and Cahusac (2015) identified that some women opt
out due to societal expectations and social norms that are not supportive of women. Stone and
Ackerly-Hernandez (2013) had similar findings, with some women opting out of male-
dominated industries due to a lack of social stigmas and requiring support for the communal side
of being a woman, including domestic responsibilities. However, Stone and Ackerly-Hernandez
indicated that no such opt-out was found in more prominent female-dominated industries,
supporting the male-dominant cultural expectations of women at work.
Kossek et al. (2017) found that women have similar career aspirations as men. However,
the perception that communal attributes are not representative of leadership qualities results in
women's aspirations being lowered. Bradley et al. (2021) defined communal traits as "more
caring, nurturing, emotionally expressive, selfless, and more likely to seek harmony" (p. 461). As
a result of wanting to use communal attributes, women prefer to work in environments that
involve working with others or helping others. Deota (2014) suggested that some women
consider removing themselves from the workforce to care for children or aging parents as they
navigate their career progression. With conflicting views on success in leadership, women's
career development planning requires balance and support from partners and close family.
14

One study on women in coaching noted that having a limited number of female coaches
(a leadership position in sports) had negative outcomes for girls and women. Negative outcomes
included a devaluation of self-worth, failure to realize aspirational goals in sports, and an
inability to challenge gender stereotypes (LaVoi & Dutove, 2012). With this occurring at such a
young age, leadership aspirations and gender expectations are already impacting life trajectories.
As women in leadership experience different work-life challenges than their male peers,
women's aspirations and ambitions manifest differently. Hoobler et al. (2014) highlighted that
over 50% of working women aspire to C-suite roles. However, Sidle (2011) found that some
women would leave their roles if their partner/spouse worked more than 45 hours per week in a
study of over 2,000 working women in the United States. In addition to personal factors outside
of work impacting women staying in their roles, the leadership roles women have access to are
different than men.
Women in the workforce often have multiple roles that they must fill. As of 2018, 21% of
children live in a mother-only household, and 70% of children live in a two-parent household. In
addition, 25% of women in two-parent households are not in the workforce (Alon et al., 2020).
Women's role in the household relative to work has changed over the years.
Women professionals are in dual-career marriages 90% of the time compared to their
male professionals, where only 50% of men's spouses are also employed (Kossek et al., 2017).
Women were the breadwinner in approximately 20% of dual-income households in 1990; as of
2015, that number has increased to 30%. With the increase in women as breadwinners, women
have stayed longer in their careers, supporting the increase in women's representation in
managerial roles (Sidle, 2011). However, despite the increase of women as breadwinners,
15

women are still disproportionally represented in senior leadership roles (McKinsey & Company,
2021).
Differing Impacts on Stress and Burnout as Drivers of Attrition Between Men and Women
Stress and burnout experienced by both men and women impact their quality of life and
work. In addition, the impacts of stress and burnout on work and career development are topics
that have lasting effects on individuals and families. This section will address how stress and
burnout drive attrition at organizations and how stress and burnout affect men and women
differently relating to attrition. Understanding how stress and burnout differently affect men's
and women's decisions to leave roles may provide insights to help understand the disproportional
departure of women in leadership roles.
Stress as a Driver of Attrition and Differing Impacts Between Men and Women
This section of the literature review will focus on how stress drives attrition differently
for men and women. In addition, this section will cover how COVID-19 has impacted stress and
how men and women experience stress differently at work. The impact of stress and driving
people out of their jobs or the workforce are essential to understand so organizations can look to
expand support and help improve the quality of work for employees.
COVID-19 created new and different challenges for everyone due to school, childcare,
and workplace closures. The stressors experienced in some instances were just further
exacerbations of stressors that existed before COVID-19, but some new stressors were created,
again, notably for women (Cassino & Besen-Cassino, 2022). Hochschild's (1989) second shift
has been studied and researched for many years. As a result of COVID-19, researchers have
introduced the concept of a third shift. Chung (2020) defined the third shift as the responsibility
of women to be focused on the family's mental well-being, which has introduced a new stressor
16

for women. Cassino and Besen-Cassino (2022) highlighted that some women were helping
children with virtual school, which increased stress. Thomas et al. (2022) conducted a study of
374 men and women, with over 60% having a household income over $100,000 in the summer
of 2020. They discovered that some women are experiencing more stress due to additional work
across their personal and professional lives. With these additional demands and stress, women
have been leaving the workforce due to stress (Cassino & Besen-Cassino, 2022). Power (2020)
noted that 37% of fathers reported being stressed during the COVID-19 pandemic, whereas 57%
of mothers reported experiencing stress. Additionally, Power indicated that some women with
two children experience stress 40% more than the average adult. Some women have reported
experiencing stress disproportionally during the pandemic, and as a result, more women than
men left the workforce from March 2020 through early 2022 (Thomas et al., 2022).
Both men and women experience workplace stress. When men experience workplace
stress or are insecure in their job, their stress levels increase, and as a result, men withdraw from
their roles at home (Cassino & Besen-Cassino, 2022). As suggested in the research, women may
experience workplace stress from various places. First, women may view the path to leadership
as stress-inducing development (Kossek et al., 2017). Women may also consider this path
stressful due to limited role models, poor mentoring, and biases toward men (Surawicz, 2016).
Additionally, women sometimes are the victims of negative stereotyping, particularly in male-
dominated industries, resulting in stress responses for women (Kossek et al., 2017).
Burnout as a Driver of Attrition and Differing Impacts Between Men and Women
This section of the literature review will focus on burnout and its impact on attrition as
experienced differently by men and women. The section will discuss burnout, its relationship to
17

stress, and the remediators of burnout. This section will conclude with how burnout is
experienced differently between men and women.
Although burnout is a unique feeling and experience, it is often linked to stress. Aldossari
and Chaudhry (2021) outlined that women may have experienced burnout and stress due to the
second shift they experienced with personal responsibilities on top of their work responsibilities.
Bernard (2017) pointed out that the second shift is a driver of burnout without also linking the
second shift to stress. Further, Evolathi et al. (2013) highlighted that personal and work stress are
both antecedents of burnout. In addition to the relationship between burnout and stress, some
women have found ways to remediate burnout.
As women experience burnout due to home and work demands, research suggests some
women have found ways to remediate burnout. Women indicated that when they could delegate
household work and receive increased flexibility at work, levels of burnout were improved
(Bernard, 2017). Bernard (2017) conducted a study of physicians and found that most male
physicians have a partner at home who does not work. Conversely, most women physicians had
a partner who also worked. As a result, 82% of male doctors noted their partners did
substantially all the work at home, including childcare. Comparingly, only 5% of female doctors
indicated their partner did substantially all of the work at home, including childcare. In addition
to finding ways to remediate burnout, burnout also occurs due to work-related factors.
Women who experience burnout are four times more likely than men to leave their jobs
(Donahue et al., 2021). As women navigate the path to leadership while managing their
responsibilities, increased levels of burnout are experienced (Kalaitzi et al., 2017). Further,
women experience higher levels of job scrutiny than their male peers, leading to higher rates of
depression, turnover, and withdrawal from work, which all result in higher levels of burnout
18

(Phillips & Grandy, 2018). One study of female neurologists found that 42% of respondents
reported experiencing some symptoms of burnout (Moore et al., 2019). Based on the research
findings, it appears women may experience higher rates of burnout, both personally and
professionally, compared to men.
Stress and Burnout Among Female Leaders
The experiences of stress and burnout for female leaders present some unique differences
from those men experience at all levels inside organizations and women at different levels.
Therefore, understanding these individual factors is vital in retaining and developing female
leaders. In addition, the current leadership landscape due to the COVID-19 pandemic added
additional elements those female leaders are now experiencing.
Key Drivers of Stress and Burnout for Female Leaders
Female leaders experience stress and burnout due to their unique position in the
workplace juxtaposed against their role at home outside of work. Therefore, understanding the
experiences of stress and burnout is important to assess if there is a linkage to the disproportional
departure of women in leadership. In addition, women's challenges with conforming to male-
dominated culture, stereotyping of women, and the role female leaders also play at home impact
levels of stress and burnout experienced.
Male-Dominated Organizational Culture
Male-dominated cultures were developed through the gender demographics in the
workforce. With men historically being the primary worker outside the home, cultures supported
the development of the ideology of men. The section will discuss the creation of the male-
dominated culture, women's potential impacts on the male-dominated culture, the ideal view of a
leader from an organizational perspective, and the view of an ideal leader from an employee
19

perspective. Additionally, understanding women's desire for advancement in male-dominant
cultures, how women view the reward systems of leadership, the impact of women's
compensation of leadership, and the alignment of personal values of some women in a male-
dominant culture will be reviewed. Lastly, women's perceptions of themselves and others will be
reviewed in light of a male-dominant culture, expectations of women to be successful in
leadership, and the glass cliff women may experience.
Despite a change in the gender composition of the workforce from the 1950's to today,
the cultural norms and expectations of an organization have not evolved to account for the
increase in women in the workforce (Gallup, 2016). Pafford and Schaefer (2017) noted that
organizational cultures embody that women are the only ones who need family-friendly policies
as they are the responsible caregiver at home. Additionally, organizational cultures do not
promote flexibility, and with a traditional 8 to 5 work schedules, women are seen to need the
flexibility to tend to familial responsibilities outside the office (Gallup, 2016). This perceived
flexibility has allowed organizations to continue to justify pay disparity between men and
women despite the passage of The Equal Pay Act being signed in 1963, which prohibited
employers from using gender to justify pay (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
n.d.). The historical precedent of allowing discrimination in pay has persisted despite the passage
of the Act, and today women working full-time make 79 cents on the dollar to a man (Gallup,
2016).
Organizational cultures were designed around a single parent working with a partner at
home to take care of domestic responsibilities (Kossek & Buzzanell, 2018). The presumed
working parent was the man, creating a culture designed for men, particularly in leadership roles
(Campuzano, 2019). A male-centric culture may create a hostile work climate for women and
20

potential backlash against female leaders who do not conform to the expectations of the male
culture (Kossek et al., 2017). Additionally, a male-centric organizational culture may assume
employees can work 24/7 and thrives in a competitive atmosphere, which is generally misaligned
with female leaders' desires for an organizational culture (Longman & Anderson, 2016).
Dwiveldi et al. (2021) studied 124 female CEO successors from S&P 1500 and Fortune 500
firms. They observed that women who fail to conform to the male culture and exhibit male traits
might experience stress and burnout amid sustained pressures to conform. Campuzano (2019)
noted that women's leadership and female traits are undervalued at times in organizational
cultures, which may create additional burdens for women; however, some benefits may be
realized.
Despite women's challenges, female leaders can successfully influence organizational
culture through strategic femininity and shared power, allowing small changes to occur over time
(Campuzano, 2019). Longman and Anderson (2016) found that some women were seen as
enhancing the culture of organizations and helping improve decision-making. As women have
been viewed as outsiders, female leaders have been leading the change of driving organizational
culture to be more inclusive for other marginalized communities (Campuzano, 2019). As
organizational culture evolves, it is essential to understand what the organization view as the
ideal leader.
Gregory-Mina (2012) posited the phrase 'Think Male Think Leader' effectively describes
organizational views on what a leader should be. Men, masculinity, and agentic behaviors
triangulate how most organizations view an ideal leader, which is exacerbated in male-
dominated industries (Campuzano, 2019). Given the organizational demands on senior leaders,
an ideal leader has no caregiving responsibilities or someone else to handle caregiving
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responsibilities while the leader focuses on work (Kossek & Buzzanell, 2018). Despite
organizational views on what an ideal leader is, employees' idea of a desirable leader presents a
different perspective on the ideal qualities of a leader.
The views of what an organization thinks a leader should be and what employees seek in
a leader do not always align. Longman and Anderson (2016) indicated that employees seek
leaders who exhibit primarily female characteristics. Gerzema and D'Antonio (2013) conducted a
study of 26,000 people. They discovered that when asked about the characteristics of what
employees wanted in a leader, female characteristics were selected disproportionally to male
traits by both men and women. This disparate view has not brought about significant change in
women's representation in leadership (U.S. Department of Labor Women's Bureau, 2020). In
support of reconciling the differences between an organization's view of an ideal leader and an
employee's ideal leader, understanding women's desire for advancement in a male-dominated
culture is important to understand.
In a study by Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer (2012), they determined that the
top three reasons some women do not seek leadership roles are children, harassment at work, and
lack of a women's network. Children and harassment at work may cause stress and burnout for
women, creating a challenging path for female leaders to continue as they navigate all that is
expected of them. In addition, with some women not seeking leadership, for those women who
do reach senior leadership, those female leaders may view the organizational culture as
unsupportive of women's development.
When considering advancement into leadership, some women may view the demands of
senior leadership in organizations as extreme. They may also feel a lack of flexibility, resulting
in women fearing a lack of happiness should they continue to ascend to leadership (DeSimone,
22

2020). With one study indicating children were the number one stressor for women, the
challenges and concerns of balancing work-family prevent women from continuing up the
leadership path or cause them to exit altogether (DeSimone, 2020; Roebuck et al., 2013; Sidle,
2011). Extended hours may create an image for women that they cannot achieve the desired
work-life balance they seek and do not put themselves forward for further leadership roles
(Cimirotic et al., 2017). While understanding the organization's support of women's development
in leadership, some women may struggle to feel the reward system does not align with their
needs.
Some women have noted in past research that the reward systems offered in leadership
were not aligned with their wants. With a misalignment of the rewards for senior leadership
roles, such as higher titles and compensation, women consider the costs of leadership to
outweigh the benefits offered (Longman & Anderson, 2016). In addition, Elias (2018) found that
women make less money for the same work, which may contribute to the misalignment of the
cost/benefits analysis conducted. With a potential misalignment for women due to the
cost/benefits of senior leadership, the compensation disparities women may experience may
create additional challenges.
Women's compensation, in general, has historically been lower than men's. According to
the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022c), women earned 83 cents on the dollar for every
dollar earned by their male counterparts across the entire workforce in the United States. Across
the major groupings tracked by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, women working in
management and professional roles had the lowest comparative wages to their male counterparts,
at 76.5 cents on the dollar (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022d). Lyttleton et al. (2021) indicated
that women, particularly with children, have a wage penalty associated with the need for
23

flexibility in hours and the workplace. In addition to the compensation disparities, some women
may leave leadership due to misalignment between their values and the organizational culture.
Gregory-Mina (2012) discovered that women might leave senior leadership due to a lack
of alignment with personal values. A lack of alignment with personal values may be impacted by
women in senior leadership experiencing imposter syndrome in their roles, creating additional
stress and challenges (Longman & Anderson, 2016). In addition, women's aspirational views are
often impacted by the role she plays outside of work.
The factors of social role theory drive women's perceptions of themselves and other
women are that some women should not be leaders (Litzky & Greenhaus, 2007). The perception
that women should not be leaders negatively affects women at all organizational levels as career
aspirations are lower, and development and self-assessment are all lowered (Hoobler et al.,
2014). Cimirotic et al. (2017) found that women's self-doubt about their abilities to be a leader
reduce the likelihood of women achieving leadership roles. Should a woman not allow self-doubt
to sabotage her ascent to leadership, many women associate higher levels of leadership with
adverse outcomes, including long hours and stress, which they do not view as advantageous or
worth the sacrifice for the higher role (Kubu, 2018). Further, women at junior and senior levels
view one another critically and regard each as ineffective, thus hurting the career advancement of
both junior and senior-level women (Hoobler et al., 2014; O'Neil et al., 2017). Kossek et al.
(2017) determined that women are less likely to view themselves in high-status roles or powerful
positions as those roles are associated with masculine traits. However, Martin and Phillips (2017)
found that when women ignore gender differences and expectations, they are more confident at
work and are thus more successful, even in male-dominated industries and roles. In addition,
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some personal views about leadership in male-dominated cultures and the potential perceived
expectations of women in leadership are influential.
Also impacting female leaders are higher expectations for performance than male peers,
creating additional stress and causing women to opt out of continued leadership development
(Roebuck et al., 2013). Further supporting the notion that women fill communal roles and not
fitting in male-dominant cultures, women hold CEO roles in 56% of philanthropic organizations
and foundations, which are considered more communal, compared to 5% in public companies
(Carli & Eagly, 2016; Kubu, 2018). In addition to the expectations of women in leadership in
male-dominated cultures, career pathways, hiring practices, and development impact the pipeline
for women in leadership.
As organizations navigate the path of succession, the development of future leaders is
critical to an organization's long-term success. The structures they institute to develop leaders are
important to understand. A vital step in leadership development is providing transparency in
career pathing and development, and women find this particularly valuable as they navigate the
path to leadership (Holton & Dent, 2015). Organizations and employees note that mentors,
sponsors, role models, and formal and informal networks are essential and valuable to support
the path to leadership (Hideg & Shen, 2019; Kossek et al., 2017). Despite alignment on the need
for this support structure, Carli and Eagly (2016) found that women are routinely not afforded
this support and do not have access. Esposito (2019) stated that the lack of access to the support
structure prevents mid-level managers from advancing professionally.
Women's lack of representation at the most senior levels of leadership in the United
States creates challenges for women in their journey to leadership. Women need mentors, role
models, and coaches who are supportive of them to improve representation in leadership (Holton
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& Dent, 2015). With women at times holding shorter tenures than their male peers as CEO, the
role model challenge continues to be a gap women face (Esposito, 2019). Miner et al. (2018)
specifically indicated that in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) fields that
women are perceived to self-select out of roles but are leaving due to a lack of representation in
leadership that provides role models and coaching to young women seeking advancement in the
field. When male leaders join organizations, the organization adapts and assists the man in fitting
into the culture. However, when a female leader joins, organizations force the women to fit in
and do not provide any support to help them acclimate (Kossek et al., 2017).
Further, Longman and Anderson (2016) posited that women might not be invited to
participate in networking, mentoring, or coaching and have limited access to role models, given
the lack of women in leadership roles. Leadership development generally focuses on men and
their continued growth at the expense of some women, and organizations may not provide the
same level of commitment to the development of female leaders. In addition, Yavorsky (2019)
noted that women are subject to a gender and social class penalty when hiring decisions are
made, supporting the notion that men continue to hire men who are more like themselves. With
this discrimination against women in hiring, women are unable to continue to advance and
develop into leadership due to a lack of representation and an inability to gain access to higher-
level roles. While women struggle to find support, women may also face a glass cliff
phenomenon when they reach senior leadership.
The glass cliff was created to define women's challenges after attaining board-level and
C-suite roles in organizations, which was coined breaking the glass ceiling. The glass cliff,
defined by Ryan and Haslam (2007), refers to women in senior leadership or board-level roles
who are more susceptible to failure than their male peers. Ryan and Haslam (2007) indicated that
26

women are more likely to be given positions in leadership when there is a perceived crisis or a
greater risk of failure. Esposito (2019) found in one study that female leaders in mid-level
management did not experience the glass cliff phenomenon that women experience at higher
levels of management. Despite the glass cliff for some female leaders, supporting and advancing
women in leadership is still challenging in male-dominated cultures.
As women continue to navigate the path the leadership and fight against the culture
wherein they struggle to succeed, women's progress to the top and the retention of women has
stalled in recent years (Kossek & Buzzanell, 2018). Roebuck et al. (2013) demonstrated that the
lack of organizational support and focus on women makes it easy for women to leave their roles.
However, when organizations focus on offering work-life initiatives aimed at women, women
stay and often aspire to leadership roles in the organization (Fritz & Knippenberg, 2017). Holton
and Dent (2015) found that without the attention of the CEO and other C-suite executives,
women would not attain leadership positions inside the organization. Further supporting female
leaders and the retention and development of women, organizations with strong female
representation in leadership see lower wage disparity between men and women (Tate & Yang,
2015). The overall male-dominant culture and expectations that exist for women are important to
understand how these factors impact women in leadership and their decisions to stay in senior
leadership roles.
Stereotyping
Stereotypes exist in both personal and professional settings. As a result, women face
many different stereotypes that they must address in their professional roles. This section will
discuss the stereotypes associated with leaders, how the stereotype of women aligns with the
leader stereotype, and how the stereotype of women is used to determine career aspirations.
27

Leaders are expected to exhibit agentic personality traits, which are considered male
(Eagly & Woods, 2012). As such, female leaders are expected to act like men or exhibit male
personality traits and are then penalized for not exhibiting sufficient female personality traits.
Isaac and Griffin (2015) determined that women must act in an agentic and communal fashion to
be successful as leaders to balance social expectations. Further, women should use communal
traits sparingly to be viewed as successful leaders (Campuzano, 2019; Ryan & Haslam, 2007).
This creates a double-bind for women that may create stress. Dwivedi et al. (2021) defined a
double bind as a situation where a woman is punished for either acting in a manner that is too
agentic male-type leadership style, focusing on competence, confidence, and ambition and as
such violating gender expectations of being more communal to obtain leadership and thus seek
social disapproval for acting in an agentic manner. Conversely, men are rewarded when they
exhibit communal traits (Isaac & Griffin, 2015). Unlike male leaders, who are portrayed based
on their career accomplishments and successes, female leaders are portrayed based on their
family life and appearance before their achievements are addressed (Dwivedi et al., 2021).
Female leaders, all the way up to the CEO role, are victims of stereotyping, which causes
burnout and drives women out of these roles (Dwiveldi et al., 2021). Furthermore, as women
represent less than 25% of C-suite leaders, women are also considered the token woman on the
leadership team, which creates additional stress for women to conform (Larker & Tayan, 2020;
Longman & Anderson, 2016). Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer (2012) conducted a
qualitative study of eight women in leadership in the medical profession in Austria. As a result of
the interviews conducted, Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer determined that the
women may believe that their gender impedes their professional development and will use it to
inhibit their growth.
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Successful leaders are expected to act in an agentic fashion, and women are expected to
act in a communal fashion, which puts women in a position where they are likely poised for
failure (Allen et al., 2016). As a result, women are criticized and do not receive promotions
because they are not agentic enough or leverage their communal style too much. Additionally,
some women are blamed for failures and are penalized for apologizing to others, as an apology is
viewed as a sign of weakness, which is not a trait of a leader (Allen et al., 2016; Dwivedi et al.,
2021). This is not viewed as a successful leadership trait by those making the hiring and
promotion decisions. On the opposite side, women who act in an agentic fashion to please those
above them so they can be promoted to a more senior role are then criticized for not being
communal enough (Allen et al., 2016). In addition to the communal expectations of women at
work, the expectations and beliefs around career decisions are also tied to communal
assumptions.
Expectations are that women behave communally; when a woman is too focused on her
career aspirations and career success, she is not conforming to societal expectations of being
communal and wanting to help others (Dwivedi et al., 2021). This misalignment of self and
societal expectations can create difficulty for women navigating their careers. Further, Cimirotic
et al. (2017) determined that some women "choose" domestic responsibilities over career
development, supporting the stereotype that women are the caregivers. While some women
struggle with the misalignment of career expectations and desires due to expectations of
communal behaviors, some women have been successful in finding the balance between work
and home.
Ursula Burns, the first Black woman CEO of a Fortune 500 company, indicated that she
experienced both stress and burnout due to constant scrutiny because she was a woman who also
29

failed to conform to the stereotype of being a woman (Dwiveldi et al., 2021). Roebuck et al.
(2013) determined that many women find senior leadership roles too political and lonely, driving
them away or out of the position. Gregory-Mina (2012) indicated that women in these leadership
roles experience depression at twice the rate of their male peers due to isolation and scrutiny and
have higher rates of stress.
Role at Home
Women's role outside of the workplace has changed over time as women's participation
in the workforce has grown substantially compared to 50 years ago (U.S. Department of Labor
Women's Bureau, 2020). Women have historically been considered the homemaker and the
primary caregiver at home while the husband was away at work to support the family (Eagly et
al., 2020). Despite the increase in women in the workforce, women are still expected to be the
primary caregiver at home, regardless of their partner's workforce participation (Eagly et al.,
2020).
Women's role at home has been one that has long been constructed as the epicenter of the
family unit. Women (and girls) do 75% of the unpaid work, with women in North America
spending over four hours per day on household responsibilities (Moreira da Silva, 2019). Lichard
et al. (2021) purported that women do more housework than male partners (or spouses), even if
the woman is the breadwinner. Lichard et al. further note that this creates a glass ceiling due to
responsibilities at home. In addition to these responsibilities, women consider work time, family
planning, and work-life balance as factors influencing their decisions regarding their work roles
(Cimirotic et al., 2017).
Support from one's partner or close family is essential for both men and women to
succeed in their roles, but with women's communal attributes, that support is more critical. Hideg
30

and Shen (2019) posit that some female leaders are more successful and consider partner support
a key driver of success at work. Additionally, some female leaders seek support from their
managers to help their career development (Holton & Dent, 2015). Finally, Hideg and Shen
found that if women believe in benevolent sexism, they do not seek support from their partner,
family, or peers at work regarding their professional development.
Indra Nooyi, the former CEO of PepsiCo, said a support system at home to help her and
her family was essential to being a successful leader at work. She noted the support system was
vital to her success at work and home and that without it, she would not have been able to do
what she did (Women in the World Summit, 2019). Some women have identified children as the
primary driver of stress. Roebuck et al. (2013) found in one study that over 90% of women who
leave the workforce were caregivers with children. Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer
(2012) indicated that women face much more stress than men due to conflict between family and
work, struggling to find a path to balancing both successfully, noting this stress often leads to
burnout for women.
With women, even in leadership roles, feeling the need to subordinate their careers based
on their partner's career and the demands of the family, women struggle with their development
(DeSimone, 2020; Roebuck et al., 2013). Lichard et al. (2021) found that women work more at
home, even if they are the breadwinner. Further, Lichard et al., found that successful women
tended to do additional work at home to compensate for longer work hours.
COVID-19’s Impact on Stress and Burnout for Female Leaders
COVID-19 is two years old and remains a global pandemic that has impacted all aspects
of life for many people. Research and grey literature continue to address many societal factors
that have changed due to the pandemic and the effects of those changes on all members of
31

society, including women and female leaders. Unfortunately, the research from the United States
is limited, so research from around the world has been reviewed to understand what is happening
globally to women and female leaders as the world navigates this global pandemic. The role
women play as essential workers or how they navigate working from home with school and
childcare closures will be reviewed.
Men and women professionals have experienced the impacts of COVID-19 differently,
with women working in jobs that are generally classified as essential workers, requiring them to
work at their job site. With jobs as essential workers, many women have experienced a greater
risk of stress and burnout (Carli, 2020). Additionally, some women who have continued to work
away from home during COVID-19 have experienced lower stress levels when their partner has
been home (Craig & Churchill, 2020). In addition to being essential workers, many women were
forced to work from home due to office closures.
As a result of COVID-19, children were sent home for homeschooling and childcare as
schools and care facilities closed (Cassino & Besen-Cassino, 2022). COVID-19 caused women
to be unable to keep work and home life separated more so than men in the same situation
(Waismel-Manor et al., 2021). One study by Power (2020) found that men have been more active
at home with childcare and home responsibilities because of COVID-19. However, Hank and
Steinback (2021) found that men have not increased participation above 50% in home and
childcare responsibilities, even because of the pandemic. COVID-19 also created additional
home responsibilities in that someone in the home had to take on homeschooling responsibilities
as many schools shut down. Power defined this additional responsibility of homeschooling as the
fourth shift that women largely assumed. Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has strengthened the
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social role expectations of women and added additional responsibilities to the scope of women
outside of work.
COVID-19 forced many individuals to shift to work from home as workplaces closed due
to organizational and governmental directives. Waismel-Manor et al. (2021) determined that
some women working from home generally were deprioritized when their partner was also at
home, resulting in women not having an isolated workspace and navigating more interruptions
compared to their partner. While working at home, women experienced 50% less work time
uninterrupted compared to their partners, which one study noted was due to women who had
children at home (Carli, 2020; Lyttleton et al., 2021). Carli (2020) indicated that working women
spent twice as much time on childcare as their partners if both were working and the same
amount if their partner was not working during the pandemic. Understanding how the changes
due to COVID-19 may impact female leaders' stress and burnout is important to understand in
this study.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
This study examines the problem of women in leadership roles leaving at a
disproportional rate compared to their male peers through two theoretical frameworks:
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model and social role theory. This section will first explain the
ecological model as defined by Bronfenbrenner in 1979, which he refined into the bioecological
model in the 1980s and 1990s. Then, the focus will be on how the bioecological model is
considered when looking at female leaders from both a microsystem context and a macrosystem
context.
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Background of the Bioecological Model
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model is an expansion of the ecological model he
developed in 1979. Bronfenbrenner (1979) identified four different systems and how their
proximity to the individual influences their beliefs, behaviors, and development. The four
systems are the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The element
of time, the chronosystem, either temporal or chronological, was a fifth dimension, later
incorporated into the bioecological model. The microsystem is the closest to the individual and
includes activities in which the individual is directly involved, including dyadic relationships
with other individuals. The mesosystem is the next layer, including settings where the individual
is present or influences transitioning between the micro and exosystems. The exosystem is the
next layer and is a setting where the individual does not participate but that impacts the
individual. Finally, the macrosystem is the outermost layer and consists of policies and laws that
shape the environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner later moved the chronosystem
into the time component of the PPCT model, which is part of his bioecological model (Gardiner
& Kosmitzki, 2008). LaVoi and Dutove (2012) indicated that the ecological model aims to study
humans and their environments in a complex nested system with many structural elements.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Bronfenbrenner then expanded the ecological model to represent
the changing world in which the ecological model was being used. This revised model includes
proximal processes, personal characteristics, context, and time, also known as the PPCT model
(Tudge et al., 2016). Each of the four elements of the model will be reviewed next.
Proximal processes consider the role a person plays in their development over time.
Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006) noted that there is a bidirectional relationship between two
individuals, and an understanding of that relationship and what each considers the key area of
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attention, is paramount to the proximal process in Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model. Tudge
et al. (2016) note that the relationships a person has over time evolve and to be considered in the
proximal process, the interaction needs to occur regularly. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006)
found that personal characteristics, context, and time are central to the relationship with proximal
processes and influence the overall development of an individual over time.
The personal characteristics of the bioecological model include forces, resources, and
demands. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006) describe forces as behaviors that support or prohibit
the growth and development of the individual. Insa et al. (2016) describe forces as a person's
disposition and can include such things as self-awareness and adaptability. Resources are
considered both biopsychological and learned skills that can positively or negatively impact an
individual (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Skills, knowledge, physical, and mental ability
differences are all examples of resources (Insa et al., 2016). Demands can positively or
negatively impact development through factors based on social environments (Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 2006). Demands can include both physical appearance and mental aptitude (Insa et al.,
2016).
Context is defined as four nested systems originally included in Bronfenbrenner's
ecological model. The four systems considered in context are the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. The bioecological model did not expand on the meanings of any of
the four systems (Tudge et al., 2016).
Bronfenbrenner (1979) included the chronosystem to measure time and considered both
chronological and temporal time. However, in the bioecological model, the chronosystem was
redefined as time. Bronfenbrenner's refined definition of time focuses on the evolution of time
throughout an individual's life and the time in which the individual lives (Bronfenbrenner &
35

Morris, 2006). As an individual grows and develops over their life, the point at which
interactions occur is central to the element of time in the bioecological model. Bronfenbrenner
and Morris (2006) broke time down into three elements-micro-time, meso-time, and macro-time.
Micro-time refers to interactions in the present for an individual. Meso-time refers to the
frequency of interactions between the individual and others. Macro-time refers to the
chronosystem of time, which encapsulates the individual's lifespan and the time in which the
individual lives (Tudge et al., 2016).
The bioecological model is a more comprehensive view of the lived experiences of
individuals and allows for a richer understanding of the relationships and interactions with others
(Rosa & Tucker, 2013). LaVoi and Dutove (2012) posit that the ecological model allows for the
removal of blame from an individual and a robust understanding of the entire system and the
interactions between the different layers in the system. For the purposes of this research, the
microsystem and macrosystem are the two systems within the context of Bronfenbrenner's
bioecological model of focus for this study, as I am most interested in how the relationships
between these two systems impact a female leader's levels of stress and burnout. The elements of
the proximal process, personal characteristics, and time are all factors that help support and
understand the relationship between these two systems.
Bioecological Approach to Female Leaders
The bioecological model illustrates the complex systems that influence the experiences of
individuals, including female leaders. Therefore, understanding the microsystem context and
macrosystem influence female leaders' experience and how they impact levels of stress and
burnout is central to this study. Additionally, I want to understand where the origination of the
36

stress and burnout occur and whether they ultimately are what drive the disproportional
departure of women in leadership as compared to men.
Microsystem Context
The microsystem is the innermost layer of Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model,
with the individual at the entire system's epicenter. The microsystem focuses on personal factors,
including emotions, beliefs, personality, and values (LaVoi & Dutove, 2012). Beliefs can include
those of self and those imposed on one's view of self-based on societal expectations. This section
of the literature review will focus on understanding the components of the microsystem.
When looking at the microsystem for a person, Bronfenbrenner (1979) considered any
individual who had a close relationship with the person at the epicenter of focus. Gardiner and
Kosmitzki (2008) described the microsystem as the foundational level of interactions for any
individual and consists of those individuals with whom the person of interest interacts on a day-
to-day basis. When evaluating the microsystem of a female leader, the following individuals are
those who would likely be part of the microsystem-family, friends, colleagues, neighbors, social
group members, and mentors.
Macrosystem Influences
The macrosystem is the outermost layer in Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model.
The macrosystem focuses on factors that are the farthest removed from the person of focus but
still influence the person. Societal expectations and norms are considered part of the
macrosystem. The section of the literature review will focus on understanding the macrosystem.
Gardiner and Kosmitzki (2008) describe the macrosystem as the most complex system of
the ecological model. The macrosystem is the most abstract and consists of policies, laws,
societal and workplace cultures, and political and social factors (Insa et al., 2016; Gardiner &
37

Kosmitzki, 2008). LaVoi and Dutove (2012) identified stereotypes and gender role expectations
as elements of the macrosystem during their study of female coaches using Bronfenbrenner's
ecological model. Some factors included in a female leader's macrosystem are social policies,
gender roles, organizational and societal policies, and laws, and the industry in which she works.
Social Role Theory
Social role theory (SRT) was developed by Eagly and Wood (2012) beginning in the
1980s. SRT began as a study of gender through a psychological analysis done by Eagly in the
1970s. SRT later emerged as a convergence of biological and psychological processes that
impact the behavior of individuals. Eagly and Wood identify three primary biological and
psychological processes that underpin SRT: hormonal changes in individuals regulate
performance, internalization of gender roles to measure self, and experiencing expectations of
others on self. This section will provide some additional background on SRT and discuss the
expectations of women at work and home because of SRT.
Background of Social Role Theory
Social role theory (SRT) indicates that roles and behaviors are assigned to either men or
women. As a result of these assignments, men and women are then expected to exhibit these
roles and behaviors that conform to their gender identity. Within social role theory, Eagly and
Wood (2012) defined feminine traits as communal and male traits as agentic. Bradley et al.
(2021) defined communal traits as "more caring, nurturing, emotionally expressive, selfless, and
more likely to seek harmony" (p. 461). Bradley et al. define agentic traits as "more assertive,
controlling, aggressive, independent, and competitive" (p. 461). Further, as people observe men
and women across social settings, behaviors become associated with one gender and then
become cultural expectations (Eagly et al., 2020). In addition to agency and communion,
38

competence is another component of SRT. Competence and agency had historically been linked
together as men were thought to be more intellectual. However, Eagly et al. (2020) found that the
SRT did not consider agency and competence as related but as distinct attributes. Further
understanding the expectations of women inside and outside of work due to the underlying
assumptions of SRT is important.
Expectations of Women Outside of Work
As social role theory suggests, the roles and behaviors of men and women, those
expectations exist in the personal and professional context. SRT, through gender stereotypes,
assumes that women assume the role of primary caregiver at home and handle domestic
responsibilities. SRT also suggests that individuals will step into the role they are expected to
fill, and as such, women will assume the role of caregiver outside of work (Eagly & Wood, 2012;
Eagly et al., 2020).
In addition to the role of caregiver, women are also expected to play a communal role in
the community in which she lives. However, as a result of a perception of patriarchy, men are
deemed the authority, and women are subordinate to men. The male authoritarian role results in
fewer resources for women and requires women to rely on the support of men outside of work
(Eagly & Wood, 2012).
Expectations of Women at Work
As women in the United States increased participation in the workforce outside the home
in the 20
th
century, SRT often informed women's roles (Eagly et al., 2020). As a result of
communal traits in women, expectations around roles at work focused on interpersonal skills and
relationships (Hsu et al., 2021). Additionally, since women are assumed to work in communal
roles and organizations, leadership expectations in those organizations are also expected despite
39

leadership generally being considered a male role (Eagly et al., 2020). However, Kubu (2018)
found that in professional environments, women are penalized for not being altruistic, and men
are rewarded for being altruistic because of the different personality assumptions assigned to
men and women in the work environment. Despite the increased participation in the workforce,
the roles women hold at work, as defined by SRT, are not the same as men.
SRT suggests that women should hold roles in more transactional and communal
organizations, not directive. This implies that women have lower-level, non-leadership positions
in organizations (Eagly et al., 2020). Additionally, due to social role expectations, women are
thought to regulate their behavior to conform to the social expectations of their role (Eagly &
Wood, 2012).
The social construct of SRT outlines the roles and expectations of both men and women
in their personal and professional lives. These expectations can influence the decisions made by
women as they navigate the path to leadership and the journey once leadership is achieved. The
influence of expectations by others and oneself due to SRT may have implications on the stress
and burnout women experience, ultimately affecting their decision to remain in senior leadership
positions.
Conceptual Framework
The problem of the disproportionate exit of women in senior leadership was examined
through Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model informed by social role theory, focusing on the
gender role expectations placed on women. Understanding how the gender roles that female
leaders experience impacts their decisions around remaining in leadership, posited through the
lens of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, allows for a critical view of just how strong
gender role beliefs are and influence the lived experiences of women every day.
40

Bronfenbrenner's model allows for an understanding of the various factors related to gender roles
that influence women and their decisions to stay in leadership roles in the current environment
with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The considerations of how social norms, particularly
gender roles and expectations at the multiple degrees of separation from the female leader allow
for a deeper understanding and analysis of this problem.
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model focuses on how an individual views themselves
and their role through the influences of their lives, including family, friends, society, and policies
in both organizations and the culture in which the individual lives. The microsystem focuses on
the inner circle of people with the most substantial impact and influence on the individual
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Learned behaviors around gender roles for men and women from people
in a woman's inner circle are placed on women. These influences are often informed through the
lens of SRT and gender role assumptions, such as one's personal characteristics (personality), the
context of where an individual lives (culture), and the time in which the individual is living.
There are still expectations that come from one's gender role, but the culture in the United States
has evolved, and women are more accepted in the workforce but generally under the same
gender roles expected by SRT (Eagly & Wood, 2012).
The macrosystem of the bioecological model has been heavily influenced by the norms
established in SRT and gender roles. Many policies, rules, and expectations are based on the core
principles of SRT and gender roles that women are communal and are the caregiver. At the same
time, the man is the breadwinner and the head of the household and the corporate environment.
The macrosystem evolves as there are shifts in gender roles women play, but the policies, rules,
and expectations move much slower than the individuals' behavior (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Eagly
& Wood, 2012). Gender roles assume that women are primarily a caregiver at home or work in a
41

supporting role should they work outside the home. However, Alon et al. (2020) found that 21%
of women lead single-parent households, necessitating women to work outside the home.
However, due to gender role assumptions at the societal level, policies and expectations around
domestic responsibilities are still absent in many organizations and states in the United States.
Workplace policies, such as paid family leave, affordable childcare, and flexible work
environments centered around caregiving responsibilities, are not legal requirements in the
United States at a state or federal level.
Considering the relationship of SRT, focusing on gender role assumptions in the context
of the bioecological model allowed the opportunity to analyze the lived experiences of female
leaders through both lenses, given the overlap and relationship between SRT and the
bioecological model. The experiences of women in leadership differ from their male colleagues
due to gender roles. The complex relationship of the intertwined gender roles for women
between their micro and macro systems has broader societal impacts that are important to
understand. The combined lens provided a unique analysis to understand the disproportional
departure of women in leadership and how gender role assumptions influence the decision-
making process.
The bioecological model is a tool that can be used for exploration and inquiry to
qualitatively assess individuals' lived experiences (Bone, 2015). The research aims to focus on
female leaders' lived experiences and understand how all the varying systems within
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model impact and influence their lives, relationships, personal
and professional, and their stress levels and stress levels burnout as a result of gender role
expectations from with SRT. Understanding how these lived experiences result from gender role
42

assumptions, ultimately shaping and informing women's decisions to leave leadership roles
disproportionally compared to their male peers, is central to this study.
This exit of female leaders earlier than their male counterparts may be a driver of the
continued underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. Furthermore, this
underrepresentation may create problems for future female leaders. Some research indicated
there might be a lack of sufficient role models, fewer mentors, and insufficient sponsors to help
women navigate the corporate culture and reduces the pool of people in the workplace, causing
economic growth challenges for organizations and the United States as a whole (Hideg & Shen,
2019; Kossek et al., 2017).
Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between female leaders and their micro and macro
systems that influence their personal and professional lives relative to gender role expectations.
The figure shows the interconnectivity of the different layers and how the tenants of gender roles
assumptions within social role theory overlap. The relationships depicted in Figure 1 allow for
further research to help provide additional support and guidance for supporting women and
organizations. This research hopes to help retain women and increase diversity through means
that promote a more equitable experience while reducing stress and burnout due to gender roles
imposed on women.

43

Figure 1
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model Through the Lens of Social Role Theory
Mom
Self-
perception
Boss
Leader
Friend
Entrepreneur
Breadwinner
Female
leader
Sibling
Daughter
Community
member
Spouse/
partner
Primary
caregiver
Microsystem
Work:
Colleagues
Sponsor
Mentors
Employees
Peers
Home:
Family
Children
Spouse/
partner
Mentor
Friends
Macrosystem
Social policies
Social movements
Gender roles
Childcare
Gender equality laws
Equal Pay Act
Family Leave Act
Reproductive rights
Healthcare access
Title IX
Business hours
Mom
Self-
perception
Boss
Leader
Friend
Entrepreneur
Breadwinner
Female
leader
Sibling
Daughter
Community
member
Spouse/
partner
Primary
caregiver
Microsystem
Work:
Colleagues
Sponsor
Mentors
Employees
Peers
Home:
Family
Children
Spouse/
partner
Mentor
Friends
Macrosystem
Social policies
Social movements
Gender roles
Childcare
Gender equality laws
Equal Pay Act
Family Leave Act
Reproductive rights
Healthcare access
Title IX
Business hours

44

Conclusion
The disproportional departure of women from roles in senior leadership continues to be a
challenge. Despite the increased participation of women in the workforce and the population,
women are still unable to obtain equitable representation in senior leadership roles, which may
be driven in part due to the disproportional departure of women in leadership roles. Stress and
burnout are two key areas that women are disproportionally experiencing in leadership roles
compared to their male colleagues. In addition, social role norms still are persistent despite some
attempts to address them in organizational cultures. Helping women and organizations find ways
to be successful and achieve and remain in senior leadership roles commensurate with their
workforce participation is essential to the long-term health and stability of companies and the
economy of the United States.

45

Chapter Three: Methodology
This study explored the perspective of female leaders regarding how environmental
factors, including stress and burnout, influence their decision to remain in or leave the
workforce. This chapter begins with a review of the research questions and an overview of the
methodology used in the study. Following will be an overview of me, the researcher, and my
positionality relative to the study. Next, data sources to conduct the research will be addressed,
including the participants, instruments, and data collection procedures. After which, there will be
an overview of the data analysis methods. Finally, a discussion of the credibility and
trustworthiness, concerns around ethics, and considerations of limitations and delimitations will
conclude the chapter.
Research Questions
The research questions focus on understanding the societal and organizational factors
influencing female leaders' decision to remain in their roles. Additionally, the research questions
explore the interaction between the female leaders' systems of influence and how they may create
stress and burnout, which impact a female leader in her decision to stay in her role. The
following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. How do societal factors and expectations related to gender roles influence a female
leader's decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
2. How does corporate culture in the context of gender roles influence a female leader's
decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
3. How do female leaders perceive the interaction between their micro and macro systems
as creating stress and burnout for them?
46

Overview of Methodology
Qualitative phenomenological research focuses on understanding the nature of the
experiences lived by individuals through both cultural and social lenses through which they view
the world. Phenomenology is the idea of focusing on the concept of an experience an individual
has and how they interpret that experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An objective of the
research was to understand the interrelationships and workings of the lived experiences of female
leaders to present a holistic representation. A holistic account of the female leaders' experiences
allowed me to conduct deductive and inductive analyses using multiple data sources (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
The Researcher
Creswell and Creswell (2018) note that the researcher is a critical component of a
qualitative study, and understanding the researcher's biases is also essential. My target
population was women who hold director-level and above roles within organizations of at least
$100 million in annual revenue. I personally identify with all of the criteria of my target
population. I am a female executive working in a male-dominated industry. As a woman, I am
not in a position of power in relation to my participants, as defined by Cooper (2017). My power
comes from identifying as White, upper-middle class, and heterosexual, which are all dominant
power systems in the United States (Cooper, 2017). The topic of my research does not focus on
race, social status, or sexual identity, but these identities may influence the lived experiences of
some of my participants.
As a person who identifies with the target population of my survey, it is essential that I
understood my potential biases to ensure the credibility of the data I collected and analyzed.
During my personal experience as a senior leader, I have experienced stress and burnout as a
47

result of both my personal and professional roles and due to the organizational culture.
Burkholder et al. (2019) determined that researchers likely rely on their biases rather than the
data as it presents itself. Being aware of my biases and personal experiences, I had to ensure I did
not ignore responses from participants that do not align with my views and experiences.
Additionally, I did not guide the participants during the interview to answer questions in a
manner to validate my own biases. During the interviews, Creswell and Creswell (2018)
suggested that taking notes to reflect on my personal experiences based on the participants'
responses can help ensure I properly identified my biases. This also helped ensure that, as a
researcher, I focused on analyzing the data for what was discovered and not to support the
validation of my own lived experiences and biases.
Data Source: Interviews
This research design used a qualitative study to examine the problem of practice.
Qualitative assessments were conducted through interviews of participants who have agreed to
participate in the study. The semi-structured interviews allowed for a rich understanding of each
participant's experiences. The interviews were primarily conducted using video conference
software. In the event the participant did not agree to use the video conference software, a phone
interview was conducted.
I gathered data to answer all three research questions through semi-structured interviews.
Through the lens of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, I explored how the themes of
social role theory play into women's lived experiences in their micro and macro systems. The
interview questions sought to understand how women's various roles in their personal and
professional lives impact their stress and burnout levels. After gaining an understanding of the
stress and burnout factors in a woman's life, understanding the role they play in a woman's
48

decision to stay or leave her leadership role. Additionally, the questions sought to understand
how the culture of the organization the women work for impacts their decision to stay in
leadership roles and the effects the culture has on supporting women who may experience stress
and burnout.
Participants
The participants for my study were recruited using purposeful sampling (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). The following criteria had to be met for participants to be included in the study:
hold the title of director or above and work in a company with over $100 million in revenue. The
participants must have held the director or above title in an organization for which they are not a
founding member. Creswell and Creswell (2018) and Merriam and Tisdell (2015) have indicated
that an appropriate sample size for a qualitative study is not exact but should be sufficient to
reach a point of saturation. Saturation is achieved when no new insights or learnings to support
the research are found. The total sample size was 10 individuals. The participants in my sample
were not targeted from one organization; however, if more than one individual has worked for
the same organization, that was not a limitation for their ability to participate.
Data Collection Procedures
I used a recruitment questionnaire to recruit the 10 participants for this study; individuals
were only included in the study if they met the three criteria outlined in the Participants sub-
section. The recruitment questionnaire is included in Appendix A. My participants were sourced
from a women's network to which I belong. This network includes women serving in roles at the
director level or above. As a secondary recruitment method, I recruited from my informal
networks of colleagues who work in the private sector. I used social media and posted on the
49

group forum to solicit participation. Additionally, I also emailed members of the professional
network that I have previously met, seeking their support and participation.
My research study was conducted through interviews with participants for approximately
one hour. According to Patton (2002), the purpose of an interview is to allow one to enter and
experience the interviewee's perspective. With the goal of understanding the lived experiences of
senior female leaders, interviews allow the greatest access to those lived experiences, rich with
context and a story. Further, an interview is an effective technique to gather meaning and
purpose from a small group of individuals (Morgan, 2014). The interviews were recorded using
an online meeting tool, subject to the participant's agreement. Additionally, as Patton (2002)
suggested, notes were taken during the interview to help formulate new questions based on
responses, indicate where potential quotes for findings may exist, and ultimately served as a
backup in the event the recordings did not work.
Bogdan and Bilkin (2007) determined that women tend to be open and responsive to
female researchers, even without a prior relationship. As most of my participants were not
women I had a prior relationship with, this research supported using an interview as an effective
measure to get quality results. Therefore, the interviews began with an ice-breaker question to
build rapport and connectivity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Instrumentation
The research was conducted using an interview guide protocol. An interview guide
protocol allowed follow-up questions and deeper investigation based on participant responses.
Additionally, an interview guide protocol provides the framework for the interview to ensure all
topics of the research questions were addressed (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). The interview
50

questions employed Patton's (2002) types of interview questions. Questions focused on
experiences and behaviors, opinions and values, feelings, and limited demographic data.
The questions on the interview protocol included open-ended questions soliciting feelings
and experiences of women's lived experiences in their leadership roles and how they navigate
those in conjunction with personal responsibilities. Additionally, the questions asked participants
to provide illustrative examples of personal and professional experiences that cause stress or
burnout to provide context and meaning to the relationship stress or burnout cause in making
career decisions (Patton, 2002). Appendix B contains the interview protocol used in the study.
Data Analysis
I analyzed the semi-structured interview qualitatively. As Maxwell (2018) suggested,
data analysis began as soon as the first interview was completed and continued after the last
interview. Analyzing the data as I conducted the interviews allowed me to start coding data to
identify emerging themes. I used Atlas.ti, a computer-assisted tool, to help analyze the data
transcripts to assist with coding. Using a software tool to assist with coding helped identify
trends in themes and allowed me to focus on critical themes across the interviews.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) indicated that to improve credibility, one must provide
rich descriptions of the information learned in interviews using direct quotations. Additionally,
with a sample size of 10 participants, I was able to triangulate the results of the interviews
against one another. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) determined that triangulation is a way to
enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of a qualitative study. Therefore, I used interviews
and literature reviews to triangulate the results of my research. Triangulation helped to improve
the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings in my study.
51

Ethics
My research was conducted through interviews with willing participants. Additionally, as
suggested by Glesne (2016), the participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time
during the research process should they no longer want to participate or feel uncomfortable. As
the researcher, I was responsible for ensuring that the participants are protected from harm.
Further, I was responsible for always providing the confidentiality and anonymity of participants
by preserving the data I collected, including the transcripts of any interviews conducted
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, the university's internal review board (IRB) oversaw all
research I performed under the direction of my dissertation chair and committee. Therefore, I did
not conduct any research until the IRB approved my questions and proposal.
This research sought to understand the factors driving women out of their senior
leadership roles disproportionately compared to men. The research questions sought to learn how
stress and burnout impact women in senior leadership's decisions about their careers.
Additionally, the research questions sought to understand how organizational culture impacts the
lived experiences of women, which may influence levels of stress and burnout. The study
participants were from a cross-sectional group of organizations, and the results do not directly
impact one organization. The use of interviews across multiple organizations helped further
triangulate the results of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research aims to provide
insights and learnings that may help find ways to improve the retention of women in senior
leadership roles. The research results will be shared with the interview participants should they
want to receive them.
52

Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative study aimed to understand how environmental factors, including stress
and burnout influence female leaders in their decision to stay or leave their role. The conceptual
framework for this study was informed by Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model through the
lens of social role theory, specifically focusing on gender roles. This qualitative study focused on
understanding the lived experiences of female leaders, aimed at understanding how stress and
burnout due to gender role assumptions influence their decision to stay or leave their leadership
role. This chapter will begin with an overview of the data collection, the study's participants, and
the findings related to each research question.
The research findings in this chapter focus on these three research questions.
1. How do societal factors and expectations related to gender roles influence a female
leader's decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
2. How does corporate culture in the context of gender roles influence a female leader's
decision to remain in or leave a leadership role in the private sector?
3. How do female leaders perceive the interaction between their micro and macro systems
as creating stress and burnout for them?
Participants
Women in senior leadership in the United States working for organizations of at least
$100 million in annual revenue were the intended participants for this research. First, participants
were solicited through a general posting on a social media forum for women in senior leadership
positions as described in Chapter 3. Additionally, participants were obtained through my
informal network of colleagues. In total, 19 individuals responded to the recruitment
questionnaire, of which 10 met the eligibility requirements to be a study participant. The 10
53

participants who successfully answered the recruitment survey meeting the eligibility
requirements were contacted via email to schedule a one-on-one interview that lasted
approximately one hour. All 10 participants agreed to participate in the interviews, to have the
interview recorded, and allowed for notes to be taken. Table 1 indicates the participants' names
(pseudonyms), ages, the status of their roles in an organization of at least $100 million in annual
revenue, and whether or not they have caregiving responsibilities at home.

Table 1
Self-Identified Demographics of Interview Participants
Participant name
(Pseudonym)
Age Intention in
leadership role
Caregiver
Anastasia 41 Looking to Exit Yes
Briley 45 Exit Yes
Camille Early 50's Remain Yes
Delaney 64 Exit Yes
Estelle 48 Remain Yes
Fiona 57 Remain No longer
Gwen 47 Looking to Exit Yes
Hana 46 Exit No
Illiana 59 Exit Yes
Justine 42 Exit Yes

54

Findings for Research Question 1
Research question one sought to understand how societal factors and expectations related
to gender roles influence female leaders' decisions to remain in their leadership roles. This
section describes how the women experience gender roles in their personal and professional
lived experiences and how those factors may have contributed to their decisions about remaining
in their leadership roles. The key themes that emerged from data analysis based on self-reported
data from the participants were: (a) gender roles are so ingrained in the development of women
that women attribute societal expectations as personal expectations, (b) working harder and
longer is expected of women, and (c) guilt ultimately impacts leadership progression. An
overarching theme noted by the interview data, women expect perfection or that they can do it all
based on societal expectations of women.
Ingrained Gender Role Assumptions Perceived as Self Expectations
According to participants, gendered role expectations of performance are so ingrained
culturally in the United States that these expectations have become expectations of self. Despite
participants identifying gendered role expectations as those placed on self, not all expectations
were viewed positively. Additionally, not all participants had the same view, positive or
negative, of some of the expectations the participants had placed on themselves.
All 10 interview participants noted an expectation to be the more empathetic leader and
handle matters related to personnel issues with employees as compared to men. Eight of the
interview participants expressed that they felt that being seen as a nurturing leader capable of
handling difficult situations with personnel was something important and of value to the
participants. For example, Briley noted, "I would be better at resolving conflict and working
through drama and emotional issues with people." Camille noted that empathy is an important
55

factor that "motivates and inspires (others) to achieve goals." Justine said, "we all have family
and kids and parents," referring to needing and wanting an empathetic leader. Delaney noted, "I
think it's changed a little over the last couple of years with things like empathy becoming – 10
years ago empathy probably people would've thought you were wimpy if you were too
empathetic." Conversely, Hana pointed out that empathy was viewed as necessary by those being
led but was not a measure of success by those in charge, noting “logic, data, rational thinking is
valued more than the leadership qualities that really make a successful leader such as the deep
listening skills and showing empathy to the team.” The participants all echoed similar sentiments
around perceptions of being able to deal with the emotional side of people issues.
Similarly, the participants all felt that being a support system and someone to help and
develop people professionally was something the participants valued as female leaders. Estelle
said, “I take it upon myself to pre-pandemic mostly to reach out to the new women would be
joining at a certain level and make sure they were acclimated and comfortable and what can I do
for you.” Camille also noted she received messages from over 200 women in her organization
after being promoted “congratulating me and sharing how it’s important for them to see someone
like me, my profile as a role model that they’ve see get recognized accordingly.” Briley noted
“I’m a person that people come to,” for both development and support in dealing with the
everyday of work. The participants felt they were role models for future generations and part of
their role to help support and develop those following in their footsteps.
On the other side, all of the participants indicated that some gendered roles the
participants are expected to perform create a negative experience. Some examples include being
asked to perform administrative tasks, such as taking notes, putting together presentations,
clerical duties, or party planning. Illiana indicated that she was told, "you'll know how to solve
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this," referring to putting together some documents for a last-minute client proposal. Anastasia
noted her boss asked her to "take notes and put together presentations." Additionally, Briley
noted that women are expected to be loyal, and as a result, women "stay in their roles longer
because they were promised" growth and development. Loyalty created resentment for Briley in
her role and organization because she perceived that only the women were "punished" by their
loyalty.
Three participants noted that as young professionals, they received coaching and
feedback from women higher up warning of some of these negative experiences. Camille noted
that one of her mentors told her in Europe, “It’s much more acceptable for a woman to a woman
and a mother and there’s much more grace,” when talking about how gender roles stereotyped
performance. Hana noted, “just knowing that oh, others have gone before you or this is a familiar
experience could be quite helpful.”
However, as the participants began to move up the corporate ranks into leadership and
started experiencing these negative perceptions, they found a way to successfully establish
boundaries, which helped reduce workload and negative feelings. Estelle mentioned her boss
asked her “to get my secretary’s birthday card,” understanding it was a gendered assumption
placed on her. Despite her feeling women were more capable than men at doing them, she
indicated that establishing boundaries helped reduce the amount of negativity she experienced
due to these gendered expectations. Similarly, Hana also revealed, “I’m going to put up some
boundaries this go around so that I don’t get overworked or overwhelmed” when given tasks she
felt were only asked of her because she was a woman. Delaney noted that “somebody who
wasn’t an employee asked me to make copies,” a gendered assumption, she did not appreciate.
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These gendered assumptions of responsibility by male counterparts created a burden for the
women.
Overall, if the participant did not indicate they had successfully been able to establish
boundaries or those boundaries were not respected, the level of negatively perceived
expectations based on their gender created conflict for the participants. Negative gendered role
experiences reduced the participants desire to remain in their role at the organization. The
participants who were able to find a more net positive view on gendered role assumptions
remained in their leadership roles.
Working Harder and Longer is Expected of Women
All 10 participants indicated that they expected to work longer and harder than their male
counterparts if they wanted to be successful. To be successful, not only did the participants have
to put in the hours of work, but they also had to find ways to fit in with the men, which created
additional work for the participants to be successful in their career progression. As the
participants reflected on how and why they worked harder, the participants indicated these
expectations were because they felt they had to prove they wanted to be in the professional
world. For the participants who had caretaking responsibilities at home, the feeling of proving it
was even more extreme. Further, the participants felt that due to a perception that women are
better at managing many things at one time as compared to their male counterparts, women were
given more work.
Nine of the 10 participants indicated they were either currently caretakers or have been at
some point during their professional careers. As the female caretaker, the nine participants
described themselves as a “mom” in all cases. Eight of the nine participants identified as
caretakers indicated they were responsible for managing the household and activities of the
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children and family. Two of the nine caretaker participants indicated that their partner stayed
home to care for the kids, but both were still responsible for coordinating and managing the
household schedule. The 9
th
participant indicated that she and her partner had an evenly divided
level of household responsibility. As a result of being caretakers, the participants stated that they
had to work more to prove they could be senior leaders.
The participants felt that doing more and always saying “yes” to more work was a way to
compensate for having responsibilities outside of work. The result is taking on more
responsibilities to prove their value and move into higher-level roles. Delaney indicated she
continued to work while being sick, and her boss had to tell her, "no – no, you need (to stay
home)." Delaney was so concerned about her perception of not doing her job that she did not feel
staying home was an option for her. Justine noted, "women are more eager to take things on,"
whether there was capacity in the typical workday.
All 10 participants indicated that working longer and harder was necessary to ascend the
leadership ranks, despite the progression coming at a slower rate than their male peers. For
example, Briley noted that for women inside her organization, it would take "10 to 15 years to
get to that level, and these 30-year-old (male) consultants were coming in at that level."
However, the result of the longer and harder ascension to leadership did not have the same
impact on the participants' view to remain in their leadership roles. Four of the 10 participants
still aspire for higher roles, including two who have exited or are looking to exit their current
leadership roles. However, six of the 10 participants chose to leave their roles and did not know
where their professional journey would lead them next.
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Guilt and Desires of Perfectionism Impacts Leadership Progression for Women
For six participants feelings of guilt related to overall expectations inside and outside of
work influenced their thoughts around continuing in senior leadership or advancing further in
their careers. These six participants indicated that guilty feelings were related to self-imposed
expectations of perfection or near perfection, while one additional participant also felt the need
for being perfect was important but did not associate it with guilty feelings. As the participants
were able to achieve self-determined levels of perfection or near perfection, their ability to
control the guilt, and its impact on the participants professional role were influenced.
Self-imposed expectations of perfection were discussed by seven participants in this
study. Estelle indicated, "I'm a perfectionist, so having that happen was not something I ever
wanted to repeat," and anything less than perfection from herself was not acceptable. Fiona also
noted she expected herself to be able to be the one to support the entire family, even when she
was overwhelmed and working extreme hours. Briley said, "it’s just something I’ve had to learn
over the years because I’m a perfectionist.” Gwen also noted, “the source of a lot of stress
because I do feel I have to be perfect, which is impossible.” Overall, the feelings related to
needing to be perfect existed for the participants, which some yielding a positive outlook and
some a more negative.
As a result of needing to be perfect, six participants felt guilty for not achieving the self-
imposed expectations of perfection. Camille said, “I feel guilty if I’m missing some of their
(children's) activities.” Camille feels being a role model for other women and minorities is
important but was unconvinced on whether she should continue to move into a more senior
executive role, despite feeling she is more than qualified for a higher-level role. Illiana also noted
that “for the large part of my children’s growing up….I think I left them to their own devices…I
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have a lot of guilt” and, as a result, has chosen to leave a large organization and is working for
herself. Finally, Gwen said, “I don’t think there’s a situation where I’m going to get everything
that I want,” indicating feelings of guilt. Still, being the primary breadwinner, she needs to
continue to move up to support the family. These feelings of guilt influenced all the participants
viewed their career aspirations.
Summary
The participants indicated that the assumptions placed on women in the workplace,
particularly of women in senior leadership positions, carry gendered assumptions that manifest
positively and negatively. As participants could establish boundaries and remain centered on
their self-views, their views on remaining in leadership were impacted. For participants who did
not indicate they established clear boundaries, they were more susceptible to accepting and doing
gendered tasks that were not viewed as good for development or of value to the business. This
negative view impacted the participants’ desire to remain in leadership. The desire to remain in
leadership persisted for participants who found ways to establish and maintain boundaries around
gendered expectations that were not viewed as accretive to the participants' development.
Overall, all participants indicated that gendered views of the participants' success in leadership
impacted how the participants viewed further growth and development.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research question two sought to understand how participants viewed their organizational
culture’s support of women in leadership and how the culture influenced the decisions of female
leaders to remain in their leadership roles. This section focuses on how female leaders perceive
organizational culture and its support for the development and success of female leaders. Several
key themes emerged from the interview data: (a) focus on how the organization’s spoken culture
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aligns with how the participants viewed it through lived experiences, (b) organizational practices
supporting women in leadership, and (c) performance expectations are all based on male-
gendered assumptions. From the data gathered from participants, diversity across multiple
categories of intersecting identities, not just gender, in the organization impacts the overall
feeling among the women of whether women fit into the culture.
Organizational Culture Misalignment: Spoken and Lived Experience do not Align
Organizations from the top down espouse a cultural narrative to employees, customers,
vendors, and the communities they work (Schein, 2017). For all 10 participants, their
organization’s ability to align the espoused culture with the lived culture experienced by the
participants influenced their decision to remain in their role. The factors expressed by the
participants that influence the perceived alignment of espoused and lived culture demonstrate the
stark contrast between the participants' feelings towards the organization and their commitment
to the organization.
For seven of the participants, the espoused culture of the organization did not align with
their lived experiences. It resulted in the participants leaving or actively looking to exit the
organization. Briley noted, “if I really believed in the culture and felt it was healthy…I would
have stayed longer.” Briley also said, “it becomes more real when you can see behind the
curtain…it tears out those cultural aspirations” that the organization espoused. Hana noted, “it’s
a very top-down culture” and “my entire management team all the way up… all White male.”
Hana did not feel this aligned with the culture the organization espoused. Finally, Illiana noted,
“a lot of posts on LinkedIn about how we were one big happy family without any truth to that.”
The misalignment the participants experienced between the spoken and experienced culture
resulted in a loss of commitment to the organization.
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For three of the 10 participants remain in leadership positions and believe the culture
espoused by the organization aligns with the lived experiences of the three participants. For
Camille, not only did her lived experiences align with the espoused culture, but she “is
committed to what the mission of the company is, and I’m just as fortunate that it aligns with my
personal mission as well.” Fiona noted that her organization promotes employee growth and
development, and she says, “they want to continue to spend that energy and funding on us.”
Finally, Estelle felt her organization's culture was great but that others inside who had not
worked outside the organization created tension. Overall, Estelle found the culture strong, but
“that’s not (the only) why I’m staying, but it’s a very, very good place to work.”
Organization Practices in Support of Developing Women
All 10 participants felt that the presence of support for women in leadership directly
impacted their success and overall desire to remain in their leadership roles. Organizational
support for women in leadership was described as offering development programs for women.
Additionally, the participants indicated organizational diversity showed support for women.
Four participants indicated that the organization provided specific leadership and
development programs targeted at women. Camille mentioned “a week-long course which is
fantastic,” specifically focusing on the development of women in her organization. However,
Anastasia noted her organization says they offer mentoring; however, she does not actually feel
they do as she has not received it, despite being promised. Anastasia said “they’re not delivering.
It says dysfunction; it says lack of support, confusion.” Three of the four participants who
identified leadership development programs in their organization specifically for women are
happy in their roles and do not seek to leave, whereas Anastasia is looking to exit.
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Five participants noted that their organization offered an employee resource group (ERG)
or had a women’s network to support women specifically. While none of the women noted these
were specifically for their development, they all stated that they were places of support that
showed some level of organizational commitment to the development of women. For example,
Fiona noted, “they have speakers come in, they do meet-ups.” By contrast, Gwen pointed out
that the women’s ERG at her organization is “it’s probably rightfully very geared at the more
junior levels.” The ERG’s provide support for less tenured women, but the participants felt the
establishment and existence of the ERGs showed the organization’s commitment to women.
All 10 participants indicated the diversity of the organization inherently created or
prevented a feeling of organizational support. The participants defined diversity to extend
beyond gender to include such things as race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. Gwen noted,
“there were people that were not White in leadership, there were gay people in leadership. It just
felt a lot more like your personal identity was not going to drive any of your career outcomes,”
when talking about how she appreciated the diversity she had at a prior organization. Illiana
noted she appreciated the diversity of the people she worked with “in terms of ethnicity as well
as race, gender, and all of that.” Additionally, Camille noted “wanting to have diverse
perspective and valuing them,” speaking of gender, race, ethnic background. The participants
noted that the feeling of support for the development of women and minorities, as pointed out by
participants, was stifled when the leadership team was only White men who did not relate to the
women and minorities. Illiana, a self-identified non-White minority noted, “it was the White
male culture that the CEO, who I loved to death, by the way, really implemented, so it was his
preference.” Camille, who also identified as non-white, noted, “the executive leaders have
recognized through more and more awareness of diversity, equity, and inclusion” that the
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organization is a place where more employees feel supported by the organization. Estelle also
noted that her CEO is extremely committed to diversity, the executive leadership team at her
organization is diverse, and everyone is supported. Conversely, Gwen felt her organization did
not embrace diversity, noting, “very few women in leadership and then just a lot of micro-
aggressions” towards women and non-heteronormative white men. The overall support the
participants received and the perceptional organization's commitment to diversity directly
impacted the participant’s decision to remain in their leadership role.
Performance Expectations: His Way
The overall perceived expectations of performance and success to be in leadership,
according to the participants, were associated with male-gendered social norms. For example, the
participants noted that performance was measured by how well they fit into the “boys club,” how
many hours they could work, and how assertive they were in their roles. With male-gendered
expectations of success, the female participants perceived they suffered a penalty for exhibiting
male-gendered characteristics.
Six of the 10 participants identified a social requirement of a “boys club” that existed in
their organization and viewed it as a rite of passage into certain levels of leadership. Gwen said,
“the general feeling that there’s an old boys network that we’re not part of.” Illiana noted (for
men), “the bonding is instant. They go out to a football game or whatever together. They’re all
part of one happy family.” Illiana felt she had to learn to communicate with the men to try and
find a place at the table. Anastasia indicated there is "no room for missteps as a woman. You
need to do everything as well as a man and better and not make mistakes" to be considered
successful; you have to do more of it. Briley noted that women must check all the boxes to move
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up, but men only need to check some. This “boys club” was not something any of the
participants felt they were accepted into.
With an expectation that senior leaders prioritize work over everything, participants
discussed how long hours are the expectation and demands outside of work should be handled by
someone else. With nine of the 10 participants identifying caregiving responsibilities at some
point in their professional development, commitments outside work could not be ignored.
Delaney indicated, “of all the things I’ve been accused of professionally, I have not ever been
accused of not giving more than – I was a workaholic,” resulting in her feeling she has proved
she could work like her male counterparts to be successful. Anastasia noted, “I knew having
more children would be problematic in the workplace” due to the workload requirements to
prove she was as capable as her male peers. Justine said, “I always said yes to things that were
‘hey can you do this?’” to show she was an overachiever, which her male peers were not. Illiana
received “you’re the superwoman who can do this and more and just do this” to drive more work
onto her plate. Gwen, along with two other participants, noted that with the change in rules of
being able to work from home during COVID-19, the expectations of longer hours only
increased. The participants indicated the rules of leadership included more working hours for
women.
According to the study participants, male gendered behaviors, specifically being assertive
and directive, are valued by leadership and show one’s readiness for advancing up the leadership
ranks. Hana said, “it’s executive presence and communication,” and only through carefully
balancing these expectations and the social expectations of a woman were she able to be viewed
as a success. Hana noted executive presence embodies assertiveness, being direct and concise.
Similarly, Gwen noted, “my boss at one point…. I think you need to be nicer or softer on your
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approach,” which did not allow her to find success through her assertive behaviors since she was
a woman. Gwen also noted that “once (the men) have acknowledged you know what you’re
talking about,” she was able to be more assertive, which was acceptable. Being assertive when
not asked or when the participant, or a woman in the view of participants, have not proven
themselves is not acceptable.
Summary
Organizations that have successfully demonstrated and shown employees that the
organizational mission and values are lived from top to bottom have created a safe and
comfortable place for the participants to be happy and successful in their roles. Additionally, the
participants viewed organizational diversity, notably at the top, as a general indicator of the
company’s true support of women and minorities, agnostic of any leadership development
programs messaged to women as a key driver of an organization’s support of women in
leadership. Despite, or in spite of, a requirement to be a member of the “boys club,” the
participants all indicated this exclusionary behavior impacted their desire to remain in leadership.
Overall organizational commitment and demonstration of supporting diversity impacted whether
the participants wanted to remain in their leadership roles with their respective organizations.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research question three sought to understand the perceptions of how interactions
between female leaders’ micro and macro systems created stress and burnout. This section
focuses on how female leaders’ experiences of stress and burnout impact their personal and
professional experiences. Key themes emerged from the interview data: (a) work stress enters the
personal space, but personal stress is not allowed in the workspace, and (b) gendered
expectations drive stress and burnout.
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Work Stress and Personal Stress
Overall, all participants could identify at least one source of stress generated from their
work environment and at least one source of stress from their environment outside of work.
Work stresses were generally more enduring and resulted in behavioral and physical
manifestations inside and outside work for the participants. However, the participants noted that
the stresses felt outside of work were not socially acceptable to bring into work. As a result, the
participants expressed they did what they could to ensure personal stresses did not manifest in
the work environment.
Eight of the 10 participants noted that work stress was more constant than they would
like and felt that the stress resulted in physical manifestations affecting their overall health and
well-being. The question of work stress prompted responses such as, “oh yes. Many, many,
many;” “I have a lot of stress;” “I have a lot but…;” “all of them.” The eight participants all were
able to laugh about the question but pointed out that the number of stressors at work was large.
Gwen noted, “sleeping was really has been really bad for the last year.” Hana noted “because it’s
constant, it’s like have a glass of wine every day at the end of the day.” Delaney also said when
she is stressed, “she can feel it in her ribs.” All eight participants noted that their work stress
manifested outside of work and included an inability to sleep well, loss of desire to do social
activities outside of work, and developing unhealthy habits that negatively impacted their overall
happiness and well-being.
Three participants felt that having someone help identify when they were behaving
differently due to being stressed resulted in the participants feeling they had a strong support
system to help them find ways to manage and resolve the stress. Fiona noted, “my husband
would point it out to me,” noting he would check in and ask her how he could support her as he
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saw she was experiencing higher-than-normal stress. Illiana noted that after a stressful day her
family would notice and, “I fall back into the loving arms of my family to just work it out.”
Having a support system to help identify or manage stress was something participants
appreciated and found of value in helping them navigate their leadership role.
Seven participants noted that experiences of stress outside of work did not come with
them into the workplace. Briley said she “stayed in her last role longer than she wanted” because
she had stress outside of work that needed not to disrupt her work, which required her to stay in
her role rather than move up. The feeling of “being distracted” or “managing the house”
embodied gendered norms and social stereotypes that were counterproductive to their growth and
development, according to the participants. Camille said, “there’s hesitancy,” to summarize why
non-work stress could not enter the workplace and how it was not acceptable for women to bring
stress from home into the workplace.
Three participants noted that during COVID-19, the ability to find time to relax and
separate home from work was eliminated with working from home. The three participants felt
this impacted their ability to keep “home stress” out of the workplace. However, all three did
what they could to minimize personal stresses from appearing at work. Fiona noted “there was
always that cushion of I’m going into work, so I mentally prepare myself,” noting she had time
on her commute to tune out her personal stress and without the commute she no longer had that
ability. Gwen also noted that she “start working and just be frustrated by every little thing. It was
everything would drive me crazy,” when she did not have time to transition between home and
work. The participants reported doing what they could to keep personal stress out of work, but
the participants noted this was an additional element of stress they experienced.
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Gendered Expectations Impact Stress and Burnout
Overall, gender expectations of women and the participants’ need to prove they could
work in the “man’s world” impacted their overall feelings of stress and burnout. In addition,
women in senior leadership positions are still expected to be the household manager. As a result
of these responsibilities outside the workplace, additional stress is added to being a senior leader.
The participants generally described burnout as a culmination of all the various stressors felt both
inside and outside of work.
For eight participants, the demands to fit into a “man’s world” created stress. The need to
“do everything as well as a man and better and not make mistakes,” Anastasia said is something
that causes her stress. Illiana noted, “women like me are not in leadership– whereas I think for a
White man, that’s not the cause. The bonding is instant. They go out to a football game or
whatever together,” suggesting the stress and pressure for not fitting in. Gwen noted, “I think just
the general feeling that there’s an old boys’ network that we’re not part of,” is something that
impacts her stress. The double standard for women to act like and fit in to the “man’s world”
creates stresses and challenges for women in senior leadership.
In addition to the stresses from fitting into the “man’s world” at work, the gendered
expectations of performance outside of work increased the stress experienced by six participants.
Fiona said, “for just the general things that I’m stressed about, it gives me a break to refocus my
mind,” indicating that home stresses allow her to stop thinking about the stresses of work. Briley
noted, “I run the house - I’m just responsible for a lot of how our life runs as a family,” noting
that the responsibilities of managing the home, despite being the breadwinner, create stress for
her. Anastasia noted her male peers told her “just hire help,” to reduce the demands outside of
work. Despite indicating she has hired help at home to help, she still experiences stress due to the
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demands outside of work. Conversely, Estelle indicated she hired help at home, “that ability to
get help and to get resources and to use the resources when we need them,” and did not indicate
she experienced high levels of stress as a result of gendered expectations at home. The demands
of responsibilities outside of work that were not able to be offloaded to someone else resulted in
stress for women, due to gendered role assumptions.
All instances of burnout noted by the participants were related to experiencing multiple
stressors or sustained stress. The experiences of the participants in responses to the first two
research questions embodied the largest driver of stress the participants experienced. The lived
experiences of being expected to do it all, do it better, work more, and exhibit male-gendered
traits when the audience approved resulted in high levels of stress.
Summary of Findings
Gender roles are so ingrained in both the micro and macro systems that the participants of
this study live in that any attempts to refute such roles create additional pressures for these
women. These additional pressures include conforming to gendered roles, stress, burnout, and
working more to prove women can fit into the “boys club.” Personal and organizational support
to help combat gendered expectations ultimately influence the participants’ desires to remain in
their leadership roles. Further, organizational diversity and commitment to developing women
and minorities impacted the participants' commitment to leadership and the organization. Finally,
all of the participants in this study acknowledged that having strong support from the micro and
macro systems impacted their abilities to manage the stress and burnout they experienced. The
critical findings for the impact of socially ingrained gendered role expectations, organizational
support for women in leadership, and sources of stress and burnout created by gendered role
expectations formulate as recommendations in Chapter Five.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Women leave senior leadership roles at a disproportional rate as compared to their male
peers. This study aimed to understand how stress and burnout are experienced through the lens of
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, informed by social role theory, specifically looking at how
gender roles impacted women in their decisions to remain in or leave their roles. The participants
in this study indicated that gender roles influenced stress and burnout in each participant's micro
and macro systems. Further, the support of the participant's micro and macro system strongly
contributed to the female participant's decision to remain in or leave their leadership role.
Discussion of Findings
This section will highlight this research study's key findings and how the findings align
with or conflict with prior research. Three key findings were present in the research that will be
linked to recommendations for organizations to help drive retention and promote a better lived
experience for women in senior leadership positions. These findings include how stress and
burnout associated with gendered role assumptions influence women’s premature departure from
the workplace, women’s decision to remain or leave the workplace is influenced by
organizational behaviors around gendered expectations, and women’s personal and professional
support system(s) influence women’s decision to remain or leave leadership roles.
Stress and Burnout Associated with Gendered Role Assumptions Influence Women’s
Premature Departure From the Workplace
Eight of the participants in this study noted that stress and burnout levels were impacted
by gendered role assumptions placed on women. The stress and burnout for the participants came
from the expectations placed on them as women. Additionally, the participants noted stress and
burnout due to male gendered expectations and their inability to conform appropriately to those
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male gendered expectations. Social role theory (SRT) identifies the traits and behaviors that men
and women are expected to exhibit in all aspects of their lives, personally and professionally
based on societal expectations (Eagly et al., 2020). Societal expectations are that women should
be the caretakers in all settings, personally and professionally. As SRT indicates, the participants
in this study have grown up with this narrative and associate any communal and caretaking traits
as self-imposed.
Three of the participants in this study self-identified as being the breadwinner for their
family. Lichard et al. (2021) noted that women in breadwinning roles still had more domestic
responsibilities than their male partners. Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer (2012)
noted that women experience burnout as a result of being unable to balance the demands of work
and home. However, as Bernard (2017) indicated, women could mitigate feelings of stress and
burnout with increased flexibility and delegating responsibilities outside of work. The
participants in this study noted that stress and burnout occurred because of both personal and
professional responsibilities.
The participants in this study stated that they were tasked with administrative tasks and
handling personnel matters more than their male colleagues. In addition to the responsibilities
outside of work, research has found gendered assumptions around women's roles at work create
stress and burnout. For example, Hsu et al. (2021) noted that women at work are expected to
focus on interpersonal skills and relationships. Kubu (2018) indicated that when women do not
behave communally at work, they are penalized. Further, when the study participants acted in a
more agentic manner, a male trait according to SRT, they reported they were penalized. These
gendered assumptions around behaviors and responsibilities influenced the stress and burnout
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experienced by the participants in this study. They ultimately influenced the participants'
decision about remaining in their leadership roles.
Women’s Decisions to Remain or Leave Leadership Roles is Influenced by Organizational
Behaviors Around Gendered Expectations
For the participants in this study, the acceptance of female traits and support for women
created a sense of loyalty and commitment to the organization. However, for the participants
who did not feel the same level of acceptance of female traits and did not find the appropriate
supports, the women left their organization or were looking to leave the organization. Gregory-
Mina's (2012) phrase 'Think Male Think Leader' embodied the participants' sentiment in this
study. The participants noted a culture of a 'boys club' that the women were neither part of nor
welcomed into easily. Additionally, the participants noted that when the organizational culture
supported male-dominate gendered assumptions, the women did not feel welcome. In addition to
needing to fit into the 'boys club,' organizational practices that support a male-centric work
environment that promotes a 24/7 work culture create conflict for women who have
responsibilities outside of work (Longman & Anderson, 2016). For the participants in this study,
the presence of a male-centric gendered organizational culture influenced the female leaders'
decision around staying, with 7 participants who left their roles or were actively seeking to leave.
For 3 participants in the survey, traits assumed to be feminine, such as being nurturing or
handling personnel matters were not seen as skills that enhanced the leadership skills of the
participants. Consistent with research, male traits are favored by organizations, and female traits
are not as valued in organizations and can increase stress levels for women (Campuzano, 2019).
By contrast, when an organization supports women and allows organizational culture changes to
occur through the femininity brought by women in leadership, women feel more comfortable and
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are generally happier in their leadership roles (Campuzano, 2019; Longman & Anderson, 2016).
Consistent with other research, the organizational support for female-gendered traits influenced
the participants in this study's decision to remain in or leave their leadership roles.
Personal and Professional Support System Influence Women’s Decisions to Remain or
Leave Leadership Roles
Nine of the participants in this study indicated that having a strong support system,
personally, professionally, or both, was impactful to their career development and aspirations.
Further, the participants noted that the level of support they found in their personal or
professional environment had an impact on their decision to remain in or leave their leadership
roles. This section will discuss the personal and professional supports that existed for the women
and how they impacted the participants decision to remain or exit their leadership roles.
Personal Support
The participants in this study noted that the presence or absence of a robust personal
support system impacted their overall career aspirations and overall desire to remain in or exit
their current leadership role. For the participants, the role and needs of the personal support
system were impacted by whether the participants were caregivers. The participants described a
personal support system as one to include family, friends, and a partner.
Eagly and Woods (2012) posit that women are more communal than men, as described in
SRT. The need for community from and by women creates a strong need for women to have
support systems. When women have a strong support system from their family, in particular their
partner, they are more confident in their career aspirations and responsibilities (Hideg & Shen,
2019; Holton & Dent, 2015).
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In addition to having the support of family and friends for professional aspirations, the
contributions of each participant’s partner to assisting in the responsibilities at home were part of
what the participants described in their overall personal support system. Consistent with
Hochschild’s (1989) second shift research indicating women are the primary caregivers at home,
the ability for the participants to offload some personal duties was impactful to how the
participants viewed their personal support system. Bernard (2017) noted that when women were
able to delegate household responsibilities levels of burnout were reduced. Consistent with this
research, the participants in this study considered the presence or absence of support on the
second shift responsibilities impactful in their desire and perceived ability to remain in their
leadership roles.
Professional Support
The participants in this study described professional support systems as three primary
concepts: colleagues, organizational systems, and outside professional networks the women
participated in. These three areas offered different supports for the participants, including a place
to share lived experiences, seek professional advice, and obtaining skills or tools necessary for
professional development. In addition, five of the participants found these systems rewarding as
they were able to help grow and develop other women, either peers or more junior level.
Organizations that offer career pathing, mentors, sponsors, and networks are essential in
developing people in leadership (Hideg & Shen, 2019; Kossek et al., 2017). In contrast to a
strong support system, Surawicz (2016) noted that poor mentoring and limited role models at
work increased the feelings of stress experienced by women when evaluating leadership roles.
Additionally, Schueller-Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer (2012) noted that the lack of a
women's network was a top reason women do not have leadership aspirations. Further, Carli and
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Eagly (2016) found that women are often not afforded the same opportunities as men for
networking, mentorships, and career pathing. Consistent with other research, the participants in
this study found that the presence of professional support for their success and development
influenced their decision to remain in or leave their leadership roles.
Recommendations for Practice
There are three recommendations below to address the key findings of this study. The
recommendations for practice are targeted as organizational activities on which senior leadership
members can drive action. In addition, these recommendations aim to help drive the retention of
women in senior leadership and improve women's lived experiences while remaining in
leadership positions.
Recommendation 1: Offer Social Services to Better Support Women in the Workplace
The female leaders in this study all noted that they experienced levels of stress and
burnout inside and outside the workplace. In several instances, stress and burnout for the
participants in this study resulted in physical manifestations that impacted the overall health of
the participants. Women's responsibilities inside and outside of work were the key drivers of
stress and burnout.
Based on the participants' self-reported drivers of stress and burnout, organizations
should focus on providing more access to mental health resources for women. Coe et al. (2022)
noted that severe mental health issues can reduce life expectancy by 10–25 years. Further, Coe et
al. note that promotion and prevention yield a great impact on improving the overall quality of
life for people. Focusing on women's unique challenges and experiences in the workforce,
targeted programs and tools women can access during working hours to support mental well-
being would help to address the stress and burnout they experience. Thomas et al. (2022) noted
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that more women than men are leaving the workforce due to additional stress because of
COVID-19, where women have disproportionally seen an increase in stress as compared to men.
Behan et al. (2020) posit that mindfulness and mediation are effective ways to help combat
anxiety and depression. Further Dahl (2019) noted that self-care can result in lower experiences
of stress and burnout experienced. Based on the findings in this study as reported by the
participants and research presented, these programs can include such topics as establishing
professional and personal boundaries, meditation and other relaxation tips, physical activities,
learning how to reduce expectations of perfection, and breaking down the societal expectation of
gendered roles which were all areas noted by the participants in this study as impacting their
levels of stress.
In addition to offering access to mental health services, organizations should find
practical ways to alleviate key stressors for women, including backup childcare options when
primary care for children is unavailable. Additionally, organizations should offer both women
and men who are sole providers one free day of childcare per month outside of working hours.
Piszczek (2020) similarly found that when childcare was initiatives were offered by employers,
the overall turnover rate of women decreased. By offering one free day of childcare, women
could have time to take care of other responsibilities or find time to relax. As Alon et al. (2020)
noted, 20% of children live in households led by single women. The findings of this study noted
that 12% of participants had single women-led households. Offering additional childcare
support, as both a way to ensure women can work when original plans fall through and a way to
have some personal time, can help women find ways to focus on reducing stress and burnout due
to the constant demands noted by Hochschild's (1989) second shift. Bernard (2017) noted that
women have reduced levels of burnout when they are able to delegate responsibilities at home.
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Offering childcare creates an ability to delegate some household responsibilities for women.
Although not a part of this study, offering one free day of childcare to men who are sole
providers is expected to provide the same benefits women experience by providing additional
time to them to address self-care.
Recommendation 2: Offer Development Programs for Women in Leadership
The female leaders in this study who were offered development programs found them
valuable and were a factor in their stated retention intentions. However, most women in this
study reported they did not work in an organization that offered specific developmental programs
for women in leadership. This section will discuss three components relative to the
developmental programs to support women in leadership: offering robust development programs
for women in leadership, offering women a network to build relationships and learnings, and
offering a professional network outside the organization.
Based on the findings in this study and the extant research, organizations should strive to
offer robust development programs for women in leadership. Lauricella et al. (2022) noted that
employees who have a strong network are one and half times more likely to be engaged in their
work. Based on the findings in this study, these programs should include professional
development focusing on helping women navigate organizational and societal pressures placed
on women, understanding and learning to push back on societal expectations at work, and
balancing work and home responsibilities. The programs should also seek to provide women
with the tools and skills necessary to advance professionally, including technical and
interpersonal skill development (Hideg & Shen, 2019; Kossek et al., 2017). By providing these
programs, women can gain the skills they want and need to be successful.
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In addition to development programs, a network of women was something the
participants in the study noted was important to their decision to remain or leave their leadership
role. For seven participants, there was not a strong network available to them, and this lack of a
network impacted their desire to leave their role. Consistent with this study, Schueller-
Weidekamm and Kautzky-Willer (2012) noted that the lack of a women's network was one of the
top reasons women do not seek leadership roles. Additionally, Longman and Anderson (2016)
even posit that women are not invited or included in networking opportunities. Creating an
opportunity for women to network, either inside or outside the organization, is instrumental in
helping drive retention.
Finally, organizations should support women in finding a professional network of other
women outside of the organization. Offering women access to some professional network can
help provide social support, a sense of belonging, and empowerment for women (Gewin 2019).
Women’s sense of community, as noted by SRT (Eagly & Woods, 2012) further indicates the
need for a network that can help foster friendship for women. The participants in this study noted
that their professional networks outside of work were of value to them and the quality of those
networks impacted their levels of stress and burnout.
Recommendation 3: Establish Comprehensive Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Policies and
Programs
The participants in this study noted that organizational commitment to diversity, equity,
and inclusion (DEI) was impactful in their overall experience in leadership. However, six
participants pointed out that all organizations espoused commitments to diversity, equity, and
inclusion, not all organizations lived up to those commitments. Organizations should seek to
establish policies around diversity, equity, and inclusion; train employees on gendered behaviors
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and assumptions; establish commitments to pay equity for women; and ensure hiring and
promotion practices that support the ascension of women into leadership roles. Finally, these
organizational policies should be monitored by senior leadership and reported and communicated
to the organization to demonstrate to employees the organization's commitment and change
toward diversity, equity, and inclusion. These five elements of comprehensive DEI policies and
programs are covered in this section.
The participants in this study believed that the presence or absence of DEI policies
impacted their commitment, success, and desire to remain or leave their leadership roles.
Organizational policies around DEI and the related commitment to that policy can have impacts
on recruitment, retention, and overall financial performance (World Economic Forum, 2023).
Further, the World Economic Forum (2023) noted that over 2,000 CEOs committed to making
their organizations more inclusive. The commitment and attention of CEOs to drive more
inclusive workplaces highlights the value organizations are seeing by attracting and retaining
women and minorities. By making DEI policies to support the organizational commitment, more
women may remain in senior leadership roles.
Training programs are used by organizations to help employees grow and develop.
Offering training programs targeted specifically around DEI topics are an effective way to help
increase employees’ feelings around an inclusive workplace (Decker & Simpson, 2023).
Targeted training by organizations can be used as an additional measure to show organizational
commitment to DEI as well as help educate employees on topics such as gender bias, racial
behaviors, and unconscious bias. The participants in this study all indicated they valued
organizational commitments to DEI; by offering training to show organizational commitment,
employers can improve retention and development of women in leadership roles.
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Elias (2018) noted that due to women making less money than men, women find a
misalignment in the cost/benefits associated with senior leadership. Women working full-time
make 79 cents on the dollar for every hour worked compared to a man (Gallup, 2016). The U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, noted that women in management and professional roles make only
76.5c on the dollar as compared to men (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022d). Citi, a global bank,
headquartered in the United States, has reported pay equity data for its workforce since 2017 and
as of 2021 found that women are now paid at least 99% of what men are paid in the organization
(Wechter, 2021). As such, organizations should commit to and provide pay transparency
information to help drive the retention of women in senior leadership positions.
In addition to organizations making commitments to DEI, organizations should also
monitor their performance relative to commitments made to employees, customers, and
shareholders. Seven participants in this study identified organizational accountability to the DEI
commitments were important to them. None of the participants noted that their organizations had
any formal monitoring and reporting systems. However, four participants noted informal ways
the organization was able to communicate success of DEI efforts, which the participants felt
were effect ways to monitor DEI goals. Active monitoring and tracking of results help improve
the perception of DEI policies to all impacted stakeholders (World Economic Forum, 2023).By
holding the organization accountable for performance, women may find the support they are
seeking in working in an organization that is committed to DEI.
To supplement the monitoring of organizational commitments to DEI, organizations
should also aim to communicate overall key information to relevant stakeholders, including
employees and potential employees. By communicating an organization’s progress and
attainment of deemed key success factors in DEI, The World Economic Forum (2023) noted that
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when women saw an increase in representation in leadership, evidenced through communication,
91% of women were motivated to seek leadership roles, as compared to 50% prior the
communication of the program. Providing communication on DEI commitments to employees
will show employees not only a stated commitment to DEI but also show them how the
organization is making strides to achieve the stated goals.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations and delimitations exist as a part of all research and represent factors to
consider when conducting research and analyzing the findings. Limitations represent factors that
cannot be controlled by the researcher (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Limitations of this study
include the truthfulness and candor of respondents in answering questions. Additionally, as
participants were selected only from groups I have access to, certain population segments may
not have been accessed. The women’s group forum I recruited in is one that costs money; as
such, I may have excluded women who do not want to pay for the membership or who do not
seek being part of a membership group. By excluding these women, responses may not be
representative of women who may have different lived experiences or do not feel included as
part of a membership. Further, the request to participate in the study was published on a group
social media forum that thousands of women have access to, but only 20 people responded prior
to selecting participants. This lack of response could have excluded women who may have
different experiences than the participants in this study.
Delimitations are those limits a researcher selects as part of a research design (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2018). Delimitations in this study include organization size, industry sector, and
potential diversity of participants. Women who work in organizations of a smaller size or a
different industry sector may not have similar experiences to those of women in large
84

organizations. Smaller organizations generally have fewer employees; as a result, the
organizational design and supports available to women may be different. Different industries
also may have different organizational designs, particularly governmental organizations which
have a more structured organizational system. Additional delimitations include that I only
conducted 10 interviews with a limited number of questions. Furthermore, this research was only
conducted with women in senior leadership roles. As such, women in other positions were
excluded from the scope of this research. Women in lower-level management or even non-
supervisory roles may have different lived experiences that would impact the results of this
study. By understanding the lived experiences of women before they reach senior leadership may
help understand how the experiences in senior leadership are shaped and the outcomes on this
study. Lastly, men who are sole caregivers were not included in this study, but with the
responsibilities generally assumed by women also placed on the shoulders of these men, there
may be some similar experiences for men as sole caregivers.
Men were also excluded from the scope of this research, which could have provided the
perspective of why men remain in the workplace longer than women. My research is a field
study and may not be useful to certain industries or a specific industry as a result. Finally, this
research was conducted through the lens of social role theory and Bronfenbrenner's bioecological
model, focusing on the relationships between a woman's micro and macro systems. Using other
methodologies or theories to analyze this problem may result in different findings.
Recommendations for Future Research
While research focusing on women in the workplace has continued to grow since the
onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, there are still opportunities to expand future research.
Recommendations for future research include focusing specifically on women's experiences after
85

the COVID-19 pandemic and how those experiences influence their decisions to exit leadership
roles. While this research was conducted after COVID-19, all of the participants had been in
senior leadership positions before COVID-19. Those women who noted unique experiences after
the onset of COVID-19 did not feel their organization had returned to a normal working
environment at the time the research was conducted.
This research did not specifically consider women who are not caregivers or women who
were caregivers of parents rather than children as part of the research design. Ultimately, this
research study only included one woman who did not identify as a caregiver. Understanding the
factors of women who do not have caregiving responsibilities could provide valuable insights
related to the initial onboarding of young women into the workplace. Further research could also
be done targeting women of color and women who are either the first generation of their family
in the United States or who immigrated here as an adult. Three participants in this study self-
identified as women of color and did note some of their experiences were believed to be due to
their ethnicity. Understanding how the intersectionality of multiple views can inform how social
and organizational supports can support women and men who are sole caregivers in development
and growth.
Connection to the Rossier Mission
The USC Rossier School of Education's mission aims to teach students to value and
respect the cultural context of the communities in which they work and to interrogate the systems
of power that shape policies and practices (USC Rossier School of Education, 2023). With a
mission statement aimed at interrogating systems of power, this research study aimed to
understand how women interact and challenge the historical power structure of White male
privilege and a working model designed for a man with a wife at home. The organizational and
86

social constructs that women experience create a disadvantage for women. This study aimed to
understand how women in senior leadership roles have navigated that power and how they
experience stress and burnout due to gender roles historically marginalized women. This aligns
with the Rossier mission in interrogating systems of power, as the women in this study were
senior leaders in large organizations and had to overcome the systems of power to succeed.
Conclusion
Women in senior leadership leave organizations faster than their male counterparts,
which has only increased after the COVID-19 pandemic (McKinsey & Company, 2023).
Businesses, society, and men all need women in the workforce. Women bring value to business,
society and their own families by being members of the workforce (Egerova & Noskova, 2019;
Longman & Anderson, 2016).
The experiences of women related to how well an organization and the individual's social
support system at home support and reinforce driving equity and inclusion of women strongly
influence women's decisions to remain in their leadership roles. Women experience stress and
burnout due to self-imposed views on roles they should assume, which are the gendered roles
identified in social role theory (Eagly & Wood, 2012). Further, women have had to work harder
to achieve the same level as their male peers (Roebuck et al., 2013), which ultimately impacts
the stress women experience.
Organizational support and policies to promote and demonstrate an inclusive culture
impact women's decisions to remain in leadership roles. Underlying support systems and
development opportunities for women create a value proposition that women value and
appreciate. These programs highlight an organization's genuine commitment to women.
Additionally women are then able to deal with the stress of their roles when development
87

programs aimed at women available to them. Further, women in leadership feel they are paving
the way and driving change to help improve the experiences of the younger generations entering
the workforce.
Women will likely continue to be the self-defined caretaker for generations to come.
Women want to show the world it is possible to do everything they want, but on their terms, not
those defined by male-centric expectations. Women will also remain members of the workforce,
so it is critical that for women to remain in the workforce and ascend to senior leadership roles,
organizational rules, policies and supports change. Providing women with tools, resources, and
supports to reduce workload and improve the workplace experience should help reduce stress
and burnout, thereby keeping women in senior leadership roles in the workplace. Women are the
future of driving change and helping improve the workforce for everyone in it. Women have
fought the injustices of the male workplace for decades and will continue to fight to improve the
quality of work and home for generations to come. As Ruth Bader Ginsberg, a woman who
fought for change and equality said, ‘fight for the things you care about, but do it in a way that
will lead others to join you,’ according to Vagianos (2015).
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107

Appendix A: Recruitment Questionnaire

Good day. I am currently a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I am
conducting a research study on the impacts of stress and burnout in women and how they
influence their decision to stay or leave their role in leadership. This study is being conducted as
part of my doctoral dissertation. The study is aimed to learn about the lived experiences of
female leaders from various organizations in the private sector over $100 million in revenue that
have served in a capacity of director or above in the United States. For purposes of this study a
director is a role above the manager title in an organization.
If you are interested in contributing to this confidential and voluntary study, please click the link
https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_e2mry5JpXBNz6XY to complete a 5-question survey to
indicate interest. The survey is expected to take less than 5 minutes. Once completed, I will
review and select up to fifteen women in leadership roles to participate in a 1 hr one-on-one
interview.
Your identity (including name, place of work, and any other identifiable information) will be
kept strictly confidential, and you may discontinue participation at any time.
Thank you in advance for your contribution to this study.

Sincerely,
Melissa Cochran
Mc53543@usc.edu
108

Appendix B: Interview Protocol

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my research study. I truly appreciate your time to help
answer my questions. As I mentioned in our coordination of the interview, I anticipate we will
spend about one hour going over these questions. Is that still ok for you? Should we run out of
time at the end, is it ok to run a few minutes longer?

Before we get started, I wanted to remind you of the purpose of my research, as outlined in my
study information sheet, and answer any questions you have about participating in this interview.
I am a USC student studying how personal and organizational cultures impact female leaders in
organizations. I am particularly concerned about the decisions females make regarding whether
to stay in their leadership roles, focusing specifically on how gender roles impact those
decisions. I am talking to multiple female leaders like yourself to gain various perspectives.

I want to assure you that I am strictly a researcher for this conversation. The purpose of the
questions is not to evaluate you and your answers.

The study information sheet indicates that all of your responses are confidential. This means I
will not share any specific information about you with anyone. I will not share this information
with other participants. Although the study results will be compiled into a report, and I may use
some direct quotations to provide specific examples of thoughts and feelings, they will not be
referenced back to you. I will use a pseudonym for you and do my best to de-identify any
personal information about you. I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you
are interested.
109

Do you happen to have any questions before we get started? As I mentioned in my study
information sheet, I would like to record this conversation to allow me to focus on our discussion
and not on detailed notes. May I have your permission to record this interview?

Table B2
Interview Protocol Crosswalk

Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed
Key concept
addressed
1. What led you to join
[women’s network]?
2. Tell me how you ended
up in your field.
3. What factors led you to
your current role and
organization?
First, I would like to
understand the culture of
the organization you work
in, and how it impacts your
decision to stay or leave.
4. How does your
organization provide
support for female
leaders, if at all?
P1. How does the
organization provide
mentorship or
sponsorship for women
already in leadership
roles of director or
above?
P2. Have you been able
to participate in a
network with other
women to support one
another since becoming
a leader? How does that
provide value to you
and influence your
decision about 3 Marcosystem
110

Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed
Key concept
addressed
remaining with the
organization?
5. What organizational
strategies have you seen
that are effective in
supporting you in your
leadership roles?
P1. What made them
effective?
P2. What do you think
these strategies did for
your own retention? 3 Macrosystem
6. How do you think your
organization’s culture has
impacted your decision to
stay or leave since
achieving a leadership
position?
P1. How do you think
the culture impacts
other women in their
decision to stay or
leave? 3
Organizational
culture
Now I would like to
understand your
perceptions on gender roles.
7. Can you describe what
gender roles, if any, are
placed on you as a woman
in leadership.
P1. How does this
make you feel?
P2. How does
this align with how you
define yourself? 2 Macrosystem
8. Can you describe what
behaviors you think
people want in a leader?
P1. How do you feel
you identify with those
requirements?
P2. How does
this influence your
decision to remain in
your leadership role? 2 Macrosystem
Now I would like to learn
about your experiences in
leadership as a woman and
how they impact your
decision to remain in your
role. Again, I am
specifically studying this
from the context of social
role theory and how gender
roles impact your
experiences.
9. How do you feel being a
woman has impacted your
role as a leader in your
organization, if at all?
P1. How does [item(s)
identified by
participant] align with
your view of yourself?
1, 2
Gender roles,
macrosystem
111

Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed
Key concept
addressed
P2. How do you feel
this is different from
being a male in a
leadership role in your
organization?
10. Tell me about a situation,
if any, at work that made
you experience stress as a
leader.
P1. How did you
handle the situation in
the moment?
P2. How does this
experience impact you
after you leave work?
P3. How was the
situation resolved?
P4. How did this
situation impact your
decision to stay in your
leadership role? 1, 3
Microsystem,
macrosystem
11. How, if at all, does any
stress you experience
outside of work that you
feel is caused by gender
role assumptions placed
on you impact your role as
a leader?
P1. How, if at all, are
you able to keep your
personal stress and
work separate?
P2. How do you feel
having personal stress
at work has impacted
your decision to seek
additional
responsibilities or
higher levels of
leadership, if at all?
P3. How does this
impact your decision to
stay in your leadership
role? 1, 3
Microsystem,
macrosystem
12. Tell me about a situation,
if any, that has caused you
to feel burnt out as a
leader.
P1. How do you
address feelings of
burnout?

P2. What resources or
tools, both inside and
outside of work, do you
have available to
support you during
times of burnout? 3
Microsystem,
macrosystem
112

Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed
Key concept
addressed
Now I would like to
understand how you
balance being a woman and
balancing responsibilities
between work and home.
13. Tell me about how you
seek to balance being a
female leader with any
responsibilities you have
outside of work.
P1. What support do
you have outside of
work to meet your
obligations? 1 Microsystem
14. How does being a woman
impact what is expected
of you at work and at
home?
P1. What makes you
feel this way?
P2. How do you handle
these expectations? 1, 2
Microsystem,
macrosystem
15. How do you think the
expectations placed on
you as a woman impact
your stress, if at all?
P1. How does this
differ from the
expectations placed on
men? 1, 2
Microsystem,
macrosystem
Now, I have a couple of
wrap-up questions to help
me understand some
personal characteristics
about you.
16. Are you in a long-term
relationship? Wrap-up
17. How many individuals, if
any, are you a caregiver
for? Wrap-up
18. What is your age? Wrap-up
19. Is there anything I should
have asked about your
experience that has
impacted your decision to
stay or leave your
leadership role I haven’t
asked? Wrap-up

Conclusion:

Thank you for taking the time to meet with me and share your experiences. I appreciate your
honesty and transparency. As I mentioned at the beginning of the interview, your information
113

will be kept confidential. I am also happy to share the results of my research with you once I
have completed my work and it is approved by my chair.

114

Appendix C: Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: Stress and burnout: A Qualitative study of the influence on female leader's
decision to leave

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Melissa Cochran
FACULTY ADVISOR: Jennifer Phillips, DLS

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything unclear to you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the perspective of female leaders regarding how
environmental factors, including stress and burnout, influence their decision to remain in or leave
the workforce through the lens of gender roles. In addition, I hope to learn from the lived
experiences of female to understand how expectations of the role women play impact their
decisions to persist in their leadership roles. You are invited as a possible participant because you
have had or hold a position in senior leadership at an organization in the private sector.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
For this study, the researcher will conduct interviews with 10-15 women between early
September and December. The interviews will primarily take place over Zoom, or an alternative
virtual meeting platform, whenever possible. If agreed to by the participant, the researcher will
record the interview and take notes. If an interview is conducted over the phone to protect
anonymity, the researcher will take notes and record the conversation if the participant agrees.
All information from the phone will be transferred to a personal computer and removed from the
phone as soon as possible. All recordings from interviews will only be kept as long as necessary
and will be deleted once the research is completed.

If you decide to participate, you will be sent an information sheet to review before the interview
is conducted. The information sheet will be reviewed at the beginning of the interview to address
any questions the participant may have. Once the interview starts, the researcher will ask as
many as 15 questions, with follow-up questions as necessary to each question. The participant
may stop the interview at any time and skip any questions they are uncomfortable answering.
The interview is expected to take approximately one hour. Should the interview not be
completed within one hour, the participant may elect to remain with the researcher to provide
additional information at their discretion.

The researcher will be the only person reviewing the recording from the interview. The recording
allows for a complete transcription of the conversation to allow the researcher access to rich
context after the interview is conducted. The participant can decline to be recorded. The
researcher will take notes during the interview if the participant agrees. At the end of the
115

interview, the participant has no further obligations to the researcher. However, the researcher
would like the opportunity to reach out to the participant for clarification should it arise during
the transcription process. The participant has no obligation to respond to the researcher's request
for additional information.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
n/a

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

The researcher will assign all participants a pseudonym for coding in the database. This will
allow the researcher the ability to keep participants distinct but anonymous. Names and any other
identifying information will not be included in the database. When the data is no longer needed
for this study, all data will be deleted. If the participant agrees to be recorded, the researcher will
be the only person to view the recording. The researcher may hire a transcription service to help
with transcribing the interview. If this occurs, the researcher will follow the service's privacy
policies regarding maintaining confidentiality. Once the data is transcribed and the data is no
longer needed, the recording will be deleted.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Melissa Cochran at
mc53543@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cochran, Melissa (author)

Core Title Stress and burnout: a qualitative study of the influences on female leaders' decision to leave

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 04/13/2023

Defense Date 03/30/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bioecological model,gender roles,OAI-PMH Harvest,social role theory,women in leadership

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair), Daichendt, Alyson (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email mc53543@usc.edu,mcochran1227@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113013496

Unique identifier UC113013496

Identifier etd-CochranMel-11619.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-CochranMel-11619

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Cochran, Melissa

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230413-usctheses-batch-1021 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu