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STEM education in middle school: a promising practices study

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STEM education in middle school: a promising practices study

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STEM Education in Middle School: A Promising Practices Study

Sarah Maria Gonzalez

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

December 2022

© Copyright by Sarah Maria Gonzalez 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Sarah Maria Gonzalez certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Fred W. Freking
Alison Keller Muraszewski
Kenneth Yates, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022
iv
Abstract
With the ever-growing demand for professionals in STEM careers, current projections indicate
that we will not be able to fill the needs of the job market if nothing is done to stimulate more
student interest in STEM. The purpose of this study was to identify the promising practices
demonstrated by middle school science teachers that can lead to higher interest and achievement
in students. Surveys and interviews were used to gather information from teachers across
different middle schools in Southern California. Results showed that science teachers are very
knowledgeable in the science standards and appropriate instructional methodology to create
engaging lessons. However, teachers need more support in the areas of assessment and would
benefit from routine feedback for professional growth. Based on these findings, the new world
Kirkpatrick model was used to make recommendations for organizations to plan and implement
an effective training program for teachers in assessment and instruction to improve student
success.

v
Dedication
To my parents and sister, I could not have accomplished this without your constant love and
support throughout the years. Thank you for always encouraging my love for learning and for
helping in any way possible to give me the time and space to finish my classes and writing. I
appreciate your patience and understanding.

To my husband, I would not have achieved this without your encouragement, patience, and love.
Thank you for inspiring me to apply to the EdD program and for motivating me to continue
throughout the years.

To my son. Although you were born after I started this program, you were my reason and
purpose for finishing. This dissertation is for you.

vi
Acknowledgments
First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my committee members, especially
my dissertation chair. My doctoral journey was filled with many exciting life events, and I
appreciate the patience and understanding demonstrated by each of my committee members
when having to adjust my timeline. I especially want to thank my committee chair, Dr. Kenneth
Yates. Without his guidance, mentoring, and patience I would not have been able to complete
this journey. Thank you for always being available to meet with me or provide feedback when
necessary. Your responsiveness and attention were an invaluable asset to finishing this
dissertation.
Additionally, I would like to thank all my peers from the Rossier School of Education.
Their friendship, collaboration, and kindness made it easier to finish all the necessary courses
and gain interesting insights into the field of education. I would like to especially thank Jessica
Jordan for her indispensable friendship and generosity in helping to complete the study
interviews. Because of my role as a science teacher at the time this research was being conducted
it was necessary to remain free from bias. Jessica’s assistance in facilitating interviews allowed
for a more objective analysis of the data.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. v
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ............................................................................................. 1
Importance of a Promising Practice Project ..................................................................... 3
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................ 3
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance ............................................ 4
Description of Stakeholder Groups .................................................................................. 5
Stakeholder Group for the Study ..................................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................... 7
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................... 7
Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Project .............................................................................................. 8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ....................................................................................... 9
Science Education in the United States ............................................................................ 9
Student Perceptions of Science in Middle School .......................................................... 15
Teacher Role in Student Interest and Achievement ........................................................ 19
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 21
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences .............................. 22
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................................... 45
viii
Conceptual and Methodological Framework .................................................................. 45
Assessment of Performance Influences .......................................................................... 47
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection ........................................................... 73
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................. 74
Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 75
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 76
Trustworthiness of Data................................................................................................. 77
Role of Investigator ....................................................................................................... 78
Limitations .................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter Four: Results and Findings........................................................................................... 80
Participating Stakeholders ............................................................................................. 81
Determination of Assets and Needs ............................................................................... 81
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes ................................................................. 82
Procedural Knowledge .................................................................................................. 94
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes ................................................................ 107
Results and Findings for Organization Causes ............................................................. 142
Summary of Influences ................................................................................................ 165
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation.................................................................... 177
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Influences .................................................................................................................... 177
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ........................................................... 187
Limitations and Delimitations...................................................................................... 204
Recommendations for Future Research........................................................................ 205
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 206
References .............................................................................................................................. 209
Appendix A: Teacher Survey Protocol .................................................................................... 227
ix
Appendix B: Teacher Interview Protocol ................................................................................ 239
Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet .................................................................. 248
Appendix D: Recruitment Letter ............................................................................................. 250
Appendix E: Post-Training Survey .......................................................................................... 252
Appendix F: Delayed Use Evaluation Survey .......................................................................... 255
Appendix G: Data Dashboard for School Website and School Communications ..................... 261

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Comparison of Pedagogical Ideas throughout the History of Science
Education
12
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability
to Achieve the Performance Goal
28
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability
to Achieve the Performance Goal
35
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s
Ability to Achieve the Performance Goal
42
Table 5: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 48
Table 6: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 61
Table 7: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 69
Table 8: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 1 84
Table 9: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 2 86
Table 10: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 3 88
Table 11: Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 4 89
Table 12: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 1 91
Table 13: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 2 92
Table 14: Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 3 94
Table 15: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 1 95
Table 16: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 2 97
Table 17: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 3 99
Table 18: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 4 100
Table 19: Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 5 102
Table 20: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 1 104
Table 21: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 2 105
xi
Table 22: Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 3 106
Table 23: Survey Results for Value Influence 1 108
Table 24: Survey Results for Value Influence 2 109
Table 25: Survey Results for Value Influence 3 110
Table 26: Survey Results for Value Influence 4 111
Table 27: Survey Results for Value Influence 5 112
Table 28: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 1 114
Table 29: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 2 116
Table 30: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 3 117
Table 31: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 4 118
Table 32: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 5 120
Table 33: Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 6 121
Table 34: Survey Results for Mood Influence 1 123
Table 35: Survey Results for Mood Influence 2 124
Table 36: Survey Results for Mood Influence 3 126
Table 37: Survey Results for Mood Influence 4 127
Table 38: Survey Results for Mood Influence 5 128
Table 39: Survey Results for Mood Influence 6 129
Table 40: Survey Results for Mood Influence 7 131
Table 41: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 1 133
Table 42: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 2 134
Table 43: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 3 136
Table 44: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 4 137
Table 45: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 5 138
Table 46: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 6 140
xii
Table 47: Survey Results for Attribution Influence 7 141
Table 48: Survey Results for Resources Influence 1 143
Table 49: Survey Results for Resources Influence 2 144
Table 50: Survey Results for Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 1 146
Table 51: Survey Results for Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 2 148
Table 52: Survey Results for Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 3 149
Table 53: Survey Results for Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 4 151
Table 54: Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 1 153
Table 55: Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 2 154
Table 56: Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 3 156
Table 57: Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 4 158
Table 58: Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 1 159
Table 59: Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 2 161
Table 60: Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 3 162
Table 61: Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 4 164
Table 62: Summary of Results and Findings for Knowledge 167
Table 63: Summary of Results and Findings for Motivation 170
Table 64: Summary of Results and Findings for Organization 174
Table 65: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 189
Table 66: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 191
Table 67: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 193
Table 68: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 200
Table 69: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 202

xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1: California Science Test Scores by Ethnicity/Race 2018–19 5
Figure 2: Steps in the Gap Analysis Process 46

1

Chapter One: Introduction
Despite the growing number of jobs in STEM fields and the need for professionals to fill
those positions, there continues to be low interest in pursuing STEM in higher education,
particularly in students from underrepresented ethnic groups (Mau & Li, 2018). Recent numbers
from the Department of Education show that more than half of California’s students enrolled in
K–12 schools are from minority ethnic groups. Given this statistic, one would expect a growing
diversity amongst STEM professionals; however, the underrepresentation of minority groups in
professional fields remains a stark problem. The National Science Board (2016), found that
combined, African American, Hispanic, American Indian, and Alaska Native students only made
up 30.3% of students enrolled in science majors as undergraduates, whereas White students
made up 55.1%.
To investigate this phenomenon, one must look farther back into a student’s educational
experience and evaluate those factors that may have contributed to a decreased interest in
science. Across the literature, studies have found that student interest in science begins to
steadily decline over the years and reaches a plateau during middle school (Skamp & Logan,
2005). Therefore, it is crucial to know those elements that make up a solid and engaging science
education and can help to promote achievement and interest in science during early adolescence.
The purpose of this field study is to identify and synthesize those promising practices in science
instruction across middle schools that can lead to increased motivation and achievement in
STEM.
Background of the Problem
The lack of interest and achievement in science, particularly from underrepresented
minority groups, has been an area of concern for many years in the United States. Although
2

STEM professionals are responsible for 50.0% of the economic expansion, there continues to be
a shortage of individuals who are prepared to enter those roles. According to various research
studies, there are two large factors that account for the low number of STEM professionals: a
lack of student interest in STEM degrees and a lack of diversity (Fealing et al., 2015; Junior
Achievement USA & ING U.S. Foundation, 2013). Both factors appear to correlate since
students from underrepresented minorities are less likely to show interest in STEM (Estrada et
al., 2016) or tend to leave the science track anywhere between sixth grade to the bachelor’s
degree (PCAST, 2004).
Most students who make the decision to pursue a STEM degree in college make the
choice to do so when they are in high school. This decision is very much correlated to their
interest in the subjects (Maltese & Tai, 2011) which can begin to wane beginning in elementary
school. Nationwide assessments of attitudes toward science have found that as early as 3rd grade,
50.0% of students already expressed no interest in science (Weinburgh, 2000). However, a larger
number of studies have identified the middle school years to be the most important when
forming interest in science (Skamp & Logan, 2005). Ing (2014) conducted a study of interest in
middle school students and found that if we are to increase the number of diverse students who
pursue science careers, we must focus on the early elementary to middle school years of science
education. Weinburgh (2000) found that there is a strong relationship between attitudes and
achievement in science which can affect behaviors, such as selecting courses in high school.
Therefore, if students are not interested in science or do not have a sense of self-efficacy and
achievement by the time they leave middle school, it is highly unlikely that they will want to
study science in the future.

3

Importance of a Promising Practice Project
It is important to examine promising practices in the context of this problem of practice
for a variety of reasons. Studies show that most California middle schoolers are not regularly
exposed to "high quality" science learning experiences because conditions to support such
learning are almost never in place (Robelen, 2012). Nevertheless, there are several factors that
when put into place within a classroom can greatly influence their positive feelings towards and
performance in science (Halim et al., 2018). Lewis et al. (2012) found that when teachers learn
from other teachers, their knowledge of effective teaching strategies and content drastically
increases, and this leads to greater student achievement. Therefore, studying promising practices
amongst middle school teachers in Southern California can help identify appropriate strategies
and conditions that will promote student interest and achievement in science.
Organizational Context and Mission
This study focuses on middle schools in the Southern California area that have
demonstrated strong student interest and achievement in STEM. In addition, these are schools
who have also committed to increasing diversity in these areas and accessibility to these
curricula. This shift towards focus on STEM comes from the broader context of science
education within the state of California. On September 4, 2013, the State Board of Education
(SBE) approved the adoption of the new Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) in an effort
to redesign curriculum and increase interest and achievement in science throughout California
schools.
According to the California Department of Education (CDE), the California Next
Generation Science Standards (CA NGSS) are intended to prepare students to be informed
citizens and future scientists (d’Alessio, 2018). The California science framework then goes into
4

further detail about the complexity of science education because of the great diversity in schools.
Given the wide variety of skills, abilities, interests, experiences, and cultures in schools, the role
of teachers becomes even more important in science education. Therefore, the CA NGSS calls on
science teachers to provide rich and engaging curriculum that is accessible to all students and
stresses that educators that the responsibility to ensure equity for all populations of learners
(d’Alessio, 2018).
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance
In 2015, shortly after the adoption of the NGSS, the state of California was ranked 44th
in science nationwide according to data published on the Nation’s Report Card (NAEP, 2015).
Despite the state of California placing a greater emphasis on science education since then, less
than one third of students met or exceeded standards on the most recent state science test. Data
released in February 2020 showed that statewide, only 32% of fifth graders, 31% of eighth
graders, and 28% of high school students met or exceeded standards on the new California
science test which was designed to align to the NGSS (Johnson, 2020). A closer look into the
data shows a wide gap between black and Latino students and their white and Asian peers (see
Figure 1). Only 14 percent of Black students and 19 percent of Latino students met or exceeded
standards compared to 44 percent for white students and 59 percent of Asian students (Johnson,
2020). Since the mission of the newly adopted standards was to increase science achievement
and diversity while addressing gaps amongst ethnic groups, California’s performance on the
science assessment shows that the state is still far from achieving its goal. As such, these
statistics highlight the need to examine promising practices to ameliorate these disparities.

5

Figure 1
California Science Test Scores by Ethnicity/Race 2018–19

Note. Percentages for “Standard Exceeded” were not included in this chart for certain
race/ethnicities. The percentages are as follows: Black/African American (2.64%), American
Indian/Alaska Native (4.98%), Hispanic/Latino (3.75%), Pacific Islander (5.12%). From Less
than a third of California students met or exceeded standards on new science test, by S. Johnson,
2020, EdSource.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
As is the case for most middle schools, there are a variety of stakeholders that can
influence a school’s performance and progress towards a successful science program. The three
largest stakeholder groups in middle schools are: teachers, students, and parents. Typically,
teachers are the ones that have the largest impact on a program of study because they are
responsible for the planning, instruction, and implementation. In addition, teachers are the ones
with the most contact with students within the classroom and are responsible for adapting the
curriculum as necessary to fit the needs of the students and maximize their success. Students are
also an important stakeholder group because they are participating in the learning daily. A
student’s motivation and understanding can directly influence their achievement and future
6

interest in pursuing a STEM degree/career. The final stakeholder group that can influence a
student’s interest or success in STEM is parents. Parents have the closest contact with students
outside of the classroom and their involvement or support can impact how the child views their
learning and education. To achieve success, all three stakeholder groups must work closely
together.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a student’s performance and experience in the classroom depend on the joint
efforts of many stakeholders within a school, it is important to understand the promising
practices and strategies used by teachers as they carry out everyday instruction and are
responsible for facilitating learning. The NGSS framework provides guidelines that teachers are
expected to follow to improve science education in California. Thus, because of their crucial role
within a classroom, the stakeholders of focus for this promising study will be middle school
science teachers. These are teachers who have been identified because of student scores on the
California Science Test and by recommendation of school leadership. Teachers who display
promising practices in science education will engage in the following critical behaviors:
Stakeholders Critical Behaviors
• Teach grade-level content according to the Next Generation Science Standards,
California Department of Education Science Curriculum Framework, and Science
specific Common Core standards.
• Plan daily lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.
• Maintain student motivation by stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive
and engaging classroom environment and curriculum.
7

• Provide regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress
and prepare them for the California Science Test in 8th grade.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project, then, is to identify and synthesize those promising practices
in middle school science instruction that can lead to increased motivation and achievement in
students. The analysis will focus on the assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation,
and organizational resources. While a complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes the stakeholders of focus in this analysis are teachers.
The questions that will guide the promising practice study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets of teachers to increase
student interest and performance in science?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for maintaining these promising
practices and solving the problem of practice at another organization?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model will be adapted to a promising practice study
and implemented as the conceptual framework. This framework provides a systematic, analytical
method to understand goal achievement. The methodological framework is a qualitative case
study with descriptive statistics. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets will
be generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These influences will be
assessed using surveys, interviews, literature review, and content analysis. Research-based
solutions will be recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
8

Definitions
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) refers to a set of standards based on the
Framework for K–12 Science Education. Their purpose is to prepare students for college and
careers in science, technology, engineering, and math. The NGSS were developed
collaboratively by a consortium of 26 states and other stakeholders in science, science education,
higher education, and industry (Gallard et al., 2014).
STEM is an acronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about student interest and
performance in science. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the
review of the promising practice framework were provided. Chapter Two provides a review of
the current literature surrounding the scope of the study. The topics of student motivation,
instructional strategies, pedagogy, policy, and funding were also addressed. Chapter Three
details the assumed assets, choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four,
the data and results are described and analyzed. Chapter Five provides recommendations for
practice, based on data and literature as well as recommendations for an implementation and
evaluation plan.
9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Although the United States has made progress in shifting academic focus toward STEM
subjects, interest, and achievement, particularly from underrepresented groups remain
significantly lower. This continues to be a problem in education because across the country the
demand for STEM jobs increases every year, however, the number of professionals graduating
does not adequately meet this demand. While several reasons might explain this problem, one of
the leading hypotheses is that students lose interest in science at an early age, specifically in the
middle school years (Skamp & Logan, 2005). Despite these circumstances, there are some
instances in which teachers are successful in generating interest and increasing achievement
amongst their science students. If we can identify those promising practices amongst teachers
that make them successful, then it might be possible to make changes across other middle school
classrooms. This chapter will discuss assumed influences on the problem of practice, based on
the current literature. Then, the role of teachers followed by the explanation of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences lens used in this study will be reviewed. Finally,
attention will turn to teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and complete
the chapter by presenting the conceptual framework.
Science Education in the United States
To understand where science education and curriculum currently stands in the United
States, it is important to know how science education has changed over time. The following
sections will go over historical perspectives and current policies on science education. Current
policies include state mandates such as standards and curriculum and requirements for testing.
10

Historical Perspective
In the United States, science education has a long history of reform and continues to
journey towards a state of access and equity until the present day. Before the mid-1800s, science
and science education in the United States was highly unstructured and hardly gained any
interest from the public until the 19th century. It was not until the span of years between 1900
and the end of WWII that there was a push to standardize the K–12 American school system.
However, standardization caused disciplines, including science, to be seen as a set of facts that
must be memorized. This perception of science being “just facts” eliminated the need to learn the
“process of science” and students severely began to lack the foundational meaning of the facts
(Bybee, 2010). Dewey was one of the first people to speak about the role of the scientific process
in science at a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. According
to Dewey, students needed to understand how facts became “knowledge” and emphasized the
role of experimentation and inquiry in their studies (Dewey, 1910).
After World War II, the federal government slowly increased its funding for K–12
education with the intent to increase the number of science and technology workers in the United
States. From this funding came the establishment of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and
its mission was to initiate, support, and promote scientific research and education (Mazuzan,
1994). In 1956, the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) was formed with Jerrold
Zacharias, an MIT physicist at its head. Zacharias pushed to reform science courses and
emphasized that students should understand that knowledge of the world is based on evidence.
He also envisioned using materials that were useful for learning: films, slides, textbooks,
laboratory activities (Rudolph, 2002). Once people understood that science required knowledge
11

and experiences beyond memorization of facts, more educational leaders became interested in
restructuring science education.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Robert Karplus, head of the Science Curriculum Improvement
Study (SCIS) at UC Berkeley became one of those educational leaders interested in reforming
science education as it currently was. Utilizing the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner,
Karplus and his colleagues created a practical program for students in grades K–6. One of the
biggest contributions by Karplus was the idea of the learning cycle: exploration, invention, and
discovery (Karplus & Karplus, 1969). This cycle provided a framework for the organization of
curriculum, instruction, and assessment to maximize student achievement. Finally, one of the
other shifts in science education came with the introduction of modeling instruction which began
in the early 1980s with a partnership between Malcom Wells and David Hestenes. Wells created
a version of model instruction that was laboratory-based and adapted to scientific inquiry. The
method emphasized the use of models to describe and explain physical phenomena (Wells et al.,
1995). From 1989 to 2005, Wells, Hestenes and others were able to create summer workshops
for teachers using funding from grants by the NSF.
A look into the history of science education over time paints a roadmap of how we
arrived at today’s policies for reform and reflects the desire of the nation to revamp science in a
way that attracts more students. Table 1 summarizes all the pedagogical ideas that have made
contributions to the development of science courses in the United States. However, to further
understand the present state of science education in the United States, it is necessary to also
evaluate the current policies in education which can have a direct impact on classroom
instruction.

12

Table 1
Comparison of Pedagogical Ideas Throughout the History of Science Education
Timeframe Person/organization Pedagogical ideas
Mid-1800s to 1900 Charles Eliot/Committee of
Ten
Laboratories included in
science courses; list of
laboratories became the first
set of national science
standards
1900 to the end of WWII School Boards throughout the
United States
Era of scientific management
whereby school boards
sought to create
standardized and efficient
school systems
1950s to 1960s Jerrold Zacharias/PSSC Focus on scientific content
and process of science; big
question for students to
answer: “How do you
know?”
1960s to 1970s Robert Karplus/SCIS Learning Cycle: Exploration,
invention, discovery
1980s to current Malcolm Wells, David
Hestenes/AMTA
Modeling Theory of
Cognition; Modeling Cycle;
model Construction, model
refinement, model
application

Current Policies in Science Education
Despite the United States advocating for science education reform as a whole country, the
education of students in kindergarten through twelve grades is the responsibility of the individual
states, not the federal government. Many states, such as California, have an economy that
depends largely on science, technology, engineering business and industries; therefore, high
13

student achievement in these areas is necessary. California has demonstrated a strong
commitment to standards-based learning through its adoption of the Common Core Standards
and NGSS. In 2009–2010, the state legislature created the Statewide STEM Task Force to
oversee and analyze the achievement of STEM education programs. Through the work of the
STEM Task Force, California has been able to form alliances with other organizations to provide
statewide communication and professional development opportunities such as the California
Association of Science Educators (CASE), the California Science Project, and the State
Superintendent of Public Instruction (SSPI) STEM Task Force. With so much work going into
restructuring science education throughout the state, the hope was that soon California would
have most of its college-ready students well prepared for careers in science and technology.
Despite extensive reform, high-quality science education is not yet sufficiently available
for all students in all schools and persistent gaps exist in access and achievement. While the
inquiry-based learning of the CA NGSS is well suited to adolescent development needs,
practices such as ability placement and tracking that begin in middle school decrease access and
limit opportunities for students, particularly those from underrepresented groups (Estrada et al.,
2019). Many policies and practices still rely on student achievement scores in math or course
grades in other subjects for placement in science. Based on the state's policies for K–12 science
education, it is easy to see their commitment to increasing access to science education for all
students. However, a deeper look into state mandates and testing is necessary to confirm their
progress towards meeting the goal of equitable access for all students.
State Mandates
Despite what may occur in a classroom, the state of California does have some statewide
mandates that apply to science education. First, kindergarten through eighth grade students must
14

receive science instruction every year and the content consists of physical, life, and earth science.
Next, California law requires that all students take 2 years of science including biological and
physical science to be eligible for a high school diploma. Finally, the state approved Senate Bill
300 which provided a process for reviewing, updating, and revising the standards which
ultimately led to the creation of the NGSS (California, n.d.).
Testing
In response to the adoption of the NGSS in 2013, the California Department of Education
developed the California Science Test (CAST) to align with these standards. The CAST is
administered in Grades 5, 8, and once in high school, unless waived by an IEP. The CAST field
test took place in 2018 and the first administration was in 2019. The exam includes stand-alone
items such as: selected response, constructed response, table, fill-in, graphing, etc. It also
includes performance tasks measuring a student's ability to integrate knowledge and skills across
standards (CalEd Facts, 2020). If the CAST is waived, the California Alternate Assessment
(CAA) is administered in Grades 5, 8, and once in high school. CAA is required for students
with significant cognitive disabilities who are unable to take the CAST even with supports.
Content for this exam is based on alternate achievement standards derived from the NGSS and is
administered in a one-on-one environment by an examiner familiar with the student (CalEd
Facts, 2020).
While much work and field testing went into creating the CAST, transitioning to new
science education standards and system for assessment requires patience and determination. The
CA NGSS are an important step in helping all students gain skills for college and future careers.
The CAST measures the breadth and depth of the new standards and allows stakeholders to
analyze student progress (California Science Test, 2019). In addition to providing an overview of
15

how close they are to certain standards; the CAST includes tools to help all students demonstrate
what they know and can do to improve. As with other standardized tests, the exam can only be a
useful tool for improvement if the recommendations and standards are being implemented at the
classroom level.
Student Perceptions of Science in Middle School
Given the adoption of the NGSS, a closer look into the nature and role of students'
motivation and their perceptions in science learning and achievement is necessary. NGSS has the
vision to transform science education and shift science teaching and learning toward an
integrated approach in which students engage with scientific practices and cross-disciplinary
concepts (National Research Council, 2012). Part of the reason for the creation of these new
standards was to create better science experiences for students, particularly in an age when their
interest in science might not be high. Britner and Pajares (2006) show how the pivotal age at
which students lose interest in science is often during the middle school years (ages 11–13).
Significant correlations were found between mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social
persuasions, physiological arousal, and self-efficacy.
While research shows that there can be several factors affecting loss of interest in
science, it is difficult to pinpoint what contributes to those factors and what can be done to
prevent it. Once study showed that mastery experiences significantly predicted science self-
efficacy (Britner & Pajares, 2006). Another study found that adolescents prefer social activity
over solitary reflection and that things like economic growth, material accumulation,
development and commodification shape children’s view of nature and the world (Kahn &
Kellert, 2002). For all of these reasons, it is important to provide students with low-risk
opportunities to reason around science phenomena. Science activities that engage students in
16

authentic science practices are more likely to develop students’ motivation (Lee et al., 2016).
Therefore, educators and policymakers should consider implications of externally driven
incentive systems (standards, accountability structures, grading, etc.) for student learning since
intrinsic motivation seems most important.
Risk Factors for Disinterest and Low Achievement
Interest remains an important aim for science education as it can impact student
achievement, however, it continues to be a serious challenge for educational institutions. Student
engagement is a critical mediator between classroom instruction and student learning and
motivation serves as a driving force behind a students’ level of engagement in academic
activities. Motivation and self-efficacy have been demonstrated to be important for students’
learning and academic achievement (Lee et al., 2016). Interest can also be interpreted as an
independent variable that can be used to predict the amount or the quality of learning motivation,
students’ usage of learning strategies or academic achievement and other relevant outcomes
(Krapp & Prenzel, 2011). A low correlation between interest and performance can indicate that
students with high cognitive abilities for science do not pursue STEM careers because they lost
their interest during their earlier years in school. Also, it appears that most students tend to lose
their interest in science over the course of time and this decline is more pronounced in girls than
in boys (Krapp & Prenzel, 2011). While these findings can be quite concerning, some studies
have identified possible reasons for this declining interest in science.
There are three critical factors that appear to influence science achievement and interest
in middle school: lack of foundational science skills, self-efficacy and motivation, and previous
instructional experiences. Lewis and Farkas (2017) found that middle school science
achievement is most strongly determined by the antecedent variables of family socioeconomic
17

status, race, and the propensity variables of prior science achievement and motivation in science
class. Another study found that student attitudes about science are positively associated with
student centered teaching practices and negatively associated with teacher-centered teaching
practices (Odom et al., 2007). It is important to acknowledge that despite the continued efforts to
boost science interest there continues to be a lack therefore, particularly in underrepresented
groups. While the research points to various explanations for this phenomenon, the three most
important are a lack of foundational science skills, self-efficacy, and previous instructional
experiences in science.
Lack of Foundational Science Skills
As stated in the existing literature (O’Reilly & McNamara, 2007; Thompson &
Zamboanga, 2004), a student’s performance in science can be influenced by their existing level
of knowledge and skills. Some researchers have argued that learners often make more errors as a
result of missing knowledge, rather than incorrect knowledge (O’Reilly & McNamara, 2007).
Many school texts, such as those used in science classrooms, are difficult to understand because
they often omit important background information and fail to make relations among concepts in
the text explicit. Although a student’s knowledge plays an important role in learning,
comprehension, and academic achievement, having the knowledge available does not guarantee
that the student will use the knowledge, or use the knowledge appropriately. A reader’s domain
knowledge can have a dramatic impact on how well they comprehend and learn new
information. Information that is more easily integrated with existing knowledge is often
remembered better than information that is more difficult to integrate with existing knowledge
(Thompson & Zamboanga, 2004). Thus, one way to address lack of interest is to focus on
18

providing students with the foundational knowledge necessary to really understand the process of
science, not just the facts.
Self-Efficacy
Previous research has identified self-efficacy as another predictive factor of student
achievement in science, with notable differences appearing between genders and ethnicities.
Girls tend to send more positive messages to others telling them they are valuable, able and
responsible; however, girls also reported feeling more anxious while participating in science
activities (Kiran & Sungur, 2011). Inviting with self, inviting with others, and mastery
experience were all positively associated with student self-efficacy. The largest contribution to
self-efficacy was mastery experience, therefore, teachers should provide students with inquiry-
based science activities and scaffold them (Kiran & Sungur, 2011).
Findings about gender differences in science self-efficacy appear to be inconclusive with
some research suggesting there are only minor gender differences in how efficacy beliefs are
related to performance (Bergey et al., 2015) while others found that female students’ science
self-efficacy scores were significant as compared to males (Lofgran et al., 2015). However, in
the case of ethnicity, Hispanic students’ science self-efficacy was found to be significant to
science self-efficacy outcomes as compared to Caucasian students. Finally, analyses reveal that
the transition to ninth grade is the key transition for science self-efficacy scores for students.
Sixth, seventh, and eighth graders are significantly different in how they rate their science self-
efficacy (Lofgran et al., 2015). With self-efficacy being a critical driver of learning, it is
important for teachers to focus on student self-efficacy in the classroom, especially at the middle
school age.
19

Previous Instructional Experiences
A third and final factor that influences science achievement is a student’s previous
instructional experience with a subject. Student attitudes about science are positively associated
with student-centered teaching practices and negatively associated with teacher-centered
teaching practices. Student-centered learning with peer-led teams showed improved
performance, retention, and attitudes toward science. Odom and colleagues (2007) found that
middle school students are generally dissatisfied with how science courses were taught.
However, higher science achievement and attitudes, especially among boys, are found in middle
school students who were frequently exposed to standards-based teaching practices. Also, there
is a positive association between laboratory instruction in the classroom and scores on science
knowledge tests and student attitudes (Kahle et al., 2000).
Teacher Role in Student Interest and Achievement
As previously mentioned, foundational skills, self-efficacy, and previous experiences are
of crucial importance to a student’s career choices; however, just as important is a teacher’s role
in supporting student interest and achievement. Most of a student’s science instruction happens
in the classroom, therefore, how a teacher carries out their science instruction can also affect a
student’s experience with the subject. Research indicates that teacher competence with the
subject, specifically their content knowledge, self-efficacy and ability to create a supportive
classroom environment can all contribute to a positive or negative experience in learning science.
Teacher Competence
While student interest and achievement can be influenced by a multitude of factors,
teacher competence can also play an important role in a student’s experience. Teaching
competencies include acquiring and demonstrating composite skills required for teaching. These
20

skills include introducing a lesson, questioning, probing questions, explaining, the pace of the
lesson, reinforcement, understanding child psychology, recognizing behavior, and classroom
management (Shukla, 2014). Teaching competency means an effective performance of all
observable teacher behavior that brings about desired pupil outcomes which is important for a
subject such as science. Currently, research on teacher preparation and education identifies
various areas of teacher competencies that must be met to be a successful teacher. However,
when it comes to science education, the areas that appear to have the greatest impact on student
outcomes are pedagogical content knowledge, self-efficacy, and the ability to maintain a
supportive climate.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
A teachers’ understanding of science as a discipline and command of disciplinary content
knowledge needs to be established before they enter the science classroom. Often there is not
enough time and resources for in-service education to compensate for major deficits in teachers’
science content background (Pasley et al., 2004). As with all other subjects, teachers must be
taught for understanding if they are to teach for understanding. While some have called for a
reform in undergraduate science courses through the inclusion of more hands-on methodologies,
research suggests that engaging teachers in ways that increase their conceptual understanding is
most important (Pasley et al., 2004). Enabling teachers to experience well implemented
strategies will most likely prepare them to implement high quality instruction.
Self-Efficacy
Not only must teachers know how to best deliver content to students, but they must also
believe in their ability to do so effectively. A teacher’s confidence in their ability to perform the
actions that lead to student learning is a characteristic that reliably predicts teacher practice and
21

student outcomes (Mohamadi & Asadzadeh, 2011). A teacher’s sense of efficacy has also been
linked to teacher behavior in the classroom, their ideology about the control of students,
enthusiasm for teaching, and quality of teaching which impact student achievement, motivation
and their own sense of efficacy. A teacher who has higher self-efficacy will set higher goals, be
less afraid of failure, and is open to finding new strategies for their students (Velthuis et al.,
20174. The amount of ‘science’ content knowledge or subject matter knowledge is an important
predictor for science teaching self-efficacy, therefore, making sure they are well prepared in the
subject area is important for the success of students.
Supportive Climate
To further promote participation in the classroom, a teacher must know how to create a
supportive classroom environment in which students feel comfortable. A classroom culture that
is conducive to learning is both rigorous and respectful. Nationally, nearly half of science lessons
received high ratings for having a climate of respect for student ideas, questions, and
contributions (Pasley et al., 2004). It was found that teachers who have friendly and supportive
tones lead to more engagement and participation from students. Additionally, classroom climates
characterized by high rates of positive and supportive teacher-student interactions foster the
development of self-regulation and conflict management skills. A positive classroom climate will
promote student learning engagement and achievement (Thomas et al., 2011). In sum, both
student factors and teachers' practices influence student achievement and motivation in STEM
which is further examined in this study.
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model was implemented as the conceptual
framework for this study. This framework provides a systematic, analytical method to understand
22

goal achievement for stakeholders within an organization. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
a gap analysis is a problem-solving process used to (a) understand stakeholder goals regarding
the organizational goal, and (b) identify assumed performance influences in the areas of
knowledge, motivation and organization based on general theory, context-specific literature and
an existing understanding of the organization. For goal achievement to be successful, all three of
these factors must be in place.
For this study the Clark and Estes (2008) framework was adapted to examine promising
practices that can increase student interest and performance in science, thus, the gap analysis
model was used to fit this purpose. Using the promising practice lens, factors that are present for
teachers who have been successful at increasing their student’s performance were examined.
Once completed, the analysis and implications could contribute to similar settings for those who
wish to potentially accomplish similar goals.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
The following section will summarize the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that can contribute to a teacher’s ability to support their students’ academic
achievement in science. First, knowledge influences will be addressed. Knowledge influences are
broken down into four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.
Next, motivational influences will be summarized, specifically in the areas of value, self-
efficacy, emotion, and attribution. Finally, organizational influences will be separated into
policies and procedures, resources, cultural model, and cultural setting.
Knowledge and Skills
One of the key areas to investigate during a gap analysis is whether people know how to
achieve their performance goals. Clark and Estes (2008) explain how if people do not know how
23

to do something, then the knowledge component of the gap is a problem that must be solved. To
assess stakeholder knowledge for this study, Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Taxonomy for
knowledge types was used. According to this taxonomy there are four types of knowledge:
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Declarative Factual Knowledge Influences
The first type of knowledge described by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) is factual
knowledge. Factual knowledge is defined as the basic elements that experts use when
communicating about their academic discipline. Most of the elements are symbols associated
with concrete referents that convey important information (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Furthermore, factual knowledge can be isolated as elements or pieces of information that have
value in and of themselves. There are two subtypes of factual knowledge: knowledge of
terminology and knowledge of specific details and elements. Knowledge of terminology includes
specific verbal and nonverbal labels and symbols. These are considered the basic language of the
discipline and it is often impossible for experts to discuss their discipline without these essential
terms (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Knowledge of specific details and elements refers to the
knowledge of events, locations, people, dates, sources of information, etc. Again, since every
subject matter contains such specific facts, these are considered basic information for experts
when describing their field or thinking about specific problems (Anderson & Kathwohl, 2001).
Therefore, when assessing the performance of the stakeholder of focus, or teachers, it is
important to evaluate their factual knowledge. As identified in the literature, to increase
performance and motivation amongst their students, teachers must know (a) what the standards
for their grade level are and where to access them, (b) instructional practices that are most
24

appropriate for teaching the intended content, and (c) strategies to create both an inclusive and
(d) engaging classroom.
For a teacher to support their students and excel at science instruction, they must be
strong in their factual knowledge. In 2014, the state of California adopted the new NGSS with
the intention to increase student performance in science. Teaching in ways that align with the
NGSS requires that teachers know the content and structure of the standards, as well as how to
adjust their practice to meet the intended content (Hanuscin & Zangori, 2017; Parks, 2018).
Supovitz and colleagues (2016) acknowledge the powerful influence of standards in science
education and describe how adequate knowledge of these standards improves teacher perceptions
and their use. Along with knowing the standards, effective instruction requires that teachers are
skilled and knowledgeable about ways in which to help students construct knowledge, pose
appropriate questions, and facilitate instruction for content that is unique to their subject matter
(Banilower et al., 2010; Bransford et al., 1999). In addition to instructional practices, teachers
must also know strategies that help create an inclusive environment. Despite the call for science
education to be accessible to all students, some students, depending on their race or ethnicity,
continue to underperform in certain science classrooms, depending on the strategies used by the
teacher (Kanter & Kostantopoulos, 2010; Wilson et al., 2010). The more knowledge a teacher
has of accommodations for students, the better they can set an instructional context and adapt
instruction to meet the needs of their students (Mutch-Jones et al., 2012). Finally, a teacher must
also know strategies that create an engaging classroom. The more a teacher knows how to
involve students and provide them with a sense of autonomy in the classroom, the more students
will be motivated to learn (Inkinen et al., 2019; Patall et al., 2018).

25

Conceptual Knowledge Influences
The second knowledge type one must evaluate to assess a stakeholder’s knowledge is
conceptual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is described as the knowledge of categories,
classifications, and the relationships between and among them (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
This type of knowledge also includes schemas, mental models, or implicit and explicit theories.
Based on this definition, conceptual knowledge can be referred to as the knowledge an individual
has about how a subject matter is organized and structured or how bits of information are
interrelated. Conceptual knowledge includes three subtypes: knowledge of classification and
theories, knowledge of principles and generalizations, and knowledge of theories, models, and
structures (Anderson &Krathwohl, 2001). Together, these three types of knowledge capture a
large amount of the knowledge that is generated within different disciplines.
To support their students’ success, teachers must understand (a) how the standards and
instructional activities can be grouped together, (b) how inclusivity and (c) engagement affect
student outcomes. Sanchez and Valcarcel (1999) explain how content is the most important point
for lesson planning. The ability to choose the content to be taught and derive objectives from
these standards allows teachers to select appropriate activities to deepen student understanding
(Sanchez & Valcarcel, 1999). While most science teachers find differentiation difficult
(Mastropieri et al., 2006), teachers must also be aware of their students’ needs and the effect
their decisions can have on their students' outcomes. Educators are vulnerable to biased
judgments which can impede their efforts at inclusive excellence for STEM students (Killpack &
Melon, 2016). However, by recognizing that inclusivity and diversity can lead to greater
achievement, teachers can avoid such biases in their classrooms and encourage a growth mindset
within themselves and their students. Faculty are also considered responsible for establishing
26

positive classroom climates for STEM students (Cabrera et al., 1999; Colbeck et al., 2001). This
may seem overwhelming to most teachers at first, but an increased awareness of the effects of
engagement can empower them to achieve excellence in their classroom (Killpack & Melon,
2016).
Procedural Knowledge Influences
The third type of knowledge, procedural knowledge, refers to the “knowledge of how” to
do something (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). This type of knowledge can take the form of a
series of steps to be followed and includes a knowledge of skills, algorithms, techniques, and
methods, which are otherwise known as procedures (Anderson, 1983). Procedural knowledge
can also include the knowledge of when to use certain procedures. It is believed that experts not
only have a large amount of procedural knowledge, but this knowledge is also “conditionalized”
so they know in which context it should be used (Bransford et al., 1999). Teachers must also
have some level of procedural knowledge if they are considered effective instructors.
It is presumed that teachers must know how to do the following: integrate standards into
the curriculum, apply appropriate instructional practices to design lessons, apply strategies to
stimulate interest, apply strategies to build self-efficacy, and deliver effective feedback. Since
their adoption, the NGSS were an attempt to reform K–12 science education, however, it was
soon realized that teacher knowledge and implementation of policies, standards, and practices is
crucial if change is to be successful (Smith & Nadelson, 2017). If teachers know how to
effectively implement a curriculum following the standards, then they will more likely engage in
in-depth student-centered instruction (Smith & Nadelson, 2017; Thomson & Gregory, 2013). To
further support this shift in science education, teachers must also know how to identify and
implement empirically sound and research-based practices that are effective in promoting
27

science content (Echevarria et al., 2006; Jackson & Ash, 2012). Waldrip and Fisher’s (2003)
work on student perceptions of exemplary secondary science teachers shows that students learn
best with teachers who know how to establish a safe and active classroom environment (Waldrip
et al, 2009). More specifically, these teachers know how to generate involvement and interest
(Waldrip et al., 2009), build student self-efficacy (Kiran & Sungur, 2011; Velayutham &
Aldridge, 2012), and assess students in a variety of ways (Tytler et al., 2004).
Metacognitive Knowledge
The final knowledge type identified by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) is metacognitive
knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about cognition as well as awareness of and
knowledge about one’s own cognition. Research shows that when a person is developing in their
area of expertise, they will become more aware of their own thinking as well as more
knowledgeable about cognition in general thus making them more willing to act on this
awareness and they will learn and perform better. Although teachers can be considered experts in
their respective fields, they continue to be learners in their practice and must also engage in
constant reflection if they are to mold their instruction to best fit the needs of their students.
Therefore, a teacher must be able to reflect on the effectiveness of (a) daily lessons and
instructional practices, (b) classroom environment, and (c) regular feedback to students.
Self-assessment and reflection provide teachers with unique feedback and has the
potential to lead to deeper pedagogical self-reflection and result in changes that benefit students
(Snead & Freiberg, 2017). Teachers who reflect on their instruction and assessment strategies
develop a systematic way to address problems in their classroom (Nichols et al., 1997; van
Diggelen et al., 2013) and make meaningful and relevant pedagogical progress (Davis &
McDonald, 2019). It is also important that teachers spend time reflecting on their classroom
28

management. Teachers who reflect on their classroom management tend to demonstrate better
capacities to build their classroom environment which then leads to an increase in student
outcomes (Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017; Sammaknejad & Marzban, 2016). Table 2 shows the
stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

Table 2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed knowledge influences Research literature
Declarative factual
Teachers know the Next Generation
Science Standards relevant for their
grade level and where to access them.
Hanuscin, & Zangori, 2016
Parks, 2018
Supovitz et al., 2016
Teachers know the instructional practices
and pedagogy that are most appropriate
for teaching the appropriate knowledge
types for science.
Bransford et al., 1999
Banilower et al., 2010
Teachers know strategies that help create
an inclusive classroom environment.
Wilson et al., 2010
Kanter & Konstantopoulos, 2010
Mutch-Jones et al., 2012
Teachers know strategies that help create
an engaging classroom environment.
Inkinen et al., 2019
Patall et al., 2018
Declarative conceptual
Teachers are able to group together
related standards and instructional
activities to plan for instruction.
Sánchez & Valcárcel, 1999
29

Assumed knowledge influences Research literature
Teachers know how creating an inclusive
classroom environment influences
student outcomes.
Mastropieri et al., 2006
Killpack & Melon, 2016
Dweck, 2008
Teachers know how creating an engaging
classroom environment influences
student outcomes.
Cabrera et al., 1999
Colbeck et al., 2001
Killpack & Melon, 2016
Procedural
Teachers know how to integrate grade-
level content standards into curriculum
and instruction.
Smith & Nadelson, 2017
Thomson & Gregory, 2013
Teachers know how to apply instructional
practices and relevant pedagogy to
design daily lessons that meet intended
standards.
Echevarria et al., 2006
Jackson & Ash, 2017
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to stimulate student interest.
Waldrip & Fisher, 2003
Waldrip et al., 2009
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to increase student self-
efficacy.
Kiran & Sungur, 2011
Velayutham & Aldridge, 2012
Teachers know how to integrate different
types of assessments and provide
effective feedback to monitor student
progress and prepare students for the
California Science Test
Tytler et al., 2004
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
daily lessons, instructional practices,
and pedagogy.
Nichols et al., 1997
Davis & McDonald, 2019
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
their classroom environment on student
motivation.
Sammaknejad & Marzban, 2016
Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
regular feedback and assessments on
student achievement.
Hollingsworth & Clarke, 2017
van Diggelen et al., 2013
30

Motivation
In a general sense, motivation is the internal, psychological process that gets people
going, keeps them moving, and helps get the job done (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Motivation
then influences three aspects of our lives: choosing to work towards a goal (active choice),
persisting at the goal or work until it is achieved (persistence), and how much mental effort we
invest to accomplish a task (Clark & Estes, 2008). Active choice is a person’s decision to
actively begin or pursue a goal. Whether or not someone selected the goal themselves, if they
make the decision to work towards it, then they can be considered to have chosen that goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Persistence refers to the commitment to work towards a goal over time
despite distractions (Rueda, 2011). Both choice and persistence must be accompanied by
adequate cognitive investment in the tasks required to achieve a goal. This is known as mental
effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). All three motivational indicators are influenced by psychological
constructs such as value, self-efficacy, emotion, and attribution.
Value
According to expectancy-value theory, a person’s values and expectancies can reflect the
perceptions of their own competence, difficulties, and goals (Wigfield et al., 2009). Expectancy
is defined as a person’s beliefs about how well they will do on an upcoming task (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000). Values are subjective as people assign different values to the same activity, based
on their experiences, and can influence a person’s persistence. There are four major types of
value: importance value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost (Eccles, et al., 1983). Importance
value refers to the amount of value or importance a person places on a solution or task which can
influence their decision whether to begin a task (Rueda, 2011). Intrinsic value comes from the
satisfaction one gains from completing a task and utility value refers to how a specific task fits
31

with a person’s long-term goals. Finally, cost is whatever a person must give up completing a
task. Altogether these four types of value greatly influence a person’s motivation to begin and
persist.
In the past, researchers have recognized that teacher beliefs and values influence student
learning and classroom practice (Mansour, 2009; Pajares, 1992). One key finding is that the
more a teacher values the science standards, the more likely they are to implement them and the
better prepared their students are for examinations and future courses (Klieger & Yakobovitch,
201; Shernoff et al., 2017; Witz & Lee, 2009). In terms of pedagogy, teachers who value the
importance of diverse instructional techniques such as questioning, problem-solving, student-
centered learning, have higher confidence in their students which can build self-efficacy
(Roehrig & Luft, 2004; Wallace & Priestley, 2011). Therefore, if a teacher is to demonstrate
effective science instruction, they must value lesson planning using effective pedagogy in order
to create an inclusive classroom environment. A teacher’s preconceived ideas about literacy and
student ability levels can influence their planning (Colwell, 2016; Colwell & Enderson, 2016),
therefore, valuing inclusivity can better support a student’s academic journey (Colwell, et al.,
2020). Valuing and creating engagement in a classroom can also benefit students as it can
support their inner motivation to persist and provides them with autonomy (Patall et al., 2018;
Reeve, 2006). Next, teachers must also value the role of feedback in motivating students.
Generally, teachers and students have positive feelings about feedback because it helps students
to indicate areas for improvement (Hattie, 2009; Zacharias, 2007). Furthermore, students tend to
have better feelings towards feedback when they believe it is important to their own teacher
(Havnes et al., 2012).

32

Self-Efficacy
Bandura (2006) explains how a person’s beliefs about their capabilities, or self-efficacy,
can have a great influence on their motivation and behavior. According to social cognitive
theory, self-efficacy beliefs determine a person’s choices, effort, persistence, and perseverance
(Bandura, 2006). Self-efficacy is related to all three motivational indicators and becomes
especially important when a person encounters a problem while completing a task. A person with
greater self-efficacy and increased belief in their competence will demonstrate more motivation
to engage, persist, and work hard on a task or activity (Rueda, 2011). When examining a
person’s achievement towards a goal, self-efficacy is an important motivational construct to
investigate.
Efficacy in teaching has long been considered as an important variable contributing to
both teacher and student success (Settlage et al., 2009; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Previous
studies found that teachers who are more confident in implementing the NGSS were more likely
to write lessons that were well aligned and incorporated appropriate pedagogy (Kang et al., 2018;
Nadelson et al., 2013; Shernoff et al., 2017). In addition to their confidence in implementing the
standards, teachers with higher self-efficacy view themselves as effective practitioners (Avery &
Meyer, 2012; Davis et al., 2016), engage students in more student-centered lessons (Loughran,
1994; Mahler et al., 2018) and believe in their student's capabilities (Enochs et al., 1995). In
terms of inclusion in the classroom, a teacher’s self-efficacy for inclusive practices has been
found to predict their willingness to implement instructional practices that involve their students,
such as peer tutoring (Avramidis, 2019; Kiel et al., 2020). Self-efficacy has also proved to be a
mediating factor in a teacher’s ability to provide effective feedback for students. Those with a
higher level of self-efficacy are better able to use their knowledge to generate feedback (Kunter
33

et al., 2013). Finally, a teacher's confidence in preparing their students for examinations can also
influence the instructional decisions made in the classroom and this can then have either positive
or negative consequences for students (Milner et al., 2017).
Emotion and Attribution
Two additional factors that influence motivation and performance are emotion and
attribution. Emotion can be difficult to define, however, it is most often described as the
unconscious or conscious physical or mental response to an antecedent event (Frederickson &
Cohn, 2008). Research has linked positive mood to creative problem solving and optimism
(Bless et al., 1996) while negative mood has been shown to trigger more task-irrelevant thinking
that may harm performance (Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988). Attribution refers to a person’s perceived
degree of control and is made up of three dimensions: stability, locus, and control (Wiener,
2005). When an individual believes that failure is only temporary and can be influenced by
controllable factors, such as increased effort, then they are more likely to choose and persist at a
task (Rueda, 2011).
Teachers' feelings about their standards and content can be good predictors of student
behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement and their self-efficacy (Zhang, 2014). A
teacher’s enthusiasm about their course content can be seen as a critical component of effective
teaching. The more enthusiasm and positive feelings that a teacher demonstrates, the more
engaged the students become because they become responsive to the teacher’s emotions and
teaching styles (Fredricks et al., 2004). Additionally, positive emotions are more likely to
produce prosocial behaviors (Barsade & Gibson, 2007).
A teacher’s perceptions on their degree of control can also have implications for their
students. If a teacher feels they have greater control over the implementation of the NGSS, the
34

more likely they are to design lessons that are aligned to the standards and expose students to
scientific practices (Shernoff et al., 2017). Woolfolk, et al. (1990) found that the more a teacher
believes that good teaching is achievable, the more they support student autonomy. Similarly,
teachers who have a greater sense of control within their classroom tend to exhibit greater
persistence, deliver several types of feedback, and help develop a greater academic focus
(Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Furthermore, when a teacher has a greater sense of stability, they have
higher feelings of wellbeing and accomplishment which then increases classroom qualities (Zee
& Koomen, 2016). A teacher's responses to student progress and teaching experiences can also
influence teacher efficacy. If a teacher feels that change or student progress is out of their
control, then this might cause teachers to lower goals for themselves (de Boer et al., 2016). Table
3 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

35

Table 3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed motivation influences Research literature
Value
Teachers value teaching grade-level
content according to Next Generation
Science Standards, CDE Framework, and
Common Core standards.
Klieger & Yakobovitch, 2011
Shernoff et al., 2017
Witz & Lee, 2009
Teachers value planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
Wallace & Priestley, 2011
Roehrig & Luft, 2004
Teachers value having an inclusive
classroom environment.

Colwell, 2016
Colwell & Enderson, 2016
Colwell et al., 2020
Teachers value having an engaging
classroom environment.
Reeve, 2006
Patall et al., 2018
Teachers value providing regular feedback
and assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
Zacharias, 2007
Hattie, 2009
Havnes et al., 2012
Self-efficacy
Teachers are confident about teaching
grade level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Shernoff et al., 2017
Kang et al., 2018
Nadelson et al., 2013
Teachers are confident about planning
daily lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.
Davis et al., 2016
Avery & Meyer, 2012
36

Assumed motivation influences Research literature
Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.

Enochs et al., 1995
Kiel et al., 2020
Avramidis, 2019
Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an engaging classroom
environment.
Loughran, 1994
Mahler et al., 2018
Teachers are confident about providing
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
Schute et al., 2017
Kunter et al., 2013
Teachers are confident about preparing
students for the California Science Test
in eighth grade.
Milner et al., 2017
Mood
Teachers feel positive about teaching grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Zhang, 2013
Shernoff et al., 2017
Witz & Lee, 2009
Teachers feel positive about planning daily
lesson lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.
Tosun, 2000
Wallace & Priestley, 2011
Roehrig & Luft, 2004
Teachers feel positive about establishing
and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.

Colwell, 2016
Colwell et al., 2020
Teachers feel positive about establishing
and maintaining an engaging classroom
environment.
Reeve, 2006
Patall et al., 2018
Teachers feel positive about providing
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
Zacharias, 2007
Hattie, 2009
Havnes et al., 2012
37

Assumed motivation influences Research literature
Teachers feel positive about preparing
students for the California Science Test
in 8th grade.
Milner et al., 2017
Attribution
Teachers believe the success or failure of
teaching grade-level content according to
the Next Generation science standards,
CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards
is in their control.
Shernoff et al., 2017

Teachers believe the success or failure of
planning daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy is in their
control.
Woolfolk et al, 1990
Teachers believe that the success or failure
of establishing and maintaining an
inclusive classroom environment is in
their control.
Gibson & Dembo, 1984
Zee & Koomen, 2016
Teachers believe that the success or failure
of establishing and maintaining an
engaging classroom environment is in
their control.
Gibson & Dembo, 1984
Zee & Koomen, 2016
Teachers believe the success or failure of
providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress is in their control.
Gibson & Dembo, 1984
de Boer et al., 2016

38

Organization
The final area of evaluation when completing a gap analysis is organizational processes
and material resources. This area of evaluation can be further analyzed through four domains:
cultural model, cultural setting, policies and procedures, and resources. Clark and Estes (2008)
state that even people with excellent knowledge and motivation can struggle with achievement of
a goal if they are missing or have inadequate processes and materials. Furthermore, because
schools and educational organizations are such complex systems in which structures are
scaffolded on one another, a student’s well-being is tied to the success or failure of the system
(Rueda, 2011). For this reason, assessing organizational influences is crucial for any
organization wishing to evaluate success towards a goal.
Policies and Procedures
Organizational structures and policies can impact performance goals even in the most
knowledgeable and motivated people (Clark & Estes, 2008). A look into the policies and
procedures in an organization can provide evidence of the underlying belief systems present
throughout employees and stakeholders.
One of the most important aspects of an organization is that policies and procedures align
with the expected goals. Since the NGSS were implemented as an attempt to reform science
education, implementation of the policies, standards and practices is important to the success of
this initiative (Smith & Nadelson, 2017). Furthermore, if implementation of these standards is to
be effective, policy makers and agencies must be able to support teachers who are the forefront
of carrying out these standards (Craig, 2006). Procedures and policies for lesson planning are
also important in schools, as most teachers, especially those who have been in a school longer,
tend to decrease planning over time (Sanchez & Valcarel, 1999; Strangis et al., 2006). However,
39

the more a teacher involves themselves in careful planning, the more they can make effective
adjustments for all the learners present in their classroom and allows for time management
(Bellon et al., 1992). Waitoller and Artiles (2013) found that teachers should have procedures
that align with their schools in terms of inclusiveness and engagement if they are to be successful
for a prolonged period of time. The more a school supports a teacher’s efforts to create an
inclusive classroom environment, the more a teacher can afford to address the needs of students.
Resources
Organizations require tangible supplies and equipment if they are to implement the
policies and procedures that exist (Clark & Estes, 2008). Progress towards an organizational goal
is effectively facilitated and supported when policies and procedures are aligned with
organizational culture and are supported with adequate resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Previous
research has indicated that attending professional development can enhance teacher content
knowledge and therefore change teaching practice (Cohen & Hill, 1998; Kahle, 1997; Kahle et
al., 2000). Also, teachers are more likely to implement standards and other instructional practices
when they feel properly supported through professional development (Smith & Nadelson, 2017).
When investigating support resources, research has found that these can help to support teacher
engagement in a classroom and prevent burnout which then further supports student outcomes
(Domenech-Betoret et al., 2015). Therefore, the more a teacher can access resources or support
staff in their workplace, the more they can help to build their own students’ knowledge (Chiner
& Cardone, 2013).
Cultural Model
Values and structures that are found within an organization can be considered their
cultural models and settings. Organizational culture is generally defined as the shared basic
40

assumptions held by a given group that are considered valid because they have worked well for
the organization thus far, therefore, it is taught to new members (Schein, 2004). Shahzad and
colleagues (2012) describe a cultural model as the norms, values, and beliefs that drive the
organization and can be observed in language, rituals, and behaviors across the organization.
As it applies to teachers, a cultural model that is very important for their success and
student performance is having a culture of collaboration. In order to successfully implement new
standards, particularly the NGSS, teachers need to collaboratively engage with other teachers to
make data driven decisions (Herrington & Daubenmire, 2016; Mamlok-Naaman & Eilks, 2012).
Collaboration is also important for lesson planning amongst teachers. Collaborative planning has
been shown to open communication between teachers and team leaders, improve their ability to
work with others, and increase their expectations for student achievement (Haverback & Mee,
2013). Additionally, collaboration in planning has fostered teacher optimism and had a favorable
impact on school climate (Rice, 2003; Warren & Muth, 1995). For a teacher to develop thorough
inclusive practices, there must be collective engagement (Mulholland & O’Connor, 2016).
Collective engagement leads to positive outcomes, particularly for students with special
education needs (Boyle et al., 2011; O’Gorman & Drudy, 2010). While there is still mixed
research on teacher perceptions of testing, some teachers have reported that testing can lead to
collaboration and increases student achievement (Buck et al., 2010). More collaboration amongst
teachers causes them to rise to new challenges and work together to enhance student
achievement and focus on the best instructional practices that will help prepare students for the
exam (DuFour, 2004).

41

Cultural Setting
While cultural models represent the invisible aspects of an organization, cultural settings
can be seen as the concrete version of the social context (Cole, 1996). Cultural settings are the
defining features of the routines which constitute daily life. In other words, the cultural setting is
the who, what, where, when, why, and how of an organization and any time one of these features
changes, it can be considered as a new cultural setting (Rueda, 2011). Cultural models and
settings are seen as dynamic and reciprocal in nature because they are so closely related.
For an organization to increase motivation amongst teachers, there should be some form
of incentive, recognition, or reward for their success. While there are some who oppose systems
like these, there has been a growing enthusiasm for linking teacher rewards with their students’
achievement (Fryer, 2013). One important finding is that for incentives to work, schools should
have structures that incentivize inputs to education (i.e., lesson planning, collaboration, parental
engagement, etc) rather than student outputs such as grades and test scores (Fryer, 2013).
Furthermore, when there is sufficient school support, particularly from administrators, teachers
feel more protected, positive reinforcement exists, there is access to more financial support
(Emiroglu & Atamturk, 2018). Therefore, the more the school supports teachers and maintains
their motivation, the more they will persist and, therefore, invest in their students’ performance.
Table 4 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

42

Table 4
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed organization influences Research literature
Resources
Teachers use time and allocated money to attend
professional development and training.
Cohen & Hill, 1998
Kahle, 1997
Smith & Nadelson, 2017
Kahle et al., 2000
Teachers access additional resources and
classroom support through instructional or
curriculum specialists.
Domenech-Betoret et al., 2015
Policies, processes, and procedures
Procedures that are in place to teach grade level
content according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum framework,
and science specific common core standards
align with school and district policies.
Smith & Nadelson, 2017
Craig, 2006
Procedures that are in place to plan daily lessons to
meet intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy align with
school and district policies.
Strangis et al., 2006
Sanchez & Valcarel, 1999
Bellon et al., 1992
Procedures that are in place to maintain student
motivation by stimulating interest and self-
efficacy through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum align
with school and district policies.
Waitoller & Artiles, 2013
North, 2006
Culture (model)
There is a culture of collaboration among teachers
who teach grade level content according to the
Next Generation science standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and science specific
common core standards.
Mamlok-Naaman & Eilks, 2012
Herrington & Daubenmire, 2016

43

Assumed organization influences Research literature
There is a culture of collaboration among teachers
to plan daily lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
Haverback & Mee, 2013
Rice, 2003
Warren & Muth, 1995
There is a culture of collaboration among teachers
to maintain student motivation by stimulating
interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive
and engaging classroom environment and
curriculum.
Mulholland & O’Connor, 2016
Boyle et al., 2011
O’Gorman & Drudy, 2010
There is a culture of collaboration among teachers
to provide regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California Science Test in
8th grade.
Buck et al., 2010
DuFour, 2004
Culture (Setting)
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to teach grade level content according to
the Next Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and science
specific common core standards.
Fryer, 2011
Fryer, 2013

The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy.
Fryer, 2011
Fryer, 2013
Emiroglu & Atamturk, 2018
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an
inclusive and engaging classroom environment
and curriculum.
Fryer, 2011
Fryer, 2013
Emiroglu & Atamturk, 2018
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student
progress and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
Fryer, 2011
Fryer, 2013

44

Conclusion
The problem of student motivation and achievement in science at the middle school level
is complex and involves several risk factors. While different interventions have been put into
place over time, they are not always successful. Therefore, it is important to study promising
practices amongst teachers who have been successful in supporting their students' performance.
By examining the literature on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences among
teachers, this chapter aimed to better understand how these influences support positive outcomes.
Chapter Three will discuss the collection of data on promising practices using the influences
mentioned in this chapter as a foundation.

45

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this project was to identify and synthesize those promising practices in
middle school science instruction that lead to increased motivation and achievement in students.
The analysis focused on the assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational resources. While a complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes the stakeholders of focus in this analysis were teachers.
The questions that guided the promising practice study were the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets of teachers to increase
student interest and performance in science?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for maintaining these promising
practices and solving the problem of practice at another organization?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model was implemented as the conceptual
framework for this study. This framework provides a systematic, analytical method to understand
goal achievement (see Figure 2). According to Clark and Estes (2008), a gap analysis is used to
identify whether stakeholders have adequate knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
to achieve important work goals. For goal achievement to be successful, all three of these factors
must be in place.
For this study the Clark and Estes (2008) framework was adapted to examine promising
practices that can increase student interest and performance in science, thus, the gap analysis
model was used to fit this purpose. Using the promising practice lens, factors that are present for
teachers who have been successful at increasing their student’s performance were examined. The
46

findings and implications gathered after data was analyzed could contribute to similar settings
who wish to potentially accomplish similar goals.
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets were generated based on
personal knowledge and related literature. These influences were assessed using surveys,
interviews, observations, literature review and content analysis. Research-based solutions were
then recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.

Figure 2
Steps in the Gap Analysis Process

47

Assessment of Performance Influences
This promising practice study examined the behaviors amongst successful science
teachers at various Southern California middle schools. The knowledge and skills of these
science teachers, the stakeholders of focus, their motivation to achieve the goal of increasing
student success, and positive organizational factors are assumed assets discussed in Chapter
Two. Surveys and interviews were used for data collection as indicated in the KMO influences
table.
Knowledge Assessment
To assess stakeholder knowledge for this study, Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001)
Taxonomy for knowledge types was used. According to this taxonomy there are four types of
knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Each influence derived from the literature in Chapter Two within the different knowledge types
is shown in Table 5.

48

Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
Declarative factual
Teachers know the Next
Generation Science
Standards relevant for
their grade level and
where to access them.
What is the preferred Next
Generation Science
Standards (NGSS) model
for middle schools in
California?
A. Integrated Learning
Progression Model
*
B. Discipline Specific
Model
Where can you access the
NGSS framework? (Fill
in the blank)
Which standards do you
use to teach science?
Where can you access
these standards/
frameworks if you need
to refer to them?
Teachers know the
instructional practices and
pedagogy that are most
relevant for teaching the
appropriate knowledge
types for science.
Which of the following is
the most appropriate
instructional activity
when teaching students
new science vocabulary?
A. students practice
memorization
B. students create a
visual
representation *
C. students copy
definition
Which of the following is
the most appropriate
instructional activity
when teaching students
new scientific processes?
Can you describe to me
what sort of strategies
you might use to do the
following: introduce new
vocabulary at the
beginning of a unit?
teach a scientific process
(such as the water cycle,
photosynthesis, etc)?
teach students how to
design their own
experiment? help
students reflect on their
thinking during an
activity or lab?
49

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
A. create opportunities
for students to
engage in model
building
B. provide students
with visual models
C. allow students to
engage in discovery
learning
D. all of the above *
Which of the following is
the most appropriate
instructional activity
when teaching students
new scientific
procedures? Select all
that apply.
A. demonstrate steps
B. give students
opportunities for
practice
C. provide feedback
D. All of the above*
Which of the following is
the most appropriate
instructional activity
when teaching students to
reflect on their learning?
A. write lab reports
B. observation journal
C. explaining to others
D. All of the above*
Teachers know strategies
that help create an
inclusive classroom
environment.
Which of the following
strategies would help to
create an inclusive
classroom environment?
A. Provide
accommodations
How would you describe
your classroom
environment?
50

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
for students with
disabilities.
B. Use multiple and
diverse examples
based on student
experiences.
C. Model inclusive
language.
D. All of these *
What strategies do you use
to create this
environment?
Teachers know strategies
that help create an
engaging classroom
environment.
Which of the following
strategies would help to
create an engaging
classroom environment?
(Select all that apply)
A. Incorporate gradual
release of
responsibility *
B. Use only the
content provided in
a textbook
C. Incorporate
collaborative
learning *
D. Provide only direct
instruction
E. Personalize
instruction to your
students' interests
and abilities *
What strategies do you use
regularly in your
classroom? How do you
think these strategies
help all learners?
Declarative conceptual
Teachers are able to group
together related standards
and instructional activities
to plan for instruction.
Which of the following
disciplinary core ideas
(DCIs) best fits the
following instructional
Can you walk me through
your planning process?
Where do you gather
resources and materials
51

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
segment? A cell, a
person, and planet Earth
are each a system made
up of subsystems.
A. Energy input from
the Sun varies with
latitude, creating
patterns in climate.
B. Energy transfers
from hot materials
to cold materials.
C. All living things are
made of cells. *
to plan? Give me an
example of a lesson you
have planned recently.
Teachers know how
creating an inclusive
classroom environment
influences student
outcomes.
What effect does creating
an inclusive classroom
environment have on
students? (Select two).
A. It creates a sense of
belonging. *
B. It provides students
with access to
flexible learning
choices. *
C. It increases the
rigor for students.
D. Increases
engagement.
Think of a lesson in which
you feel that you were
successful in creating an
inclusive environment.
What effect did this have
on your students? How
do you know?

Teachers know how
creating an engaging
classroom environment
influences student
outcomes
What effect does creating
an engaging classroom
environment have on
students?
A. It increases student
attention and focus.
Tell me about a time when
your students were really
excited to do something
in your class. What
about disengaged? What
52

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
B. It motivates
students to practice
higher order
thinking.
C. It promotes
meaningful learning
experiences
D. All of the above *
things do you think
impacted their emotions?
Procedural
Teachers know how to
integrate grade-level
content standards into
curriculum and
instruction.
You are being asked to
design a unit which will
teach students that all
living and nonliving
things are made of atoms.
Which of the following
concepts would fit best
within this instructional
segment? (select all that
apply)
A. Organisms are
made of molecules
of mostly six
different elements.
*
B. Damage from
natural hazards can
be reduced.
C. Mass is conserved
in physical changes
and chemical
reactions.
D. The interaction and
motions of atoms
explain the
You are being asked to
design a unit which will
teach students that all
living and nonliving
things are made of
atoms.
How do you integrate
grade-level content
standards into your
curriculum and
instruction for this unit?
53

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
properties of matter.
*
E. Earth materials are
mostly made of
eight different
elements. *
Teachers know how to
apply instructional
practices and relevant
pedagogy to design daily
lessons that meet intended
standards.
Suppose you have decided
to plan a lesson that will
introduce students to the
most common elements
found on Earth. Which of
the following
instructional practices
would be appropriate for
the lesson? (Select all
that apply)
A. Activate/access
prior knowledge of
elements *
B. Design activities
that will appeal to
all learning styles
C. Give a lec
D. ture about the
history of elements
E. Create opportunities
for feedback*
F. Have students work
together to create an
infographic on the 6
common elements*
G. Have students
perform an
experiment to test
How do you apply
instructional practices
and relevant pedagogy to
design daily lessons that
meet intended standards?
54

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
the properties of
certain elements
Teachers know how to
apply appropriate
strategies to stimulate
student interest.
Which of the following
activities would be
appropriate to stimulate
interest for a lesson on
elements? (Select all that
apply)
A. Share a song about
elements written to
the tune of a
popular song*
B. Reference the use
of elements in pop
culture (i.e. T shirts,
coffee mugs,
advertisements,
etc.)*
C. Have students read
from the textbook
D. Give students time
to pair-share what
they remember
from the day before
E. Perform a class
demonstration using
sample elements*
F. Have a scientist
guest lecture on
elemental properties
G. Show students a
documentary on
elements
You notice that your
students are becoming
disengaged in a lesson,
what strategies would
you use to re-engage
them?
Teachers know how to
apply appropriate
strategies to increase
student self-efficacy.
Which of the following
strategies would NOT be
appropriate for increasing
If you see that your
students are struggling
with the content in a unit
what would you do?
55

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
self-efficacy in your
students?
A. Use broad, long-
term learning
goals*
B. Keep tasks
relevant and
interesting
C. Incorporate both
guided and
collaborative
learning
D. Scaffold
assignments to
provide early
support
Teachers know how to
integrate different types
of assessments and
provide effective
feedback to monitor
student progress and
prepare students for the
California Science Test.
How might you assess a
student’s knowledge
during class? (Select all
that apply)
A. Exit Slips *
B. Think-Alouds *
C. Project
D. Pair/Share*
E. Questioning*
F. Unit Exam
G. Polls *
Other than a quiz or exam,
how might you assess a
student’s knowledge at
the end of a unit? (Select
all that apply)
How do you gauge how
much your students
know after a lesson?
after a unit?
Students are required to
take the California
Science Test in 8th
grade. How do you
prepare students to take
this exam?
56

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
A. Assign a
culminating project
B. Have students
perform a lab
C. Assign a self-
reflection for
students to discuss
their performance*
D. Have students
create a resource
(i.e. children’s
book, game,
notebook activity)
that could be used
to teach someone
else about the
topic*
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on the
effectiveness of daily
lessons, instructional
practices, and pedagogy.
How often do you reflect
on the effectiveness of
your daily lessons,
instructional practices
and pedagogy?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never
After completing a lesson,
what is your process for
deciding whether or not
the instructional
activities are working?
Teachers reflect on the
effectiveness of their
classroom environment
on student motivation.
How often do you reflect
on the effectiveness of
your classroom
environment and
How do you perceive your
classroom environment
impacts student
motivation?
57

Assumed knowledge
influences
Survey items Interview items
curriculum on motivating
students?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never
Teachers reflect on the
effectiveness of regular
feedback and assessments
on student achievement.
How often do you reflect
on the effectiveness of
your feedback to
students?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never
If you had to give advice
to a new teacher about
monitoring student
progress on a regular
basis, what advice would
you give?

58

Motivation Assessment
Motivation can be broadly defined as the process by which a goal-directed activity is
initiated and maintained (Schunk et al., 2014). While motivation is influenced by both internal
and external factors, Schunk et al. (2014) identify three common indicators related to
motivational factors: active choice, persistence, and effort. Active choice is a person’s decision
to actively begin or pursue a goal. Whether or not someone selected the goal themselves, if they
make the decision to work towards it, then they can be considered to have chosen that goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Persistence refers to the commitment to work towards a goal over time
despite distractions (Rueda, 2011). Both choice and persistence must be accompanied by
adequate cognitive investment in the tasks required to achieve a goal. This is known as mental
effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). All three motivational indicators are influenced by psychological
constructs such as value, self-efficacy, emotion, and attribution.
Choice, persistence, and performance are all influenced by expectancies, values, and their
determinants. According to expectancy-value theory, a person’s values and expectancies are
themselves influenced by one's own perceptions of competence, perceptions of difficulty, and
goals (Wigfield et al., 2009). Expectancy can be defined as a person’s beliefs about how well
they will do on an upcoming task (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). People can assign different values
to the same activity making values subjective and capable of influencing a person’s decision to
continue a task. Eccles et al. (1983) identify four major types of value: importance value,
intrinsic value, utility value, and cost. Importance value refers to the amount of value or
importance a person places on a solution or task (Rueda, 2011). If a person struggles with
importance, then they may never choose to begin a task. Intrinsic value is the enjoyment one
gains from completing a task. Utility value refers to how a specific task fits with a person’s long-
59

term goals. Finally, cost can be seen as what someone must give up to complete a task. All of
these together can greatly influence a person’s motivation to begin and persist in completing a
task.
A second physiological construct that can affect motivation is self-efficacy. Bandura
(2006) explains that a person’s beliefs about their capabilities and the outcomes of their efforts
can have a great impact on the way in which they behave. In his social cognitive theory, Bandura
goes on to explain how self-efficacy beliefs determine people’s choices, effort, persistence and
perseverance (Bandura, 2006). Self-efficacy is related to all three motivational indicators and is
particularly important when a difficulty is encountered while participating in a task. An
individual that has a higher self-efficacy and greater belief in their competence will demonstrate
more motivation to engage, persist, and work hard on a task or activity (Rueda, 2011). Self-
efficacy is an important motivational construct to investigate, especially when exploring
achievement towards a goal.
Emotion and attribution also deeply influence motivation and performance. Frederickson
and Cohn (2008) define emotion as an unconscious or conscious physical or mental response to
an antecedent event. Previous research has shown that low intensity emotion, or mood, can have
several effects on cognitive processes and performance (Pekrun et al., 2002). Positive mood has
been shown to facilitate creative problem solving and optimism (Bless et al., 1996) while
negative mood has been shown to trigger more task-irrelevant thinking that may harm
performance (Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988). Attribution refers to the degree of control a person
perceives to have in an outcome. Attribution has three dimensions: stability, which is whether or
not an attribution is temporary or permanent; locus, which is related to whether something is
internal or external to the individual; and control, which refers to whether or not something is
60

controllable (Wiener, 2005). When an individual believes that failure is only temporary and can
be influenced by controllable factors, such as increased effort, then they are more likely to
choose and persist at a task (Rueda, 2011). Therefore, evaluating emotion and attribution is
important to measure their positive or negative influence on motivation.
In order to assess how these motivational factors influence the behavior of teachers at
various middle schools across Southern California, surveys and interviews were utilized. Using
the motivational influences supported by the literature in Chapter Two, the motivation
assessments aimed to determine the stakeholders’ value, self-efficacy beliefs, emotion, and
attributions toward increasing student achievement and interest in science. Likert scale items
were used to determine the levels of motivation within each motivational construct. To verify
these results, interviews with various teachers were conducted to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of the ways in which the influences impact motivation from each stakeholder’s
perspective. Assessment items are found in Table 6.

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Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
Value
On a scale from 1–5 (1=
Strongly disagree and
5=Strongly agree), how
much do you agree with the
following statement?

Teachers value teaching
grade-level content
according to Next
Generation Science
Standards, CDE
Framework, and Common
Core standards.
I value teaching the content
that is appropriate for my
grade level according to
Next Generation Science
Standards.
How important is it that you
teach your content
according to the Next
Generation Science
Standards?
Why do you feel this way?
Teachers value planning
daily lessons to meet
intended standards using
appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy.
I value planning daily
lessons to ensure I meet
intended standards while
using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy.
What value do you assign
to selecting appropriate
instructional strategies for
your daily lesson
planning?

What example could you
provide me to exemplify
your thinking?
Teachers value having an
inclusive classroom
environment.

I value having an inclusive
classroom environment.
How important is it to you
that you create an
inclusive classroom
environment?
Why do you feel this way?
Teachers value having an
engaging classroom
environment.
I value having an engaging
classroom environment.
How important is it to you
that you create an
engaging classroom
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Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
environment for your
students?
Why do you feel this way?
Teachers value providing
regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly
basis to monitor student
progress.
I value providing regular
feedback and assessments
on a weekly basis to
monitor my students’
progress.
How do you monitor
student progress?

What example could you
provide me to exemplify
your thinking?
Self-Efficacy
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being
cannot at all to 5 being
highly certain can do), rate
your degree of confidence
in doing the following as of
right now:

Teachers are confident
about teaching grade level
content according to the
Next Generation science
standards, CDE science
curriculum framework,
and science specific
common core standards.
Teach the content for my
grade level according to
Next Generation Science
Standards

Use the California
Department of Education
(CDE) science curriculum
framework for middle
school

Apply the science-specific
common core standards
into my curriculum
Let’s say you are required
to teach your content
according to the NGSS,
science framework, and
common core standards.
How confident do you
feel planning your
curriculum this way?
Why?

What impacts your
confidence in being able
to use these sets of
standards?

Teachers are confident
about planning daily
lessons to meet intended
standards using
appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy.
Plan daily lessons

Use appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy
Tell me about a time in
which you felt confident
that you were using
appropriate instructional
practices to plan a lesson
or unit of study.
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Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items

Now tell me about a time in
which you did not feel
confident that you were
planning a lesson using
the appropriate
instructional practices?

What do you think might
influence your confidence
with regards to lesson
planning using
appropriate instructional
practices?

Teachers are confident
about establishing and
maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment.
Establish and maintain an
inclusive classroom
environment

Often, many classrooms
have diverse student
populations. You can
have students from
different ethnicities,
various backgrounds, and
even different abilities
(i.e., English Learners,
Gifted, students with
disabilities). How
confident are you that you
can create and maintain
an inclusive classroom
environment for your
students?

Why do you feel this way?

Teachers are confident
about establishing and
maintaining an engaging
classroom environment.

Establish and maintain an
engaging classroom
environment
While each student might
react to each lesson
differently, how confident
are you in creating an
engaging classroom
environment?

64

Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
What examples could you
provide to illustrate your
thoughts?
Teachers are confident about
providing regular
feedback and assessments
on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
Provide regular feedback
Conduct assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor
student progress
How confident are you in
providing regular
feedback to your
students?

Teachers are confident
about preparing students
for the California Science
Test in 8th grade.
prepare students for the
California Science Test in
8th grade.
How confident are you in
preparing your students
for the California Science
Test?

What might impact your
confidence in preparing
them for the test?
Mood
On a scale from 1–5 (1=
Strongly disagree and
5=Strongly agree), how
much do you agree with the
following statement?

Teachers feel positive about
teaching grade level
content according to the
Next Generation science
standards, CDE science
curriculum framework,
and science specific
common core standards.
I feel comfortable teaching
the content for my grade
level according to Next
Generation Science
Standards.
How do you feel about
planning instruction for
your students?

Why do you feel this way?

Teachers feel positive about
planning daily lesson
lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy.
I feel comfortable planning
daily lesson lessons and
using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy to meet
intended standards.

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Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
Teachers feel positive about
establishing and
maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment.
I feel comfortable
establishing and
maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment
and curriculum.

Teachers feel positive about
stimulating interest in the
subject/topics.

I feel effective in stimulating
my student's interest in
the subject/topics to be
covered.

Teachers feel positive about
building student self-
efficacy.
I feel effective in building
my student’s self-
efficacy.

Teachers feel positive about
providing regular
feedback and assessments
on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
I feel providing regular
feedback and assessments
on a weekly basis is
worthwhile to monitor
student progress.

Teachers feel positive about
preparing students for the
California Science Test in
8th grade.
I feel it is important to
prepare students for the
California Science Test in
8th grade.

Attribution
On a scale from 1–5 (1=
Strongly disagree and
5=Strongly agree), how
much do you agree with the
following statement?

Teachers believe the
success or failure of
teaching grade-level
content according to the
Next Generation science
standards, CDE science
curriculum framework,
and science specific
I believe that teaching
grade-level content
according to the Next
Generation science
standards is within my
control.
A new science teacher has
joined your staff and is
curious about curriculum
planning for her class.
She wants to know about
how much of the lesson
planning will be her
responsibility. What
66

Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
common core standards is
in their control.
response would you give
her? Why?
Teachers believe the
success or failure of
planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards
using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy is in their
control.
I believe that planning daily
lessons using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy is within my
control.

Teachers believe that the
success or failure of
establishing and
maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment is
in their control.
I believe that establishing
and maintaining an
inclusive classroom
environment is within my
control.

I believe that establishing
and maintaining an
inclusive curriculum is
within my control.

Teachers believe the
success or failure of
stimulating interest is in
their control.
I believe that creating
interest in the subject
matter is within my
control.

Teachers believe the
success or failure of
increasing self-efficacy is
in their control.
I believe that increasing my
student's self-efficacy is
within my control.

Teachers believe the success
or failure of providing
regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly
basis to monitor student
progress is in their
control.
I believe that providing
regular feedback and
monitoring student
progress is within my
control.

Teachers believe the success
or failure of preparing
students for the California
I believe that preparing my
students for the 8th grade
California Science Test is
within my control.

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Assumed motivation
influences
Survey items Interview items
Science Test in 8th grade
is in their control.

Organization/Culture/Context Assessment
When completing a gap analysis, the third and final area of evaluation is organizational
work processes and material resources. These can be further separated into four domains which
will be investigated in this study: cultural model, cultural setting, policies and procedures, and
resources. Clark and Estes (2008) state that even people with excellent knowledge and
motivation can struggle with achievement of a goal if they are missing or have inadequate
processes and materials. For this reason, an assessment of organizational influences is beneficial
for any organization.
Cultural models and settings are used to describe the values and structures found within
an organization. Schein (2004) defines organizational culture as the patterns of shared basic
assumptions held by a given group that has worked well and is considered valid, therefore, it is
taught to new members. A cultural model, then, is described as the norms, values, and beliefs
that drive the organization and this can be observed in language, rituals, and behaviors across the
organization (Shahzad et al., 2012). Because cultural models are so familiar within an
organization, they can often go unnoticed by those who carry them (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). Therefore, while cultural models represent the invisible aspects of an organization,
cultural settings can be seen as the concrete version of the social context (Cole, 1996). In other
words, cultural settings are the defining features of the routines which constitute daily life in an
organization and any time one of these features changes, it can be considered as a new cultural
68

setting (Rueda, 2011). Since cultural models and settings are so closely related, they can be seen
as both dynamic and reciprocal in nature.
Cultural models and settings give rise to organizational structures and policies that can
impact performance goals even in the most knowledgeable and motivated people. For this
reason, policies and procedures provide evidence of the underlying belief system within the
organization. To implement these policies and procedures, organizations also require tangible
supplies and equipment (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, if an organization is to make progress
towards achieving its organizational goals, their policies and procedures must align to its cultural
models and be supported with adequate resources (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Teachers who hold a positive, student-centered, collaborative culture and have alignment
of policies, procedures, and resources to this culture demonstrate success in fostering interest and
increasing achievement in their students. To assess the organizational influences, surveys and
interviews were conducted with teachers in the areas of supporting student achievement through
collaboration with other teachers and the school, as supported by the literature in Chapter Two.
Surveys consisted of Likert Scale items used to obtain a general understanding of the cultural
model, cultural setting, policies and procedures, and resources, and their alignment. Additionally,
the results of the surveys were confirmed through interviews with teachers. Interviews were also
used to gain a deeper insight into the ways these organizational influences impact teachers and
their progress towards the performance goal. These assessment items are found in Table 7.

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Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed organization influences Survey items Interview items
Resources
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1
being Strongly disagree
to 5 being Strongly
agree), how much to you
agree with the following
statements:

Teachers use time and allocated
money to attend professional
development and training.

I use my time and
allocate money to
attend professional
development and
trainings.
What sorts of resources
would you turn to if
you need additional
support with your
curriculum and
instruction?
Teachers access additional
resources and classroom support
through instructional or
curriculum specialists.
I access additional
resources and
classroom support
through instructional
and curriculum
specialists at my
school.

Policies, processes, & procedures
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1
being Strongly disagree
to 5 being Strongly
agree), how much to you
agree with the following
statements:

Procedures that are in place to
teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation
science standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and
My school requires that
teachers use the NGSS
to teach grade level
content.

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Assumed organization influences Survey items Interview items
science specific common core
standards align with school and
district policies.
Procedures that are in place to plan
daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy align with school and
district policies.
My school requires that
teachers create daily
lesson plans using
appropriate
instructional strategies
to meet their intended
standards.
If you have a student
who is struggling with
your class, what steps,
if any, would you take
to help the student?

What steps, if any,
would the school take
to help the student?
Procedures that are in place to
maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-
efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment
and curriculum align with school
and district policies.
My school requires that
teachers use strategies
to create an inclusive
and engaging
classroom
environment and
curriculum.

Procedures that are in place to
provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade align
with school and district policies.
My school has
procedures in place to
collect and provide
regular feedback to
monitor student
progress.

My school has
procedures in place to
collect regular data
and provide feedback
to prepare students for
the 8th grade Science
Test.

Culture model
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1
being Strongly disagree
to 5 being Strongly
agree), how much to you

71

Assumed organization influences Survey items Interview items
agree with the following
statements:
There is a culture of collaboration
among teachers who teach grade
level content according to the
Next Generation science
standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and
science specific common core
standards.
There is a culture of
collaboration amongst
teachers who teach the
same grade level
content according to
the NGSS.
Some people would say
that there is a culture
of collaboration
amongst teachers. Do
you agree or disagree
with this statement?

Why do you feel this
way?
There is a culture of collaboration
among teachers to plan daily
lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy.
There is a culture of
collaboration amongst
science teachers to
plan daily lessons and
use appropriate
instructional practices
and pedagogy.

There is a culture of collaboration
among teachers to maintain
student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-
efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment
and curriculum.
There is a culture of
collaboration among
teachers to create
inclusive and engaging
environments and
curriculum.

There is a culture of collaboration
among teachers to provide
regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
There is a culture of
collaboration amongst
teachers to plan
regular feedback and
assessments to
monitor student
progress.

Culture setting
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1
being Strongly disagree
to 5 being Strongly
agree), how much to you

72

Assumed organization influences Survey items Interview items
agree with the following
statements:
The school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to teach grade
level content according to the
Next Generation science
standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and
science specific common core
standards.
My school has systems
in place to motivate
teachers to use the
NGSS for instruction.
What systems are in
place, if any, to
motivate teachers to
design lessons that use
appropriate
instructional practices
to meet intended
standards?
The school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to plan daily
lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate
instructional practices and
pedagogy.
My school has systems
in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily
lessons using
appropriate
instructional practices.

The school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to maintain
student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-
efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment
and curriculum.
My school has systems
in place to motivate
teachers to create
inclusive and engaging
classrooms and
curriculum.

The school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to provide
regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
My school has systems
in place to motivate
teachers to provide
regular feedback to
students.

My school has systems
in place to motivate
teachers to prepare
students for the 8th
grade California
Science Test.

73

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this paper was middle school science teachers in
Southern California. While a student’s performance and experience in the classroom depend on
the efforts of many stakeholders within a school, it is important to understand the promising
practices and strategies used by teachers as they carry out everyday instruction and are
responsible for facilitating the learning.
Sampling
The only criteria used in the sampling for this study was that a teacher be currently
employed as a science teacher in a Southern California middle school. The purpose of the study
was to identify and gather information on those teachers who have demonstrated an exceptional
ability to teach science as demonstrated by their students’ test scores. However, because of the
ongoing pandemic and lack of CAST data from the previous administration during the 2019-
2020 school year, it was difficult to set specific recruitment criteria for teachers to participate in
the study. Therefore, teachers from different schools and districts surrounding the Los Angeles
area were invited to participate in a survey and interview, or both. Participation was voluntary
and individual consent was collected.
Recruitment
For this study, teacher participation was sought out through individual emails to science
instructors at middle schools in the Los Angeles area. Initial contact was made by the researcher
through an email sent to the teacher’s school email address and it contained details of the study.
In that same email, the researcher explained the study to the teacher(s) and sent the consent form
and survey link for them to complete, if they chose to participate. At the end of the survey there
was a question that asked teachers if they were willing to participate in an interview for the
74

study. If the participant answered “yes”, they were taken to a Google form where they could
provide additional contact information so that an interview could be scheduled. Additionally,
teachers were informed that they would be contacted within one week of completing the survey
to schedule an interview.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used for this study was surveys and semi-structured interviews.
Surveys were used to quantify teacher thoughts, feelings, and opinions on the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Semi-structured interviews were then
used to delve further and ask for more specific information about the KMO influences that might
affect teachers in the classroom.
Survey Design
The survey was designed to measure knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences as indicated by the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). Each survey item
was intended to measure these influences as they relate to the critical behaviors of teachers.
Appendix A provides the survey instrumentation and demonstrates the alignment of survey items
to the influences and critical behaviors identified in this study and supported in Chapter Two.
Knowledge and Skills
Survey items were developed using Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) knowledge
assessment and reflected the influences within each of the four categories of knowledge: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. These items are outlined in Table 4. Every teacher
has a personalized experience of teaching within their classroom and at their respective schools,
therefore, survey questions were created to assess their knowledge of science standards,
instructional design, and responsiveness to student needs. These questions were designed to gain
75

an understanding of how knowledgeable teachers are with regards to increasing their student’s
performance in science.
Motivation
Survey items were designed to measure the motivational influences regarding standards,
instructional design and monitoring of student progress. A Likert scale of “1=Strongly disagree
to 5= Strongly agree” was used to measure the extent of these influences.
Organization
The impact of the organizational influences on a teacher’s success at increasing student
performance was measured using survey items. A Likert scale of “1=Strongly disagree to 5=
Strongly agree” was used to measure the teachers’ perceptions of the organizational structure
with regards to the critical behaviors.
Interview Protocol Design
Interviews were semi-structured consisting of open-ended questions followed by probing
questions. All interview questions were aligned to the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences supported in Chapter Two. These questions were intended to develop a
complete understanding of the teacher’s perspective on KMO influences and their relation to
increasing student performance and interest in science. The interview protocol for teachers is
available in Appendix B.
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval,
participants were solicited by email which was sent from the researcher to their school email
accounts. All emails were gathered from publicly available contact pages on the individual
school websites.
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Surveys
After identifying school sites and acquiring teacher emails through the school website,
the researcher sent an email introducing the study to teachers. Teachers were then given a link to
the survey via their work email and the link was active for a period of two weeks. To maintain
privacy and anonymity, the survey form did not collect teacher emails or identify information in
their responses. After the initial email, participants received two reminders about the study via
email within the two-week time frame.
Interviews
Recruitment for interviews was conducted as outlined above. Those participants who
volunteered and signed the consent form were included in the interview sample. Due to social
distancing guidelines amid the COVID-19 pandemic, all interviews were conducted using a
video conferencing platform (i.e., Zoom). Interviews lasted approximately 30 minutes and were
recorded for the purposes of transcription and data collection. To further minimize any potential
conflict of interest, an external interviewer was used to conduct the interviews with interested
participants. To maintain confidentiality, all identifying information was removed from
transcribed interviews.
Data Analysis
For surveys, each influence was measured using descriptive statistics. Frequency of each
response was used to calculate the mean of the data for each individual influence. The data was
then analyzed by KMO category to further understand how each is associated with a teacher’s
success at improving their student’s performance. The knowledge domain was further analyzed
by knowledge type: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Motivation influences
were analyzed by the following domains: value, self-efficacy, emotion, and attribution. Finally,
77

organizational influences were analyzed according to the following: cultural models, cultural
settings, policies and procedures, and resources.
For interviews, data was collected, transcribed, and analyzed using a priori coding.
Interviews were recorded and transcribed using the video conferencing application. Using Clark
and Estes’s (2008) KMO framework and the influences in Chapter Two, interview transcriptions
were coded. A priori codes in knowledge, motivation, and organizational categories as defined in
Tables 1–3, were used to identify common themes, and evaluate the assets that contribute to the
success of teachers.
Trustworthiness of Data
To maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, the researcher used multiple
validity procedures such as triangulation, clarifying bias, member checking and peer debriefing.
Creswell and Creswell (2018), stress the importance of actively incorporating validity strategies
such as the ones used in this study. Triangulation occurs when different data sources are
examined and used to build a justification for themes which can increase the credibility of the
study’s findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Surveys, interviews, and documents were used to
triangulate data and confirm the presence of KMO assets from multiple sources. Next, as a
science teacher in Southern California, the researcher revealed her bias and role to all
participants to maintain transparency. Member checking took place during interviews when
necessary to clarify understanding. Finally, peer debriefing was also used to increase accuracy of
the account. A peer debriefer reviewed and asked questions about the study so that the study
resonated with others outside of the study.
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Role of Investigator
The investigator in this study was responsible for the study design, identification of
school sites, contacting administration, getting study approval, completing data collection and
analysis, and maintaining confidentiality and credibility of the study. As a former middle school
science teacher, the investigator has a thorough understanding of the practices, policies, and
procedures found at school sites. However, because the study was conducted at various locations,
the researcher depended on administration for the distribution of information, consent forms, and
surveys. Additionally, it is the responsibility of the investigator to maintain confidentiality,
therefore, all surveys, documents, and interviews were free from identifying information. This
also ensured that responses remain trustworthy. For transparency, study findings were shared
with participants prior to publication. Finally, it is the responsibility of the investigator to remain
considerate of participants, understand the unique insights they provide, and value their
contributions to the development of the assets that aid in their success.
Limitations
The limitations of this study were self-reporting of data, small sample sizes, and limited
time to complete the study. Information gathered through surveys and interviews was largely
dependent on self-reported data. Due to the personalized nature of the teaching experience and
the limitations of not making classroom observations because of COVID-19, it was difficult to
confirm the data provided. Next, because of the sampling protocol and identification process, the
number of teachers eligible to participate in the study was relatively small. This small sample
size may have limited the range of perspectives on the KMO influences that could come if more
participants were assessed. By choosing to evaluate teachers of all abilities, generalizability of
the findings was difficult because of the variability in school sites. Finally, since there was
79

limited time available to collect data, the researcher was restricted from gathering information
from a larger sample of teachers.

80

Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this chapter is to synthesize and analyze the results and findings from data
collected regarding the promising practices that contribute to increased student achievement in
science at the middle school level. These findings are organized under three categories of
influences: knowledge, motivation, and organization. Data was collected from one stakeholder of
focus (teachers) to get a more detailed account of the specific influences that might affect student
performance.
Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to validate the promising practices
identified by the literature as delineated in Chapter Two. More specifically, surveys and
interviews were used to understand the KMO influences that middle school science teachers
engage in to promote student achievement within their classrooms. Participants were first given
an online survey which they could complete on their own time. At the end of the survey, there
was a link for them to indicate their interest in completing an interview. Those who chose to
participate in an interview were contacted to complete a 30-minute semi-structured interview via
Zoom. Each participant was also asked for their consent to be contacted again should the
researcher have further questions.
While observations and document analysis were planned for this study, they were not
collected because of limited access due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During the time of this
study, many schools continued to be shut down and students were participating in distance
learning. Therefore, classroom observations were not possible. In addition, most schools and
districts shifted to digital learning platforms that required secure login credentials to access
materials and resources. This change in platform limited the amount of material that was publicly
accessible, therefore, document analysis was also not possible.
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Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study were middle school science teachers from public
schools in Los Angeles County. It should be noted that participation in this study was difficult to
attain due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing restrictions and distance
learning made communication with teachers difficult. For this reason, snowball sampling had to
be used and recruitment had to be done by the researcher. Since recruitment and sampling was
done by the researcher, it was important to maintain privacy when collecting responses.
Therefore, no personal or specific demographic data was collected about each teacher in the
survey or interview. Nevertheless, most participants came from schools and districts found in the
“Gateway Cities” of Los Angeles County in Southern California. The Gateway Cities of Los
Angeles County include 27 cities at the southwest edge of the county that represent a range of
lifestyles and are ethnically diverse with a large trained and educated workforce (Gateway Cities,
2022). Many of the schools in which the study participants work are located in middle to upper
class neighborhoods and have either one or multiple science teachers employed.
Among the survey participants, approximately four teachers were known to have about
15 years teaching experience in science (S. Gonzalez, personal communication, February 15,
2021). The three interview participants were known to the author as having between 1 and 5
years of experience teaching science. As such, both teacher groups contributed a different
perspective from their teaching experiences.
Determination of Assets and Needs
To achieve triangulation of data, both surveys and interviews were used to understand
those influences that contribute to the promising practices of science teachers in middle school
classrooms. The study utilized surveys and interviews to understand how the systems, practices
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and culture at different schools in the Los Angeles County area are interpreted and used by the
school communities. Collected data was also used to determine those assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational assumed influences that are considered assets to the success of
teachers in their classrooms.
A variety of criteria was used to determine if an influence is an asset. For an influence to
be considered an asset, a survey item for an assumed influence needed to be at or above 75% or
at or above a 4.0 for any Likert scale item that existed on a five-point scale. Secondly, interview
responses were analyzed and checked for agreement to survey results and amongst participants.
If interview responses appeared to support survey findings, they were considered assets. It
should be noted that because interview participation was so low, data collected from interviews
was more generally used to validate and expand on survey data.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
For this study, four types of knowledge were assessed: factual, conceptual, procedural,
and metacognitive (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In the sections that follow, each influence
and their findings from the data collected are reported under the corresponding knowledge
domain.
Factual Knowledge
There are four factual knowledge influences. First, concerns teachers' knowledge of Next
Generation Science Standards. This is followed by the instructional practices and pedagogy that
are most relevant for teaching the appropriate knowledge types for science. Then, teachers'
knowledge of strategies that help create an inclusive classroom environment is analyzed. Finally,
teachers' knowledge of strategies that help create an engaging classroom environment is
examined.
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Factual Knowledge Influence 1
Teachers know the Next Generation Science Standards relevant for their grade level and
where to access them.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to identify the preferred instructional model for the
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) adopted by the state of California. As shown in
Table 8, the accuracy in identifying the correct model was 94.1%, meeting the threshold to be
considered an asset. Teachers were also asked to state where they could locate the NGSS
framework for their use and responses varied. About 53% responded with a specific website
(NGSS or CA Dept of Education) while 29.4% mentioned they could find it online. Still another
17.6% reported having the standards saved on their individual device. While responses varied, all
participants were able to provide a response, any of which is correct, thus making this an asset.

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Table 8
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 1
Factual Knowledge Influence 1: Teachers know the Next Generation Science Standards
relevant for their grade level and where to access them.
Response (n = 17) % Count
What is the preferred Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) model for middle
schools in California?
Integrated Learning Progression Model* 94.1 % 16
Discipline Specific Model 5.9 % 1
Where can you access the NGSS framework?
Nextgenscience.org 41.2 % 7
Online 29.4 % 5
California Dept. of Education Website 11.8% 2
From file saved on personal computer 17.6% 3

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. It was evident that all three participants knew which standards to
use for instruction and where to find them. As far as knowing the standards, Participant 1
asserted “I have a binder with all the standards printed and I have attended extensive training on
the NGSS and 5E model of instruction.” Participant 2, who has been teaching for 13 years,
agreed and stated “the new NGSS are phenomenon based and the framework provides an
overview of units to use when planning instruction.” Participant 3 explained that she “entered the
district when they made the transition to the NGSS and the shift from Discipline Specific to
Integrated Model.”
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Summary. The assumed influence that teachers know the Next Generation Science
Standards relevant to their grade level and where to find them was determined to be an asset in
both the survey results and the interview responses.
Factual Knowledge Influence 2
Teachers know the instructional practices and pedagogy that are most relevant for
teaching the appropriate knowledge types for science.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to identify the appropriate strategies for teaching
students each of the knowledge types in science. Table 9 shows that for two of the four
knowledge types, teachers were able to identify the strategy with enough accuracy to be
considered an asset. When asked about factual and conceptual knowledge, 94.4% of teachers
identified the correct instructional strategy that should be used to teach their students each of
these types of knowledge. For procedural knowledge, 77.8% of teachers answered correctly and
for metacognitive only 72.2% identified the correct response. Since only two of the four
knowledge types meet the accuracy threshold of 85%, the knowledge influence is an area of
need.

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Table 9
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 2
Factual Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers know the instructional practices and pedagogy
that are most relevant for teaching the appropriate knowledge types for science.
Response (n = 18) % Count
Which of the following is the most appropriate instructional activity when teaching
students new science vocabulary?
Students practice memorization 5.6 % 1
Students create a visual representation* 94.4 % 17
Students copy definition 0.0% 0
Which of the following is the most appropriate instructional activity when teaching
students new science processes?
Create opportunities for students to engage in model building 5.6% 1
Provide students with visual models 0.0% 0
Allow students to engage in discovery learning 0.0% 0
All of the above* 94.4% 17
Which of the following is the most appropriate instructional activity when teaching
students new scientific procedures?
Demonstrate steps by modeling 11.1% 2
Give students opportunities for practice 11.1% 2
Provide feedback 0.0% 0
All of the above* 77.8% 14
Which of the following is the most appropriate instructional activity when teaching
students to reflect on their learning?
Write lab reports 0.0% 0
Observation journal 11.1% 2
Explaining to others 16.7% 3
All of the above* 72.2% 13
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Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the data gathered from the survey, there is not enough information
to support the assumed influence that teachers know the strategies necessary to teach every
knowledge type in science. For factual and conceptual knowledge, 94.4% of teachers correctly
identified the strategy, demonstrating that these knowledge types are the most well-known for
teachers. However, for both procedural and metacognitive strategies, the teachers' responses
varied and only had a correct response rate of 77.8% and 72.2% respectively. Therefore, this
shows that both knowledge types are not as well known to teachers. Since every knowledge type
is essential for student performance in science, this influence is considered an area of need.
Factual Knowledge Influence 3
Teachers know strategies that help create an inclusive classroom environment.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to identify the strategies that help to create an
inclusive classroom environment. As shown in Table 10, 94.4% of teachers correctly identified
that all of the responses listed in the survey questions were strategies to create an inclusive
classroom. Therefore, these results show that this is an asset.

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Table 10
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 3
Factual Knowledge Influence 3: Teachers know strategies that help create an inclusive
classroom environment.
Which of the following strategies would help create an inclusive environment?
Response (n = 18) % Count
Provide accommodations for students with disabilities 5.6 % 1
Use multiple and diverse examples based on student
experiences
0.0 % 0
Model inclusive language 0.0% 0
All of these* 94.4% 17

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. According to the data from the surveys, 94.4% of teachers were able to
correctly identify possible strategies that can be used to create an inclusive classroom
environment. Although no interview data was collected for this influence, the responses meet the
needed threshold to consider this item an asset.
Factual Knowledge Influence 4
Teachers know strategies that help create an engaging classroom environment.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to identify the strategies that help create an
engaging atmosphere in the classroom. As shown in Table 11, the survey provided five possible
responses, three of which were correct. For two of the correct choices the response rate was
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88.9% and the third had a response of 72.2%. Since this was a question that required multiple
responses, two of the answer choices met the threshold of 75%, but the third was 2.8% short.

Table 11
Survey Results for Factual Knowledge Influence 4
Factual Knowledge Influence 4: Teachers know strategies that help create an engaging
classroom environment.
Which of the following strategies would help to create an engaging classroom
environment? (Select all that apply.)
Response (n = 18) % Count
Incorporate gradual release of responsibility* 72.2% 13
Use only the content provided in a textbook 0 % 0
Incorporate collaborative learning* 88.9% 16
Provide only direct instruction 0.0% 0
Personalize instruction to your students’ interests and
abilities*
88.9% 16

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

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Interview Findings. When asked about their confidence about creating an engaging
environment in the motivation section, all three participants were able to explain some of the
strategies they use in their own classrooms. Participant 2 explained how their use of the textbook
is supplemental since “in this class their first resource is their experience with the content.”
Participant 1 explained her use of interactive wall activities so that “even if they are not paying
attention to what they should be doing, there is something else in the room that is engaging
them.” Finally, Participant 3 described how she constantly revises and refreshes the ways in
which she creates engagement within her classroom. Since each teacher expressed their
knowledge of finding ways to generate engagement, this influence can be considered an asset.
Summary. Although survey results indicated this influence might be an area of need,
interview responses by all three participants indicated that this is in fact an asset. All teachers
were knowledgeable about different strategies that can be used when creating an engaging
classroom environment.
Conceptual Knowledge

Conceptual Knowledge Influence 1
Teachers are able to group together related standards and instructional activities to plan
for instruction.
Survey Results. Survey results (shown in Table 12) indicated that 88.9% of teachers
were able to correctly identify the disciplinary core idea that directly ties into the indicated
instructional segment (unit). Based on these responses, this knowledge influence can be
considered an asset.

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Table 12
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 1
Conceptual Knowledge Influence 1: Teachers are able to group together related standards
and instructional activities to plan for instruction.
Which of the following disciplinary core ideas (DCIs) best fits the following instructional
segment? A cell, a person, and planet Earth are each a system made up of subsystems.
Response (n = 18) % Count
Energy input from the Sun varies with latitude, creating
patterns in climate.
11.1 % 2
Energy transfers from hot materials to cold materials. 0 % 0
All living things are made of cells.* 88.9% 16

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. In order to effectively use the NGSS for science instruction, a teacher must be
able to identify and connect content (otherwise known as disciplinary core ideas) into a cohesive
instructional segment (unit). According to the survey data, teachers have a solid understanding of
the content that must be taught and fits with their standards. Based on this information, it can be
concluded that this knowledge influence is an asset.
Conceptual Knowledge Influence 2
Teachers know how creating an inclusive classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
Survey Results. For this survey question, teachers were asked to correctly identify two
outcomes of an inclusive classroom environment. Out of 18 teachers, 88.9% of them were able to
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correctly identify a sense of belonging as an outcome. However, only 22.2% responded to the
second correct answer which is that an inclusive classroom provides students with flexible
learning choices. Given these responses reported in Table 13, it seems that this knowledge
influence is an area of need in which teachers need to improve.

Table 13
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 2
Conceptual Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers know how creating an inclusive classroom
environment influences student outcomes.
What effect does creating an inclusive classroom environment have on students? (Select
two.)
Response (n = 18) % Count
It creates a sense of belonging.* 88.9 % 16
It provides students with access to flexible learning choices.* 22.2 % 4
It increases the rigor for students. 11.1% 2
Increases engagement. 94.4% 17

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses from the survey, this conceptual knowledge influence
is still an area of need for teachers. To successfully create an inclusive classroom environment,
teachers must have knowledge on not only the strategies that increase inclusivity but also their
effect on students. Given that the responses to the second correct answer were so low, it indicates
that this is an area where teachers might have some knowledge but could continue to improve.
Conceptual Knowledge Influence 3
Teachers know how creating an engaging classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
Survey Results. For this knowledge influence, teachers were asked to choose the correct
effect that creating an engaging classroom environment has on students. As seen in Table 14, out
of 18 teachers who responded to this question, 100.0% were able to identify the correct response.
Since every teacher provided the correct answer, this knowledge influence can be considered an
asset.

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Table 14
Survey Results for Conceptual Knowledge Influence 3
Conceptual Knowledge Influence 3: Teachers know how creating an engaging classroom
environment influences student outcomes.
What effect does creating an engaging classroom environment have on students?
Response (n = 18) % Count
It increases student attention and focus. 0.0% 0
It motivates students to practice higher order thinking. 0.0% 0
It promotes meaningful learning experiences. 0.0% 0
All of the above* 100.0% 18

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Although no interview questions were asked for this knowledge influence,
survey responses indicate that this knowledge is an asset for teachers. Since the correct survey
question response was “all of the above” teachers needed to know that all of the provided
answers were possible ways in which an engaging classroom environment could affect students.
Furthermore, not a single teacher chose just one of the other answer choices meaning that this is
an area where teachers have solid knowledge.
Procedural Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge Influence 1
Teachers know how to integrate grade-level content standards into curriculum and
instruction.
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Survey Results. For this question, teachers were asked to select all of the concepts that
would best fit within an instructional segment from the NGSS. Table 15, shows that out of the
five answer choices listed, three of them fell within the instructional segment as outlined in the
standards. Of the three correct answer choices, only one met the threshold of correct answer
choices with 83.3% of teachers indicating that the concept was part of the instructional segment.
The two other answer choices had a response rate of 55.6% and 66.7%. Since only one of the
three correct choices met the threshold for accuracy, this knowledge influence can be considered
an area of need.
Table 15
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 1
Procedural Knowledge Influence 1: Teachers know how to integrate grade-level content
standards into curriculum and instruction.
You are being asked to design a unit which will teach students that all living and nonliving
things are made of atoms. Which of the following concepts would fit best within the
instructional segment? (Select all that apply.)
Response (n = 18) % Count
Organisms are made of molecules of mostly six different
elements.*
83.3% 15
Damage from natural hazards can be reduced. 0.0% 0
Mass is conserved in physical changes and chemical
reactions.
22.2% 4
The interaction and motions of atoms explain the properties
of matter.*
66.7% 12
Earth materials are mostly made of eight different elements.* 55.6% 10

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

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Interview Findings. When asked about their planning process, all three teachers
indicated that they begin by integrating the standards and science framework appropriate for that
unit. Participant 1 describes how she begins the planning process by looking for overarching
themes and then once she has a target endpoint in mind, will use the 5E model for science
instruction which involves tying in each of the following elements in a lesson: engaging,
exploring, explaining, elaborating, and evaluating. Participants 2 and 3 both described using a
similar process in which they begin with the science framework or standards first and then work
backwards to design their curriculum. Since each of the teachers interviewed indicated tying in
the standards and framework into their lesson design, this influence can be considered an asset.
Summary. After analyzing the survey and interview responses, this knowledge influence
would actually be considered an asset, despite the low response rates on the survey item. When
reviewed carefully, the survey question as worded is related more to content knowledge than
knowledge about the process for planning which better aligns to the influence. Since the
interview question best represents the procedural knowledge being investigated, those answers
indicate a strong presence of this knowledge, therefore, making this influence an asset for
teachers.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 2
Teachers know how to apply instructional practices and relevant pedagogy to design
daily lessons that meet intended standards.
Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked to select all the instructional
practices that would be appropriate for introducing students to a new topic. There were six
possible strategies listed in the answer choices and three of them were correct. As seen in Table
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16, of those three answer choices, only two received high response rates (88.9% and 83.3%). The
other correct answer choice had a response rate of 55.6%.

Table 16
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 2
Procedural Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers know how to apply instructional practices
and relevant pedagogy to design daily lessons that meet intended standards.
Suppose you have decided to plan a lesson that will introduce students to the most
common elements found on Earth. Which of the following instructional practices would be
appropriate for the lesson? (Select all that apply.)
Response (n = 18) % Count
Activate/access prior knowledge of elements.* 88.9% 16
Design activities that will appeal to all learning styles. 88.9% 16
Give a lecture about the history of elements. 16.7% 3
Create opportunities for feedback.* 55.6% 10
Have students work together to create an infographic on the 6
common elements.*
83.3% 15
Have students perform an experiment to test the properties of
certain elements.
55.6% 10

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

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Interview Findings. When asked about their planning process, all three participants
explained that to plan daily lessons, they search for appropriate instructional materials and
practices by seeking out multiple resources. Participants 1 and 3 mentioned their use of the
website, Teachers Pay Teachers, to find ideas on how to structure a specific lesson. Participant 2
explains how she and her colleagues “first look at the framework, what we did last year, what we
did like and what we didn’t like. Then usually a Google search about what’s a good way to teach
this. Usually, we find some decent stuff then modify it to make it fit our needs.”
Summary. Like the previous knowledge influence, although survey responses were low
for one of the correct answers, this would still be considered a knowledge asset for teachers. A
second look at the survey question shows that it was worded in a way that asked about specific
instructional processes and not the procedural knowledge indicated in the influence of interest.
Since all three interviewees were able to explain their process for choosing specific instructional
practices for different activities, this knowledge influence is an asset. However, it is interesting
to note that the response which received the second highest number of responses was that of
“designing activities that will appeal to all learning styles”. Despite research that refutes the idea
of learning styles, this continues to be a common misconception amongst teachers and should be
addressed.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 3
Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies to stimulate student interest.
Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked to select all of the strategies that
could stimulate student interest in a lesson about the elements. Table 17, shows that out of seven
possible answer choices, three were correct. From the three correct answer choices, two received
a high response rate (83.3% and 94.4%) and the third had a lower response rate of 61.1%.
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Table 17
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 3
Procedural Knowledge Influence 3: Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies to
stimulate student interest.
Which of the following activities would be appropriate to stimulate interest for a lesson on
elements? (Select all that apply).
Response (n = 18) % Count
Share a song about elements written to the tune of a popular
song.*
61.1% 11
Reference the use of elements in pop culture (i.e., T-shirts,
coffee mugs, advertisements, etc.).*
94.4% 17
Have students read from the textbook. 5.56% 1
Give students time to pair-share what they remember from
the day before.
33.3% 6
Perform a class demonstration using sample elements.* 83.3% 15
Have a scientist guest lecture on elemental properties. 33.3% 6
Show students a documentary on elements. 22.2% 4

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the survey item for this influence, it appears that teacher knowledge
in this area is an asset. Although one of the correct answer choices had a lower response rate than
the other two, it was still much higher than any of the incorrect answers. Thus, it can be said that
teachers have an adequate knowledge of ways in which to stimulate student interest.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 4
Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies to increase student self-efficacy.
Survey Results. For this knowledge influence, teachers were asked to identify which of
the strategies listed would not be appropriate for increasing student self-efficacy. Table 18 shows
that out of all the responses, 88.2% identified the correct response which was to use broad, long-
term learning goals. Based on these responses, this knowledge influence is considered an asset.

Table 18
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 4
Procedural Knowledge Influence 4: Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies to
increase student self-efficacy.
Which of the following strategies would NOT be appropriate for increasing self-efficacy
in your students?
Response (n = 17) % Count
Use broad, long-term learning goals* 88.2% 15
Keep tasks relevant and interesting 5.9% 1
Incorporate both guided and collaborative learning 5.9% 1
Scaffold assignments to provide early support 0.0% 0

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.
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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Although no interview question was asked about this influence, the high
number or correct responses on the survey item support this knowledge influence being an asset.
Since hardly any teachers choose from the three other responses, this demonstrates that most
teachers have knowledge about the strategies that affect their student’s self-efficacy.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 5
Teachers know how to integrate different types of assessments and provide effective
feedback to monitor student progress and prepare students for the California Science Test.
Survey Results. There were two survey items associated with this knowledge influence.
The first survey question asked teachers to select all of the ways that they may assess a student’s
knowledge during class. As shown in Table 19, out of the five correct answer choices, four of
them received high response rates of 82.4% and 94.1%. Only one correct answer choice (exit
slips) received a lower response rate of 64.7%. The second survey item related to this knowledge
influence asked teachers to select all the ways in which they might assess student knowledge at
the end of a unit. For one of the correct answer choices (have students create a resource) the
response rate was 82.4% while the second correct answer choice (assign a self-reflection) only
had a response of 47.1%.

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Table 19
Survey Results for Procedural Knowledge Influence 5
Procedural knowledge influence 5: Teachers know how to integrate different types of
assessments and provide effective feedback to monitor student progress and prepare
students for the California Science Test.
Response (n = 17) % Count
How might you assess a student’s knowledge during class? (Select all that apply)
Exit Slips* 64.7% 11
Think-Alouds* 82.4% 14
Project 32.3% 6
Pair/Share* 94.1% 16
Questioning* 94.1% 16
Unit Exam 29.4% 5
Polls* 94.1% 16
Other than a quiz or exam, how might you assess a student’s knowledge at the end of a
unit? (Select all that apply)
Assign a culminating project 94.1% 16
Have students perform a lab 52.9% 9
Assign a self-reflection for students to discuss their
performance*
47.1% 8
Have students create a resource (i.e., children’s book, game,
notebook activity) that could be used to teach someone else
about the topic*
82.4% 14

Note. Asterisk indicates correct response.

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
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Summary. Based on the results of the survey questions, teachers appear to have a strong
knowledge of formative assessment strategies that can be used to monitor student progress
during class but can improve in their knowledge of summative assessment strategies. Although
only 4 out of the 5 correct answer choices for the first question received a response rate above
the threshold, the fifth correct response was only about 10.3% below. After analyzing the answer
choices for this specific question, it seems there might have been some confusion with the
wording of the question. The question asks about monitoring progress during class not after,
therefore, it is easy to see why some teachers might not have chosen exit slips as a correct
response since they are normally done at the end of a lesson. Therefore, this knowledge can be
considered an asset. As for their knowledge on summative assessments, it appears as though this
is an area of need. Although one of the correct answer choices had enough responses, the second
one was very low and many teachers chose one of the other incorrect answer choices.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 1
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of daily lessons, instructional practices, and
pedagogy.
Survey Results. For this question, teachers were asked to indicate how often they reflect
on the effectiveness of their instructional practices and pedagogy. Table 20 shows that out of 17
responses, 41.2% indicated that they always do this while 58.8% said they do so often.

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Table 20
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 1

Metacognitive knowledge influence 1: Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of daily
lessons, instructional practices, and pedagogy.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness of your daily lessons, instructional practices
and pedagogy?
Response (n = 17) % Count
Always 41.2% 7
Often 58.8% 10
Almost never 0.0% 0
Never 0.0% 0

Interview Findings. When asked about their process for reflecting on the effectiveness
of their lessons, all participants indicated that they do so on a regular basis. Participant 1 shared,
“I do a lot of pre and post tests. Quizzes on GoFormative and Google Forms are really quick
check-ins. It’s a good formative assessment.” Participant 2 expanded on the process of reflecting
on lessons by saying, “It is really based off of the formative assessments. Going and listening to
their conversations and walking around seeing the stuff that they produce.” Finally, Participant 3
explained that a way to measure effectiveness is to look at the results and whether students were
able to complete the practice. However, she also stressed that it is not always about the data and
that she can monitor effectiveness daily by simply analyzing student confidence while they are
completing their work.
Summary. Since every teacher indicated in the survey that they do reflect on their
classroom practices to some extent and each teacher interviewed was able to expand further on
their process of reflection, this knowledge influence is an asset.
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Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 2
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of their classroom environment on student
motivation.
Survey Results. For this knowledge influence, teachers were asked to indicate how often
they reflect on the effectiveness of their classroom environment on student motivation. As seen
in Table 21, 47.1% of teachers responded that they always reflect on this while 52.9% responded
that they do so often.

Table 21
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 2
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of their
classroom environment on student motivation.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness of your classroom environment and
curriculum on motivating students?
Response (n = 18) % Count
Always 47.1% 8
Often 52.9% 10
Almost never 0.0% 0
Never 0.0% 0

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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey, this influence is an asset. Since every
teacher responded that they reflect on their classroom environment to some extent, this means
that they consider this to be an important part of their instructional practice.
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 3
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of regular feedback and assessments on student
achievement.
Survey Results. In this question, participants were asked to indicate how often they
reflect on the effectiveness of their feedback to students. As Table 22 shows, 17.6% of teachers
responded that they always reflect, 76.5% said often while 5.9% said they almost never do.

Table 22
Survey Results for Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 3
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 3: Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of regular
feedback and assessments on student achievement.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness of your feedback to students?
Response (n = 17) % Count
Always 17.6% 3
Often 76.5% 13
Almost never 5.9% 1
Never 0.0% 0

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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Since the majority of teachers indicated that reflecting on the effectiveness of
their feedback is something they do, this knowledge influence is considered an asset. Out of the
17 responses, only one said they almost never reflect on their feedback meaning that to most
teachers this is an area of importance for their teaching.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
For this study, motivation was assessed by looking into value, self-efficacy, mood, and
attribution. In the sections that follow, each influence and their findings from the data collected
are reported under the corresponding motivation domain.
Value
Value Influence 1
Teachers value teaching grade-level content according to Next Generation Science
Standards, CDE Framework, and Common Core standards.
Survey Results. In this survey question, teachers were asked to what extent they agree or
disagree with the statement that they value teaching content according to the NGSS. Out of 17
responses, 41.2% indicated that they agree and 52.9% responded that they Strongly agree. Table
23 shows the results for this item.

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Table 23
Survey Results for Value Influence 1
Value influence 1: Teachers value teaching grade-level content according to Next
Generation Science Standards, CDE Framework, and Common Core standards.
I value teaching the content that is appropriate for my grade level according to the Next
Generation Science Standards.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 0.0% 0
Agree 41.2% 7
Strongly agree 52.9% 9

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey question, this influence can be
considered an asset. Since 94.1% of respondents had a positive agreement with the statement, it
can be inferred that teachers do value using the NGSS and will implement them.
Value Influence 2
Teachers value planning daily lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the
statement that they value planning daily lessons to meet intended standards while using
appropriate instructional practices. As seen in Table 24, for this question, 41.2% of teachers
indicated that they agree while 52.9% said they Strongly agree.
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Table 24
Survey Results for Value Influence 2
Value influence 2: Teachers value planning daily lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
I value planning daily lessons to ensure I meet intended standards while using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 41.2% 7
Strongly agree 52.9% 9

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Although no interview questions were asked for this influence, the responses
to the survey demonstrate that this value influence is an asset. Based on the answers given by the
participants, most agree that they value planning daily lessons using appropriate pedagogy to
ensure that they can meet the standard. This means that on a regular basis this is a key
component of their planning for instruction.
Value Influence 3
Teachers value having an inclusive classroom environment.
Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked to what extent they agree or
disagree with the statement that they value having an inclusive classroom environment. Shown in
Table 25, the responses indicate that 23.5% of teachers agree while 70.6% Strongly agree.
110

Table 25
Survey Results for Value Influence 3
Value influence 3: Teachers value having an inclusive classroom environment.
I value having an inclusive classroom environment.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 70.6% 12

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on most interviewees responding that they agree or Strongly agree with
finding value in having an inclusive classroom, it can be determined that this value influence is
an asset. Furthermore, 70.6% of teachers indicated that they Strongly agree, adding to the
importance of this value influence since participants feel stronger about having an inclusive
classroom.
Value Influence 4
Teachers value having an engaging classroom environment.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with
the statement that they value having an engaging classroom environment. Table 26 shows that of
the 17 respondents, 23.5% indicated that they agree with the statement while 76.5% Strongly
agree.
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Table 26
Survey Results for Value Influence 4
Value Influence 4: Teachers value having an engaging classroom environment.
I value having an engaging classroom environment.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 0.0% 0
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 76.5% 13

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Using the responses received, this value influence can be determined to be an
asset, particularly because every teacher responded that they agree or Strongly agree. Since no
participants disagreed with the statement and a high percentage indicated that they Strongly
agree, it demonstrates that having an engaging classroom is something of great importance to
teachers and can, therefore, affect their instruction and students.
Value Influence 5
Teachers value providing regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress.
Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked to respond how much they agree or
disagree with the statement that they value providing regular feedback and assessments to their
students in order to monitor their progress. Table 27 shows that 52.9% of teachers answered that
they agree with the statement, while 35.3% indicated that they Strongly agree.
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Table 27
Survey Results for Value Influence 5
Value Influence 5: Teachers value providing regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
I value providing regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor my
students’s progress.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 11.8% 2
Agree 52.9% 9
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Using the responses provided in the survey item, one can determine that this
influence is an asset. Out of the 17 responses to this question, 88.2% agreed or strongly agreed
that they place value on feedback and assessments. Since this is a very positive response, it
means that the majority of teachers find this to be an area of importance for their classroom and
instruction.
Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy Influence 1
Teachers are confident about teaching grade level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and science specific common
core standards.
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Survey Results. For this influence, there were three survey items that were asked. Each
question asked teachers to rank their degree of confidence from 1 (cannot at all) to 5 (highly
certain can do) in teaching content according to the NGSS, using the science curriculum
framework, and applying science specific common core standards. In terms of teaching their
content according to the NGSS, as Table 28 shows, 47.1% of teachers responded that they feel
certain they can do so while 41.2% indicated that they are highly certain they can do. When it
comes to using the California Department of Education science framework, 29.4% of teachers
said they feel certain they can do so while 52.9% feel highly certain they can do. Finally, when
asked about applying the science specific common core standards, 35.3% answered that they feel
certain they can do while 52.9% feel highly certain they can do.

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Table 28
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 1
Self-efficacy influence 1: Teachers are confident about teaching grade level content
according to the Next Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum framework,
and science specific common core standards.
Response (n = 17) % Count
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
teach the content for my grade level according to the Next Generation Science Standards.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 11.8% 2
Certain can do 47.1% 8
Highly certain can do 41.2% 7
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
use the California Department of Education (CDE) science curriculum framework for
middle school
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 5.9% 1
Neutral 11.8% 2
Certain can do 29.4% 5
Highly certain can do 52.9% 9
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
apply the science-specific common core standards into my curriculum.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 5.9% 1
Neutral 5.9% 1
Certain can do 35.3% 6
Highly certain can do 52.9% 9

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Interview Findings. The interview question asked for this influence specifically asked
teachers about their confidence in using the Next Generation Science Standards. In each
interview, the participants responded that they were highly confident in teaching these standards
because it is something they have been using for several years now and they have received
training or resources for using them.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey items and the interview question, it can
be determined that this influence is an asset. Each of the survey items had a high percentage of
teachers that felt certain or highly certain they could teach using each of the set of standards or
frameworks indicated. The interview responses further confirmed that when it comes to using the
NGSS, teachers feel very confident since this is something they have been incorporating into
their classroom for quite some time now.
Self-Efficacy Influence 2
Teachers are confident about planning daily lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
Survey Results. In the two questions related to this influence, teachers were asked to rate
their degree of confidence in planning daily lessons and using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy. In terms of planning daily lessons, as seen in Table 29, 41.2% said that they feel
certain they can do so while 58.8% of teachers said they feel highly certain they can do. When it
comes to using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy, 23.5 % said their confidence
was neutral, 29.4% said they were certain they can do and 47.1% indicated that they feel highly
certain they can do.

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Table 29
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 2
Self-efficacy influence 2: Teachers are confident about planning daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
Response (n = 17) % Count
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
plan daily lessons.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 0.0% 0
Certain can do 41.2% 7
Highly certain can do 58.8% 10
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
use appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 23.5% 4
Certain can do 29.4% 5
Highly certain can do 47.1% 8

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. The responses to these survey items indicate that the influence is an asset
when it comes to planning daily lessons but is an area of need in terms of using appropriate
instructional practices. 100.0% of respondents said that they feel certain or highly certain that
they can plan daily lessons for their classroom instruction which means this is probably
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something they do on a regular basis. However, when asked about their confidence in using
appropriate instructional practices, 23.5% answered that they have neutral feelings about their
confidence. This indicates that in this specific area confidence is rather low and can be
considered an area of need.
Self-Efficacy Influence 3
Teachers are confident about establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.
Survey Results. For this survey item, teachers were asked to rate their degree of
confidence in establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom environment. Table 30 shows
that out of 17 responses, 5.9% indicated feeling neutral, 41.2% said they feel certain they can do
and 52.9% felt highly certain they could do.

Table 30
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 3
Self-efficacy Influence 3: Teachers are confident about establishing and maintaining an
inclusive classroom environment.
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
establish and maintain an inclusive classroom environment.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 5.9% 1
Certain can do 41.2% 7
Highly certain can do 52.9% 9

118

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey items, this self-efficacy influence can be
considered an asset. Since 94.1% of teachers feel either certain or highly certain that they are
able to establish and maintain an inclusive classroom, it can be determined that this is something
they must feel comfortable doing within their own classroom.
Self-Efficacy Influence 4
Teachers are confident about establishing and maintaining an engaging classroom
environment.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to indicate their degree of
confidence in establishing and maintaining an engaging classroom environment. As seen in
Table 31, of the responses, 5.9% said they felt neutral, 41.2% said they felt certain they can do
and 52.9% responded that they feel highly certain they can do.

Table 31
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 4
Self-efficacy Influence 4: Teachers are confident about establishing and maintaining an
engaging classroom environment.
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
establish and maintain an engaging classroom environment.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 5.9% 1
Certain can do 41.2% 7
Highly certain can do 52.9% 9
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Interview Findings. When asked about their confidence in creating an engaging
classroom during the interview, all three teachers responded that they feel pretty confident or
very confident doing so. Participant 1 added that the more she can keep her students engaged
with activities or things around the room, then the more motivation they will have to continue
trying different things. Participant 2 emphasized that in their classroom the first resources for
learning are the classroom experiences and that the textbook is merely supplemental.
Summary. 94.1% of teachers indicated that they feel either certain or highly certain they
can establish an engaging classroom environment which was further reinforced by all three
interviewees agreeing that this is something they feel very confident about. Since both the survey
items and interview had positive responses, this influence can be considered an asset.
Self-Efficacy Influence 5
Teachers are confident about providing regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis
to monitor student progress.
Survey Results. For this influence, there were two survey items that were asked. The
first survey question asked teachers to rate their confidence in providing regular feedback to their
students. As seen in Table 32, in this item, 52.9% of respondents said they feel certain they can
do while 47.1% said they feel highly certain they can do. The second question asked teachers to
rate their confidence in conducting assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress.
11.8% of teachers responded that they do not feel certain they can do so, 11.8% answered that
they feel neutral about doing so while 47.1% feel certain they can do and 29.4% feel highly
certain they can.

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Table 32
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 5
Self-efficacy Influence 5: Teachers are confident about providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress.
Response (n = 17) % Count
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
provide regular feedback.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 0.0% 0
Certain can do 52.9% 9
Highly certain can do 47.1% 8
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
conduct assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress.
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 11.8% 2
Neutral 11.8% 2
Certain can do 47.1% 8
Highly certain can do 29.4% 5

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey items, only part of this influence can be
considered an asset while the other is still in area of need. With regards to providing regular
feedback to students, 100.0% of respondents say that they feel certain or highly certain that they
are able to do so. However, 23.6% of teachers responded that they feel either not certain or
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neutral about using regular assessment to monitor student progress. Given that the confidence in
this area is rather low, this can be considered an area of need. Furthermore, this appears to align
with the procedural knowledge influence on summative assessments which showed that teachers
do not feel they have sufficient knowledge in this area.
Self-Efficacy Influence 6
Teachers are confident about preparing students for the California Science Test in 8th
grade.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to rate their confidence in
preparing their students for the California Science Test to be taken in 8th grade. Table 33 shows
taht of the 17 responses, 35.3% answered that their feelings are neutral, 29.4% answered that
they feel certain they can prepare students and 35.3% said they feel highly certain they can.

Table 33
Survey Results for Self-Efficacy Influence 6
Self-efficacy influence 6: Teachers are confident about preparing students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate your degree of confidence in doing the following as of right now:
prepare students for the California Science Test in 8th grade.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Cannot at all 0.0% 0
Not certain can do 0.0% 0
Neutral 35.3% 6
Certain can do 29.4% 5
Highly certain can do 35.3% 6

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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to this survey question, this self-efficacy influence is
an area of need. Despite feeling that preparing their students for the California Science Test is
important as indicated in the value influence, there is a low amount of confidence amongst
teachers in actually preparing their students within the classroom. This is a critical area of need
particularly because the California Science Test is considered “high stakes” testing and can be
used to label student proficiency in a way that can affect their morale but also their progress as
they move forward into their secondary education.
Mood
Mood Influence 1
Teachers feel positive about teaching grade level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and science specific common
core standards.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to identify to what extent they
agree or disagree with the statement that they feel comfortable teaching the content for their
grade level as listed in the NGSS. Table 34 shows that out of 17 responses, 41.2% of teachers
said they agree while 47.1% Strongly agreed.

123

Table 34
Survey Results for Mood Influence 1
Mood influence 1: Teachers feel positive about teaching grade level content according to
the Next Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and science
specific common core standards.
I feel comfortable teaching the content for my grade level according to the Next
Generation Science Standards.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 11.8% 2
Agree 41.2% 7
Strongly agree 47.1% 8

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to the survey question, this influence can be
considered an asset for teachers. Of the teachers surveyed, 88.2% agreed to some extent that they
feel comfortable teaching their course content according to the NGSS. Since California has
focused the past years on providing professional development and training for the standards, it
would appear that these efforts are working to help increase teachers’ mood towards their
implementation in the classroom.
Mood Influence 2
Teachers feel positive about planning daily lesson lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
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Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree
with the following statement: I feel comfortable planning daily lessons using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy to meet intended standards. As seen in Table 35, 47.1% of
teachers indicated that they agree with this statement while 47.1% said that they Strongly agree.

Table 35
Survey Results for Mood Influence 2
Mood Influence 2: Teachers feel positive about planning daily lesson lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
I feel comfortable planning daily lessons and using appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy to meet intended standards.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 47.1% 8
Strongly agree 47.1% 8

125

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to this survey item, it can be concluded that this
influence is also an asset for teachers. All but one of the respondents agreed to some extent that
they feel comfortable using relevant strategies to plan their daily lessons. Since the responses
were overwhelmingly positive, it can be inferred that this is something teachers are doing and
incorporating into their lessons on a daily basis.
Mood Influence 3
Teachers feel positive about establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to respond how much they agree or disagree with
the following statement: I feel comfortable establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment. Table 36 shows for this item, 5.9% of teachers said they Strongly disagree with the
statement, 17.7% said they Neither agree nor disagree, 35.3% agreed while 41.2% said that they
Strongly agree.

126

Table 36
Survey Results for Mood Influence 3
Mood influence 3: Teachers feel positive about establishing and maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment.
I feel comfortable establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom environment.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 17.7% 3
Agree 35.3% 6
Strongly agree 41.2% 7

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. From these findings, it is evident that this is an influence in which there were
some differences in opinion amongst teachers. Since only 76.5% of respondents agreed that they
feel comfortable about having an inclusive classroom, it appears as though this is an influence
where there is an area of need.
Mood Influence 4
Teachers feel positive about stimulating interest in the subject/topics.
Survey Results. For this item, teachers were asked to identify the extent to which they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I feel effective in stimulating my student’s
interest in the subject/topics to be covered. Table 37 shows that out of all respondents, 76.5%
agreed with the statement while 23.5% Strongly agreed.
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Table 37
Survey Results for Mood Influence 4
Mood influence 4: Teachers feel positive about stimulating interest in the subject/topics.
I feel effective in stimulating my student’s interest in the subject/topics to be covered.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 0.0% 0
Agree 76.5% 13
Strongly agree 23.5% 4

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Using the data from the survey, this mood influence is considered an asset
for teachers. Since 100.0% of teachers agreed to some extent that they feel effective in
stimulating student interest in the topic to be covered in their science classroom, it can be
concluded that interest is something they continue to work on in their classrooms on a regular
basis.
Mood Influence 5
Teachers feel positive about building student self-efficacy.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to identify to what extent they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I feel effective in building my student’s self-
efficacy. As seen in Table 38, of all the responses received, 23.5% neither agreed nor disagreed
with the statement, 64.7% agreed, and 11.8% Strongly agreed.
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Table 38
Survey Results for Mood Influence 5
Mood influence 5: Teachers feel positive about building student self-efficacy.
I feel effective in building my student’s self-efficacy.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 64.7% 11
Strongly agree 11.8% 2

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses received for this survey item, teacher mood for this
influence is on the lower end, thus making this influence an area of need. Although a large
percentage of teachers agreed or Strongly agreed with the statement, there were still 23.5% who
chose to Neither agree nor disagree. While this response might appear neutral, this demonstrates
that teachers were not sure enough of their effectiveness to agree with the statement. Therefore,
this is an area in which teachers can be better supported.
Mood Influence 6
Teachers feel positive about providing regular feedback and assessments on a weekly
basis to monitor student progress.
Survey Results. For this item, teachers were asked to indicate the extent to which they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I feel providing regular feedback and assessment
129

on a weekly basis is worthwhile to monitor student progress. Table 39 shows that out of all the
responses, 5.9% of teachers disagreed with the statement, 35.3% Neither agree nor disagree,
35.3% agreed and 23.5% Strongly agreed.

Table 39
Survey Results for Mood Influence 6
Mood Influence 6: Teachers feel positive about providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress.
I feel providing regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis is worthwhile to
monitor student progress.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 35.3% 6
Agree 35.3% 6
Strongly agree 23.5% 4

130

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Given the fact that there were so many teachers who did not agree or strongly
agree with the statement, this influence is considered an area of need. Since only 58.8% of
teachers agreed that feedback and assessments on a weekly basis are worthwhile, it can be
inferred that they do not have such a positive mood towards assessments. Therefore, this can be
an area in which administrators or other stakeholders can work to support teachers further.
Mood Influence 7
Teachers feel positive about preparing students for the California Science Test in 8th
grade.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to indicate how much they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I feel it is important to prepare students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade. Table 40 shows that out of the 17 responses, 5.9% Strongly
disagreed, 5.9% disagreed, 41.2% neither agreed nor disagreed, 11.8% agreed and 35.3%
Strongly agreed.

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Table 40
Survey Results for Mood Influence 7
Mood influence 7: Teachers feel positive about preparing students for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
I feel it is important to prepare students for the California Science Test in 8th grade.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 41.2% 7
Agree 11.8% 2
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

Interview Findings. When asked about the importance of preparing students for the
California Science Test, all three interviewees responded by saying that it is very important.
Participant 1 elaborated and said, “Since I teach eighth grade, my name is the name that’s
attached to the score. So for me it is really important that I feel like I do a lot of work to make
sure that sixth and seventh grade material is repeated in my classroom.” Participant 2 explained
how test review is built into the pacing of the class but also mentioned, “We were always at the
top of the state test, and I have history behind me so I always tell them (my students) to just
come to class and pay attention and you’ll be fine.” Finally, Participant 3 added that she puts as
much importance as she can on the state test with the knowledge and the resources that she has in
order to prepare students, even though she feels that both are very limited.
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Summary. After analyzing the results of both the survey and interview, it can be
determined that this influence is an area of need for teachers. When asked about their feelings
towards preparing students for the CAST, only 47.1% agreed that it was important. Such a low
response percentage indicates that teachers do not have very positive feelings towards preparing
their students for the exam. Though all three interview responses reflected positive feelings
towards exam preparation, the low survey responses point towards an area that could use more
support.
Attribution
Attribution Influence 1
Teachers believe the success or failure of teaching grade-level content according to the
Next Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and science specific
common core standards is in their control.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree or
disagree with the following statement: I believe that teaching grade-level content according to
the Next Generation Science Standards is within my control. As seen in Table 41, for this item,
5.9% of teachers disagreed with the statement, 5.9% neither agreed nor disagreed, 47.1% agreed,
and 41.2% Strongly agreed.

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Table 41
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 1
Attribution influence 1: Teachers believe the success or failure of teaching grade-level
content according to the Next Generation science standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common core standards is in their control.
I believe that teaching the grade-level content according to the Next Generation Science
Standards is within my control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 47.1% 8
Strongly agree 41.2% 7

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses received for this survey item, this attribution
influence is an asset for teachers. Since 88.3% of teachers either agreed or Strongly agreed with
this statement, it means that teachers believe that the success or failure of teaching their content
according to their standards is something within their control.
Attribution Influence 2
Teachers believe the success or failure of planning daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy is in their control.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to indicate how much they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I believe that planning daily lessons using
appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy is within my control. Table 42 shows that 5.9%
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of teachers Neither agree nor disagree with this statement, 47.1% agreed, and 47.1% Strongly
agreed.

Table 42
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 2
Attribution Influence 2: Teachers believe the success or failure of planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy is in their
control.
I believe that planning daily lessons using appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy is within my control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 47.1% 8
Strongly agree 47.1% 8

135

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Since responses to this survey item were overwhelmingly positive, it can be
concluded that this attribution influence is an asset for teachers. This means that most teachers
agree that planning daily lessons using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy is within
their control. If this is the case, then this is something that they will be doing on a regular basis.
Attribution Influence 3
Teachers believe that the success or failure of establishing and maintaining an inclusive
classroom environment is in their control.
Survey Results. In this question, teachers were asked to what extent they agree or
disagree with the statement: I believe that establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment is within my control. Table 43 shows that 29.4% of teachers indicated that they
agree with the statement while 70.6% Strongly agreed.

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Table 43
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 3
Attribution influence 3: Teachers believe that the success or failure of establishing and
maintaining an inclusive classroom environment is in their control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
I believe that establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom environment is within
my control.
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 0.0% 0
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 70.6% 12
I believe that establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom curriculum is within my
control.
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 35.3% 6
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. For this attribution influence, there were two survey questions asking about
each teacher’s sense of control in creating an inclusive classroom environment. Since no
interview questions were asked about this influence, determination of asset or need was based
solely on survey responses. When asked about their sense of control in creating an inclusive
137

classroom, 100.0% of teachers indicated that they feel it is well within their control. When it
comes to creating an inclusive curriculum, 70.6% responded that they agreed to feeling like it
was within their control. Although the second survey item fell below the 75% threshold, this
influence can still be considered an asset because of the number of favorable responses to the
first question. If all teachers responded to feeling like creating an inclusive environment is within
their control, then they are more likely to try to do so in their classroom.
Attribution Influence 4
Teachers believe the success or failure of stimulating interest is in their control.
Survey Results. For this influence, teachers were asked to indicate how much they agree
or disagree with the following statement: I believe that creating interest in the subject matter is
within my control. As shown in Table 44, out of all the responses, 5.9% disagreed, 39.4% agreed
and 64.7% Strongly agreed.

Table 44
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 4
Attribution influence 4: Teachers believe the success or failure of stimulating interest is in
their control.
I believe that creating interest in the subject matter is within my control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 5.9% 1
Neither agree nor disagree 0.0% 0
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 64.7% 11
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Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Since most teachers responded positively towards the statement, it can be
concluded that this influence is an asset for teachers. If most teachers believe that creating
interest in their subject matter is within their control, then it is more than likely that this is
something they will do on a regular basis.
Attribution Influence 5
Teachers believe the success or failure of increasing self-efficacy is in their control.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to indicate to what extent they
agree or disagree with the following statement: I believe that increasing my student’s self-
efficacy is within my control. Table 45 shows that out of all respondents, 17.7% disagreed with
the statement, 17.7% neither agreed nor disagreed, 35.3% agreed, and 29.4% Strongly agreed.

Table 45
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 5
Attribution influence 5: Teachers believe the success or failure of increasing self-efficacy
is in their control.
I believe that increasing my student’s self-efficacy is within my control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 17.7% 3
Neither agree nor disagree 17.7% 3
Agree 35.3% 6
Strongly agree 29.4% 5

139

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. As reflected in the varied responses to this question, this attribution influence
can be considered an area of need for teachers. Although 11 teachers responded positively, 6
others indicated that they either disagree or Neither agree nor disagree that increasing student
self-efficacy is within their control. Therefore, it can be concluded that their feelings toward this
motivational influence are rather low and can be something to improve.
Attribution Influence 6
Teachers believe the success or failure of providing regular feedback and assessments on
a weekly basis to monitor student progress is in their control.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to indicate to what extent they agree or disagree
with the following statement: I believe that providing regular feedback and monitoring student
progress is within my control. Table 46 shows for this item, 4.9% of teachers neither agreed nor
disagreed, 35.3% agreed and 58.8% Strongly agreed.

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Table 46
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 6
Attribution Influence 6: Teachers believe the success or failure of providing regular
feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress is in their control.
I believe that providing regular feedback and monitoring student progress is within my
control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 35.3% 6
Strongly agree 58.8% 10

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Given that the majority of teachers responded favorably towards this
question, it can be concluded that this attribution influence is an asset for teachers. If most
teachers agree that providing regular feedback and monitoring student progress is within their
control, it is likely that this is something teachers feel confident about accomplishing within their
classrooms.
Attribution Influence 7
Teachers believe the success or failure of preparing students for the California Science Test
in 8th grade is in their control.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to respond how much they agree or disagree with
the following statement: I believe that preparing my students for the 8th grade California Science
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Test is within my control. As seen in Table 47, out of 17 responses, 11.8% disagreed with the
statement, 29.4% neither agreed nor disagreed, 29.4% agreed and 29.4% Strongly agreed.

Table 47
Survey Results for Attribution Influence 7
Attribution Influence 7: Teachers believe the success or failure of preparing students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade is in their control.
I believe that preparing my students for the 8th grade California Science Test is within my
control.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 11.8% 2
Neither agree nor disagree 29.4% 5
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 29.4% 5

142

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. While there were many teachers who agreed that preparing their students for
the California Science Test is within their control, the large number of teachers who disagreed
indicates that this is an area of need. If teachers do not feel that preparing students for the exam
is within their control, then it is likely that test preparation is lacking in classrooms. This can
then lead to problems with student achievement on such a high stakes test and that is later
reflected in the student’s scores and attitudes towards science.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
For this study, organization causes were assessed by the following categories: resources,
policies and procedures, cultural model and cultural setting. In the sections that follow, each
influence and their findings from the data collected are reported under the corresponding
organization domain.
Resources
Resources Influence 1
Teachers use time and allocated money to attend professional development and training.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to identify how much they agree or disagree with
the following statement: I use my time and allocate money to attend professional development
and training. Table 48 shows that 5.9% of teachers reported that they Strongly disagree, 23.5%
disagree, 17.7% Neither agree nor disagree, 23.5% agree, and 29.4% Strongly agree.

143

Table 48
Survey Results for Resources Influence 1
Resources influence 1: Teachers use time and allocated money to attend professional
development and training.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: I use my time and allocate money to attend
professional development and training.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 23.5% 4
Neither agree nor disagree 17.7% 3
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 29.4% 5

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the answers to the survey item, this influence is an area of need for
teachers. Only 52.9% of teachers agreed that they spend time and money attending professional
development and training. This low number most likely indicates that most teachers are not
spending enough time or do not have the resources available to participate in opportunities that
would otherwise enrich their knowledge/strategies that can be applied within their classroom.
Resources Influence 2
Teachers access additional resources and classroom support through instructional or
curriculum specialists.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to agree or disagree with the
following statement: I access additional resources and classroom support through instructional
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and curriculum specialists at my school. Table 49 shows that of all the responses received, 29.4%
indicated that they disagreed with the statement, 23.5% neither agreed nor disagreed, 11.8%
agreed, and 25.3% Strongly agreed.

Table 49
Survey Results for Resources Influence 2
Resources Influence 2: Teachers access additional resources and classroom support
through instructional or curriculum specialists.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: I access additional resources and classroom
support through instructional and curriculum specialists at my school.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 29.4% 5
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 11.8% 2
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

145

Interview Findings. When asked where they would access additional resources and
support for their classroom, all three teachers specified that they usually turn to their peers within
the school or online. Participant 1 explained, “I go to the NGSS website a lot and then the
California science standards website a bunch to see what’s going on. There are a bunch of
Facebook groups that exist so I do a lot of professional learning networks.” Participant 2
mentioned that her first resource is her peer teacher or science teachers from other grade levels if
it is more their area of expertise. Participant 3 went on to say how she uses online resources such
as the website Teachers Pay Teachers or online interactives to further enhance her classroom
activities.
Summary. Using data from both the survey and interview, it appears that most teachers
are not seeking out curriculum and instructional specialists, but rather turn to peers or online
resources on their own. Out of 17 respondents, only 47.1% agreed with the statement saying that
they access additional resources through specialists and not one of the teachers interviewed
described doing so either. Therefore, it can be concluded that this influence is an area of need for
teachers that can be investigated further.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 1

Procedures that are in place to teach grade level content according to the Next Generation
Science Standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and science specific common core
standards align with school and district policies.
Survey Results. For this survey item, teachers were asked to what degree they agree or
disagree with the following statement: My school requires that teachers use the NGSS to teach
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grade level content. As seen in Table 50, 5.9% of teachers Strongly disagreed with this
statement, 11.8% neither agreed nor disagreed, 29.4% agreed, and 52.9% Strongly agreed.

Table 50
Survey Results for Policies, Processes and Procedures Influence 1
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 1: Procedures that are in place to teach grade
level content according to the Next Generation Science Standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and science specific common core standards align with school and
district policies.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school requires that teachers use the NGSS to
teach grade level content.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 11.8% 2
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 52.9% 9

147

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. The majority of teachers who responded to this survey item indicated that they agree
with the statement that their school requires the use of the NGSS, therefore, making this
influence an asset. With 82.3% of teachers agreeing, this is a positive indicator that schools in
California are beginning to emphasize the NGSS and are requiring that teachers use these
standards for instruction.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 2
Procedures that are in place to plan daily lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy align with school and district policies.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with
the following statement: My school requires that teachers create daily lesson plans using
appropriate instructional strategies to meet their intended standards. Table 51 shows that 11.8%
of teachers indicated that they Strongly disagreed with this statement, 11.8% neither agreed nor
disagreed, 41.2% agreed, and 36.3% Strongly agreed.

148

Table 51
Survey Results for Policies, Processes and Procedures Influence 2
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 2: Procedures that are in place to plan daily
lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy
align with school and district policies.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school requires that teachers create daily
lesson plans using appropriate instructional strategies to meet their intended standards.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 11.8% 2
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 11.8% 2
Agree 41.2% 7
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Despite some teachers indicating that they disagreed with the fact that their
school requires daily lesson plans, the number of people who agreed was high enough for this to
be considered an asset. By planning on a regular basis, teachers are having to consider
appropriate instructional strategies often in order to choose those that will help their students
learn the material best.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 3

Procedures that are in place to maintain student motivation by stimulating interest and
self-efficacy through an inclusive and engaging classroom environment and curriculum align
with school and district policies.
149

Survey Results. In this item, teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree with
the following statement: My school requires that teachers use strategies to create an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and curriculum. As seen in Table 52, of all the responses
received, 5.9% Strongly disagreed, 23.5% neither agreed nor disagreed, 58.8% agreed, and
11.8% Strongly agreed.

Table 52
Survey Results for Policies, Processes and Procedures Influence 3
Policies, Processes, and Procedures influence 3: Procedures that are in place to maintain
student motivation by stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and curriculum align with school and district policies.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school requires that teachers use strategies to
create an inclusive and engaging classroom environment and curriculum.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 0.0% 0
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 58.8% 10
Strongly agree 11.8% 2

150

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. The responses received for this influence item just meet the threshold to be
considered an asset for teachers. With 80.6% of teachers agreeing that their school requires them
to use strategies which will create inclusive and engaging classrooms, one can interpret that this
is something schools would like to focus on. Therefore, if this is required by the school, it is
something that teachers must try to take into consideration for their own classrooms and as the
school year progresses.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence 4
Procedures that are in place to provide regular feedback and assessments on a weekly
basis to monitor student progress and prepare them for the California Science Test in 8th grade
align with school and district policies.
Survey Results. This policies, processes and procedures influence consisted of two
survey items in which teachers were asked to identify the extent to which they agreed or
disagreed with the statement. The first statement was: My school has procedures in place to
collect and provide regular feedback to monitor student progress. Of the 17 responses, 5.9%
Strongly disagreed, 23.5% disagreed, 23.5% neither agreed nor disagreed, 29.4% agreed, and
17.7% Strongly agreed. The second statement was: My school has procedures in place to collect
regular data and provide feedback to prepare students for the 8th grade Science Test. Table 53
shows that 17.7% of teachers Strongly disagreed with this statement, 29.4% disagreed, 23.5%
neither agreed nor disagreed, 17.7% agreed, and 11.8% agreed.

151

Table 53
Survey Results for Policies, Processes and Procedures Influence 4
Policies, processes, and procedures influence 4: Procedures that are in place to provide
regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California Science Test in 8th grade align with school and district
policies.
Response (n = 17) % Count
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has procedures in place to collect and
provide regular feedback to monitor student progress.
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 23.5% 4
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 17.7% 3
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has procedures in place to collect
regular data and provide feedback to prepare students for the 8th grade Science Test.
Strongly disagree 17.7% 3
Disagree 29.4% 5
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 17.7% 3
Strongly agree 11.8% 2

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the responses to both survey items for this influence, it can be
determined that this is an area of need. In both areas, most teachers responded that their schools
152

do not have procedures in place to collect data and provide feedback on a regular basis or to
prepare students for the 8th grade Science Test. If teachers are not aware of any procedures in
place within their schools then it is most likely that this is not something schools are emphasizing
and should be investigated further.
Cultural Model
Cultural Model Influence 1

There is a culture of collaboration among teachers who teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation Science Standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree with the
following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst teachers who teach the same
grade level content according to the NGSS. Table 54 shows that 23.5% of teachers disagreed
with this statement, 5.9% neither agreed nor disagreed, 17.7% agreed and 52.9% Strongly
agreed.

153

Table 54
Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 1
Cultural model influence 1: There is a culture of collaboration among teachers who teach
grade level content according to the Next Generation Science Standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and science specific common core standards.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst
teachers who teach the same grade level content according to the NGSS.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 23.5% 4
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 17.7% 3
Strongly agree 52.9% 9

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Based on the survey responses, there are many teachers who do not agree that
there is a culture of collaboration amongst teachers who use the NGSS, therefore, making this
cultural model influence an area of need. Though there were still many teachers who agreed with
this statement, the number is lower than the threshold necessary for the sample size. In addition,
many of the teachers surveyed come from schools in which they are the only science teachers, so
their experience with collaboration is very limited. Nevertheless, this is an area which could be
investigated further.

154

Cultural Model Influence 2

There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to plan daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked how much they agree or
disagree with the statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst science teachers to plan
daily lessons and use appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy. As seen in Table 55,
17.7% disagreed with the statement, 5.9% neither agreed nor disagreed, 23.5% agreed, and
52.9% Strongly agreed.

Table 55
Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 2
Cultural model influence 2: There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to plan
daily lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst
science teachers to plan daily lessons and use appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 17.7% 3
Neither agree nor disagree 5.9% 1
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 52.9% 9

155

Interview Findings. While this question was not directly asked in the interview, all
three participants alluded to the idea of collaboration with other science teachers in their
responses to other questions. In a previous question, Participant 1 mentioned how she utilizes
discussions with other teachers within Professional Learning Networks on sites like Facebook to
gain ideas on lessons and tips on how to create certain lessons. When asked about lesson
planning, Participant 2 explained that, “Here in this district we collaborate horizontally. Prior to
the pandemic we would meet several times throughout the year and actually collaborate with
each other. I usually find a lot of great ideas from other science teachers teaching the same
stuff.” Participant 3 described how her work on the “CAD” team at the district level provides her
with curriculum guides and resources she can utilize when planning daily lessons.
Summary. While the responses to the survey are slightly below the threshold for this
influence, the responses to the interview make this a definite asset for teachers. 76.4% of
teachers agreed that there is a culture of collaboration amongst science teachers to plan lessons,
however, when asked about planning or support, every teacher interviewed some degree of
collaboration with their peers, whether within their own school site or others. Therefore, it would
seem that a culture of collaboration does exist amongst teachers and is necessary for teachers to
feel supported and get ideas that can later be applied into their classroom.
Cultural Model Influence 3

There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive and engaging classroom environment
and curriculum.
Survey Results. For this survey item, respondents were asked to identify how much they
agree or disagree with the following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst
156

teachers to create inclusive and engaging environments and curriculum. As Table 56 shows, out
of the 17 responses, 11.8% disagreed, 11.8% neither agreed nor disagreed, 29.4% agreed and
47.1% Strongly agreed.

Table 56
Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 3
Cultural model influence 3: There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to maintain
student motivation by stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and curriculum.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst
teachers to create inclusive and engaging environments and curriculum.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 11.8% 2
Neither agree nor disagree 11.8% 2
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 47.1% 8

157

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Though many teachers agree that there is a culture of collaboration amongst teachers
to create inclusive and engaging learning environments, the responses were still slightly below
the threshold, therefore, making this influence an area of need.
Cultural Model Influence 4
There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree with the
following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst teachers to plan regular
feedback and assessments to monitor student progress. As seen in Table 57, 11.8% disagreed
with the statement, 23.5% neither agreed nor disagreed, 29.4% agreed, and 35.3% Strongly
agreed.

158

Table 57
Survey Results for Cultural Model Influence 4

Cultural model influence 4: There is a culture of collaboration among teachers to provide
regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student progress and
prepare them for the California Science Test in 8th grade.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: There is a culture of collaboration amongst
teachers to plan regular feedback and assessments to monitor student progress.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 11.8% 2
Neither agree nor disagree 23.5% 4
Agree 29.4% 5
Strongly agree 35.3% 6

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. For this influence, there was a high number of teachers who did not agree that
there is a culture of collaboration to plan regular feedback and assessments, thus making this
influence an area of need. 35.3% of teachers either disagreed or neither agreed nor disagreed that
this culture of collaboration exists indicating that there is still some support lacking when it
comes to planning their classroom environment. Since this is another important aspect that can
greatly impact student achievement, it is important to look into this influence further.

159

Cultural Setting
Cultural Setting Influence 1

The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation Science Standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to identify how much they
agree or disagree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to use the NGSS for instruction. As seen in Table 58, from the responses, 5.9% Strongly
disagreed with the statement, 29.4% disagreed, 35.3% neither agreed nor disagreed, 17.7%
agreed and 11.8% Strongly agreed.

Table 58
Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 1

Cultural setting influence 1: The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to teach
grade level content according to the Next Generation Science Standards, CDE science
curriculum framework, and science specific common core standards.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to use the NGSS for instruction.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 29.4% 5
Neither agree nor disagree 35.3% 6
Agree 17.7% 3
Strongly agree 11.8% 2

160

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. A large percentage of respondents did not agree that their school has systems
in place to motivate teachers to use the NGSS, therefore, this cultural setting influence is a
definite area of need. While schools are requiring teachers to use these standards, if there is no
way to motivate them, then the actual use of the standards within the classroom will more than
likely decrease.
Cultural Setting Influence 2

The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy.
Survey Results. Teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree with the
following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate teachers to plan daily lessons
using appropriate instructional practices. Table 59 shows that 23.5% of teachers disagreed with
the statement, 35.3% neither agreed nor disagreed, 23.5% agreed and 17.7% Strongly agreed.

161

Table 59
Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 2
Cultural setting influence 2: The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to plan
daily lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily lessons using appropriate instructional practices.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 23.5% 4
Neither agree nor disagree 35.3% 6
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 17.7% 3

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. For this cultural setting influence, the majority of teachers did not agree that
there are systems in place within their schools to motivate teachers to plan daily lessons so this is
an area of need. Lesson planning is another one of those requirements that most schools have but
if teachers never feel motivated to do so, it may not be done on a regular basis. Therefore, this is
an area that should be looked into further if teachers want to plan using appropriate strategies for
their classroom content.

162

Cultural Setting Influence 3

The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive and engaging classroom environment
and curriculum.
Survey Results. In this survey item, teachers were asked to identify how much they
agree or disagree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to create inclusive and engaging classrooms and curriculum. As seen in Table 60, of the
responses, 5.9% of teachers Strongly disagreed with the statement, 11.8% disagreed, 41.2%
neither agreed nor disagreed, 23.5% agreed and 17.7% Strongly agreed.

Table 60
Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 3
Cultural setting influence 3: The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to
maintain student motivation by stimulating interest and self-efficacy through an inclusive
and engaging classroom environment and curriculum.
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to create inclusive and engaging classrooms and curriculum.
Response (n = 17) % Count
Strongly disagree 5.9% 1
Disagree 11.8% 2
Neither agree nor disagree 41.2% 7
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 17.7% 3

163

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Out of the 17 teachers who responded to the survey, only 41.2% agreed to some
extent that their school has systems in place to motivate teachers to have an inclusive and
engaging classroom. Given that this number is very low, this is definitely another area of need. If
teachers do not feel motivated or encouraged by their schools to create a good learning
environment for their students, then the less teachers will want to do so.
Cultural Setting Influence 4
The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor students’ progress and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
Survey Results. For this cultural setting influence, two survey items were asked to
teachers. The first question asked them to identify how much they agree or disagree with the
following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate teachers to provide regular
feedback to students. Table 61 shows that 17.7% of teachers disagreed with this statement,
41.2% neither agreed nor disagreed, 23.5% agreed, and 17.7% Strongly agreed. For the second
item, teachers were asked how much they agree or disagree with the statement: My school has
systems in place to motivate teachers to prepare students for the 8th grade California Science
Test. Out of the 17 responses, 11.8% Strongly disagreed, 23.5% disagreed, 41.2% neither agreed
nor disagreed, 11.8% agreed, and 11.8% Strongly agreed.

164

Table 61
Survey Results for Cultural Setting Influence 4
Cultural setting influence 4: The school has systems in place to motivate teachers to
provide regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to monitor students progress
and prepare them for the California Science Test in 8th grade.
Response (n = 17) % Count
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to provide regular feedback to students.
Strongly disagree 0.0% 0
Disagree 17.7% 3
Neither agree nor disagree 41.2% 7
Agree 23.5% 4
Strongly agree 17.7% 3
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how much do
you agree with the following statement: My school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to prepare students for the 8th grade California Science Test.
Strongly disagree 11.8% 2
Disagree 23.5% 4
Neither agree nor disagree 41.2% 7
Agree 11.8% 2
Strongly agree 11.8% 2

Interview Findings. No interview questions were asked for this influence.
Summary. Though there were no interview questions asked for this influence, the
overwhelming number of teachers who disagreed with the statements in both survey items
indicates that this is an area of need. Though regular feedback is something most schools
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encourage and the California Science Test is a state required exam, it appears as though most
schools are not developing systems to motivate their teachers to prepare their students. If
teachers do not feel motivated or supported, then the amount of effort placed on feedback and
exam preparation is going to be rather low.
Summary of Influences
Table 62, 63, and 64 show the knowledge, motivation and organization influences for this
study and their determination as an asset or a need.
Knowledge
After analyzing data from both surveys and interviews, the results and findings for
assumed knowledge influences are summarized in Table 62. Responses demonstrate that 80.0%
of the assumed knowledge influences are considered assets for middle school science teachers.
In each of the four areas of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive),
teachers demonstrated that they had a solid foundation in the majority of the assumed influences.
Overall, teachers showed that they are knowledgeable about the Next Generation Science
Standards and therefore understand how to integrate them into their curriculum. Based on their
responses, it is evident that most teachers know their content and instructional strategies well
enough to build an engaging classroom that can maintain student interest on a regular basis.
Furthermore, the data shows that teachers spend a lot of time reflecting on the effectiveness of
lessons and behaviors on their students. Since so many assumed knowledge influences can be
considered assets, it is evident that teachers are effective when they are taught the necessary
skills relevant to science instruction.
On the other hand, there are some important influences that were determined to be needs.
For factual knowledge, the data showed that teachers do not have a solid knowledge of the
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instructional practices or pedagogy that are necessary to teach the four knowledge types to their
students. For conceptual knowledge influences, teachers appeared to struggle identifying how to
best create an inclusive environment, thus making it an area of need. Finally, in terms of
procedural knowledge, most teachers struggled in the area of assessments and did not know how
to integrate different types of assessment into their classroom on a short- and long-term basis.

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Table 62
Summary of Results and Findings for Knowledge
Assumed knowledge influence Asset or need
Declarative factual
Teachers know the Next Generation
Science Standards relevant for their
grade level and where to access them.
Asset
Teachers know the instructional practices
and pedagogy that are most relevant for
teaching the appropriate knowledge
types for science.
Need
Teachers know strategies that help create
an inclusive classroom environment.
Asset
Teachers know strategies that help create
an engaging classroom environment.
Asset
Declarative conceptual
Teachers are able to group together related
standards and instructional activities to plan for
instruction.
Asset
Teachers know how creating an inclusive
classroom environment influences student
outcomes
Need
Teachers know how creating an engaging
classroom environment influences student
outcomes
Asset
Procedural
Teachers know how to integrate grade-level content
standards into curriculum and instruction.
Asset
Teachers know how to apply instructional practices
and relevant pedagogy to design daily lessons
that meet intended standards.
Asset
Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies
to stimulate student interest.
Asset
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Assumed knowledge influence Asset or need
Teachers know how to apply appropriate strategies
to increase student self-efficacy.
Asset
Teachers know how to integrate different types of
assessments and provide effective feedback to
monitor student progress and prepare students for
the California Science Test.
Need
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of daily
lessons, instructional practices, and pedagogy.
Asset
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of their
classroom environment on student motivation.
Asset
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of regular
feedback and assessments on student
achievement.
Asset

Motivation
In the domain of motivation, the data demonstrated that only 60.0% of the assumed
influences are assets while everything else is an area of need. Table 63 shows the results for each
influence.
While the area of motivation had a lower percentage of assets than knowledge, there are
some key areas for which teachers expressed high motivation. In terms of value, every influence
proved to be an asset, meaning that teachers really find value in those things that build up a
science classroom such as the NGSS, lesson planning, inclusivity, feedback and the California
Science Test. For self-efficacy, teachers feel most confident with the standards as well as
creating and maintaining classrooms that are both inclusive and engaging. When asked about
their feelings in certain areas, teachers indicated that the standards, lesson planning, and
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stimulating student interest are all areas that they feel positive about. Finally, teachers felt that
most of the successes and failures in their classroom, particularly in the areas of teaching
standards, lesson planning, interest and feedback are all well within their control.
While teachers demonstrate motivation in many areas in their classroom, there were
various influences that were found to be areas of need. Although teachers expressed finding
value in creating daily lessons to meet the intended science standards, most do not feel confident
in doing so on their own. Likewise, teachers value providing their students with feedback but
struggle in their confidence to provide feedback in their own classroom. Furthermore, teachers
also do not feel confident in preparing their students for the California Science Test (CAST) in
the 8th grade. When asked about their feelings, teachers shared that they do not feel positive
about creating inclusivity in their classroom, building student self-efficacy and preparing
students for the CAST. This appears to correlate to the findings in the area of attribution in which
teachers feel that their success and failures in creating student self-efficacy and preparing
students for the CAST are not within their control.

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Table 63
Summary of Results and Findings for Motivation
Assumed motivation influences Asset or need
Value
Teachers value teaching grade-level content according
to Next Generation Science Standards, CDE
Framework, and Common Core standards.
Asset
Teachers value planning daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.
Asset
Teachers value having an inclusive classroom
environment.
Asset
Teachers value having an engaging classroom
environment.
Asset
Teachers value providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor student
progress.
Asset
Teachers value preparing students for the California
Science Test in 8th grade.
Need
Self-Efficacy
Teachers are confident about teaching grade level
content according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Asset
Teachers are confident about planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Need
Teachers are confident about establishing and
maintaining an inclusive classroom environment.
Asset
Teachers are confident about establishing and
maintaining an engaging classroom environment.
Asset
Teachers are confident about providing regular
feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
Need
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Assumed motivation influences Asset or need
Teachers are confident about preparing students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
Need
Mood
Teachers feel positive about teaching grade level
content according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Asset
Teachers feel positive about planning daily lesson
lessons to meet intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Asset
Teachers feel positive about establishing and
maintaining an inclusive classroom environment.
Need
Teachers feel positive about stimulating interest in the
subject/topics.
Asset
Teachers feel positive about building student self-
efficacy.
Need
Teachers feel positive about providing regular
feedback and assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
Need
Teachers feel positive about preparing students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
Need
Attribution
Teachers believe the success or failure of teaching
grade-level content according to the Next Generation
science standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common core
standards is in their control.
Asset
Teachers believe the success or failure of planning
daily lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and pedagogy is in
their control.
Asset
Teachers believe that the success or failure of
establishing and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment is in their control.
Asset
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Assumed motivation influences Asset or need
Teachers believe the success or failure of stimulating
interest is in their control.
Asset
Teachers believe the success or failure of increasing
self-efficacy is in their control.
Need
Teachers believe the success or failure of providing
regular feedback and assessments on a weekly basis
to monitor student progress is in their control.
Asset
Teachers believe the success or failure of preparing
students for the California Science Test in 8th grade
is in their control.
Need

Organization
Of the three domains investigated in this study, the domain of organization had the lowest
number of assumed influences which could be classified as assets. Table 64 shows how only
28.6% of the assumed organization influences were found to be assets in science teachers while
the rest are areas of need.
Data collected from both surveys and interviews showed that the schools in which these
middle school teachers work are most successful at establishing procedures and fostering
collaboration amongst teachers. Teachers indicated that in their schools there are policies and
procedures in place that support teachers in using the NGSS, planning daily lesson plans to meet
student needs and creating inclusive and engaging classrooms. The policies in place also align to
school and district policies thus making them assets. The last asset amongst teachers is that there
is a culture of collaboration to create lesson plans that will meet the intended needs of their
students. Whether it be with teachers at their own grade level or across the other middle school
grades, teachers feel supported to collaborate with each other.
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As shown in Table 64, 71.4% of assumed influences for organization were identified as
areas of need according to the data collected in the study. For resources provided at school sites,
teachers said that they are not provided with time or money for professional development nor are
they able to access additional resources for classroom support. Furthermore, participants
indicated that their school sites do not have procedures in place to encourage them in providing
feedback to their students or prepare them for the CAST. Additionally, most participants said
that there is no culture of collaboration at their schools for teachers to work together to plan, use
the standards, or help prepare their students for assessments. Finally, the schools do not appear to
have any systems in place that will motivate teachers to some of the important tasks that are
necessary for a successful science classroom such as using the NGSS, lesson planning on a daily
basis, creating an inclusive and engaging environment, and preparing students for the CAST.

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Table 64
Summary of Results and Findings for Organization
Assumed organization influences Asset or need
Resources
Teachers use time and allocated money to
attend professional development and
training.
Need
Teachers access additional resources and
classroom support through instructional
or curriculum specialists.
Need
Policies, processes, & procedures
Procedures that are in place to teach grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards
align with school and district policies.
Asset
Procedures that are in place to plan daily
lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy align with school and district
policies.
Asset
Procedures that are in place to maintain
student motivation by stimulating interest
and self-efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and
curriculum align with school and district
policies.
Asset
Procedures that are in place to provide
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress
and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade align with
school and district policies.
Need
Culture model
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Assumed organization influences Asset or need
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers who teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
Need
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Asset
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to maintain student motivation
by stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.
Need
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
Need
Culture setting
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
Need
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
Need
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to maintain student motivation
by stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.
Need
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to provide regular feedback and
Need
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Assumed organization influences Asset or need
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.

The empirical evidence gathered through this study will be utilized in Chapter 5 to
present recommendations for the knowledge, motivation, and organization domains to promote
continued success for teachers in middle school science classrooms in California.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation
The purpose of this project is to discover and analyze those promising practices in middle
school science classrooms that lead to increased motivation and achievement in students. The
analysis focuses on the assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
resources. While a complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholders of focus in this analysis are middle school science teachers.
The questions that guided the promising practice study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets of teachers to increase
student interest and performance in science?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources may be appropriate for maintaining these promising
practices and solving the problem of practice at another organization?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The following section addresses the second question of this promising practices study.
The recommendations laid out in this chapter emphasize the consistency, continuity, and
commitment required for continued implementation of promising practices in science education.
Each section contains a brief overview of the findings based on the data, and a rationale for the
need to prioritize the validated influences. It is critical that schools who are committed to the
vision of developing strong, passionate STEM students maintain consistency across districts and
onboard new teachers to ensure continuity in implementing these promising practices that will
strengthen classroom instruction. Finally, each section will also include a detailed discussion on
how each solution can support effective implementation of strategies to increase performance
results in students based on the appropriate principles and literature.
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Knowledge Recommendations
Based on the responses from both surveys and interviews, it was found that 80.0% of the
assumed knowledge influences are considered assets for middle school science teachers. In each
of the areas of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive), teachers
demonstrated that they had a solid understanding of the majority of assumed influences. Overall,
teachers showed that they know the Next Generation Science Standards and understand how to
integrate them within their classroom materials and curriculum. It is also evident that most
teachers know their content and appropriate instructional strategies well enough to build an
engaging classroom that can maintain student interest on a regular basis. Furthermore, the data
shows that teachers spend a lot of time reflecting on the effectiveness of lessons and behaviors
on their students. Since so many assumed knowledge influences can be considered assets, it is
that teachers are effective when they are taught the necessary skills relevant to science
instruction.
Assets
To ensure that teachers continue to learn the necessary skills to benefit their students’
success, it is important to maintain each of the assets described. Schraw and McCrudden (2006)
explain that to develop mastery, individuals must first acquire component skills, practice
integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned. In addition to practice, the
use of metacognitive strategies can also facilitate learning (Baker, 2006). In order to help
teachers maintain the knowledge of their standards and appropriate strategies and pedagogy,
administrators or instructional coaches should continue to provide guidance, modeling, coaching,
and other scaffolding (Mayer, 2011). Teachers should also continue to receive performance
feedback on the strategies they learn and how they implement them in their classroom (Mayer,
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2011). Teachers should also be given opportunities to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-
assessment of their classroom instruction in order to assess strengths and weaknesses (Baker,
2006). The more that is done to continually reinforce what teachers already know or scaffold
new knowledge, the better prepared they will be to maintain the assets identified.
Needs
While a majority of knowledge influences proved to be assets for teachers, there are some
important influences that were found to be areas of needs to be addressed if teachers are to best
support their students. For factual knowledge, the data showed that teachers do not have a solid
knowledge of the instructional practices or pedagogy that are necessary to teach the four
knowledge types (factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive) to their students. For
conceptual knowledge influences, teachers appeared to struggle identifying how to best create an
inclusive environment, thus making it an area of need. Finally, in terms of procedural
knowledge, most teachers struggled in the area of assessments and did not know how to integrate
different types of assessment into their classroom on a short- and long-term basis.
The findings and results showed a need for factual knowledge of the instructional
practices necessary to teach the four knowledge types to students. Information processing theory
can be applied to make recommendations for this area. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) would
suggest modeling effective strategy use, including “how” and “when” to use particular strategies.
This would suggest that teachers would benefit from training or professional development in this
area in order to know when it is appropriate to use certain strategies or assignments, depending
on the complexity of the concept being taught or the task students are to complete. Thus, it is
recommended that schools provide training on how and when to use certain instructional
strategies to teach the different knowledge types to students. This training can be direct
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instruction with the use of examples or scenarios, role playing or even classroom studies. This in
addition to opportunities for practice and feedback can help to increase a teacher’s knowledge in
this area.
A second area of need was identified within conceptual knowledge influences, since
teachers struggled to identify how to best create an inclusive environment in their classroom. To
make recommendations for this area of need, cognitive load theory can be used. Cognitive load
theory suggests that the most effective learning occurs when you can decrease extraneous
cognitive load through effective instruction. Furthermore, learning is enhanced when you
increase germane cognitive load and engage the learner in meaningful learning and schema
construction (Kirshner et al., 2006). In order to decrease extraneous cognitive load and increase
germane load, teachers would benefit from concrete examples or case studies of classrooms in
which teachers have effectively created an inclusive classroom environment (Anguinis &
Kraiger, 2009). New information about inclusivity strategies can be provided through
professional development or training but should exclude extraneous material and content (Mayer,
2011). Since teachers already have such a high level of cognitive load, they would benefit from
learning new strategies gradually rather than all at once. Staff meetings or professional
development days can be used to discuss inclusivity and give teachers new knowledge on how to
incorporate strategies into their classrooms. By introducing this new knowledge in parts, it is
more likely that a teacher’s knowledge will be enhanced.
Finally, in terms of procedural knowledge, most teachers struggled in the area of
assessments and did not know how to integrate different types of assessment into their classroom
on a short- and long-term basis. To address this need, the principles of social cognitive theory
can be used to make recommendations. Denler et al., (2009) suggest that modeling to-be-learned
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behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and performance. In addition to modeling, the model
should be credible and similar if the behaviors are more likely to be adopted (Denler et al.,
2009). These principles would suggest that teachers could be helped to acquire new knowledge
about informal and formal assessments through demonstration and modeling by their peers
(Denler et al., 2009). Administrators and schools can allow time for teachers to visit each other's
classrooms during instruction and that way they can see different types of assessment strategies
in use. The more assessment techniques teachers can observe from their peers, the more likely
they will be to learn and try something new in their own classroom.
Motivation Recommendations
In the domain of motivation, the results demonstrated that only 60.0% of the assumed
influences are assets while everything else is an area of need. Though there were fewer assets in
this domain, there are some key areas for which teachers expressed high motivation that should
be maintained. In terms of value, every influence proved to be an asset, meaning that teachers
genuinely find value in those things that build up a science classroom such as the NGSS, lesson
planning, inclusivity, feedback and the California Science Test. For self-efficacy, teachers feel
most confident with the NGSS as well as creating and maintaining classrooms that are both
inclusive and engaging. When asked about their feelings in certain areas, teachers indicated that
the standards, lesson planning, and stimulating student interest are all areas that they feel positive
about. Finally, teachers felt that most of the successes and failures in their classroom, particularly
in the areas of teaching standards, lesson planning, interest and feedback are all well within their
control.

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Assets
While some areas of need were identified through teacher responses, there were many
influences that were found to be assets and need to be continually reinforced if they are to remain
assets. In all of the influences in the area of value, teachers responded positively. To maintain the
sense of value teachers feel for things like the NGSS and lesson planning, schools and
administrators need to make sure that they continue to model values, enthusiasm, and interest in
these areas (Eccles, 2006). Also, when modeling values, it should be someone credible and
similar such as an administrator who has similar experiences in the classroom or another teacher.
The more teachers continue to value the test, the more that learning and motivation will be
enhanced (Eccles, 2006). If teachers feel confident using the NGSS and creating both inclusive
and engaging classrooms, then schools must continue to provide feedback that balances
comments about strength and challenges (Borgogni et al., 2011) and possibly link rewards with
progress (Pintrich, 2003). Depending on the individual characteristics of the staff, some might
respond better to positive feedback and others to rewards linked to their progress. In the case of
teacher feelings towards the standards and classroom environment, in order to support those
positive attitudes, they must continue to feel that they have autonomy and choice (Bono et al.,
2007). It is likely that those areas in which teachers feel positive about are those in which they
feel like they have a sense of control within the classroom. The more teachers feel like they are
being forced to use certain tools or methods, the less likely they are to have motivation to do
them. Finally, for attribution, learning and motivation will be enhanced if teachers attribute
successes or failures to effort rather than ability (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). If
administrators have a supportive and caring relationship with their teachers, they would be more
likely to continue to feel that things are well within their control (Pintrich, 2003).
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Needs
While teachers demonstrate motivation in many areas in their classroom, there were
several influences that were found to be areas of need. Most teachers expressed that they do not
feel confident creating daily lessons to meet intended science standards and struggle to provide
feedback to their students. Furthermore, teachers also do not feel confident in preparing their
students for the California Science Test (CAST) in the 8th grade. When asked about their
feelings, teachers shared that they do not feel positive about creating inclusivity in their
classroom, building student self-efficacy and preparing students for the CAST. This appears to
correlate to the findings in the area of attribution in which teachers feel that their success and
failures in creating student self-efficacy and preparing students for the CAST are not within their
control.
In the area of self-efficacy, teachers indicated that they struggle with their confidence in
creating daily lessons, providing feedback, and preparing their students for the CAST. To
address these issues, the principles of self-efficacy theory can be applied. Self-efficacy theory
states that learning and motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for
success and are guided by feedback and modeling (Pajares, 2006). It often happens that schools
place very high expectations on teachers to increase their student performance and if students do
not do well, then it becomes a reflection of the teacher. However, one way to support teachers is
to provide goal-directed practice coupled with frequent, accurate, credible, targeted and private
feedback (Pajares, 2006). For example, a teacher who is struggling with feedback, can begin by
setting smaller goals such as focusing on one class or grade level first and then measure their
progress over time. Focused and manageable goals are more likely to increase teacher self-
efficacy and increase motivation to grow in these areas which will impact student learning.
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Other areas in which teachers did not express positive feelings towards were creating
inclusive learning environments, building student self-efficacy, and preparing students for the
CAST. Clark and Estes (2008) explain how positive emotional environments are important to
support motivation and this is necessary for teachers to shift their feelings about these areas. In
many cases, these negative feelings come from a sense of pressure to perform at a certain level
and high expectations about the classroom environment. Many schools turn to rewards when a
teacher’s students score well on standardized exams like the CAST but score teachers low on
their professional evaluations when students do not. If teachers are to succeed or feel good about
accomplishing these tasks, then schools must focus on increasing outcome expectancies and
sense of control by avoiding competitive structure (Goette et al., 2012). Teachers also need to be
supported in their need for autonomy and choice (Bono et al., 2007). When teachers feel they
have more control over their classroom and do not feel that they must compete with their peers,
the more positive feelings that will arise.
The last areas of need in the domain of motivation were in the category of attribution.
Teachers feel as though their successes or failures in student self-efficacy and preparing students
for the CAST are not within their control. Anderman and Anderman (2009) suggest that positive
feedback which stresses the process of learning, including the importance of effort is important
to attribution. It often happens that when students struggle in science or do not test well it is
perceived to be a reflection of a teacher’s skill set in the classroom. Building better relationships
between teachers, administrators, or coaches would encourage individuals to attribute successes
or failures to effort (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). Teachers need to feel that their effort is
recognized and that with consistent work, their students can make progress.

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Organization Recommendations
Of the three domains investigated in this study, the domain of organization had the
highest number of assumed influences that are considered areas of needs. Only 28.6% of the
assumed organization influences were found to be assets in science teachers while the rest are
areas in which significant growth is needed to achieve better student outcomes. To support
student achievement in science, assets must be maintained while needs are addressed by the
organization.
Assets
Data collected from both surveys and interviews showed that schools are most successful
at establishing procedures and fostering collaboration amongst teachers. Teachers indicated that
at their schools there are policies and procedures in place that support teachers in using the
NGSS, planning daily lesson plans and creating inclusive and engaging classrooms. The policies
in place at each organization also align to school and district policies thus making them assets.
Finally, among teachers there is a culture of collaboration to create lesson plans that will meet
the intended needs of their students. Whether it be with teachers at their own grade level or
across the other middle school grades, teachers feel supported to collaborate with each other.
To continue being effective in the areas of policies, schools must continue to ensure that
their organizational messages, policies and procedures are aligned with the organizational goals
and values (Clark and Estes, 2008). Thus, schools must revisit policies every year through
informal audits or evaluations of policies, procedures, and messages to check for alignment or
interference with goals. An informal audit should be conducted by administrators or a group of
stakeholders to ensure that teachers are being supported in all aspects and expectations are clear.

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Needs
Of the assumed influences for organization, 71.4% were identified as areas of need.
When asked about resources provided at school sites, teachers said that they are not given time
or money for professional development nor are they able to access additional resources for
classroom support. Furthermore, participants indicated that their school sites do not have
procedures in place to encourage them in providing feedback to their students or prepare them
for the CAST. Additionally, most participants said that there is no culture of collaboration at
their schools for teachers to work together to plan, use the standards, or help prepare their
students for assessments. Finally, the schools do not appear to have any systems in place that will
motivate teachers to some of the important tasks that are necessary for a successful science
classroom such as using the NGSS, lesson planning on a daily basis, creating an inclusive and
engaging environment, and preparing students for the CAST.
The first issue that needs to be addressed is that of resources that are available to
teachers. Clark and Estes (2008) explain that effective change efforts ensure that everyone has
the resources needed to do their job and if there are shortages, then resources are aligned with
organizational priorities. Often the resources purchased or offered by schools are not in line with
the perceived needs of teachers, therefore, all stakeholders must work together to establish, from
the beginning of the school year, that the priorities are so that when decisions about budget or
resources have to be made, the guidance is already in place. For example, if teachers believe that
attending live professional development (PD) sessions are more important to meeting the needs
of their classroom, then the school can begin to plan how to use funds to send teachers to training
or bring in PD to the school. The more stakeholders’ perspectives inform the decision-making
process, the more this progress leads to change.
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The second area of need to be addressed is that teachers do not feel that their schools
motivate them to provide feedback to students, prepare them for the CAST or use things like the
NGSS and lesson planning to prepare their instruction. While these areas can be addressed in a
variety of ways, the most important is to ensure that each school is involving teacher
perspectives and using them to inform the decision-making process (Clark and Estes, 2008). If
teachers do not feel like their concerns are being addressed or their input isn’t valued then they
will not be motivated to do certain things when asked by the administration. Those making the
decisions at each school site should regularly meet with teachers to share ideas with and get
feedback from them. If teachers do not feel comfortable preparing students for such a high stakes
test like the CAST then schools need to find out why that is. Once schools hear from teachers,
they can begin to plan what is necessary to support them. Do schools need to provide more
support in learning instructional strategies for test preparation? Do schools need to gain “buy in”
from teachers so that they understand why it is important to prepare students for the CAST?
Questions such as these need to be asked so that plans are put in place at the organizational level
to support teachers and their instruction.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
In order for an organization to plan and implement an effective training program for
organizational success, they must have an implementation and evaluation plan (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick propose the new world Kirkpatrick model
(2016) framework for effective evaluation which includes four levels of evaluation: reaction,
learning, behavior, and results. These four levels of evaluation reflect those from the historical
Kirkpatrick model except that they are planned in reverse. The purpose of this change is to
emphasize the importance of the program outcomes and to address the return on expectations of
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stakeholders. This model was used to develop the evaluation and implementation plan for the
recommendations described in the previous sections. Each of the four levels will be defined and
utilized in the sections that follow.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level Four of the new world Kirkpatrick model measures the results and outcomes of a
training program. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define results as the extent to which
targeted outcomes are achieved based on the training and support that is provided. Results are
then evaluated through short-term measurements known as leading indicators. Leading indicators
suggest that critical behaviors within the training program are on track to produce desired results.
Indicators can be further grouped into two categories: internal and external outcomes. Internal
outcomes are those that are usually noticed first and emerge from within the organization.
External outcomes indicate how the outside community or client reacts to the impacts of the
training program. Both types of outcomes are then used to measure the success or failure of a
training program. Table 65 outlines the internal and external outcomes that schools expect to see
if the implementation of the training program is successful. The table also includes metrics used
to measure each outcome and the methods by which to gather the measurements.

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Table 65
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased number of
students who score
“Standard Met” or
“Standard Exceeded” on
the California Science
Test

The number of students who
score “Standard Met” or
“Standard Exceeded” on the
CAST
The school administrator will
report the number of students
who score in each category to
the school website and to the
appropriate state agencies.
Decreased number of
students who score
“Standard Not Met” or
“Standard Nearly Met”
on the CAST

The number of students who
score “Standard Not Met” or
“Standard Nearly Met” on the
CAST
The school administrator will
report the number of students
who score in each category to
the school website and to the
appropriate state agencies
Increased positive
perceptions within the
community
The number of positive reviews
online.

The number of positive social
media posts within the
community.

The number of positive
references in publications.

The school administrators will
monitor the number of
positive reviews, social media
posts, and publications.
Increased enrollment The number of students enrolled
each year
The school administrator will
report the yearly enrollment
numbers on the school website
Internal Outcomes
Increased student scores
on the CAST
The number of students who
score “Standard Met” or
“Standard Exceeded” on the
CAST
The administrator will report
student test scores to
stakeholders after the testing
period.

Increased science grades
in students
The number of students who
successfully complete their
science course each semester.
The administrator and teachers
will work together to monitor
student grades and the number
of students passing their
science courses bi-annually.
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Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)

Increased student
engagement in science
The number of students who
engage in their science
classroom and express positive
interest in the course
Teachers and teacher leaders
will track student engagement
through their monthly peer
observations and report at
faculty or department
meetings.

Increased teacher
collaboration.

The number of teachers who
participate in professional
learning communities (PLCs)

Teachers and/or teacher leaders
will track the number of
teachers who attend PLCs and
report to the school’s registrar.

Increased vertical
alignment of science
curriculum

The percentage of alignment at
each grade level
Teachers will meet to track the
number of standards and
curriculum aligned between
each grade level at the end of
every semester.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
Level Three of the Kirkpatrick New world model measures the behavior of stakeholders
during a training program. According to this model, behavior is the degree to which participants
apply what they learned during training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 3 is a
comprehensive, continuous performance monitoring and improvement system that evaluates
critical behaviors. Critical behaviors are specific, observable and measurable behaviors that bring
about desired outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In the case of middle school science
teachers, these critical behaviors are that teachers will teach grade-level content according to
their standards, plan daily lessons using appropriate instructional strategies, maintain student
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motivation, and provide feedback to students on a regular basis. Table 66 outlines these critical
behaviors, the metrics and methods used to measure them, and the timing for evaluation.

Table 66
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
Teach grade-level
content according to
the Next Generation
Science Standards,
California
Department of
Education Science
Curriculum
Framework, and
Science specific
Common Core
standards.

The number of lessons
designed using
appropriate
standards.
Administration will
audit teacher lesson
plans or pacing guides
to assess the use of
NGSS and Common
Core standards in
planning and
instruction.
Once a month,
administrators
will review
lesson plans to
monitor the use
of state standards
in instructional
planning.
Plan daily lessons to
meet intended
standards using
appropriate
instructional
practices and
pedagogy
The number of
lessons that use
appropriate
instructional
practices and
pedagogy.
Department head or peer
teachers will perform
informal observations
to observe the
strategies used during
instruction.
Every two weeks, a
department head
or peer teacher
will conduct
informal
observations to
monitor the use
of appropriate
instructional
practices in the
classroom

Maintain student
motivation by
stimulating interest
and self-efficacy
through an
inclusive and
engaging classroom
The number of
students who are
observed to be
motivated during a
class.
Department head or peer
teachers will perform
informal observations
to gauge levels of
student motivation
and evaluate
Every two weeks,
a department
head or peer
teacher will
conduct
informal
observations to
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Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
environment and
curriculum.
classroom
environment.
measure levels
of student
motivation and
observe
classroom
environments.

Provide regular
feedback and
assessments on a
weekly basis to
monitor student
progress and
prepare them for the
California Science
Test in 8th grade.
The number of times
feedback or
assessments were
given.
Department head or peer
teachers will perform
informal observations
to observe feedback
and assessments in the
classroom.
Every two weeks,
a department
head or peer
teacher will
conduct
informal
observations to
monitor the use
of feedback and
assessments in
the classroom.

Required Drivers
In order to achieve some success at Level Three, special attention must be placed on
required drivers. According to the new world Kirkpatrick model (2016), required drivers are
those processes and systems that reinforce, monitor, encourage and reward the performance of
critical behaviors. Required drivers fall into two categories: support and accountability. At most
middle schools, the systems created to support student achievement in science and the time that
is used to provide instruction, feedback, and support of implementation for teachers directly
impacts their success in achieving the critical behaviors. For this reason, required drivers will be
managed by administration as they are responsible for all systems and supports available to
teachers. Table 67 described the required drivers recommended to maintain and grow teacher
engagement with student achievement in science classrooms.
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Table 67
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical behaviors
supported
Reinforcing
Administration provides
training on the availability
and use of the CAST
dashboard and California
Department of Education
website to teachers.
● Annually at teacher
orientation before the
start of the school year.
● Ongoing learning
video training
available on the
school’s website or
Learning Management
System (LMS)

1, 2
Administration provides a job
aid with suggested
instructional strategies for
different classroom
activities

Biannually 2, 3, 4
Administration provides
opportunities for teachers
and administrators to work
together for goal setting and
communicating expectations
for daily lessons and
classroom environment.

Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Administration provides
professional development
time for teachers to work in
a professional learning
community to discuss
instructional strategies,
classroom environment,
student progress monitoring
and test preparation.
Monthly 2, 3, 4
Encouraging
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Method(s) Timing Critical behaviors
supported
Teachers receive mentoring or
coaching to achieve their
instructional goals.

Weekly 1, 2, 3, 4
Administration provides
specific, constructive
feedback to teachers
regarding their performance
in student achievement in
science as indicated by their
informal observations in the
classroom.

Monthly 2, 3, 4
Administration provides
collaboration or PLC time
with teacher models so that
teachers can collaborate and
learn from one another
about how to perform
critical behaviors.

Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding
Administration sends out
affirmations for teachers
who are meeting their
instructional goals.

Monthly 2, 3, 4
Administration sends out a
monthly communication
highlighting various
teachers who are performing
the critical behaviors.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Monitoring
Administration monitors
teacher engagement in
critical behaviors via
informal observations in the
classroom.

Monthly 1
Teachers or teacher leaders
monitor teacher engagement
in critical behaviors via
Biweekly 2, 3, 4
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Method(s) Timing Critical behaviors
supported
informal observations in the
classroom.

Administration sends out
surveys to gather feedback
from all stakeholders about
the efficacy of the systems
in place to support teachers
in their instruction.

Bi-annually (at the end of each
semester)
2, 3, 4

Organizational Support
Based on the recommendations outlined in the previous tables, school site administration
should support the teachers’ performance of critical behaviors in various ways. First, the
administration should revisit its existing systems, policies, and procedures to ensure that all align
to support teachers and ultimately the students’ achievement in science. Second, the
administration should collect feedback from all stakeholders about ways to improve student
learning and achievement in science. The feedback will then be used to plan and implement
future changes to the school. Time will need to be allotted for administration and teachers to
collaborate and discuss changes or improvements that will work for and benefit all stakeholders.
Time for teachers to collaborate during staff meetings or PLCs will also need to be given. Once
goals have been developed, they should be rolled out in stages to ensure successful
implementation. This will allow for monitoring and adjustment of the program as testing
indicates the need for modifications. Finally, the school should offer flexibility in scheduling for
meetings, mentoring, workshops, and interventions to meet the needs of teachers and
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stakeholders involved, thereby ensuring that meetings and collaboration around student
achievement and goal setting in science can occur.
Level 2: Learning
The Kirkpatrick new world model Level Two centers on the learning of the participants.
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) define learning as the extent to which participants obtain the
planned knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment from participating in the
training. Knowledge and skills, based on this definition, are a participants’ understanding of what
they need to do and how they are going to do it. Attitude, confidence, and commitment refer to a
participant’s feelings towards the learning goals as well as their willingness and motivation to
continue applying what they have learned. At this level all evaluation should be formative in
nature and interwoven with the activities in the learning program.
Learning Goals
Every learning program must begin with a list of goals that a participant will accomplish
after completing the learning activities. These goals are to be the basis of evaluation for learning
and every activity in the program should be designed to help meet them. Using the Kirkpatrick
New world model and the recommendations and solutions proposed in the KMO tables in
Chapter 4, a learning program will be outlined below.
Following the Program described below, teachers will be able to do the following:
● State the content standards relevant to the grade level(s) they teach.
● Describe appropriate instructional practices for teaching all four levels of knowledge.
● Integrate NGSS, common core standards, and instructional practices in lesson plans.
● Assess student learning using both formative and summative assessments.
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● Demonstrate confidence in planning daily lessons using appropriate instructional
practices
● Demonstrate confidence in building student self-efficacy by persisting in establishing
an inclusive and engaging classroom environment
● Demonstrate value in assessment by choosing to integrate frequent assessment
strategies
● Demonstrate value in the California Science Test by choosing to integrate test
preparation activities on a regular basis.
Program
In order to increase and support the knowledge and skills needed to meet the learning
goals outlined above, teachers will need to participate in training throughout the school year.
While training sessions will have a different focus and activities, the training offered will cover
student achievement in science and how it relates to teachers. The training sessions and related
materials will be outlined in this section.
At the beginning of the school year, three days of professional development will be set
aside for teachers to frontload new information and allow time to practice new skills. While the
format of each professional development day will be similar, each day will focus on one of the
following elements: curriculum, classroom environment, and assessment. Each day will begin
with a presentation on the area of focus by a peer science teacher, administrator, or outside
professional. The purpose of each presentation is to provide factual information such as
information about the standards, strategies for instruction and lesson planning, case studies,
scenarios, etc. After learning the information provided in each presentation, teachers will have
the opportunity to review what they have learned by completing application activities. Some of
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these activities will include designing a lesson plan, curriculum mapping, creating assessments
for the resource library, lesson study, classroom analysis, etc. While working on such application
activities, teachers will be able to work independently as well as collaboratively with other
science teachers in their grade level or department.
After completing the initial training, teachers will sign up for a Professional Learning
Community (PLC) and attend collaboration meetings once a month. The meetings may be
planned in advance to review a specific topic or they can have an open format where members
decide the topics of discussion and use time to work on tasks. The time and location for each of
these meetings should be integrated into the school calendar as best as possible in order to
increase participation from teachers. At the end of every meeting, teachers in each PLC should
leave with a list of goals to accomplish in the following month until the next collaboration
meeting.
The final step of the program is peer mentoring between science teachers at the school
site. Each teacher will be assigned a mentor teacher and administrator to meet with on a regular
basis throughout the school year. The purpose of the mentoring program is to help each teacher
monitor their progress towards their goal selected at the PLC meeting. After a teacher has
selected a goal for the month, they will meet with their peer mentor and/or administrator to
discuss an action plan for meeting their goal. Part of the action plan will require that the teacher
and mentor decide on observable indicators that will allow them to tell if they are meeting their
intended goal. Peer mentors and/or administrators will then conduct biweekly informal
classroom observations to identify the indicators previously discussed and determine whether or
not the teacher is on track to meet their goal. After each informal observation, teacher and
mentor will meet to discuss any revisions to their action plan for the next observation. The cycle
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of collaboration, planning, goal setting, and feedback through mentoring will continue for the
duration of the school year.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
To ensure that teachers are making progress towards their performance goals, formative
evaluation must be integrated into the program implementation. Table 68 details the evaluation
methods and timing to be used in order to assess declarative knowledge, procedural skills,
attitude, confidence, and commitment of teachers throughout the program.

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Table 68
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or activity(ies) Timing
Declarative knowledge: “I know it.”
Pre/Post Test Before and after training
Digital mini-quizzes and polls

During training
Small group discussion and pair-shares

During training
Knowledge checks through discussion

During training
Procedural skills: “I can do it right now.”
Work collaboratively to complete a lesson plan
using the information from Teacher
Resources page on school website

During training
Contribute ideas to the assessment library During and after training

Complete a webquest on the Department of
Education website to find information
relevant to science teachers

During training
Design one alternative assessment using NGSS
performance expectations

During training
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre/Post Survey to determine if the value for
creating inclusive classrooms, building self-
efficacy and test preparation has increased as
a result of the training

Before and after training
Observation of engagement with the program
activities and tools

During training
Table discussion on value and rationale During training

Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Small group discussion about concerns and
obstacles to implementation

During training
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Method(s) or activity(ies) Timing
Mentorship and coaching, both by peers and
administrators

During and after training
Post-training survey asking about confidence
in supporting student achievement

After training
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
Creating an action plan for how resources and
knowledge will be used to support student
achievement

After training
Monitoring teacher’s use of the systems After training

Group discussion of any barriers to
implementation and ways to get around them
During training

Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) explain Level 1 of evaluation as the extent to which
participants find the training program engaging, relevant, and important. In other words, Level
One is a method of quickly and efficiently getting information to confirm the quality of the
program and instructor. Often, the more positive the reaction towards a program, the more likely
that it will be implemented (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 69 uses this framework and
outlines tools that will evaluate teacher engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction to the
learning program outlined above.

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Table 69
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Observation of teacher participation in
discussions, activities, and collaboration time

During training
Asking meaningful questions During training

Training evaluation After training

Relevance
Digital Poll During training

Training Evaluation After Training

Customer satisfaction
Training Evaluation After training

Evaluation Tools
In their model, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) highlight the importance of immediate
and delayed evaluation tools. Immediate evaluation tools are those that are used right after a
workshop or training session and assess Level 1 and 2 to gauge participant reactions and
understanding of learning. Meanwhile, delayed evaluation tools are those which are used once
individuals finish the entire program and have had an opportunity to apply what they have
learned to their work. Therefore, delayed evaluation tools focus on assessing Levels 3 and 4 of
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s new world model.
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
To assess Levels 1 and 2 for the training sessions on instruction, assessment, and
classroom environment, a post-training, anonymous survey will be completed by each participant
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(see Appendix E). Level 1 will be assessed through customer satisfaction questions in which
participants will rate the knowledge and activities provided through the program and how likely
they are to implement the program in their day-to-day work. Participants will also respond to a
retrospective pre/post questionnaire. Survey items from the initial study survey will be used in
order to evaluate their change in understanding after completing the program. These evaluation
tools will combine to assess the reaction and learning of participants immediately after the
training session.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
A survey evaluating program effectiveness will be administered twice during the school
year: once 3 months after the initial training, and again at the end of the school year (see
Appendix F). This timeline will provide formative feedback and allow for administration to
adjust the program if necessary after three months. This will also provide summative feedback
about the program and will assess the overall effectiveness of the program once the full year is
complete. The survey will assess Levels 1 through 4, that is, the reactions, learnings, behaviors,
and results based on the implementation of the program. In addition to the survey, administration
and peer mentors will monitor critical behaviors through classroom observations. Data gathered
through these observations will inform the development of additional workshops and
interventions that are needed for teachers to have success with improving student achievement in
their science classroom. These evaluation tools will combine to provide an overall analysis of the
degree to which the training program was successful.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Data gathered from the evaluation tools will be combined with data on student scores on
the CAST and number of students enrolled in science courses to determine the overall
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effectiveness of the program. In order to report this back to teachers and other stakeholders and
community members, all data will be reported on a dashboard which will be posted on the school
website. The dashboard will visually display the progress made after training and will compare
prior years’ data with the current year’s data so as to show the changes that occurred after
implementation of the program. Additionally, results from the Level 1, 2 and 3 evaluation tools
will be reported after the initial 3-month implementation period and at the end of the year. The
dashboard is shown in Appendix G. In addition to posting the results on the school’s website, the
school will also report any findings and updates in newsletter and communications that are
distributed to community members.
Limitations and Delimitations
While there was a great effort to maintain validity, reliability, trustworthiness, and rigor
in the study, there were some limitations and delimitations. There were three primary limitations
in this study: researcher occupation, snowball sampling, and low study participation. First, at the
time of this study, the researcher was also a science teacher so researcher bias might have
impacted data analysis and reporting. While efforts were made to limit researcher influence by
having a proxy complete data collection, the researcher’s role as a science teacher could have
had some impact on the study and should be recognized in the reading of the results. Secondly,
because snowball sampling was used and participation in the study was voluntary, self-selection
bias was present. Snowball sampling allowed for more teachers to be recruited but made it
difficult to collect demographic data on participants and their schools. Therefore, while there is a
wide range of schools represented by the teachers who volunteered, there were many teachers
who did not choose to participate in the study. Finally, overall participation in the study was low,
presumably because of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. While a larger number of
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teachers chose to complete the online survey, only three were interviewed, thus narrowing the
insight into a larger stakeholder population. For this reason, generalizability of this study,
recommendations and programming to a larger population would be more difficult.
Delimitations are those factors, variables, and constructs that are intentionally left out of
the study and can impact external validity. The scope of this study was delimited to middle
school science teachers and chose not to include administrators, students, parents, or other school
personnel who may have interactions with students and support student achievement. This choice
was made so as to conduct a thorough analysis of the stakeholder who has the most influence and
direct impact on student performance. However, this may have excluded some external support
within the school that could impact overall student achievement. Furthermore, the research
conducted was a case study of middle school teachers in the Greater Los Angeles area. While
demographics and student populations vary at each school site, the findings of this study cannot
be easily generalized to other populations and settings throughout the state of California without
further research.
Recommendations for Future Research
The focus of this study was to understand the promising practices that contribute to the
academic success of students in science at middle schools throughout the state of California so
that similar schools could benefit from the knowledge and implement promising strategies at
their own sites. This study highlighted the benefits of certain knowledge, motivation, and
organizational supports that aid teachers in raising student achievement in science. However, the
research was limited in scope and future research is necessary to gather more data using a variety
of collection methods and recruit more participants to be able to generalize findings to a larger
population.
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The research in this study uncovered that one of the largest areas of variability amongst
teachers is the types of organizational support available. This information suggests that
stakeholders depend on their school, administrators, and fellow teachers to continue with their
own work in the classroom. Further research should be done to validate and understand different
teachers within different school systems and structures and determine how this impacts student
achievement. Specifically, more information should be gathered on school demographics such as
student socioeconomic status (SES) and ethnicity. By collecting this data, it would be possible to
further analyze promising practices and look for any patterns amongst schools with similar
structures.
Finally, the research revealed the importance of studying stakeholders using a variety of
methods. Had only surveys been used in this study, many knowledge and motivation items
would have been perceived as areas of inquiry for further investigation. Nevertheless, because of
the ongoing pandemic and use of distance learning, classroom observations were not plausible at
the time of this study. However, future research should include collecting data through a variety
of methods, such as observations and document analysis, in order to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of the factors that can influence teacher behaviors and impact
student achievement.
Conclusion
A student’s success and experiences with science instruction, particularly at the middle
school age, can directly affect their interest in the subject and their desire to pursue a career in
science. However, all across the state there are teachers who strive to make their science
classroom a place of learning and exploration in order to support student achievement.
Therefore, a case study of middle school science teachers was done to understand the promising
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practices that have contributed to student success. Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Framework
(2008) was used to survey and interview the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences that impact student achievement in science.
Data collection and analysis revealed that most knowledge and motivation influences
proved to be assets except in the areas of assessment. Furthermore, most organizational
influences were found to be areas for improvement. Responses to surveys and interviews show
that teachers have a good knowledge and understanding of the standards so that they can apply
them to plan for instruction. Additionally, teachers are well versed in the variety of instructional
practices that can be used to teach different knowledge types to their science students. There still
remains some hesitation and reservations when it comes to confidence in such knowledge and
instructional practices, however. Many teachers also express finding value in good instructional
strategies and assessments in the classroom but lack the motivation and organizational support to
implement them well in the classroom. The data implies that teachers have the drive to better
prepare their students for science, especially for the California Science Test. However, in order
to do so they must have the appropriate resources, professional development, and opportunities
for collaboration in order to prove successful. Nevertheless, the underlying strength of the
promising practices at middle schools and one of the many reasons why students remain engaged
in science classrooms is that teachers are very knowledgeable in the areas of instructional design
and classroom environment, are motivated to try their best for their students, and seek out
resources on their own.
In order to further develop this connection and improve on the practices already
established at most middle schools, the KMO results were used to provide recommendations for
providing access to training and for making strategies for student success more accessible. A
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learning program was then designed using Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) new world
model for evaluation. The methods and tools for evaluation were outlines for implementation
over the course of a school year. The goal of this proposed program is to continue to develop
practices that ensure students will learn science effectively and will be successful enough that
they will have interest in pursuing science in the future. Using a training, mentoring, and
continuous feedback model for learning about assessments and classroom strategies will ensure
that teachers have the resources necessary to provide engaging and well-designed lessons.
Adopting such a program would require that school administration and teachers be intentional in
their professional development and continue to follow up at multiple points in the year. While
this might seem difficult at first, the rewards of providing such a program for science teachers
would be vast and would begin to reflect in the school’s performance and student interest in such
subjects. The more students finish middle school with a good science experience, then the more
that are likely to continue on into STEM careers.
Overall, this study highlighted the importance of preparation, collaboration, and
opportunities for practice around instructional practices and assessments for teachers in order to
provide effective science instruction to students. Similar middle schools can utilize the existing
practices and suggested recommendations explained in this study to help support their students’
achievement. Further research regarding the similarities and differences between similar school
systems and the influences for teachers and other stakeholders is recommended to further the
body of knowledge in understanding the variables that impact student performance in science.

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Appendix A: Teacher Survey Protocol
Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
Declarative factual
Teachers know the Next Generation
Science Standards relevant for their grade
level and where to access them.
What is the preferred Next Generation Science
Standards (NGSS) model for middle schools
in California?
A. Integrated Learning Progression Model
*
B. Discipline Specific Model
Where can you access the NGSS framework?
(Fill in the blank)
Teachers know the instructional practices
and pedagogy that are most relevant for
teaching the appropriate knowledge types
for science.
Which of the following is the most appropriate
instructional activity when teaching students
new science vocabulary?
A. students practice memorization
B. students create a visual representation *
C. students copy definition
Which of the following is the most appropriate
instructional activity when teaching students
new scientific processes?
A. create opportunities for students to
engage in model building
B. provide students with visual models
C. allow students to engage in discovery
learning
D. all of the above *
Which of the following is the most appropriate
instructional activity when teaching students
new scientific procedures? Select all that
apply.
A. demonstrate steps by modeling
B. give students opportunities for practice
C. provide feedback
D. All of the above*
Which of the following is the most appropriate
instructional activity when teaching students
to reflect on their learning?
A. write lab reports
228

Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
B. observation journal
C. explaining to others
D. All of the above*
Teachers know strategies that help create
an inclusive classroom environment.
Which of the following strategies would help to
create an inclusive classroom environment?
A. Provide accommodations for students
with disabilities.
B. Use multiple and diverse examples
based on student experiences.
C. Model inclusive language.
D. All of these *
Teachers know strategies that help create
an engaging classroom environment.
Which of the following strategies would help to
create an engaging classroom environment?
(Select all that apply)
A. Incorporate gradual release of
responsibility *
B. Use only the content provided in a
textbook
C. Incorporate collaborative learning *
D. Provide only direct instruction
E. Personalize instruction to your students'
interests and abilities *
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers are able to group together related
standards and instructional activities to
plan for instruction.
Which of the following disciplinary core ideas
(DCIs) best fits the following instructional
segment? A cell, a person, and planet Earth
are each a system made up of subsystems.
A. Energy input from the Sun varies with
latitude, creating patterns in climate.
B. Energy transfers from hot materials to
cold materials.
C. All living things are made of cells. *
Teachers know how creating an inclusive
classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
What effect does creating an inclusive
classroom environment have on students?
(Select two).
229

Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
A. It creates a sense of belonging. *
B. It provides students with access to
flexible learning choices. *
C. It increases the rigor for students.
D. Increases engagement.
Teachers know how creating an engaging
classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
What effect does creating an engaging
classroom environment have on students?
A. It increases student attention and focus.
B. It motivates students to practice higher
order thinking.
C. It promotes meaningful learning
experiences
D. All of the above *
Procedural
Teachers know how to integrate grade-level
content standards into curriculum and
instruction.
You are being asked to design a unit which will
teach students that all living and nonliving
things are made of atoms.

Which of the following concepts would fit best
within this instructional segment? (select all
that apply)
A. Organisms are made of molecules of
mostly six different elements. *
B. Damage from natural hazards can be
reduced.
C. Mass is conserved in physical changes
and chemical reactions.
D. The interaction and motions of atoms
explain the properties of matter. *
E. Earth materials are mostly made of
eight different elements. *
Teachers know how to apply instructional
practices and relevant pedagogy to design
daily lessons that meet intended
standards.
Suppose you have decided to plan a lesson that
will introduce students to the most common
elements found on Earth. Which of the
following instructional practices would be
appropriate for the lesson? (Select all that
apply)
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Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
A. Activate/access prior knowledge of
elements *
B. Design activities that will appeal to all
learning styles
C. Give a lecture about the history of
elements
D. Create opportunities for feedback*
E. Have students work together to create
an infographic on the 6 common
elements*
F. Have students perform an experiment to
test the properties of certain elements
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to stimulate student interest.
Which of the following activities would be
appropriate to stimulate interest for a lesson
on elements? (Select all that apply)
A. Share a song about elements written to
the tune of a popular song*
B. Reference the use of elements in pop
culture (i.e., T shirts, coffee mugs,
advertisements, etc.)*
C. Have students read from the textbook
D. Give students time to pair-share what
they remember from the day before
E. Perform a class demonstration using
sample elements*
F. Have a scientist guest lecture on
elemental properties
G. Show students a documentary on
elements
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to increase student self-
efficacy.
Which of the following strategies would NOT
be appropriate for increasing self-efficacy in
your students?
A. Use broad, long-term learning goals*
B. Keep tasks relevant and interesting
C. Incorporate both guided and
collaborative learning
D. Scaffold assignments to provide early
support
231

Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
Teachers know how to integrate different
types of assessments and provide
effective feedback to monitor student
progress and prepare students for the
California Science Test.
How might you assess a student’s knowledge
during class? (Select all that apply)
A. Exit Slips *
B. Think-Alouds *
C. Project
D. Pair/Share*
E. Questioning*
F. Unit Exam
G. Polls *
Other than a quiz or exam, how might you
assess a student’s knowledge at the end of a
unit? (Select all that apply)
A. Assign a culminating project
B. Have students perform a lab
C. Assign a self-reflection for students to
discuss their performance*
D. Have students create a resource (i.e.,
children’s book, game, notebook
activity) that could be used to teach
someone else about the topic*
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
daily lessons, instructional practices, and
pedagogy.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness
of your daily lessons, instructional practices
and pedagogy?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
their classroom environment on student
motivation.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness
of your classroom environment and
curriculum on motivating students?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never
232

Assumed knowledge influences Survey items
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
regular feedback and assessments on
student achievement.
How often do you reflect on the effectiveness
of your feedback to students?
A. Always
B. Often
C. Almost never
D. Never

Assumed motivation influences Survey items
Value
On a scale from 1–5 (1= Strongly disagree
and 5=Strongly agree), how much do you
agree with the following statement?
Teachers value teaching grade-level content
according to Next Generation Science
Standards, CDE Framework, and
Common Core standards.
I value teaching the content that is
appropriate for my grade level according
to Next Generation Science Standards.
Teachers value planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
I value planning daily lessons to ensure I
meet intended standards while using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
Teachers value having an inclusive
classroom environment.

I value having an inclusive classroom
environment.
Teachers value having an engaging
classroom environment.
I value having an engaging classroom
environment.
Teachers value providing regular feedback
and assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
I value providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
my students’ progress.
Self-efficacy
233

Assumed motivation influences Survey items
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being cannot at all
to 5 being highly certain can do), rate your
degree of confidence in doing the following
as of right now:
Teachers are confident about teaching
grade level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
teach the content for my grade level
according to Next Generation Science
Standards

use the California Department of Education
(CDE) science curriculum framework for
middle school apply the science-specific
common core standards into my
curriculum
Teachers are confident about planning daily
lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
plan daily lessons

use appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy
Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.
establish and maintain an inclusive
classroom environment

Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an engaging classroom
environment.

establish and maintain an engaging
classroom environment
Teachers are confident about providing
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
provide regular feedback
conduct assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress
Teachers are confident about preparing
students for the California Science Test in
8th grade.
prepare students for the California Science
Test in 8th grade.
Mood
On a scale from 1–5 (1= Strongly disagree
and 5=Strongly agree), how much do you
agree with the following statement?
234

Assumed motivation influences Survey items
Teachers feel positive about teaching grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
I feel comfortable teaching the content for
my grade level according to Next
Generation Science Standards.
Teachers feel positive about planning daily
lesson lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.
I feel comfortable planning daily lesson
lessons and using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy to
meet intended standards.
Teachers feel positive about establishing
and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.
I feel comfortable establishing and
maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment and curriculum.
Teachers feel positive about stimulating
interest in the subject/topics.
I feel effective in stimulating my student's
interest in the subject/topics to be
covered.
Teachers feel positive about building
student self-efficacy.
I feel effective in building my student’s
self-efficacy.
Teachers feel positive about providing
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
I feel providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis is
worthwhile to monitor student progress.
Teachers feel positive about preparing
students for the California Science Test in
8th grade.
I feel it is important to prepare students for
the California Science Test in 8th grade.
Attribution
On a scale from 1–5 (1= Strongly disagree
and 5=Strongly agree), how much do you
agree with the following statement?
Teachers believe the success or failure of
teaching grade-level content according to
the Next Generation science standards,
CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards
is in their control.
I believe that teaching grade-level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards is within my control.
235

Assumed motivation influences Survey items
Teachers believe the success or failure of
planning daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy is in their control.
I believe that planning daily lessons using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy is within my control.
Teachers believe that the success or failure
of establishing and maintaining an
inclusive classroom environment is in
their control.
I believe that establishing and maintaining
an inclusive classroom environment is
within my control.
I believe that establishing and maintaining
an inclusive curriculum is within my
control.
Teachers believe the success or failure of
stimulating interest is in their control.
I believe that creating interest in the subject
matter is within my control.
Teachers believe the success or failure of
increasing self-efficacy is in their control.
I believe that increasing my student's self-
efficacy is within my control.
Teachers believe the success or failure of
providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress is in their control.
I believe that providing regular feedback
and monitoring student progress is within
my control.
Teachers believe the success or failure of
preparing students for the California
Science Test in 8th grade is in their
control.
I believe that preparing my students for the
8th grade California Science Test is
within my control.

Assumed organization influences Survey items
Resources
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly
disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how
much to you agree with the following
statements:
236

Teachers use time and allocated money to
attend professional development and
training.

I use my time and allocate money to
attend professional development and
trainings.
Teachers access additional resources and
classroom support through instructional
or curriculum specialists.
I access additional resources and
classroom support through
instructional and curriculum specialists
at my school.
Policies, Processes, & Procedures
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly
disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how
much to you agree with the following
statements:
Procedures that are in place to teach grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards
align with school and district policies.
My school requires that teachers use the
NGSS to teach grade level content.
Procedures that are in place to plan daily
lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy align with school and district
policies.
My school requires that teachers create
daily lesson plans using appropriate
instructional strategies to meet their
intended standards.
Procedures that are in place to maintain
student motivation by stimulating interest
and self-efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and
curriculum align with school and district
policies.
My school requires that teachers use
strategies to create an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and
curriculum.
Procedures that are in place to provide
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress
and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade align with
school and district policies.
My school has procedures in place to
collect and provide regular feedback to
monitor student progress.

My school has procedures in place to
collect regular data and provide
feedback to prepare students for the 8th
grade Science Test.
237

Culture model
On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly
disagree to 5 being Strongly agree), how
much to you agree with the following
statements:
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers who teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
There is a culture of collaboration
amongst teachers who teach the same
grade level content according to the
NGSS.
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
There is a culture of collaboration
amongst science teachers to plan daily
lessons and use appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to maintain student motivation
by stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to create inclusive and
engaging environments and
curriculum.
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
There is a culture of collaboration
amongst teachers to plan regular
feedback and assessments to monitor
student progress.
Culture Setting (incentives; rewards;
recognition, etc.)

On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being Strongly
disagree to 5 being Strongly agree),
how much to you agree with the
following statements:
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
My school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to use the NGSS for
instruction.
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
My school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to plan daily lessons
238

intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
using appropriate instructional
practices.
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to maintain student motivation
by stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.
My school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to create inclusive
and engaging classrooms and
curriculum.
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
My school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to provide regular
feedback to students.

My school has systems in place to
motivate teachers to prepare students
for the 8th grade California Science
Test.

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Appendix B: Teacher Interview Protocol
Assumed knowledge influences Interview items
Declarative factual
Teachers know the Next Generation Science
Standards relevant for their grade level
and where to access them.
Which standards do you use to teach
science?

Where can you access these
standards/frameworks if you need to
refer to them?
Teachers know the instructional practices
and pedagogy that are most relevant for
teaching the appropriate knowledge types
for science.
Can you describe to me what sort of
strategies you might use to do the
following: introduce new vocabulary at
the beginning of a unit? teach a scientific
process (such as the water cycle,
photosynthesis, etc)? teach students how
to design their own experiment? help
students reflect on their thinking during
an activity or lab?
Teachers know strategies that help create an
inclusive classroom environment.
How would you describe your classroom
environment?

What strategies do you use to create this
environment?
Teachers know strategies that help create an
engaging classroom environment.
What strategies do you use regularly in
your classroom? How do you think these
strategies help all learners?
Declarative Conceptual
Teachers are able to group together related
standards and instructional activities to
plan for instruction.
Can you walk me through your planning
process? Where do you gather resources
and materials to plan? Give me an
example of a lesson you have planned
recently.
Teachers know how creating an inclusive
classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
Think of a lesson in which you feel that
you were successful in creating an
inclusive environment. What effect did
this have on your students? How do you
know?
240

Assumed knowledge influences Interview items

Teachers know how creating an engaging
classroom environment influences student
outcomes.
Tell me about a time when your students
were really excited to do something in
your class. What about disengaged?
What things do you think impacted their
emotions?
Procedural
Teachers know how to integrate grade-level
content standards into curriculum and
instruction.
You are being asked to design a unit which
will teach students that all living and
nonliving things are made of atoms.

How do you integrate grade-level content
standards into your curriculum and
instruction for this unit?
Teachers know how to apply instructional
practices and relevant pedagogy to design
daily lessons that meet intended standards.
How do you apply instructional practices
and relevant pedagogy to design daily
lessons that meet intended standards?
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to stimulate student interest.
You notice that your students are becoming
disengaged in a lesson, what strategies
would you use to re-engage them?
Teachers know how to apply appropriate
strategies to increase student self-efficacy.
If you see that your students are struggling
with the content in a unit what would you
do?
Teachers know how to integrate different
types of assessments and provide effective
feedback to monitor student progress and
prepare students for the California Science
Test.
How do you gauge how much your
students know after a lesson? after a
unit?

Students are required to take the California
Science Test in 8th grade. How do you
prepare students to take this exam?
Metacognitive
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of daily
lessons, instructional practices, and
pedagogy.
After completing a lesson, what is your
process for deciding whether or not the
instructional activities are working?
241

Assumed knowledge influences Interview items
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of their
classroom environment on student
motivation.
How do you perceive your classroom
environment impacts student motivation?
Teachers reflect on the effectiveness of
regular feedback and assessments on
student achievement.
If you had to give advice to a new teacher
about monitoring student progress on a
regular basis, what advice would you
give?

Assumed motivation influences Interview items
Value
Teachers value teaching grade-level content
according to Next Generation Science
Standards, CDE Framework, and Common
Core standards.
How important is it that you teach your
content according to the Next Generation
Science Standards?

Why do you feel this way?
Teachers value planning daily lessons to
meet intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.
What value do you assign to selecting
appropriate instructional strategies for
your daily lesson planning?

What example could you provide me to
exemplify your thinking?
Teachers value having an inclusive
classroom environment.

How important is it to you that you create
an inclusive classroom environment?
Why do you feel this way?
Teachers value having an engaging
classroom environment.
How important is it to you that you create
an engaging classroom environment for
your students?

Why do you feel this way?
242

Assumed motivation influences Interview items
Teachers value providing regular feedback
and assessments on a weekly basis to
monitor student progress.
How do you monitor student progress?
What example could you provide me to
exemplify your thinking?
Teachers value preparing students for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.
What importance do you place on
preparing your students for the California
Science Test?

Why do you feel this way?
Self-efficacy
Teachers are confident about teaching grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
Let’s say you are required to teach your
content according to the NGSS, science
framework, and common core standards.
How confident do you feel planning your
curriculum this way? Why?

What impacts your confidence in being
able to use these sets of standards?
Teachers are confident about planning daily
lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy.
Tell me about a time in which you felt
confident that you were using appropriate
instructional practices to plan a lesson or
unit of study.

Now tell me about a time in which you did
not feel confident that you were planning
a lesson using the appropriate
instructional practices?

What do you think might influence your
confidence with regards to lesson
planning using appropriate instructional
practices?
Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.
Often, many classrooms have diverse
student populations. You can have
students from different ethnicities,
various backgrounds, and even different
abilities (i.e., English Learners, Gifted,
students with disabilities). How confident
243

Assumed motivation influences Interview items
are you that you can create and maintain
an inclusive classroom environment for
your students?

Why do you feel this way?
Teachers are confident about establishing
and maintaining an engaging classroom
environment.

While each student might react to each
lesson differently, how confident are you
in creating an engaging classroom
environment?

What examples could you provide to
illustrate your thoughts?
Teachers are confident about providing
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress.
How confident are you in providing regular
feedback to your students?
Teachers are confident about preparing
students for the California Science Test in
8th grade.
How confident are you in preparing your
students for the California Science Test?
What might impact your confidence in
preparing them for the test?
Mood
Teachers feel positive about teaching grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards.
How do you feel about planning instruction
for your students?

Why do you feel this way?

Teachers feel positive about planning daily
lesson lessons to meet intended standards
using appropriate instructional practices
and pedagogy.

Teachers feel positive about establishing and
maintaining an inclusive classroom
environment.

Teachers feel positive about stimulating
interest in the subject/topics.

244

Assumed motivation influences Interview items
Teachers feel positive about building student
self-efficacy.

Teachers feel positive about providing regular
feedback and assessments on a weekly
basis to monitor student progress.

Teachers feel positive about preparing
students for the California Science Test in
8th grade.

Attribution
Teachers believe the success or failure of
teaching grade-level content according to
the Next Generation science standards,
CDE science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards is
in their control.
A new science teacher has joined your staff
and is curious about curriculum planning
for her class. She wants to know about
how much of the lesson planning will be
her responsibility. What response would
you give her? Why?
Teachers believe the success or failure of
planning daily lessons to meet intended
standards using appropriate instructional
practices and pedagogy is in their control.

Teachers believe that the success or failure
of establishing and maintaining an
inclusive classroom environment is in
their control.

Teachers believe the success or failure of y
stimulating interest is in their control.

Teachers believe the success or failure of
increasing self-efficacy is in their control.

Teachers believe the success or failure of
providing regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress is in their control.

Teachers believe the success or failure of
preparing students for the California
Science Test in 8th grade is in their
control.

245

Assumed organization influences Interview items
Resources
Teachers use time and allocated money to
attend professional development and
training.

What sorts of resources would you turn to
if you need additional support with your
curriculum and instruction?
Teachers access additional resources and
classroom support through instructional or
curriculum specialists.

Policies, processes, & procedures
Procedures that are in place to teach grade
level content according to the Next
Generation science standards, CDE
science curriculum framework, and
science specific common core standards
align with school and district policies.

Procedures that are in place to plan daily
lessons to meet intended standards using
appropriate instructional practices and
pedagogy align with school and district
policies.
If you have a student who is struggling with
your class, what steps, if any, would you
take to help the student?

What steps, if any, would the school take to
help the student?

Procedures that are in place to maintain
student motivation by stimulating interest
and self-efficacy through an inclusive and
engaging classroom environment and
curriculum align with school and district
policies.

Procedures that are in place to provide
regular feedback and assessments on a
weekly basis to monitor student progress

246

Assumed organization influences Interview items
and prepare them for the California
Science Test in 8th grade align with
school and district policies.
Culture model
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers who teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
Some people would say that there is a
culture of collaboration amongst teachers.
Do you agree or disagree with this
statement?

Why do you feel this way?
There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.

There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.

There is a culture of collaboration among
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.

Culture setting
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to teach grade level content
according to the Next Generation science
standards, CDE science curriculum
framework, and science specific common
core standards.
What systems are in place, if any, to
motivate teachers to design lessons that
use appropriate instructional practices to
meet intended standards?
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to plan daily lessons to meet
intended standards using appropriate
instructional practices and pedagogy.

247

Assumed organization influences Interview items
The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to maintain student motivation by
stimulating interest and self-efficacy
through an inclusive and engaging
classroom environment and curriculum.

The school has systems in place to motivate
teachers to provide regular feedback and
assessments on a weekly basis to monitor
student progress and prepare them for the
California Science Test in 8th grade.

248

Appendix C: Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089

STEM Education in Middle School: A Promising Practices Study
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to identify and synthesize promising practices in middle school science instruction
that can lead to increased motivation and achievement in students. The analysis will focus on
the assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources.
Recommendations from this study will be shared with teachers who wish to replicate the results
with their own students.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a survey and/or interview
to share your perspectives on the various knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that increase a teacher’s ability to increase motivation and achievement amongst their students.
All surveys will be de-identified to maintain confidentiality amongst participants.

249

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address or other identifiable information will not be collected.

Required language:
The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
The Principal Investigator is Sarah Maria Peraza [speraza@usc.edu, 562-916-5548.]
The Faculty Advisor is Dr. Kenneth Yates, kennetay@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

250

Appendix D: Recruitment Letter
Dear Teacher,

Hello! My name is Sarah Peraza and I am currently pursuing my Doctoral degree at Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California (USC). I am conducting a study
titled STEM Education in Middle School: A Promising Practices Study. The purpose of this
study is to identify and synthesize promising practices amongst middle school science
teachers that lead to increased motivation and achievement in STEM.

You are receiving this letter because you have been selected to participate in a survey and/or
interview. The surveys are completely anonymous and all interviews will de-identify
participants in order to maintain confidentiality. Your insight and participation in this study
would be greatly appreciated and especially valuable as it is your work and involvement that
contributes to your students’ success.

If you choose to participate in the survey, it should take no longer than 20 minutes. The survey
will be completed online and will not collect any identifying information from you, keeping your
responses completely anonymous. The survey items are intended to help develop an
understanding of the ways in which teachers are able to successfully improve student motivation
and achievement within their science classroom.

For those who choose to participate in the interviews, they will be conducted by Ms. Jessica
Jordan-Ortega, who is also a Doctoral candidate at USC. You will be interviewed via Zoom
251

during a time that you schedule with Ms. Jordan-Ortega. The interview is meant to gain a
deeper understanding of your experiences teaching middle school science. The interview should
take approximately 30-45 minutes to complete. All interview participants will receive a $15
dollar Amazon gift card.

If you are interested in participating in this study, please access the link for the survey below.
Once again, your time and insight is greatly appreciated!

Sincerely,

Sarah M. Peraza

[Survey Link- this will be updated]

252

Appendix E: Post-Training Survey
Directions: Thank you for taking the time to attend today’s training session. Please take a
moment to answer these questions truthfully. Your honest feedback will help provide future
training that is meaningful and relevant to you.

1. Circle your response to the following statement:
This training held my interest.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

2. Circle your response to the following statement:
The training objectives were clearly defined. (L1)

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

3. Circle your response to the following statement:
The topics covered today are applicable to my role as a teacher.

253

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

4. Circle your response to the following statement:
This content was well organized and easy to follow.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

5. Circle your response to the following statement:
The information learned during this workshop has provided me the skills to support
my students’ achievement in science.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

6. Circle your response to the following statement:
The materials, website, and handouts offered to me during the training today help
me to understand how to access information necessary to support my students.
254

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

7. Circle your response to the following statement:
I will apply what I learned today throughout my time at this school.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

8. Which new skills or strategies that you learned today will you apply during your time at
this school?
9. How do you plan to apply these skills or strategies?
10. Please provide any additional feedback below. If you have any questions, ideas for future
training and/or concerns, feel free to include them here.

255

Appendix F: Delayed Use Evaluation Survey
Directions: Thank you for taking the time to attend today’s training session. Please take a
moment to answer these questions truthfully. Your honest feedback will help provide future
training that is meaningful and relevant to you.

1. Circle your response to the following statement:
Overall, I found the training, workshops, PLCs, and peer mentoring helpful in my
efforts to support student achievement in science. (L1)

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

2. Circle your response to the following statement:
Because of the training, workshops, PLCs, and peer mentoring, I will make sure to:
(a) create an action plan for how resources and knowledge will be used to
support student achievement
(b) access support when needed

(a) 1 2 3 4 5
(b) 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
agree

256

3. Circle your response to the following statement:
Because of the training, workshops, PLCs, and peer mentoring I feel confident in
my ability to support my students’ achievement in science.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

4. Using the rating scale, circle the rating that best describes your current level of application
of the learning from training for each listed behavior:

Little to no
application
Mild degree
of
application
Moderate
degree of
application
Strong
degree of
application
Very strong
dree of
application
Teach
grade-level
content
according
to the
appropriat
1 2 3 4 5
257

e
standards.
Plan daily
lessons to
meet
intended
standards
using
appropriat
e
instruction
al practices
and
pedagogy
1 2 3 4 5
Maintain
student
motivation
by
stimulating
interest and
self-efficacy
through an
1 2 3 4 5
258

inclusive
and
engaging
classroom
environment
and
curriculum.
Provide
regular
feedback
and
assessments
on a weekly
basis to
monitor
student
progress and
prepare them
for the
California
Science Test
in 8th grade.
1 2 3 4 5

259

5. What has helped you implement what you’ve learned from the training?

6. I have seen a positive impact in the following areas as a result of applying my learning from
the training (circle all that apply):
● Increased student scores on the CAST
● Increased science grades in students
● Increased student engagement in science
● Increased teacher collaboration
● Increased vertical alignment of science curriculum

7. Circle your response to the following statement:
The implementation of peer coaching and PLCs with relevant training has positively
impacted student achievement in science throughout my school site.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

8. Please provide additional feedback below. Include any questions, ideas for future
training, and/or concerns you may have. All feedback is anonymous and appreciated.

260

261

Appendix G: Data Dashboard for School Website and School Communications
Summative Results Dashboard
2019–2020
School Year
2020–2021
School Year
2021–2022
School Year
2022–2023
School Year
(Program
Implementation
Year)
Number of
students who
score
“Standard
Met” or
“Standard
Exceeded” on
the California
Science Test

Number of
students who
score
“Standard Not
Met” or
“Standard
Nearly Met”
on the CAST

Average number
of positive
mentions
within the
community

Enrollment

262

Critical Behaviors Dashboard
August 2022 December 2022 May 2023
Teachers teach
grade-level
content
according to
the appropriate
standards.

Teachers plan
daily lessons
to meet
intended
standards
using
appropriate
instructional
practices and
pedagogy

Teachers
maintain
student
motivation by
stimulating
interest and
self-efficacy
through an
inclusive and
engaging
classroom
environment
and
curriculum.

Teachers
provide
regular
feedback and
assessments on
a weekly basis
to monitor
student
progress and
prepare them
for the
California

263

Science Test in
8th grade.

Program Feedback Dashboard
August 2022 December 2022 May 2023
Teachers
engagement

Teacher
satisfaction

Teacher
confidence

Teacher
commitment

Note. These tables will be represented by bar graphs as data is collected.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract With the ever-growing demand for professionals in STEM careers, current projections indicate that we will not be able to fill the needs of the job market if nothing is done to stimulate more student interest in STEM. The purpose of this study was to identify the promising practices demonstrated by middle school science teachers that can lead to higher interest and achievement in students. Surveys and interviews were used to gather information from teachers across different middle schools in Southern California. Results showed that science teachers are very knowledgeable in the science standards and appropriate instructional methodology to create engaging lessons. However, teachers need more support in the areas of assessment and would benefit from routine feedback for professional growth. Based on these findings, the new world Kirkpatrick model was used to make recommendations for organizations to plan and implement an effective training program for teachers in assessment and instruction to improve student success.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gonzalez, Sarah Maria (author)

Core Title STEM education in middle school: a promising practices study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2022-12

Publication Date 12/14/2022

Defense Date 07/01/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag middle school,OAI-PMH Harvest,promising practices,Schools,Science,Science education,STEM,student interest,Teacher Education

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Freking, Frederick (committee member), Muraszewski, Alison (committee member)

Creator Email smperaza91@yahoo.com,speraza@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112620918

Unique identifier UC112620918

Identifier etd-GonzalezSa-11374.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-GonzalezSa-11374

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Gonzalez, Sarah Maria

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20221214-usctheses-batch-997 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu