Integrated student supports to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized students: a promising practice study

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Content INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS TO DECREASE INCIDENCES OF DROPOUT
AMONG MARGINALIZED STUDENTS:
A PROMISING PRACTICE STUDY

by

Rebecca Castle

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2022

Copyright 2022 Rebecca Castle
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
ii
Dedication
I dedicate this to my mom, my best friend, and my soulmate. She showed me true unconditional
love and poured into me so I may love and pour into others. I am the educator I am today
because of her.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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Acknowledgements
I want to thank my mom, for without her I could not have finished. She has been with me
for every difficult journey in my life pushing me and helping me to keep moving forward. She was
physically with me when this journey began, she finished it with me in spirit. I want to thank my
stepdad who chose to raise me. He taught me more than he will ever know. Like my mom he was
physically here when this journey began but finished it with me in spirit. Thank you to the best
dogs, Chloe, Tinkerbell, and Weasley, who gave me unconditional love while researching and
writing. A big thank you to my Fraser, who embodies the personalities of all three dogs in the
package of a cat. Fraser, you have cuddled in my arms while I was researching and writing, keeping
me calm through the process.
It takes a village and I have a village that I am most grateful for. My grandmother who has
always supported me in every endeavor and understood when I could not do things because I was
working on my dissertation. My aunt JoEllen and uncle Chris who stepped up to look after me
after I lost my mom and stepdad. My cousin, Ashley who became my roommate and my biggest
cheerleader, encouraging me along the way. My best friends, Kelly, Robbie, and Tina, who sent
messages of encouragement, questions about my progress, and never expected more of my time
during this journey. My dad who made sure to tell me how proud he is of me.
Thank you, Dr. Crawford, for leaving such an impact on me during my first immersion
weekend in 2016. Your encouragement stayed with me, thank you for being a part of my
committee, and sharing in my passion. Thank you, Dr. Sparangis, your feedback in EDU 730
helped me grow as a learner, and I truly enjoyed your facilitation of discussions, thank you for
being a part of my committee. Dr. Adibe, thank you for believing in me and helping me get to the
finish line. I am appreciative of you and grateful to have finished this journey with you as my
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
iv
chair. Finally, thank you to my academic advisor Lucia Monzon, our monthly check-ins kept me
going, you are much more than an academic advisor, and I am going to need to continue our
monthly check-ins.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………iii
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………….vii
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………….viii
Chapter 1: Introduction of the study……………………………………………………………… 1
Context and Background of the Problem………………………………………………………. 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions………………………………………………...2
Importance of the Study………………………………………………………………………... 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology………………………………………..
4
Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………5
First Word/Term 5
Organization of the Dissertation……………………………………………………………….. 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review……………….…………………………………………………….. 7
The Dropout Problem…………………………………………………………………………...
7
Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………………….. 21
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Chapter 3: Methodology………………..……………………………………………………….. 27
Research Questions…………………………………………………………………………… 27
Overview of Design…………………………………………………………………………... 28
Research Setting……………………………………………………………………………….29
The Researcher………………………………………………………………………………...30
Data Sources…………………………………………………………………………………...
32
Interviews…………………………………………………………………………………... 32
Participants……………………………………………………………………………….33
Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………………………34
Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………………. 35
Credibility and Trustworthiness……………………………………………………………….35
Ethics…………………………………………………………………………………………..36
Chapter 4: Findings……………………………………………………………………………… 38
Research Question 1: What are the knowledge and motivation factors of school
administrators, Professional School Counselors, and third-party integrated student support
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
vi
service providers as it relates to decreasing incidences of dropout among marginalized
students?.................................................................................................................................... 38
Research Question 2: What organizational resources are needed to decrease incidences of
dropout among marginalized students?.....................................................................................43
Research Question 3: What recommendations in the area of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources are appropriate to decrease the incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?............................................................................................................... 49
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………… 49
Chapter 5: Recommendations……………………………………………………. 50
Discussion of Findings………………………………………………………………………...50
Recommendations for Practice……………………………………………………………….. 56
Recommendation 1: Start as early as possible……………………………………………... 56
Recommendation 2: Provide alternative education options to “traditional school”……….. 57
Recommendation 3: Use a third-party provider who specializes in MTSS and ISS in all
high need schools…………………………………………………………………………... 59
Limitations and Delimitations………………………………………………………………...60
Recommendations for Future Research………………………………………………………. 61
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..
62
References……………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………… 71
Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………71
Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………73

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List of Tables
Table 1 Data Sources…………………………………………………………………………….29
Table 2 Sample Participants……………………………………………………………………..34
Table 3 Motivation Factor Love of Children ……………………………………………………39
Table 4 Connections for Collaboration………………………………………………………….40
Table 5 Reasons for Dropping Out…………………………………………………………….. 42

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Abstract
As the expectation to graduate high school became the norm in the 1960’s so did the term
dropout become visible in academic and popular literature (Dorn, 1993). There is no clear
prevention or intervention for the dropout problem (Balfanz, Herzog, & MacIver, 2007) yet
many known factors leading to dropping out (Hynes, 2014). The purpose of this study was to
explore how integrated student supports (ISS) can be implemented in schools to prevent
increasing dropout rates among marginalized students. The study specifically looks at how a
third-party provider of ISS is value-added for schools. Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge,
motivation, and organization gap analysis is the guiding framework for analysis in this study.
Qualitative methods are used to analyze the KMO influences of school administrators,
professional school counselors, and a third-party provider to decrease the incidences of dropout
among marginalized students.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
The expectation to graduate high school became a norm in the 1960’s and the
term dropout, a person who leaves high school before the appropriate age and without a diploma,
was seen in academic and popular literature of the time and remains to this day (Dorn, 1993).
Although how incidences of dropout are defined and measured varies (Rumberger, 1987), it is
clear multiple factors lead to the decision to dropout (Bridgeland, DiIulio, & Morison, 2006;
Hynes, 2014; Jerald, 2006). The issue of dropouts as a problem explored in research was
partially due to the increase in dropouts among marginalized students (Rumberger, 1987).
America’s schools increasingly seek to solve this issue, at the minimum decrease the incidences
of dropout, but there is no clear solution or method to address such a complex issue (Balfanz,
Herzog, & MacIver, 2007; Ecker-Lyster, & Niileksela, 2016).
Knowledge of the various risk factors leading to the decision to dropout is evidence to
support implementation of integrated student supports (ISS), providing a variety of supports to
decrease incidences of dropout, especially among marginalized students. (Fries et al., 2012;
Jerald, 2006). These supports begin as early as elementary school building the foundation to stay
in school (Lee St. John et. al., 2018). The integration of student supports, sometimes called
wraparound services includes school specific and community engagement methods (Making the
Grade: Assessing the Evidence for Integrated Student Supports, 2014). The incorporation of
integrated supports/wraparound services beginning in elementary school through high school
presents a promising practice for the decrease in incidences of dropout.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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Context and Background of the Problem
K-12 education industry strives to increase graduation rates and decrease incidences of
dropout for all students, working to meet the needs of students to help ensure graduation for all is
a reality. School administrators (principals and assistant principals) bear much of the
responsibility to ensure students are successful in school taking ownership of their school’s
dropout rate and graduation rate. Professional School Counselors (PSC) work alongside school
administrators providing supports to keep students on track to graduation.
In addition to K-12 schools, non-profit organizations work within the education industry
to achieve the same goals in collaboration with schools and the community. One such
organization was started over forty years ago by a teacher with the goal to provide integrated
student supports for schools serving marginalized students. The organization grew from one state
and is now working in twenty-six states and the District of Columbia. The organization,
Communities That Care (CTC, a pseudonym) has a national model using Multi-Tiered Systems
of Support (MTTSS) in providing integrated student supports. CTC is invited by the school to
support the needs of the students with a full-time site coordinator collaborating with staff to
provide ISS in a MTSS model. Communities That Care, surrounds students with supports to keep
them in school and help them achieve in life.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This project aims to explore how a third-party integrated student supports
provider, like Communities That Care, can be value-added to the work school administrators and
Professional School Counselors do every day to promote student achievement. The purpose of
this project is to explore promising practices to decrease incidences of dropout of marginalized
students.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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School administrators and Professional School Counselors aspire to provide an
educational environment where all students can succeed in all grades through twelfth grade
preventing dropout. Schools serving larger populations of marginalized students may require
additional supports to the educational environment and benefit from a third-party like
Communities That Care, given marginalized students experience incidences of dropout at higher
rates (McFarland et al., 2020). Integrated student supports or wraparound services addresses the
varied risk factors leading to an incidence of dropout. Communities That Care specifically
follows a model of integrated student supports aiming to engage students in school and decrease
incidences of dropout. This project will present the promising practices of the addition of a third-
party organization, CTC, to schools working to decrease incidence of dropout among
marginalized students and recommendations using Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge,
motivation, and organization analysis.
In alignment with the promising practice dissertation model and KMO analysis from
Clark and Estes (2008) the research questions for this study are:
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors of school administrators, professional
school counselors, and third-party integrated student supports providers as it relates to
decreasing incidences of dropout among marginalized students?
2. What organizational resources are needed to decrease incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources are appropriate to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized
students?

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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Importance of the Study
Beyond not meeting age-appropriate norms (Dorn, 1993), dropping out of high school
presents negative consequences for the individual and society in general (Levin, & Others,
1972). On average dropouts earn less, rely more on social service programs, and have more
involvement in the criminal justice system than high school graduates (Levin et al., 2007).
Students of color, English Language Learners, students in urban settings, and low socioeconomic
status students have even higher incidences of dropout (Kim et al., 2015; Orfield et al., 2004;
Rumberger, & Thomas, 2000). To allow incidences of dropout to continue at their current rate or
to increase perpetuates the negative impact on society, individuals, and extends the gap
experienced by marginalized students.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The framework guiding this study is Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and
organization (KMO) influences analysis. This framework is designed as a gap analysis,
identifying the gaps to achieving the organization’s goal. This project asserts there are
components in the larger organization industry achieving its goal and uses Clark and Estes
(2008) KMO analysis to identify what is already happening. The KMO framework applies to any
organization providing a structure investing in human capital. Knowledge analysis determines if
people in the organization know how to do their job. Do people have the knowledge and skills to
achieve the organization’s goal? Motivation analysis looks at desire to work towards a goal,
persisting until it is achieved, and how much mental effort is used to accomplish the goal.
Finally, organizational barrier analysis explores the processes in the organization and resources
available from the organization. All three areas, knowledge, motivation, and organizational
barriers must align and work together for organizational goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
5
This framework allows for this project to explore the human capital component of decreasing
incidences of dropout.
The method for conducting the research is qualitative. This project looks to understand
and make meaning of the interactions of KMO in the organization. Merriam & Tisdell (2016)
assert qualitative methods seek to understand, make meaning, build concepts or theory from data
collection, and provide rich descriptions. This project uses interviews as a qualitative method to
explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences among school administrators,
professional school counselors, and third-party providers to decrease incidences of dropout
among marginalized students.
Definitions
This section provides definitions of frequently used terms used through the literature of
this study and dissertation.
First Word/Term
Status dropout rate “reports the percentage of individuals in a given age range who are not in
school (public or private) and have not earned a high school diploma or an alternative credential”
(McFarland et al., 2020 p. 1).
Event dropout rate is the “percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds in grades 10 through 12 who leave
high school between the beginning of one school year and the beginning of the next without
earning a high school diploma or an alternative credential such as a GED” (McFarland, et.al.,
2020 p. 1).
Status completion rate “measures the percentage of individuals in a given age range who are not
currently enrolled in high school and who have earned a high school diploma or an alternative
credential, regardless of when or where the credential was earned” (McFarland, et.al., 2020 p. 1).
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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Averaged freshman graduation rate “provides an estimate of the cohort graduation rate for
public high school students.” (McFarland, et.al., 2020 p. 1).
Adjusted cohort graduation rate “is the percentage of public high school students in a specific
cohort who graduate with a regular diploma within 4 years of starting 9th grade.” (McFarland,
et.al., 2020 p. 1).
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is organized into five chapters. This chapter provides a brief overview of the
study, its importance, the theoretical framework used, and methodology. Chapter Two provides a
review of the literature surrounding incidences of dropout and a more detailed description of the
conceptual framework used to guide this study. Chapter three follows with a description of the
research methodology, including data collection, participant selection, interview protocol, data
analysis and considerations regarding credibility and trustworthiness. Chapter four presents the
findings of the data collected. Finally, chapter five presents recommendations for organizations
seeking to decrease incidences of dropout.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review starts by addressing the issues found when analyzing dropout
research, followed by reasons the dropout problem has been researched. Then the review looks at
the multiple contributing factors found in the literature as predictors for dropping out. The
review finishes with what the research suggests for methods of prevention or intervention to
dropping out.
The Dropout Problem
Graduation from high school became the expectation in the 1960’s as the number of
students graduating increased and new jobs demanded new skills. (Dorn, 1993). As larger groups
of students failed to meet this expectation, and the gap in graduation rates among whites and
minority students grew, so did the interest in the dropout problem. (Dorn, 1993; Rumberger,
1987). The graduation crisis and dropout epidemic have yet to be solved, and still plague
American society (Bridgeland, Dilulio & Morison, 2006; Orfield et al., 2004).
The problem starts with how incidences of dropout and graduation rates are calculated
and reported (Swanson, 2009). Additionally, the disproportionately high rates of dropout
incidences among marginalized students is prevalent in the research and exacerbates the
outcomes for some of society’s most vulnerable members (Suh, Suh & Houston, 2007).
Ultimately the problem is most evident in the lasting effects dropouts face for themselves, and
the impact felt on American society and economy (Levin et al., 2007).
Calculating Rates
Rumberger (1987) emphasized the issue of how incidences of dropout and graduation
rates were reported in his review of high school dropouts. He pointed out the discrepancies in
how schools and states calculate incidences of dropout and graduation, even before the addition
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
8
of adjusted cohorts were added to graduation rate calculations, made the magnitude of the
dropout problem harder to measure (Rumberger, 1987). The National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES) reports two types of dropouts, status dropouts and event dropouts. The data for
event dropouts comes from Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly
survey using a probability selected sample of 60,000 occupied households. This data does not
include people in institutions such as prisons or long-term care facilities. However, the data for
status dropouts, comes from both the CPS and American Community Survey, a yearly survey
that does include those living in prisons or long-term care facilities (McFarland et al., 2020).
NCES describes event dropout rates as the percentage of 15- to 24- year-olds in
grades 10 through 12 who leave high school between the beginning of one school year and the
beginning of the next without earning a high school diploma or an alternative credential such as a
GED. This rate includes persons who attended United States high schools and measures those
who left within a specified one-year period. Status dropout rates include those in a particular age
range (16- to 24- year-olds), regardless of where or when they attended school, including those
who may have never attended school in the United States (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).
NCES reports two graduation rates and a completion rate, all measured
differently. Status completion rates measure the percentage of civilians who are
noninstitutionalized 18- to 24- year-olds, not enrolled in high school or a lower education level,
who have a high school diploma or alternative credential such as a GED from a public or private
school (McFarland et al., 2020).The averaged freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of
the percentage of public high school students who graduate with a regular diploma 4 years after
starting ninth grade; this data can be estimated annually as far back as the 1960’s. The newest
measure, adjusted cohort graduate rate (ACGR) provides the percentage of first time ninth grade
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9
public high school students who graduate in 4 years with a regular diploma. The cohort is
adjusted by adding students who may transfer in and subtracting any students who may transfer
out of the school or die. The movement of students from school to school or even state to state
adds to the difficulty in accurately adjusting the cohort number and not “losing” or never
accounting for students who can get lost in transition.
Marginalized Students
The literature acknowledges the gap in incidences of dropout among racial groups and
how long that gap has existed (Dalton, Glennie, & Ingels, 2009; Suh, Malchow, & Suh, 2014).
Rumberger (1987) points to this rising gap as a reason for interest in studying why students
decide to dropout. Although incidences of dropout have declined overall, the rates for blacks, 5.5
percent event dropout out, 6.5 percent status dropout and Hispanics, 6.5 percent event dropout,
8.2 percent status dropout, remain higher than the national average of 4.7 percent event dropout,
5.4 percent status dropout, while the rate for whites, 3.9 percent event dropout rate, 4.3 percent
status dropout rate, remains below the national average (McFarland et al., 2020).
A review of the literature on graduation rates, specifically adjusted cohort rates,
shows a wider disparity among marginalized students, including students of color, low income,
and immigrant (Gray-Nicolas & Miranda, 2020; Orfield et al., 2004). The national adjusted
cohort graduation rate for public high school students in 2017 was 85 percent, white students
were above this average at 89 percent while black students were a mere 78 percent, Hispanic
students 80 percent and American Indian/Alaska Native students had the lowest rate of 72
percent (McFarland et al., 2020). While dropout rates and graduation rates do not represent an
inverse of each other, it can be concluded from the literature that marginalized students are at a
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
10
deficit and more so when it comes to completing high school in the given period of 4 years
(Gray-Nicolas & Miranda, 2020).
Social and Individual Impact
The most impactful aspect of the dropout problem are the consequences felt not only to
the individual but also society (Belfield & Levin, 2007). There have been many claims that
overall people who dropout of high school and never obtain a high school diploma face higher
rates of unemployment, homelessness, and higher involvement in the criminal justice system, as
well as earn less over a lifetime and contribute less in taxes (Hynes, 2014). Attempts to quantify
those claims are difficult. Congress requested the first such analysis in 1970. The analysis used
males 25-34 years of age in 1969 without a high school diploma. (Belfield & Levin, 2007). The
study estimated a loss of $237 billion in lifetime income of the men and $71 billion in
government revenues (Levin & Others, 1972). Those estimates are in 1970 dollars, in 2004
dollars the estimate is $1.2 trillion in lifetime income and $350 billion in government revenues
(Belfield & Levin, 2007). The 1972 Levin study also estimated the probable costs of having
supplied a minimum of a high school diploma for the men in the study to be $40 billion. The
lifetime income loss among the 25–34-year-old males was about $200 billion greater than the
cost to provide an education all the way through high school. Government revenues would have
surpassed the costs by over $30 billion (Levin & Others, 1972).
The original 1972 analysis also found welfare spending to be about $3 billion each year
due to dropouts and the cost of crime to the nation to be about $3 billion each year and rising
(Levin & Others, 1972). James Catterall (1987) updated the 1972 findings in 1985 using the
expected earnings of the class of 1981. The expected added lifetime earnings for a male high
school graduate over a dropout grew an estimated $140,000 from 1968 to 1981. Catterall added
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
11
females to his analysis and found a female high school graduate would earn about $149,000
more than a dropout over her lifetime. These early analyses provided costly numbers to the
nation, in recent years organizations such as the Foundation for Educational Choice have
collaborated with researchers to evaluate the financial consequences of high school dropouts at a
state level (D’Andrea, 2010; House, 2010; Stuit & Springer 2010).
The research goes beyond financial costs by income and extends to the impact on the
health of the dropout and costs to government spending for health care (Muennig, 2007).
Muennig’s (2007) research asserted an association between educational attainment and a
reduction in morbidity and mortality, and a reduction in government spending on health care.
When using a health-related quality of life evaluating mobility, ability to perform usual tasks,
ability to take care of self, pain and discomfort level, and anxiety and depression levels, the
health of a 20-year-old dropout was comparable to a 40-year-old college graduate. (Muennig,
2007). The overall estimated costs for public funds for healthcare are $23 billion for each cohort
of dropouts and an estimated $110 billion is loss in forfeited health and longevity (Muennig,
2007).
The literature posits various theories on the association of crime and dropouts (Moretti,
2007). Education level may affect criminal decisions because a higher educational level results in
an increase in wages increasing the opportunity cost of crime. (Lochner & Moretti, 2004). The
literature also suggests the punishment for criminal activity removes the individual from the
labor market resulting in a loss of wages (Moretti, 2007). Becker and Mulligan (1997) as
referenced in Lochner and Moretti (2004) suggest that schooling can increase the patience of
individuals or create a risk aversion to crime due to placing more weight on future punishment.
Crime research finds a reduction in crime with higher educational attainment (Levin et al., 2007).
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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The costs of crime goes beyond the costs to the victims, but also incurs many public costs (Levin
& Others, 1972). Public costs such as: court costs, incarceration costs, any state-funded victim
costs, and spending on government crime prevention agencies (Levin, et al., 2007).
Contributing Factors to Dropping Out
The literature on dropouts clearly states, there is no one cause for dropping out
(Rumberger, 1983). Instead, the literature identifies how different factors could predict a risk of
dropping out as there is no research that definitively says one action or reason causes a student to
drop out of high school (Rumberger, 1983; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009; Suh & Suh, 2007). The
decision to dropout comes at the end of a process influenced by a variety of factors, further
making it difficult to identify a true causal relationship (Hynes, 2014; Rumberger & Lim, 2008).
The research recognizes the complications in identifying a predictor to dropping out and agree a
model that accounts for multiple factors for an individual is a more accurate predictor of early
high school dropout (Battin-Pearson et al, 2000).
These factors are often categorized into different variables or models to explain why
students drop out of high school (Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997; Rumberger & Lim,
2008; Ecker-Lyster, Niileksela, 2016). Rumberger et al., (1990) presented four variables:
background characteristics, family context factors, children’s personal resources, and children’s
school experience. Jeremy Finn (1989) presented two models of withdrawing from school,
frustration-self-esteem model, and participation-identification model. Finn looked at problem
behaviors leading to dropping out starting with early school failure that led to low self-esteem
then arriving at the problem behaviors and final withdrawal from school. His second model,
participation-identification model, argues for a behavioral and emotional component to
withdrawal that occurs when there is a lack of participation in school activities leading to poor
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
13
school performance and then less identification with school. Another commonly accepted theory
is the slow culmination of multiple factors that results in disengagement from school
(Rumberger, 1987; Wehlage et al., 1989). The disengagement ends with the final act of dropping
out.
Researchers have used a variety of variables to classify potential factors or predictors:
demographic characteristics, past school performance, personal/psychological characteristics,
adult responsibilities, school, or neighborhood characteristics (Gleason & Dynarski, 2002);
school structures (Lee & Burkham, 2003); family background, student behaviors such as
attending school, and academic performance (Parr & Bonitz, 2015). In this literature review the
variables are categorized into personal factors and contextual factors.
Personal Factors
Incidences of dropout are often disaggregated by personal identifiers, demographics such
as, race, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and English Language Learners (McFarland et
al., 2020). This stratification of the data sparked much of the initial research and interest on
dropouts (Rumberger, 1983). Academic success, passing courses, GPA status, and test scores,
are a clear factor in deciding the likelihood of dropping out of an academic institution
(Allensworth & Easton, 2007). The decision to attend school, engage in school activities, or
participate in deviant behaviors are all personal decisions attached to an individual’s behavior
(Balfanz, Herzog & Mac Iver, 2007; Fall & Roberts, 2012). All these predictors are of an
individual and personal nature to the student, a common category label (Suh, Suh, & Houston,
2007).

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
14
Demographics.
The gap in the incidences of dropout among blacks and whites has been frequently cited
in the literature (Dalton, Glennie, & Ingels, 2009; Rumberger, 1983; Suh, Malchow, & Suh
2014). Yet, overtime that gap has narrowed and when race is controlled for in the research there
is often no significant numerical difference (Alexander, Entwisle, & Kabbani, 2001; Lee &
Burkham, 2003). Low socioeconomic status (SES) is often cited as a stronger predictor than
race, specifically when race is controlled for (Lee & Burkham, 2003; McFarland et al., 2020).
Low SES is a stronger predictor when added to another predictor, such as attendance (Ready,
2010). Some research analysis does not include low SES and shows a high gap among racial
groups, specifically blacks and Hispanics from whites, and a gap among native English speaking
and English Language Learners (ELL) (Kim et al., 2015). Gender differences are frequently
noted in research, males having a higher incidence of dropout than females (Alexander, Entwisle,
& Horsey, 1997; Bridgeland et al, 2006; Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007). However, demographic
factors alone do not efficiently predict who will drop out (Gleason & Dynarski, 2002).
Academic success.
High school completion is contingent upon completing a specified number of courses
with a passing grade in high school and achieving a passing score on a state assessment or
evaluation of some kind. These requirements make academic success an undeniable factor when
analyzing predictors to dropping out (Neild, Stoner-Eby, & Furstenberg, 2008). Academic
success analyzes student’s overall GPAs, course grades, course failures, and retention in a grade
(Allensworth & Easton, 2007).
The decision to leave high school is often made during high school. Most research
identifies 9
th
and 10
th
grade as the grades most students complete (Alexander, Entwisle, &
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
15
Kabbani, 2001; Stearns, & Glennie, 2006). Research shows the older a student is and the higher
the grade, makes the reason for dropping out most likely academics (Stearns, & Glennie, 2006).
Age and grade are not predictable or correlational as students who repeated a grade will not be in
the same grade as peers the same age and are more likely to leave school, some believing they
are no longer able to meet the requirements (Alexander, Entwisle & Habbani, 2001). Research
shows the likelihood of dropping out increases when two or more grades are repeated
(Alexander, Entwisle & Habbani, 2001; Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006).
Course failure and a low GPA are directly related, and both are strong predictors of a
future dropout. Grades as early as first grade are an early warning sign of a risk of dropping out
(Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997). Middle school course failure, course failure in 9
th
grade,
or a GPA of 1.7 or below at the end of 9
th
grade are all risk factors of dropping out (Allensworth
& Easton, 2007; Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver, 2007; Barrington & Hendricks, 1989). When the
academic failures are combined with behaviors of high absenteeism or suspension, the risks of
dropout increase (Allensworth & Easton, 2007; Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007).
Engagement.
Dropouts self-report missing the majority of school prior to dropping out (Bridgeland
Dilulio & Morison, 2006; Hynes, 2014). Chronic absenteeism in elementary and general
attendance in middle school can help predict the likelihood of dropping out (Balfanz, Herzog, &
Mac Iver, 2007; Chang & Romero, 2008; McKee & Caldarella, 2016; Schoeneberger, 2012).
Absenteeism can lead to lower grades, lower belief in ability, and ultimate disengagement from
school (Allensworth & Easton, 2007; Finn, 1989; Garcia & Weiss 2018).
Deviant behavior identified as, suspensions, discipline issues, displaying aggressive
behavior, or involvement in drugs or alcohol outside of school factor into dropout risks, but is
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
16
not strong enough to stand as an independent factor (Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver, 2007;
Ensminger & Slusarcick, 1992; Rumberger, 1987). Suspensions and discipline issues are the
most common identifiable deviant behaviors in the research (Stearns & Glennie, 2006; Suh, Suh,
& Houston, 2007). Certain demographic characteristics, such as low SES or African American
male, can increase the chances of future dropout when combined with high absenteeism or
discipline issues (Ready, 2010; Stearns & Glennie, 2006).
Contextual Factors
The research also analyzes the impact different contexts have on a student’s decision to
drop out (Alexander, Entwisle, & Kabbani, 2001; Hynes, 2014; Gleason & Dynarski, 2002; Lee
& Burkham, 2003; Rotermund 2007). Some analysis includes how a student is able or unable to
build social capital through the context of family, their school, and community (Drewry, Burge,
& Driscoll, 2010; Israel & Beaulieu, 2004). Other research analyzes the influence of family
environment and background, along with the school structure, policies, or culture created by the
school (Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997; Battin-Pearson, et al, 2000; Catterall, 1985;
Hynes, 2014; Lee & Burkham, 2003).
Family.
The family structure, as early as first grade, is one contextual factor of a potential drop
out prediction. Single parent homes, teen mothers, and multiple siblings in one home have all
been identified as potential predictive factors (Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997; Israel &
Beaulieu, 2004). Additionally, a single parent home supplies little social capital to build a human
network of support (Drewry, Burge, & Driscoll, 2010). A possible reason for these impacts of a
single parent home could be the stress placed on a family, Research shows when family stressors
are elevated the risks of dropout increase (Alexander et al, 2001). Other family environments
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
17
force students to leave to care for a family member, especially females and Latina females, while
others feel the need to work to supplement their family income (Stearns & Glennie, 2006). A
family’s low SES may pull students to work instead of attending school. Additionally, some
families cannot afford transportation to school or to the necessary medical care, resulting in
absences, a well-documented risk to dropping out (Chang & Romero, 2008). In addition to
family income, parent’s education level, and prior sibling’s drop out status are potential
predictors of drop out. Parents who dropped out and older siblings who also dropped out
increases the risk of drop out (Israel & Beaulieu, 2004).
Lack of parental involvement or involvement occurring too late is cited by dropouts as a
factor in the decision to drop out (Bridgeland et al., 2006). Earlier research provides additional
supportive evidence. Parents involved in the education of their 16-year-old, increased their
chances of finishing school (Ensminger & Slusarcick, 1992). Ensminger and Slusarcick (1992)
also found a parent’s strictness about schoolwork had a positive impact on finishing school.
Parents tend to be more involved in early education and step back as grade progression occurs,
but this lack of involvement in higher grades increases the risks of dropping out. Parental
involvement also includes parental expectations. Parents who expressed an expectation of
attending college decreased the chances of drop out (Israel & Beaulieu, 2004).
School.
Dropping out from school is a process of withdrawal or disengagement through a
student’s own actions or due to the actual structure and processes of the school (Allensworth &
Easton, 2007; Finn, 1989). A school’s composition and its relation to dropping out shows an
increase in the risk of dropout when the school has a larger proportion of low SES students, a
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
18
higher proportion of students earning poor grades, who have attendance or discipline issues, and
a higher proportion of racial or linguistic (Rumberger, 1995).
Expectations of both students and staff are additional factors leading to drop out. One
study found deficit thinking about low SES, Latino, and African American students lead these
same students to drop out (Patterson, Hale, & Stessman, 2008). The same study shared how
students liked to be pushed and challenged in school, echoing how dropouts feeling bored in
school factors into dropping out. Dropouts have shared the desire for a more challenging and
relevant curriculum, feeling no need to attend easy, non-applicable classes (Bridgeland et al.,
2006; Hynes 2014).
The discipline policies of schools have become more punitive over time contributing to
the school-to-prison pipeline and adding to dropout rates (Mallet, 2016). The increase in zero
tolerance policies resulted in an increase and suspensions and expulsions as well as dropout as
many students fell further behind in school due to such policies (Insley, 2001). School
suspensions as early as ninth grade lead to poorer academic performance and increased risk of
dropping out (Balfanz, Byrnes, & Fox, 2015; Marchbanks et al,, 2015). Suspension as a
freshman doubles the risk for dropping out and in school suspensions for more than 10 days
often result in time spent in a juvenile correctional facility (Shollenberg, 2015). The link between
school discipline, dropping out, and juvenile corrections is best explained when considering first-
time arrest during high-school makes dropping out twice as likely (Kaba & Edwards, 2012).
Preventions and Interventions
Research is clear, dropping out is a process and not a singular event (Alexander et al.,
2001; Balfanz et al., 2007; Bridgeland et al., 2006; Hynes, 2014). Many factors come together in
the process leading to the final decision to drop out. This process begins before high school and
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
19
much research is done to identify how early it begins to create appropriate prevention programs
before more factors become involved in the process (Alexander et al., 1997; Ensminger &
Slusarcick, 1992; Lee et al., 2018). Many of these programs are called early warning systems and
are all based on the theory of identifying risk factors as early as possible to prevent future
dropout or to intervene (Allensworth & Easton, 2007; Catterall, 1988). The vast number of
factors and the wide variety of areas, suggests the need for comprehensive supports to address all
potential dropouts (Dynarski & Gleason, 2002). Finally, the wraparound model of integrated
supports or Multi-Tiered Systems of Support, has been implemented to help address a range of
factors (Fries et al., 2012; Porowski & Passa, 2011).
Early Identification Systems
Longitudinal studies of dropping out demonstrate how drop out is a process and
recognizes the need for preventionS to start before high school (Alexander et al., 2001;
Allensworth & Easton, 2007; Balfanz, Herzog & Mac Iver, 2007; Neild, Stoner-Eby, &
Furstenberg, 2008; Rumberger, 1995). The assessment of risk factors from these studies allows
for progress monitoring of students along with what happens to students who develop any of the
risk factors throughout school (Gleason & Dynarski, 2002; Jerald, 2006). These systems can
provide real time data for individual students, continuous monitoring, and an overall picture of
school trends (Wilkins & Bost, 2015). This monitoring allows for schools to monitor what can be
controlled and supports the school providing tiered interventions to meet the needs of specific
students (Pinkus, 2008). Previous research has identified high yield factors providing schools a
starting point for developing an early warning system (Pinkus, 2008).
Comprehensive Approach
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
20
The research shows no direct causal relationship between any one factor and dropping
out (Rumberger, 1987). Dropouts provide a wide variety of factors leading to dropping out
(Bridgeland et al., 2006; Hynes, 2014; Orfield et al., 2004). The diverse factors make a more
comprehensive approach targeting the specific needs of students necessary to reach all possible
dropouts (Dynarski & Gleason, 2002). Some programs are school centered, and others target
individual students, as done in the early warning systems (Mac Iver, 2011). School centered
programs take different forms: restructuring a school into smaller learning communities with
academic and vocational courses, focused skilled schools, and acceleration models to help
students who fell behind (Mac Iver 2011). Early warning systems help identify students who
need intervention, the type of intervention comes from a comprehensive approach offering
academic specific, family specific, transition plans, vocational preparation, or skill building
(Wilkins & Bost, 2015).
Wraparound Supports
Wraparound supports are a targeted intervention provided within a school, sometimes by
a third party (Fries et al., 2012). Integrated student supports and Multi-Tiered Systems of
Support provide many of the same services and are whole school programs with targeted support
for specifically identified students (Mac Iver & Mac Iver, 2009; Making the Grade: Assessing
the Evidence for Integrated Student Supports, 2014). Integrated student supports rely on a
partnership with the school and community in data collection and service providers (Making the
Grade, 2014). Integration programs do not have to use a third party, building on the early
warning system to target needed interventions (Mac Iver & Mac Iver, 2009). Wraparound
supports provide a more intense service for youth who are of the highest risk of dropping out
(Fries et al., 2012). These services are a culmination of using some version of data tracking like
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
21
an early warning system, offering comprehensive approaches at a school level and more targeted
supports for individuals.
Conceptual Framework
The literature review of this study presented what research agrees upon: conflict among
reporting incidences of dropout, the negative consequences, and multiple risk factors leading to
dropout. What is not so clear in the literature is how to prevent or intervene to decrease the rates
of dropping out. Applying a conceptual framework to the literature and this study frames the
research goals, development of relevant research questions, selection of an appropriate method,
and identification of any potential validity threats to any conclusions (Maxwell, 2013). The study
applies Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and organization framework.
Clark and Estes (2008) framework is a gap analysis guiding organizations towards
improvement. According to Clark and Estes (2008) an organization or business identifies goals
then determines how much change is needed to achieve them. To identify the change, a gap
analysis of three critical areas occurs, knowledge and skills of stakeholders, stakeholders’
motivation to achieve the goals, and any possible organizational barriers. Clark and Estes (2008)
performance solutions model identifies the gaps that must be closed to achieve the organizational
goals. This study uses Clark and Estes (2008) framework from a promising view, not from a gap
analysis view. Clark and Estes (2008) framework guides what knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences currently exist in an organization successfully working towards
achieving the organizational goal.
Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences are assessed independently of each
other to evaluate the direct influence of each, however all three do not function independent of
each other. It is possible knowledge influences impact motivation influences, for example, a
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
22
strong knowledge of the multiple contributing risk factors to dropping out would support a
higher motivation to provide multiple supports to deter the risk of dropping out. Conversely,
stakeholders may be unmotivated to provide different supports if they lack the knowledge around
the reasons why students drop out. The organizational culture may provide numerous supports in
different areas meeting the knowledge and motivational influences related to multiple
contributing risk factors. However, an organization culture that does not provide the numerous
needed supports would negatively affect the knowledge and motivation of its stakeholders.
This conceptual framework suggests an interrelationship among the three categories,
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. All three impact the success of the
organization’s goal. The organization’s culture and any influences impact the stakeholder’s
knowledge and motivation influences. Just as the organization impacts the stakeholder so too
does the stakeholder’s knowledge and motivation impact the organization’s culture, influences
and ultimately goal achievement.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
23
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework (figure 1) demonstrates the relationship between
organizational influences, the stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences all working
towards achieving the organizational goal. The organization’s goal is in the center because it is
the determining factor of achievement. The organizational setting and model along with the
knowledge and motivation influences all overlap or meet inside the organizational goal circle
signifying the alignment and need of all four to achieve the goal.
The stakeholder’s knowledge determines if the stakeholder knows how to achieve the
organization’s goal. Krathwohl (2002) divides knowledge into four types: declarative,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. This framework explores declarative, conceptual, and
Organizational Influences
Cultural Setting
Organization ensures proper resources
are
committed to reducing
incidences of dropout
Organizational Influences
Cultural Model
Organization promotes a
culture where decreasing
incidences of dropout is
desired.
Declarative
-Understanding of contributing
factors to risks of dropping out in
all grade levels, K-12
Conceptual
-Understand what preventions
and interventions impact
students at all grade levels, K-
12

Stakeholder Knowledge
Influences

Stakeholder Motivation Influences
Self-Efficacy
-Confident implementing
Multi-Tiered System of
Supports and Integrated
Student Supports.
Utility Value
-Appreciate the value of
providing MTSS and ISS
with community-based
partnerships at all grade
levels, K-12 to decrease
risks of dropout
Procedural
-Know how to implement a Multi-
Tiered Systems of Supports and
Integrated Student Supports.
Organizational Goal:
Promote student
achievement and
preparation for global
competitiveness by
fostering educational
excellence and ensuring
equal access.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
24
procedural. Declarative knowledge is factual knowledge, elements needed to know to understand
and work effectively in an area (Rueda, 2011). The conceptual framework (figure 1) shows the
declarative knowledge influence, stakeholders must know what contributes to incidences of
dropout. The multiple varied factors leading to dropout effecting different grade levels, insists
school administrators, professional school counselors, and third-party organizations have this
knowledge to work towards the organization’s goal. Krathwohl (2002), defines conceptual
knowledge as, “the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that
enable them to function together” (p.214). The conceptual framework (figure 1) shows the
needed conceptual knowledge of stakeholders to understand what preventions and interventions
make an impact at all grade levels. Possessing this knowledge makes the work done at various
grade levels meaningful and progressive as students transition from one grade to the next and
then to new buildings. This conceptual knowledge shows the interrelationship of prevention and
intervention strategies within the structure of a school or similar organization. Procedural
knowledge is knowing how to do something (Rueda, 2011). This specific knowledge influence in
the conceptual framework connects the stakeholder’s knowledge of how to implement Multi-
Tiered Systems of Support and integrated student supports. All three knowledge influences work
with the organization influences and motivation influences.
Clark and Estes (2008) share three components to motivation influences: choice to
consider goal achievement, continuing to work toward the goal, and the mental effort to
accomplish the goal. The conceptual framework (figure 1) has two motivation factors, self-
efficacy, and utility value. Self-efficacy is how a person judges their ability to learn or do a
specific action, the belief a person has about their own abilities (Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy is
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
25
the belief in ability to do the task, utility value is the desire to do the task. Eccles (2006)
describes utility value as measuring how well a task meets the goals or plans of an individual.
The conceptual framework’s (figure 1) motivation influence, confidence implementing MTSS
and ISS, is the belief in the stakeholder’s ability to do the task, self-efficacy. The stakeholder’s
desire to do the task is in the second motivation influence, appreciate the value of providing
MTSS and ISS with community-based partnerships at all grade levels to decrease the risk of
future dropout, utility value.
When identifying organizational influences, Clark and Estes (2008) define organizational
culture, “Work culture is present in our conscious and unconscious understanding of who we are,
what we value, and how we do what we do as an organization” (p. 107). Schein (2017) provides
further understanding asserting an occupation has a culture when joint learning leads to shared
assumptions about how to perform and relate internally. The culture of an organization is broken
down to cultural model and cultural setting. Rueda (2011) states a cultural model is the shared
norms of an organization, a common understanding of what is valued, and how work should be
done in the organization. The cultural setting is seeing the cultural model through the action of
practices and policies of the organization (Rueda, 2011). The model in figure 1 asserts the value
the cultural model places on decreasing incidences of dropout. The setting, evidence of the
model in practice, is providing the resources needed to do so. The literature review presented
how vast and complex the problem of dropouts is. An organization seeking to decrease
incidences of dropout creates a culture valuing the decrease in incidences of dropout by
providing the proper resources to do so.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
26
Summary
The literature review in this chapter presented an overview of the issues around incidences of
dropping out, calculation of the rate, social impact, and disproportionate impact on marginalized
students. The literature review looked at the multiple factors indicating a risk of dropping out,
noting the risk increases as the factors increase. The literature review ends with a look at what
preventions and interventions have been proposed, tried, or theorized to work.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
27
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The focus of this study is to explore the effectiveness of Multi-Tiered Systems of
Supports and integrated student supports in K-12 education as implemented by the school and a
third-party organization in keeping students in school through graduation, decreasing incidences
of dropout. This promising practice study aims to identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting school administrators, Professional School Counselors, and
third-party organizations implementing MTSS and ISS to decrease incidences of dropout among
marginalized students. This study uses a qualitative design. This chapter outlines the following
components of the research study: research questions, overview of the design, research setting,
researcher, data source participants, methods, instrumentation, collection procedures, and
analysis, validity and reliability, ethics, and limitations and delimitations.
Research Questions
1. What are the knowledge and motivation factors of school administrators, Professional
School Counselors, and third-party integrated student supports providers as it relates to
decreasing incidences of dropout among marginalized students?
2. What organizational resources are needed to decrease incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources are appropriate to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized
students?

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
28
Overview of Design
This study aims to look at what is currently happening in K-12 schools as it relates to the bigger
problem of, decreasing incidences of dropout. The literature surrounding high school dropout
rates highlights the trouble with finding a causal relationship for dropping out or even a
theoretical reason for why high school dropout rates continue to increase. What is proven are
strategies that help reverse the increasing dropout rates to decrease incidences of dropout. This
study takes an inductive approach due to the lack of statistically proven cause and effect, and
methods to decrease incidences of dropout. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert the inductive
process allows for the development of concepts, theories, or applications making this process
most proper for this study. Therefore, a qualitative method will be used for this study.
The method of data collection will be interviews. This study aims to analyze the work of
school administrators, Professional School Counselors, and Communities That Care staff over
the course of their tenure in their current position, interviews allow for the collection of this
historical information. A detailed analysis of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences can best be completed through interviews which allows the researcher to find out the
specific influences of school administrators, Professional School Counselors, and CTC staff
across all grades K-12.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
29
Table 1
Data Sources
Research Questions Interviews
RQ1: What are the knowledge and motivation factors of
school administrators, professional school counselors, and
third-party integrated student supports service providers as
it relates to decreasing incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?
X
RQ2: What organizational resources are needed to decrease
incidences of dropout among marginalized students?

X
RQ3: What recommendations in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources are appropriate to
decrease the incidences of dropout among marginalized
students?
X

Research Setting
This study takes place in the larger organization of K-12 education industry. K-12
education receives guidance and funds from the United States Department of Education, State
Education Agencies, and Local Education Agencies. The same general structure exists in most
K-12 schools. The school is led by a school principal, in some cases, usually more populated
schools, assistant principals are part of the school administration. Professional School
Counselors provide some social emotional learning supports to students with high school
students seeing less of these types of supports from PSC and more supports with class
scheduling, grade concerns, credit requirements, etc. Teachers are responsible for delivering
instruction sometimes with the assistances of instructional aids, or other student support staff.
This study focuses on school administrators and Professional School Counselors.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
30
This study also includes a third-party organizations who provide additional supports to K-
12 schools. The organization for this study is Communities That Care. This is a national
organization with affiliates in twenty-six states and the District of Columbia. The organization’s
mission it to provide students with a community of supports to empower them to stay in school
and achieve in life. Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports are utilized to provided integrated student
supports in high needs schools where the majority of the population is comprised of marginalized
students. CTC has seen success in achieving their mission in the schools they service making this
organization an appropriate third-party entity for this study.
The participants in this study are a sampling of school administration and Professional
School Counselors working in high need schools where the student population is majority
marginalized students. A sampling of employees from Communities That Care from states in
different regions of The United States make up the third group of participants in this study. All
participants work towards achieving the organizational goal, promote student achievement, in
turn decreasing incidences of dropout among marginalized students. The knowledge and
motivation influences of school administrations, PSC, and CTC staff impact the overall
organizational goal of K-12 education. While the organization promotes a culture and provides
resources supporting the work of school administrators, PSC, and CTC staff.
The Researcher
The researcher is an experienced educator working in the field of education for
over eighteen years. She has worked in urban settings for sixteen of those years. She is not a
member of the organization and has no connection to the organization or its employees. Her
experience in urban school settings and with marginalized students influenced her transformative
worldview. Creswell and Creswell (2018) assert the transformative worldview researcher
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
31
addresses specific issues speaking to social issues of the day, such as marginalized students’ high
incidences of dropout affecting their chances of life achievement. The researcher’s first-hand
experience with helping marginalized students finish school is what sparked the focal point of
this study.
There is potential researcher bias due to the researcher’s career in education with
marginalized students. Currently the researcher works as a third-party provider of K-12 schools,
however, providing different services than Communities That Care. This could present as a
strong bias for the involvement of third-party providers, but the researcher is not directly
responsible for securing a contract as a third-party with schools or districts, instead, she acts as a
subcontractor for a small local organization in no way affiliated with CTC or providing MTSS
and ISS services.
The researcher will not include any school administrator or PSC of the schools
she services as she works directly with the administration on data analysis and leadership
development creating direct interest and potential influence on the interview answers. In
addition, two of the schools the researcher works with also work with CTC, therefore, the CTC
staff of these two schools will not be included as participants. As recommended by Creswell and
Creswell (2018), the researcher will not include schools she directly works with as interest in
their data is of higher interest.
Given the researcher’s experience with marginalized students and transformative
worldview, there is potential for the researcher to write questions with bias. A bias towards
providing promising solutions to decreasing incidences of dropout. To prevent any potential bias
wording of interview questions, all questions will be evaluated by a non-education-based
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
32
researcher and measured against the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences found
in the conceptual framework.
As Tracy (2013) states in Merriam & Tisdell (2016) the researcher must be aware of his
or her own role in the research when it comes to ethics. The researcher’s own values, and views
may affect any possible ethical concerns. The researcher’s knowledge of the field and best
practices could become a concern when analyzing the findings. The researcher will use the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences in the conceptual framework to guide all
coding and analysis.
Data Sources
This qualitative study used interviews as its sole data source. Interviews were conducted
via Zoom and recorded to the cloud in Zoom. The researcher had to establish a manageable
number of participants given the size of the study’s organization, K-12 education industry. The
researcher interviewed an equal sampling of school administrators and Professional School
Counselors to employees of Communities That Care. All participants work in schools with a
majority population of marginalized students.
Interviews
This qualitative study used interviews to gather data. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert
two qualitative studies characteristics are, understanding and meaning making and being richly
descriptive. Interviews allow for detailed data collection including rich descriptions. The
interviews in this study spanned various grade bands, all impacting incidences of future dropout,
allowing for understanding and meaning making across all grade bands and their relation to the
problem.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
33
Participants
This study used purposeful sampling. The criteria for participants were working in a
school with a majority population of marginalized students as a school administrator,
Professional School Counselor, or as an employee of Communities That Care. The researcher
established twelve participants as a manageable number with six working directly for public
schools and six working for CTC. Three school administrators and three PSC made up the six
participants from public schools. Four site coordinators, one reengagement coordinator, and one
executive director made up the six participants from CTC. All participants had more than one
year of experience in the field of education. Participants span all grade level bands in K-12
education. Four participants work with the elementary and intermediate grade band, K-6 with
two CTC employees and one PSC and one school administrator. Three participants work with
middle school grade band, 7-8 with one CTC employee, one PSC, and one school administrator.
Two participants work with elementary, intermediate, and middle school grade bands, K-8 with
one CTC employee and one school administrator. Two participants work with the high school
grade band, 9-12 with one a CTC employee and one a PSC. One participant works with all grade
bands at the executive level as a CTC employee. Table 2 below visualizes the sample
participants.
Participants were recruited through emails sent to school administrators and Professional
School Counselors as identified on school websites in three regions serving majority
marginalized students. Communities That Care participants were recruited through emails as
identified on affiliate websites in various states on the East Coast, Midwest, and West Coast. All
recruitment emails contained an information sheet with specific information regarding the study
and the anonymity of participation.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
34
Table 2
Sample Participants
Grade Band Participants School Administrator (SA)
Professional School
Counselor (PSC)
Communities That Care
(CTC)
K-6 4 2 CTC
1 PSC
1 SA
K-8 2 1 CTC
1 SA
7-8 3 1 CTC
1 PSC
1 SA
9-12 2 1 CTC
1 PSC
All 1 1 CTC

Instrumentation
The researcher conducted 12 semi structured interviews of school administrators,
Professional School Counselors, and Communities That Care staff. Interview questions were
predetermined with question adaptations specific to the role of the participant. Interview
questions are aligned to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences found in the
conceptual framework. Appendix A outlines the interview protocol and questions.
Data Collection Procedures
Data collection occurred during summer break for schools. Interviews were
conducted via Zoom accommodating the different locations of participants. All interviews were
recorded in Zoom with permission from the participant for data analysis. Interview transcription
was a two-part process. Zoom transcribed all interviews and the researcher listened to each
interview with the transcription from Zoom making edits where necessary per the audio.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
35
Data Analysis
Data analysis for this research involved open coding of the one data collection
method, interviews. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) assert the goal of data analysis is to make sense of
the data and to answer the research questions. The research questions and conceptual framework
guided the coding of the interviews and final identification of themes.
Method 1. Interviews
The coding of interview transcripts began with identifying parts of the data that addressed
the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The first phase of analysis was in vivo coding
including surprising codes and unusual codes, and a priori coding developed from the conceptual
framework. The second phase was applying axial codes to codes in phase one. The third phase of
data analysis identified themes from the axial codes as related to the conceptual framework. This
identification allowed for knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to be established
and to answer the research questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert research aiming to affect a practice or theory in a field,
must be rigorously conducted, and present conclusions that are true to readers and other
researchers. Qualitative studies aim to provide enough rich description for the conclusions to
make sense to readers and researchers. Credibility and trustworthiness in qualitative research aim
to ensure certain procedures are employed to check for accuracy or findings and a consistent
approach is used (Gibbs, 2007 in Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
The research questions’ knowledge, motivation and organization influence directly align
to the development of the conceptual framework and interview questions. This alignment and the
literature review guided the selection of participants in two different roles in public schools and
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36
one third-party provider across all grade levels. The interview protocol was developed with the
research questions and conceptual framework’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences shaping the questions with adaptations to the role of the participant. Data collected
from school employees and a third-party organization attempted to triangulate the data.
Triangulation of data from multiple sources is a method used to increase credibility and
trustworthiness (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Rich data analysis through verbatim transcriptions of interviews provided a full picture of
what is occurring (Maxwell, 2013). This study completed coding from verbatim interview
transcriptions, improving analysis, and ensuring no relevant data was excluded from the study.
This study conducted member checks to seek feedback from participants from preliminary
findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Ethics
Qualitative research and reporting involving human participants presents ethical
concerns that should remain aware to the researcher throughout the entire process (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher was directly involved in the research process and interacted with
the participants as the main data collector and as such the researcher took measures to ensure the
safety and well-being of participants. Participants all received a general overview of the
interview process with an introduction of the study, data collection, and data reporting process.
This notification reviewed three key components when working with human participants as
stated in Glesne (2011), participants were notified: of the voluntary participation in the study, the
lack of any affect to their own well-being and their ability to withdraw from the study at any
point in time.
Confidentiality of all participants was maintained, as the researcher does not work with
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37
any participant and no data was used for evaluation purposes. All audio recordings and
transcriptions have been maintained in password protected file in Nvivo. Pseudonyms are used
for all participants.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Three common themes emerged in the data from this study: common passion,
collaboration, and varied and whole. Each theme applies to the guiding research questions of this
study. This chapter asserts answers to each research question with the three common themes
uniting the three different perspectives of the participants.
Participants are identified per their role as a school administrator SA, Professional School
Counselor PSC, or third-party provider Communities That Care, CTC followed by a number to
separate the three SA, three PSC, and six CTC.
Research Question 1: What are the knowledge and motivation factors of school
administrators, Professional School Counselors, and third-party integrated student
support service providers as it relates to decreasing incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?
Although a school administrator, Professional School Counselor, and a third-party
provider, in this study Communities That Care staff, each serve a different purpose in education,
all must have the same knowledge and motivation considerations when addressing decreasing
incidences of dropout among marginalized students.
Common Passion
A motivation factor is love for the children served and the belief that this love impacts
their work and the children. Every participant, regardless of their position in education, spoke
about the love they had for the children or the common love their staff had for the children,
bringing it all together as a common passion.
When asked about what lead them to their current role and what motivates them to go to
work, 8 of the participants or 67% explicitly answered the kids or love of kids. All three school
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
39
administrators spoke specifically about their love of the children or their staff’s love of the
children. The responses who did not explicitly name love for the kids in their responses spoke
about investing in youth, relationships with the children, and appreciation of seeing the kids
grow. PSC 2 states, “…I’m getting watery eyed thinking about it because the young people
appreciate you so much, and you see the growth, sometimes it’s little, or hardly any, but I mean
it's something.” Table 3 shows which participants explicitly stated love of children and the
response of those who did not. The importance and impact of this motivation is most noted by
school administrators. SA 2 shared just how important it is,
If we can all start from the foundation of really caring for the people, the little people, the
little human beings that are under our care, then I can get you to do what it is that you
need to do, because I already know that your motivation is to support the children.
It was not a surprising finding, but it was a very consistent finding.
Table 3
Motivation Factor: Love for children
Participant Love for
children
Other response
CTC 1 X
CTC 2 X
CTC 3 Investing in young people
CTC 4 Relationships with the people I work with and kids
CTC 5 X
CTC 6 Relationships
PSC 1 X
PSC 2 Appreciating seeing kids grow
PSC 3 X
SA 1 X
SA 2 X
SA 3 X

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40
Collaboration
One knowledge factor is knowing how to build multiple connections to work towards one
common goal. While every participant is working towards one common goal, there is not one
common solution. It was not surprising to find the myriad of connections participants must build
in their professional role to support their students, coming together under strong collaboration.
A minimum of three additional connections were mentioned by every participant, a
connection being an entity other than themselves that was needed to serve students. Every
participant made note of an outside organization being needed to provide services for students.
Seven categories were identified as a connection. Of the 6 CTC: 3 noted 4 connections, 2 noted 3
connections, and only 1 noted 5 connections. Of the school-based staff, SA, and PSC, only 1
noted 3 connections, 1 noted 4 connections, 2 noted 5 connections, 1 noted 6 connections and
only 1 noted 7 connections. It is important to note, the school-based staff overall made mention
of more connections than CTC participants. Table 4 indicates the responses of each participant.
Table 4
Connections for collaboration
Participant Principal Student School
Staff
Mental
Health
Professional
Outside
Organization
Social
Worker
Families
CTC 1 X X X X
CTC 2 X X X X X
CTC 3 X X X X
CTC 4 X X X X
CTC 5 X X X
CTC 6 X X X
PSC 1 X X X X
PSC 2 X X X X X X
PSC 3 X X X X X X X
SA 1 X X X X X
SA 2 X X X X X
SA 3 X X X

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
41
Varied and Whole
A second knowledge factor is knowing the many layered reasons student’s dropout
require just as many layered supports to decrease the incidences of dropout. The reasons
participants gave for dropout varied greatly and covered more than academic reasons, many
encompassed what would make a child whole, academics, social aspects, and emotional
components.
The reasons participants gave for why students ultimately dropout are broken down into
seven categories: family values/home life, lack of support or human connection, competing
priorities (work/take care of obligations), disengaged from school, mental health needs, lack of
progress or value seen in school, and a family member dropped out. The top two categories, lack
of support of human connection and lack of progress or value seen, stood out in the findings.
Both involve something missing for the student, more than academics. Table 5 provides a
breakdown of the participants responses.

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42
Table 5
Reasons for dropping out
Participant Family
values/home
life
Lack of
support or
human
connection
Competing
Priorities
Disengaged
from
school
Mental
health
needs
Lack of
progress
or value
seen in
school
Immediate
family
member
dropped
out
CTC 1 X X X
CTC 2 X X X X
CTC 3 X X
CTC 4 X X
CTC 5 X
CTC 6 X
PSC 1 X X
PSC 2 X X X
PSC 3 X X X
SA 1 X X
SA 2 X X
SA 3 X

It is worth noting that six of the participants work with elementary grade level children
and name multiple reasons for dropout. Not only do they know possible reasons, both SA 1 and
SA 2 believe elementary school matters when considering reasons for dropout. SA 1 stated,
“…where we grab them, this is where I really believe kids either learn to love school or they
learn to hate school.” SA 2 believes her K-8 schools is “…the safety net, we’re supposed to catch
the babies.”
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
43
Research Question 2: What organizational resources are needed to decrease incidences of
dropout among marginalized students?
One large industry is the organization for this study, education. Although school
administrators and professional school counselors work directly for a school district and
Communities That Care work as third-party providers for a school district, the resources needed
to decrease the incidences of dropout among marginalized students is the same.
Common Passion
The first organizational resource needed is a culture allowing for a passionate and service
oriented human resource to impact children. This is an extension of the love for the children
participants expressed. Every participant’s passion for students was clearly expressed when
either speaking directly or indirectly about serving students. There was no one question that
prompted specific answers about serving students, many participants addressed this when talking
about what led to their current position.
It was not surprising to find the six CTC participants were involved in either education as
a teacher or tutor or in the non-profit sector as a mentor or community service organizer. What
was an interesting finding is two of the CTC participants left teaching in order to provides
services to students they felt were needed and were impactful for students. PSC 1 is in her
second career; she went back to college 25 years after earning her bachelor’s to become a
professional school counselor. When asked about what value she saw in her role, she answered,
“…my role is to always advocate for the needs of the student.” PSC 2 left teaching to become a
professional school counselor because she wanted to know more about how to help students face
the challenges that impact their learning. PSC 3 wanted to work one on one with students to
support their social emotional needs. All three school administrators made note of having a
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
44
larger impact. SA 1 moved into administration to support the teachers who support students
building a climate and culture of student success. She specifically spoke about helping her
families and parents who are not sure how to navigate school,
I have my own kids and I’m very active in their life and in their education. I feel like
from a parent, I know how to navigate that and I know that all parents don't know how
they don't have the same lens that I have, and so I want to create a space where they know
just as much or feel like they know just as much or feel like they are comfortable with
navigating their child’s school and speaking to the teacher or speaking to me, or they
know where to go to get the information they need to have the best experience, while
they're with us.
SA 2 wants to expand her impact on students and is in year four as a building administrator. SA
3 works to ensure students know she and the staff are on their side, in their corner and a resource
for the students. The dedication to serve and make an impact, for some, was fueled by their own
childhood experiences. CTC 3 shared how he is a product of organizations, like CTC, investing
in black and brown youth recruited him at the age of 13. SA 2 spoke of how educators poured
into her at a young age while growing up in poverty, challenging her in the classroom she would
have otherwise been bored in. SA 3 spoke highly of how mentors in her sisters, and
organizations that exposed her to colleges and more impacted her and how she in turn aims to do
the same for students.
Collaboration
A second organizational resource is the time and space for adult staff in schools to build
meaningful relationships with students and families. Table 3 indicates how important the
students are in the work of every participant. CTC staff can work more closely with a smaller
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45
group of students due to their role as a third-party than PSC and SA. The findings not only
demonstrate the vital role relationships are for students but also how data demonstrates their
positive effect and how data can handicap PSC and SA.
All school-based CTC staff have case managed students of no more than 50 students per
CTC site-based coordinator. These numbers allow for CTC staff to provide Google Voice
numbers to students and message them if they do not show up to school as both CTC 2 and CTC
4 stated in their interviews. CTC 5 stated she helped one of her students create a bedtime
checklist to alleviate anxiety she experienced before bedtime. CTC 1 stated how her students met
all their targets for 3
rd
quarter but when she was chaperoning field trips in 4
th
quarter and not
readily available in the building for students, more of her students missed their targets. CTC 6
shared how she has been at her school for five years and has helped improved the chronic
absenteeism numbers for the school by 10% but that this year the 1
st
and 2
nd
quarter saw the
lowest attendance numbers in her time there. She also missed almost all of 1
st
and 2
nd
quarter this
year for surgery and upon her return in 3
rd
quarter the numbers improved.
In contrast PSC participants spoke about how important relationships are but also spoke
about how other aspects of their job inhibit building those relationships. PSC 3, an elementary
counselor, points out how she would like to see students have someone to talk to as they get
older, feeling many secondary PSC do not have the opportunity to talk to students the way she
does. PSC 2 talked about her responsibilities to monitor grades, failures, document how many
students they see daily, how many calls have been made, how many are related to retention. She
pointed out how her relationships with students cannot be documented for the district, “Even that
students that cursed you out yesterday and they come in, sometimes it takes him awhile to say
thank you for helping me, but then they say thank you, things are getting better with my mom.”
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
46
PSC 1 shared how building relationships with students and their families are the biggest asset for
a school counselor. But she also pointed out the pressures of data, “We are very concerned and
consumed with data that we forget we’re dealing with live human beings.”
School administrators did not speak to their own personal relationships with students and
families but to the importance of a parent engagement assistant, community-based manager, or a
professional school counselor who was the key relationship person for students. SA 1 relies on
her parent engagement assistant to work with the many bilingual families and keeping them
engaged. SA 2 has two PSC who plan parent university workshops to build the relationships with
their families and keep them ongoing.
Varied and Whole
A final organizational resource needed is access and opportunity to multiple varied
resources to meet the needs of the whole student, not just academics. Complimenting the layered
reasons students drop out of school are layered resources to address those reasons. Table 5
provides the reasons given by participants for dropout. Academic failure alone was not a reason
given. The reasons stated as well as the connections each participant mentioned in table 4 center
around parts that make a student whole.
100% of the participants were able to describe how Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports are
delivered in three tiers, one for all students, a second for students who have more needs, often in
a small group setting, and a final tier for students who have the most need in a one-on-one
setting. Communities That Care participants all shared how they are responsible for providing
these services as a strategy to engage students in school and 100% of CTC participants are
confident in their ability to implement MTSS and ISS in their building. The findings show how
many different services are provided by CTC. Tier two groups allow for small group lessons or
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
47
time with the CTC staff member. CTC 1 and CTC 6 both have grief groups. All CTC
participants provide academic supports as needed or partner with tutoring organizations to
provide those services. CTC 4 stated her school was a high needs school and as such there were
3 additional third-party service providers working within the school with students. CTC 2
worked specifically with immigrant students and talked about the personalized plans created to
meet the needs of his case managed students. CTC 5 has a youth yoga project she runs at her
school to engage students in self-regulation strategies. CTC 3 summarized the multi-faceted
approach CTC offers schools in making children whole,
Look at a child, they look at the child's potential, you align resources…maybe programs
or training that help them advance their unique skill sets but then you also look at their
needs and you bring resources to address whatever deficit, they may have, that the school
is unable to provide or their home life is unable to provide so it's about literally helping
the child become whole by bringing resources to meet the students, where they are in
their lives.
An interesting finding is how school administrators, and Professional School Counselors
added more academic points to their definition of MTSS. All three SA participants explicitly
stated academic needs in the MTSS model, and the classroom teacher being directly involved.
PSC also discussed academics in options to support students staying in school from providing
Career and Technical Education, ways to catch the students in high school who struggle to read
or cannot read, and accountability of all school staff when one student is failing. All three PSC
participants talked about referrals being made and their role being highly involved in the process,
scheduling meetings, following up, and contacting parents if needed. One outlier finding of
interest is the time factor expressed by a Professional School Counselor. PSC 1 felt there is not
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
48
enough time, “…to do deep dives into our students that will allow us to service them properly,
everything is a reaction.”
All three PSC shared having to make referrals to third party mental health providers. PSC
1 talked about providing uniforms to students or food in addition to connecting families to
counseling services outside of school. PSC 2 shared how effective a mental health counselor who
worked in her school last year was but was limited on how many students she was able to service
and is no longer funded to be in the school. PSC 3 shared how her district had a social worker to
support students, but she was the only one for all six elementary schools forcing referrals to be
limited. School administrators also discussed what was needed to make a student whole. An
unexpected finding was SA 1 designation as a Community School in her district giving her
additional funding and staff to build community partnerships to support the many needs of her
students. She uses the funds in part to build stronger connections with the families, most who are
immigrants and non-English speaking. She is purchasing headphones to translate language in
real time allowing parents to attend more workshops. Her Community School Coordinator
provides counseling to immigrant families helping smooth the transition and understanding of
American education. SA 2 was permitted to purchase a second school counselor to support her
students in grades 5-8. She stated having two counselors has allowed the students to receive
social emotional services based on age. A mental health counselor was placed in her school for
the past two years, but the funding has ended on the position and SA 2 is trying to find funds to
keep her as she is needed for the students. SA 3 shared how City Year provides much needed
supports and how the local government placed Community Based Managers in schools to bring
in organizations to support the many needs to make students whole.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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Research Question 3: What recommendations in the area of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources are appropriate to decrease the incidences of dropout among
marginalized students?
The findings found above support the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
recommendations as directly aligned to the themes, common passion, collaboration, and varied
and whole. The motivation recommendation is a human resource motivated by a common
passion of believing in the effect of their work and in their students. The knowledge
recommendation is a base understanding of the varied reasons for dropout along with how to
implement the layers to prevent dropout and make students whole. These recommendations only
work in an organization providing the space for collaboration for all the many resources to come
together.
Summary
The three different perspectives offered by school administrators, Professional School
Counselors, and Communities That Care staff, tell a story of how many positive human
interactions a student can have in school or just how much is missing from making a child whole
so they can graduate. The findings clearly show there is no one answer or one source to provide
many solutions. A common passion motivated by the love and belief in the students while
believing in their own ability to serve. Collaboration with student, families, and multiple
organizations at one time in a common environment. Finally, addressing the multiple layers to
dropout with an array of resources addressing the whole student.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
50

CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter provides a deeper look at the findings and how they connect back to the
literature and conceptual framework for this study. A look at the knowledge, motivation, and
organization factors found in the conceptual framework are affirmed by the findings. This chapter
also provides recommendations for practice followed by limitation and delimitations of the study
and recommendations for future research.
Discussion of Findings
Three themes were identified in the findings, common passion, collaboration, and varied
and whole. The themes organize the discussion of the findings as aligned to the literature and the
conceptual framework (figure 1).
Common passion
The first generalized finding was the motivation factor, love for the children in the
school. This was conveyed through every interview as participants shared stories about students
and most notably through their smiles. Words like, reliable, consistent, always be there, are ways
participants described their actions for their students. The second finding is an organizational
culture that allows for human resources who are service oriented to thrive. Education is a
service-oriented industry, the findings of this study demonstrate this call to service.
While there is no one answer to preventing incidences of dropout, the literature also does
not state loving students will keep them in school. What the literature does say, is the decision to
dropout is the result of a process (Rumberger & Lim, 2008) and withdrawal from school
activities leading to disengagement is a factor in the process (Wehlage et al., 1989). The findings
express a clear passion and love for students. There may not be a direct connection to the
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
51
motivational factor, love for students, and decreasing incidences of dropout. It can be suggested
that loving and caring adults can support students in staying engaged in school and in turn
decreasing the chance of withdrawal from school and possible dropout.
The reasons students disengage is varied, some dropouts have reported feeling bored and
desire a more relevant and challenging curriculum (Bridgeland et al., 2006; Hynes 2014;
Patterson et al., 2008). The findings of this study demonstrated how the experiences of the
participants helped lead them to their current call to serve students. The mentoring received as
students and being done now as adults in education can help provide some of the relevance for
students. The academic one on one support provided by CTC participants is an opportunity to
have personal conversations to make academic content relevant.
The motivation influence in the conceptual framework (figure 1), appreciate the value of
providing MTSS and ISS with community-based partnerships aligns directly to the common
passion findings. This influence is the desire to do a task because it aligns to individual goals,
utility value (Eccles, 2006). The leading motivation found is passion and love for the students,
evident through the service-oriented work described in the findings. Multi-Tiered Systems of
Support and Integrated Student Supports are student centered based and directly aligned to the
individual goals found in this study.
The organization model influence, promote a culture where decreasing incidences of
dropout is desired, aligns to the findings under common passion. The findings assert a culture
that values service oriented human resource. An organizational model is the common norms or
the same understanding of what is valued (Rueda, 2011). A culture where the human resources is
service oriented and the common understanding is valuing the service over meeting checklist
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
52
items, would be an organizational model that promotes positive service such as decreasing
incidences of dropout.
Collaboration
This theme brings together knowing how to build multiple connections bringing them
together for one common goal and an organization culture where the building relationships is
valued and the norm, specifically with students and families per the findings. The multiple
external providers all participants stated working with requires a knowledge of how to make one
single connection and build multiple that often come together for one student or family. Many
schools have more than one service provider working in their building. The CTC participants are
often the common point of contact for many of the organizations as are PSC. SAs spoke of
having staff who facilitated those connections. It takes collaboration among all points of contact
for the connections to work for one common goal. Building a relationship with students and their
families is critical to ensuring the proper connections are made to provide the needed supports.
The organization must allow room for those relationships to flourish.
The classification of potential dropout risk factors in the literature is often done with
multiple variables acting as themes (Gleason & Dynarski, 2002). Considering it has been well
established more than one factor is a consideration for dropping out (Rumberger, 1983), it would
take more than one source to help counteract the trend towards dropout. Therefore, knowing how
to build connections and collaborate with and among them, would be a benefit to any
organization seeking to decrease incidences of dropout.
The relationships forged by Communities That Care school-based staff are evident in the
data they keep and spoke to in this study. The findings demonstrated how attendance numbers
changed and personal targets were not as successfully met in the absence of CTC staff. The
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
53
relationships are evident in the findings and the impact of such connections are evident in the
literature. The 2014 report Don’t Call Them Dropouts participants discussed the support or
guidance from an adult as an influential factor in decisions about school (Hynes, 2014). In this
account, the literature directly aligns to the findings.
An indirect connection between knowledge influence, an understanding of what
preventions and interventions impact students at all grades, and the collaboration findings is
evident. The knowledge influence is a conceptual knowledge factor, an understanding of how
basic elements work within a larger structure (Krathwohl, 2002). There are many elements and
people coming together to support a student. CTC staff navigate the different elements as part of
their larger structure. PSC act as the point person for many of the referrals they make or for
students referred to them, again navigating multiple elements to support one.
An organization placing value on decreasing incidences of dropout has a specific service
to provide. The human resource delivering that service must have a strong desire to serve, and in
this study the students are the recipients of the service. Therefore, the service providers must
build relationships with students and those who support the student outside of school, their
family.
Varied and Whole
This theme is the anchor and core of the findings and this study. The findings affirm the
literature and influences in the conceptual framework (figure 1). This theme fuels the
recommendations for practice in this chapter. The three different participant types demonstrate
the same knowledge and motivation in the findings, but one demonstrates the time and sole
dedication to turning it into practice.
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54
The literature is complete with direct alignment to the finding, know there are many
reasons for dropout and layered ways to address it. The findings identify seven reasons for
dropout (table 5). The literature identifies many more, but some mirror reasons in the findings.
Israel & Beaulieu (2004) identified the dropping out of a parent or sibling affecting the decision
to drop out as did the findings in this study. Similarly, competing priorities as identified here
equates to dropping out to care for family or get a job to support family (Stearns & Glennie,
2006). The literature quantifies engagement as attendance, displays of misbehavior as evident in
suspensions, or discipline referrals (Balfanz et al., 2007). The findings identify disengaged from
school as a reason for dropout. This study identifies family values/home life as a reason and the
literature indicates when there are increased stressors at home the likelihood of dropout increases
(Alexander et al., 2001). Academic failure in the literature equates to lack of progress in the
findings, both identified as factors predicting dropout (Allensworth & Easton, 2007).
Just as the literature is rich with the multiple factors leading to dropout, so it is rich with
potential supports to keep students in school such as comprehensive supports (Dynarski &
Gleason, 2002), and MTSS and ISS (Mac Iver & Mac Iver, 2009). Comprehensive supports
include school centered supports such as vocational school or acceleration models to move
students to fall behind (Mac Iver 2011). This study found different reasons for dropout and many
for ways to support students in staying in school, including vocational school and acceleration
models as found in Mac Iver (2011). This study asked participants about their knowledge of
Multi-Tiered Systems of Support and Integrated Student Supports. All participants clearly
defined the three tiers in MTSS and who received services on which as well as the vast number
of services and different types of services provided through ISS. The CTC participants shared the
most experience as sole facilitators of MTSS and ISS including targeted supports for specifically
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
55
identified students such as, but not limited to, immigrants. The literature also outlines this as
service for potential preventions or interventions (Mac Iver & Mac Iver, 2009).
The declarative knowledge influence, understanding the contributing factors to risks of
dropping out in all grades, is affirmed in the findings as is found in the 7 potential reasons given.
The procedural knowledge influence, know how to implement MTSS and ISS, is also affirmed as
100% of participants clearly identified how tier 1 supports are school-wide, tier 2 are more small
groups, and tier 3 are more on one on and more at-risk students. The findings also demonstrated
how ISS was used within MTSS with basic needs such as shoes and school supplies being
provided school wide as well as attendance incentives for students and daily encouragement.
Partnerships with food banks, and meal delivery are part of the ISS provided by participants. The
PSC connect students with mental health supports as well as academic supports through referrals
for tutoring. CTC function solely within the implementation of MTSS and ISS with specific
training on the model and how to make community partnerships. School administrators tap into
their support staff to facilitate the connections to the community and services for students.
Motivational influence, confident implementing MTSS and ISS, is about self-efficacy, a
person’s personal judgement on their ability to do a task (Pajares, 2006). The participants in this
study with the most experience leading MTSS in their buildings are CTC participants and 100%
of them are confident in their ability to implement the services. This is supported by the training
they all described they received on the service and the model. The confidence could be fueled by
the training, or the outcomes seen in their students. Given the number of small groups stated
CTC participants lead, and the one-on-one student support plans they monitor, outcomes factor
into the confidence.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
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The organizational setting influence, ensure proper resources are committed to reducing
incidences of dropout, is the actual practice of the organizations model, where decreasing
incidences of dropout is the genuinely valued as seen through the connections and relationships
built. The varied and whole theme emphasizes how vast the resources are to effectively keep
students in school and decrease incidences of dropout. The only way these resources are
available to all the participants in this study, is through their school, school district, or employer,
all organizations that are part of the larger organization, education industry. The findings support
the conceptual frameworks organizational setting influence.
Recommendations for Practice
The recommendations for practice are grounded in the purpose of this study, the
literature, conceptual framework, and findings. While this study was designed to explore
promising practices to decreasing incidences of dropout among marginalized students, it also
sought to examine how a third-party ISS provider can be value-added to decreasing incidences of
dropout in schools. The recommendations take a progressive approach, starting with a general
recommendation of where to start to make an impact in decreasing dropouts, followed by a
recommendation requiring potentially larger shifts in thinking, and structuring. The final
recommendation is derived from the purpose of this study.
Recommendation 1: Start as early as possible
This recommendation is intentionally broad in scope. The literature is clear that the final
decision to dropout is often made in high school (Alexander et al., 2001). It is also clear that
much research has been done to see how early risk factors can be identified (Alexander et al.,
1997). Research seeking to identify the early risk factors is in the hopes to develop prevention
programs before additional risk factors are involved (Ensminger & Slusarick, 1992). Early
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
57
identification systems can become early warning systems for districts allowing for monitoring of
students and delivery of as needed interventions (Pinkus, 2008; Wilkins & Bost, 2015).
The findings in this study validate the literature and this recommendation especially
given 7 of the 12 participants work with elementary grades. All found value in the work they do
at the K-6 grade levels in decreasing a future incidence of dropout. Some participants shared how
they have conversations with intermediate grade level students on why they should not dropout,
students start the language early. The one participant who works with PreK shared how she can
see the lack of value placed on education from the families with the high number of absences
seen in PreK, a grade that is not state required. Once the students enter kindergarten the state law
supports attendance requirements.
The conceptual framework is built on the knowledge and motivation influences of those
who work with all grade levels. This recommendation starts with the youngest of grade levels.
Given the organization of the education industry, the organization influences must place value on
decreases incidences of dropout at all grade levels starting with extending the conversation of the
impact early grades have on future performance with parents, families, and all school staff of
every grade.
Recommendation 2: Provide alternative education options to “traditional school”
This recommendation specifically references: Career and Technical Education
opportunities more readily available as options for all students, flexible course scheduling
emulating a college course schedule, and any other creative solutions. This is not a simple
recommendation and has complex considerations. However, the literature and parts of the
conceptual framework do provide support.
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
58
Mac Iver (2011) and this study both support vocational courses as an option to keep
students in school. According to a National Conference of State Legislature legal brief, 33 states
and the District of Columbia had adopted statewide definitions of college and career readiness as
of May 2015, demonstrating a clear shift in the value placed in Career and Technical Education
(CTE). To further demonstrate the value seen in CTE courses, they should be universally offered
for all students. The one high school PSC in this study pointed out how most students are not
aware of the offerings, and they are only offered for a limited number of students at select
schools. These programs should incorporate earning a high school diploma with a CTE
certification.
Some students leave school out of pressure felt to support their family financially
(Stearns & Glennie, 2006). The findings in this study reiterate the literature. The participants
working in an immigrant majority environment shared how this is a reality for most of their
students, as many need to support their family or see family working without high school
diplomas and find more value in work. It is clear there is a very real need for teenagers to work,
and in some cases care for their family or own children. Allowing options for high school course
offerings in a model like college course offerings would accommodate a work schedule or
caregiver schedule. There are more online school options for K-12 students, however, the costs
of a device and internet services are required, and low SES families are the same families
according to Stearns and Glennie’s (2006) research, who need teenagers to work. Locations on
public transit lines offering classes throughout the day and evening would support a decrease in
dropout rates among marginalized students.
The knowledge influences in the conceptual framework for this study: understanding of
the contributing factors to risks of dropping out, and understand what preventions and
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
59
interventions impact students, are the only parts of the framework that support this
recommendation. The organization setting provides some support in providing resources, but a
change in the organizational model to value CTE education and a shift in motivation influences
specifically around implementing CTE programs in schools would provide more support to this
recommendation.
Recommendation 3: Use a third-party provider who specializes in MTSS and ISS in all
high need schools
This recommendation is the firmly anchored in the literature, the findings of this study,
and the conceptual framework. Schools implement MTSS and some ISS, but as this study
showed, most schools place an academic lens on MTSS. A third-party provider, such as
Communities That Care, can provide MTSS facilitation and support for all aspects to make a
student whole. They also provide training specific to the implementation of MTSS and ISS
together, and have dedicated time to check in with students, run small groups, facilitate school-
wide strategies, and more.
The literature posits wraparound supports, also known as Integrated Student Supports, as
a viable prevention and intervention option (Fries et al., 2012; Mac Iver & Mac Iver, 2009). This
recommendation also supports the comprehensive approach to prevention supported by Dynarski
and Gleason (2002). MTSS and ISS are both referenced in the literature as ways to address the
range of factors leading to dropout (Porowski & Passa, 2011).
The conceptual framework for this study is built around the knowledge of why students
dropout, how to implement preventions and interventions, and specifically MTSS and ISS. The
motivation influences are also built around confidence in implementing MTSS and ISS and
appreciating the value in providing these services. Finally, the organization influences center on
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
60
a setting providing the resources in a model valuing the work in MTSS and ISS to decrease
incidences of dropout among marginalized students. The findings show how an organization,
Communities That Care, which works within the larger organization of education, provides the
support for the knowledge through specific training to deliver the tiered levels of support in
collaboration with the school and community partners. The organization is founded on the value
of supporting students in school to be achieve and be successful, a build in model and setting
working together with the knowledge influences. Finally, CTC staff are confident in their ability
to provide services through MTSS and ISS and the work they do directly aligns with why they
do it, both motivational influences working with the organization and knowledge influences.
The recommendation is specific to a third-party provider. As previously stated, all
participants, including PSC and SA, know what MTSS and ISS are and how to implement them.
However, as also stated, PSC expressed concerns over time to implement the services, and when
asked about the value of a sole provider for MTSS and ISS, all three PSC participants agreed a
sole service provider would be value-added and welcomed. The school administrators, echoed
the PSC participants, including those who are staffed with community-based coordinators or
managers. The value was seen in having an outsourced person who is trained in the specific
skills to build community partnerships, collaborate with building staff, and provide the varied
and whole services needed to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized students.
Limitations and Delimitations
One limitation of this study is the sample size. The organization, K-12 education
industry, is vast and given its size a sample of six direct employees and six third-party providers
is not ideal in reporting findings. Another limitation is having a grade band representative for
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
61
every participant category in equal numbers. In other words, 3 CTC participants in K-5, 3 SA
participants in K-5, and 3 PSC participants in K-5.
Delimitations are in the selection of participants. Given the study’s purpose, identifying
promising practices to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized students, the
participants were selected because of their direct role and knowledge to decrease incidences of
dropout.

Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research supporting the research on marginalized students
and dropout, would be following the feeder patterns of students in schools with CTC providing
services and comparable schools without their service. The feeder pattern was discussed in some
of the interviews and most participants in the study are stand-alone schools with no direct feeder
pattern in or out of their school. Research to explore the impact at different grades and if what is
employed in elementary stays through high school. Continuing with the same idea of tracking
progress from elementary through high school, a research study tracking the progress of all
students in a CTC school and not just case managed students could provide more support for
their program.
Given we are seeing more school districts and students return to in person school every
day, research on the effect of dropout from the Covid Pandemic would be of great value. Some
speculation and working documents have come about, but no definitive numbers or implications
on dropout have been found in frequency. There are many considerations and difficulties in
calculating these numbers or making conjectures about how the changes in learning that occurred
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
62
have affected incidences of dropout or possible provided new options for prevention and
intervention.
Conclusion
This study explored how to address the problem of incidences of dropout among
marginalized students. This problem spans decades and does not see an end in sight. The
problem may directly affect certain populations and individuals more than others, but the impact
stretches across generations with economic, health, and social implications. This study’s findings
support viable options found in the literature, with triangulated methods as evidence. This
study’s qualitative design humanizes the data of the actual human lives making the decision to
drop out.

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63
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Appendix A
Interview Protocol for CTC participants
I want to thank you again for taking time out of your schedule to participate in this
interview. As a reminder this study is designed to explore the effective strategies of site
coordinators that increase student attendance, engagement, and high school graduation. A
pseudonym for the organization will be used for ethical and anonymity purposes. All data will be
kept confidential and secure. Please remember you always have the option to not answer any
question you do not wish, and you may withdraw from the study at any point in time.
Do you have an objection to the recording of this interview to be used for data analysis to
ensure accuracy in reporting findings? Remember the questions and data are all confidential and
will be secure. Do you have any questions about the process before we begin?
Thank you again and I am going to begin recording now.

I am going to start with some demographic questions

1. What school district and grade level band do you work with?
2. How long have you been a site coordinator/executive director for CCCO?
3. What is your professional background?
4. How would you describe how integrated student supports work in a multi-tiered system
of supports?
5. Could you describe the tiered levels of support you implement at your site specifying
what tier each support falls under?
6. Follow up What percentage of students receive supports at each tier
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
72
7. What factors do you think contribute to students dropping out?
a. Do you think any of the factors you mentioned are more critical or place a student
at higher risk?
8. Please describe your level of confidence implementing the different levels of support
9. What value do you see in the work you do at your school as it relates to keeping students
in school and decreasing risk of future dropout?
10. What made you interested in being a site coordinator?
11. What motivates you to come to work every day?
12. What resources are provided to you to support your preventions and interventions?
13. Please describe the onboarding process upon being hired by CCCO, what was your
training like?
14. Please describe any training or professional development opportunities CCCCO provides
to support your work.
15. Are there any additional resources or information you need to do your job well?
16. What is the mission and vision of CCCO and how does the organization ensure the
mission and vision are achieved with its site coordinators?

.

INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
73
Appendix B
Interview Protocol for PSC and SA participants
I want to thank you again for taking time out of your schedule to participate in this
interview. As a reminder this study is designed to explore the effective strategies of site
coordinators that increase student attendance, engagement, and high school graduation. A
pseudonym for the organization will be used for ethical and anonymity purposes. All data will be
kept confidential and secure. Please remember you always have the option to not answer any
question you do not wish, and you may withdraw from the study at any point in time.
Do you have an objection to the recording of this interview to be used for data analysis to
ensure accuracy in reporting findings? Remember the questions and data are all confidential and
will be secure. Do you have any questions about the process before we begin?
Thank you again and I am going to begin recording now.

I am going to start with some demographic questions

1. What school district and grade level band do you work with?
2. What is your role in your school and how long have you been in that role?
3. How did you become interested in being a school administrator/professional school
counselor?
4. How would you describe multi-tiered systems of supports?
5. Could you describe how your school implements MTSS and what your role is in the
implementation?
6. How would you describe wraparound services or integrated student supports?
INTEGRATED STUDENT SUPPORTS
74
7. What factors do you think contribute to students’ final decision to drop out of school?
a. Do you think any of the factors you mentioned are more critical or place a student
at higher risk?
8. What strategies or considerations do you think contribute to keeping students in school
through to high school graduation?
9. What value do you see in the work you do at your school as it relates to keeping students
in school and decreasing risk of future dropout?
10. What motivates you to come to work every day?
11. What resources are provided to you by your district to provide prevention or intervention
services to decrease future incidents of dropout?
12. Are there any additional resources you feel are needed to help you keep all your students
in school and make it to graduation?
13. What value would you see in the addition of a full-time site coordinator from a third-
party provider who would work to provide wraparound services on a tiered level of
supports with community connections, whose mission is to “surround students with a
community of support, empowering them to stay in school and achieve in life”?

Asset Metadata

Creator Castle, Rebecca (author)

Core Title Integrated student supports to decrease incidences of dropout among marginalized students: a promising practice study

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2022-12

Publication Date 09/19/2022

Defense Date 08/25/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag dropout rates,integrated student supports,marginalized students,oai:digitallibrary.usc.edu:usctheses,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Advisor Adibe, Bryant (committee chair), Crawford, Jenifer (committee member), Sparangis, Themistocles (committee member)

Creator Email rebeccec@usc.edu,rellenc@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC112002233

Unique identifier UC112002233

Legacy Identifier etd-CastleRebe-11226

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Castle, Rebecca

Type texts

Source 20220919-usctheses-batch-982 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email uscdl@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract As the expectation to graduate high school became the norm in the 1960’s so did the term dropout become visible in academic and popular literature (Dorn, 1993). There is no clear prevention or intervention for the dropout problem (Balfanz, Herzog, & MacIver, 2007) yet many known factors leading to dropping out (Hynes, 2014). The purpose of this study was to explore how integrated student supports (ISS) can be implemented in schools to prevent increasing dropout rates among marginalized students. The study specifically looks at how a third-party provider of ISS is value-added for schools. Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and organization gap analysis is the guiding framework for analysis in this study. Qualitative methods are used to analyze the KMO influences of school administrators, professional school counselors, and a third-party provider to decrease the incidences of dropout among marginalized students.